Electronics and Circuits: Lecture Notes

48520
Electronics and
Circuits
Lecture Notes
2015
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PMcL
Preface
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not hesitate in contacting me:
Peter McLean
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University of Technology, Sydney
Office: CB11.9.128 - Building 11 (Broadway), Level 9, Room 9.128

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i
Contents
1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.3
1.1 Current ....................................................................................................... 1.4
1.2 Voltage....................................................................................................... 1.5
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits ..................................................... 1.6
1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements ................................................................ 1.6
1.3.2 Passive Circuit Elements .............................................................. 1.6
1.3.3 Types of Circuits........................................................................... 1.6
1.4 Independent Sources .................................................................................. 1.7
1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source.................................................. 1.7
1.4.2 The Independent Current Source .................................................. 1.9
1.5 The Resistor and Ohm’s Law .................................................................. 1.10
1.5.1 The Short-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.13
1.5.2 The Open-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.14
1.5.3 Conductance ............................................................................... 1.14
1.6 Practical Resistors.................................................................................... 1.15
1.6.1 Preferred Values and the Decade Progression ............................ 1.16
1.6.2 The ‘E’ Series Values ................................................................. 1.16
1.6.3 Marking Codes............................................................................ 1.18
1.7 Kirchhoff’s Current Law ......................................................................... 1.21
1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ......................................................................... 1.25
1.9 Combining Resistors................................................................................ 1.28
1.9.1 Series Resistors ........................................................................... 1.28
1.9.2 Parallel Resistors ........................................................................ 1.29
1.10 Combining Independent Sources ........................................................... 1.32
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series ................... 1.32
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel ................. 1.34
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule...................................................................... 1.36
1.12 The Current Divider Rule ...................................................................... 1.38
1.13 Dependent Sources ................................................................................ 1.40
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source .................................................. 1.40
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source .................................................. 1.42
1.14 Power ..................................................................................................... 1.44
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor .................................................... 1.50
PMcL Index
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ii
1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51

1.15.1 Units of Gain ............................................................................... 1.52
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies ........................................................... 1.54
1.15.3 Saturation .................................................................................... 1.55
1.15.4 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.56
1.16 The Operational Amplifier ..................................................................... 1.57
1.16.1 Feedback ..................................................................................... 1.58
1.16.2 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.59
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp ...................................................................... 1.60
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging ........................................... 1.62
1.17 Negative Feedback ................................................................................. 1.63
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics ............................................... 1.64
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback ....................................... 1.65
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier .................................................................. 1.68
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp .................. 1.71
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier ......................... 1.73
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier ...................... 1.73
1.18.4 The Buffer ................................................................................... 1.76
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier ......................................................................... 1.77
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier ............................... 1.79
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier............................. 1.79
1.20 Summary ................................................................................................ 1.81
1.21 References .............................................................................................. 1.86
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 1.87
Index PMcL
Contents 2015
iii
2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2.2
2.1 Nodal Analysis .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only .. 2.6
2.1.2 Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps ........................... 2.9
2.1.3 Circuits with Voltage Sources .................................................... 2.12
2.1.4 Circuits with Dependent Sources ............................................... 2.14
2.1.5 Summary of Nodal Analysis ....................................................... 2.17
2.2 Mesh Analysis ......................................................................................... 2.20
2.2.1 Planar Circuits ............................................................................ 2.20
2.2.2 Paths, Loops and Meshes ............................................................ 2.21
2.2.3 Mesh Current .............................................................................. 2.22
2.2.4 Mesh Analysis Methodology ...................................................... 2.23
2.2.5 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only 2.24
2.2.6 Circuits with Current Sources ..................................................... 2.26
2.2.8 Summary of Mesh Analysis ....................................................... 2.30
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................. 2.31
2.4 References ............................................................................................... 2.31
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 2.32
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) .......................................................... 2.35
3 Circuit Analysis Techniques

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3.2
3.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Superposition ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.2.1 Superposition Theorem ................................................................. 3.6
3.3 Source Transformations ........................................................................... 3.10
3.3.1 Practical Voltage Sources ........................................................... 3.10
3.3.2 Practical Current Sources ........................................................... 3.12
3.3.3 Practical Source Equivalence ..................................................... 3.14
3.3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......................................... 3.16
3.4 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem .......................................................... 3.20
3.4.1 Summary of Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits ................... 3.28
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 3.32
3.6 References ............................................................................................... 3.32
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 3.33
PMcL Index
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iv
4 Linear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 4.2
4.1 Summing Amplifier ................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Difference Amplifier .................................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Inverting Integrator .................................................................................... 4.9
4.4 Differentiator............................................................................................ 4.11
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter................................................................ 4.12
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter .................................................................. 4.14
4.7 Noninverting Integrator ........................................................................... 4.16
4.8 Summary .................................................................................................. 4.18
4.9 References ................................................................................................ 4.21
Exercises ........................................................................................................... 22
5 Reactive Components
Introduction ...................................................................................................... 5.2
5.1 The Capacitor ............................................................................................. 5.3
5.1.1 Capacitor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.5
5.1.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................ 5.7
5.1.3 Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics ....................... 5.10
5.2 The Inductor ............................................................................................. 5.11
5.2.1 Inductor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.14
5.2.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor ...................................................... 5.19
5.2.3 Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics ......................... 5.22
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors ........................................................... 5.23
5.3.1 Capacitors.................................................................................... 5.23
5.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors ................................................................ 5.24
5.3.3 Inductors...................................................................................... 5.25
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors ................. 5.27
5.4.1 Inductors...................................................................................... 5.27
5.4.2 Capacitors.................................................................................... 5.30
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors ...................................... 5.32
5.5.1 DC Circuits ................................................................................. 5.32
5.5.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis ........................................................... 5.34
5.6 Duality...................................................................................................... 5.36
5.7 Summary .................................................................................................. 5.40
5.8 References ................................................................................................ 5.41
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 5.42
Index PMcL
Contents 2015
v
6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6.2
6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode ....................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1 The Forward-Bias Region............................................................. 6.4
6.1.2 The Reverse-Bias Region ............................................................. 6.6
6.1.3 The Breakdown Region ................................................................ 6.6
6.1.4 Diode Symbol ............................................................................... 6.7
6.2 Breakdown Diodes .................................................................................... 6.7
6.2.1 Zener Breakdown.......................................................................... 6.7
6.2.2 Avalanche Breakdown .................................................................. 6.7
6.3 Other Types of Diode ................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.1 The Photodiode ............................................................................. 6.8
6.3.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................. 6.8
6.3.3 The Schottky Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.3.4 The Varactor Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.4 Analysis Techniques ................................................................................ 6.10
6.4.1 Graphical Analysis...................................................................... 6.10
6.4.2 Numerical Analysis .................................................................... 6.12
6.5 Diode Models .......................................................................................... 6.14
6.5.1 The Ideal Diode Model ............................................................... 6.15
6.5.2 The Constant Voltage Drop Model............................................. 6.17
6.5.3 The Piece-Wise Linear Model .................................................... 6.19
6.5.4 The Small Signal Model ............................................................. 6.21
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits ................................................................................ 6.25
6.6.1 Half-Wave Rectifier.................................................................... 6.25
6.6.2 Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................................... 6.27
6.6.3 Limiter Circuits ........................................................................... 6.28
6.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 6.30
6.8 References ............................................................................................... 6.32
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7 Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 7.2
7.1 Differential Operators ................................................................................ 7.3
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators........................................................... 7.5
7.3 The Characteristic Equation ....................................................................... 7.9
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit ............................................................................. 7.13
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response .................................................. 7.16
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits ........................................................... 7.19
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit ............................................................................. 7.21
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits ........................................................... 7.24
7.9 Summary .................................................................................................. 7.28
7.10 References .............................................................................................. 7.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 7.29
8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Introduction ...................................................................................................... 8.2
8.1 The Comparator ......................................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Precision Rectifiers .................................................................................... 8.7
8.2.1 The Superdiode ............................................................................. 8.8
8.2.2 Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier .................................... 8.10
8.2.3 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier ..................................................... 8.15
8.2.4 Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier ................... 8.17
8.3 Peak Detector ........................................................................................... 8.18
8.4 Limiter...................................................................................................... 8.23
8.5 Clamp ....................................................................................................... 8.25
8.6 Summary .................................................................................................. 8.27
8.7 References ................................................................................................ 8.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 8.29
Index PMcL
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vii
9 The First-Order Step Response

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 9.2
9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function ................................................................ 9.3
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit ............................................................................... 9.7
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response ..................................................... 9.11
9.3.1 Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential
Operator ...................................................................................... 9.13
9.3.2 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection ............................... 9.15
9.3.3 Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor .......... 9.16
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits ................................................................. 9.19
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits..................... 9.29
9.6 RL Circuits ............................................................................................... 9.30
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits ..................... 9.32
9.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 9.33
9.9 References ............................................................................................... 9.33
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 9.34
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) ........................................... 9.38
10 Op-Amp Imperfections
Introduction ................................................................................................... 10.2
10.1 DC Imperfections .................................................................................. 10.3
10.1.1 Offset Voltage ............................................................................. 10.4
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents ..................................................................... 10.5
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain .......................................................................... 10.8
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier .............................................................. 10.8
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier ..................................................................... 10.9
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error .................................................................... 10.11
10.3 Finite Bandwidth ................................................................................. 10.12
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation ................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Output Current Limits ......................................................................... 10.14
10.6 Slew Rate ............................................................................................. 10.15
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth .............................................................. 10.16
10.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 10.17
10.8 References ........................................................................................... 10.18
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 10.19
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11 The Phasor Concept

Introduction .................................................................................................... 11.2
11.1 Sinusoidal Signals .................................................................................. 11.4
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response ......................................................... 11.6
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function ........................................................... 11.12
11.4 The Phasor ........................................................................................... 11.18
11.4.1 Formalisation of the Relationship between Phasor and Sinusoid
................................................................................................... 11.21
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor and its
Corresponding Sinusoid ............................................................ 11.22
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................................................... 11.23
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor .......................................... 11.23
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor ........................................ 11.25
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor ........................................ 11.27
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................... 11.29
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships ....................................... 11.30
11.6 Impedance ............................................................................................ 11.31
11.7 Admittance ........................................................................................... 11.36
11.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 11.38
11.9 References ............................................................................................ 11.38
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 11.39
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay) .......................................... 11.44
References ............................................................................................... 11.46
12 Circuit Simulation
Introduction .................................................................................................... 12.2
12.1 Project Flow ........................................................................................... 12.3
12.1.1 Starting a New Project ................................................................ 12.3
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic ............................................................... 12.4
12.1.3 Simulation ................................................................................... 12.4
12.2 Schematic Capture ................................................................................. 12.5
12.2.1 Ground ........................................................................................ 12.5
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes ........................................................................... 12.6
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names ........................................... 12.6
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes ........................................................................... 12.7
12.3 Simulation .............................................................................................. 12.8
12.3.1 DC Bias ....................................................................................... 12.8
12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations ....................................... 12.8
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations ................................................. 12.11
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 12.16
Index PMcL
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13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Introduction ................................................................................................... 13.2
13.1 Analysis using Phasors .......................................................................... 13.3
13.2 Nodal Analysis ...................................................................................... 13.4
13.3 Mesh Analysis ....................................................................................... 13.6
13.4 Superposition ......................................................................................... 13.8
13.5 Thévenin’s Theorem .............................................................................. 13.9
13.6 Norton’s Theorem................................................................................ 13.11
13.7 Phasor Diagrams .................................................................................. 13.13
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State .................................................. 13.21
13.8.1 Instantaneous Power ................................................................. 13.21
13.8.2 Average Power.......................................................................... 13.22
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values ........................................... 13.24
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid ......................................................... 13.25
13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values ......................................................... 13.26
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values ......................................... 13.27
13.8.7 Apparent Power ........................................................................ 13.27
13.8.8 Power Factor ............................................................................. 13.27
13.8.9 Complex Power ........................................................................ 13.28
13.8.10 Reactive Power ......................................................................... 13.29
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits ........................................... 13.31
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 13.34
13.10 References ......................................................................................... 13.34
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 13.35
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) ..................................................................... 13.41
References ............................................................................................... 13.44
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14 Amplifier Characteristics
Introduction .................................................................................................... 14.2
14.1 Amplifier Performance .......................................................................... 14.3
14.1.1 Voltage Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.2 Current Gain ................................................................................ 14.4
14.1.3 Power Gain .................................................................................. 14.4
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers .............................................................................. 14.5
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency .............................................................. 14.8
14.3.1 Efficiency .................................................................................... 14.9
14.4 Amplifier Models ................................................................................. 14.10
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.10
14.4.2 Current Amplifier ...................................................................... 14.11
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier ..................................................... 14.12
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier ......................................................... 14.13
14.5 Amplifier Impedances .......................................................................... 14.14
14.6 Frequency Response ............................................................................ 14.17
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling............................................ 14.18
14.6.2 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth .................................. 14.20
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.2 Phase Distortion ........................................................................ 14.21
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification ..................................................... 14.25
14.8 Step Response ...................................................................................... 14.26
14.9 Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................ 14.27
14.10 Summary ............................................................................................ 14.29
14.11 References .......................................................................................... 14.30
Index PMcL
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15 Frequency Response
Introduction ................................................................................................... 15.2
15.1 Frequency Response Function ............................................................... 15.3
15.2 Frequency Response Representation ..................................................... 15.4
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis ............... 15.5
15.4 Magnitude Responses ............................................................................ 15.7
15.5 Phase Responses .................................................................................. 15.11
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally ....................... 15.13
15.7 Bode Plots ............................................................................................ 15.14
15.7.1 Bode Plot Factors ...................................................................... 15.16
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots ....................................................... 15.18
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors ........................ 15.21
15.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 15.22
15.10 References ......................................................................................... 15.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 15.23
16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction ................................................................................................... 16.2
16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses............................................................... 16.3
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response ..................................................... 16.5
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response ............................................................. 16.7
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses ............................. 16.11
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling ...................................................... 16.12
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising) ......................................... 16.13
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling .................................................................... 16.14
16.3 Cascading Circuits ............................................................................... 16.15
16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit ..................................................... 16.16
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits .................................................................. 16.18
16.6 Cascade Design.................................................................................... 16.19
16.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 16.22
16.8 References ........................................................................................... 16.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 16.23
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17 The Second-Order Step Response

Introduction .................................................................................................... 17.2
17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation ................. 17.3
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots ..................................................................... 17.4
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots ................................................................... 17.5
17.1.3 Only Real Roots .......................................................................... 17.6
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots .............................................................. 17.8
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots .......................................................... 17.10
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................. 17.11
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................ 17.14
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit ....................................... 17.18
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit .............................................. 17.22
17.6 Response Comparison .......................................................................... 17.26
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit.................................................... 17.27
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit ............................................... 17.28
17.8.1 Forced Response ....................................................................... 17.29
17.8.2 Natural Response ...................................................................... 17.30
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time .............................................. 17.37
17.9 Summary .............................................................................................. 17.39
17.10 References .......................................................................................... 17.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 17.40
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) ............................................ 17.44
The Age of the Earth ............................................................................... 17.46
The Transatlantic Cable .......................................................................... 17.49
Other Achievements ................................................................................ 17.52
References ............................................................................................... 17.53
18 Waveform Generation
Introduction .................................................................................................... 18.2
18.1 Open-Loop Comparator ......................................................................... 18.3
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)...................................... 18.4
18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) ..................................... 18.6
18.4 Waveform Generator ............................................................................. 18.9
18.5 Summary .............................................................................................. 18.12
18.6 References ............................................................................................ 18.13
Index PMcL
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19 Second-Order Frequency Response

Introduction ................................................................................................... 19.2
19.1 Resonance .............................................................................................. 19.3
19.2 Parallel Resonance ................................................................................. 19.5
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit............................... 19.8
19.3 Quality Factor ........................................................................................ 19.9
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations........................................................... 19.12
19.5 Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 19.13
19.6 Series Resonance ................................................................................. 19.17
19.7 Other Resonant Forms ......................................................................... 19.19
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response .............................. 19.25
19.8.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.27
19.8.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.29
19.8.3 Bode Plots ................................................................................. 19.34
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response ............................. 19.35
19.9.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.37
19.9.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.37
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses .................. 19.38
19.11 Summary............................................................................................ 19.39
19.12 References ......................................................................................... 19.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 19.40
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) ............................................................. 19.44
References ............................................................................................... 19.48
20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Introduction ................................................................................................... 20.2
20.1 Filter Design Parameters ....................................................................... 20.2
20.2 The Lowpass Biquad Circuit ................................................................. 20.4
20.3 The Universal Biquad Circuit ................................................................ 20.9
20.4 Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter ............................................. 20.11
20.5 The Butterworth Lowpass Filter .......................................................... 20.13
20.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 20.16
20.7 References ........................................................................................... 20.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 20.17
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21 Complex Frequency
Introduction .................................................................................................... 21.2
21.1 Complex Frequency ............................................................................... 21.3
21.2 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function ............................................ 21.7
21.3 Generalized Impedance and Admittance ............................................. 21.11
21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of  ............................................ 21.14
21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of  ............................................ 21.18
21.6 The Complex-Frequency Plane............................................................ 21.23
21.7 Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot ........ 21.29
21.8 Summary .............................................................................................. 21.32
21.9 References ............................................................................................ 21.32
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 21.33
22 Specialty Amplifiers
Introduction .................................................................................................... 22.2
22.1 Differential and Common-Mode Signals ............................................... 22.3
22.2 Difference Amplifiers ............................................................................ 22.4
22.2.1 Difference Amplifier Deficiencies .............................................. 22.6
22.2.2 Difference Amplifier ICs ............................................................ 22.6
22.3 Instrumentation Amplifiers .................................................................... 22.7
22.3.1 In-Amp Advantages .................................................................... 22.8
22.3.2 In-Amp Disadvantages ................................................................ 22.9
22.3.3 In-Amp Application .................................................................. 22.10
22.4 Programmable Gain Amplifiers ........................................................... 22.11
22.4.1 PGA Design Issues.................................................................... 22.12
22.4.2 PGA Example ........................................................................... 22.12
22.5 Isolation Amplifiers ............................................................................. 22.13
22.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 22.16
22.7 References ............................................................................................ 22.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 22.17
Index PMcL
Contents 2015
xv
23 Transfer Functions
Introduction ................................................................................................... 23.2
23.1 Transfer Functions ................................................................................. 23.3
23.1.1 Characteristic Equation ............................................................... 23.4
23.1.2 Pole-Zero Plot ............................................................................. 23.4
23.1.3 Transfer Function Form .............................................................. 23.5
23.1.4 Relationship to Differential Equation ......................................... 23.6
23.1.5 Circuit Abstraction...................................................................... 23.7
23.2 Forced Response .................................................................................... 23.8
23.4 Natural Response ................................................................................. 23.15
23.5 Complete Response ............................................................................. 23.21
23.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 23.24
23.7 References ........................................................................................... 23.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 23.26
Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) ......................................................... 23.29
24 Sensor Signal Conditioning

Introduction ................................................................................................... 24.2
24.1 Sensors ................................................................................................... 24.3
24.2 Process Control Systems ....................................................................... 24.4
24.3 Programmable Logic Controllers .......................................................... 24.5
24.4 Smart Transducers ................................................................................. 24.6
24.5 Programmable Automation Controllers................................................. 24.7
24.6 Bridge Circuits ....................................................................................... 24.8
24.6.1 Bridge Design Issues ................................................................ 24.12
24.6.2 Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs ............................ 24.13
24.6.3 Driving Remote Bridges ........................................................... 24.16
24.6.4 Integrated Bridge Transducers .................................................. 24.19
24.7 Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements ................................. 24.20
24.8 High Impedance Sensors ..................................................................... 24.22
24.9 Temperature Sensors ........................................................................... 24.23
24.10 Summary............................................................................................ 24.25
24.11 References ......................................................................................... 24.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 24.26
PMcL Index
2015 Contents
xvi
25 System Modelling
Introduction .................................................................................................... 25.2
25.1 Differential Equations of Physical Systems ........................................... 25.3
25.2 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems ......................................... 25.5
25.3 The Transfer Function............................................................................ 25.8
25.4 Block Diagrams ..................................................................................... 25.9
25.5 Feedback .............................................................................................. 25.16
25.6 Summary .............................................................................................. 25.19
25.7 References ............................................................................................ 25.19
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 25.20
26 Revision
Matrices - Quick Reference Guide
Answers
Index PMcL
Contents 2015
1.1
1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.3

1.1 Current ....................................................................................................... 1.4
1.2 Voltage....................................................................................................... 1.5
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits ..................................................... 1.6
1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements ................................................................ 1.6
1.3.2 Passive Circuit Elements .............................................................. 1.6
1.3.3 Types of Circuits........................................................................... 1.6
1.4 Independent Sources .................................................................................. 1.7
1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source.................................................. 1.7
1.4.2 The Independent Current Source .................................................. 1.9
1.5 The Resistor and Ohm’s Law .................................................................. 1.10
1.5.1 The Short-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.13
1.5.2 The Open-Circuit ........................................................................ 1.14
1.5.3 Conductance ............................................................................... 1.14
1.6 Practical Resistors.................................................................................... 1.15
1.6.1 Preferred Values and the Decade Progression ............................ 1.16
1.6.2 The ‘E’ Series Values ................................................................. 1.16
1.6.3 Marking Codes............................................................................ 1.18
1.7 Kirchhoff’s Current Law ......................................................................... 1.21
1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law ......................................................................... 1.25
1.9 Combining Resistors................................................................................ 1.28
1.9.1 Series Resistors ........................................................................... 1.28
1.9.2 Parallel Resistors ........................................................................ 1.29
1.10 Combining Independent Sources ........................................................... 1.32
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series ................... 1.32
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel ................. 1.34
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule...................................................................... 1.36
1.12 The Current Divider Rule ...................................................................... 1.38
1.13 Dependent Sources ................................................................................ 1.40
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source .................................................. 1.40
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source .................................................. 1.42
1.14 Power ..................................................................................................... 1.44
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor .................................................... 1.50
PMcL Contents Index
2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.2
1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51

1.15.1 Units of Gain ............................................................................... 1.52
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies ........................................................... 1.54
1.15.3 Saturation .................................................................................... 1.55
1.15.4 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.56
1.16 The Operational Amplifier ..................................................................... 1.57
1.16.1 Feedback ..................................................................................... 1.58
1.16.2 Circuit Model .............................................................................. 1.59
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp ...................................................................... 1.60
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging ........................................... 1.62
1.17 Negative Feedback ................................................................................. 1.63
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics ............................................... 1.64
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback ....................................... 1.65
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier .................................................................. 1.68
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp .................. 1.71
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier ......................... 1.73
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier ...................... 1.73
1.18.4 The Buffer ................................................................................... 1.76
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier ......................................................................... 1.77
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier ............................... 1.79
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier............................. 1.79
1.20 Summary ................................................................................................ 1.81
1.21 References .............................................................................................. 1.86
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 1.87
Index Contents PMcL
1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

1.3
Introduction
Electric circuit theory and electromagnetic theory are the two fundamental
theories upon which all branches of electrical engineering are built. Many
branches of electrical engineering, such as power, electric machines, control,
electronics, communications, and instrumentation, are based on electric circuit
theory. Circuit theory is also valuable to students specializing in other branches
of the physical sciences because circuits are a good model for the study of
energy systems in general, and because of the applied mathematics, physics,
and topology involved.
Electronic circuits are used extensively in the modern world – society in its
present form could not exist without them! They are used in communication
systems (such as televisions, telephones, and the Internet), digital systems (such
as personal computers, embedded microcontrollers, smart phones), and
industrial systems (such as robotic and process control systems). The study of
electronics is therefore critical to electrical engineering and related professions.
One goal in this subject is to learn various analytical techniques and computer
software applications for describing the behaviour of electric circuits. Another
goal is to study various uses and applications of electronic circuits.
We will start by revising some basic concepts, such as KVL, KCL and Ohm’s
Law. We will then introduce the concept of the electronic amplifier, and then
study a device called an operational amplifier (op-amp for short), which has
been used as the building block for modern analog electronic circuitry since its
invention in the 1960’s.
PMcL Introduction Index

1.4
1.1 Current
Charge in motion represents a current. The current present in a discrete path,
such as a metallic wire, has both a magnitude and a direction associated with it
– it is a measure of the rate at which charge is moving past a given reference
point in a specified direction. Current is symbolised by i and thus:
Current defined as
dq
i
the rate of change of
charge moving past (1.1)
a reference dt
The unit of current is the ampere (A) and is equivalent to Cs -1 . In a circuit

current is represented by an arrow:
Representation of
current in a circuit
i
Figure 1.1
The arrow does not indicate the “actual” direction of charge flow, but is simply
part of a convention that allows us to talk about the current in an unambiguous
manner.
The use of terms such as “a current flows through the resistor” is a tautology
Correct usage of the
term “current” and should not be used, since this is saying a “a charge flow flows through the
resistor”. The correct way to describe such a situation is “there is a current in
the resistor”.
A current which is constant is termed a direct current, or simply DC. Examples

DC and AC defined of direct currents are those that exist in circuits with a chemical battery as the
source. A sinusoidal current is often referred to as alternating current, or AC1.
Alternating current is found in the normal household electricity supply.
1
Later we shall also see that a periodic current (e.g. a square wave), with no DC term, can also
be referred to as an alternating current.
Index Current PMcL

1.5
1.2 Voltage
A voltage exists between two points in a circuit when energy is required to
move a charge between the two points. The unit of voltage is the volt (V) and
is equivalent to JC-1 . In a circuit, voltage is represented by a pair of +/- signs:
Representation of
voltage in a circuit
A
Figure 1.2
Once again, the plus-minus pair does not indicate the “actual” voltage polarity.
EXAMPLE 1.1 Voltage Polarity
Note the voltages across the circuit elements below:
A A
v = -5 V v=5V
B B
(a) (b)
In both (a) and (b), terminal B is 5 V positive with respect to terminal A.
A A
v=5V v = -5 V
B B
(c) (d)
In both (c) and (d), terminal A is 5 V positive with respect to terminal B.
PMcL Voltage Index

1.6
1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits

A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal
electrical device that is completely characterised by its voltage-current
Ideal circuit
relationship. Although ideal circuit elements are not “off-the-shelf” circuit
elements are used components, their importance lies in the fact that they can be interconnected
to model real circuit
elements (on paper or on a computer) to approximate actual circuits that are composed
of nonideal elements and assorted electrical components – thus allowing for the
analysis of such circuits.
Circuit elements can be categorised as either active or passive.
1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements
Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Active circuit
element defined There are four types of active circuit element, and all of them are termed an
ideal source. They are:
 the independent voltage source
 the independent current source
 the dependent voltage source
 the dependent current source
1.3.2 Passive Circuit Elements
Passive circuit elements cannot deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Passive circuit Some passive elements are capable of storing energy, and therefore delivering
element defined
power back into a circuit at some later time, but they cannot do so indefinitely.
There are three types of passive circuit element. They are:

 the resistor
 the inductor
 the capacitor
1.3.3 Types of Circuits
The interconnection of two or more circuit elements forms an electrical

Network and circuit network. If the network contains at least one closed path, it is also an electrical
defined
circuit. A network that contains at least one active element, i.e. an independent
Active and passive or dependent source, is an active network. A network that does not contain any
circuits defined
active elements is a passive network.
Index Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits PMcL

1.7
1.4 Independent Sources

Independent sources are ideal circuit elements that possess a voltage or current
value that is independent of the behaviour of the circuits to which they belong.
1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source
An independent voltage source is characterised by a terminal voltage which is

completely independent of the current through it. The representation of an Independent voltage
source defined
independent voltage source is shown below:
vs
Figure 1.3
If the value of the voltage source is constant, that is, does not change with time, An ideal battery is
then we can also represent it as an ideal battery: equivalent to an
independent voltage
source that has a
constant value
Vs Vs
Figure 1.4
Although a “real” battery is not ideal, there are many circumstances under
which an ideal battery is a very good approximation.
PMcL Independent Sources Index

1.8
In general, however, the voltage produced by an ideal voltage source will be a
function of time. In this case we represent the voltage symbolically as vt  .
A few typical voltage waveforms are shown below. The waveforms in (a) and
(b) are typical-looking amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency modulation
(FM) signals, respectively. Both types of signals are used in consumer radio
communications. The sinusoid shown in (c) has a wide variety of uses; for
example, this is the shape of ordinary household voltage. A “pulse train”, such
as that in (d), can be used to drive DC motors at a variable speed.
v v
t t
(a) (b)
v v
t
(c) (d)
Figure 1.5
Since the voltage produced by a source is in general a function of time, then the
most general representation of an ideal voltage source is as shown below:
The most general
representation of an
ideal independent
voltage source
vs ( t ) vs ( t )
"intuitive" AS 1102
IEC 60617
Figure 1.6
Index Independent Sources PMcL

1.9
1.4.2 The Independent Current Source
An independent current source establishes a current which is independent of Independent current

the voltage across it. The representation of an independent current source is source defined
shown below:
Terminal 1
is
Terminal 2
Figure 1.7
In other words, an ideal current source is a device that, when connected to

anything, will always push i s out of terminal 1 and pull i s into terminal 2.
Since the current produced by a source is in general a function of time, then the
most general representation of an ideal current source is as shown below:
The most general
representation of an
ideal independent
current source
is ( t ) is ( t )
"intuitive" AS 1102
IEC 60617
Figure 1.8
PMcL Independent Sources Index

1.10
1.5 The Resistor and Ohm’s Law

In 1827 the German physicist George Ohm published a pamphlet entitled “The
Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically”. It contained one of the first
efforts to measure currents and voltages and to describe and relate them
mathematically. One result was a statement of the fundamental relationship we
now call Ohm’s Law.
Consider a uniform cylinder of conducting material, to which a voltage has

been connected. The voltage will cause charge to flow, i.e. a current:
A simple resistor
i
A
v
v conductor l

Figure 1.9
Ohm found that in many conducting materials, such as metal, the current is
always proportional to the voltage. Since voltage and current are directly
proportional, there exists a proportionality constant R, called resistance, such
that:
Ohm’s Law
v  Ri (1.2)
This is Ohm’s Law. The unit of resistance (volts per ampere) is referred to as
the ohm, and is denoted by the capital Greek letter omega, Ω.
We refer to a construction in which Ohm’s Law is obeyed as a resistor.
Index The Resistor and Ohm’s Law PMcL

1.11
The ideal resistor relationship is a straight line through the origin:

The resistor is a
linear circuit element
v
R
1
Figure 1.10
Even though resistance is defined as R  v i , it should be noted that R is a

purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor shape and the
material used in the construction. For example, it can be shown for a uniform
resistor that the resistance is given by:
l The resistance of a
R (1.3) uniform resistor
A
where l is the length of the resistor, and A is the cross-sectional area. The
resistivity,  , is a constant of the conducting material used to make the
resistor.
The circuit symbol for the resistor is shown below, together with the direction
of current and polarity of voltage that make Ohm’s Law algebraically correct:
The circuit symbol

for the resistor
i i
v R v R
"intuitive" AS 1102
IEC 60617
Figure 1.11
PMcL The Resistor and Ohm’s Law Index

1.12
EXAMPLE 1.2 Ohm’s Law with a Voltage Source
Consider the circuit shown below.
i1
10 V v 1 k
i2
The voltage across the 1 kΩ resistor is, by definition of an ideal voltage source,
vt   10 V . Thus, by Ohm’s Law, we get:
v 10
i1    0.01 A  10 mA
R 1000
and:
 v  10
i2    0.01 A  10 mA
R 1000
Note that i2  i1 , as expected.
EXAMPLE 1.3 Ohm’s Law with a Current Source
Consider the circuit shown below.
i (t )
3cos( t ) A v( t ) 50 
Ohm’s Law yields:
vt   Ri t 
 50  3 cos t 
 150 cos t  V

1.13
1.5.1 The Short-Circuit
Consider a resistor whose value is zero ohms. An equivalent representation of

such a resistance, called a short-circuit, is shown below:
The short-circuit
i( t ) i( t )
arbitrary arbitrary
v( t ) R= 0  v( t )
circuit circuit
Figure 1.12
By Ohm’s Law:
v  Ri
 0i
0V (1.4)
Thus, no matter what finite value it  has, vt  will be zero. Hence, we see that
a zero-ohm resistor is equivalent to an ideal voltage source whose value is zero
volts, provided that the current through it is finite.
PMcL The Resistor and Ohm’s Law Index

1.14
1.5.2 The Open-Circuit
Consider a resistor having infinite resistance. An equivalent representation of

such a resistance, called an open-circuit, is shown below:
The open-circuit
i i
arbitrary arbitrary
v R =  v
circuit circuit
Figure 1.13
By Ohm’s Law:
v
i
R
v


0A (1.5)
Thus, no matter what finite value vt  has, it  will be zero. Thus, we may
conclude that an infinite resistance is equivalent to an ideal current source
whose value is zero amperes, provided that the voltage across it is finite.
1.5.3 Conductance
The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance, G:
Conductance
1
defined
G (1.6)
R
The unit of conductance is the siemen, and is abbreviated S. The same circuit
symbol is used to represent both resistance and conductance.

1.15
1.6 Practical Resistors

There are many different types of resistor construction. Some are shown below:
Some types of
resistors
carbon composition carbon film metal film
wire wound wire wound array

with heat sink
chip array
chip - thick film chip - thin film
Figure 1.14 – Some types of resistors
The “through-hole” resistors are used by hobbyists and for prototyping real
designs. Their material and construction dictate several of their properties, such
as accuracy, stability and pulse handling capability.
The wire wound resistors are made for accuracy, stability and high power
applications. The array is used where space is a premium and is normally used
in digital logic designs where the use of “pull-up” resistors is required.
Modern electronics utilises “surface-mount” components. There are two

varieties of surface-mount chip resistor – thick film and thin film.
PMcL Practical Resistors Index

1.16
1.6.1 Preferred Values and the Decade Progression
Fundamental standardization practices require the selection of preferred values

within the ranges available. Standard values may at first sight seem to be
strangely numbered. There is, however, a beautiful logic behind them, dictated
by the tolerance ranges available.
The decade progression of preferred values is based on preferred numbers

Component values generated by a geometric progression, repeated in succeeding decades. In 1963,
have been
standardized by the the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) standardized the preferred
IEC
number series for resistors and capacitors (standard IEC 60063). It is based on
the fact that we can linearly space values along a logarithmic scale so a
percentage change of a value results in a linear change on the logarithmic scale.
Component values For example, if 6 values per decade are desired, the common ratio is
are spaced
equidistantly on a 6
10  1.468 . The six rounded-off values become 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680.
logarithmic scale
1.6.2 The ‘E’ Series Values
The IEC set the number of values for resistors (and capacitors) per decade
based on their tolerance. These tolerances are 0.5%, 1%, 2%, 5%, 10%, 20%
and 40% and are respectively known as the E192, E96, E48, E24, E12, E6 and
The ‘E’ series E3 series, the number indicating the quantity of values per decade in that
values explained
series. For example, if resistors have a tolerance of 5%, a series of 24 values
can be assigned to a single decade multiple (e.g. 100 to 999) knowing that the
possible extreme values of each resistor overlap the extreme values of adjacent
resistors in the same series.
Any of the numbers in a series can be applied to any decade multiple set. Thus,
for instance, multiplying 220 by each decade multiple (0.1, 1, 10 100, 1000
etc.) produces values of 22, 220, 2 200, 22 000, 220 000 etc.
The ‘E’ series of preferred resistor and capacitor values according to

IEC 60063 are reproduced in Table 1.1.
Index Practical Resistors PMcL

1.17
0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2% 0.5% 1% 2%
E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48 E192 E96 E48
100 100 100 169 169 169 287 287 287 487 487 487 825 825 825
101 172 291 493 835
102 102 174 174 294 294 499 499 845 845
104 176 298 505 856
105 105 105 178 178 178 301 301 301 511 511 511 866 866 866
106 180 305 517 876
107 107 182 182 309 309 523 523 887 887
109 184 312 530 898
110 110 110 187 187 187 316 316 316 536 536 536 909 909 909
111 189 320 542 920
113 113 191 191 324 324 549 549 931 931
114 196 328 556 942
115 115 115 196 196 196 332 332 332 562 562 562 953 953 953
117 198 336 569 965
118 118 200 200 340 340 576 576 976 976
120 203 344 583 988
121 121 121 205 205 205 348 348 348 590 590 590
123 208 352 597 5% 10% 20% 40%
124 124 210 210 357 357 604 604 E24 E12 E6 E3
126 213 361 612
127 127 127 215 215 215 365 365 365 619 619 619 100 100 100 100
129 218 370 626 110
130 130 221 221 374 374 634 634 120 120
132 223 379 642 130
133 133 133 226 226 226 383 383 383 649 649 649 150 150 150
135 229 388 657 160
137 137 232 232 392 392 665 665 180 180
138 234 397 673 200
140 140 140 237 237 237 402 402 402 681 681 681 220 220 220 220
142 240 407 690 240
143 143 243 243 412 412 698 698 270 270
145 246 417 706 300
147 147 147 249 249 249 422 422 422 715 715 715 330 330 330
149 252 427 723 360
150 150 255 255 432 432 732 732 390 390
152 259 437 741 430
154 154 154 261 261 261 442 442 442 750 750 750 470 470 470 470
156 264 448 759 510
158 158 267 267 453 453 768 768 560 560
160 271 459 777 620
162 162 162 274 274 274 464 464 464 787 787 787 680 680 680
164 277 470 796 750
165 165 280 280 475 475 806 806 820 820
167 284 481 816 910
Table 1.1 – IEC standard ‘E’ series of values in a decade

1.18
1.6.3 Marking Codes
The IEC also defines how manufacturers should mark the values of resistors
and capacitors in the standard called IEC 60062. The colours used on fixed
leaded resistors are shown below:
IEC labelling for
leaded resistors
4 bands 22  , 5%
5 bands 2200  , 1%
6 bands 100 k , 0.1%, 15 ppm
silver 0.01 10%

gold 0.1 5%
black 0 0 0 0 1 200 ppm
brown 1 1 1 1 10 1% 100 ppm
red 2 2 2 2 100 2% 50 ppm
orange 3 3 3 3 1k 15 ppm
yellow 4 4 4 4 10k 25 ppm
green 5 5 5 5 100k 0.5%

blue 6 6 6 6 1M 0.25% 10 ppm
violet 7 7 7 7 10M 0.1% 5 ppm
grey 8 8 8 8 1 ppm
white 9 9 9 9 Tolerance
Multiplier Temperature
Significant Figures Coefficient
Figure 1.15 – Colour code marking of leaded resistors
The resistance colour code consists of three or four colour bands and is
followed by a band representing the tolerance. The temperature coefficient
band, if provided, is to the right of the tolerance band and is usually a wide
band positioned on the end cap.

1.19
The resistance colour code includes the first two or three significant figures of
the resistance value (in ohms), followed by a multiplier. This is a factor by
which the significant-figure value must be multiplied to find the actual
resistance value. (i.e. the number of zeros to be added after the significant
figures).
Whether two or three significant figures are represented depends on the

tolerance: ±5% and wider require two band; ±2% and tighter requires three
bands. The significant figures refer to the first two or three digits of the
resistance value of the standard series of values in a decade, in accordance with
IEC 60063 as indicated in the relevant data sheets and shown in Table 1.1.
The colours used and their basic numerical meanings are recognized
internationally for any colour coding used in electronics, not just resistors, but
some capacitors, diodes, cabling and other items.
The colours are easy to remember: Black is the absence of any colour, and
therefore represents the absence of any quantity, 0. White (light) is made up of
all colours, and so represents the largest number, 9. In between, we have the The resistor colour
code explained
colours of the rainbow: red, orange, yellow, green, blue and violet. These take
up the numbers from 2 to 7. A colour in between black and red would be
brown, which has the number 1. A colour intermediate to violet and white is
grey, which represents the number 8.

1.20
When resistors are labelled in diagrams, such as schematics, IEC 60062 calls
for the significant figures to be printed as such, but the decimal point is
replaced with the SI prefix of the multiplier. Examples of such labelling are
shown below:
IEC labelling for

diagrams Resistor Value IEC Labelling
0.1  0R1
1 1R0
22  22R
3.3 k 3K3
100 k 100K
4.5 M 4M5
Note how the decimal point is expressed, that the ohm symbol is shown as an
R, and that 1000 is shown as a capital K. The use of a letter instead of a
decimal point solves a printing problem – the decimal point in a number may
not always be printed clearly, and the alternative display method is intended to
We use a letter in
place of a decimal help misinterpretation of component values in circuit diagrams and parts lists.
point for labelling
component values
In circuit diagrams and constructional charts, a resistor’s numerical identity, or
designator, is usually prefixed by ‘R’. For example, R15 simply means resistor
number 15.
A portion of a schematic diagram showing designators and IEC labelling is

shown below:
Figure 1.16 – Schematic portion showing IEC labelling
Note that resistor R4 has the value 4.7 Ω and resistor R12 has the value 330 Ω.

1.21
1.7 Kirchhoff’s Current Law

A connection of two or more elements is called a node. An example of a node
is depicted in the partial circuit shown below:
R1 R2
v R3
R4 i
Figure 1.17
Even if the figure is redrawn to make it appear that there may be more than one
node, as in the figure below, the connection of the six elements actually
constitutes only one node.
R2
R1
v R3
node
R4 i
Figure 1.18
PMcL Kirchhoff’s Current Law Index

1.22
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) is essentially the law of conservation of

electric charge. If currents directed out of a node are positive in sense, and
currents directed into a node are negative in sense (or vice versa), then KCL
can be stated as follows:
KCL defined
KCL: At any node of a circuit, the
(1.7)
currents algebraically sum to zero.
If there are n elements attached to a node then, in symbols, KCL is:
i
k 1
k 0 (1.8)
KCL can also be stated as: The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of the currents leaving a node.
EXAMPLE 1.4 Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a Node
As an example of KCL, consider a portion of some circuit, shown below:
i1 R3 i6
i2 i5
i3 i4
Choosing the positive sense to be leaving, we apply KCL at the node and
obtain the equation:
 i1  i2  i3  i4  i5  i6  0
Note that even if one of the elements – the one which carries i3 – is a short-
circuit, KCL holds. In other words, KCL applies regardless of the nature of the
elements in the circuit.
Index Kirchhoff’s Current Law PMcL

1.23
EXAMPLE 1.5 Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a Two-Node Circuit
We want to find the voltage v, in the two-node circuit shown below:
i1 i2 i3
13 A 1 v 2 2A 3
The directions of i1 , i 2 , i3 and the polarity of v were chosen arbitrarily (the

directions of the 13 A and 2 A sources are given). By KCL (at either of the two
nodes), we have:
 13  i1  i2  2  i3  0
From this we can write:
i1  i2  i3  11
By Ohm’s Law:
v v v
i1  i2  i3 
1 2 3
Substituting these into the previous equation yields:
v v v

       11
1  2  3
v v
v    11
2 3
6v  3v  2v
 11
6
11v
 11
6
v  6V
Having solved for v, we can now find that:
v 6 v 6 v 6
i1    6A i2      3 A i3    2A
1 1 2 2 3 3
PMcL Kirchhoff’s Current Law Index

1.24
Just as KCL applies to any node of a circuit, so must KCL hold for any closed
region, i.e. to satisfy the physical law of conservation of charge, the total
current leaving (or entering) a region must be zero.
EXAMPLE 1.6 Kirchhoff’s Current Law for a Closed Region
In the circuit shown below, three regions have been identified:
i5
i1 i2
Region 3
a i b
Region 1 i3 Region 2 i4
Applying KCL to Region 1, we get:
i0
For Region 2:
i1  i3  i4  i2
For Region 3:
i2  i5  i4
You may now ask, “Since there is no current from point a to point b (or vice
versa) why is the connection (a short-circuit) between the points there?” If the
connection between the two points is removed, two separate circuits result. The
voltages and currents within each individual circuit remain the same as before.
Having the connection present constrains points a and b to be the same node,
and hence be at the same voltage. It also indicates that the two separate
portions are physically connected (even though there is no current between
them).
Index Kirchhoff’s Current Law PMcL

1.25
1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

Starting at any node in a circuit, we form a loop by traversing through elements
Loop defined
(open-circuits included!) and returning to the starting node, never encountering
any other node more than once.
For example, the paths fabef and fdcef are loops:
1 2
a b c
v1 v2
6 v6 v7 3
3V
v3
v8
4
f e d
v4
2A
5
v5
Figure 1.19
whereas the paths becba and fde are not:
1 2
a b c
v1 v2
6 v6 v7 3
3V
v3
v8
4
f e d
v4
2A
5
v5
Figure 1.20
PMcL Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Index

1.26
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) is essentially the law of conservation of
energy. If voltages across elements traversed from – to + are positive in sense,
and voltages across elements that are traversed from + to – are negative in
sense (or vice versa), then KVL can be stated as follows:
KVL defined
KVL: Around any loop in a circuit, the
(1.9)
voltages algebraically sum to zero.
If there are n elements in the loop then, in symbols, KVL is:
v
k 1
k 0 (1.10)
KVL can also be stated as: In traversing a loop, the sum of the voltage rises
equals the sum of the voltage drops.
EXAMPLE 1.7 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Around a Loop
In the circuit shown in Figure 1.19, we select a traversal from – to + to be

positive in sense. Then KVL around the loop abcefa gives:
 v1  v2  v3  v8  v6  0
and around loop bcdeb, we have:
 v 2  3  v 4  v7  0
In this last loop, one of the elements traversed (the element between nodes b
and e) is an open-circuit; however, KVL holds regardless of the nature of the
elements in the circuit.
Index Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law PMcL

1.27
EXAMPLE 1.8 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Around a Circuit
We want to find the current i, in the one-loop circuit shown below:
2 i
v1 34 V
10 V 4 v2
6
v3
The polarities of v1 , v2 , v3 and the direction of i were chosen arbitrarily (the

polarities of the 10 V and 34 V sources are given). Applying KVL we get:
10  v1  34  v2  v3  0
Thus:
v1  v2  v3  24
From Ohm’s Law:
v1  2i v2  4i v3  6i
Substituting these into the previous equation yields:
2i   4i    6i   24

2i  4i  6i  24
12i  24
i  2 A
Having solved for i, we now find that:
v1  2i  2 2  4 V
v 2  4i  4 2  8 V
v3  6i   6 2  12 V
PMcL Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Index

1.28
1.9 Combining Resistors

Relatively complicated resistor combinations can be replaced by a single
equivalent resistor whenever we are not specifically interested in the current,
voltage or power associated with any of the individual resistors.
1.9.1 Series Resistors
Consider the series combination of N resistors shown in (a) below:
R1 R2 RN
i i
arbitrary v1 v2 vN arbitrary
circuit v circuit v R eq
(a) (b)
Figure 1.21
We apply KVL:
v  v1  v2  v N (1.11)
and Ohm’s Law:
v  R1i  R2i   RN i
 R1  R2   RN i
(1.12)
and then compare this result with the simple equation applying to the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.21b:
v  Req i (1.13)
Thus, the value of the equivalent resistance for N series resistances is:
Combining series
resistors Req  R1  R2    RN (series) (1.14)
Index Combining Resistors PMcL

1.29
1.9.2 Parallel Resistors
A similar simplification can be applied to parallel resistors. Consider the

parallel combination of N conductances shown in (a) below:
i
i
i1 i2 iN
arbitrary
circuit v G1 G2 GN
arbitrary
circuit v Geq
(a) (b)
Figure 1.22
We apply KCL:
i  i1  i2  iN (1.15)
and Ohm’s Law:
i  G1v  G2v  GN v

 G1  G2  GN v
(1.16)
whereas the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.22b gives:
i  Geq v (1.17)
and thus the value of the equivalent conductance for N parallel conductances is:
Geq  G1  G2    GN
Combining parallel
(parallel) (1.18) conductances
PMcL Combining Resistors Index

1.30
In terms of resistance instead of conductance:
1 1 1 1
Combining parallel
resistors    (parallel) (1.19)
Req R1 R2 RN
The special case of only two parallel resistors is needed often:
Combining two R1R2

resistors in Req  (parallel) (1.20)
parallel… R1  R2
Note that since Geq  G1  G2 then we may deduce that:
Geq  G1 and Geq  G2 (1.21)
Hence:
1 1 1 1
 and  (1.22)
Req R1 Req R2
or:
…results in an
equivalent
resistance smaller Req  R1 and Req  R2 (1.23)
than either resistor
Thus the equivalent resistance of two resistors in parallel is less than the value
of either of the two resistors.
The special case of N resistors of equal value R in parallel is:
Combining the same

R
valued resistors in
parallel
Req  (parallel) (1.24)
N
Index Combining Resistors PMcL

1.31
EXAMPLE 1.9 Series and Parallel Resistors
We want to find the current i in the circuit below:
i 5 1
28 V 4 3 v
In order to find i, we can replace series and parallel connections of resistors by

their equivalent resistances. We begin by noting that the 1  and 3  resistors
are in series. Combining them we obtain:
i 5
28 V 4 4
Note that it is not possible to display the original voltage v in this figure. Since
the two 4  resistors are connected in parallel, we can further simplify the
circuit as shown below:
i 5
28 V 2
Here, the 5  and 2  resistors are in series, so we may combine them into
one 7  resistor. Then, from Ohm’s Law, we have:
28
i  4A
7
PMcL Combining Resistors Index

1.32
1.10 Combining Independent Sources

An inspection of the KVL equations for a series circuit shows that the order in
which elements are placed in a series circuit makes no difference. An
inspection of the KCL equations for a parallel circuit shows that the order in
which elements are placed in a parallel circuit makes no difference. We can use
these facts to simplify voltage sources in series and current sources in parallel.
1.10.1 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series
It is not possible to combine independent voltage sources in parallel, since this

would violate KVL. However, consider the series connection of two ideal
voltage sources shown in (a) below:
a a
v2
arbitrary arbitrary
v circuit veq v circuit
v1
b b
(a) (b)
Figure 1.23
From KVL we know that v  v1  v2 , and by the definition of an ideal voltage

source, this must be the voltage between nodes a and b, regardless of what is
connected to them. Thus, the series connection of two ideal voltage sources is
equivalent to a single independent voltage source given by:
Combining
independent voltage
sources in series veq  v1  v2 (series) (1.25)
Clearly, the obvious generalization to N voltage sources in series holds.
Index Combining Independent Sources PMcL

1.33
EXAMPLE 1.10 Combining Independent Voltage Sources in Series
In a previous example we determined the current i in the one-loop circuit

shown below:
2 i
v1 34 V
10 V 4 v2
6
v3
By rearranging the order in this one loop circuit (of course this does not
affect i), we obtain the circuit shown below:
i 2
34 V v1
10 V 4 v2
6
v3
We can now combine the series independent voltage sources and the series
resistors into single equivalent elements:
-24 V v 12 
By Ohm’s Law:
 24
i  2 A
12
PMcL Combining Independent Sources Index

1.34
1.10.2 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel
It is not possible to combine independent current sources in series, since this

would violate KCL. However, consider the parallel connection of two ideal
current sources shown in (a) below:
i a i a
i1 i2 arbitrary i eq arbitrary
circuit circuit
b b
(a) (b)
Figure 1.24
From KCL we find that i  i1  i2 , and by the definition of an ideal current

source, this must always be the current into the arbitrary circuit. Thus, the
parallel connection of two ideal current sources is equivalent to a single
independent current source given by:
Combining
independent current ieq  i1  i2 (parallel) (1.26)
sources in parallel
Clearly, the obvious generalization to N current sources in parallel holds.
Index Combining Independent Sources PMcL

1.35
EXAMPLE 1.11 Combining Independent Current Sources in Parallel
In a previous example, we determined the voltage v in the two-node circuit

shown below:
13 A 1 v 2 2A 3
Combining the parallel independent current sources into a single equivalent

source, we obtain the circuit:
11 A 1 v 2 3
Since the equivalent resistance of the three resistors in parallel is given by:
1 1 1 1 6  3  2 11
    
Req 1 2 3 6 6
we obtain:
6
Req  
11
Then, from Ohm’s Law:
v
6
11  6 V
11
PMcL Combining Independent Sources Index

1.36
1.11 The Voltage Divider Rule

It can be quite useful to determine how a voltage appearing across two series
resistors “divides” between them. Consider the circuit shown below:
i R1
v1
arbitrary
circuit v R2 v2
Figure 1.25
By Ohm’s Law, the current in the resistors is:
v
i (1.27)
R1  R2
By application of Ohm’s Law again, the voltage across R1 is:
v1 R1i (1.28)
and therefore:
Voltage divider rule

R1
defined v1  v (1.29)
R1  R2
Similarly, the voltage across R2 is:
R2
v2  v (1.30)
R1  R2
These equations describe how the voltage is divided between the resistors.
Because of this, a pair of resistors in series is often called a voltage divider.
Index The Voltage Divider Rule PMcL

1.37
EXAMPLE 1.12 Voltage Divider Rule
We want to find the voltage v in the circuit below:
i 5 1
28 V 4 v1 3 v
Combining the series connection of the 1  and 3  resistors, we obtain the

circuit below:
i 5
28 V 4 v1 4
Now the pair of 4  resistors in parallel can be combined as shown below:
i 5
28 V 2 v1
By voltage division:
2 56
v1   28  8V
25 7
Returning to the original circuit and applying voltage division again yields:
3 3
v v1   8  6 V
3 1 4
PMcL The Voltage Divider Rule Index

1.38
1.12 The Current Divider Rule

It can be quite useful to determine how a current entering two parallel resistors
“divides” between them. Consider the circuit shown below:
i
i1 i2
arbitrary
v
circuit R1 R2
Figure 1.26
We replace the parallel connection of R1 and R2 by its equivalent resistance.

Thus, Ohm’s Law gives:
R1R2
v  Reqi  i (1.31)
R1  R2
By application of Ohm’s Law again, the current in R1 is i1  v R1 and thus:
Current divider rule

R2
defined i1  i (1.32)
R1  R2
Similarly, the current in R2 is:
R1
i2  i (1.33)
R1  R2
These equations describe how the current is divided between the resistors.
Because of this, a pair of resistors in parallel is often called a current divider.
Note that a larger amount of current will exist in the smaller resistor – thus
current tends to take the path of least resistance!
Index The Current Divider Rule PMcL

1.39
EXAMPLE 1.13 Current Divider Rule
We want to find the current i in the circuit below:
i1 4 
i
36 sin(100 t ) V 6 3
The total current delivered by the source is:
36 sin 100t 
i1 
4  63 6  3
 6 sin 100t  A
Therefore the desired current is:
i1   6 sin 100t   4 sin 100t  A

6 2
i
63 3
The current divider rule can also be derived using conductances. Referring to
Figure 1.26, the voltage across the parallel resistors is:
i i
v  Reqi   (1.34)
Geq G1  G2
The current in resistor R1 is i1  G1v and thus:
G1
i1 i (1.35)
G1  G2
A similar result obviously holds for current i 2 . The advantage of this form of
the current divider rule is that it is the dual of the voltage divider rule – we
replace voltages with currents, and resistors with conductances.
PMcL The Current Divider Rule Index

1.40
1.13 Dependent Sources

An ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value depends upon some
parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to which the source
belongs is known as a dependent or controlled source.
1.13.1 The Dependent Voltage Source
A dependent voltage source establishes a voltage across its terminals,

independent of the current through it, which is determined by the voltage or
Dependent voltage
sources defined current at some other location in the electrical system. There are two types of
dependent voltage source – the voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS) and
the current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
Kvx rm i x
VCVS CCVS
Figure 1.27
Note that the dependent source is represented by a diamond-shaped symbol so

as not to confuse it with an independent source.
These sources are mathematical models that are useful in modelling real
circuits and systems, e.g. they are used in modelling operational amplifiers.
Index Dependent Sources PMcL

1.41
EXAMPLE 1.14 Circuit with a Dependent Voltage Source
Consider the circuit shown below. This circuit contains a dependent source
whose value in this case depends on the voltage across the 4 Ω resistor – it is a
VCVS.
3v2
i 2
v1
12 V 4 v2
To analyse the circuit, we apply KVL and obtain:
v1  3v2  v2  12
or:
v1  2v2  12
By Ohm’s Law:
v1  2i and v2  4i
Therefore:
2i  24i   12
2i  8i  12
 6i  12
i  2 A
Hence:
v2  4i  8 V
and the value of the dependent voltage source is:
3v2  24 V
PMcL Dependent Sources Index

1.42
1.13.2 The Dependent Current Source
A dependent current source establishes a current, which is independent of the

Dependent current voltage across it, that is determined by the voltage or current at some other
sources defined
location in the electrical system. There are two types of dependent current
source – the voltage-controlled current source (VCCS) and the current-
controlled current source (CCCS).
Ki x gm vx
CCCS VCCS
Figure 1.28
These sources are mathematical models that are useful in modelling real
circuits and systems, e.g. they are used in modelling transistors.
Index Dependent Sources PMcL

1.43
EXAMPLE 1.15 Circuit with a Dependent Current Source
Consider the circuit shown below. In this circuit the value of the dependent
current source is specified by a voltage – it is a VCCS.
i1 i2
2A 3 v 4v 5
To solve for v, we apply KCL and obtain:
i1  i2  4v  2
Thus:
v v
  4v  2
3 5
8v
 4v  2
15
 52v
2
15
 30 15
v  V
52 26
Consequently:
30
4v   A
13
and this is the value of the dependent current source, in amperes. The other
variables in the circuit are:
v 5 v 3
i1    A and i2   A
3 26 5 26
PMcL Dependent Sources Index

1.44
1.14 Power
Power is the rate at which work is done or energy is expended. Taking the
product of voltage (energy per unit charge) and current (charge per unit time)
we get a quantity that measures energy per unit time. It’s for this reason that we
define p , the instantaneous power absorbed by an electrical circuit element, to
be the product of voltage and current:
Instantaneous
power defined p  vi (1.36)
The fundamental unit of power is the watt (W) and is equivalent to Js -1 . In

using the formula for instantaneous power, we need to be careful in
establishing the correct voltage polarity and current direction. Consider the
circuit element:
A i
Figure 1.29
If one terminal of the element (A) is v volts positive with respect to the other
Passive sign terminal (B), and if a current i is entering the element through terminal A, then
convention defined
– it gives power a power p  vi is being absorbed or delivered to the element. When the
absorbed by a
circuit element current arrow is directed into the element at the plus-marked terminal, we
satisfy the passive sign convention. If the numerical value of the power using
this convention is negative, then we say that the element is generating or
delivering power.
Index Power PMcL

1.45
EXAMPLE 1.16 Power Absorbed
Note the power in the circuit elements below:
3A
2V
p = (2)(3) = 6 W absorbed
-2 V
-3 A
p = (-2)(-3) = 6 W absorbed
-5 A
4V
p = (4)(-5) = -20 W absorbed

(20 W generated)
PMcL Power Index

1.46
EXAMPLE 1.17 Power Absorbed by a Resistor
Consider the circuit shown below:
i( t )
325cos(100 t ) V 100 
By Ohm’s Law:
vt  325
it    cos100t  A
R 100
By definition, the power absorbed by the resistor is:
p R t   vt it 
325 2
 cos 2 100t 
100
 1056 cos 2 100t  W
In particular, at time t  0 the power absorbed by the resistor is:
p R 0  1056 cos 2 0

 1056 W
At time t  5 ms , however, since:
 
 
cos 100  5  10 3  cos   0
2
then the resistor absorbs 0 watts.
Index Power PMcL

1.47
EXAMPLE 1.18 Power Absorbed by Circuit Elements
i
i1 i2 i3
5V 1 2 9A 3
We shall determine the power absorbed in each of the elements.
Note that the voltage across each of the elements is 5 V since all the elements
are in parallel. Therefore, by Ohm’s Law:
5 5 5
i1   5A i2  A i3  A
1 2 3
and the powers absorbed in the 1  , 2  and 3  resistors are:
p1  5i1  55  25 W
 5  25
p 2  5i2  5   W
2 2
 5  25
p3  5i3  5   W
 3 3
respectively, for a total of:
25 25 150  75  50 275
25     W
2 3 6 6
absorbed by the resistors.
PMcL Power Index

1.48
By KCL:
5 5 5
i  9  i1  i2  i3   
1 2 3
or:
30  15  10 1
i 9  A
6 6
Thus the power delivered by the voltage source is:
5
pv  5i  W
6
Also, the power delivered by the current source is:
pi  59  45 W
Hence the total power delivered by the sources is:
5 270  5 275
45    W
6 6 6
We see that the total power delivered by the sources is equal to the total power
absorbed by the resistors. Since power delivered by a circuit element is equal to
the negative of the power absorbed, this is equivalent to saying that the total
power absorbed by all circuit elements is zero. Thus, the principle of
conservation of energy (and therefore power) is satisfied in this circuit (as it is
in any circuit).
Index Power PMcL

1.49
EXAMPLE 1.19 Power Conservation
Consider the circuit shown below, which is identical to the previous example
except for the value of the current source:
i
i1 i2 i3
5V 1 2 10 A 3
In this case:
25 25
p1  25 W p2  W p3  W
2 3
as before. By KCL, however:
i  10  i1  i2  i3
and thus:
55 5
i  10   A
6 6
Therefore, the powers delivered by the sources are:
 5
pi  510  50 W
25
pv  5     W
 6 6
Hence the total power absorbed is:
275 25
p1  p 2  p3  pv  pi    50  0 W
6 6
and again energy (power) is conserved. However, in this case not only do the
resistors absorb power, but so does the voltage source. It is the current source
that supplies all the power absorbed in the rest of the circuit.
PMcL Power Index

1.50
1.14.1 Power Absorbed in a Resistor
The power absorbed in every resistor is always a nonnegative number.

Consider the resistor shown below:
i R
Figure 1.30
By definition, the power absorbed in the resistor is p  vi . But by Ohm’s Law,

v  Ri . Thus p  Ri i , or:
p  Ri 2 (1.37)
Also, i  v R , so that p  vv R  , or:
v2
p (1.38)
R
A real resistor Both formulas for calculating power absorbed in a resistor R demonstrate that p
always absorbs
power is always a nonnegative number when R is positive. Therefore a resistor always
absorbs power.
In a physical resistor, this power is dissipated as radiation (light and/or heat). In

some types of resistors (such as an incandescent bulb, a toaster, or an electric
heater), this property is desirable in that the net result may be light or warmth.
In other types of resistors, such as those found in electronic circuits, the heat
dissipated in a resistor may be a problem that cannot be ignored.
Real resistors have The physical size of a resistor determines the amount of power it can safely
a power rating that
dissipate. A power dissipation that exceeds the rating of a resistor can
must not be
exceeded physically damage the resistor. In many electronic applications, resistors need
dissipate only small amounts of power, allowing their use in integrated circuits.
Index Power PMcL

1.51
1.15 Amplifiers
A linear amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal (a voltage
Amplifier defined
or a current) whilst preserving waveform shape. The circuit symbol for an
amplifier is a triangle which clearly shows the direction of signal travel.
An example of a voltage amplifier is shown below:

The amplifier’s
circuit symbol and
vo its transfer
characteristic
K
1
vi K vo
vi
input output
(a) circuit symbol (b) transfer characteristic
Figure 1.31
Note the use of subscript notation: i for input, and o for output. The
relationship between the input and output for the voltage amplifier is:
The input-output
vo  Kvi (1.39)
relationship for an
ideal linear voltage
amplifier
The quantity K is referred to as the gain. If the gain is a positive number, then
the amplifier is said to be non-inverting. If the gain is a negative number, then
the amplifier is said to be inverting. Note that a negative number does not
imply a decrease in the signal – it implies an inversion.
Since the purpose of an amplifier is to increase signal amplitude, we normally

have K  1 . Circuits with K  1 are said to attenuate, but as we shall see,
they may still be implemented with an “amplifier”.
Amplifiers are used in numerous places and form one of the basic building-
blocks of electronic circuits. For example, signals in telecommunications that
come from antennas are particularly “weak” and could be in the microvolt or
millivolt range. Reliable processing of these small signals is made easier if the
signal magnitude is much larger.
PMcL Amplifiers Index

1.52
1.15.1 Units of Gain
The gain K of a voltage amplifier can be expressed in two ways. The first way
is as a straight voltage ratio, with units “volts per volt”:
Amplifier gain vo
expressed in volts
per volt
K V/V
vi (1.40)
Note that K must be a dimensionless quantity.
The second way comes from the historical development of amplifiers which
were first used extensively throughout telecommunication systems. In these
applications, since signals were audio in nature, it became common to compare
signal amplitudes in terms of the audio power they could deliver. Thus, we can
express the voltage gain with units of decibels:2
Amplifier gain
vo
expressed in
decibels
K  20 log10 dB (1.41)
vi
The dB unit of voltage gain is useful when circuits are cascaded – a cascade
occurs when the output of one circuit is fed into the input of another (and it has
been ensured, through careful design, that one circuit does not “load” the next,
i.e. each individual circuit’s behaviour is independent of the load placed on it).
For cascaded circuits you can add the voltage gains in dB instead of
multiplying the standard voltage gains.
2
Historically the Bel (named after Alexander Graham Bell – the inventor of the first
commercially viable and practical telephone) was used to define ratios of audio loudness i.e.
ratios of power. In the metric system, a convenient unit to use is the decibel (dB):
1 decibel  10 log10 Po Pi  . If electrical power is assumed to be dissipated across equal
resistors, then since P  V 2 R , the power ratio is 20 log10 Vo Vi . This power ratio became a
way to express the voltage gain of amplifiers. Note that the decibel is dimensionless, so it can
be applied to any dimensionless ratio, if one wished.
Index Amplifiers PMcL

1.53
EXAMPLE 1.20 Cascaded Amplifiers and Circuits
A cascade of amplifiers and circuits is shown below, with the gain (or
attenuation) expressed in V/V and dB.
vi v1 v2 vo
A1 R A2
input output
amplifier circuit amplifier

v1 v2 1 vo
vi = A1 = -10 V/V v1 = K = 2 V/V v2 = A2 = 20 V/V
| A1 | = 20 dB | K | = -6 dB | A2 | = 26 dB
The overall gain can be expressed as:
vo v1 v2 vo
  A1KA2  10  12  20  100 V/V
vi vi v1 v2
Note that when the gain in V/V is negative, then the signal is inverted.
The gain expressed in decibels is:
vo
 20 log10 A1KA2
vi
 20 log10 A1  20 log10 K  20 log10 A2
 20  6  26
 40 dB
As a check, we can perform the dB calculation directly on the overall V/V

gain:
vo
 20 log10  100  20  2  40 dB
vi
When the gain is expressed in dB, it refers to the magnitude of the gain only –
it conveys no phase information. When the gain in dB is a negative number,
then we have attenuation.

1.54
1.15.2 Amplifier Power Supplies
Amplifiers require a separate and independent power supply to operate. Some

amplifiers are bipolar, meaning that they are designed to amplify both positive
and negative signals. These amplifiers require a bipolar DC power supply. For
example, it is common to power bipolar amplifiers with +15 V and -15 V. A lot
of amplifier power supply labelling is used to reflect the technology it is
implemented with, or is based on historical precedent. For example, it is
common to see bipolar power supplies represented on amplifiers as:
A bipolar amplifier
showing the power
supply connections VCC (positive supply)
vi K vo
input output
VEE (negative supply)
Figure 1.32
where VCC  15 V and VEE  15 V , with respect to a circuit “common”. The
“CC” subscript in this case refers to the voltage at a “collector” of a transistor
inside the amplifier package, and the “EE” to an “emitter” of a transistor.
Some amplifiers are unipolar, which means they are designed to amplify
signals that are of one polarity only. These amplifiers only require a single DC
power supply, such as +5V.
A unipolar amplifier
showing the power
supply connections VCC (positive supply)
vi K vo
input output
Figure 1.33

1.55
1.15.3 Saturation
Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the capabilities
of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies. When amplifier
outputs approach their output limitation, they are said to saturate – they cannot
provide the output that is required by a linear characteristic. The resulting
transfer characteristic, with the positive and negative saturation levels denoted
L and L respectively, is shown below:
The transfer
characteristic of a
real amplifier,
vo showing that it
L+ saturates eventually
vi
Figure 1.34
Each of the two saturation levels is usually within a volt or so of the voltage of
the corresponding power supply. Obviously, in order to avoid distorting the
output signal waveform, the input signal swing must be kept within the linear
range of operation. If we don’t, then the output waveform becomes distorted
and eventually gets clipped at the output saturation levels.
The input signal and
the output signal of
a saturated amplifier
showing clipping
Figure 1.35

1.56
1.15.4 Circuit Model
For an ideal voltage amplifier, the output voltage is independent of both the
source resistance and the load resistance. Thus, to model an ideal voltage
amplifier, we would use a voltage-controlled voltage source:
The model of an
ideal voltage
amplifier
vi Kv i vo
Figure 1.36
Real voltage amplifiers have a finite input resistance as well as a finite output
resistance. Thus, a model of a real amplifier is:
A linear model of a
real voltage
amplifier
Rout
vi Rin Kv i vo
Figure 1.37
This model is only valid in its linear region of operation. Also note that the
amplifier is unilateral – there is no “path” for a voltage at the output to appear
in some way at the input of the amplifier. Thus, the use of the voltage-
controlled voltage source creates a “one way path” for the voltage from the
input to the output.

1.57
1.16 The Operational Amplifier

An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit amplifier consisting
Op-amps defined
of dozens of transistors. An op-amp amplifies the voltage difference between
its two input terminals, and produces a single-ended output voltage, i.e. the
output voltage is with respect to the power supply “common”. The circuit
symbol for the op-amp is shown below:
An op-amp circuit
symbol showing all
positive connections
supply
VCC
v
inputs vo output
v
VEE
negative
supply
Figure 1.38
In many circuit diagrams it is customary to omit the power supply and common
connections (the output being understood to be taken with respect to the circuit
common), and so we normally draw:
A simplified op-amp
circuit symbol
v
vo
v
Figure 1.39
The input labelled v  is termed the noninverting terminal, and the input
labelled v  is termed the inverting terminal. This naming is a result of the op-
amps ability to amplify the difference between these two voltages.
PMcL The Operational Amplifier Index

1.58
1.16.1 Feedback
The op-amp is an amplifier intended for use with external feedback elements,
where these elements determine the resultant function, or operation3. As we
shall see, op-amp circuits can perform a variety of mathematical operations,
such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation of voltage signals.
The feedback elements are connected between the op-amp’s output and its
inverting terminal, thus providing what is known as negative feedback.
input
output
vi
vo
Feedback
Network
Figure 1.40
In the figure, the input is applied between the op-amp (+) input and a common,
or reference point, as denoted by the “ground” symbol. This reference point is
also common to the output, the feedback network and the power supply.
The feedback network can be resistive or reactive, linear or nonlinear, or any

combination of these. More detailed analysis, shown later, shows that the
circuit’s overall gain characteristic is predominantly determined by the
feedback network. It is critically important to note that op-amps are never
intended for use without a feedback network.
3
The naming of the operational amplifier occurred in the classic paper by John R. Ragazzini,
Robert H. Randall and Frederick A. Russell, “Analysis of Problems in Dynamics by Electronic
Circuits,” Proceedings of the IRE, Vol. 35, May 1947, pp. 444-452. This paper references the
op-amp circuits (feedback amplifiers) used by Bell Labs in the development of the “M9 gun
director”, a weapon system which was instrumental in winning WWII.
Index The Operational Amplifier PMcL

1.59
1.16.2 Circuit Model
Op-amps are voltage amplifiers. They are designed to have an extremely large
input resistance, a very low output resistance, and a very large gain. Even
though they are comprised of dozens of transistors, a simple linear macro-
model of a real op-amp – valid over a certain range of operating conditions – is
shown below:
A simple linear
model of a real
op-amp
Rout
v vo
Rin AOL ( v - v )
Figure 1.41
Note that, under open-circuit conditions on the output (i.e. no load is attached
to the op-amp output terminal), the op-amp’s output voltage is given by:
The open-loop
vo  AOL v  v  (1.42)
output voltage of an
op-amp, under no-
load conditions
The gain of the amplifier under these conditions, AOL , is termed the open-loop
gain, hence the “OL” subscript. The reason for this name will become apparent
shortly.
The model parameters for a general purpose op-amp, such as the TL071, are
tabulated below:
Parameter Symbol Typical Value
Open-loop voltage gain AOL 200 000 V/V
Input resistance Rin 1 TΩ
Output resistance Rout 200 Ω

1.60
1.16.3 The Ideal Op-Amp
The “ideal op-amp” is a theoretical device that pushes the typical op-amp
parameters to their ideal values:
Parameter Symbol Ideal Value
Open-loop voltage gain AOL ∞ V/V
Input resistance Rin ∞Ω
Output resistance Rout 0Ω
Thus, the ideal op-amp has the circuit model:

Model of an ideal
op-amp
v vo
AOL ( v - v )
v
AOL= 
Figure 1.42
There are several interesting characteristics of this model that will be useful
when analysing (and designing) circuits with ideal op-amps.

1.61
The first characteristic is due to the infinite input resistance:
An ideal op-amp
An ideal op-amp draws no input current (1.43) draws no input
current
The second characteristic of the model is that the output voltage is constrained
by a dependent voltage source (there is no output resistance), and thus:
An ideal op-amp has

An ideal op-amp has an output voltage an output voltage
(1.44) that is independent
that is independent of its load of the load placed
on it
The last and most important characteristic is due to the infinite open-loop gain.
At first glance the idealisation that AOL   appears problematic from a circuit
analysis viewpoint, since for a finite input voltage difference the output will be
infinite. However, the ideal op-amp can produce a finite output voltage, but
only so long as the input voltage is zero. Thus, for an ideal op-amp to produce a
finite output voltage v o , the input voltage difference must be:
vo finite
v  v   0 (1.45)
AOL 
and therefore:
An ideal op-amp has
equal input voltages
v   v (1.46) if it has a finite
output voltage
Thus:
An ideal op-amp has equal input voltages (1.47)
Since the ideal op-amp has equal input voltages (like a short-circuit), but draws
The virtual short-
no input current (like an open-circuit), we say there is a virtual short-circuit circuit defined
across its input terminals. We will use the concept of the virtual short-circuit as
the fundamental basis for the analysis and design of circuits containing ideal
op-amps.

1.62
1.16.4 Op-Amp Fabrication and Packaging
There are many designs for the internal circuit of an op-amp, with each design
optimising a particular parameter (or parameters) of interest to the designer.
Such parameters may be the open-loop gain (how much the input voltage
difference is amplified), the bandwidth (the highest frequency it can amplify),
or the bias current (how much DC current it draws from the input terminals).
You will become familiar with these terms later when we look more closely at
real op-amp limitations (as opposed to the ideal op-amp).
There are several device fabrication technologies that are used to construct an
op-amp. For general-purpose op-amps, bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) are
mostly used at the input because they are easy to match and are capable of
carrying large currents. However, some operational amplifiers have a field
effect transistor (FET) input, with the rest of the circuit being made from BJTs.
Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) transistors are used in
op-amps that find application in the design of analog and mixed-signal very
large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits.
It is important to be able to recognise the standard pin-outs of an op-amp IC.

All ICs conform to a standard pin numbering scheme. There is usually a notch
or mark on one end of the chip. With the notch oriented to the left, pin 1 is the
first pin on the bottom of the package. The pins are then numbered in a
counter-clockwise direction. An example is shown below for the TL071 op-
amp, which is a single op-amp housed in an 8-pin package:
Single op-amp IC
package details
TL071 package details
Figure 1.43

1.63
1.17 Negative Feedback

The concept of negative feedback is fundamental to life. A simple experiment
An everyday
will illustrate this point: close your eyes and then bring your index fingers example of negative
together so that they touch at the tips. You will probably miss. By closing your feedback
eyes you have broken a feedback loop which is vital to most human actions; in
order to perform an operation accurately we must be able to see what we are
doing and thus apply any small corrections as and when necessary. In effect,
we are taking the output (the action) and feeding it back to the input (the
mental ‘instruction’ or intention) in such a way that the output is made equal to
the input. In other words, the action is forced to correspond exactly with the
intention.
Examples of negative feedback can also be found in the field of mechanical

engineering. One of the clearest examples is the governor which is used to
control the speed of rotating machinery. The most historically significant form
of governor was that developed by James Watt in 1788, following the
suggestion of his business partner, Matthew Boulton. The conical pendulum
governor was one of the final series of innovations that Watt made to the steam
engine that ushered in the industrial revolution and became the prime source of
motive power in the 19th century.
The conical pendulum governor is shown in basic form below:

Watt’s conical
pendulum governor
Figure 1.44
PMcL Negative Feedback Index

1.64
As the speed of the engine, and hence of the governor shaft, increases, the
centrifugal force causes the weights to fly outwards on their linkage. The
linkage is connected via a system of levers to the main steam valve so that, if
the speed increases, the movement of the governor weights throttles back the
main steam supply to the engine. Conversely, a tendency to slow down,
perhaps due to increased load, will allow more steam in to boost the speed back
to normal. The speed will thus settle down to a happy medium and be largely
independent of variations in the load on the engine.
In this example, as in the physiological illustration discussed first, the system is

kept under control by feeding a measure of its output back to the input.
Mechanical control systems such as the governor are often known as servo-
systems (literally, slave systems) and are fundamental to industrial automation.
1.17.1 Negative Feedback in Electronics
The gain of an amplifier, such as an op-amp, will vary from device to device
due to the many manufacturing variations in the transistors and resistors that
comprise it. Such component variations result in considerable uncertainty in
the overall voltage gain. For example, an op-amp datasheet may specify the
typical value for the open-loop gain as 200 000, but some specimens may
achieve a gain as low as 25 000. The open-loop gain also changes with
temperature, power supply voltage, signal frequency and signal amplitude.
Just as the steam engine needs the controlling influence of the governor, so
Negative feedback
is used to precisely most electronic amplifiers require electrical negative feedback if their gain is to
set the gain of an
amplifier be accurately predictable and remain constant with varying environmental
conditions.
Index Negative Feedback PMcL

1.65
1.17.2 An Amplifier with Negative Feedback
The figure below shows a block diagram of an amplifier with negative

feedback:
Block diagram of an
amplifier with
negative feedback
amplifier
vi ve vo
AOL
vf =  vo

feedback
network
Figure 1.45
The amplifier has a voltage gain AOL and the feedback network is an attenuator
which feeds a fixed fraction,  , of the output back to the input. The feedback
signal, v f  vo , is subtracted from the input signal (we thus have negative
feedback – if the signal were added, we would have positive feedback).
We can now determine the effective voltage gain, ACL , of the amplifier with
feedback. This is given simply by the ratio of the output voltage to input
voltage:
vo
ACL  (1.48)
vi
The signal at the input to the basic amplifier is:
ve  vi  v f  vi  vo (1.49)

1.66
Also, the signal at the output of the basic amplifier is given by:
vo  AOLve (1.50)
Therefore:
vo  AOL vi  vo  (1.51)
Rearranging:
vo 1  AOL    AOL vi
vo AOL (1.52)

vi 1  AOL 
Hence:
The closed-loop
gain of an amplifier
AOL
with negative
ACL  (1.53)
feedback
1  AOL 
This is the general equation for an amplifier with negative feedback. The basic
gain of the amplifier, AOL , is known as the open-loop gain and the gain with
feedback, ACL , as the closed-loop gain.
Index Negative Feedback PMcL

1.67
Engineers design the circuit by starting with a basic amplifier with a very large
open-loop gain (e.g., the open-loop gain of an op-amp is AOL  100,000 ) and
then ensure by design that the feedback network provides an attenuation  so

that:
AOL   1 (1.54)
When this is the case, we can neglect the ‘1’ in the denominator of Eq. (1.53)
so that:
The closed-loop
gain of an amplifier
1
ACL  (1.55)
with negative

feedback, if the
open-loop gain is
very large
This is a very significant equation because we have ‘designed’ an amplifier

with a precisely determined voltage gain. As long as the open-loop gain is
much larger than the closed-loop gain (e.g. a hundred times greater) then the
closed-loop gain is independent of the amplifier characteristics and dependent
only on the feedback network  . The feedback network usually depends upon
just a handful of passive elements, such as resistors and capacitors. These
elements are the most stable components in electronics; their values can be
precisely specified to very high levels of accuracy (better than 0.1% for
resistors, and 1% for capacitors), and their value does not vary greatly with
environmental changes such as temperature and aging. Negative feedback
extends these attributes of accuracy and stability to the gain of the entire
amplifier.
Later, we will also see that negative feedback increases the frequency of
signals that we can apply to the amplifier, reduces nonlinear distortion,
increases input resistance and decreases output resistance. The price for these
benefits is a reduction in the amplifier gain – a trade-off that is well worth
making.

1.68
1.18 The Noninverting Amplifier

We seek a circuit implementation of the amplifier with negative feedback
presented in Figure 1.45. We have already seen that an op-amp amplifies the
difference between its two input voltages. Thus, an op-amp implements the
subtracter and the amplifier in one device:
An op-amp
implements the
subtracter and the amplifier
amplifier in one
device vi vo vi
A OL vo
vf
vf
Figure 1.46
The feedback network can consist of any combination of passive or active

elements. The simplest feedback network provides attenuation, using a
resistive voltage divider:
A simple feedback
network that
provides a fixed
attenuation
vf R2 vo
vf vo
 R1
feedback
network
Figure 1.47
Note that for this circuit the input is on the right and the output is on the left, as
we are providing a feedback path from the output of the op-amp, and back to its
inverting input terminal.
Index The Noninverting Amplifier PMcL

1.69
The fixed fraction,  , of the output which is fed back to the input is given by
the voltage divider rule:
vf R1
  (1.56)
vo R1  R2
Thus, a circuit that implements the amplifier with negative feedback is:
The noninverting
amplifier
vi
vo
R2
R1
Figure 1.48
To reiterate, the closed-loop gain of this amplifier is:
vo AOL
 ACL  (1.57)
vi 1  AOL 
and if we have AOL   1, then the closed-loop gain is approximately:
1 R2
ACL  1 (1.58)
 R1
PMcL The Noninverting Amplifier Index

1.70
EXAMPLE 1.21 A Real Noninverting Amplifier
An op-amp with an open-loop gain of 100 000 is connected in a noninverting

amplifier configuration to give a nominal gain of 10, as shown below:
vi
A OL vo
R2
R1 9 k
1 k
A OL = 100 000
The feedback factor is:
R1 1k 1
  
R1  R2 1k  9k 10
Therefore the closed-loop gain is:
AOL 10 5 10 5
ACL     9.9990  10
1  AOL  1  10 5  10 1 10001
If the op-amp open-loop gain is changed to 200 000 (e.g. a different op-amp is
used) then the closed-loop gain changes to:
AOL 2  10 5 2  10 5
ACL     9.9995  10
1  AOL  1  2  10 5  10 1 20001
Thus, the closed-loop gain changes by only 0.005%, even though the open-loop
gain changed by 100%. This is because AOL   1, and therefore, by
Eq. (1.57), ACL  1   10 . Thus, so long as AOL   1 is satisfied, the closed-

loop amplifier maintains a nominal gain of 10 to a very high accuracy.

1.71
1.18.1 The Noninverting Amplifier with an Ideal Op-Amp
Assuming an ideal op-amp with infinite open-loop gain ( AOL   ), then the
overall closed-loop gain of the amplifier is given by Eq. (1.57):
AOL
ACL 
1  AOL 
1

1 AOL  
1

1
1

 (1.59)
Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:
The gain of an ideal

R
ACL  1  2 (noninverting) (1.60)
noninverting
amplifier
R1
Thus, the approximation for the closed-loop gain that we used for a real op-
amp, ACL  1  , now turns into an exact equation, ACL  1  . Thus, we will
find it expedient to analyse op-amp circuits by assuming that ideal op-amps are
used, with an understanding that the real circuits will differ in performance by
only a tiny amount.
A key point to note in this formula is that the ratio of the resistors determines
the gain. In practice this means that a range of actual R1 and R2 values can be
used, so long as they provide the same ratio.
The amplifier in this configuration provides a gain which is always greater than
or equal to 1. The output is also “in phase” with the input, since the gain is
positive. Hence, this configuration is referred to as a noninverting amplifier.

1.72
The closed-loop gain of the amplifier can also be derived using circuit analysis
and the concept of the virtual short-circuit. For such a simple circuit, the results
of the analysis can be written directly on the circuit diagram:
Analysis steps for
the ideal
noninverting
amplifier vi R
1 0V v o = (1+ R 2 ) v i
1
4 7
0A
5 R2
2 vi
vi vi
3 R1 vi
R1 R2 R
1
6
R1
Figure 1.49
The analysis steps are:
1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that since there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp, then it is producing a finite output
voltage (i.e., the overall amplifier is “working”). Thus, the ideal op-amp
must have a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. We label the
voltage across the input terminals as 0 V.
2. Since there is no difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at
the inverting terminal is v  vi .
3. The current through resistor R1 is given by Ohm’s Law, i1  vi R1 .
4. Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A.

1.73
5. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives i2  i1  vi R1 .
6. The voltage drop across the resistor R2 is given by Ohm’s Law,

vi
v R2  R2 i2  R2 , with the polarity shown.
R1
7. KVL, from the common, across R1 , across R2 and to the output terminal
v i  R2 
gives vo  vi  R2  1  vi .
R1  R1 
Once again, we see that the overall closed-loop gain is given by 1  R2 R1 .
1.18.2 Input Resistance of the Noninverting Amplifier
The input voltage in a noninverting amplifier is connected directly to the

The input resistance
noninverting terminal of the op-amp, which is effectively an open-circuit as far of the ideal
noninverting
as current is concerned. Thus, the “input resistance” of the circuit is ideally amplifier is infinite
infinite. This is an important property of the noninverting amplifier that is used
in a variety of situations.
1.18.3 Equivalent Circuit of the Noninverting Amplifier
The equivalent circuit of the noninverting amplifier is:

Equivalent circuit of
the ideal
noninverting
amplifier
vi vo
Kv i
R2
K = 1+ R
1
Figure 1.50
In our analysis of op-amp circuits from now on, we will assume ideal op-amps
and make frequent use of the virtual short-circuit concept.

1.74
EXAMPLE 1.22 Design of a Noninverting Amplifier
It is required to design an amplifier with a gain of 5 V/V that presents an

almost infinite input resistance to any attached voltage source.
In this case, we decide to choose feedback resistors in the kΩ range:
4 k
1 k
vo
vi
Notice that we have decided to draw the inverting terminal of the op-amp at the
top, and the feedback resistors pass over the top of the op-amp. The circuit is
still the same as before. Either representation can be used, and will depend on
such factors as space or clarity in the circuit schematic.
When we attach any type of source to the input of this circuit, no current will
be drawn. For example:
4 k
1 k
50  i=0A v o = 10 V
0V vi = 2 V
vs = 2 V
Source
We have therefore met the design specifications.

1.75
EXAMPLE 1.23 The Buffer
An ideal op-amp is connected in a noninverting amplifier configuration as

shown below:
vo
vi
We identify R1   and R2  0 . Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:
R2 0
ACL  1   1  1
R1 
Thus, the circuit provides a “gain” of 1, and is called a buffer or a follower.
You can also see that a buffer can be created by:
R1
vo
vi
or by:
R2
vo
vi
Both of these circuits will operate as buffers, but the circuit presented first uses
one less component.

1.76
1.18.4 The Buffer
You may wonder “What is the point of a buffer if it only provides a gain of 1?”
The buffer is used to
“couple” one circuit The answer lies in the other properties of the circuit – its infinite input
to another
resistance and zero output resistance.
EXAMPLE 1.24 Buffering a Source

A certain function generator has an “output resistance” of 50  and so its
output will experience a significant internal Ri voltage drop when the attached
load draws a “large” current, resulting in a drop in the output terminal voltage:
50  i = 20 mA
1V
vs = 5 V vo = 4 V 200 
Function Generator Load
Therefore, we need to “buffer” the function generator with an amplifier which

presents a high input resistance to the source and which also provides a low
output resistance to the load:
Rs Ro
vs vi Ri Avi vo RL
Source Amplifier Load

An ideal buffer amplifier with a gain of 1, when placed in between the function
generator and the load, delivers the full source voltage to the load:
50  i = 25 mA
i=0
vs = 5 V vi = 5 V vo = 5 V 200 

1.77
1.19 The Inverting Amplifier

An inverting amplifier is created by swapping the input and common
connections of the noninverting amplifier. The result is:
The inverting
amplifier
R2
R1
vi
vo
Figure 1.51
We will analyse this circuit using the concept of the virtual short-circuit. This
can be done on the circuit schematic:
Analysis steps for
the ideal inverting
amplifier
6
vi
5 R2
vi R1
R1 R2
3
vi 2 4
R1 R1 0V 0A
vi
1 0V
vo = - R2 vi
R1
7
Figure 1.52
PMcL The Inverting Amplifier Index

1.78
1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that since there is a negative
feedback path around the op-amp, then it is producing a finite output
voltage (i.e., the overall amplifier is “working”). Thus, the ideal op-amp
must have a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. We label the
voltage across the input terminals as 0 V.
2. Since there is no difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at
the inverting terminal is v  0 .
3. The current through resistor R1 is given by Ohm’s Law, i1  vi R1 .
the inverting terminal is 0 A.
5. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives i2  i1  vi R1 .
vi
R1
7. KVL, from the common, across the VSC, across R2 and to the output
vi R
terminal gives vo  0  R2   2 vi .
R1 R1
Thus, the overall closed-loop gain is:
The gain of an ideal

R2
inverting amplifier
ACL   (inverting) (1.61)
R1
The negative sign indicates that there is an inversion of the signal (i.e. a 180
phase change), so that a waveform will appear amplified, but “upside down”.
Index The Inverting Amplifier PMcL

1.79
1.19.1 Input Resistance of the Inverting Amplifier
The input resistance of the inverting amplifier (i.e. the resistance “seen” by the
input voltage source), is, by the definition of input resistance:

v
Rin  vi ii  vi i1  i  R1 (1.62)
of the ideal inverting
amplifier is finite
vi R1
Thus, the “input resistance” of the circuit is equal to R1 . This is a disadvantage

compared to the noninverting amplifier, and careful use of the inverting
amplifier is required.
1.19.2 Equivalent Circuit of the Inverting Amplifier
An equivalent circuit of the inverting amplifier is:

Equivalent circuit of
the ideal inverting
amplifier
vi vo
R1 Kv i
R2
K= - R
1
Figure 1.53
One advantage of the inverting amplifier over the noninverting amplifier is that
you can achieve gain magnitudes less than one, i.e. build circuits that can
attenuate, as well as amplify.
The inverting amplifier is also the basis for many other useful circuits that we
will encounter later, such as the summer, integrator and differentiator.
PMcL The Inverting Amplifier Index

1.80
EXAMPLE 1.25 Design of an Inverting Amplifier
It is required to design an amplifier with a gain of -5 V/V. In this case, we

decide to choose feedback resistors in the kΩ range:
5 k
1 k
vi
vo
Suppose we now attach a source, which has an internal resistance of 1 kΩ, to

this amplifier:
5 k
1 k i = 1 mA 1 k
1V
0V
v o = -5 V
vi = 1 V
vs = 2 V
Source
We see that the 1 kΩ input resistance of the inverting amplifier has caused the
source to deliver current, and therefore there is a significant voltage drop
across its internal resistance. A better design to suit this particular source
would use resistors in the 100’s of kΩ:
500 k
1 k i  20  A 100 k
0V
v o  -9.901 V
vi  1.980 V
20 mV
vs = 2 V
Source
Now there is less than 1% error in the gain that it provides to the source.
Index The Inverting Amplifier PMcL

1.81
1.20 Summary
 Current is defined as the rate of flow of charge past a certain cross-
sectional area:
dq
i
dt
 Voltage is defined as the work done per unit charge in moving it from one
point to another in a circuit.
 A circuit element is an idealised mathematical model of a two-terminal

electrical device that is completely characterised by its voltage-current
relationship. Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power
indefinitely, whilst passive circuit elements cannot. A connection of circuit
elements is called a network. If the network contains at least one closed
path, it is also an electrical circuit.
 Independent sources are ideal circuit elements that possess a voltage or

current value that is independent of the behaviour of the circuits to which
they belong. There are two types, voltage and current:
vs ( t ) is ( t )
voltage current
source source
PMcL Summary Index

1.82
 The resistor is a linear passive circuit element that obeys Ohm’s Law:
v  Ri
A resistance of 0  is known as a short-circuit.
A resistance of   is known as an open-circuit.
The reciprocal of resistance is called the conductance:
1
G
R
 Practical resistors come in a large variety of shapes, materials and
construction which dictate several of their properties, such as accuracy,
stability, pulse handling capability, resistor value, size and cost.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) states: “At any node of a circuit, the
currents algebraically sum to zero”:
i
k 1
k 0
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) states: “Around any loop in a circuit, the
voltages algebraically sum to zero”:
v
k 1
k 0
Index Summary PMcL

1.83
 Resistors in series can be combined into one equivalent resistor:
Req  R1  R2    RN
 Resistors in parallel can be combined into one equivalent resistor:
1 1 1 1
  
Req R1 R2 RN
 Independent voltage sources in series can be added. Independent current

sources in parallel can be added.
 Two resistors in series form a voltage divider:
i R1
v1
arbitrary
circuit v R2 v2
R2
v2  v
The voltage divider rule is:
R1  R2
 Two resistors in parallel form a current divider:
i
i1 i2
arbitrary
v
circuit R1 R2
R1
i2  i
The current divider rule is:
R1  R2
PMcL Summary Index

1.84
 An ideal source, either voltage or current, whose value depends upon some
parameter (usually a voltage or current) in the circuit to which the source
belongs is known as a dependent or controlled source. There are four types:
Kvx rm i x Ki x gm vx
VCVS CCVS CCCS VCCS
 The instantaneous power absorbed by an electrical circuit element is the

product of voltage and current:
p  vi
The power absorbed in a resistor is:
v2
p  Ri  2
R
 A linear amplifier is a device that increases the amplitude of a signal (a
voltage or a current) whilst preserving waveform shape. The most common
is a voltage amplifier:
vi K vo =Kvi
input output
The gain of a voltage amplifier is expressed in either V/V or in dB:
vo vo
K V/V or
K  20 log10 dB
vi vi
Index Summary PMcL

1.85
 The operational amplifier (op-amp) is an integrated circuit amplifier

consisting of dozens of transistors. An op-amp amplifies the voltage
difference between its two input terminals, and produces a single-ended
output voltage. It is the “building block” for a vast array of useful
electronic circuits.
noninverting input v
vo output
inverting input v
The op-amp is always operated with a negative feedback network.
The characteristics of the ideal op-amp are:
Parameter Symbol Ideal Value
Open-loop voltage gain AOL ∞ V/V
Input resistance Rin ∞Ω
Output resistance Rout 0Ω
If an ideal op-amp has negative feedback, then a virtual short-circuit

appears across its input terminals. This is the key to analysing and
designing op-amp circuits.
 Negative feedback is a universal concept that arises in fields as diverse as

biology, mechanics and electronics. If a proportion of the output of a device
is fed back to the input and subtracted (so-called negative feedback), then
the device will exhibit certain desirable overall qualities, such as accuracy
and stability. In particular, the gain of an electronic amplifier with an open-
loop gain of AOL and a feedback factor of  will have a closed-loop gain
given by:
AOL
ACL 
1  AOL 
PMcL Summary Index

1.86
 The noninverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental op-amp

arrangements:
R2
R1
vo
vi
The gain of the noninverting amplifier is:
R2
ACL  1 
R1
An important special case of the noninverting amplifier is the buffer, for

which R1    , R2  0  and therefore ACL  1 .
 The inverting amplifier is one of the most fundamental op-amp

arrangements:
R2
R1
vi
vo
The gain of the inverting amplifier is:
R2
ACL  
R1
1.21 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., McGraw-
Hill, 1984.
Index References PMcL

1.87
Exercises
1.
A large number of electrons are moving through a conductor:
electron flow conductor
The number varies with time t seconds.
(a) What is the direction of current?
(b) If the total charge to pass a certain point on the conductor varies according
to the equation:

qt   3 1  e100t  mC
then find the current in amperes as a function of time.
(c) When will the current be 200 mA?
(d) If the conductor has a uniform diameter of 1 mm throughout its length,

find the current density as a function of time (express as A/mm 2 ).
(e) Sketch charge and current as functions of time.
(f) How many electrons are moving through the conductor at time
t = 50 ms?
PMcL Exercises Index

1.88
2.
The total charge that has entered the upper terminal of the element below is
given by 5 sin 1000t μC .
(a) How much charge enters that terminal between t  0.5 ms and
t  0.5 ms ?
(b) How much charge leaves the lower terminal in the same time interval?
(c) Find i at t  0.2 ms .
3.
For the current waveform shown below:
i( t ) (A)
300
200
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
t (s)
-100
-200
-300
-400
determine the total charge transferred between t  0 and t  :
(a) 4 s (b) 7 s
Index Exercises PMcL

1.89
4.
The charging current supplied to a 12 V automotive battery enters its positive
terminal. It is given as a function of time by:
0 t0
  t 10000
i  4e A 0  t  15000 s
0 t  15000 s

(a) What is the total charge delivered to the battery in the 15000 s charging
interval?
(b) What is the maximum power absorbed by the battery?
(c) What is the total energy supplied?
(d) What is the average power delivered in the 15000 s interval?
5.
The voltage v has its positive reference at terminal A of a certain circuit
element. The power absorbed by the circuit element is 4t  1 W for t  0 .
2
If v  2t  2 V for t  0 , how much charge enters terminal A between t  0

and t  2 s ?
6.
The resistance of 10 mm2 copper wire is 1.725 Ω/km, and, with a certain type
of insulation, it can safely carry 70 A without overheating. With a one
kilometre length of wire operating at maximum current:
(a) What voltage exists between the ends of the wire?
(b) How much power is dissipated in the conductor?
(c) What is the power dissipation per square mm of surface area?

1.90
7.
For the circuit shown below:
20 V
10  2 A 2 i
60 V 3A v Load
find:
(a) v (b) i (c) the power absorbed by the load.
8.
With reference to the network shown below:
A
8V 6A
5V B 3A vx
ix
find:
(a) i x (b) v x (c) the power absorbed by the battery.

1.91
9.
Find the power supplied by the 3 V source in the circuit below:
20i 1
5
3V 10 
13 V
6 i1
10.
Find the power absorbed by each element in the circuit below:
-50 V
i
vx = -6 i 0.2vx
10 

1.92
11.
iy
ix
30 mA v30 1 k 10 mA 2ix
(a) Find v30 , i x , and i y .
(b) Change the control on the dependent source from 2i x to 2i y and then find
v30 , i x , and i y .
12.
i
v
v 2 2 2 10 A
(a) Find v , i , and the power delivered by the independent source.
(b) Repeat if the arrow of the dependent source is reversed.

1.93
13.
Find Req for each of the networks shown below:
(a)
4
10  6 2
20  1
R eq
5
3
(b)
8
2 7
R eq
3

1.94
14.
By combining independent sources and resistances as appropriate, find:
(a) The current i in the circuit below.
30 V
8
10  20 V
2 i
(b) The voltage v in the circuit below.
30 mA v 1 k 10 mA 250 
15.
Use the concepts of current division, voltage division, and resistance
combination to write expressions (by inspection) for v3 and i1 in the circuit
shown below:
R2
i1
is R1 R3 v3

1.95
16.
Determine the necessary values of v and i in the circuit shown below:
3 v
1 1A
5 4
2
17.
The circuit shown below exhibits several examples of independent current and
voltage sources in series and in parallel.
12 V -3 A
3V
2A -5 V 4A
4V
(a) Find the power supplied by the -5 V source.
(b) To what value should the 4 A source be changed to reduce the power
supplied by the -5 V source to zero?

1.96
18.
For the ideal op-amp circuit below:
i 2 10 k
i 1 1 k
vi v1 io
vo
1V iL
1 k
Determine the values of:
(a) v1 , i1 , i 2 , v o , i L and io (b) the voltage gain vo vi
(c) the current gain i L ii (d) the power gain PL Pi
19.
Given the ideal op-amp circuit below:
R2
R1
vi
vo
R3
(a) Find the voltage gain vo vi .
(b) Find the resistance “seen” by the voltage source v i .
(c) How do the results of (a) and (b) differ from the case when R3    ?
Why?

1.97
20.
Consider the ideal op-amp circuit below:
R1
R1
vi R2
R2 100 
Choose values for resistors R1 and R2 such that the 100  resistor absorbs
10 mW when vi  4 V .
21.
R
vo
ii
(a) Find the ratio vo ii .
(b) Find the resistance “seen” by the current source ii .

1.98
22.
R1 R3
R2
i3
vo
ii
(c) Find the current gain i3 ii .
23.
Given the ideal op-amp circuit below:
vo
ii Ri i2
R2
R1
(c) Find the current gain i2 ii .

2.1
2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 2.2

2.1 Nodal Analysis .......................................................................................... 2.3
2.1.1 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only .. 2.6
2.1.2 Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps ........................... 2.9
2.1.3 Circuits with Voltage Sources .................................................... 2.12
2.1.5 Summary of Nodal Analysis ....................................................... 2.17
2.2 Mesh Analysis ......................................................................................... 2.20
2.2.1 Planar Circuits ............................................................................ 2.20
2.2.2 Paths, Loops and Meshes ............................................................ 2.21
2.2.3 Mesh Current .............................................................................. 2.22
2.2.4 Mesh Analysis Methodology ...................................................... 2.23
2.2.5 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only 2.24
2.2.6 Circuits with Current Sources ..................................................... 2.26
2.2.8 Summary of Mesh Analysis ....................................................... 2.30
2.3 Summary.................................................................................................. 2.31
2.4 References ............................................................................................... 2.31
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 2.32
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) .......................................................... 2.35
PMcL Contents Index
2015 2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis

2.2
Introduction
After becoming familiar with Ohm’s Law and Kirchhoff’s Laws and their
application in the analysis of simple series and parallel resistive circuits, we
must begin to analyse more complicated and practical circuits.
Physical systems that we want to analyse and design include electronic control
circuits, communication systems, energy converters such as motors and
generators, power distribution systems, mobile devices and embedded systems.
We will also be confronted with allied problems involving heat flow, fluid
flow, and the behaviour of various mechanical systems.
To cope with large and complex circuits, we need powerful and general
methods of circuit analysis. Nodal analysis is a method which can be applied to
any circuit, and mesh analysis is a method that can be applied to any planar
circuit (i.e. to circuits that are able to be laid out on a 2D surface without
crossing elements). Both of these methods are widely used in hand design and
computer simulation. A third technique, known as loop analysis, generalises
mesh analysis and can be applied to any circuit – it is effectively the “dual” of
nodal analysis.
We will find that the judicious selection of an analysis technique can lead to a
drastic reduction in the number of equations to solve, and we should therefore
try to develop an ability to select the most convenient analysis method for a
particular circuit.
Index Introduction PMcL
2 - Nodal and Mesh Analysis 2015

2.3
2.1 Nodal Analysis

In general terms, nodal analysis for a circuit with N nodes proceeds as follows:
1. Select one node as the reference node, or common (all nodal voltages
are defined with respect to this node in a positive sense).
The general
principle of nodal
2. Assign a voltage to each of the remaining N  1 nodes. analysis
3. Write KCL at each node, in terms of the nodal voltages.
4. Solve the resulting set of simultaneous equations.
As will be seen, the method outlined above becomes a little complicated if the
circuit contains voltage sources and / or controlled sources, but the principle
remains the same.
EXAMPLE 2.1 Nodal Analysis with Independent Sources
We apply nodal analysis to the following 3-node circuit:
5
3A 2 1 -2 A
Following the steps above, we assign a reference node and then assign nodal
voltages:
v1 5 v2
3A 2 1 -2 A
PMcL Nodal Analysis Index

2.4
We chose the bottom node as the reference node, but either of the other two
nodes could have been selected. A little simplification in the resultant
equations is obtained if the node to which the greatest number of branches is
connected is identified as the reference node.
In many practical circuits the reference node is one end of a power supply
which is generally connected to a metallic case or chassis in which the circuit
resides; the chassis is often connected through a good conductor to the Earth.
Thus, the metallic case may be called “ground”, or “earth”, and this node
becomes the most convenient reference node.
The distinction
To avoid confusion, the reference node will be called the “common” unless it
between “common” has been specifically connected to the Earth (such as the outside conductor on a
and “earth”
digital storage oscilloscope, function generator, etc).
Note that the voltage across any branch in a circuit may be expressed in terms
of nodal voltages. For example, in our circuit the voltage across the 5 
resistor is v1  v2  with the positive polarity reference on the left:
v1 5 v2
(v1 - v2)
We must now apply KCL to nodes 1 and 2. We do this be equating the total
current leaving a node to zero. Thus:
v1 v1  v 2
 3 0
2 5
v 2  v1 v1
   2  0
5 1
Simplifying, the equations can be written:
0.7v1  0.2v2  3
 0.2v1  1.2v2  2
Index Nodal Analysis PMcL

2.5
Rewriting in matrix notation, we have:
 0.7  0.2  v1  3

 0.2 1.2  v   2
  2   
These equations may be solved by a simple process of elimination of variables,

or by Cramer’s rule and determinants. Using the latter method we have:
3  0.2
2 1.2 3.6  0.4 4
v1     5V
0.7  0.2 0.84  0.04 0.8
 0.2 1.2
0.7 3
 0.2 2 1.4  0.6 2
v2     2.5 V
0.8 0.8 0.8
Everything is now known about the circuit – any voltage, current or power in
the circuit may be found in one step. For example, the voltage at node 1 with
respect to node 2 is v1  v2   2.5 V , and the current directed downward
through the 2  resistor is v1 2  2.5 A .

2.6
2.1.1 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Current Sources Only
A further example will reveal some interesting mathematical features of nodal

analysis, at least for the case of circuits containing only resistors and
independent current sources. We will find it is much easier to consider
conductance, G, rather than resistance, R, in the formulation of the equations.
EXAMPLE 2.2 Nodal Analysis with Independent Sources Only
A circuit is shown below with a convenient reference node and nodal voltages
specified.
1/4 
-3 A
v1 1/3  v2 1/2  v3
-8 A 1 1/5  25 A
We sum the currents leaving node 1:
3v1  v2   4v1  v3    8   3  0
7v1  3v2  4v3  11
At node 2:
3v2  v1   1v2  2v2  v3   3  0

 3v1  6v2  2v3  3
At node 3:
4v3  v1   2v3  v2   5v3  25  0

 4v1  2v2  11v3  25

2.7
Rewriting in matrix notation, we have:
 7  3  4  v1   11
  3 6  2  v    3 
  2   
 4  2 11  v3   25 
For circuits that contain only resistors and independent current sources, we
define the conductance matrix of the circuit as:
 7  3  4
G    3 6  2
 4  2 11 
It should be noted that the nine elements of the matrix are the ordered array of The conductance
matrix defined
the coefficients of the KCL equations, each of which is a conductance value.
Thr first row is composed of the coefficients of the Kirchhoff current law
equation at the first node, the coefficients being given in the order of v1 , v 2
and v3 . The second row applies to the second node, and so on.
The major diagonal (upper left to lower right) has elements that are positive.
The conductance matrix is symmetrical about the major diagonal, and all
elements not on this diagonal are negative. This is a general consequence of the
systematic way in which we ordered the equations, and in circuits consisting of
only resistors and independent current sources it provides a check against
errors committed in writing the circuit equations.
We also define the voltage and current source vectors as:
 v1   11
v  v 2  i   3 
v3   25 

2.8
Our KCL equations can therefore be written succinctly in matrix notation as:
Nodal analysis
expressed in matrix Gv  i
notation
The solution of the matrix equation is just:
v  G 1i
Computer programs that do nodal analysis use sophisticated numerical

methods to efficiently invert the G matrix and solve for v . When solving the
equations by hand we resort to matrix reduction techniques, or use Cramer’s
rule (up to 3 x 3). Thus:
 11  3  4
3 6 2
25  2 11
v1 
7 3 4
3 6 2
 4  2 11
To reduce work, we expand the numerator and denominator determinants by

minors along their first columns to get:
6 2 3 4 3 4
 11 3  25
 2 11  2 11 6 2
v1 
6 2 3 4 3 4
7   3   4
 2 11  2 11 6 2
 1162   3 41  2530   682  123  750
 
762  3 41  430  434  123  120
191
 1 V
191
Similarly:
7  11  4 7  3  11
3 3 2 3 6 3
 4 25 11  4  2 25
v2  2 V v3  3 V
191 191

2.9
2.1.2 Nodal Analysis Using Branch Element Stamps
The previous example shows that nodal analysis leads to the equation Gv  i .
We will now develop a method whereby the equation Gv  i can be built up
on an element-by-element basis by inspection of each branch in the circuit.
Consider a resistive element connected between nodes i and j:
vi G vj vi G vj
(vi - vj ) (vj - vi )
(a) (b)
Figure 2.1
Suppose that we are writing the ith KCL equation because we are considering
the current leaving node i (see Figure 2.1a). The term that we would write in
this equation to take into account the branch connecting nodes i and j is:
  Gvi  v j     0 (2.1)
This term appears in the ith row when writing out the matrix equation.
If we are dealing with the jth KCL equation because we are considering the
current leaving node j (see Figure 2.1b) then the term that we would write in
this equation to take into account the branch connecting nodes j and i is:
  Gv j  vi     0 (2.2)
This term appears in the jth row when writing out the matrix equation.

2.10
Thus, the branch between nodes i and j contributes the following element
stamp to the conductance matrix, G :
i j
The element stamp
for a conductance i  G  G (2.3)

j  G G 
If node i or node j is the reference node, then the corresponding row and
column are eliminated from the element stamp shown above.
For any circuit containing only resistors and independent current sources, the
conductance matrix can now be built up by inspection. The result will be a G
matrix where each diagonal element g ii is the sum of conductances connected
to node i, and each off-diagonal element g ij is the total conductance between
nodes i and j but with a negative sign.
Now consider a current source connected between nodes i and j:
I
vi vj
Figure 2.2
In writing out the ith KCL equation we would introduce the term:
 I    0 (2.4)
In writing out the jth KCL equation we would introduce the term:
 I    0 (2.5)

2.11
Thus, a current source contributes to the right-hand side (rhs) of the matrix
equation the terms:
i I  The element stamp

 
j I 
(2.6) for an independent
current source
Thus, the i vector can also be built up by inspection – each row is the addition
of all current sources entering a particular node. This makes sense since
Gv  i is the mathematical expression for KCL in the form of “current leaving
a node = current entering a node”.
EXAMPLE 2.3 Nodal Analysis Using the “Formal” Approach
We will analyse the previous circuit but use the “formal” approach to nodal
analysis.
1/4 
-3 A
v1 1/3  v2 1/2  v3
-8 A 1 1/5  25 A
By inspection of each branch, we build the matrix equation:
1 2 3
1 3 
4 3  4   v1   8   3

2 3 1 3  2  2  v 2      3 

3
 4 2 5  4  2 v3   25 
This is the same equation as derived previously.

2.12
2.1.3 Circuits with Voltage Sources
Voltage sources present a problem in undertaking nodal analysis, since by

definition the voltage across a voltage source is independent of the current
through it. Thus, when we consider a branch with a voltage source when
writing a nodal equation, there is no way by which we can express the current
through the branch as a function of the nodal voltages across the branch.
There are two ways around this problem. The more difficult is to assign an
unknown current to each branch with a voltage source, proceed to apply KCL
at each node, and then apply KVL across each branch with a voltage source.
The result is a set of equations with an increased number of unknown variables.
The easier method is to introduce the concept of a supernode. A supernode

The concept of a
supernode encapsulates the voltage source, and we apply KCL to both end nodes at the
same time. The result is that the number of nodes at which we must apply KCL
is reduced by the number of voltage sources in the circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.4 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Consider the circuit shown below, which is the same as the previous circuit
except the 1 2  resistor between nodes 2 and 3 has been replaced by a 22 V
voltage source:
1/4 
-3 A
supernode
22 V
v1 1/3  v2 v3
-8 A 1 1/5  25 A

2.13
KCL at node 1 remains unchanged:
3v1  v2   4v1  v3    8   3  0
7v1  3v2  4v3  11
We find six branches connected to the supernode around the 22 V source

(suggested by a broken line in the figure). Beginning with the 1 3  resistor
branch and working clockwise, we sum the six currents leaving this supernode:
3v2  v1    3  4v3  v1    25  5v3  1v2  0

 7v1  4v2  9v3  28
We need one additional equation since we have three unknowns, and this is
provided by KVL between nodes 2 and 3 inside the supernode:
v3  v2  22
Rewriting these last three equations in matrix form, we have:
 7  3  4  v1   11
 7 4 9  v 2    28 

 0  1 1  v3   22 
The solution turns out to be v1  4.5 V , v2  15.5 V and v3  6.5 V .
Note the lack of symmetry about the major diagonal in the G matrix as well as
the fact that not all of the off-diagonal elements are negative. This is the result
The presence of a
of the presence of the voltage source. Note also that it does not make sense to dependent source
destroys the
call the G matrix the conductance matrix, for the bottom row comes from the symmetry in the G
matrix
equation  v2  v3  22 , and this equation does not depend on any
conductances in any way.
A supernode can contain any number of independent or dependent voltage

sources. In general, the analysis procedure is the same as the example above –
one KCL equation is written for currents leaving the supernode, and then a
KVL equation is written for each voltage source inside the supernode.

2.14
2.1.4 Circuits with Dependent Sources
Dependent current sources are fairly easy to include into nodal analysis – we
just need to express the dependent current in terms of nodal voltages.
Dependent voltages sources are dealt with using the concept of the supernode.
Of the two types of dependent voltage source, the current controlled voltage
source (CCVS) requires the most effort to incorporate into nodal analysis. We
will analyse this case before summarizing the method of nodal analysis for any
resistive circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.5 Nodal Analysis with Dependent Voltage Sources
Consider the circuit shown below, which is the same as the previous circuit
except now the 22 V voltage source has been replaced by a current controlled
voltage source:
1/4 
-3 A ix
supernode
ix / 8
v1 1/3  v2 v3
-8 A 1 1/5  25 A
KCL at node 1 remains unchanged:
3v1  v2   4v1  v3    8   3  0
7v1  3v2  4v3  11

2.15
KCL at the supernode, formed by considering nodes 2 and 3 together, remains

unchanged:
3v2  v1    3  4v3  v1    25  5v3  1v2  0

 7v1  4v2  9v3  28
Finally, we turn our attention to the dependent source. We rewrite the

dependent current in terms of nodal voltages:
i x  4v1  v3 
and then we write KVL for the dependent source as:
i x 4v1  v3 
v3  v 2  
8 8
v1  2v 2  3v3  0
In matrix form we now have:
 7  3  4  v1   11
 7 4 9  v 2    28 

 1 2  3 v3   0 
The nodal voltages turn out to be v1  1.431 V , v2  3.373 V and
v3  2.726 V .
In the previous example, the source dependency ( i x ) was easily expressed
using Ohm’s Law across the 1 4  resistor. In other cases, the dependency
may need to be found using KCL.

2.16
EXAMPLE 2.6 Nodal Analysis with a Dependent Voltage Source
2ix
supernode
v1 1 v2 ix
1/2  1/3  18 A
KCL at the supernode, formed by considering nodes 1 and 2 together, gives:
2v1  1v1  v2   1v2  v1   3v2  18  0

2v1  3v2  18
Note how the 1  resistor contributes nothing to the KCL equation. Next, we
turn our attention to the dependent source inside the supernode. We rewrite the
dependent current in terms of nodal voltages using KCL at node 2:
v 2  v1
 3v 2  i x  0
1
i x  v1  4v 2
and then we write KVL for the dependent source as:
v2  v1  2i x  2v1  4v2 
3v1  9v2  0
2 3   v1  18
 3  9  v    0 
  2   
The nodal voltages turn out to be v1  6 V , v2  2 V .

2.17
2.1.5 Summary of Nodal Analysis
We perform nodal analysis for any resistive circuit with N nodes by the The general
procedure to follow
following method: when undertaking
nodal analysis
1. Make a neat, simple, circuit diagram. Indicate all element and source
values. Each source should have its reference symbol.
2. Select one node as the reference node, or common. Then write the node
voltages v1 , v 2 , …, v N 1 at their respective nodes, remembering that
each node voltage is understood to be measured with respect to the
chosen reference.
3. If the circuit contains dependent sources, express those sources in terms

of the variables v1 , v 2 , …, v N 1 , if they are not already in that form.
4. If the circuit contains voltage sources, temporarily modify the given

circuit by replacing each voltage source by a short-circuit to form
supernodes, thus reducing the number of nodes by one for each voltage
source that is present. The assigned nodal voltages should not be
changed. Relate each supernode’s source voltage to the nodal voltages.
5. Apply KCL at each of the nodes or supernodes. If the circuit has only
resistors and independent current sources, then the equations may be
built using the “element stamp” approach.

2.18
EXAMPLE 2.7 Nodal Analysis with all Four Types of Sources
Consider the circuit shown below, which contains all four types of sources and
has five nodes.
v2
vx 1
1/2 
6A
3V
v4
v1 v3
2vx
1
1/2  4vy
vy
We select the bottom node as the reference and assign v1 to v4 in a clockwise

direction starting from the left node.
We next relate the controlled sources to the nodal voltages:
2vx  2v2  v1 
4v y  4v1
We form supernodes around the two voltage sources, and write relations for
them in terms of the nodal voltages:
v4  v1  3
v3  4v y  4v1
Thanks to the supernodes, we see that we only need to write KCL equations at
node 2 and the supernode containing both nodes 1 and 4. At node 2:
2v2  v1   6  1v2  v3   0
 2v1  3v2  v3  6

2.19
while at the supernode:
2v1  v 2   6  2v 2  v1   2v 4  1v1  0

 
2v x
v1  2v 4  6
Thus, we obtain four equations in the four node voltages:
1 0 01  v1   3 
4
 0 1 0 v 2   0 

 2 3  1 0 v3   6 
    
1 0 0 2  v 4    6 
The solution is:
v1  4 V
v 2  14 3 V
v3  16 V
v 4  1 V
The technique of nodal analysis described here is completely general and can
always be applied to any electrical circuit.

2.20
2.2 Mesh Analysis

Before we embark on mesh analysis, we need to define the concept of: a planar
circuit, a path through a circuit, a loop and a mesh. We can then outline the
analysis strategy using these terms.
2.2.1 Planar Circuits
A planar circuit is one where it is possible to draw the circuit on a plane

Planar circuits
defined surface in such a way that no branch passes over or under any other branch.
(a) (b) (c)
Figure 2.3
In the figure above, circuit (a) is planar, circuit (b) is nonplanar and circuit (c)
is planar, but drawn so that it appears nonplanar.
Index Mesh Analysis PMcL

2.21
2.2.2 Paths, Loops and Meshes
A path is made through a circuit when we start on one node and traverse
elements and nodes without encountering any nodes previously visited. A loop
is any closed path – i.e. the last node visited is the same as the starting node. A
mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it. A mesh is a
property of a planar circuit and is not defined for a nonplanar circuit.
Examples of loops
and meshes
(a) (b) (c)
(d) (e) (f)
Figure 2.4
In the figure above, the set of branches in (a) identified by the heavy lines is
neither a path nor a loop. In (b) the set of branches is not a path since it can be
traversed only by passing through the central node twice. In (c) the closed path
is a loop but not a mesh. In (d) the closed path is also a loop but not a mesh. In
(e) and (f) each of the closed paths is both a loop and a mesh. This circuit
contains four meshes.
PMcL Mesh Analysis Index

2.22
2.2.3 Mesh Current
We define a mesh current1 as a “mathematical” (or imaginary) current in which

charge flows only around the perimeter of a mesh. A mesh current is indicated
by a curved arrow that almost closes on itself and is drawn inside the
appropriate mesh.
Mesh currents
defined
i1 i2
Figure 2.5
Although the direction of mesh currents is arbitrary, we draw the mesh currents
in a clockwise direction so that a symmetry in the equations results when
performing mesh analysis. One of the great advantages of mesh currents is that
KCL is automatically satisfied, and no branch can appear in more than two
meshes.
We no longer have a current or current arrow shown on each branch in the

Branch currents can
be expressed in circuit. The current through any branch may be determined by superimposing
terms of mesh
currents each mesh current that exists in it. For example, the branch current heading
down in the middle resistor in the circuit above is given by i1  i2  .
1
It was the famous Scottish mathematical physicist James Clark Maxwell who invented the
concept of a mesh current, and the associated methodology of formulating the “mesh
equations”. The analysis of planar circuits using mesh currents was thus reduced to solving a
set of linear equations, in the same manner as nodal analysis.

2.23
2.2.4 Mesh Analysis Methodology
In general terms, mesh analysis for a planar circuit with M meshes proceeds as
follows:
1. Assign a clockwise mesh current in each of the M meshes. The general

principle of mesh
analysis
2. Write KVL around each mesh, in terms of the mesh currents.
As will be seen, the method outlined above becomes a little complicated if the
circuit contains current sources and / or controlled sources, but the principle
remains the same.
EXAMPLE 2.8 Mesh Analysis with Independent Sources
A two-mesh circuit is shown below.
6 4
42 V i1 3 i2 10 V
We apply KVL to each mesh. For the left-hand mesh:
42  6i1  3i1  i2   0
9i1  3i2  42
For the right-hand mesh:
 3i2  i1   4i2  10  0
 3i1  7i2  10
The solution is obtained by solving simultaneously: i1  6 A and i2  4 A .

2.24
2.2.5 Circuits with Resistors and Independent Voltage Sources Only
When the circuit contains only resistors and voltages sources, the KVL
equations have a certain symmetrical form and we can define a resistance
matrix with the circuit. We will find again that the matrix equation can be
formulated by inspection of the circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.9 Mesh Analysis with Independent Sources Only
Consider the five-node, three-mesh circuit shown below.
1
i2 2
i1 3
7V
6V
i3 1
2
The three required mesh currents are assigned as indicated, and we

methodically apply KVL about each mesh:
7  1i1  i2   6  2i1  i3   0
 1i2  i1   2i2  3i2  i3   0
 2i3  i1   6  3i3  i2   1i3  0
Simplifying and writing as a matrix equation:
 3  1  2  i1  1
  1 6  3 i   0
  2   
 2  3 6  i3  6

2.25
For circuits that contain only resistors and independent voltage sources, we
The resistance
define the resistance matrix of the circuit as: matrix defined
 3  1  2
R    1 6  3
 2  3 6 
Once again we note the symmetry about the major diagonal. This occurs only
for circuits with resistors and independent voltage sources when we order the
equations correctly (rows correspond to meshes).
We also define the current and voltage source vectors as:
 i1  1
i  i2  v  0
i3  6
Our KVL equations can therefore be written succinctly in matrix notation as:
Mesh analysis
Ri  v expressed in matrix
notation
Applying Cramer’s rule to the formulation for i1 gives:
1 1  2
0 6 3
6 3 6 27  0  90 117
i1     3A
3 1  2 81  12  30 39
1 6  3
2 3 6
The other mesh currents are: i2  2 A and i3  3 A .

2.26
2.2.6 Circuits with Current Sources
When a mesh has a current source in it, we must modify the procedure for
forming the circuit equations. There are two possible methods. In the first
method, we can relate the source current to the assigned mesh currents, assign
an arbitrary voltage across it (thereby increasing the number of variables by
one) and write KVL equations using this voltage. Alternately, a better method
is to take a lead from nodal analysis and formulate the dual of a supernode - a
supermesh.
The concept of a To create a supermesh, we open-circuit or remove current sources, thereby

supermesh
reducing the total number of meshes. We apply KVL only to those meshes in
the modified circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.10 Mesh Analysis with Current Sources
Consider the circuit shown below in which a 7 A independent current source is

in the common boundary of two meshes.
1
i2 2
i1 3
7V
7A
i3 1
2
For the independent current source, we relate the source current to the mesh
currents:
i1  i3  7

2.27
We then mentally open-circuit the current source, and form a supermesh whose
interior is that of meshes 1 and 3:
i2 2
1
i1 3
7V
i3 1
supermesh 2
Applying KVL about the supermesh:
7  1i1  i2   3i3  i2   1i3  0
Around mesh 2 we have:
 1i2  i1   2i2  3i2  i3   0
Rewriting these last three equations in matrix form, we have:
1 0  1  i1  7
 1  4 4  i   7
  2   
 1 6  3 i3  0
Notice that we have lost all symmetry in the matrix equation Ri  v , and we
can no longer call R the resistance matrix. Applying Cramer’s rule for i1 :
7 0 1
7 4 4
0 6 3  84  42  126
i1    9A
1 0 1  12  2  14
1 4 4
1 6  3
The other mesh currents are: i2  2.5 A and i3  2 A .

2.28
2.2.7 Circuits with Dependent Sources
Dependent voltage sources are fairly easy to include into mesh analysis – we
just need to express the dependent voltage in terms of mesh currents.
Dependent current sources are dealt with using the concept of the supermesh.
Of the two types of dependent current source, the voltage controlled current
source (VCCS) requires the most effort to incorporate into mesh analysis. We
will analyse this case before summarizing the method of mesh analysis for any
resistive circuit.
EXAMPLE 2.11 Mesh Analysis with Dependent Current Sources
In the circuit shown below we have both a dependent and an independent

current source:
1
i2 2
i1 3
15 A
vx
1
v
9 x 1
i3
2
For the independent current source, we relate the source current to the mesh
currents:
i1  15
Turning our attention to the dependent source, we describe the dependency in

terms of the mesh currents:
v x 3i3  i2 
i3  i1  
9 9
 3i1  i2  2i3  0

2.29
Since the current sources appear in meshes 1 and 3, when they are open-
circuited, only mesh 2 remains. Around mesh 2 we have:
 1i2  i1   2i2  3i2  i3   0
 1 0 0   i1  15
 3 1 2  i    0 
  2   
  1 6  3 i3   0 
The mesh currents turn out to be i1  15 A , i2  11 A and i3  17 A . We note
that we wasted a little time in assigning a mesh current i1 to the left mesh – we
should simply have indicated a mesh current and labelled it 15 A.

2.30
2.2.8 Summary of Mesh Analysis
The general We perform mesh analysis for any resistive circuit with M meshes by the
procedure to follow
when undertaking following method:
mesh analysis
1. Make certain that the circuit is a planar circuit. If it is nonplanar, then
mesh analysis is not applicable.
2. Make a neat, simple, circuit diagram. Indicate all element and source
values. Each source should have its reference symbol.
3. Assuming that the circuit has M meshes, assign a clockwise mesh

current in each mesh, i1 , i 2 , …, i M .
4. If the circuit contains dependent sources, express those sources in terms

of the variables i1 , i 2 , …, i M , if they are not already in that form.
5. If the circuit contains current sources, temporarily modify the given

circuit by replacing each current source by an open-circuit to form
supermeshes, thus reducing the number of meshes by one for each
current source that is present. The assigned mesh currents should not be
changed. Relate each source current to the mesh currents.
6. Apply KVL around each of the meshes or supermeshes. If the circuit

has only resistors and independent voltage sources, then the equations
may be formed by inspection.

2.31
2.3 Summary
 Nodal analysis can be applied to any circuit. Apart from relating source
voltages to nodal voltages, the equations of nodal analysis are formed from
application of Kirchhoff’s Current Law.
 In nodal analysis, a supernode is formed by short-circuiting a voltage

source and treating the two ends as a single node.
 Mesh analysis can only be applied to planar circuits. Apart from relating
source currents to mesh currents, the equations of mesh analysis are formed
from application of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law.
 In mesh analysis, a supermesh is formed by open-circuiting a current

source and treating the perimeter of the original two meshes as a single
mesh.
2.4 References
Hill, 1984.
PMcL Summary Index

2.32
Exercises
1.
(a) Find the value of the determinant:
2 1 0  3
1 1 0 1

4 0 3 2
3 0 0 1
(b) Use Cramer’s rule to find v1 , v 2 and v3 if:
2v1  35  v 2  3v3  0
 2v3  3v 2  4v1  56
v 2  3v1  28  v3  0
2.
Use nodal techniques to determine i k in the circuit shown below:
20 
3ik
4A 10  5 -3 A
ik

2.33
3.
Set up nodal equations for the circuit shown below and then find the power
furnished by the 5 V source.
1/2 
5V
1/4
vx
5A 1/3 1
4vx
4.
Write mesh equations and then determine i x in each of the circuits shown
below:
60 V
10  ix
10 V 4 2A 5
(a)
4V
10 
8ix
6V 4
2
ix
(b)

2.34
5.
Assign mesh currents in the circuit below, write a set of mesh equations, and
determine i.
2 k 2 k
1 k 5V
i
vx
10 V vx 1 k
6.
With reference to the circuit shown below, use mesh equations to find i A and
the power supplied by the dependent source.
2iA
100 
iA
14 V 200 
300 
100  2V

2.35
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887)

Kirchhoff was born in Russia, and showed an early interest in mathematics. He
studied at the University of Königsberg, and in 1845, while still a student, he
pronounced Kirchhoff’s Laws, which allow the calculation of current and
voltage for any circuit. They are the Laws electrical engineers apply on a
routine basis – they even apply to non-linear circuits such as those containing
semiconductors, or distributed parameter circuits such as microwave striplines.
He graduated from university in 1847 and received a scholarship to study in

Paris, but the revolutions of 1848 intervened. Instead, he moved to Berlin
where he met and formed a close friendship with Robert Bunsen, the inorganic
chemist and physicist who popularized use of the “Bunsen burner”.
In 1857 Kirchhoff extended the work done by the German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm, by describing charge flow in three dimensions. He also analysed
circuits using topology. In further studies, he offered a general theory of how
electricity is conducted. He based his calculations on experimental results
which determine a constant for the speed of the propagation of electric charge.
Kirchhoff noted that this constant is approximately the speed of light – but the
greater implications of this fact escaped him. It remained for James Clerk
Maxwell to propose that light belongs to the electromagnetic spectrum.
Kirchhoff’s most significant work, from 1859 to 1862, involved his close
collaboration with Bunsen. Bunsen was in his laboratory, analysing various
salts that impart specific colours to a flame when burned. Bunsen was using
coloured glasses to view the flame. When Kirchhoff visited the laboratory, he
suggested that a better analysis might be achieved by passing the light from the
flame through a prism. The value of spectroscopy became immediately clear.
Each element and compound showed a spectrum as unique as any fingerprint,
which could be viewed, measured, recorded and compared.
Spectral analysis, Kirchhoff and Bunsen wrote not long afterward, promises
“the chemical exploration of a domain which up till now has been completely
closed.” They not only analysed the known elements, they discovered new
PMcL Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) Index

2.36
ones. Analyzing salts from evaporated mineral water, Kirchhoff and Bunsen
detected a blue spectral line – it belonged to an element they christened
caesium (from the Latin caesius, sky blue). Studying lepidolite (a lithium-
based mica) in 1861, Bunsen found an alkali metal he called rubidium (from
the Latin rubidius, deepest red). Both of these elements are used today in
atomic clocks. Using spectroscopy, ten more new elements were discovered
before the end of the century, and the field had expanded enormously –
between 1900 and 1912 a “handbook” of spectroscopy was published by
Kayser in six volumes comprising five thousand pages!
“[Kirchhoff is] a Kirchhoff’s work on spectrum analysis led on to a study of the composition of
perfect example of
the true German light from the Sun. He was the first to explain the dark lines (Fraunhofer lines)
investigator. To
search after truth in in the Sun's spectrum as caused by absorption of particular wavelengths as the
its purest shape and
to give utterance
light passes through a gas. Kirchhoff wrote “It is plausible that spectroscopy is
with almost an also applicable to the solar atmosphere and the brighter fixed stars.” We can
abstract self-
forgetfulness, was now analyse the collective light of a hundred billion stars in a remote galaxy
the religion and
purpose of his life.” billions of light-years away – we can tell its composition, its age, and even how
– Robert von
Helmholtz, 1890. fast the galaxy is receding from us – simply by looking at its spectrum!
As a consequence of his work with Fraunhofer’s lines, Kirchhoff developed a

general theory of emission and radiation in terms of thermodynamics. It stated
that a substance’s capacity to emit light is equivalent to its ability to absorb it at
the same temperature. One of the problems that this new theory created was the
“blackbody” problem, which was to plague physics for forty years. This
fundamental quandary arose because heating a black body – such as a metal
bar – causes it to give off heat and light. The spectral radiation, which depends
only on the temperature and not on the material, could not be predicted by
classical physics. In 1900 Max Planck solved the problem by discovering
quanta, which had enormous implications for twentieth-century science.
In 1875 he was appointed to the chair of mathematical physics at Berlin and he

ceased his experimental work. An accident-related disability meant he had to
spend much of his life on crutches or in a wheelchair. He remained at the
University of Berlin until he retired in 1886, shortly before his death in 1887.
Index Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824-1887) PMcL

3.1
3 Circuit Analysis Techniques
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 3.2

3.1 Linearity..................................................................................................... 3.3
3.2 Superposition ............................................................................................. 3.4
3.2.1 Superposition Theorem ................................................................. 3.6
3.3 Source Transformations ........................................................................... 3.10
3.3.1 Practical Voltage Sources ........................................................... 3.10
3.3.2 Practical Current Sources ........................................................... 3.12
3.3.3 Practical Source Equivalence ..................................................... 3.14
3.3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem .......................................... 3.16
3.4 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem .......................................................... 3.20
3.4.1 Summary of Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits ................... 3.28
3.5 Summary.................................................................................................. 3.32
3.6 References ............................................................................................... 3.32
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 3.33
PMcL Contents Index
2015 3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques

3.2
Introduction
Many of the circuits that we analyse and design are linear circuits. Linear
circuits possess the property that “outputs are proportional to inputs”, and that
“a sum of inputs leads to a sum of corresponding outputs”. This is the principle
of superposition and is a very important consequence of linearity. As will be
seen later, this principle will enable us to analyse circuits with multiple sources
in an easy way.
Nonlinear circuits can be analysed and designed with graphical methods or

numerical methods (with a computer) – the mathematics that describe them can
only be performed by hand in the simplest of cases. Examples of nonlinear
circuits are those that contain diodes, transistors, and ferromagnetic material.
In reality all circuits are nonlinear, since there must be physical limits to the
linear operation of devices, e.g. voltages will eventually break down across
insulation, resistors will burn because they can’t dissipate heat to their
surroundings, etc. Therefore, when we draw, analyse and design a linear
circuit, we keep in mind that it is a model of the real physical circuit, and it is
only valid under a defined range of operating conditions.
In modelling real physical circuit elements, we need to consider practical

sources as opposed to ideal sources. A practical source gives a more realistic
representation of a physical device. We will study methods whereby practical
current and voltage sources may be interchanged without affecting the
remainder of the circuit. Such sources will be called equivalent sources.
Finally, through the use of Thévenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem, we will
see that we can replace a large portion of a complex circuit (often a
complicated and uninteresting part) with a very simple equivalent circuit, thus
enabling analysis and focus on one particular element of the circuit.
3 - Circuit Analysis Techniques 2015

3.3
3.1 Linearity
A linear circuit is one that contains linear elements, independent sources, and A linear circuit
defined
linear dependent sources.
A linear element is one that possesses a linear relationship between a cause and
A linear element
an effect. For example, when a voltage is impressed across a resistor, a current defined
results, and the amount of current (the effect) is proportional to the voltage (the
cause). This is expressed by Ohm’s Law, v  Ri . Notice that a linear element
means simply that if the cause is increased by some multiplicative constant K,
then the effect is also increased by the same constant K.
If a linear element’s relationship is graphed as “cause” vs. “effect”, the result is

a straight line through the origin. For example, the resistor relationship is:
A linear relationship
is defined by a
straight line through
v the origin
R
1
Figure 3.1
A linear dependent source is one whose output voltage or current is

A linear dependent
proportional only to the first power of some current or voltage variable in the source defined
circuit (or a sum of such quantities). For example, a dependent voltage source
given by vs  0.6i1  14v2 is linear, but v s  0.6i12 and vs  0.6i1v2 are not.
From the definition of a linear circuit, it is possible to show that “the response
Output is
is proportional to the source”, or that multiplication of all independent sources proportional to input
by a constant K increases all the current and voltage responses by the same for a linear circuit
factor K (including the dependent source outputs).
PMcL Linearity Index

3.4
3.2 Superposition
The linearity property of a circuit leads directly to the principle of
superposition. To develop the idea, consider the following example:
EXAMPLE 3.1 Superposition
We have a 3-node circuit:
v1 5 v2
ia 2 1 ib
There are two independent current sources which force the currents i a and ib
into the circuit. Sources are often called forcing functions for this reason, and
the voltages they produce at each node in this circuit may be termed response
functions, or simply responses.
The two nodal equations for this circuit are:
0.7v1  0.2v 2  ia
 0.2v1  1.2v 2  ib
Now we perform experiment x. We change the two current sources to iax and
ibx ; the two unknown node voltages will now be different, and we let them be
v1x and v 2 x . Thus:
0.7v1x  0.2v2 x  iax

 0.2v1x  1.2v2 x  ibx
Index Superposition PMcL

3.5
If we now perform experiment y by changing the current sources again, we get:
0.7v1 y  0.2v2 y  iay

 0.2v1 y  1.2v2 y  iby
We now add or superpose the two results of the experiments:
0.7v1x  v1 y   0.2v2 x  v2 y   iax  iay 

 0.2v1x  v1 y   1.2v2 x  v2 y   ibx  iby 
Compare this with the original set of equations:
0.7v1  0.2v 2  ia
 0.2v1  1.2v 2  ib
We can draw an interesting conclusion. If we let iax  iay  ia , ibx  iby  ib ,
then the desired responses are given by v1  v1x  v1 y and v2  v2 x  v2 y . That
is, we may perform experiment x and note the responses, perform experiment y
and note the responses, and finally add the corresponding responses. These are
the responses of the original circuit to independent sources which are the sums
of the independent sources used in experiments x and y.
This is the fundamental concept involved in the superposition principle. It is Superposition allows
evident that we may break an independent source into as many pieces as we us to treat inputs
separately, then
wish, so long as the algebraic sum of the pieces is equal to the original source. combine individual
responses to obtain
the total response
In practical applications of the superposition principle, we usually set each
independent source to zero, so that we can analyse the circuit one source at a
time.
PMcL Superposition Index

3.6
3.2.1 Superposition Theorem
We can now state the superposition theorem as it is mostly applied to circuits:

The superposition
theorem In any linear network containing several sources, we can
calculate any response by adding algebraically all the
(3.1)
individual responses caused by each independent source
acting alone, with all other independent sources set to zero.
When we set the value of an independent voltage source to zero, we create a

short-circuit by definition. When we set the value of an independent current
source to zero, we create an open-circuit by definition.
Setting a voltage
source to zero
creates a short-
circuit. Setting a
current source to
zero creates an 0V S.C. 0A O.C.
open-circuit.
Figure 3.2
Note that dependent sources cannot be arbitrarily set to zero, and are generally
active when considering every individual independent source.
The theorem as stated above can be made much stronger – a group of

independent sources may be made active and inactive collectively. For
example, sometimes it is handy to consider all voltage sources together, so that
mesh analysis can be applied easily, and then all current sources together so
that nodal analysis may be applied easily.
There is also no reason that an independent source must assume only its given
value or zero – it is only necessary that the sum of the several values be equal
to the original value. However, an inactive source almost always leads to the
simplest circuit.

3.7
EXAMPLE 3.2 Superposition with Independent Sources
We use superposition in the following circuit to write an expression for the

unknown branch current i x .
6
ix
vs = 3 V 9 is = 2 A
We first set the current source equal to zero (an open-circuit) and obtain the
portion of i x due to the voltage source as 0.2 A. Then if we let the voltage
source be zero (a short-circuit) and apply the current divider rule, the
remaining portion of i x is seen to be 0.8 A.
We may write the answer in detail as:
3 6
ix  ix  ix   2  0.2  0.8  1 A
is  0 vs  0
69 69

3.8
EXAMPLE 3.3 Superposition with Dependent Sources
The circuit below contains a dependent source.
2 ix 1
10 V v 3A 2ix
We seek i x , and we first open-circuit the 3 A source. The single mesh equation
is:
10  2i x  1i x  2i x  0
so that:
i x  2
Next, we short-circuit the 10 V source and write the single node equation:
v  v   2i x
 3  0
2 1
and relate the dependent-source-controlling quantity to v  :
v  2i x
We find:
i x  0.6
and thus:
i x  i x  i x  2  0.6  1.4 A
It usually turns out that little, if any, time is saved in analysing a circuit
containing dependent sources by use of the superposition principle, because
there are at least two sources in operation: one independent source and all the
dependent sources.

3.9
We must be aware of the limitations of superposition. It is applicable only to Superposition is
often misapplied to
linear responses, and thus the most common nonlinear response – power – is power in a circuit
element
not subject to superposition.
EXAMPLE 3.4 Superposition Cannot be Applied to Power
The circuit below contains two 1 V batteries in series.
1
1V 1V
If we apply superposition, then each voltage source alone delivers 1 A and

furnishes 1 W. We might then mistakenly calculate the total power delivered to
the resistor as 2 W. This is incorrect.
Each source provides 1 A, making the total current in the resistor 2 A. The
power delivered to the resistor is therefore 4 W.

3.10
3.3 Source Transformations

3.3.1 Practical Voltage Sources
The ideal voltage source is defined as a device whose terminal voltage is
independent of the current through it. Graphically, it’s characteristic is:
An ideal voltage
source, and its
terminal
characteristic
i v
vs
vs v
ideal source terminal characteristic

i
Figure 3.3
The ideal voltage source can provide any amount of current, and an unlimited
amount of power. No such device exists practically. All practical voltage
sources suffer from a voltage drop when they deliver current – the larger the
current, the larger the voltage drop. Such behaviour can be modelled by the
inclusion of a resistor in series with an ideal voltage source:
A practical voltage
source, and its
terminal
characteristic R sv i
v
vs
vs v
R sv vs
1 R sv
practical source terminal characteristic
i
Figure 3.4
Index Source Transformations PMcL

3.11
The terminal characteristic of the practical voltage source is given by KVL:
The terminal
v  vs  Rsvi (3.2)
characteristic of a
practical voltage
source…
The resistance Rsv is known as the internal resistance or output resistance.

This resistor (in most cases) is not a real physical resistor that is connected in …shows the effect
of the internal
series with a voltage source – it merely serves to account for a terminal voltage resistance
which decreases as the load current increases.
The applicability of this model to a practical source depends on the device and
the operating conditions. For example, a DC power supply such as found in a
laboratory will maintain a linear relationship in its terminal characteristic over
a larger range of currents than a chemical battery.
When we attach a load to a practical voltage source:

A load attached to a
practical voltage
R sv source will always
iL exhibit less voltage
and current than the
ideal case
vs vL RL
Figure 3.5
we get a load voltage which is always less than the open-circuit voltage, and
given by the voltage divider rule:
RL
vL  vs  vs (3.3)
Rsv  RL
The load current will also be less than we expect from an ideal source:
vs v
iL   s (3.4)
Rsv  RL RL
PMcL Source Transformations Index

3.12
3.3.2 Practical Current Sources
The ideal current source is defined as a device whose current is independent of
the voltage across it. Graphically, it’s characteristic is:
An ideal current
source, and its
terminal
characteristic v
i
v is
is
i
ideal source terminal characteristic
Figure 3.6
The ideal current source can support any terminal voltage regardless of the load
resistance to which it is connected, and an unlimited amount of power. An
ideal current source is nonexistent in the real world. For example, transistor
circuits and op-amp circuits can deliver a constant current to a wide range of
load resistances, but the load resistance can always be made sufficiently large
so that the current through it becomes very small. Such behaviour can be
modelled by the inclusion of a resistor in parallel with an ideal current source:
A practical current
source, and its
terminal
characteristic i v
R si i s
is R si v
R si
1
is
practical source terminal characteristic
i
Figure 3.7

3.13
The terminal characteristic of the practical current source is given by KCL:
The terminal
v characteristic of a
i  is  practical current
Rsi (3.5) source
or v  Rsiis  Rsii
When we attach a load to a practical current source:
A load attached to a
practical current
source will always
iL exhibit less voltage
and current than the
ideal case
is R si v L RL
Figure 3.8
we get a load current which is always less than the short-circuit current, and
given by the current divider rule:
Rsi
iL  is  is (3.6)
Rsi  RL
The load voltage will also be less than we expect from an ideal source:
Rsi RLis
vL   RLis (3.7)
Rsi  RL

3.14
3.3.3 Practical Source Equivalence
We define two sources as being equivalent if each produces identical current

and identical voltage for any load which is placed across it terminals. With
reference to the practical voltage and current source terminal characteristics:
v v
vs R si i s
R sv vs R si
1 R sv 1
is
practical voltage source
i practical current source
i
Figure 3.9
we can easily establish the conditions for equivalence. We must have:

If practical sources
Rsv  Rsi  Rs
are equivalent then
they have the same (3.8)
internal resistance
so that the slopes of the two terminal characteristics are equal. We now let Rs
represent the internal resistance of either practical source. To achieve the same
voltage and current axes intercepts, we must have, respectively:
vs
vs  Rsiis and  is (3.9)
Rsv
But since Rsv  Rsi  Rs , these two relations turn into just one requirement:
The relationship
between a practical
voltage source and
a practical current
vs  Rsis (3.10)
source

3.15
We can now transform between practical voltage and current sources:

The equivalence of
practical sources
Rs i i
vs v is Rs v
= Rs is v
= s
Rs
practical voltage source practical current source
Figure 3.10
EXAMPLE 3.5 Equivalent Practical Sources
Consider the practical current source shown below:
3A 2
Since its internal resistance is 2  , the internal resistance of the equivalent

practical voltage source is also 2  . The voltage of the ideal voltage source
contained within the practical voltage source is vs  Rs is  2  3  6 V . The
equivalent practical voltage source is shown below:
2
6V

3.16
3.3.4 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
Consider a practical DC voltage source:
Rs
IL
Vs VL RL
Figure 3.11
The power delivered to the load RL is:
RLVs2
PL  R I  2
Rs  RL 2
L L (3.11)
Assume that VS and RS are known and fixed, and that RL is allowed to vary.
A graph of the load power PL versus load resistance RL is shown below:
A graph of the
power delivered to a
load versus the load PL
resistance shows
clearly that a peak
occurs at a certain
resistance PLmax
R L max RL
Figure 3.12

3.17
To find the value of RL that absorbs maximum power from the practical
source, we differentiate with respect to RL (using the quotient rule):
PL Rs  RL  Vs2  Vs2 RL 2Rs  RL 

2

Rs  RL 4
(3.12)
RL
and equate the derivative to zero to obtain the relative maximum:
Rs  RL 2  2RL Rs  RL   0 (3.13)
or:
The load resistance
RL  Rs (3.14)
which maximizes
power delivered
from a practical
source
Since the values RL  0 and RL   both give a minimum ( PL  0 ), then this
value is the absolute maximum (and not just a relative maximum).
Since we have already proved the equivalence between practical voltage and
current sources, we have proved the following maximum power transfer
theorem:
The maximum
An independent voltage source in series with a resistance Rs , power transfer
theorem…
or an independent current source in parallel with a resistance Rs ,
(3.15)
delivers a maximum power to that load resistance R L when
R L  Rs .
We can only apply the maximum power transfer theorem when we have
control over the load resistance, i.e. if we know the source resistance, then we …only applies to a
choice of load
can choose RL  Rs to maximize power transfer. On the other hand, if we are resistor
given a load resistance and we are free to design or choose a source resistance,
we do not choose Rs  RL to maximize power transfer – by examining
Eq. (3.11), we see that for a voltage source we should choose Rs  0 (and for a
current source we should choose Rs   ).

3.18
If we choose RL  Rs to obtain maximum power transfer to a load, then by

Eq. (3.11) that maximum power is:
The maximum
power delivered Vs2 Vs2
from a practical PL max   (3.16)
source 4 RL 4 Rs
There is a distinct difference between drawing maximum power from a source

and delivering maximum power to a load. If the load is sized such that
RL  Rs , it will receive maximum power from that source. However,
considering just the practical source itself, we draw maximum possible power
from the ideal voltage source by drawing the maximum possible current –
which is achieved by shorting the source’s terminals. However, in this extreme
case, we deliver zero power to the “load” (a 0 Ω resistor).
Power matching is used in three situations:
 where the signal levels are very small, so any power lost gives a worse
signal to noise ratio. e.g. in antenna to receiver connections in television,
radio and radar.
 high frequency electronics
 where the signal levels are very large, where the maximum efficiency is
desirable on economic grounds. e.g. a broadcast antenna, audio amplifier.

3.19
EXAMPLE 3.6 Power Transfer
2 IL
18 V VL RL
We want to determine the values of the load resistor that draw half the
maximum power deliverable by the practical source. The maximum power
deliverable by the source is:
Vs2 18 2
PL max    40.5 W
4 Rs 4  2
Half the maximum power deliverable is therefore 20.25 W. The power

dissipated by the load resistor is:
2
 Vs 
PL  R I  RL 
2

 Rs  R L
L L

Substituting values gives:
2
 18  324 RL
20.25  RL   
 2  RL  2  RL 2
2  RL 2  16 RL
RL2  12 RL  4  0
Solving this quadratic gives:
12  12 2  4  4
RL 
2
 6  32
 11.66 or 0.3431 

3.20
3.4 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems greatly simplify the analysis of many linear
circuits. Léon Thévenin was a French engineer working in telegraphy who first
published a statement of the theorem in 1883. Edward Norton was a scientist
with the Bell Telephone Laboratories who mentioned his theorem in a
technical memorandum in 1926, but never published it.
Thévenin’s theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit (often a complicated and / or uninteresting portion) by an
equivalent circuit containing only an independent voltage source in series with
a resistor:
Thévenin’s theorem
allows us to replace
part of a circuit with
a practical voltage R Th
source
large rest rest
portion
of of
of vTh
linear circuit circuit
circuit
Thévenin equivalent circuit
Figure 3.13
Norton’s theorem is the dual of Thévenin’s theorem, and uses a current source:
Norton’s theorem
allows us to replace
part of a circuit with
a practical current
source large rest rest
portion
of iN RN of
of
linear circuit circuit
circuit
Norton equivalent circuit
Figure 3.14
Index Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem PMcL

3.21
We can state Thévenin’s theorem formally as:
Thévenin’s theorem
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two circuits
A and B that are connected together at two terminals.
If either circuit contains a dependent source, its control variable
must be in the same circuit.
Define a voltage v oc as the open-circuit voltage which would
(3.17)
appear across the terminals of A if B were disconnected so that
no current is drawn from A. Then all the currents and voltages in
B will remain unchanged if A has all its independent sources set
to zero and an independent voltage source v oc is connected in
series with the inactive A network.
The inactive circuit A will always reduce to a single resistor, which we call the
Thévenin resistance, RTh . Also, since v oc appears as an independent voltage
source in the Thévenin equivalent circuit, it is also denoted as vTh .
We can state Norton’s theorem formally as:

Norton’s theorem
Given any linear circuit, rearrange it in the form of two circuits
A and B that are connected together at two terminals.
If either circuit contains a dependent source, its control variable
must be in the same circuit.
Define a current i sc as the short-circuit current which would
(3.18)
appear across the terminals of A if B were short-circuited so that
no voltage is provided by A. Then all the voltages and currents in
B will remain unchanged if A has all its independent sources set
to zero and an independent current source i sc is connected in
parallel with the inactive A network.
The inactive circuit A will always reduce to a single resistor, which we call the
Norton resistance, R N . Also, since i sc appears as an independent current
source in the Norton equivalent circuit, it is also denoted as i N .
PMcL Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorem Index

3.22
The Thévenin or Norton equivalent circuit allows us to draw a new simpler
circuit and make rapid calculations of the voltage, current, and power. It also
allows us to easily choose a “load” resistance for maximum power transfer.
EXAMPLE 3.7 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
3 7
12 V 6 RL
Circuit A Circuit B
The broken lines separate the original circuit into circuits A and B. We shall
assume that our main interest is in circuit B, which consists only of a “load”
resistor R L . To form the Thévenin equivalent circuit, we disconnect circuit B
and use voltage division to determine that voc  8 V . When we set all
independent sources in circuit A to zero, we replace the 12 V source with a
short-circuit. “Looking back” into the inactive A circuit, we “see” a 7 
resistor connected in series with the parallel combination of 6  and 3  .
Thus, the inactive A circuit can be represented by a 9  resistor. If we now
replace circuit A by its Thévenin equivalent circuit, we have:
9
8V RL
Thévenin equivalent of Circuit B

Circuit A

3.23
Note that the Thévenin equivalent circuit we have obtained for circuit A is
completely independent of circuit B – an equivalent for A may be obtained no
matter what arrangement of elements is connected to the A circuit, even if
circuit B is nonlinear!
From the viewpoint of the load resistor R L , the Thévenin equivalent circuit is
identical to the original; from our viewpoint, the circuit is much simpler and we
can now easily compute various quantities. For example, the power delivered
to the load is:
2
 8 
PL    RL
 9  RL 
Furthermore, we can now easily see that the maximum voltage which can be
obtained across R L is 8 V when RL   . A quick transformation of the
Thévenin equivalent circuit to a practical current source (the Norton
equivalent) indicates that the maximum current which may be delivered to the
load is 8 9 A for RL  0 . The maximum power transfer theorem shows that a
maximum power is delivered to R L when RL  9  . None of these facts is
readily apparent from the original circuit.

3.24
To form the Norton equivalent circuit, we short-circuit the B circuit and use the
current divider rule to discover:
 
6  12  72 72 8
i sc     A
67 6  7  39  42 81 9
3 
 67 
When we set all independent sources in circuit A to zero, we get the same
results as for the Thévenin circuit, and so RN  9  . The Norton equivalent
circuit is therefore:
8/9 A 9 RL
Norton equivalent of Circuit B

Circuit A
It should be apparent from the previous example that we can easily find the
Norton equivalent circuit from the Thévenin equivalent circuit, and vice versa,
by a simple source transformation. Using our previous results, we must have:
The Thévenin and
Norton equivalent
resistances are the RTh  RN (3.19)
same
Because of this result, we usually just refer to the resistor in either equivalent
circuit as the Thévenin resistance, RTh .
We also have:
The relationship
between the
Thévenin and voc  RThisc (3.20)
Norton equivalent
circuits

3.25
EXAMPLE 3.8 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits
2 3
4V 2A 1
Circuit A Circuit B
The Thévenin and Norton equivalent circuits are desired from the perspective
of the 1  resistor. We determine RTh for the inactive network, and then find
either v oc or i sc . Making the independent sources inactive, we have:
2 3
We thus have RTh  5  . The open-circuit voltage can be determined using

superposition. With only the 4 V source operating , the open-circuit voltage is
4 V. When only the 2 A source is on, the open-circuit voltage is also 4 V. Thus,
with both sources operating, we have voc  8 V . This determines the Thévenin
equivalent, and from it the Norton equivalent, shown below:
5
8V 1 1.6 A 5 1

3.26
We will often find it convenient to determine either the Thévenin or Norton
equivalent by finding both the open-circuit voltage and the short-circuit
current, and then determining the Thévenin resistance by:
The Thévenin
equivalent
resistance can be voc
obtained from the RTh  (3.21)
open-circuit voltage
and short-circuit
isc
current
This is especially true for circuits that contain dependent sources.
EXAMPLE 3.9 Thévenin Equivalent with Mixed Sources
2 3
vx vx
4V 4
To find v oc we note that v x  voc , and that the dependent source current must
pass through the 2  resistor since there is an open circuit to the right. KCL at
the top of the dependent source gives:
voc  4 voc
 0
2 4
voc  8 V
Upon short-circuiting the output terminals, it is apparent that v x  0 and the
dependent current source is zero. Hence isc  4 2  3  0.8 A . Thus
RTh  voc isc  8 0.8  10  and the Thévenin equivalent is:
10 
8V

3.27
If a circuit contains only dependent sources and no independent sources, then
If a circuit does not
the circuit qualifies as the inactive A circuit and voc  0 and isc  0 . We seek contain independent
sources, then one
the value of RTh represented by the circuit, but in this case RTh  voc isc is must be applied to
obtain the Thévenin
undefined, and we must use a different approach. We apply either an equivalent
resistance
independent voltage source or an independent current source externally to the
A circuit and “measure” the resultant current or voltage.
EXAMPLE 3.10 Thévenin Equivalent with Dependent Source Only
3 i
1.5i 2
If we apply a 1 A source externally, and “measure” the resultant voltage, then

RTh  v 1 :
3 i
1.5i 2 v 1A
We see that i  1 A and KCL gives:
v  1.5 1 v
 1  0
3 2
so that v  0.6 V and RTh  0.6  . The Thévenin equivalent is:
0.6

3.28
3.4.1 Summary of Finding Thévenin Equivalent Circuits
We have seen three approaches to finding the Thévenin equivalent circuit. The
first example contained only independent sources and resistors, and we could
use several different methods on it. One involved finding v oc for the active
circuit, and then RTh for the inactive circuit. We could also have found i sc and
RTh , or v oc and i sc . In the second example, both independent and dependent
sources were present, and the method we used required us to find v oc and i sc .
The last example did not contain any independent sources, and we found RTh
by applying a 1 A source and finding RTh  v 1 . We could also have applied a
1 V source and determined RTh  1 i .
These important techniques and the types of circuits to which they may be
applied most readily are indicated in the table below:
Suitable
methods to Circuit contains
obtain the
Thévenin
equivalent
circuit
Methods
RTh and v oc or i sc  – –
v oc and i sc Possible  –
i  1 A or v  1 V – – 
Table 3.1 – Suitable methods to obtain the Thévenin equivalent circuit

3.29
All possible methods do not appear in the table. Another method has a certain
A method to obtain
appeal because it can be used for any of the three types of circuit tabulated. the Thévenin
equivalent circuit
Simply label the terminals of the A circuit as v, define the current leaving the that works for all
positive polarity as i, then analyse the A circuit to obtain an equation in the circuits
form v  voc  RTh i .
EXAMPLE 3.11 Thévenin Equivalent Using a Linear Equation
2 v1 3 i
4V 2A v
KCL at the middle node gives:

v1  4
2i  0
2
v1  8  2i
KVL at the output gives:
v  v1  3i
 8  5i
 voc  RTh i
from which voc  8 V and RTh  5  , as before:
5 i
8V v

3.30
2 v1 3 i
v v
4V 4
KCL at the middle node gives:
v1  4 v
 i  0
2 4
v
v1  4   2i
2
KVL at the output gives:
v  v1  3i
v
 4  5i
2
 8  10i
 voc  RTh i
from which voc  8 V and RTh  10  , as before:
10 
8V

3.31
3 i
1.5i 2 v
KCL at the top right node gives:
v  1.5i v
 i  0
3 2
5v  3i  0
v  0  0.6i
 voc  RTh i
from which voc  0 V and RTh  0.6  , as before:
0.6
This procedure is universally applicable, but one of the other methods is

usually easier and quicker to perform.

3.32
3.5 Summary
 A linear circuit is one that contains linear elements, independent sources,
and linear dependent sources. For a linear circuit, it is possible to show that
“the response is proportional to the source”.
 The superposition theorem states that, in evaluating the “response” in a

linear circuit due to several sources, we are free to treat each independent
source separately, collectively, or in any number of parts, and then
superpose the response caused by each part.
 A practical voltage source consists of an ideal voltage source v s in series
with a resistance Rsv . A practical current source consists of an ideal current
source i s in parallel with a resistance Rsi . The practical sources can be
made equivalent by setting Rsv  Rsi  Rs and vs  Rsis .
 The maximum power transfer theorem states that if we know the source
resistance Rs of a practical source, then to maximize power transfer to a
load R L , we set RL  Rs .
 Thévenin’s theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit by an equivalent circuit containing only an independent
voltage source in series with a resistor.
 Norton’s theorem tells us that it is possible to replace a large portion of a

linear circuit by an equivalent circuit containing only an independent
current source in parallel with a resistor.
 There are several methods that can be applied to determine a Thévenin or

Norton equivalent circuit. Some methods are only applicable to certain
circuits, and the most convenient analysis method should be chosen.
3.6 References
Hill, 1984.
Index Summary PMcL

3.33
Exercises
1.
Find the power dissipated in the 20  resistor of the circuit shown below by
each of the following methods:
(a) nodal equations
(b) mesh equations
(c) source transformations to eliminate all current sources, then a method of

your choice
(d) source transformations to eliminate all voltage sources, followed by any

method you wish.
1 20 
27 V 4 5 6A
2.
The circuit shown below contains a dependent source. Use superposition to
find I .
-4 V
3
1
Vx 2
5Vx
2A
I

3.34
3.
Consider the linear circuit shown below.
vx
Linear
i s1 Circuit i s2
(a) The circuit contains only resistors. If is1  8 A and is 2  12 A , v x is found
to be 80 V. However, if is1  8 A and is 2  4 A , then vx  0 V . Find v x
when is1  is 2  20 A .
(b) The circuit now contains a source such that vx  40 V when
is1  is 2  0 A . All data in part (a) are still correct. Find v x when
is1  is 2  20 A .
4.
1 6
a
18 A 2 12  18 V
b
(a) Find the Norton equivalent of the circuit.
(b) If a variable resistor R were placed between terminals a and b, what value
would result in maximum power being drawn from the terminals?
(c) Find the maximum power that could be drawn from terminals a and b.

3.35
5.
Find the maximum power that can be delivered to a variable R in the circuit
below:
1 2
20 V
R
3 4
6.
In the circuit below, what value of resistance should be connected between
terminals a-b to draw maximum power?
vx 1
2
a
3 4 9 sin(120 t ) V
5vx b

3.36
7.
Consider the circuit below:
rm iA
iA R2
R1 IS R3
(a) Determine an expression for the current i A .
(b) If rm  R2 , what is the current i A ?
(c) What would happen if you tried to build such a circuit with rm  R2 ?

4.1
4 Linear Op-Amp Applications
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 4.2

4.1 Summing Amplifier ................................................................................... 4.3
4.2 Difference Amplifier ................................................................................. 4.6
4.3 Inverting Integrator .................................................................................... 4.9
4.4 Differentiator ........................................................................................... 4.11
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter ............................................................... 4.12
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter.................................................................. 4.14
4.7 Noninverting Integrator ........................................................................... 4.16
4.8 Summary.................................................................................................. 4.18
4.9 References ............................................................................................... 4.21
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 4.22
PMcL Contents Index
2015 4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications

4.2
Introduction
One of the reasons for the popularity of the op-amp is its versatility. As we
shall see shortly, you can do almost anything with op-amps! More importantly,
the IC op-amp has characteristics that closely approach the assumed ideal. This
implies that it is quite easy to design circuits using the IC op-amp. It also
means that a real op-amp circuit will work in a manner that is very close to the
predicted theoretical performance.
Op-amp circuits which exhibit a linear characteristic (i.e. the response is

proportional to the source) are known as linear op-amp circuits. They are
chiefly, but not necessarily, composed of linear circuit elements, such as
resistors and capacitors, Many important op-amp circuits can be created with
linear circuit elements. For example, the weighted summer is able to output a
voltage which is a weighted sum of the input signals. The difference amplifier
is able to subtract two signals. Integrators, of both the inverting and
noninverting variety, are used in many control and signal processing
applications.
Also, by exploiting the active nature of op-amp circuits, we can develop

circuits which have no passive equivalent, such as the negative impedance
converter, and the voltage-to-current converter.
4 - Linear Op-Amp Applications 2015

4.3
4.1 Summing Amplifier

An inverting
summing amplifier
Rn
vn
R2 Rf
v2
R1
v1
vo
Figure 4.1 – An Inverting Summing Amplifier
The basic configuration is that of an inverting amplifier. We have a resistance

R f in the negative feedback path, but there are a number of input signals,
v1 , v 2 , …, v n each applied to a corresponding resistor R1 , R2 , …, Rn which

are connected to the inverting terminal of the op-amp. Just like in the inverting
amplifier configuration, the op-amp and the negative feedback will maintain a
virtual short-circuit across the op-amp input terminals, and therefore maintain
the inverting terminal at 0 V. Ohm’s Law then tells us that the currents
i1 , i 2 , …, i n are given by:
v1 v2 vn
i1  ,
i2  , …,
in  (4.1)
R1 R2 Rn
PMcL Summing Amplifier Index

4.4
All these currents sum together at the inverting terminal, also known as the
summing junction, to produce the current i:
i  i1  i2    in (4.2)
Remembering that the ideal op-amp input terminals are open-circuits,

application of KCL at the inverting terminal shows that this current is forced
through R f . The output voltage v o may now be determined by an application
of Ohm’s Law and KVL:
vo  0  R f i   R f i (4.3)
Thus:
 Rf Rf Rf 

vo   v1  v2    vn  (4.4)
 R1 R2 Rn 
The output voltage is a weighted sum of the input signals v1 , v 2 , …, v n . This

circuit is therefore called a weighted summer. Note that each summing
coefficient may be independently adjusted by varying the corresponding “feed-
in” resistor ( R1 to Rn ). This nice property is a consequence of the “virtual
common” that exists at the inverting op-amp terminal.
Index Summing Amplifier PMcL

4.5
EXAMPLE 4.1 Summing Amplifier
We want to design a weighted summer such that vo  2v1  v2  4v3 .
We can firstly form the sum vo1  2v1  v2  by using the circuit:
20 k 20 k
v2
10 k
v1
vo 1
Then we can form vo  vo1  4v3  using:
2.5k 10 k
v3
10 k
vo 1
vo
Finally, we can put the two circuits together, in a cascade, to create:
20 k 20 k
v2 2.5k 10 k
v3
10 k
v1 10 k
vo
PMcL Summing Amplifier Index

4.6
4.2 Difference Amplifier

A simple difference amplifier can be constructed with four resistors and an
op-amp, as shown below:
The difference
amplifier
R2
R1
v i1
R3
v i2
vo
R4
Figure 4.2 – A Difference Amplifier
There are a number of ways to find the output voltage, but the easiest uses the
principle of superposition (since the circuit is linear). To apply superposition
we first reduce vi 2 to zero – that is, connect the terminal to which vi 2 is applied
to the common – and then find the corresponding output voltage, which will be
due entirely to vi1 . We denote this output v o1 , as shown in (a) below:
Analyzing a
difference amplifier
using superposition R2 R2
R1 R1
v i1
vo1 vo2
R3
v i2
R3 R4 R4
(a) (b)
Figure 4.3 – Analyzing a Difference Amplifier

Index Difference Amplifier PMcL

4.7
We recognize the (a) circuit as that of an inverting amplifier. The existence of
R3 and R4 does not affect the gain expression, since there is no current in
either of them. Thus:
R2
vo1   vi1 (4.5)
R1
Next, we reduce vi1 to zero and evaluate the corresponding output voltage vo 2 .
The circuit will now take the form shown in Figure 4.3(b), which we recognize
as the noninverting configuration with an additional voltage divider, made up
of R3 and R4 , connected across the input vi 2 . The output voltage vo 2 is
therefore given by:
 R  R4
vo 2  1  2  vi 2 (4.6)
 R1  3R  R4
The superposition principle tells us that the output voltage v o is equal to the
sum of v o1 and vo 2 . Thus we have:
R2 1  R2 R1
vo   vi1  vi 2 (4.7)
R1 1  R3 R4
To act as a difference amplifier, the output must produce a signal which is

proportional to vi 2  vi1 . That is, the coefficients of vi1 and vi 2 in Eq. (4.7)
must be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. This requirement leads to the
condition:
R2 1  R2 R1
 (4.8)
R1 1  R3 R4
PMcL Difference Amplifier Index

4.8
Simplifying we get:
R2 R4
 (4.9)
R1 R3
Substituting in Eq. (4.7) results in the output voltage:
The output of a
R2
vi 2  vi1 
vo  (4.1)
R1
Thus, if we choose R4 R3  R2 R1 then we have produced a difference
amplifier with a gain of R2 R1 .
EXAMPLE 4.2 Difference Amplifier
A difference amplifier with an input resistance of 20 k and a gain of 10 is

shown below:
100 k
10 k
vi 10 k v o =10 v i
100 k
Note that “input resistance” is defined as the resistance “seen” between the two
input terminals. Thanks to the virtual short-circuit at the op-amp input
terminals, KVL around the input resistors gives Rin  20 k .
Index Difference Amplifier PMcL

4.9
4.3 Inverting Integrator

An inverting integrator, also known as the Miller integrator after its inventor, is
shown below:
The inverting
integrator
R
vi
vo
Figure 4.4 – The Miller Integrator
We use the virtual short-circuit concept to analyse the circuit (it is essentially
the same analysis as for the inverting amplifier). KCL at the inverting terminal,
which is held at 0 V by the op-amp and negative feedback, gives:
vi dv
 C o (4.10)
R dt
and therefore:
vo t    vi t dt  vo 0
1 t
RC  0
(4.2)
Thus, vo t  is the time integral of vi t  , and vo 0 is the initial condition of

this integration process. The product RC has units of time and is called the
integration time constant. This integrator circuit is inverting because of the
minus sign in front of the integral.
PMcL Inverting Integrator Index

4.10
Unfortunately, for DC input voltages, the op-amp circuit is operating as an
open-loop, which is easily seen when we recall that capacitors behave as open
circuits with DC. Thus, the above analysis does not apply, since there is no
virtual short circuit. With an ideal op-amp and a DC input voltage, there is no
current and v i appears at the inverting terminal – the resulting output of the
ideal op-amp will be infinite. In practice the output of a real op-amp will
saturate close to one of the supply rail voltages (depending on the sign of the
DC input voltage).
A practical circuit that alleviates this problem is shown below:
Rf
R
vi
vo
Figure 4.5 – A Practical Approximation to the Miller Integrator
This circuit provides a feedback path for DC voltages (i.e. the op-amp circuit is
operating in a closed-loop) and prevents the output from saturating. To keep
the DC offset at the output of the integrator low, we should select a small R f .
Unfortunately, however, the lower the value of R f , the less ideal the integrator
becomes. Thus selecting a value for R f is a trade-off between DC
performance and integrator performance.
Index Inverting Integrator PMcL

4.11
4.4 Differentiator
An ideal differentiator is shown below:
The differentiator
C
vi
vo
Figure 4.6 – The Differentiator
We use the virtual short circuit concept again to analyze the circuit. KCL at the
inverting terminal, which is held at 0 V by the op-amp and negative feedback,
gives:
dvi v
C  o (4.11)
dt R
and therefore:
vo t    RC
dvi
(4.12)
dt
Thus, vo t  is the time derivative of vi t  .
The very nature of a differentiator circuit causes it to be a “noise magnifier”.

This is due to spikes introduced at the output every time there is a sharp change
in the input. For this reason they are rarely used in practice.
PMcL Differentiator Index

4.12
4.5 Negative Impedance Converter

A negative impedance1 converter (NIC) is shown below:
The negative
impedance
converter
vi
R1 R2
vi
R1 R1
vi vo
ii R
vi
vi R2 1
R1 R
R in
Figure 4.7 – The Negative Impedance Converter
To investigate the operation of this circuit, we will evaluate the input resistance
Rin of the circuit. To find Rin we apply an input voltage v i and evaluate the
input current ii . Then, by definition, Rin  vi ii .
Owing to the virtual short circuit between the op-amp input terminals, the
voltage at the inverting terminal will be equal to v i . The current through R1
will therefore be vi R1 . Since the input resistance of the ideal op-amp is
1
Impedance generalises the concept of resistance – as will be seen later with the introduction
of sinusoidal steady-state analysis, phasors, and reactance.
Index Negative Impedance Converter PMcL

4.13
infinite, the current through R2 will also be vi R1 . Thus, the voltage at the op-
amp output will be:
vi  R2 
vo  vi  R2  1  vi
R1 
(4.13)
R1 
which we recognise as the output of a normal noninverting amplifier. We now

apply Ohm’s Law to R and obtain the current through it as:
v1  R2 R1   v R 1
v 2 (4.14)
R R1 R
Since there is no current into the positive input terminal of the op-amp, KCL
gives:
v R2
ii   (4.15)
R R1
Thus:
R1
Rin   R (4.16)
R2
That is, the input resistance is negative with a magnitude equal to R, the
resistance in the positive-feedback path, multiplied by the ratio R1 R2 . We
now see why the circuit is called a negative impedance converter (NIC), where
R may in general be replaced by an arbitrary circuit element, such as a
capacitor or inductor.
PMcL Negative Impedance Converter Index

4.14
4.6 Voltage-to-Current Converter

To investigate the NIC further, consider the case R1  R2  r , where r is an
arbitrary value. It follows that Rin   R . Let the input be fed with a voltage
source V s having a source resistance equal to R, as shown below:
A voltage-to-current
converter, invented
by Prof. Bradford
Howland, MIT, NIC r
around 1962
source R R
IL
VL
Vs
RL load
Figure 4.8 – Application of the Negative Impedance Converter
Utilizing the information gained previously, we can replace the NIC by a

resistance equal to  R :
IL
Vs
RL -R
Figure 4.9
Index Voltage-to-Current Converter PMcL

4.15
The figure below illustrates the conversion of the voltage source to its Norton
equivalent:
IL
Vs
R RL -R
R
Figure 4.10
Finally, the two parallel resistances R and  R are combined to produce an

infinite resistance, resulting in the equivalent circuit:
Vs
IL =
R
Vs
RL
R
Figure 4.11
We see that the load current is given by:
Vs
IL  (4.17)
R
independent of the value of R L !. This is an interesting result; it tells us that the
circuit of Figure 4.8 acts as a voltage-to-current converter, providing a current
I L that is directly proportional to V s and is independent of the value of the
load resistance. That is, the output terminal acts as a current-source output,
with the impedance looking back into the output terminal equal to infinity.
Note that this infinite resistance is obtained via the cancellation of the positive
source resistance R with the negative input resistance  R .
PMcL Voltage-to-Current Converter Index

4.16
4.7 Noninverting Integrator

A specific application of the voltage-to-current converter, where a capacitor C
is used as a load, is illustrated below:
A noninverting
integrator, invented
by Gordon Deboo in
1966 whilst working r
at the NASA Ames
Research Centre
r
vo
R R
vi
vi
i=
R vL
C
Figure 4.12
From the previous analysis of the voltage-to-current converter we conclude that

capacitor C will be supplied by a current i  vi R . From the branch
relationship for a capacitor we conclude:
dvL vi
C  (4.18)
dt R
and thus:
vL t   vi t dt  vL 0
1 t
RC  0
(4.19)
Thus, v L t  is the time integral of vi t  .
Index Noninverting Integrator PMcL

4.17
This circuit has some interesting properties. The integral relationship does not
have an associated negative sign, as is the case with the Miller integrator.
Noninverting, or positive, integrators are required in many applications.
Another useful property is the fact that one terminal of the capacitor is
connected to common. This would simplify the initial charging of the capacitor
to v L 0 , as may be necessary to set an initial condition.
The output of the circuit cannot be taken at the terminal labelled v L since the
connection of a load there will change the preceding analysis. Fortunately, a
voltage source output is available that is proportional to v L – at the output of
the op-amp where you can easily verify that vo  2v L . Thus the output of the
circuit is:
vo t   vi t dt  vo 0
2 t
RC  0
(4.20)
PMcL Noninverting Integrator Index

4.18
4.8 Summary
 The op-amp is a versatile electronic building block. Real op-amps perform
close to the ideal, making circuit design and verification relatively easy.
 The inverting summing amplifier:
Rn
vn
R2 Rf
v2
R1
v1
vo
has an output equal to:
R R R 
vo   f v1  f v2    f vn 
 R1 R2 Rn 
 The difference amplifier:
R2
R1
v i1
R1
v i2
vo
R2
vo 
R2
vi 2  vi1 
R1
Index Summary PMcL

4.19
 The inverting integrator:
R
vi
vo
is a poor implementation of an integrator since the op-amp is operating in

an “open-loop” for DC input voltages, causing the output to saturate. A
practical approximation that alleviates this problem is:
Rf
R
vi
vo
 The differentiator:
C
vi
vo
vo t    RC
dvi
dt
It is rarely used in practice, because it tends to act as a “noise magnifier”.
PMcL Summary Index

4.20
 A negative impedance converter (NIC):
R2
R1
R
vi
R in
has an input resistance given by:
R1
Rin   R
R2
 The Howland voltage-to-current converter:
R R
IL
VL
Vs
RL
creates a voltage-controlled current source where:
Vs
IL 
R
Index Summary PMcL

4.21
 The Deboo noninverting integrator:
r
vo
R R
vi
has an output:
vo t   vi t dt  vo 0
2 t
RC  0
It is a very practical and useful integrator circuit.
4.9 References
Deboo, Gordon: “A Novel Integrator”, NASA-TM-X-57906, NASA Ames
Research Center, 1966.
Sedra, A. and Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College

Publishing, New York, 1991.
Sheingold, D.: “Impedance & Admittance Transformations”, The Lightning

Empiricist, vol. 12, no. 1, Philbrick Researches, Inc., Boston, 1964.
PMcL References Index

4.22
Exercises
1.
Design an op-amp circuit with a 10 kΩ input resistance which converts a
symmetrical square wave at 1 kHz having 2 V peak-to-peak amplitude and zero
average value into a triangle wave of 2 V peak-to-peak amplitude.
2.
Design a two op-amp circuit with inputs v1 and v 2 and input resistances of
100 kΩ whose output is vo  v1  10v2 .
3.
Determine the output voltage of the following circuit:
60 k
30 k
v3
20 k vo
v2
20 k 20 k
v1
4.
Design a negative impedance converter having an input resistance of -1 kΩ.
This circuit is connected to the output terminal of a source whose open-circuit
voltage is 1 mV and whose output resistance is 900 Ω. What voltage is then
measured at the output of the source?

4.23
5.
Express io as a function of v i for the circuit below:
R1
R1
vi
R1 R1
R
io
RL

5.1
5 Reactive Components
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 5.2

5.1 The Capacitor ............................................................................................ 5.3
5.1.1 Capacitor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.5
5.1.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor ........................................................ 5.7
5.1.3 Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics ...................... 5.10
5.2 The Inductor ............................................................................................ 5.11
5.2.1 Inductor v-i Relationships ........................................................... 5.14
5.2.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor ...................................................... 5.19
5.2.3 Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics ........................ 5.22
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors .......................................................... 5.23
5.3.1 Capacitors ................................................................................... 5.23
5.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors................................................................ 5.24
5.3.3 Inductors ..................................................................................... 5.25
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors ................. 5.27
5.4.1 Inductors ..................................................................................... 5.27
5.4.2 Capacitors ................................................................................... 5.30
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors ...................................... 5.32
5.5.1 DC Circuits ................................................................................. 5.32
5.5.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis ........................................................... 5.34
5.6 Duality ..................................................................................................... 5.36
5.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 5.40
5.8 References ............................................................................................... 5.41
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 5.42
PMcL Contents Index
2015 5 - Reactive Components

5.2
Introduction
The capacitor is a circuit element whose voltage-current relationship involves
the rate of change of voltage. Physically, a capacitor consists of two conducting
surfaces on which a charge may be stored, separated by a thin insulating layer
which has a very large resistance. Energy is stored in the electric field that
exists between the capacitor’s two conducting surfaces. In addition, the
insulating layer may be made of a high permittivity material (such as ceramic)
which will dramatically increase the capacitance (compared to air).
The inductor is a circuit element whose voltage-current relationship involves

the rate of change of current. Physically, an inductor may be constructed by
winding a length of wire into a coil. Energy is stored in the magnetic field that
exists around the wire in the coil, and the geometry of a coil increases this field
compared to a straight wire. In addition, the centre of the coil may be made of a
ferromagnetic material (such as iron) which will dramatically increase the
inductance (compared to air).
Both the capacitor and the inductor are capable of storing and delivering finite
amounts of energy, but they cannot deliver non-zero average power over an
infinite time interval. They are therefore passive circuit elements, like the
resistor.
The capacitor and inductor are linear circuit elements. Therefore all the circuit
methods previously studied, such as nodal analysis, superposition, Thévenin’s
theorem, etc., can be applied to circuits containing capacitors and inductors.
Lastly, in dealing with the capacitor and inductor in a circuit, we will note that
the equations describing their behaviour bear a similar resemblance – they are
the duals of each other. It will be shown that the concept of duality is a
recurring theme in circuit analysis, and can be readily applied to many simple
circuits, saving both time and effort.
5 - Reactive Components 2015

5.3
5.1 The Capacitor

The simplest capacitor is formed by two conductive plates separated by a
dielectric layer:
A parallel plate
capacitor
A
q
d
conductor
v insulator

Figure 5.1
One of the plates carries a positive charge, q, whilst the other carries an equal
but opposite charge, -q. Therefore, the capacitor stores charge. There is a
potential difference, v, between the plates. Ideally, the amount of charge q
deposited on the plates is proportional to the voltage v impressed across them.
We define a constant1 called the capacitance, C, of the structure by the linear
relationship:
The definition of
q  Cv (5.1) capacitance
The unit of capacitance is the farad, with symbol F.
There is an electric field between the capacitor plates which is established by

the charges present on the plates. Energy is stored in the capacitor by virtue of
this electric field.
1
The constant only models the behaviour of the structure under certain operating conditions.
The capacitance of a structure in the real world will vary with temperature, voltage, pressure,
frequency, chemical aging, etc,
PMcL The Capacitor Index

5.4
The ideal capacitance relationship is a straight line through the origin:

The capacitor is a
C
1
Figure 5.2
Even though capacitance is defined as C  q v , it should be noted that C is a

purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor arrangements
and the materials used in the construction. For example, it can be shown for a
thin parallel plate capacitor that the capacitance is approximately:
The capacitance of A
a parallel plate
capacitor
C (5.2)
d
where A is the area of either of the two parallel plates, and d is the distance
between them. The permittivity,  , is a constant of the insulating material
between the plates. The permittivity is usually expressed in terms of relative
permittivity,  r :
Relative permittivity
defined
   r 0 (5.3)
where  0  8.854 pFm-1 is the permittivity of free space (and, for all practical
purposes, air).
Index The Capacitor PMcL

5.5
5.1.1 Capacitor v-i Relationships
We now seek a v-i relationship for the capacitor. From the definition of current:
dq
i (5.4)
dt
we substitute q  Cv and obtain:
The capacitor’s v-i

dv
iC (5.5) branch derivative
relationship
dt
The circuit symbol for the capacitor is based on the construction of the physical
device, and is shown below together with the passive sign convention for the
voltage and current:
The circuit symbol

for the capacitor
v C
Figure 5.3
The capacitor voltage may be expressed in terms of the current by integrating

Eq. (5.5):
The capacitor’s v-i
vt    id  vt0 

1 t branch integral
(5.6) relationship
C t0

5.6
EXAMPLE 5.1 Capacitor Voltage and Current Waveforms
The voltage waveform across a 3 F capacitor is shown below:
v(t) (V)
1
-1 0 1 2 3 t (s)
Since the voltage is zero and constant for t  1 , the current is zero in this
interval. The voltage then begins to increase at the linear rate dv dt  1 Vs -1 ,
and thus a constant current of i  C dv dt  3 A is produced. During the

following 2 second interval, the voltage is constant and the current is therefore
zero. The final decrease of the voltage causes a negative 3 A and no response
thereafter. The current waveform is sketched below:
i (t) (A)
3
-1 0 1 2 3 t (s)
-3

5.7
5.1.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
The power delivered to a capacitor is:
dv
p  vi  Cv (5.7)
dt
and the energy stored in its electric field is therefore:
wC t    pdt  wC t0 
t
t0
dt  wC t0 
t dv
 C v
t0 dt
v t 
 C vdv  wC t0 
v  t0 
1
2
 
 C v 2 t   v 2 t0   wC t0 
(5.8)
If the capacitor voltage is zero at t 0 , then the electric field, and hence the
stored capacitor energy, wC t 0  , is also zero at that instant. We then have:
The stored energy in
wC t   Cv 2 t 
1 a capacitor
(5.9)
2
We can see that the energy stored in a capacitor depends only on the
capacitance and the voltage. Therefore, a finite amount of energy can be stored
in a capacitor even if the current through the capacitor is zero.
Whenever the voltage is not zero, and regardless of its polarity, energy is
stored in the capacitor. It follows, therefore, that power must be delivered to
the capacitor for a part of the time and recovered from the capacitor later.

5.8
EXAMPLE 5.2 Energy Stored in a Capacitor
A sinusoidal voltage source is connected in parallel with an 80 k resistor and

a 2 μF capacitor, as shown below:
vs 80 k 2 F
The 80 k resistor in the circuit represents the dielectric losses present in a

typical 2 μF capacitor. Let v s  325 sin100t  V , which corresponds to a
typical low voltage 230 V RMS household supply.
The current through the resistor is:
 4.063 sin 100t  mA

v
iR
R
and the current through the capacitor is:
 2  10 6 325 sin 100t   204.2 cos100t  mA

dv d
iC  C
dt dt
The power delivered to the capacitor is:
p C  viC  325 sin100t   0.2042 cos100t   33.18 sin200t  W
A graph of the power delivered to the capacitor versus time is shown below:
pC (W)
33.18
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)
-33.18

5.9
The instantaneous power delivered to the capacitor is sinusoidal, and varies at
twice the frequency of the voltage source. Negative power delivered to the
capacitor means that power is sourced from the capacitor. Note that the
average power dissipated in the capacitor is zero.
The energy stored in the capacitor is:
Cv   2  10 6 325 sin 100t   105.6 sin 2 100t  mJ

1 2 1
wC 
2
2 2
A graph of the stored energy versus time is shown below:
wC (mJ)
105.6
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)
The energy stored is sinusoidal and varies at twice the frequency of the voltage
source, but it also has a finite average component of 52.81 mJ.
We see that the energy increases from zero at t  0 to a maximum of 105.6 mJ

at t  5 ms and then decreases to zero in another 5 ms. During this 10 ms
interval, the energy dissipated in the resistor as heat is:
1.320 sin 2 100t dt   0.66021  cos200t dt  6.602 mJ

0.01 0.01 0.01
wR   p R dt  
0 0 0
Thus, an energy equal to 6.25% of the maximum stored energy is lost as heat in
the process of storing and removing the energy in the physical capacitor. Later
we will formalise this concept by defining a quality factor Q that is
proportional to the ratio of the maximum energy stored to the energy lost per
period.

5.10
5.1.3 Summary of Important Capacitor Characteristics
Several important characteristics of the ideal capacitor are summarised below.
1. If a constant voltage is held across a capacitor, then dv dt  0 and

The capacitor is an
open-circuit to DC subsequently no current enters (or leaves) it. A capacitor is thus an
open-circuit to DC. This fact is represented by the capacitor symbol.
2. A capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, for this implies

A capacitor voltage
cannot change dv dt   , and the capacitor would require infinite current. Thus,
instantaneously
capacitor voltage is smooth and continuous. This fact will be used
frequently when undertaking transient analysis of circuits.
v(t)
V
0 t0 t1 t
v(t)
V
0 t0 t1 t2 t3 t
Figure 5.4
3. For an ideal capacitor, current can change instantaneously.
v
5
0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
dv
i = C dt
20
0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
Figure 5.5
4. An ideal capacitor never dissipates energy, but stores it and releases it
using its electric field.

5.11
5.2 The Inductor

On 21 April 1820, the Danish scientist Ørsted noticed a compass needle
deflected from magnetic north when an electric current from a battery was
switched on and off, confirming a direct relationship between electricity and An electric current
magnetism. Three months later he began more intensive investigations and produces a
magnetic field
soon thereafter published his findings, showing that an electric current
produces a circular magnetic field.
An inductor is a two-terminal device, usually constructed as a coil of wire, that

is designed to store energy in a magnetic field. The coil effectively increases
the magnetic field by the number of “turns” of wire, and as we shall see, also
increases the number of “circuits” which “link” the magnetic field.
An ideal inductor produces a magnetic field which is wholly confined within it.
The closest approximation to an ideal inductor that we can physically produce
is a toroid, which has an almost uniform magnetic field confined within it:
A toroidal inductor
i
core
magnetic
field
B
winding
Figure 5.6
PMcL The Inductor Index

5.12
To explain magnetism, 19th century scientists invoked an analogy with fluids

and postulated the existence of a magnetic fluid, known as magnetic “flux”,  ,
which streamed throughout space and manifested itself as magnetism.
Magnetic flux
defined Magnetic flux always streams out of north poles and into south poles, and
forms a closed loop. We still use this concept of flux today, as the theory has
been spectacularly successful.
If a tube of magnetic flux (which is a closed loop) streams through a closed

loop of wire (a circuit), then it is said to “link” with the circuit. The amount of
“flux linkage”,  , is given by:
Magnetic flux
linkage defined   N (5.10)
where N is the number of loops of wire, or turns, in the circuit, and  is the
average amount of magnetic flux streaming through each loop.
Magnetic flux
linkage shown
graphically
N turns
1 2 3 ... N
 = 1+ 2 + 3+ ...+ N = N av
Figure 5.7
An ideal inductor is a structure where the flux linkage (with itself) is directly
proportional to the current through it. We define a constant, called the self
inductance, L, of the structure by the linear relationship:
  Li
The definition of
inductance (5.11)
The unit of inductance is the henry, with symbol H.

Index The Inductor PMcL

5.13
The ideal inductance relationship is a straight line through the origin:
The inductor is a
L
1
Figure 5.8
Even though inductance is defined as L   i , it should be noted that L is a

purely geometric property, and depends only on the conductor arrangements
and the materials used in the construction.
For example, it can be shown for a closely wound toroid that the inductance is
approximately:
A The inductance of a
LN 2
(5.12) toroidal inductor
l
where A is the cross-sectional area of the toroid material, and l is the mean path
length around the toroid. The permeability,  , is a constant of the material
used in making the toroid. The permeability is usually expressed in terms of
relative permeability,  r :
   r 0 (5.13)
Relative
permeability defined
where  0  400 nHm-1 is the permeability of free space (and, for all practical
purposes, air).

5.14
5.2.1 Inductor v-i Relationships
We now seek a v-i relationship for the inductor. In 1840, the great British
experimentalist Michael Faraday2 discovered that a changing magnetic field
could induce a voltage in a neighbouring circuit, or indeed the circuit that was
producing the magnetic field. Faraday’s Law states that the induced voltage is
equal to the rate-of-change of magnetic flux linkage:
Faraday’s Law d
v (5.14)
dt
The minus sign comes from the fact that the polarity of the induced voltage is
such as to oppose the change in flux. For an inductor, we can figure out that the
polarity of the induced voltage must be positive at the terminal where the
current enters the inductor. If we know this, then we can mark the polarity on a
circuit diagram and deal with the magnitude of the induced voltage by
dropping the minus sign (the determination of the voltage polarity is called
Lenz’s Law).
If we allow the polarity to be set by Lenz’s Law, and substitute   Li into the
previous equation, then we get:
The inductor’s v-i

di
branch derivative
relationship vL (5.15)
dt
2
The American inventor Joseph Henry discovered this phenomenon independently, but
Faraday was the first to publish.

5.15
The circuit symbol for the inductor is based on the construction of the physical
device, and is shown below together with the passive sign convention for the
voltage and current:
The circuit symbol

for the inductor
v L
Figure 5.9
The inductor current may be expressed in terms of the voltage by integrating

Eq. (5.15):
The inductor’s v-i

it    vd  it0 
1 t branch integral
(5.16)
relationship
L t0

5.16
EXAMPLE 5.3 Inductor Current and Voltage Waveforms
The variation of current through a 25 mH inductor as a function of time is

shown below:
i(t) (mA)
20
10
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
t (ms)
-10
Since the current is constant for t  0 , the voltage is zero in this interval. The
current then begins to increase at the linear rate di dt  10 As-1 , and thus a
constant voltage of v  L di dt  250 mV is produced. During the following
2 millisecond interval, the current decreases at the linear rate di dt  15 As-1 ,
and so the voltage is v  L di dt  375 mV . The final increase of the current

causes a positive 125 mV and no response thereafter. The voltage waveform is
sketched below:
v(t) (mV)
400
200
t (ms)
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-200
-400

5.17
EXAMPLE 5.4 Inductor Current, Voltage and Power Waveforms
Consider the simple circuit below:
i v 2H
Let the current it  which is produced by the source be described by the
function of time shown below:
i(t) (A)
1
0 1 2
t (s)
Since v  L di dt  2 di dt then the voltage across the inductor is as shown

below:
v(t) (V)
2
t (s)
0 1 2
-1
-2

5.18
We know that a resistor always absorbs power and the energy absorbed is
dissipated as heat – but how about an inductor? For the inductor in this
example, the instantaneous power pt   vt it  absorbed by the inductor is
given by the graph below:
p(t) (W)
2
0 1 2
t (s)
-1
-2
We see that the power absorbed by the inductor is zero for    t  0 and
2  t   . For 0  t  1 , since pt  is a positive quantity, the inductor is
absorbing power (which is produced by the source). However, for 1  t  2 ,
since pt  is a negative quantity, the inductor is actually supplying power (to
the source).
To get the energy absorbed by the inductor, we simply integrate the power
absorbed over time. For this example, the energy absorbed increases from 0 to
1
2
12  1 J as time goes from t  0 to t  1 s . However, from t  1 to t  2 s ,
the inductor supplies energy such that at time t  2 s and thereafter, the net
energy absorbed by the inductor is zero. Since all of the energy absorbed by the
inductor is not dissipated but is eventually returned, we say that the inductor
stores energy. The energy is stored in the magnetic field that surrounds the
inductor.

5.19
5.2.2 Energy Stored in an Inductor
The power delivered to an inductor is:
di
p  vi  L i (5.17)
dt
and the energy stored in its magnetic field is therefore:
wL t    pdt  wL t0 
t
t0
dt  wL t0 
t di
 L i
t0 dt
i t 
 L idi  wL t0 
i  t0 

1 2
2
 
L i t   i 2 t0   wL t0 
(5.18)
If the inductor current is zero at t 0 , then the magnetic field, and hence the
stored inductor energy, wL t 0  , is also zero at that instant. We then have:
wL t   Li t 
1 2 The stored energy in
(5.19) an inductor
2
We can see that the energy stored in an inductor depends only on the
inductance and the current. Therefore, a finite amount of energy can be stored
in an inductor even if the voltage across the inductor is zero.
Whenever the current is not zero, and regardless of its direction, energy is
stored in the inductor. It follows, therefore, that power must be delivered to the
inductor for a part of the time and recovered from the inductor later.

5.20
EXAMPLE 5.5 Energy Stored in an Inductor
A sinusoidal current source is connected in series with a 100 m resistor and a

3 mH inductor, as shown below:
100 m
vR
is 3 mH vL
The 100 m resistor in the circuit represents the resistance of the wire which
must be associated with the physical coil. Let i s  12 sin100t  A .
The voltage across the resistor is:
v R  Ri  1.2 sin100t  V
and the voltage across the inductor is:
 3  10 3 12 sin 100t   11.31cos100t  V

di d
vL L
dt dt
The power delivered to the inductor is:
p L  vL i  11.31cos100t  12 sin100t   67.86 sin200t  W
A graph of the power delivered to the inductor versus time is shown below:
pL (W)
67.86
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)
-67.86

5.21
The instantaneous power delivered to the inductor is sinusoidal, and varies at
twice the frequency of the current source. Negative power delivered to the
inductor means that power is sourced from the inductor. Note that the average
power dissipated in the inductor is zero.
The energy stored in the inductor is:
Li   3  10 3 12 sin 100t   216 sin 2 100t  mJ

1 2 1
wL 
2
2 2
A graph of the stored energy versus time is shown below:
wL (mJ)
216
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 t (ms)
The energy stored is sinusoidal and varies at twice the frequency of the current
source, but it also has a finite average component of 108 mJ.
We see that the energy increases from zero at t  0 to a maximum of 216 mJ at

t  5 ms and then decreases to zero in another 5 ms. During this 10 ms interval,
the energy dissipated in the resistor as heat is:
14.4 sin 2 100t dt   7.21  cos200t dt  72 mJ

0.01 0.01 0.01
wR   p R dt  
0 0 0
Thus, an energy equal to 33.33% of the maximum stored energy is lost as heat
in the process of storing and removing the energy in the physical inductor.

5.22
5.2.3 Summary of Important Inductor Characteristics
Several important characteristics of the ideal inductor are summarised below.
1. If a constant current is passed through an inductor, then di dt  0 and

The inductor is a
short-circuit to DC subsequently no voltage appears across it. An inductor is thus a short-
circuit to DC.
2. An inductor current cannot change instantaneously, for this implies

An inductor current
cannot change di dt   , and the inductor would require infinite voltage. Thus,
instantaneously
inductor current is smooth and continuous. This fact will be used
frequently when undertaking transient analysis of circuits.
i (t)
I
0 t0 t1 t
i (t)
I
0 t0 t1 t2 t3 t
Figure 5.10
3. For an ideal inductor, voltage can change instantaneously.
i
5
0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
di
v= L dt
20
0 1 2 3 4 t (ms)
Figure 5.11
4. An ideal inductor never dissipates energy, but stores it and releases it
using its magnetic field.

5.23
5.3 Practical Capacitors and Inductors

Practical capacitors and inductors are manufactured for different values,
voltage and current ratings, accuracy, volumetric efficiency, temperature
Practical
stability, etc. As such, their construction will play a role in their electrical components have
non-ideal and
behaviour. To represent these physical components in a circuit we need to parasitic effects
model their non-ideal and parasitic effects.
5.3.1 Capacitors
There are many different types of capacitor construction. Some are shown
below, labelled by the type of dielectric:
Some types of
capacitors
polystyrene polypropylene polycarbonate
PTFE (Teflon) polyester paper
ceramic tantalum electrolytic aluminium electrolytic
Figure 5.12 – Some types of capacitors
PMcL Practical Capacitors and Inductors Index

5.24
A reasonably accurate circuit model of a real capacitor is shown below:
Model of a real
capacitor
Rp
C
Rs Ls
Figure 5.13
In the model, the series resistance Rs takes into account the finite resistance of
the plates used to make the capacitor. The series inductance Ls is used to
model the fact that a current is required to charge and discharge the plates, and
this current must have a magnetic field. Finally, no practical material is a
perfect insulator, and the resistance R p represents conduction through the
dielectric.
We call Rs , Ls and R p parasitic elements. Capacitors are designed to
minimize the effects of the parasitic elements consistent with other

Parasitic elements
defined requirements such as physical size and voltage rating. However, parasitics are
always present, and when designing circuits care must be taken to select
components for which the parasitic effects do not compromise the proper
operation of the circuit.
5.3.2 Electrolytic Capacitors
One side (the anode) of an electrolytic capacitor is formed from a foil of

Electrolytic
capacitors have a aluminium which is anodised to produce an oxide layer which is the dielectric.
large capacitance The oxide-coated foil is immersed in an electrolytic solution which forms the
per unit volume, but
are polarised cathode. A large capacitance per unit volume is achieved. However, exposure
to a reverse voltage for a long time leads to rapid heating of the capacitor and
to breakdown. Thus, electrolytic capacitors are polarised and it must be
ensured that the correct voltage polarity is applied to avoid failure.
Index Practical Capacitors and Inductors PMcL

5.25
5.3.3 Inductors
There are many different types of inductor construction. Some are shown
below, labelled by the type of core:
Some types of
inductors
ferrite core laminated steel core air core
Figure 5.14 – Some types of inductors
The construction of the core of the inductor is especially important in

determining its properties. Laminated steel cores are common for low
frequencies, and ferrites (non-conducting oxides of iron) are used for high
The core of an
frequencies. Since the core is subjected to a changing magnetic field, the inductor is generally
a magnetic material
induced voltages in the core create what are known as eddy currents. Steel which exhibits
laminations and ferrites reduce the energy losses caused by these eddy currents. energy losses
There are also energy loss mechanisms associated with reversing the “magnetic
domains” in a core, and so the losses due to the magnetic characteristic and the
induced eddy currents are combined into a term called the core loss.
Air-cored inductors are linear and do not exhibit core losses (since there is no Air-cored inductors
conductive core). They can be made by winding a coil on a non-magnetic do not exhibit core
losses
former, such as plastic, or may be self-supporting if made large enough. Air-
cored inductors have lower inductance than ferromagnetic-core inductors, but
are often used at high frequencies because they are free of core losses.
PMcL Practical Capacitors and Inductors Index

5.26
A reasonably accurate circuit model of a real inductor is shown below:

Model of a real
inductor
Rp
Rs L
Cp
Figure 5.15
The series resistance Rs takes into account the finite resistance of the wire
used to create the coil. The parallel capacitance C p is associated with the
electric field in the insulation surrounding the wire, and is called interwinding
capacitance. The parallel resistance R p represents the core losses.
The following inductor model, showing just the predominant non-ideal effect
of finite winding resistance, is often used at low frequencies:
Low frequency
model of a real
inductor showing the Rs L
winding resistance
Figure 5.16
Index Practical Capacitors and Inductors PMcL

5.27
5.4 Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and

Capacitors
Resistors connected in series and parallel can be combined into an equivalent
resistor. Inductors and capacitors can be combined in the same manner.
5.4.1 Inductors
A series connection of inductors is shown below:
v1 L1
v
v2 L2
Figure 5.17
We find from KVL that:
v  v1  v2
di di
 L1  L2
dt dt
 L1  L2 
di
dt
di
L
dt (5.20)
where:
Combining inductors
L  L1  L2 (series) (5.21) in series
PMcL Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors Index

5.28
We depict this below:
L1 L2 L = L 1+L 2
Figure 5.18
For the case of two inductors in parallel, as shown below:
i
i1 i2
v L1 L2
Figure 5.19
we have, by KCL:
i  i1  i2
1 t
  1
vdt  i2 t0 
t
L1 t0 
 vdt  i t
1 0 
L2 t0
1 1 t
     vdt  i1 t0   i2 t0 
 L1 L2  t0
  vdt  i t0 
1 t
L t0 (5.22)
Index Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5.29
where:
1 1 1
  (parallel) (5.23)
Combining inductors
in parallel
L L1 L2
and:
it0   i1 t0   i2 t0  (5.24)
L1
i1(t0) 1 1 1
L L = L 1+ L 2
L2
i (t0) = i1(t0) + i2(t0)
i2(t0)
Figure 5.20

5.30
5.4.2 Capacitors
Consider two capacitors in parallel as shown below:
i
i1 i2
v C1 C2
Figure 5.21
By KCL, we have:
i  i1  i2
dv dv
 C1  C2
dt dt
 C1  C2 
dv
dt
dv
C
dt (5.25)
so that we obtain:
Combining
capacitors in parallel C  C1  C2 (parallel) (5.26)
Index Series and Parallel Connections of Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5.31
C1
C = C1 + C2
C2
Figure 5.22
For capacitors in series, analogously to inductors in parallel, we get the result:
1 1 1
 
Combining
(5.27) capacitors in series
C C1 C2 (series)
which is shown below:
1=1 + 1
C1 C2 C C C1 C2
v1(t0) v2(t0) v (t0) = v1(t0) + v2(t0)
Figure 5.23
In summary, inductors in series and parallel are treated like resistors, whereas
capacitors in series and parallel are treated like conductances.

5.32
5.5 Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors

For the ideal inductor and ideal capacitor, all of the relationships between
Linear circuit voltage and current are linear relationships (apart from the integral
analysis techniques
can be applied to relationships that have an initial condition term). Consequently, circuit analysis
circuits with
techniques which rely on the linearity property (such as nodal analysis, mesh
inductors and
capacitors analysis, superposition, Thévenin’s theorem and Norton’s theorem) can be
applied to circuits containing inductors and capacitors.
5.5.1 DC Circuits
An ideal inductor behaves as a short-circuit to DC, and the capacitor behaves

A DC circuit is
treated as a purely as an open-circuit to DC. We can use these facts to determine voltages and
resistive circuit in
the “steady-state” currents in DC circuits that contain both inductors and capacitors. Other
sources, such as sinusoidal sources, will be treated later.
EXAMPLE 5.6 DC Analysis of a Circuit with Storage Elements
Determine the current i in the circuit below:
2F
1 4H
3F
6A 1F 2 4
3
i
The circuit has one independent current source whose value is constant. For a
resistive circuit we would naturally anticipate that all voltages and currents are
constant. However, this is not a resistive circuit. Yet, our intuition suggests that
the constant-valued current source produces constant-valued responses. This
fact will be confirmed more rigorously later. In the meantime, we shall use the
result that a circuit containing only constant-valued sources is a DC circuit.
Index Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5.33
Since for DC all inductors behave like short-circuits and all capacitors behave
like open-circuits, we can replace the original circuit with an equivalent
resistive circuit:
1
6A 2 4
3
i
By current division we find that:
i
4
6  4 A
42
PMcL Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors Index

5.34
5.5.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis
Just as we analysed resistive circuits with the use of node and mesh equations,
Nodal and mesh we can write a set of equations for circuits that contain inductors and capacitors
analysis can be
applied to circuits in addition to resistors and sources. The procedure is similar to that described
with inductors and
capacitors for the resistive case – the difference being that for inductors and capacitors the
appropriate relationship between voltage and current is used in place of Ohm’s
Law.
EXAMPLE 5.7 Mesh Analysis of a Circuit with Storage Elements
6F
5
i4 4H i3
1F 3H
1A i1 2 i2 3V
By mesh analysis, for mesh i1 :
i1  1
For mesh i 2 :
2i2  i1   3 i2  i3   3
d
dt
Index Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors PMcL

5.35
For mesh i3 :
d
i3  i2   4 d i3  i4   1  i3 dt  0
t
3
dt dt 6
For mesh i 4 :
1 t
  
i4  i1 dt  5i4  4 d i4  i3   0
1 dt
The equation obtained for mesh i 2 is called a differential equation since it

contains variables and their derivatives. The equations obtained for meshes i3
and i 4 are called integrodifferential equations since they contain integrals as

well as derivatives.
Writing the equations for a circuit, as in the preceding example, is not difficult.
Finding the solution of equations like these, however, is another matter – it is
no simple task. Thus, with the exception of some very simple circuits, we shall
have to resort to additional concepts and techniques to be introduced later.
PMcL Circuit Analysis with Inductors and Capacitors Index

5.36
5.6 Duality
Duality is a concept which arises frequently in circuit analysis. To illustrate,
consider the two circuits shown below:
Dual circuits
R v
v1
vs i v2 is G C
i1 i2
Circuit A Circuit B
Figure 5.24
Using mesh analysis for circuit A and nodal analysis for circuit B, we get the
following results:
Circuit A Circuit B
vs  v1  v2 is  i1  i2
di dv
v s  Ri  L is  Gv  C
dt dt
In other words, both circuits are described by the same equations:
xs  x1  x2
dy (5.28)
xs  a1 y  a2
dt
except that a variable that is a current in one circuit is a voltage in the other and
vice versa. For these two circuits this result is not a coincidence, but rather is
due to a concept known as duality, which has its roots in the subject of graph
theory.
Index Duality PMcL

5.37
In actuality, circuits A and B are dual circuits since the following roles are
interchanged:
vi Dual circuit
RG
relationships
LC
series  parallel (5.29)
The usefulness of duality lies in the fact that once a circuit is analysed, its dual
is in essence analysed also. Note that if circuit B is the dual of circuit A, then
taking the dual of circuit B in essence results in circuit A. Not every circuit,
however, has a dual. With the aid of graph theory it can be shown that a circuit
has a dual if and only if it is a planar network.
The technique for obtaining the dual of a planar network is:

The technique for
obtaining the dual of
1. Inside of each mesh, and in the infinite region surrounding the a planar circuit
circuit, place a node.
2. Suppose two of these nodes, say nodes a and b, are in adjacent

meshes. Then there is at least one element in the boundary common
to these two meshes. Place the dual of each common element
between nodes a and b.
When using this procedure to obtain the dual circuit, in order to get the mesh
equations of the original circuit to correspond to the node equations of the dual
circuit, place clockwise mesh currents i1 , i2 , ..., in in the finite regions. The
corresponding nodes in the dual are labelled with the voltages v1 , v 2 , ..., vn
respectively. The reference node of the dual circuit corresponds to the infinite
region of the original circuit.
PMcL Duality Index

5.38
EXAMPLE 5.8 Analysis of a Dual Circuit
For the circuit given in the previous example (shown in blue), the dual is
obtained as (shown in red):
6F
5
v4 v3
4F 4H 3F
5S 6H
1H 3H
1F
1A 2 3V
v1 2 S v2
1V 3A
The dual circuit is redrawn for simplicity:
4F
1H 3F
v1 2S v2
v4 v3
5S 1V 3A 6H
Index Duality PMcL

5.39
By nodal analysis, at node v1 :
v1  1
At node v 2 :
2v2  v1   3 v2  v3   3
d
dt
At node v3 :
d
v3  v2   4 d v3  v4   1  v3 dt  0
t
3
dt dt 6
At node v 4 :
1 t
 v4  v1 dt  5v4  4 v4  v3   0
d
1  dt
Note that these are the duals of the mesh equations that we obtained earlier for
the original circuit.
PMcL Duality Index

5.40
5.7 Summary
 The v-i relationship for a capacitor is:
dv
iC
dt
 A capacitor behaves as an open-circuit to direct current.
 The voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
 The energy stored in a capacitor is:
1
wC  Cv 2
2
 The v-i relationship for an inductor is:
di
vL
dt
 An inductor behaves as a short-circuit to direct current.
 The current through an inductor cannot change instantaneously.
 The energy stored in an inductor is:
1 2
wL  Li
2
 Inductors in series and parallel are combined in the same way as are
resistances. Capacitors in series and parallel are combined in the same way
as are conductances.
 Writing node and mesh equations for circuits containing inductors and
capacitors is done in the same manner as for resistive circuits. Obtaining
solutions of equations in this form will be avoided, except for simple
circuits.
 A planar circuit and its dual are in essence described by the same equations.
Index Summary PMcL

5.41
5.8 References
Bobrow, L.: Elementary Linear Circuit Analysis, Holt-Saunders, 1981.
Hill, 1984.

5.42
Exercises
1.
There is a current i  5 sin 10t A through an inductance L  2 H . What is the
first instant of time after t  0 when the power entering the inductor is exactly:
(a) 100 W
(b) -100 W
2.
The energy stored in a certain 10 mH inductor is zero at t  1 ms and increases
linearly by 20 mJ each second thereafter. Find the inductor current and voltage
for t  1 ms if neither is ever negative.
3.
A 25 μF capacitor having no voltage across it at t  0 is subjected to the single
pulse of current shown below.
i(t) (mA)
20
10
0 10 20 30
t (ms)
Determine the voltage across, the power entering, and the energy stored in C at
t :
(a) 17 ms
(b) 40 ms

5.43
4.
Find C eq for the lattice network shown below if terminals a and b are:
(a) open-circuited as shown
(b) short-circuited
1 nF
a
3 nF
Ceq
4 nF
b
2 nF
5.
The series combination of a 4 μF and a 3 μF capacitor is in series with the
parallel combination of a 2 μF , a 1 μF and a C μF capacitor.
(a) What is the maximum possible value for the equivalent capacitance of
the five capacitors?
(b) Repeat for the minimum value.
(c) Find C if Ceq  1.5 μF .

5.44
6.
At t  0 , i  5 A in the circuit shown below:
8 sin 10 t A 1H 3H v
(a) Find vt  for all t.
(b) Find i t  for t  0 .
7.
(a) Write the single nodal equation for the circuit (a) below:
(b) Write the single mesh equation for the circuit (b) below:
is
vC (0) 40 mH
5 k
i L (0)
200  F
vC (0) 200  F vs
5 k
40 mH
i L (0)
(a) (b)

5.45
8.
Using a reference node at the bottom of the circuit, assign node-to-reference
voltages in the circuit below and write nodal equations. Let iL 0  0.5 A and
vC 0  12 V .
3v1
v2
0.1 H
iL 50 
-100 t
0.8e A
v1 20  200 F vC

6.1
6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 6.2

6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode ....................................................................... 6.3
6.1.1 The Forward-Bias Region............................................................. 6.4
6.1.2 The Reverse-Bias Region ............................................................. 6.6
6.1.3 The Breakdown Region ................................................................ 6.6
6.1.4 Diode Symbol ............................................................................... 6.7
6.2 Breakdown Diodes .................................................................................... 6.7
6.2.1 Zener Breakdown.......................................................................... 6.7
6.2.2 Avalanche Breakdown .................................................................. 6.7
6.3 Other Types of Diode ................................................................................ 6.8
6.3.1 The Photodiode ............................................................................. 6.8
6.3.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED) ................................................. 6.8
6.3.3 The Schottky Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.3.4 The Varactor Diode ...................................................................... 6.9
6.4 Analysis Techniques ................................................................................ 6.10
6.4.1 Graphical Analysis...................................................................... 6.10
6.4.2 Numerical Analysis .................................................................... 6.12
6.5 Diode Models .......................................................................................... 6.14
6.5.1 The Ideal Diode Model ............................................................... 6.15
6.5.2 The Constant Voltage Drop Model............................................. 6.17
6.5.3 The Piece-Wise Linear Model .................................................... 6.19
6.5.4 The Small Signal Model ............................................................. 6.21
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits ................................................................................ 6.25
6.6.1 Half-Wave Rectifier.................................................................... 6.25
6.6.2 Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................................... 6.27
6.6.3 Limiter Circuits ........................................................................... 6.28
6.7 Summary.................................................................................................. 6.30
6.8 References ............................................................................................... 6.32
PMcL Contents Index
2015 6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

6.2
Introduction
Nonlinear circuits play a major role in modern electronics. Examples include
signal generators, communication transmitters and receivers, DC power
supplies, and digital circuits.
To begin a study of nonlinear circuits, we need to examine the most

fundamental two-terminal nonlinear device: the diode. The semiconductor
junction diode, or p-n junction diode, also forms the basis for other
semiconductor devices, such as the transistor.
The terminal characteristics of the diode will be presented, rather than the
underlying solid-state physics, so that we can focus on providing techniques for
the analysis of diode circuits. There are three types of diode circuit analysis
technique – graphical, numerical and use of a linear model. Graphical analysis
of diode circuits is done using graphs of the diode’s terminal characteristic and
the connected circuit. Numerical analysis can be performed with the nonlinear
equations of the diode with a technique known as iteration. Lastly, diodes can
be replaced with linear circuit models (of varying complexity), under assumed
diode operating conditions, so that we revert to linear circuit analysis. Each
analysis technique has its advantages and disadvantages, so it is important to
choose the most appropriate technique for a given circuit.
Basic applications of the diode will be introduced, with circuits such as the
rectifier, and the limiter. Lastly, with the use of so-called breakdown diodes,
we can design circuits that act as voltage regulators – i.e. circuits that provide a
steady output voltage when subjected to a wide range of input voltages and
output load currents.
6 - Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits 2015

6.3
6.1 The Silicon Junction Diode

A typical silicon p-n junction diode has the following i-v characteristic:
i
(mA)
10
8 forward
bias
6
reverse 4
bias
2
-VZK
-150 v
-0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6
(V)
IS = 1 nA (reverse saturation current)
breakdown
(large change in current,
small change in voltage)
Figure 6.1
The diode is clearly a nonlinear element – its characteristic is not a straight line
through the origin! The i-v characteristic can be divided up into three distinct
regions:
1. The forward-bias region, determined by v  0
2. The reverse-bias region, determined by v  0
3. The breakdown region, determined by v  VZK
PMcL The Silicon Junction Diode Index

6.4
6.1.1 The Forward-Bias Region
The forward-bias region of operation is entered when the terminal voltage v is

positive. In the forward region the i-v relationship is closely approximated by
the Shockley equation, which can be derived from semiconductor physics:
The Shockley
equation 
i  I S ev nVT  1  (6.1)
When forward There is not much increase in current until the “internal barrier voltage” is
biased, the diode
conducts overcome (approximately 0.6 V in silicon). Then large conduction results.
Saturation current The current I S is called the saturation current and is a constant for a given
defined
diode at a given temperature.
Emission coefficient
The constant n is called the emission coefficient, and has a value between 1 and
defined 2, depending on the material and the physical structure of the diode.
The voltage VT is a constant called the thermal voltage, given by:
kT
VT 
Thermal voltage
defined (6.2)
q
where:
k  Boltzmann's constant (6.3)
 1.3811023 JK-1
(6.4)
T  temperature in degrees Kelvin
q  magnitude of electron charge (6.5)
 1.602 1019 C
The thermal voltage is approximately equal to 26 mV at 300 K (a temperature
that is close to “room temperature” which is commonly used in device
simulation software).
Index The Silicon Junction Diode PMcL

6.5
For appreciable current in the forward direction ( i  I S ), the Shockley

equation can be approximated by:
i  I S ev nVT (6.6)
This equation is usually “good enough” for rough hand calculations when we
know that the current is appreciable.
From the characteristic we note that the current is negligibly small for v smaller
than about 0.5 V (for silicon). This value is usually referred to as the cut-in
voltage. This apparent threshold in the characteristic is simply a consequence
of the exponential relationship.
Another consequence of the exponential relationship is the rapid increase of

current for small changes in voltage. Thus for a “fully conducting” diode the
voltage drop lies in a narrow range, approximately 0.6 to 0.8 V for silicon. We
will see later that this gives rise to a simple model for the diode where it is
assumed that a conducting diode has approximately a 0.7 V drop across it
(again, for silicon).
The Shockley equation can be rearranged to give the voltage in terms of the
current:
 i 
v  nVT ln   1 (6.7)
 IS 
This logarithmic form is used in the numerical analysis of diode circuits.
PMcL The Silicon Junction Diode Index

6.6
6.1.2 The Reverse-Bias Region
When reverse The reverse-bias region of operation is entered when the diode voltage v is
biased, the diode
does not conduct made negative. The Shockley equation predicts that if v is negative and a few
times large than VT in magnitude, the exponential term becomes negligibly
small compared to unity and the diode current becomes:
i  I S (6.8)
That is, the current in the reverse direction is constant and equal to I S . This is
the reason behind the term saturation current. However, real diodes exhibit
reverse currents that, although quite small, are much larger than I S .
6.1.3 The Breakdown Region
The breakdown region is entered when the magnitude of the reverse voltage
Breakdown occurs exceeds a threshold value specific to the particular diode and called the
eventually for a
large enough
breakdown voltage. This is the voltage at the “knee” of the i-v curve and is
reverse bias denoted by VZK , where the subscript Z stands for Zener (to be explained
shortly) and K denotes knee.
Breakdown is not a destructive process unless the device cannot dissipate the
heat produced in the breakdown process. Breakdown is actually exploited in
certain types of diodes (e.g. the Zener diode) because of the near vertical
characteristic in this region.
Index The Silicon Junction Diode PMcL

6.7
6.1.4 Diode Symbol

The circuit symbol for the diode is shown below, with the direction of current
and polarity of voltage that corresponds to the characteristic:
anode
cathode
Figure 6.2
6.2 Breakdown Diodes

Some diodes are designed to operate in the breakdown region. It is usually a
Some diodes are
sharper transition than the forward bias characteristic, and the breakdown designed to operate
voltage is higher than the forward conduction voltage. There are two main in the breakdown
region
types of breakdown.
6.2.1 Zener Breakdown

The electric field in the depletion layer of a p-n junction becomes so large
that it rips covalent bonds apart, generating holes and electrons. The electrons
Zener breakdown is
will be accelerated into the n-type material and the holes into the p-type caused by a large
material. This constitutes a reverse current. Once the breakdown starts, large internal electric field
numbers of carriers can be produced with negligible increase in the junction
voltage.
6.2.2 Avalanche Breakdown

If the minority carriers are swept across the depletion region of a p-n junction
Avalanche
too fast, they can break the covalent bonds of atoms that they hit. New breakdown is
caused by electrons
electron-hole pairs are generated, which may acquire sufficient energy to with a large kinetic
energy
repeat the process. An avalanche starts.
PMcL Breakdown Diodes Index

6.8
6.3 Other Types of Diode

The silicon junction diode is not the only type of diode. A variety of diode
constructions exist, with many of them essential to the modern world, such as
the LED.
6.3.1 The Photodiode
In a photodiode, the p-n junction is very close to the surface of the crystal. The
A photodiode is
controlled by light Ohmic contact with the surface material is so thin, it is transparent to light.
Incident light (photons) can generate electron-hole pairs in the depletion layer
(a process called photoionisation).
6.3.2 The Light Emitting Diode (LED)
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased, electrons are able to recombine

An LED emits with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of light (photons).
photons when
forward biased The color of the light corresponds to the energy of the photons emitted, which
is determined by the “energy gap” of the semiconductor. LEDs present many
advantages over incandescent and compact fluorescent light sources including
lower energy consumption, longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size,
faster switching, and greater durability and reliability. At the moment LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more
precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of
comparable output.
LEDs are used in diverse applications. The compact size of LEDs has allowed
new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while their high
switching rates are useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared
LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products
including televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.
Index Other Types of Diode PMcL

6.9
6.3.3 The Schottky Diode
A Schottky diode is the result of a metal-semiconductor junction. The Schottky A Schottky diode is
a metal-
diode is a much faster device than the general purpose silicon diode. There are semiconductor
junction
three main reasons for this: 1) the junction used is a metal-semiconductor
junction, which has less capacitance than a p-n junction, 2) often the
semiconductor used is gallium arsenide (GaAs) because electron mobility is
much higher, and 3) the device size is made extremely small. The result is a
device that finds applications in high speed switching.
6.3.4 The Varactor Diode
This device is also known as a variable capacitance diode. It has a relatively

large capacitance, brought about by a large junction area and narrow depletion
region. The applied reverse voltage changes the length of the depletion region,
which changes the capacitance. Thus, the device can be used in applications
that rely on a voltage controlled capacitance. Applications include electronic
tuning circuits used in communication circuits, and electronic filters.
PMcL Other Types of Diode Index

6.10
6.4 Analysis Techniques

Since the diode’s characteristic is nonlinear, we can’t apply linear circuit
analysis techniques to circuits containing diodes. We therefore have to resort to
other analysis methods: graphical, numerical and linear modelling.
6.4.1 Graphical Analysis

Circuits with a single nonlinear element can always be modelled using the
Thévenin equivalent of the linear part:
R Th
iD iD
linear
vD VTh vD
circuit
Figure 6.3
KVL around the loop gives:
vD  VTh  RThiD (6.9)
which, when rearranged to make i D the subject, gives:
iD  
1
vD  VTh  (6.10)
RTh
When graphed, we call it the load line. It was derived from KVL, and so it is
The “load line” is
derived using linear always valid. The load line gives a relationship between i D and v D that is
circuit theory
determined purely by the external circuit. The diode’s characteristic gives a
relationship between i D and v D that is determined purely by the geometry and
physics of the diode.
Index Analysis Techniques PMcL

6.11
Since both the load line and the characteristic are to be satisfied, the only place The “load line” and
this is possible is the point at which they meet. This point is called the device characteristic
intersect at the Q
quiescent point, or Q point for short: point
Figure 6.4 – Graphical Analysis Using a Load Line
If the Thévenin voltage changes to VTh , then the operating point moves to Q
(the DC load line is shifted to the right).
The two end points of the load line are easily determined to enable quick
graphing. The two axis intercepts are:
VTh
vD  0, iD  (6.11)
RTh
and:
vD  VTh , iD  0 (6.12)
Alternatively, we can graph the load line using one known point and the fact
1
that the slope is equal to  .
RTh
PMcL Analysis Techniques Index

6.12
6.4.2 Numerical Analysis
Since, in the preceding analysis, we have two equations (the load line and the
diode characteristic) and two unknowns, it is tempting to try and solve them
simultaneously. If we substitute the voltage from the Shockley equation:
i 
vD  nVT ln  D  1 (6.13)
 IS 
into the load line equation:
iD  
1
vD  VTh  (6.14)
RTh
we get:
1   iD  
iD    nVT ln   1  VTh 
  (6.15)
RTh   IS  
This equation is a transcendental equation, and its solution cannot be
expressed in term of elementary functions (try it!). With a sufficiently
advanced calculator (or mathematical software), we can use a special function
called the Lambert W function to solve it, but for engineering purposes, there
are usually simpler methods of solution.
We can solve transcendental equations graphically (as shown in the preceding

section) but we can also solve them numerically using a technique known as
iteration – which is suitable for computer simulations.
Index Analysis Techniques PMcL

6.13
We begin with an initial “guess” for the diode current, labelled i D , 0 , and then
compute:
1  i  
i D ,1    nVT ln  D ,0  1  VTh 
  I  
RTh   S  
1  i   (6.16)
iD,2    nVT ln  D ,1  1  VTh 
 I  
RTh   S  
i D ,3  
and so on until we get “convergence”, i.e. iD,k 1  iD,k . Convergence is not
always guaranteed, and depends on the initial “guess”. Computer simulation

software uses several clever methods to aid in numerical convergence.
EXAMPLE 6.1 Numerical Analysis of a Circuit with a Real Diode
The following circuit contains a diode, with n  1 and I S  2.030 fA . We wish
to find the diode’s operating point, or Q point. Assume that VT  26 mV .
1 k
iD
5V vD
Starting with iD,0  1 mA we have:
1   0.001  
i D ,1    0.026 ln 
3  15
 1  5   4.3 mA
10   2.03  10  
1   0.0043  
iD,2    0.026 ln 
3  15
 1  5   4.262 mA
10   2.03  10  
Since the second value is very close to the value obtained after the first
iteration, no further iterations are necessary, and the solution is iD  4.262 mA
and v D  0.7379 V .
PMcL Analysis Techniques Index

6.14
6.5 Diode Models
Why we model the

The curve describing the diode’s terminal characteristics is non-linear. How
diode can we use this curve to do circuit analysis? We only know how to analyze
linear circuits. There is therefore a need for a linear circuit model of the
diode.
When we model something, we transform it into something else – usually

something simpler – which is more amenable to analysis and design using
The concept of
modelling mathematical equations. Modelling mostly involves assumptions and
simplifications, and the only requirement of a model is for it to “work”
reasonably well. By “work” we mean that it agrees with experimental results
to some degree of accuracy.
Models are sometimes only valid under certain operating conditions, as we

shall see when modelling the diode.
Index Diode Models PMcL

6.15
6.5.1 The Ideal Diode Model
As a first approximation, we can model the diode as an ideal switch:

The diode as an
ideal (controlled)
i switch
(mA)
"ideal" diode diode on
v
diode off (V)
Figure 6.5 – The Ideal Diode Model
The characteristic in this case is approximated by two straight lines – the

vertical representing the “on” state of the diode, and the horizontal
representing the “off” state. To determine which of these states the diode is
in, we have to determine the conditions imposed upon the diode by an
external circuit. This model of the diode is used sometimes where a quick
“feel” for a diode circuit is needed. The above model can be represented
symbolically as:
The ideal diode
model
ideal
Figure 6.6
PMcL Diode Models Index

6.16
EXAMPLE 6.2 Analysis Using the Ideal Diode
(i) Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the ideal diode
model.
(ii) If the battery is reversed, what does the current become?
R
10 k I
E 10 V ideal
(i) Firstly, we must determine whether the diode is forward biased or reverse
biased. In this circuit, the positive side of the battery is connected (via the
resistor) to the anode. Therefore, the anode is positive with respect to the
cathode, and the diode is forward biased. In order to use the ideal diode
model, the diode is simply replaced by the ideal diode model (forward
bias model), and the simplified circuit is analysed accordingly.
The equivalent circuit is shown below, where the diode has now been
replaced by a short circuit.
R
10 k
E 10
E I I= = = 1 mA
10 V R 10 k
Ohm’s Law may be used to determine the current, I, as shown:
(ii) If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased. In this case,
the diode is replaced by the ideal diode model for reverse bias. Since the
reverse biased ideal diode model is simply an open circuit, there is no
current, i.e. I  0 .

6.17
6.5.2 The Constant Voltage Drop Model
A better model is to approximate the forward bias region with a vertical line
that passes through some voltage called e fd :
A model that takes
into account the
forward voltage drop
i
(mA)
v
efd (V)
Figure 6.7 – The Constant Voltage Drop Diode Model
This “constant voltage drop” model is better than the ideal model because it
more closely approximates the characteristic in the forward bias region. The
“voltage drop” is a model for the barrier voltage in the p-n junction. The The constant
voltage drop diode
model of the diode in this case is: model
ideal e fd
Figure 6.8
This model is the one of the simplest and most widely used. It is based on the
observation that a forward-conducting diode has a voltage drop that varies in
a relatively narrow range, say 0.6 V to 0.8 V. The model assumes this voltage
to be constant, say, 0.7 V. The constant voltage drop model is the one most
frequently employed in the initial phases of analysis and design.

6.18
EXAMPLE 6.3 Analysis Using the Constant Voltage Drop Model
(i) Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the constant voltage
drop model of the diode (assume e fd  0.7 V ).
R
10 k I
E 10 V
(i) Analysis proceeds in exactly the same manner as the previous example,
except that the constant voltage drop diode model is used instead. The
diode is again forward biased, and so the equivalent circuit is shown
below, along with the calculation for I.
R
10 k I
ideal E - e fd 10 - 0.7
E I= = = 0.93 mA
10 V R 10k
e fd
(ii) If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased,

resulting in no current, i.e. I  0 .

6.19
6.5.3 The Piece-Wise Linear Model

An even better approximation to the diode characteristic is called a “piece-
wise” linear model. It is made up of pieces, where each piece is a straight
line:
A model that
approximates the
i characteristic by
using straight lines
(mA)
1
slope =
rfd
reverse bias
model is valid
v
1 efd (V)
slope =
rrd forward bias
model is valid
Figure 6.9 – The Piece-Wise Linear Diode Model
For each section, we use a different diode model (one for the forward bias
region and one for the reverse bias region):
The piece-wise
linear diode model
ideal e fd rfd r rd
reverse bias model

forward bias model
Figure 6.10
Typical values for the resistances are rfd  5  and rrd  109  .
Notice how we have done away with the ideal diode part of the model for
when the diode is reverse biased. This is because there is a separate
equivalent circuit for the forward bias and reverse bias regions, so an ideal
diode is not necessary (we apply one equivalent circuit or the other).

6.20
EXAMPLE 6.4 Analysis Using the Piece-Wise Linear Model
(i) Find the current, I, in the circuit shown below, using the piece-wise linear
model of the diode (assume e fd  0.7 V , rfd  5  and rrd  10 9  ).
R
10 k I
E 10 V
(iii) Analysis proceeds in exactly the same manner as the previous example,
except that the piece-wise linear diode model is used instead. The diode
is again forward biased, and so the equivalent circuit is shown below,
along with the calculation for I.
10 k
ideal
10 - 0.7
E 10 V e fd I= E - e fd = = 0.9295 mA
I R+ rfd 10k + 5
rfd
(iv) If the battery is reversed, the diode becomes reverse biased, and the
diode is replaced by the piece-wise linear model for the reverse
region, which is just the resistance rrd . Since rrd  10 9  , the
reverse current is:
E 10
I  9  10 nA
R  rrd 10  10 4
which is negligible, i.e. I  0 .

6.21
6.5.4 The Small Signal Model
Suppose we know the diode DC voltage and current exactly. We may want to
examine the behaviour of a circuit when we apply a signal (a small AC
voltage) to it. In this case we are interested in small excursions of the voltage
and current about the “DC operating point” of the diode. The best model in
this instance is the following (the forward bias region is used as an example,
but the method applies anywhere):
A model that
approximates the
characteristic by a
i tangent at a DC
operating point
(mA)
tangent
DC
operating
point 1
slope =
IDQ rd
v
VDQ (V)
Figure 6.11 – Diode Model as the Tangent to a DC Operating Point
We approximate the curved characteristic by the tangent that passes through

the operating point. It is only valid for small variations in voltage or current. A first look at the
small signal
This is called the small signal approximation. A straight line is a good approximation
approximation to a curve if we don’t venture too far.

6.22
Thus, for a small change v D in the diode voltage, we get a small change in
the diode current i D , which can be approximated by the change in current
we would get by following the tangent:
diD
iD  vD (6.17)
dvD
From the Shockley equation in the forward-biased region, we have:
diD I
 S ev nVT (6.18)
dvD nVT
We define the dynamic resistance of the diode as:
Dynamic resistance
dvD nVT
rd   (6.19)
diD iD  I DQ
I DQ
Therefore, using Eq. (6.17) and Eq. (6.19), a small AC signal v d superimposed
upon the DC operating point will result in a small AC current i d given by:
1
id  vd (6.20)
rd
Thus, for small AC signals, the diode can be modelled as a resistance, rd .

6.23
Now consider the case where the Thévenin equivalent circuit contains both a
DC source and a small signal AC source:
R Th
VDC iD
vD
vAC
Figure 6.12
In this case we analyse two separate circuits. The first circuit contains the DC
source which is used to establish the DC operating point. The diode in this
circuit has the standard i-v characteristic and the DC operating point can be
obtained using graphical methods (load line) or numerical methods (iteration).
The second circuit contains the small AC source and uses the dynamic
resistance model of the diode. The small AC currents and voltages in this
circuit can be superimposed upon the diode’s DC current and voltage obtained
from the first circuit. Thus we analyse:
R Th R Th
IDQ id
VDC VDQ + vAC rd vd
Figure 6.13

6.24
The analysis can also be illustrated graphically:

Development of the
diode small signal
model
iD
diode
DC load characteristic
line
id
Q
IDQ t
vD
VDQ
vd
Figure 6.14
The figure above illustrates the two separate analysis steps. First, the DC
operating point, or Q point for short, is found using graphical or numerical
techniques. Then the application of an AC voltage on top of the original DC
voltage results in a change in current given by the projection of the applied
voltage onto the diode i-v characteristic. If the AC voltage is a “small signal”,
then the diode characteristic can be replaced by a straight line. In this context, a
“small signal” is defined as one for which the tangent to the curve is a good
approximation to the curve, resulting in a linear relationship between the
voltage and current.

6.25
6.6 Basic Diode Circuits

There are many diode circuits that are used in a wide variety of applications.
The most important are summarised below.
6.6.1 Half-Wave Rectifier
A rectifier is a circuit that converts a bipolar (AC) signal into a unidirectional

one. The figure below shows a diode rectifier fed by a sine-wave voltage
source v i .
The half-wave
rectifier
vi RL vo
Figure 6.15
A sinusoidal input waveform, and the resulting output waveform v o that
appears across the “load resistor”, RL , are shown below:
vi vo
Vp Vp
t t
0 0
Figure 6.16
PMcL Basic Diode Circuits Index

6.26
Operation of the circuit is straightforward when we assume the diode is ideal:

When v i is positive the diode conducts and acts as a short-circuit. The voltage
v i appears directly at the output – that is, vo  vi , and the diode forward
current is equal to vi RL . On the other hand, when v i is negative the diode
cuts off – that is, there is no current. The output voltage v o will be zero, and the
diode becomes reverse-biased by the value of the input voltage v i . It follows

that the output voltage waveform will consist of the positive half cycles of the
input sinusoid. Since only half-cycles are utilized, the circuit is called a half-
wave rectifier.
It should be noted that while the input sinusoid has a zero average value, the
output waveform has a finite average value or DC component. Therefore,
rectifiers are used to generate DC voltages from AC voltages.
The transfer characteristic is often used to describe non-linear circuits – it is

simply a plot of the output, v o , versus the input, v i . The figure below shows
the transfer characteristic of the half-wave rectifier:
Half-wave rectifier
transfer
characteristic
vo
1
1
vi
Figure 6.17
As can be seen, the half-wave rectifier produces an output voltage equal to the
input voltage when the input voltage is positive and produces zero output
voltage when the input voltage is negative.
Index Basic Diode Circuits PMcL

6.27
6.6.2 Full-Wave Rectifier
The full-wave rectifier utilizes both halves of the input signal – it inverts the
negative halves of the waveform. One popular implementation is shown below,
where the diodes are connected in a bridge configuration:
A full-wave “bridge
rectifier”
D1 D2
io
vs vi
D4 D3
Ro vo
Figure 6.18
We can perform the usual analysis quickly. In the positive half cycle of the
input voltage, D2 and D4 are on. Meanwhile, D1 and D3 will be reverse
biased. In the negative half cycle of the input voltage, D1 and D3 are on, and
D2 and D4 are off. The important point to note is that during both half-cycles,
the current through the resistor Ro is in the same direction (down), and thus v o
will always be positive. The waveforms are shown below:
vi vo
Vp Vp
0 t 0 t
Figure 6.19

6.28
6.6.3 Limiter Circuits
Consider the following circuit:

A limiting circuit
D1 D2
vi vo
E1 E2
Figure 6.20
The circuit works very simply. Assume both diodes are off. KVL then gives:
vo  vi (6.21)
If the output voltage is greater than E1 , then diode D1 will be on. This limits or
clamps the output voltage to E1 :
vo  E1 for vi  E1 (6.22)
If the output voltage is less than  E 2 then diode D2 will be on, limiting the
output voltage to  E 2 :
vo   E2 for vi   E2 (6.23)
Index Basic Diode Circuits PMcL

6.29
A graph of the output is shown below for a sinusoidal input:
vi
E1 vo
t
-E2
Figure 6.21
The transfer characteristic of this limiter is shown below:
vo
E1
slope = 1
0
vi
-E2
Figure 6.22

6.30
6.7 Summary
 The silicon junction diode forms the basis of modern electronics. It is a
device that effectively allows a current in only one direction.
 The forward conduction region of practical silicon diodes is accurately

characterised by the Shockley equation:

i  I S ev nVT  1 
 Beyond a certain value of reverse voltage (that depends on the diode)
breakdown occurs, and current increases rapidly with a small
corresponding increase in voltage. This property is exploited in diodes
known as breakdown diodes.
 A variety of diode constructions exist, with many of them essential to the

modern world, such as the LED.
 Since the diode’s characteristic is nonlinear, we can’t apply linear circuit

analysis techniques to circuits containing diodes. We therefore have to
resort to other analysis methods: graphical, numerical and linear modelling
 A hierarchy of diode models exists, with the selection of an appropriate

model dictated by the application.
 In the forward direction, the ideal diode conducts any current forced by the
external circuit while displaying a zero voltage drop. The ideal diode does
not conduct in the reverse direction; any applied voltage appears as reverse
bias across the diode.
 In many applications, a conducting diode is modelled as having a constant

voltage drop, usually approximately 0.7 V.
Index Summary PMcL

6.31
 A diode biased to operate at a direct current I D has a small-signal

resistance:
nVT
rd 
I DQ
 The unidirectional-current property makes the diode useful in the design of

a variety of circuits, such as the half-wave rectifier, the full-wave rectifier,
limiting circuits, and many others.
 The half-wave rectifier is:
vo
1
1
vi
vi RL vo
(a) circuit (b) transfer characteristic
 The full-wave rectifier is:
D1 D2
vo
io
vs vi
1 1
D4 D3 1 1
Ro vo vi
PMcL Summary Index

6.32
 A limiting circuit is:
vo
R
E1
D1 D2 slope = 1
vi vo 0
vi
E1 E2
-E2
6.8 References

7.1
7 Source-Free RC and RL Circuits
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 7.2

7.1 Differential Operators ................................................................................ 7.3
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators .......................................................... 7.5
7.3 The Characteristic Equation ...................................................................... 7.9
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit ............................................................................ 7.13
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response .................................................. 7.16
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits........................................................... 7.19
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit ............................................................................. 7.21
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits ........................................................... 7.24
7.9 Summary.................................................................................................. 7.28
7.10 References ............................................................................................. 7.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 7.29
PMcL Contents Index
2015 7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

7.2
Introduction
The analysis of a linear circuit that has storage elements (capacitors and
inductors) inevitably gives rise to a linear differential equation. The solution of
the differential equation always consists of two parts – one part leads to the so-
called forced response, the other is the natural response. The forced response
is due to the application of a source to the circuit. The natural response is due
entirely to the circuit’s configuration, its initial energy, and the amplitude of
the applied source at the instant of application.
Initially, we will study the theory of differential operators, which leads to a

rather simple method of solving linear differential equations. For simple RC
and RL circuits, the differential operator seems like overkill – a powerful
method applied to a simple situation. However, some of the insights resulting
from such a method will put us in good stead when we look at more
complicated circuits that have both capacitors and inductors in them.
We shall then study the natural response of some simple source-free RC and
RL circuits. This study will reveal some surprising results, such as the fact that
there is only ever one form of natural response – an exponential response.
We will become familiar with the exponential response, and we will give some
special names to the algebraic terms involved in it, such as initial condition and
time constant.
With practice, we will also see that we can write down the natural response for
simple circuits by inspection. This will lead to intuition of circuit behaviour,
and we will “get a feel” for the way a circuit behaves by simply looking at it.
7 - Source-Free RC and RL Circuits 2015

7.3
7.1 Differential Operators

Let D denote differentiation with respect to t:
D is just shorthand
d
D (7.1) for d dt
dt
Then D 2 denotes differentiation twice with respect to t, and so on. That is, for
positive integer k:
dk y
D y k
k
(7.2)
dt
The expression:
A  an D n  an1D n1  ...  a1D  a0 (7.3)
is called a differential operator of order n. The coefficients ak in the operator A

may be functions of t, but most of the time they will be constant coefficients.
The product AB of two operators A and B is defined as that operator which

produces the same result as is obtained by using the operator B followed by the
operator A. Thus:
ABy  ABy  (7.4)
Differential
The product of two differential operators always exists and is a differential operators commute
operator. For operators with constant coefficients it is true that AB  BA . if they have constant
coefficients
PMcL Differential Operators Index

7.4
EXAMPLE 7.1 Product of Differential Operators
Let A  D  2 and B  3D  1 .
Then:
By  3D  1 y  3
dy
y
dt
and:
 dy 
ABy   D  2  3  y 
 dt 
2
d y dy dy
 3 2   6  2y
dt dt dt
2
d y dy
 3 2  5  2y
dt dt

 3D  5 D  2 y
2

Hence AB  D  23D  1  3D2  5D  2 .
The sum of two differential operators is obtained by expressing each in the

form:
an D n  an1D n1  ...  a1D  a0 (7.5)
and adding corresponding coefficients.
EXAMPLE 7.2 Summation of Differential Operators
Let A  3D3  D  2 and B  D2  4D  7 .
Hence A  B  3D3  D2  3D  9 .
Differential Differential operators are linear operators. Therefore, differential operators

operators are linear
operators that obey with constant coefficients satisfy all the laws of the algebra of polynomials
the laws of algebra
with respect to the operations of addition and multiplication.
Index Differential Operators PMcL

7.5
7.2 Properties of Differential Operators

Since for constant s and positive integer k:
Dk est  s k est (7.6)
it is easy to find the effect that a differential operator has upon e st . Let f D 
be a polynomial in D:
f D  an D n  an1D n1  ...  a1D  a0 (7.7)
Then:
f Dest  an s nest  an1s n1est  ...  a1sest  a0est (7.8)
so:
Operating with D
f De  f s e
st st and multiplication by
(7.9) s are equivalent for
the function e st
This equation does not mean that f D  f s  . f D  is an operator, and it
means “to take a linear sum of derivatives” of a function that it operates on.
f s  is a standard polynomial in s. The equation means that the effect of the D
operator on e st is the same as multiplication by s. The function e st is the only

function that enjoys this property – a deeper insight into the special function
e st will be developed later.
If s is a root of the equation f s   0 , then in view of the above result:
f Dest  0, if f s   0 (7.10)
PMcL Properties of Differential Operators Index

7.6
EXAMPLE 7.3 Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation
Let f D  2D2  5D  12 . Then the equation f s   0 is:
2s 2  5s  12  0
or:
s  42s  3  0
of which the roots are s1  4 and s2  32 .
With the aid of Eq. (7.10), it can be seen that:
2D 2

 5D  12 e4t  0
and that:
2D 2

 5D  12 e3t 2  0
In other words, y1  e4t and y2  e3t 2 are solutions of:
2D 2

 5D  12 y  0 .
Index Properties of Differential Operators PMcL

7.7
Next consider the effect of the operator D  s on the product of e st and a

function y. Utilising the “product rule” of differentiation, we have:
D  s e st y   De st y   sest y

(7.11)
 e Dy
st
and:
D  s 2 e st y   D  s e st Dy
(7.12)
e D y st 2
Repeating the operation, we are led to:
D  s n est y   est Dn y (7.13)
Using the linearity of differential operators, we conclude that when f D  is a

polynomial in D with constant coefficients, then:
Shifting an
 
exponential factor
e st f Dy  f D  s  est y (7.14) from the left of a
differential operator
to the right
This relation shows us how to shift an exponential factor from the left of an
operator to the right of an operator.
PMcL Properties of Differential Operators Index

7.8
EXAMPLE 7.4 Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation
Let us solve the differential equation:
D  34 y  0
First, we multiply the equation by e3t to obtain:
e3t D  3 y  0
4
Applying the exponential shift as in Eq. (7.14) leads to:
 
D4 e3t y  0
Integrating four times gives us:
e3t y  c0  c1t  c2t 2  c3t 3
and finally:
 
y  c0  c1t  c2t 2  c3t 3 e3t
It can be shown that the four functions e 3t , te 3t , t 2e 3t and t 3e 3t are linearly
independent – thus the solution given is the general solution of the differential
equation.
In Eq. (7.14), if we let f D   D n and y  t k , then:
D  s n t k est   est Dnt k (7.15)
But Dnt k  0 for k  0, 1, 2, ..., n  1 , and so:
D  s n t k est   0,
The solution to a
special class of
differential equation
k  0, 1, ..., n  1 (7.16)
Index Properties of Differential Operators PMcL

7.9
7.3 The Characteristic Equation

The general linear differential equation with constant coefficients of order n is
an equation that can be written:
dny d n1 y
an n  an1 n1    a1  a0 y  r t 
dy (7.17)
dt dt dt
If r t  is identically zero (i.e. zero for all time, not just a specific time), then
we have an equation that is said to be homogeneous:
n n 1 Homogeneous
d y d y dy differential equation
an  a n 1    a  a0 y  0 (7.18) defined
dt n1
1
dt n dt
Any linear combination of solutions of a linear homogeneous differential
equation is also a solution. If yi , with i  1, 2, ..., k , are solutions of
Eq. (7.18) and if ci , with i  1, 2, ..., k , are constants, then:
y  c1 y1  c2 y2    ck yk (7.19)
is a solution of Eq. (7.18).
If the solutions yi are linearly independent (i.e. they cannot be expressed as

linear combinations of one another), then there are n of them and we say that
the general solution of the differential equation is:
y  c1 y1  c2 y2    cn yn (7.20)
PMcL The Characteristic Equation Index

7.10
The linear homogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients may

also be written in the form:
f D  y  0 (7.21)
where f D  is a linear differential operator. As we saw in the preceding

A solution to a linear
homogeneous section, if s is any root of the algebraic equation f s   0 , then:
with constant
f De st  0
coefficients is
y  e st (7.22)
which means simply that y  e st is a solution of Eq. (7.21). The equation:
f s   0
Characteristic
equation defined (7.23)
is called the characteristic equation associated with Eq. (7.21).
Let the characteristic equation for Eq. (7.21) be of degree n. Let its roots be
s1 , s2 , …, sn . If these roots are all real and distinct, then the n solutions
y1  e s1t , y2  e s2t , …, yn  e snt are linearly independent and the general
General solution of solution of Eq. (7.21) can be written at once. It is:

a linear
homogeneous
with constant
y  c1es1t  c2es2t    cnesnt (7.24)
coefficients
in which c1 , c2 , …, cn are arbitrary constants. Repeated roots of the

characteristic equation will be treated later.
Index The Characteristic Equation PMcL

7.11
EXAMPLE 7.5 General Solution of a Homogeneous Differential Equation
Solve the equation:
d3y d 2 y dy
 4   6y  0
dt 3 dt 2 dt
First write the characteristic equation:
s 3  4s 2  s  6  0
s  1s  2s  3  0
whose roots are s  1, 2, 3 . Then the general solution is seen to be:
y  c1et  c2e2t  c3e3t
Solve the equation:
3D 3

 5D 2  2 D y  0
The characteristic equation is:
3s 3  5s 2  2s  0
ss  23s  1  0
whose roots are s  0,  2, 13 . Using the fact that eot  1 , the desired solution
may be written:
y  c1  c2e2t  c3et 3
PMcL The Characteristic Equation Index

7.12

with Initial Conditions
Solve the equation:
d2y
 4y  0
dt 2
with the conditions that when t  0 , y  0 and dy dt  3 .
s2  4  0
with roots s  2,  2 . Hence the general solution of the differential equation is:
y  c1e2t  c2e2t
It remains to enforce the conditions at t  0 .
The condition that y  0 when t  0 requires that:
0  c1  c2
Now:
dy
 2c1e 2t  2c2e 2t
dt
The condition that dy dt  3 when t  0 requires that:
3  2c1  2c2
From the simultaneous equations for c1 and c2 we conclude that c1  3

4
and
c2   34 . Therefore:
y 3
4 e 2t
 e2t 
Index The Characteristic Equation PMcL

7.13
7.4 The Simple RC Circuit

Consider the parallel RC circuit shown below.
The simple RC
circuit
C v R
Figure 7.1
We designate the time-varying voltage by vt  , and we shall let the value of
vt  at t  0 be prescribed as V0 .
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) applied to the top node gives us:
dv v
C  0 (7.25)
dt R
Division by C gives us:
dv v The governing
 0 (7.26) differential equation
of the simple RC
dt RC circuit
and we must determine an expression for vt  which satisfies this equation and
also has the value V0 at t  0 .
PMcL The Simple RC Circuit Index

7.14
Written in operator notation, Eq. (7.26) is:
 1 
D  v  0 (7.27)
 RC 
for which the characteristic equation is:
 1 
s  0 (7.28)
 RC 
which has a root at s  1 RC . Therefore, the solution to the differential
equation is:
v  c1et RC (7.29)
It remains to enforce the condition that v0  V0 . Thus:
V0  c1 (7.30)
and the final form of the solution is:

The solution to the
governing
differential equation v  V0et RC (7.31)
of the simple RC
circuit
This solution is known as the natural response of the circuit. Its mathematical
form is Ae st , where s  1 RC and A is the initial condition. It turns out, for
any linear circuit, that this mathematical form is the only form for the natural
response! That is, the solution to a linear homogeneous differential equation
always takes the form Ae st . The actual values of s and A depend only on the
initial energy in the circuit (in this case the initial capacitor voltage), and the
circuit element configuration and values.
Index The Simple RC Circuit PMcL

7.15
Let us check the power and energy relationships in this circuit. The power
being dissipated in the resistor is:
v 2 V02e 2t RC
pR   (7.32)
R R
and the total energy turned into heat in the resistor is found by integrating the Power and energy
dissipated in the
instantaneous power from zero time to infinite time: simple RC circuit
 V02 
ER   pR dt   e 2t RC dt
0 R 0

V02  RC 2t RC 
  2 e 
R 0
 1
2 CV02 (7.33)
This is the result we expect, because the total energy stored initially in the
capacitor is 1
2 CV02 , and there is no energy stored in the capacitor at infinite
time. All the energy is accounted for by dissipation in the resistor.
PMcL The Simple RC Circuit Index

7.16
7.5 Properties of the Exponential Response

We will now consider the nature of the response in the parallel RC circuit. We
found that the voltage is represented by:
v  V0et RC (7.34)
At zero time, the voltage is the assumed value V0 and as time increases, the
voltage decreases and approaches zero. The shape of this decaying exponential
is seen by a plot of v V0 versus t, as shown below:
The decaying
exponential
response v
V0
1
Figure 7.2
Since the function we are plotting is e t RC , the curve will not change if RC
does not change. Thus, the same curve must be obtained for every RC circuit
having the same product of R and C. Let’s see how this product affects the
shape of the curve.
If we double the product RC, then the exponent will be unchanged if t is also
doubled. In other words, the original response will occur at a later time, and the
new curve is obtained by moving each point on the original curve twice as far
to the right. With this larger RC product, the voltage takes longer to decay to
any given fraction of its original value.
Index Properties of the Exponential Response PMcL

7.17
To get a “handle” on the rate at which the curve decays, let’s consider the time
that would be required for the voltage to drop to zero if it continued to drop at
its initial rate.
The initial rate of decay is found by evaluating the derivative at zero time:
d v 1 t RC 1
 e  (7.35)
dt V0 t 0
RC t 0 RC
We designate the value of time it takes for v V0 to drop from unity to zero,
assuming a constant rate of decay, by T (or sometimes the Greek letter  ).

Thus T RC  1 , or:
Time constant
T  RC (7.36) defined for the
simple RC circuit
The product RC has the units of seconds, and therefore the exponent  t RC is
dimensionless (as it must be). The value of time T is called the time constant.
It is shown below:
Time constant
shown graphically
on the natural
v response curve
V0
1
T t
Figure 7.3
PMcL Properties of the Exponential Response Index

7.18
An equally important interpretation of the time constant T is obtained by

determining the value of v V0 at t  T . We have:
v
 e 1  0.3679 or v  0.3679V0 (7.37)
V0
Thus, in one time constant the response has dropped to 36.8 percent of its
initial value. The value of T may be determined graphically from this fact
from the display on an oscilloscope, as indicated below:
Response curve
values at integer
multiples of the time v
constant
V0
1
0.3679
0.1353
0.0498
0
t
T 2T 3T 4T
Figure 7.4
At some point three to five time constants after zero time, most of us would
agree that the voltage is a negligible fraction of its former self.
Why does a larger value of the time constant RC produce a response curve
which decays more slowly? An increase in C allows a greater energy storage
for the same initial voltage, and this larger energy requires a longer time to be
dissipated in the resistor. For an increase in R, the power flowing into the
resistor is less for the same initial voltage; again, a greater time is required to
dissipate the stored energy.
In terms of the time constant T , the response of the parallel RC circuit may be
written simply as:
v  V0et T (7.38)
Index Properties of the Exponential Response PMcL

7.19
7.6 Single Time Constant RC Circuits

Many of the RC circuits for which we would like to find the natural response
contain more than a single resistor and capacitor. We first consider those cases
in which the given circuit may be reduced to an equivalent circuit consisting of Single time constant
RC circuit defined
only one resistor and one capacitor. Such a circuit is known as a single time
constant circuit.
Firstly, consider a circuit with any number of resistors and one capacitor. We
fix our attention on the two terminals of the capacitor and determine the
equivalent resistance across these terminals. The circuit is thus reduced to the
simple parallel case.
EXAMPLE 7.8 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RC Circuit
The circuit shown in (a) below may be simplified to that of (b):
i1
R2
R1 R3 C v R eq
C v
(a) (b)
enabling us to write:
t Req C
v  V0e
where:
v0  V0
R1R3
and Req  R2 
R1  R3
Every current and voltage in the resistive portion of the circuit must have the
t Req C
form Ae , where A is the initial value of that current or voltage.
PMcL Single Time Constant RC Circuits Index

7.20
Since the current in a resistor may change instantaneously, we shall indicate

the instant after any change that may have occurred at t  0 by use of the
symbol 0  .
Thus, the current in R1 , for example, may be expressed as:
 
i1  i1 0 et T
where:
 RR 
T   R2  1 3 C
 R1  R3 
 
and i1 0 remains to be determined from some initial condition. Suppose that
v0 is given. Since v cannot change instantaneously, we may think of the

capacitor as being replaced by an independent DC source, v0 , for the instant
of time t  0 . Thus:
v0
 
i1 0 
R3
R2  R1R3 R1  R3  R1  R3
The solution is obtained by collecting all these results:
v0
t
R3
i1  e  R2  R1R3  R1R3 C
R2  R1R3 R1  R3  R1  R3
Another special case includes those circuits containing one resistor and any
number of capacitors. The resistor voltage is easily obtained by establishing the
value of the equivalent capacitance and determining the time constant.
Some circuits containing a number of both resistors and capacitors may be

Not all RC circuits replaced by an equivalent circuit containing only one resistor and one
can be converted
into single time capacitor; it is necessary that the original circuit be one which can be broken
constant RC circuits
into two parts, one containing all resistors and the other containing all
capacitors. This is not possible in general.
Index Single Time Constant RC Circuits PMcL

7.21
7.7 The Simple RL Circuit

Consider the series RL circuit shown below.
The simple RL
circuit
i
L v R
Figure 7.5
We designate the time-varying current by i t  , and we shall let the value of i t 

at t  0 be prescribed as I 0 .
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) applied around the loop gives us:
di
L  Ri  0 (7.39)
dt
Division by L gives us:
The governing
di R differential equation
 i0 (7.40) of the simple RL
dt L circuit
This equation has a familiar form; comparison with:
dv v
 0 (7.41)
dt RC
shows that the replacement of v by i and RC by L R produces an equation
identical to Eq. (7.40). It should, for the RL circuit we are now analysing is the
dual of the RC circuit we considered first.
PMcL The Simple RL Circuit Index

7.22
This duality forces i t  for the RL circuit and vt  for the RC circuit to have
identical expressions if the resistance of one circuit is equal to the conductance
of the other and if L is numerically equal to C. That is, we will obtain the dual
circuit (and equation) if we make the substitution:
Duality relations for

all dual circuits vi
RG (7.42)
CL
Thus, the response of the RC circuit:
vt   v0et RC  V0et RC (7.43)
enables us to write immediately:

The solution to the
governing
of the simple RL it   i0etR L  I 0etR L (7.44)
circuit
for the RL circuit.
Let’s examine the physical nature of the response of the RL circuit as expressed
by Eq. (7.44). At t  0 we obtain the correct initial condition, and as t
becomes infinite the current approaches zero. This latter result agrees with our
thinking that if there were any current remaining through the inductor, then
energy would continue to flow into the resistor and be dissipated as heat. Thus
a final current of zero is necessary.
Index The Simple RL Circuit PMcL

7.23
The time constant of the RL circuit may be found by using the duality
relationships on the expression for the time constant of the RC circuit, or it may
be found by simply noting the time at which the response has dropped to 36.8
percent of its initial value:
L Time constant
T (7.45) defined for the
simple RL circuit
R
Our familiarity with the negative exponential and the significance of the time
constant T enables us to sketch the response curve readily:
i
I0
0.3679 I0
0
t
T
Figure 7.6
An increase in L allows a greater energy storage for the same initial current,
and this larger energy requires a longer time to be dissipated in the resistor. If
we reduce R, the power flowing into the resistor is less for the same initial
current; again, a greater time is required to dissipate the stored energy.
PMcL The Simple RL Circuit Index

7.24
7.8 Single Time Constant RL Circuits

It is not difficult to extend the results obtained for the series RL circuit to a
circuit containing any number of resistors and inductors. We first consider
Single time constant
RL circuit defined those cases in which the given circuit may be reduced to an equivalent circuit
consisting of only one resistor and one inductor; that is, single time constant
(STC) circuits.
EXAMPLE 7.9 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RL Circuit
The circuit shown in (a) below may be simplified to that of (b):
R3 L i i
R1 R2 R4 L R eq
i1 i2
(a) (b)
The equivalent resistance which the inductor faces is:
R1R2
Req  R3  R4 
R1  R2
and the time constant is therefore:
L
T
Req
The inductor current is:
i  i0et T
and represents what we might call the basic solution to the problem. It is quite
possible that some current or voltage other than i is needed, such as the current
i2 in R2 . We can always apply Kirchhoff’s laws and Ohm’s law to the resistive
Index Single Time Constant RL Circuits PMcL

7.25
portion of the circuit without any difficulty, but current division provides the
quickest answer in this circuit:
i0e t T
R1
i2  
R1  R2
It may also happen that we know the initial value of some current other than
 
the inductor current. Thus, if we are given the initial value of i1 as i1 0 , then
it is apparent that the initial value of i2 is:
    RR
i2 0  i1 0 1
From these values, we obtain the necessary initial value of i 0 :  
      
i 0   i1 0  i2 0  
R1  R2
R2
 
i1 0
and the expression for i2 becomes:
i2 
R1
R2
 
i1 0 e t T
We can obtain this last expression more directly. Every current and voltage in
the resistive portion of the circuit must have the form Ae t T , where A is the
initial value of that current or voltage. We therefore express i2 as:
i2  Ae t T
and A must be determined from a knowledge of the initial value of i2 . We

found this initial value previously. We therefore have:
i2 
R1
R2
 
i1 0 e t T
PMcL Single Time Constant RL Circuits Index

7.26
A similar sequence of steps provides a solution to a large number of problems.

This technique is also applicable to a circuit which contains one resistor and
any number of inductors, as well as to those special circuits containing two or
more inductors and also two or more resistors that may be simplified by
resistance or inductance combination until the simplified circuits have only one
inductance or one resistance.
EXAMPLE 7.10 Analysis of a Single Time Constant RL Circuit
120 
60 
iL
t=0 1 mH 50 
18 V 90  2 mH 3 mH
i1
After t  0 , when the voltage source is disconnected, we easily calculate an

equivalent inductance,
23
Leq   1  2.2 mH
23
an equivalent resistance,
9060  120
Req   50  110 
90  180
and the time constant:
Leq 2.2  10 3
T   20 μs
Req 110
Index Single Time Constant RL Circuits PMcL

7.27
Thus, the form of the natural response is Ae 50000t . With the independent source
connected t  0 , iL is 18
50 , or 0.36 A, while i1 is 18
90 , or 0.2 A. At t  0 , iL
must still be 0.36 A, but i1 will jump to a new value determined by iL 0 .  

Thus, by the current divider rule:
 
i1 0  iL 0   180
270  0.24 A
Hence:
iL  0.36 t0
 0.36e 50000t
t0
and:
i1  0.2 t0
 0.24e  50000t
t0
The responses are sketched below:
iL i1
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
t ( s) 0
t ( s)
-20 0 20 40 60 80 -20 20 40 60 80
-0.1
-0.2
-0.3
A circuit containing several resistances and several inductances does not in

general possess a form which allows either the resistances or inductances to be
combined into single equivalent elements. There is no single negative Not all RL circuits
can be converted
exponential term or single time constant associated with the circuit. Rather, in into single time
constant RL circuits
general, there will be several negative exponential terms, the number of terms
being equal to the number of inductances that remain after all possible inductor
combinations have been made. The natural response of these more complex
circuits is obtained using mathematical techniques that will appear later.
PMcL Single Time Constant RL Circuits Index

7.28
7.9 Summary
 The solution to the linear homogeneous differential equation f Dy  0 is
y  c1e s1t  c2es2t    cne snt where the si ’s are the roots of the characteristic
equation f s   0 and the ci ’s are arbitrary constants.
 The natural response of any voltage or current in a single time constant

circuit always takes the form of y  Ae t T , where T is the time constant
and A is determined from the initial conditions.
 For single time constant RC circuits, the time constant is T  ReqCeq .
Leq
 For single time constant RL circuits, the time constant is T  .
Req
 Not all RC and RL circuits can be reduced to single time constant circuits.
7.10 References
Bedient, P. & Rainville, E.: Elementary Differential Equations, 6th Ed.
Macmillan Publishing Co., 1981.
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., Mcgraw-Hill,
1984.
Index Summary PMcL

7.29
Exercises
1.
The current in a simple source-free series RC circuit is given by
it   20e5000t mA , and the capacitor voltage is 2 V in magnitude at t  0 .
Find R and C.
2.
200 
t=0
1 kV 600  50 F
(a) Find the charge in coulombs present on the capacitor at t  0 .
(b) What is the charge at t  0.01 s ?
3.
Let v and i be the voltage and current variables for a capacitor, assuming the
passive sign convention. The capacitor is the only energy-storage element
   
present in a source-free resistive circuit. If v 0  80 V , i 0  0.1 A , and
 
q 0 for the capacitor is 20 mC, find v0.01 .

7.30
4.
100 
ix
5 ix 400  2 F
 
If ix 0  3 mA , find ix t  for t  0 .
5.
fuse
vs 10 M 2 F
The 10 M resistor in the circuit represents the leakage resistance present in a

typical 2 μF high-voltage capacitor. The fuse blows (opens) at t  0 . Let
v s  23000 cos100t  V . Assuming 50 V is relatively nonlethal, at what time is
it safe to get your hands across the capacitor?

7.31
6.
t=0
2 M 9V
i2
4 M 1 M 20 F 30 F
The switch closes at t  0 . Find i2 t  for t  0 .
7.
The magnitude of the current in a series RL circuit decreases at a rate of
2000 As-1 at t  0 and 100 As-1 at t  0.2 s . At what time has the energy
stored in the inductor decreased to 1 per cent of its initial value?
8.
v( t )
2 8
i1 i2
0.4 
1H 2H
t=0
24 V
Find:
(a) i1 0 (b) i2 0 (c) i1 t  , t  0 (d) i2 t  , t  0 (e) vt  , t  0

7.32
9.
What is the time constant of a series RL circuit if:
(a) the current decreases by a factor of 1000 in 0.2 s?
(b) the time required for the current to drop to half of its initial value is 0.1 s
less than the time required for it to drop to one-quarter of its initial value?
10.
The switch in the circuit shown below has been open for a long time.
1.5 H 2H
i
3
30  20 
t=0
12 V
Find i at t  :
(a) -0.08 s (b) +0.08 s
11.
The voltage across the resistor in a simple source-free series RL circuit is
vR t   50e400t V for t  0 . If the value of resistance changes from 200 Ω to
40 Ω at t  0 when a second resistor is placed in parallel with it, find vR t 
for t  0 .

7.33
12.
The switch in the circuit shown below has been open for a long time.
200 
1 k 100 
t=0
12 V
4 F 0.5 H
i
It closes at t  0 . Find i t  .
Hint: Superposition can be very useful.

8.1
8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications
Contents
Introduction ..................................................................................................... 8.2

8.1 The Comparator ......................................................................................... 8.3
8.2 Precision Rectifiers .................................................................................... 8.7
8.2.1 The Superdiode ............................................................................. 8.8
8.2.2 Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier .................................... 8.10
8.2.3 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier .................................................... 8.15
8.2.4 Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier ................... 8.17
8.3 Peak Detector ........................................................................................... 8.18
8.4 Limiter ..................................................................................................... 8.23
8.5 Clamp....................................................................................................... 8.25
8.6 Summary.................................................................................................. 8.27
8.7 References ............................................................................................... 8.28
Exercises ........................................................................................................ 8.29
PMcL Contents Index
2015 8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

8.2
Introduction
Nonlinear op-amp circuits play a major role in modern electronics. Examples
include comparators, precision rectifiers, peak detectors, limiters and clamps.
Each of these circuits can be used as a “building block” in the creation of more
advanced signal conditioning circuitry found in a large variety of applications,
such as: communication receivers, automatic gain control circuits, oscillators
and waveform generators.
In non-linear op-amp circuits the non-linearity can be provided by either (or

both) of the following:
 the op-amp’s transfer characteristic, i.e. saturation
 a non-linear element, such as a diode or transistor
An op-amp operated open-loop can be configured as a comparator – a circuit

that can compare one voltage with another, and provide, in effect, a digital
output – either “high” or “low”.
Precision rectifiers are used in instrumentation and communication systems

where the forward voltage drop of a silicon diode (approx. 0.7 V) is larger than
the signal being processed. In this case the op-amp’s extremely large gain
causes the forward diode drop to be effectively reduced to zero, thus allowing
precision rectification of signals in the mV range.
Peak detectors are used in a wide variety of instrumentation and

communication systems, and again the op-amp allows precision detection.
A limiter circuit can be used to limit a signal to within a certain range – such a
circuit can be used to protect following circuitry from overload conditions, and
they are often used in signal generation circuitry.
Clamp circuits are used to restore the DC component of an incoming AC

waveform. Such circuits find utility in communication systems.
8 - Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications 2015

8.3
8.1 The Comparator

The op-amp in an open-loop configuration can be used as a basic comparator.
When two inputs are applied to the open-loop op-amp, it attempts to amplify
the difference, but because the gain is so large, it will saturate close to one of
the supply voltages (within 1 or 2 V), depending on whether the difference was
positive or negative. Thus, the output of a comparator has two voltage levels,
either “high” or “low” – it is not linearly proportional to the input voltage.
A basic non-inverting comparator is shown below:

A basic non-
inverting comparator
vo
positive saturation
+Vsat
vi
vo vi
-Vsat
negative saturation
Figure 8.1
Although general purpose op-amps (like the TL071) can be used as

comparators, specially designed comparator ICs (like the LM311) can switch
faster and have additional features not found on general-purpose op-amps.
Some applications of a comparator are:
1. Zero crossing detector

2. Level detector
3. Window detector
4. Pulse width modulator
5. Pulse generator
PMcL The Comparator Index

8.4
EXAMPLE 8.1 Zero Crossing Detector
The basic noninverting comparator can be used as a zero crossing detector. A

typical circuit for such a detector is shown below:
vi vo
RL
During the positive half-cycle, the input voltage is positive, hence the output
voltage is  Vsat . During the negative half-cycle, the input voltage is negative,
hence the output voltage is  Vsat . Thus the output voltage switches between
 Vsat and  Vsat whenever the input signal crosses the zero level:
vi
t
T0
vo
+Vsat
t
T0
-Vsat
Looking at the waveform shown above, we realize that a zero crossing detector
can be used as a sine- to square-wave converter.
This is an impractical circuit, since any noise on the input waveform near the
zero crossings will cause multiple level transitions in the output signal.
Index The Comparator PMcL

8.5
EXAMPLE 8.2 Level Detector
We would like to monitor a 12 V car battery by having an LED on

continuously when the battery voltage is above 10 V. We have a +10 V supply
available.
The circuit we would use contains an LM311 comparator:
+VCC
R3 R4
8
Vref
LM311
vp
2 7
vn
3
R2
vi
4 1
R1
It consists of a voltage reference to establish a stable switching level, a voltage

divider to scale the desired input level to the value of the voltage reference, and
a voltage comparator to compare the two.
We choose a Zener diode (with VZ  2.5 V and I Z  23 mA ) to provide a
reference voltage. The LED has VLED  1.8 V at I LED  3 mA . We calculate the
Zener diode’s current setting resistor as follows:
VCC  VZ 10  2.5
R3    0.326 k
IZ 23
 330  (standard value)
PMcL The Comparator Index

8.6
Careful examination of the LM311 datasheet reveals that the output transistor
will be turned ON when v p  vn . The voltage at the inverting terminal of the
comparator is given by the voltage divider rule:
R1
vn  vi
R1  R2
and the voltage at the noninverting terminal of the comparator is just v p  VZ .
The threshold voltage of the comparator is given by vn  v p , or:
R1
vi  VZ
R1  R2
 R 
vi  1  2 VZ
 R1 
Solving for the resistor ratio we have:
R2 v
 i 1
R1 VZ
The threshold input voltage is given as 10 V, and so:
R2 10
 1  3
R1 2.5
We therefore choose R1  1 k and R2  3 k .
From the datasheet of the LM311, we obtain the saturation voltage of the
output transistor as VCEsat  0.3 V . The current limiting resistor for the LED is
then given by:
VCC  VLED  VCEsat 10  1.8  0.3

R4    2.633 k
I LED 3
 2.7 k (standard value)
Index The Comparator PMcL

8.7
8.2 Precision Rectifiers

Rectifier circuits can be implemented with silicon junction diodes. Recall that
for the diode to conduct appreciably, the voltage across it must be  0.7 V.
Therefore, a major limitation of these circuits is that they cannot rectify
voltages below about 0.7 V. In addition, since the input voltage has to rise to
about 0.7 V before any appreciable change can be seen at the output, the output
is distorted:
The output of a half-
wave rectifier is
vi vo distorted due to real
diode characteristics
Half-wave
t Rectifier t
(HWR)
Figure 8.2
The transfer characteristic of a half-wave rectifier with a real silicon junction

diode is shown below:
The transfer
characteristic of a
half-wave rectifier
vo with real diodes
10
1
1
ideal
real
1
0 1.7 10.8
vi
Figure 8.3
Notice the effect of the finite voltage drop of the diode. To achieve precision
rectification we need a circuit that keeps v o equal to v i for vi  0 . Such
circuits can be made using op-amps and are known as precision rectifiers.
PMcL Precision Rectifiers Index

8.8
8.2.1 The Superdiode
The figure below shows a precision half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of a

diode placed in the negative-feedback path of an ideal op-amp, with R L being
the rectifier load resistance:
A precision half-
wave rectifier using
a superdiode
vo
vi
RL
"superdiode"
Figure 8.4
If v i is positive, then assuming there is a virtual short-circuit across the

op-amp input terminals (due to a negative feedback path around the op-amp),
then the input voltage appears at the output, and v o equals v i . In this case the
op-amp supplies the load current through the diode, and the output of the op-
amp is vo  vd .
With a real op-amp with a finite open-loop gain, AOL , negative feedback will
work to ensure that the output of the op-amp is:
AOL vi  vo   vo  vd (8.1)
Therefore the output voltage is:
vo 
1
 AOLvi  vd  (8.2)
AOL  1
Index Precision Rectifiers PMcL

8.9
Since AOL  100 000 for a typical op-amp, the transfer characteristic is nearly
AOL
perfect, with a slope of  1 , and with vo  0 when vi  vd AOL  0 . In
AOL  1
other words, the rectified output appears when v i exceeds a negligibly small
voltage equal to the diode drop divided by the op-amp open-loop gain.
Thus, for vi  0 , vo  vi (to a high degree of precision).
Now consider the case when v i goes negative, and assume that the diode is
reverse-biased (“off”). Since there is no current, the output voltage is vo  0 ,

the voltage appearing across the op-amp input terminals is negative, and the
op-amp saturates close to its negative supply rail. A quick check of the
assumption that the diode is reverse-biased under these conditions reveals that
our analysis is correct. Thus, for vi  0 , vo  0 .
The transfer characteristic of the circuit will be almost identical to the ideal
characteristic of a half-wave rectifier. The non-ideal diode characteristic has
been almost completely masked by placing it in the negative-feedback path of
an op-amp. This is another dramatic application of negative feedback. The
combination of diode and op-amp, shown in the dotted box in Figure 8.4, is
appropriately referred to as a superdiode.
The circuit does have serious disadvantages which make it impractical. When
v i goes negative and vo  0 , the entire magnitude of v i appears between the
two input terminals of the op-amp. If this magnitude is greater than a few volts,
the op-amp may be damaged unless it is equipped with what is called
“overvoltage protection” (a feature that most modern IC op-amps have).
Another disadvantage is that when v i is negative the op-amp will be saturated
close to its negative supply rail. Although not harmful to the op-amp, saturation
should usually be avoided, since getting the op-amp out of saturation and back
into its linear region of operation takes some time. This time delay is
determined by the op-amp’s slew rate, and even a very fast op-amp will limit
the circuit to a low frequency range of operation.

8.10
8.2.2 Precision Inverting Half-Wave Rectifier
An alternative precision half-wave rectifier circuit that does not suffer from the
disadvantages of the previous circuit is shown below:
A precision half-
wave rectifier
R2
D1
R1
vi D2
vo
Figure 8.5
To analyze this circuit, we firstly remember that the diode is a nonlinear

element so that linear circuit analysis does not apply. We will assume that the
op-amp has a negative feedback path around it so that there is a virtual short
circuit at its input. Thus, the inverting terminal will be kept at 0 V. We will
carry out the analysis with this assumption, and then check that the assumption
is true.
Due to the presence of diodes, we will consider two cases: one where the input
voltage is positive, the other when the input voltage is negative.

8.11
In the positive half cycle ( vi  0 ), direct analysis on the circuit diagram gives:
3
v
R 2 Ri
vi 1
R1 R2
2 D1
0 vD
R1 1 2
vi D2 5 R2
vi 0 V vo = - vi
R1 vo - vD vi R1
2
6 R1 4
Figure 8.6
1. We assume an ideal op-amp, and also assume that there is a negative

feedback path around the op-amp – it is producing a finite output voltage
(i.e., the overall amplifier is “working”). Thus, the ideal op-amp must have
a virtual short-circuit (VSC) at its input terminals. Since there is no
difference in the voltages across the VSC, the voltage at the inverting
terminal is v  0 . The current through resistor R1 , in the direction shown,
is given by Ohm’s Law, i1  vi R1 .
the inverting terminal is 0 A. We also assume that diode D1 is “off” (an
assumption that we will check later). KCL at the inverting terminal now
gives i2  i1  vi R1 .

8.12
vi
R1
vi R
terminal gives vo  0  R2   2 vi .
R1 R1
5. We assume that diode D2 is “on” (an assumption that we will check later).
KCL at the output then gives iD2  i2  vi R1 . The diode “on” voltage drop
is then given by its characteristic, and is labelled v D2 .
6. The output of the op-amp is, by KVL, vo  v D2 , which is a negative voltage
R2
(remember that vo   vi and vi  0 ). Thus, diode D1 is indeed reverse-
R1
biased, and our original assumption about it being “off” is correct. Also, the
diode D2 is indeed forward-biased, thus establishing a negative-feedback
path around the op-amp and forcing a virtual common to appear at the
inverting input terminal. That is, negative feedback works to ensure that the
op-amp output voltage is maintained at vo  v D2 .
Thus, in the positive half cycle ( vi  0 ), the output of the circuit is:
R2
vo   vi (8.3)
R1
That is, the output is negative for positive inputs.

8.13
In the negative half cycle ( vi  0 ), direct analysis on the circuit diagram gives:
0V
2
0 R2
D1 4
R1 1 vD - vi
vi 1
R1 D2
vi 0 V vo = 0
R1 vD 1 0 3
- 5
Figure 8.7
1. With the usual assumption that the ideal op-amp has a negative feedback
path, then a virtual short-circuit (VSC) exists at its input terminals. The
voltage at the inverting terminal is v  0 . The current through resistor R1 ,
in the direction shown, is given by Ohm’s Law, i1   vi R1 . Note that this
current is positive since vi  0 .
2. We assume that diode D2 is “off” (an assumption that we will check later).
Then there is no current in resistor R2 , and hence v R2  0 .
terminal gives vo  0 .
4. We assume that diode D1 is “on” (an assumption that we will check later).
Due to the infinite input resistance of the ideal op-amp, the current entering
the inverting terminal is 0 A. KCL at the inverting terminal now gives
iD1  i1   vi R1 . The diode “on” voltage drop is then given by its
characteristic, and is labelled v D1 .

8.14
5. The output of the op-amp is, by KVL, 0  v D1 , which is a positive voltage.
Thus, diode D1 is indeed forward-biased, and our original assumption

about it being “on” is correct. Diode D1 thus establishes a negative-
feedback path around the op-amp and forces a virtual common to appear at
the inverting input terminal. That is, negative feedback works to ensure that
the op-amp output voltage is maintained at v D1 . Also, the diode D2 is
indeed reverse-biased.
Thus, in the negative half cycle ( vi  0 ), the output of the circuit is:
vo  0 (8.4)
The transfer characteristic of the circuit is shown below for the case R1  R2 :
The transfer
characteristic of a
precision inverting
half-wave rectifier vo
vi
1
1
Figure 8.8
The circuit is seen to be a precision inverting half-wave rectifier. Note that

unlike the previous circuit, here the slope of the characteristic can be set to any
desired value, including unity, by selecting appropriate values for R1 and R2 .
The major advantage of this circuit is that the feedback loop around the op-amp
remains closed at all times. Hence the op-amp remains in its linear operating
region, avoiding the possibility of saturation and the associated time delay
required to “get out” of saturation.

8.15
8.2.3 Precision Full-Wave Rectifier
There are many applications in instrumentation where the information provided

by both halves of an AC signal is either useful or necessary, but the signal must
be converted into a unipolar waveform. This need can be met by using a
precision full-wave rectifier.
There are many possible arrangements for implementing a precision full-wave

rectifier. One possible arrangement is depicted symbolically below:
Block diagram of a
precision full-wave
rectifier
-1
vo
vi -2
1
1
vo
1
vi 1 vo
vi
Figure 8.9
As shown, the block diagram consists of two boxes: a precision half-wave

rectifier, and a weighted inverting summer. Convince yourself that this block
diagram does in fact realize a precision full-wave rectifier.

8.16
An implementation of the block diagram is shown below:

An implementation
of a precision full-
wave rectifier
R2 R2
R1 R 2 /2
D1 vo
R1
vi D2
Figure 8.10
The output, which is “buffered” since it comes from the output of an op-amp, is
the absolute value of the input voltage:
vo  vi (8.5)
The input resistance of the circuit is:
Rin  R1 || R2 (8.6)
If desired, a voltage follower can be placed at the input to buffer the incoming
signal.

8.17
8.2.4 Single-Supply Half-Wave and Full-Wave Rectifier

There are a number of ways to construct half- and full-wave rectifiers using
combinations of op-amps and diodes, but the circuit shown below requires only
a dual op-amp, two resistors, and operates on a single supply:
A single-supply half-
wave and full-wave
rectifier
0V
R1 R2
vi
100 k 100 k
+VS
+VS
v oF
0V
v oH
0V
Figure 8.11
The circuit will work on any single supply op-amp whose inputs can withstand
being pulled below 0 V. In addition, the op-amps need to have an output that is
capable of swinging “rail-to-rail”, which means that the output can go within a
few millivolts of the supply rails under light loading.
When the input signal is above 0 V, the unity-gain follower presents the input
signal to the noninverting input of the second op-amp. The feedback around the
second op-amp creates a virtual short-circuit across its input terminals, and
subsequently the inputs are equal. Thus, there is no voltage across resistor R1 ,
and no current in R1 and R2 . The output voF therefore “tracks” the input.
Conversely, when the input is negative, the output of the first op-amp is forced
to zero (it saturates at the limit of its supply). The noninverting input of the
second op-amp see the 0 V output, and during this phase operates as a unity-
gain inverter, rectifying the negative portion of the input, v i .
The net output at voF is therefore a full-wave rectified version of v i . In
addition, a half-wave rectified version is obtained at the output voH if desired.

8.18
8.3 Peak Detector

A peak detector is a circuit that produces an output voltage equal to the positive
or negative peak value of the input voltage waveform. The simplest form of
positive peak detector is shown below:
A positive peak
detector…
ideal
vi C vo
Figure 8.12
The ideal diode allows the capacitor to charge, but not to discharge. Therefore,
the capacitor will retain the positive peak value of the input waveform:
… and its input and
output waveforms
v
vo
vi
t
Figure 8.13
Index Peak Detector PMcL

8.19
A precision peak detector is implemented using a superdiode and a capacitor:

A precision positive
peak detector with a
decaying output
voltage
vo
vi
C RL
"superdiode"
Figure 8.14
Here we have represented the input resistance of the following circuit as a load
resistance, R L .
For v i positive and greater than the output voltage the op-amp will drive the
diode on, thus closing the negative-feedback path and causing the op-amp to
act as a follower. The output voltage will therefore follow that of the input,
with the op-amp supplying the capacitor charging current. This process
continues until the input reaches its peak value.
Now consider what happens if the input signal falls below the peak value
stored on the capacitor. In this case v   v  at the op-amp’s input terminals,
and the op-amp enters negative saturation, reverse-basing the diode. The
superdiode is effectively in the “off” state and the capacitor will discharge
through the load resistance R L :
t

vo  vî e RL C (8.7)
The rate of decay of the output voltage is therefore dictated by the capacitor
value and the attached load. This decay in output voltage is sometimes
desirable – inclusion of a load resistance is essential if the circuit is required to
detect reductions in the magnitude of the positive peak.
PMcL Peak Detector Index

8.20
In other applications, we may wish to retain the peak voltage for a long period
of time. In these cases, we should use a circuit like that shown below:
peak detector which
retains its output
voltage for a long R
time
D1
D2 A2 vo
A1
vi
C
Figure 8.15
The op-amp A1 offers a high input impedance to the source. The op-amp A2
acts as a buffer between the capacitor and any attached load, thus preventing it
from discharging. The output v o is equal to the voltage on the capacitor, which
equals the positive peak of the input voltage up to that time.
When vi  vo we will assume that diode D1 is “off” and diode D2 is “on”:
0 R
D1 0V vi
vi D2 A2 vo
vi
A1
vi v1 vD 2
Figure 8.16

8.21
The negative feedback path around A1 consists of diode D2 , the follower A2 ,

and the resistor R. Thus, there is a virtual short-circuit across the input
terminals of A1 , and the input voltage v i appears at the inverting terminal.
Now since diode D1 is “off”, there is no path for current through R. Thus the
voltage across R is 0 V. Thus the follower A2 must output a voltage such that:
vo  vi (8.8)
Thanks to the virtual short-circuit across the follower A2 , this voltage must
appear across the capacitor, and it therefore charges up. The op-amp A1
provides the charging current, and its output voltage must be:
v1  vi  vD2 (8.9)
We can now see that the assumption that diode D1 is “off” is consistent with
the voltage across it:
vD1  vi  v1  vD2  0 (8.10)
So long as vi  vo , the circuit will work in this manner, and the output v o
tracks v i . This mode of operation is called the track mode.
It can be observed that placing the diode D2 and the follower A2 within the
feedback path of A1 eliminates the possible error due to the diode drop across
D2 . We should choose an op-amp for A2 that has low input bias currents so as
to minimize the capacitance discharge. JFET input op-amps are ideal in this
case. The op-amp we choose for A1 must have a high output current capability
to charge C during fast-occurring input voltage peaks. As will be seen shortly,
neither op-amp enters saturation which means the circuit can be operated at
relatively high frequencies.
PMcL Peak Detector Index

8.22
When vi  vo we will assume that diode D1 is “on” and diode D2 is “off”:
vo - vi
R
vo - vi
D1 R vi
vD
vi 1
D2 A2 vo
0 vi
A1
vi v1
C
Figure 8.17
Since diode D2 is “off”, there is no path for a current to discharge the

capacitor C. Thus, it retains a voltage v̂ i , the peak of the input voltage up to
that time. The output of follower A2 is then:
vo  vî (8.11)
Since diode D1 is “on”, there is a negative feedback path around A1 and so

there is once again a virtual short-circuit across its input terminals such that the
input voltage v i appears at the inverting terminal. The output of A1 is then:
v1  vi  vD1 (8.12)
We can now see that the assumption that diode D2 is “off” is consistent with
the voltage across it:
vD2  v1  vî  vi  vD1  vî  0 (8.13)
So long as vi  vo , the circuit will work in this manner, and the output v o
retains the peak value of v i . This mode of operation is called the hold mode.

8.23
8.4 Limiter
Circuits which are used to clip off the unwanted portions of the input voltage
above or below certain levels, so as to produce limited outputs, are called
limiters or clippers.
A double limiter circuit works on both positive and negative peaks of an input
waveform. An implementation using an op-amp is shown below:
A double limiter
circuit utilising a
double-anode Zener
"double-anode R2 diode…
Zener diode"
Z2 Z1
R1
vi
vo
Figure 8.18
Its transfer characteristic is:
…and its transfer

characteristic
vo
(VZ 2 + 0.7)
0
vi
R2
slope =
R1
-(VZ 1 + 0.7)
Figure 8.19
Convince yourself that the transfer characteristic will be that shown.
PMcL Limiter Index

8.24
EXAMPLE 8.3 Asymmetric Double Limiter
An asymmetric double limiter is shown below:
20 k
8.2 V 5.6 V
10 k
vi
vo
We assume that when a Zener diode conducts in the forward direction, the
voltage drop is approximately 0.7 V. The circuit’s transfer characteristic is:
vo
8.9
3.15
-4.45 0
vi
slope = - 2
- 6.3
The output waveform resulting from a 5 V peak sinusoidal input is shown

below:
vo
8.9 vi
3.15
t
-4.45
-6.3
Index Limiter PMcL

8.25
8.5 Clamp
A clamp circuit is used to add a DC component to an AC input waveform so
that the positive (or negative) peaks are forced to take a specified value –
usually zero. In other words, the peaks of the waveform are “clamped” to a
specified voltage value. The simplest form of positive clamp is shown below:
An ideal positive
clamp
vC
C
vi ideal D vo
Figure 8.20
Because of the polarity in which the diode is connected, it will allow the
capacitor to charge to a voltage vC equal to the magnitude of the most negative
peak of the input signal. Subsequently, the diode turns off and the capacitor
retains its voltage indefinitely.
Now since the output voltage v o is given by:
vo  vi  vC (8.14)
it follows that the output waveform will be identical to that of the input except
shifted upwards by vC .
Another way of visualizing the operation of the circuit is to note that because
the diode is connected across the output with the polarity shown, it prevents the
output voltage from going below 0 V (by turning on and charging up the
capacitor).
PMcL Clamp Index

8.26
An example of input and output signals is shown below:
Input and output

waveforms of an
ideal positive clamp,
showing DC v
restoration
10 vo
5
vi
0 t
-5
Figure 8.21
As can be seen from the figure above, another appropriate name for the circuit
is a DC restorer. These circuits find application in communication systems.
It should be obvious that reversing the diode polarity will provide an output
waveform whose highest peak is clamped to 0 V – a negative clamp.
If we replace the diode in the clamping circuit of Figure 8.20 by a

“superdiode”, a precision positive clamping circuit is obtained:
clamp
vi vo
C
Figure 8.22
Operation of this circuit should be self-explanatory.
Index Clamp PMcL

8.27
8.6 Summary
 The op-amp in an open-loop configuration can be used as a basic
comparator:
vo
+Vsat
vi
vo vi
-Vsat
 The inverting half-wave precision rectifier is used to rectify signals in the

mV range:
R2 vo
D1
R1
vi D2 vi
vo 1
1
 A precision positive peak detector can retain its output voltage for a long
time:
D1
D2 A2 vo
A1
vi
C
PMcL Summary Index

8.28
 A limiter is used to clip off the unwanted portions of the input voltage
above or below certain levels, so as to produce a limited output:
R2
vo
Z2 Z1 (VZ 2 + 0.7)
R1
vi vi
vo 0
R2
slope =
R1
-(VZ 1 + 0.7)
 A precision positive clamp is used to clamp a signal’s minimum value to 0

V, thus restoring a DC component:
vi vo
C
8.7 References

8.29
Exercises
1.
The window detector circuit detects when an unknown voltage falls within a
specified voltage band or window. It consists of two comparators and two
reference voltages VTL and VTH defining the lower and upper limits of the
window, as shown below:
+VCC
Rc
LM311
VTH 2 7
1
vi
LM311
2 7
vo
VTL 3
Note the use of a “wired-OR” output. If either comparator turns on then the
output will be “pulled low” (i.e. vo  0 V ). With both comparators off there is
no current and the output is “pulled high” (i.e. vo  VCC ). The resistor Rc in
this case is called a “pull-up resistor”.

8.30
Design a circuit to monitor an input voltage and turn an LED on when this
voltage goes either above 5.5 V or below 4.5 V. Assume that VLED  1.8 V and
I LED  2.mA . A supply voltage of 12 V is available.
2.
Draw the transfer characteristic of the following op-amp circuit.
R R R
R D1
vi
A1 A2 vo
D2
R
3.
Draw the transfer characteristic of the following op-amp circuit.
3R R
+15 V
D1
R
vi D2
vo
4.
It is desired to clamp a 1 kHz, 5 V peak, sinusoid so that its maximum value is
0 V. Draw the schematic of a circuit that will achieve such an operation with
precision.

8.31
5.
The following block diagram shows part of a “clock recovery” circuit for a
communication system. Determine the function of each block, and therefore
give the blocks a name:
Waveform
a b c d
(i) (ii) (iii)
t
a
t
c
t
d

9.1
9 The First-Order Step Response
Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 9.2

9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function .......................................................................... 9.3
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit ......................................................................................... 9.7
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response ............................................................... 9.11
9.3.1 Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential Operator . 9.13
9.3.2 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection ......................................... 9.15
9.3.3 Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor .................... 9.16
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits ........................................................................... 9.19
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits............................... 9.29
9.6 RL Circuits ......................................................................................................... 9.30
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits ............................... 9.32
9.8 Summary............................................................................................................ 9.33
9.9 References ......................................................................................................... 9.33
Exercises .................................................................................................................. 9.34
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) ..................................................... 9.38
PMcL Contents Index
2015 9 - The First-Order Step Response

9.2
Introduction
The determination of the natural response of a source-free circuit relies solely
on the configuration of the circuit elements and on any initial energy storage
present in the system (capacitor voltages and inductor currents).
If we apply a DC source to a circuit, it will eventually settle to a state where all

voltages and currents are DC. Such a DC source is termed a forcing function –
it forces the form of the response in the circuit voltages and currents.
If we apply a sinusoidal source to a circuit, it will eventually settle to a state

where all voltages and currents are sinusoidal. Thus the concept of a forcing
function is applicable to other styles of sources. We shall see later that the DC
source and the sinusoidal source are special cases of a general forcing function.
The application of a forcing function to a circuit will result in a “response”

consisting of two parts. The first part is termed the forced response, or steady-
state response. The second part is the natural response. As we know, the
natural response dies out after a period of time, leaving only the forced
response. We can think of the natural response of a circuit as a necessary
transient response to move the circuit from one “state” to another.
We will consider circuits that are initially in a known state – any sources have
either been off for a very long time, or on for a very long time. Any forcing
functions are switched on at t  0 .
The forced response can be obtained by considering the response of the circuit
after a very long time. The form of the natural response will be the same as that
obtained for the source-free circuit.
The complete response will be obtained by adding the forced response to the
natural response.
9 - The First-Order Step Response 2015

9.3
9.1 The Unit-Step Forcing Function

In an analysis of a circuit we often find the need to turn source voltages or
currents on at a specified time. To do this, we define the unit-step function to
be zero for all values of time less than zero, and unity for all values of time
greater than zero:
0, t  0
u t   
The unit-step
function defined
1, t  0 (9.1)
At t  0 , u t  changes abruptly from 0 to 1. Its value at t  0 is undefined, but

its value is known for all points arbitrarily close to t  0 . We often indicate
   
this by writing u 0  0 and u 0  1 .
Graphically, the unit-step function looks like:
and graphed
u(t )
1
0 t
Figure 9.1
Note that a vertical line of unit length is shown at t  0 . This “riser” is of

course impossible (how can a function take on many values simultaneously?)
but is usually shown in drawings.
We cannot always arrange for the switching of a source to occur at t  0 . Since

the unit-step function provides us with a discontinuity when the value of its
argument is zero, then we need to consider a delayed version of the unit-step.
PMcL The Unit-Step Forcing Function Index

9.4
The argument of a
We will now make a very important observation: it is the argument of the
function determines function which determines the position of the function along the t-axis. We
its position
therefore have the delayed unit-step function:
0, t  t0
u t  t0   
1, t  t0 (9.2)
We obtain the conditions on the values of the function by the simple

substitution t t  t 0 in Eq. (9.1). Graphically, we have:
u(t- t0 )
1
0 t0 t
Figure 9.2
We see that the argument t  t0  simply shifts the origin of the original
function to t 0 . A positive value of t 0 shifts the function to the right –

corresponding to a delay in time. A negative value shifts the function to the left
– an advance in time.
To represent a constant voltage V being turned on in a circuit, we represent it as

a source which is zero before t  t0 and a constant V after t  t0 :
General
V u(t - t0) network
Figure 9.3
Index The Unit-Step Forcing Function PMcL

9.5
The utility of the unit-step function is that it can be used as a “switch” to turn
another function (not necessarily a constant) on or off at some point. For
example, the product given by u t 1cos2t is shown below:
The unit-step
function as a
u ( t- 1) cos 2 t “switch”
1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 t
Figure 9.4
Another useful forcing function may be obtained by manipulating the unit-step

forcing function. Let us define a rectangular voltage pulse by the following
conditions:
The rectangular
pulse
 0, t  t0

vt   V , t0  t  t1 (9.3)
 0, t1  t

The pulse is shown below:
v(t)
V
0 t0 t1 t
Figure 9.5
This rectangular pulse is the difference of two step functions:
vt   V ut  t0   ut  t1  (9.4)
PMcL The Unit-Step Forcing Function Index

9.6
EXAMPLE 9.1 The Unit-Step as a Switch
The unit-step finds application in mathematically representing the application

of a source via a switch. Consider the circuit shown below:
t=0
General
(a) V network
It is tempting to replace the voltage source and switch by a step function:
General
(b) V u(t ) network
However, this is incorrect, because the circuit with the step function actually
represents:
The circuit
t=0
equivalent of a step-
voltage function
General
(c) V network
That is, the step function applies v  0 for t  0 , and then v  V for t  0 . The
first circuit applies an open circuit for t  0 , and then v  V for t  0 .
However, circuit (b) can often be used if we establish that all initial currents
and voltages in the original network and in circuit (b) for t  0 are equivalent.
This is always the case for circuits that start out with zero initial conditions (no
stored energy) at t  0 .
Index The Unit-Step Forcing Function PMcL

9.7
9.2 The Driven RC Circuit

Consider a circuit consisting of a battery V in series with a switch, a resistance
R, and a capacitance C. The switch is closed at t  0 , as shown in the circuit
diagram (a) below:
A simple RC circuit
driven by a step-
voltage
t=0 R R
V C v( t ) Vu ( t ) C v( t )
(a) (b)
Figure 9.6
We will assume that there is no stored energy in the capacitor before t  0 , and
we are therefore able to replace the battery and switch by a voltage-step forcing
function Vu t  , which also produces no response prior to t  0 . Hence, we will
analyse the equivalent circuit shown in circuit diagram (b).
We shall find vt  by writing down the appropriate differential equation that
describes the circuit, and then solve it using Euler’s integrating factor.
Applying KCL to the top capacitor node, we have:
v  Vu t  dv (9.5)
C 0
R dt
which can be rewritten as:
The governing
Vu t 
(9.6)
dv v for the RC circuit
  driven by a step-
dt RC RC voltage
PMcL The Driven RC Circuit Index

9.8
Since the unit-step function is discontinuous at t  0 , we first consider the

solution for t  0 and then for t  0 . It is obvious that the application of zero
voltage since t   has not produced any response, and therefore:
vt   0, t  0 (9.7)
For positive time u t  is unity, and we must solve the equation:
dv v V
  , t 0 (9.8)
dt RC RC
To solve, first multiply both sides by an integrating factor equal to et RC . This
gives:
dv t RC v V
et RC e  et RC (9.9)
dt RC RC
Thus, recognising that the left hand-side is the derivative of vet RC , we have:
d
dt
 
vet RC  et RC
V
RC
(9.10)
Integrating both sides with respect to time gives:
Ve t RC
ve t RC
 dt  A (9.11)
RC
where A is a constant of integration. Dividing both sides by the integrating
factor gives:
Ve t RC
 RC dt  Ae
t RC t RC
ve (9.12)
Index The Driven RC Circuit PMcL

9.9
Noting that V is a constant, we perform the integration and obtain:
vt   V  Ae t RC (9.13)
 
Prior to t  0 , vt   0 , and thus v 0  0 . Since the voltage across a capacitor
cannot change by a finite amount in zero time without being associated with an
 
infinite current, we thus have v 0  0 . We thus invoke the initial condition
 
that v 0  0 and get:
vt   V  Ve t RC , t  0 (9.14)
Thus, an expression for the response valid for all t would be:
The complete

vt   V 1  et RC ut   (9.15) response of an RC
circuit to a step-
voltage
This is the desired solution, but it has not been obtained in the simplest manner.
The complete
In order to establish a more direct procedure, we will interpret the two terms response is
composed of two
appearing in Eq. (9.15). parts…
The exponential term has the functional form of the natural response of the RC
circuit – it is a negative exponential that approaches zero as time increases, and
the natural response
it is characterized by the time constant RC. The functional form of this part of and…
the response is identical with that which is obtained in the source-free circuit.
However, the amplitude of this exponential term depends on V, the forcing
function.
Eq. (9.15) also contains a constant term, V. Why is it present? The natural
response approaches zero as the energy stored in the capacitor gradually
reaches its limit. Eventually the capacitor will be fully charged and it will the forced response
appear as an open circuit – the current will be zero, and the battery voltage V
will appear directly across the capacitor terminals. This voltage is a part of the
response which is directly attributable to the forcing function, and we call it the
forced response. It is the response which is present a long time after the switch
is closed.
PMcL The Driven RC Circuit Index

9.10
We see that the complete response is composed of two parts:
The complete
response is the sum
complete forced
of the forced
  natural (9.16)
response and the
natural response
response response response
The forced response has the characteristics of the forcing function; it is found
The forced response
is determined by by pretending that all switches have been thrown a long time ago. For circuits
forcing function
with only switches and DC sources, the forced response is just the solution of a
simple DC circuit problem (all capacitors are open-circuits, all inductors are
short-circuits).
The natural response is a characteristic of the circuit, and not of the sources. Its
The natural
response is form may be found by considering the source-free circuit, and it has an
determined by the
circuit amplitude which depends on the initial amplitude of the source and the initial
energy storage.
The reason for the two responses, forced and natural, may also be seen from
physical arguments. We know that our circuit will eventually assume the
forced response. However, at the instant the switches are thrown, the initial
The natural capacitor voltages (or the currents through the inductors in other circuits) will
response provides have values which depend only on the energy stored in these elements. These
the link between the
initial state and final voltages or currents cannot be expected to be the same as the voltages and
state of a circuit
currents demanded by the forced response. Hence, there must be a transient
period during which the voltages and currents change from their given initial
values to their required final values. The portion of the response which
provides the transition from initial to final values is the natural response (often
called the transient response).
Index The Driven RC Circuit PMcL

9.11
9.3 The Forced and the Natural Response

There is an excellent mathematical reason for considering the complete
response to be composed of two parts, the forced response and the natural The solution to a
general differential
response. The reason is based on the fact that the solution of a linear equation consists of
two parts…
differential equation may be expressed as the solution of two parts, the
particular solution (forced response) and the complementary solution (natural
response).
Recall that a general linear differential equation with constant coefficients of

order n is an equation that can be written:
dny d n1 y
an n  an1 n1    a1  a0 y  r t 
dy
dt dt dt (9.17)
This linear nonhomogeneous differential equation with constant coefficients

may also be written in the form:
f Dy  r t  (9.18)
We may identify r t  as a term that is due to the forcing function.
We have already seen that the solution to the homogeneous differential

equation with constant coefficients is the solution of the equation:
f Dyc  0
the complementary
(9.19) solution (natural
response) and…
Such a solution, yc , is called the complementary solution. We know that the

complementary solution has a form given by:
yc  c1e s1t  c2e s2t    cn e snt (9.20)
where the ci ’s are arbitrary constants and the si ’s are the roots of the
characteristic equation.
PMcL The Forced and the Natural Response Index

9.12
The particular solution, y p , is any solution we happen to come up with that
satisfies the original differential equation. That is, the particular solution
satisfies:
f Dy p  r t 
the particular
solution (forced (9.21)
response)
To see that the general solution of Eq. (9.18) is composed of two parts, let the
complete solution be written as the sum of the particular solution and the
complementary solution:
The general solution
is the sum of the
particular solution y  y p  yc (9.22)
and the
complementary
solution
Substitution into Eq. (9.18) results in:
f D  y p  yc   f D  y p  f D  yc
 r t   0
 r t  (9.23)
That is, we can safely add yc to any particular solution, since it contributes
nothing to the right-hand side.
We now have to find ways to obtain the particular solution of a differential

equation. We will look at three methods – one where we utilise the concept of
an inverse differential operator, one where the solution can be obtained by
inspection, and one where the differential equation is first-order.
Index The Forced and the Natural Response PMcL

9.13
9.3.1 Finding a Particular Solution using the Inverse Differential Operator

The concept of the differential operator can be used to find particular solutions
for nonhomogeneous differential equations.
In seeking a particular solution of:
f Dy  r t  (9.24)
it is natural to write:
(9.25) The inverse

r t 
1
yp  differential operator
f D  is introduced
notationally…
and then try to find an operator 1 f D  so that the function y p will have
meaning and satisfy Eq. (9.24). All we require is that:
with the only

(9.26)
f D   r t   r t 
1 requirement that it
f D 
gives a solution to
the original
We proved before that:
f Dest  f s est (9.27)
This suggests that we define:

The effect of the
f s   0
1 st 1 st inverse differential
e  e , operator on an
f D  f s  (9.28)
exponential function
Now from Eq. (9.27) it follows that:
f s e st
(9.29)
e st
f D    e st
f s  f s 
and thus, with the requirement of Eq. (9.26), Eq. (9.28) is verified.

9.14
EXAMPLE 9.2 Finding a Particular Solution to a Differential Equation
Solve the equation:
D 2

 D y  e 2t
Here the roots of the characteristic equation are s  0,  1 . Further,
f D   D 2  D and f 2  0 . Hence, using Eq. (9.28):
1 e 2t 1
yp  e 2t
  e 2t
D D
2
2 2 6
2
So the solution is:
y  c1  c2et  16 e2t
EXAMPLE 9.3 Finding a Particular Solution to a Differential Equation
Find a particular solution of:
D 2

 9 y  5  3et
Here the roots of the characteristic equation are s  3,  3 and f D   D 2  9 .
We also have f 0  0 and f 1  0 . Hence, using superposition, we have:
1 5 5
y1  5 2 
D 9
2
0 9 9
and:
1 3et 3
y2  3e t
   et
D 9
2
1 9
2
8
Hence:
y p  y1  y2   95  83 et
is a particular solution.

9.15
9.3.2 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection
For the second method of finding a particular solution, we note that it is

frequently easy to obtain a particular solution of a nonhomogeneous equation:
a D
n
n
 an1Dn1    a1D  a0 y  r t   (9.30)
by inspection.
For example, if r t  is a constant R0 and a0  0 , then:
The particular
(9.31)
R solution for a
yp  0 constant forcing
a0 function is a
constant
is a solution because all derivatives of y p are zero.
EXAMPLE 9.4 Finding a Particular Solution by Inspection
Solve the equation:
D 2

 3D  2 y  16
We obtain the complementary function:
yc  c1et  c2e2t
By inspection a particular solution of the original equation is:
y p  162  8
Hence the general solution is:
y  c1et  c2e2t  8

9.16
9.3.3 Finding a Particular Solution using an Integrating Factor
For the third method of finding a particular solution, let us restrict ourselves to
first-order differential equations. The general equation of the type encountered
in analysing the RC circuit of the previous section can be written as:
dv
 Pv  Q (9.32)
dt
P and Q can, in general, be functions of time. We identify Q as a term that is
due to the forcing function, and P as a quantity due solely to the circuit
configuration. Following the steps as before, we first multiply both sides by an
integrating factor equal to e Pt . This gives:
dv Pt
e Pt  e Pv  e Pt Q (9.33)
dt
Thus, recognising that the left hand-side is the derivative of vePt , we have:
d
dt
 
vePt  QePt (9.34)
Integrating both sides with respect to time gives:
vePt   QePt dt  A
(9.35)
where A is a constant of integration. Since the constant is explicitly shown, we

should remember that no integration constant needs to be added to the
remaining integral when it is evaluated.
Dividing both sides by the integrating factor gives:

The general solution
v  e Pt  QePt dt  Ae  Pt
of a first-order
differential
equation… (9.36)

9.17
If Qt  , the forcing function, is known, then it remains only to evaluate the
integral to obtain the complete response. However, we shall not evaluate such
an integral for each problem. Instead we are interested in using Eq. (9.36) to
draw several general conclusions.
We should note first that, for a source-free circuit, Q must be zero, and the
solution is the natural response:
has a natural
 Pt
vn  Ae (9.37) response…
In linear time-invariant passive circuits, P is always a positive constant that

depends only on the circuit elements and their interconnection in the circuit (if
a circuit contains a dependent source or a negative resistance, it is possible for
P to be negative). The natural response therefore approaches zero as time
increases without limit.
We therefore find that one of the two terms making up the complete response
has the form of the natural response. It has an amplitude which will depend on
the initial energy of the circuit as well as the initial value of the forcing
function.
We next observe that the first term of Eq. (9.36) depends on the functional
form of Qt  , the forcing function. Whenever we have a circuit in which the and a forced
response
natural response dies out as t becomes infinite, then this first term must
describe the response completely after the natural response has disappeared.
Thus, this term is the forced response.

9.18
We have only considered those problems involving the sudden application of

DC sources, and Qt  is therefore a constant for all values of time after the
switch has been closed. We can now evaluate the integral in Eq. (9.36),
obtaining the forced response:
(9.38)
The forced response Q
for DC excitation vf 
P
and we can write the complete response:
The complete Q
response for DC v  v f  vn   Ae  Pt (9.39)
excitation P
For the RC series circuit, Q P is the constant voltage V and 1 P is the time
constant T. We can see that the forced response might have been obtained
without evaluating the integral, because it must be the complete response at
infinite time. The forced response is thus obtained by inspection using DC
circuit analysis.
In the following section we shall attempt to find the complete response for
several RC circuits by obtaining the forced and natural responses and adding
them.

9.19
9.4 Step-Response of RC Circuits

We will use the simple RC series circuit to illustrate how to determine the
complete response by the addition of the forced and natural response. This
circuit, shown below, has been analysed earlier, but by a longer method.
The simple RC
circuit driven by a
R step-voltage
Vu ( t ) C v( t )
Figure 9.7
The desired response is the voltage across the capacitor, vt  , and we first
express this voltage as the sum of the forced and natural voltage:
The complete
response expressed
v  v f  vn (9.40) as the sum of the
forced response and
natural response
The functional form of the natural response must be the same as that obtained
without any sources. We therefore replace the step-voltage source by a short-
circuit and recognize the resulting parallel source-free RC circuit. Thus:
The form of the
vn  Ae t RC (9.41) natural response

that results from the
source-free circuit
where the amplitude A is yet to be determined.
PMcL Step-Response of RC Circuits Index

9.20
We next consider the forced response, that part of the response which depends
upon the nature of the forcing function itself. In this particular problem the
forced response must be constant because the source is a constant V for all
positive values of time.
After the natural response has died out the capacitor must be fully charged and
the forced response is simply:
The forced response

obtained from DC
circuit analysis
vf  V (9.42)
Note that the forced response is determined completely – there is no unknown

amplitude. We next combine the two responses:
v  V  Ae t RC (9.43)
and apply the initial condition to evaluate A. The voltage is zero prior to t  0 ,
Determining the
amplitude of the and it cannot change value instantaneously since it is the voltage across a
decaying
exponential term capacitor. Thus, the voltage is zero immediately after t  0 , and:
0 V  A (9.44)
Thus:
A  V (9.45)
Therefore:
The complete
response – obtained
without solving a
differential equation!

v  V 1  et RC  (9.46)
Index Step-Response of RC Circuits PMcL

9.21
The complete response is plotted below, and we can see the manner in which
the voltage builds up from its initial value of zero to its final value of V.
A graph of the step-

response of the RC
v circuit
0.6321V
0
t
T 2T 3T 4T
Figure 9.8
The transition is effectively accomplished in a time 4T . In one time constant,

the voltage has attained 63.2% of its final value.

9.22
EXAMPLE 9.5 Step Response of an RC Circuit
a t=0
b
10 
60  50  v( t )
200  50 mF
120 V
50 V i( t )
The switch is assumed to have been in position a for a long time, or, in other
words, the natural response which resulted from the original excitation of the
circuit has decayed to a negligible amplitude, leaving only a forced response
caused by the 120 V source.
We begin by finding the forced response when the switch is in position a. The
voltages throughout the circuit are all constant, and there is thus no current
through the capacitor (which is treated like an open-circuit). Simple voltage
division determines the forced response prior to t  0 :
50
vf  120  100, t  0
50  10
and we thus have the initial condition:
v0  100
Since the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, this voltage is

equally valid at t  0 and t  0 .

9.23
The switch is now thrown to b, and the complete response is:
v  v f  vn
The form of the natural response is obtained by replacing the 50 V source by a

short-circuit and evaluating the equivalent resistance:
1
Req   24
1 50  1 200  1 60
t Req C
vn  Ae
or
vn  Ae t 1.2
In order to evaluate the forced response with the switch at b, we wait until all
the voltages and currents have stopped changing, thus treating the capacitor as
an open circuit, and use voltage division once more:
vf 
50200 50  200 50  20
60  50200 50  200
Thus:
v  20  Ae t 1.2
and from the initial condition already obtained:
 
v 0   20  A  100
and thus:
A  80
Therefore, the complete response is:
v  20  80et 1.2 , t  0

9.24
This response is sketched below:
v
100
20
0
t
-1 1T 2 3 4
The natural response is seen to form a transition from the initial to the final
response.
Finally, let us calculate some response that need not remain constant during the
instant of switching, such as i t  in the circuit diagram. With the contact at a, it
is evident that i  50 260  0.192 A . When the switch is in position b, the
forced response for this current now becomes:
50 50
if   0.1
60  50200 50  200 50  200
The form of the natural response is the same as that which we already
determined for the capacitor voltage:
in  Be t 1.2
Combining the forced and natural responses, we obtain:
i  0.1  Be t 1.2

9.25
 
To evaluate B, we need to know i 0 . This is found by fixing our attention on
the energy-storage element, here the capacitor, for the fact that v must remain
100 V during the switching interval is the governing condition establishing
 
other currents and voltages at t  0 . Since v 0  100 V , and since the
 
capacitor is in parallel with the 200  resistor, we find i 0  0.5 , B  0.4 ,
and thus:
it   0.192 t0

it   0.1  0.4e t 1.2
t 0
or:

it   0.192u t   0.1  0.4et 1.2 ut  
This response is sketched below:
0.5
0.192
0.1
0
t
-1 1T 2 3 4

9.26
EXAMPLE 9.6 Step Response of an RC Circuit using Superposition
Let us apply a rectangular voltage pulse of amplitude V and duration t0 to the

simple RC series circuit.
R
v( t )
V -V u ( t - t0)
C v( t )
Vu ( t )
0 t0 t
(a) (b)
We represent the forcing function as the sum of two step-voltage sources Vu t 

and  Vu t  t0  , and plan to obtain the response by using the superposition
principle. We will designate that part of vt  which is due to the lower source
Vu t  acting alone by the symbol v1 t  and then let v2 t  represent that part due
to  Vu t  t0  acting alone. Then:
vt   v1 t   v2 t 
We now write each of the partial responses v1 and v2 as the sum of a forced
and a natural response. The response v1 t  is familiar:
 
v1 t   V 1  et RC , t  0
Note that the range of t , t  0 , in which the solution is valid, is indicated.

9.27
We now consider the upper source and its response v2 t  . Only the polarity of
the source and the time of its application are different. There is thus no need to
determine the form of the natural response and the forced response, the
solution for v1 t  enables us to write:

v2 t   V 1  et t0  RC , t  t0
where the applicable range of t , t  t0 , must again be indicated.
We now add the two solutions carefully, since each is valid over a different
interval of time: Thus:

vt   V 1  e t RC  0  t  t0
vt   V 1  e t RC
 V 1  e   t t0  RC
 t  t0
or, simplifying the second equation:

vt   V 1  e t RC  0  t  t0
vt   V e t0 RC
 1e t RC
t  t0
The second equation can also be written as:

vt   V 1  e t0 RC
e 
 t t0  RC
t  t0
We can identify the constant at the front of the decaying exponential term as
the value of the initial response at time t  t 0 . If we define:

V0  V 1  e t0 RC

then the second term is just:
vt   V0 e t t0  RC t  t0
This is a “time shifted” decaying exponential with an initial value given by the
response at the switching instant, V0 .

9.28
The solution is completed by stating that vt  is zero for negative t and
sketching the response as a function of time. The type of curve obtained
depends upon the relative values of t0 and the time constant T. Two possible
curves are shown below:
v
V
V0
0
t
t
1
2 0 t0 2t0
(T )
(a)
v
V
V0
0 t0 2t0 3t0 4t0

t
(T )
(b)
The top curve (a) is drawn for the case where the time constant is only one-half
as large as the length of the applied pulse – the rising portion of the exponential
has therefore almost reached V before the decaying exponential begins.
The opposite situation is shown on the bottom (b) – there, the time constant is
twice t0 and the response never has a chance to reach a large amplitude.

9.29
9.5 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits

The procedure we have been using to find the response of an RC circuit after
DC sources have been switched on or off or in or out of the circuit at some
Step-by-step guide
instant of time, say t  0 , is summarized in the following. We assume that the to solving STC RC
circuits with step-
circuit is reducible to a single equivalent resistance Req in parallel with a single sources
equivalent capacitance Ceq when all independent sources are set equal to zero,
i.e. we have a single time constant (STC) circuit. The response we seek is
represented by f t  .
1. With all independent sources set to zero, simplify the circuit to

determine Req , Ceq , and the time constant T  ReqCeq .
2. Viewing Ceq as an open circuit, use DC-analysis methods to find
 
vC 0 , the capacitor voltage just prior to the discontinuity.
3. Again viewing Ceq as an open circuit, use DC-analysis methods to
find the forced response. This is the value approached by f t  as

t   ; we represent it by f   .
4. Write the total response as the sum of the forced and natural
responses: f t   f   Ae t T .
5.      
Find f 0 by using the condition that vC 0  vC 0 . If desired, Ceq
may be replaced by a voltage source v 0  [a short

C

circuit if
 
vC 0  0 ] for this calculation. With the exception of capacitor
voltages, other voltages and currents in the circuit may change
abruptly.
6.     
Then f 0  f   A and f t   f   f 0  f  et T .
PMcL Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RC Circuits Index

9.30
9.6 RL Circuits
The complete response of any RL circuit may also be obtained as the sum of
Solving RL circuits
uses the same the forced response and natural response.
techniques as for
RC circuits EXAMPLE 9.7 Step Response of an RL Circuit
2
i (t )
50u(t )
6 3H
50 V
The circuit contains a DC voltage source as well as a step-voltage source. Let

us determine i t  for all values of time. We might choose to replace everything
to the left of the inductor by the Thévenin equivalent, but instead let us merely
recognize the form of that equivalent as a resistor in series with some voltage
source. The circuit contains only one energy-storage element, the inductor, and
the natural response is therefore a negative exponential:
L 3
T  2
Req 1.5
and:
in  Ae t 2
The forced response must be that produced by a constant voltage of 100 V. The
forced response is constant, and no voltage is present across the inductor (it
behaves like a short-circuit) and therefore:
100
if   50
2
Index RL Circuits PMcL

9.31
Thus:
i  i f  in  50  Ae t 2
In order to evaluate A, we must establish the initial value of the inductor

current. Prior to t  0 , this current is 25 A, and it cannot change
instantaneously. Thus:
25  50  A or A  25
Hence:
i  50  25et 2 , t  0
We complete the solution by also stating:
i  25, t  0
or by writing a single expression valid for all t:
 
i  25  25 1  et 2 ut  A
The complete response is sketched below:
50
25
0
t
-2 2 4 6 8
Note how the natural response serves to connect the response for t  0 with the
constant forced response.
PMcL RL Circuits Index

9.32
9.7 Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits

This is the dual of the statements given for the analysis procedure for single
time constant RC circuits.
The procedure we have been using to find the response of an RL circuit after
DC sources have been switched on or off or in or out of the circuit at some
Step-by-step guide instant of time, say t  0 , is summarized in the following. We assume that the
to solving STC RL
circuits with step- circuit is reducible to a single equivalent resistance Req in series with a single
sources
equivalent inductance Leq when all independent sources are set equal to zero,
i.e. we have a single time constant (STC) circuit. The response we seek is
represented by f t  .
1. With all independent sources set to zero, simplify the circuit to

determine Req , Leq , and the time constant T  Leq Req .
2. Viewing Leq as a short circuit, use DC-analysis methods to find
 
iL 0 , the inductor current just prior to the discontinuity.
3. Again viewing Leq as a short circuit, use DC-analysis methods to find
the forced response. This is the value approached by f t  as t   ;

we represent it by f   .
4. Write the total response as the sum of the forced and natural
responses: f t   f   Ae t T .
5.      
Find f 0 by using the condition that iL 0  iL 0 . If desired, Leq
may be replaced by a current source i 0  [an open

L

circuit if
 
iL 0  0 ] for this calculation. With the exception of inductor
currents, other voltages and currents in the circuit may change
abruptly.
6.     
Then f 0  f   A and f t   f   f 0  f  et T .
Index Analysis Procedure for Single Time Constant RL Circuits PMcL

9.33
9.8 Summary
 The unit-step function can be used to simulate the opening and closing of
switches under certain conditions.
 The complete response of a circuit to a forcing function consists of two

parts: the forced response, and the natural response.
 Mathematically, the forced response is the particular solution of a

nonhomogeneous linear differential equation with constant coefficients.
The natural response is the complementary solution to the corresponding
homogeneous equation.
 For circuits driven by constant voltages or currents, the forced response can
be obtained by undertaking DC circuit analysis.
 For single time constant circuits, the natural response is a decaying

exponential, y  Ae t T , where T is the time constant.
 The complete response of single time constant circuits to DC excitation

  
always takes the form of f t   f   f 0  f  et T . We just need to
determine the time constant of the circuit T, the forced response f   , and
 
the initial response f 0 .
9.9 References
Hayt, W. & Kemmerly, J.: Engineering Circuit Analysis, 3rd Ed., Mcgraw-Hill,
1984.
PMcL Summary Index

9.34
Exercises
1.
A current source of 5 A, a 4  resistor, and a closed switch are in parallel. The
switch opens at t  0 , closes at t  0.2 s , opens at t  0.4 s , and continues in
this periodic pattern. Express the voltage across the switch as an infinite
summation of step functions.
2.
30 u (t ) V
2 k
vC ( t ) 25 F v1 ( t ) 2 k 10 u (t ) mA
Find vC t  and v1 t  .
3.
3
10 u (t ) A vC ( t ) 1 F 1 10 u (t ) V
2 i1
i1
Find vC t  .

9.35
4.
After being open for several minutes, the switch in the circuit below closes
at t  0 .
t=0 4 k 1 k
Vs vC ( t ) 0.2F 100 V
Find vC t  for all t if Vs  :
(a) -200 V
(b) +100 V
5.
100 
100 V R C
Specify values for R and C in the circuit so that the capacitor voltage will reach
80 V, 10 ms after the switch is closed, but will not drop below 90 V until 0.5 s
after the switch is opened, assuming that it has been closed for a very long
time.

9.36
6.
10 V
ix t=0
10  v (t ) 2 F 40 V
0.2ix
Find vt  for t  0 .
7.
 
A 250 Ω resistor and a source, 12ut   12u t  103 V , are in series with a
0.2 H inductor. Find the inductor current magnitude at t  0.5 and 2 ms.
8.
The general solution to the driven series RL circuit is given by Eq. (9.36). Use
it to find i t  for t  0 if R  250  , L  0.2 H , and the source voltage is:
(a) 100ut  V
(b) 100e100t ut  V
(c) 100 cos1250t ut  V

9.37
9.
20  4 mH
6 u (t ) A v 40  60 u (t ) V
Find v as a function of time.
10.
40 
100 u (t ) V 2A 2H
Find the power being absorbed by the inductor at t  :
(a) 0  (b) 0  (c) 0.05 (d) 

9.38
Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler)

The work of Euler built upon that of Newton and made mathematics the tool of
analysis. Astronomy, the geometry of surfaces, optics, electricity and
magnetism, artillery and ballistics, and hydrostatics are only some of Euler’s
fields. He put Newton’s laws, calculus, trigonometry, and algebra into a
recognizably modern form.
Euler was born in Switzerland, and before he was an adolescent it was

recognized that he had a prodigious memory and an obvious mathematical gift.
He received both his bachelor’s and his master’s degrees at the age of 15, and
at the age of 23 he was appointed professor of physics, and at age 26 professor
of mathematics, at the Academy of Sciences in Russia.
Among the symbols that Euler initiated are the sigma () for summation
(1755), e to represent the constant 2.71828…(1727), i for the imaginary 1

(1777), and even a, b, and c for the sides of a triangle and A, B, and C for the
opposite angles. He transformed the trigonometric ratios into functions and
abbreviated them sin , cos and tan , and treated logarithms and exponents as
functions instead of merely aids to calculation. He also standardised the use of
 for 3.14159…
His 1736 treatise, Mechanica, represented the flourishing state of Newtonian

physics under the guidance of mathematical rigor. An introduction to pure
mathematics, Introductio in analysin infinitorum, appeared in 1748 which
treated algebra, the theory of equations, trigonometry and analytical geometry.
In this work Euler gave the formula eix  cos x  i sin x . It did for calculus what
Euclid had done for geometry. Euler also published the first two complete
works on calculus: Institutiones calculi differentialis, from 1755, and
Institutiones calculi integralis, from 1768.
Euler's work in mathematics is vast. He was the most prolific writer of

mathematics of all time. After his death in 1783 the St Petersburg Academy
continued to publish Euler's unpublished work for nearly 50 more years!
Index Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) PMcL

9.39
Some of his phenomenal output includes: books on the calculus of variations;
on the calculation of planetary orbits; on artillery and ballistics; on analysis; on
shipbuilding and navigation; on the motion of the moon; lectures on the
differential calculus. He made decisive and formative contributions to
geometry, calculus and number theory. He integrated Leibniz's differential
calculus and Newton's method of fluxions into mathematical analysis. He
introduced beta and gamma functions, and integrating factors for differential
equations. He studied continuum mechanics, lunar theory, the three body
problem, elasticity, acoustics, the wave theory of light, hydraulics, and music.
He laid the foundation of analytical mechanics. He proved many of Fermat’s
assertions including Fermat’s Last Theorem for the case n  3 . He published a
full theory of logarithms of complex numbers. Analytic functions of a complex
variable were investigated by Euler in a number of different contexts, including
the study of orthogonal trajectories and cartography. He discovered the
Cauchy-Riemann equations used in complex variable theory.
Euler made a thorough investigation of integrals which can be expressed in

terms of elementary functions. He also studied beta and gamma functions. As
well as investigating double integrals, Euler considered ordinary and partial
differential equations. The calculus of variations is another area in which Euler
made fundamental discoveries.
He considered linear equations with constant coefficients, second order

differential equations with variable coefficients, power series solutions of
differential equations, a method of variation of constants, integrating factors, a
method of approximating solutions, and many others. When considering
vibrating membranes, Euler was led to the Bessel equation which he solved by
introducing Bessel functions.
Euler made substantial contributions to differential geometry, investigating the

theory of surfaces and curvature of surfaces. Many unpublished results by
Euler in this area were rediscovered by Gauss.
PMcL Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) Index

9.40
Euler considered the motion of a point mass both in a vacuum and in a resisting
medium. He analysed the motion of a point mass under a central force and also
considered the motion of a point mass on a surface. In this latter topic he had to
solve various problems of differential geometry and geodesics.
He wrote a two volume work on naval science. He decomposed the motion of a

solid into a rectilinear motion and a rotational motion. He studied rotational
problems which were motivated by the problem of the precession of the
equinoxes.
He set up the main formulas for the topic of fluid mechanics, the continuity
equation, the Laplace velocity potential equation, and the Euler equations for
the motion of an inviscid incompressible fluid.
He did important work in astronomy including: the determination of the orbits

of comets and planets by a few observations; methods of calculation of the
parallax of the sun; the theory of refraction; consideration of the physical
nature of comets.
Euler also published on the theory of music...
Euler did not stop working in old age, despite his eyesight failing. He
eventually went blind and employed his sons to help him write down long
equations which he was able to keep in memory. Euler died of a stroke after a
day spent: giving a mathematics lesson to one of his grandchildren; doing some
calculations on the motion of balloons; and discussing the calculation of the
orbit of the planet Uranus, recently discovered by William Herschel.
His last words, while playing with one of his grandchildren, were: “I die.”
Index Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) (Len´ ard Oy´ ler) PMcL

10.1
10 Op-Amp Imperfections
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 10.2

10.1 DC Imperfections .................................................................................. 10.3
10.1.1 Offset Voltage ............................................................................. 10.4
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents ..................................................................... 10.5
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain .......................................................................... 10.8
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier .............................................................. 10.8
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier ..................................................................... 10.9
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error .................................................................... 10.11
10.3 Finite Bandwidth ................................................................................. 10.12
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation ................................................................... 10.13
10.5 Output Current Limits ......................................................................... 10.14
10.6 Slew Rate ............................................................................................. 10.15
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth .............................................................. 10.16
10.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 10.17
10.8 References ........................................................................................... 10.18
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 10.19
PMcL Contents Index
2015 10 - Op-Amp Imperfections

10.2
Introduction
The initial analysis phase of op-amp circuits assumes the op-amps to be ideal.
Although in many applications such an assumption is not a bad one, a circuit
designer has to be thoroughly familiar with the characteristics of practical op-
amps and the effects of such characteristics on the performance of op-amp
circuits.
Although no op-amp is ideal, modern processing techniques yield devices that

come close, at least in some parameters. This is by design. In fact, different op-
amps are optimized to be close to ideal for some parameters, while other
parameters for the same op-amp may be quite ordinary (some parameters can
be improved, but only at the expense of others). It is the designer’s function to
select the op-amp that is closest to ideal in ways that matter to the application,
and to know which parameters can be discounted or ignored.
For this reason, it is very important to understand the specifications and to

compare the limitations of the different commercially available op-amps, in
order to select the right op-amp for a specific application.
DC imperfections in the op-amp’s internal circuit give rise to DC voltages

appearing at the op-amp output that are independent of the input signal.
The most serious real op-amp deficiency is finite gain and limited bandwidth.
This causes “gain error” at low frequencies, and the op-amp to stop “working”
altogether at high frequencies.
Large signal operation of op-amps is limited by the power supplies, output

current limiting, and the “slew rate” – the maximum rate of change at the
output.
10 - Op-Amp Imperfections 2015

10.3
10.1 DC Imperfections
The standard input stage of an integrated circuit op-amp is a “DC coupled
differential pair” of transistors. Without delving deeply into the topology and
analysis of such a configuration, we can imagine that for it to amplify only the
“difference” in voltage appearing at its inputs that it must, in some sense, be
perfectly “balanced”. This requires the transistors that make up the “differential
pair” to be perfectly matched – i.e. each transistor should have exactly the
same characteristics. In real devices it is impossible to perfectly match
transistors – so there must be some “inherent imbalance” in the differential
pair. This imbalance causes an output even when the inputs are connected to
the same voltage (so that there is no differential input). The result is a DC
offset appearing at the output of the op-amp. To take this into account, we refer
the voltage back to the input, and define the offset voltage as that voltage which
must be applied at the input of an op-amp to cause the output to be zero.
In addition, each of the differential pair’s transistors is required to be “biased”

at a certain “operating point” on the transistor’s characteristic. Thus, each input
of the op-amp draws a DC bias current. Components of this current inevitably
must pass through the resistors connected to the op-amp’s input terminals, with
the result that they generate a DC output voltage (in addition to that generated
by the offset voltage).
Practical circuits therefore need to take these DC considerations into account

so that non-intentional DC output voltages are minimised.
PMcL DC Imperfections Index

10.4
10.1.1 Offset Voltage

The input offset voltage, VOS , is a DC voltage which must be applied to the op-
amp’s noninverting input terminal to drive the output voltage to 0 V, as
illustrated below:
Vo
ideal op-amp
VOS
(a) real circuit under test (b) offset voltage model
Figure 10.1
To analyse the effect of the offset voltage on the closed-loop performance of

the inverting and noninverting amplifiers, we can use superposition (since the
offset voltage effectively appears as another independent source). In either
configuration, the circuit we obtain just by considering the offset voltage is:
R2
R1
vo
ideal op-amp
VOS
Figure 10.2
It is easily seen that the resulting DC output voltage is given by:
 R 
Vo  VOS 1  2  (10.1)
 R1 
Index DC Imperfections PMcL

10.5
10.1.2 Input Bias Currents
For op-amps that have bipolar junction transistors (BJTs) at their inputs, a
finite DC current is required for proper biasing of the internal differential
amplifier. For op-amps that have junction field effect transistors (JFETs) at
their inputs, the DC input currents are junction leakage currents. In either case,
there are DC input bias currents which enter the input terminals of the op-amp:
IB 1
IB 2
Figure 10.3
The two currents are represented by two current sources, I B1 and I B 2 ,

connected to the two input terminals. The input bias currents are independent
of the fact that the op-amp has a finite (though large) input resistance.
We call the average value of I B1 and I B 2 the input bias current:
I B1  I B 2
IB  (10.2)
2
while the difference is called the input offset current:
I OS  I B1  I B 2 (10.3)

10.6
To analyse the effect of the bias currents on the closed-loop performance of the
inverting and noninverting amplifiers, we can analyse the following circuit:
R2
R 3 IB2
IB1 -
R1
R 3 IB2
R1 R1
- R 3 IB 2
IB 1
Vo
IB 2
- R 3 IB2
IB2
R3
Figure 10.4
With R3  0 , the output DC voltage is given by:
Vo  R2 I B1 (10.4)
which can be significant if R2 is large. Fortunately, a technique exists for

reducing the value of the output DC voltage due to the input bias currents. The
method consists of introducing a resistance R3  0 in series with the
noninverting terminal. From a signal point of view (i.e. when we analyse the
circuit considering the normal input voltages and an ideal op-amp), the
inclusion of R3 has no effect.
Index DC Imperfections PMcL

10.7
With R3  0 , the output DC voltage is given by:
Vo   R3 I B 2  R2 I B1  I B 2 R3 R1  (10.5)
For the case I B1  I B 2  I B , we get:
Vo  R2  R3 1 R2 R1 I B (10.6)
We may reduce Vo to zero by selecting R3 such that:
R2 RR
R3   1 2  R1 || R2 (10.7)
1  R2 R1 R1  R2
Therefore, to reduce the effect of DC bias currents, we should select R3 to be
equal to the parallel equivalent of R1 and R2 . Having selected this value,

substitution into Eq. (10.5) gives:
Vo  R2 I B1  I B 2  R2 I OS (10.8)
which is usually about an order of magnitude smaller than the value obtained
without R3 .
Thus, to minimise the effect of the bias currents, we place a resistance in series
with the noninverting terminal that is equal to the DC resistance seen by the
inverting terminal.

10.8
10.2 Finite Open-Loop Gain

To illustrate the effect of finite open-loop gain, we will consider what happens
to the closed-loop gain of the standard noninverting and inverting amplifier
configurations.
10.2.1 Noninverting Amplifier
For the noninverting amplifier, we have already derived the closed-loop gain
due to a finite open-loop gain. The result was:
AOL
ACL  (10.9)
1  AOL 
where:
R1
 (10.10)
R1  R2
Dividing the gain expression’s numerator and denominator by AOL  , we get:
1
ACL 
1  1   AOL
(10.11)
Substituting  we then get:
ACL 
1  R2 R1 
1  1  R2 R1  AOL
(10.12)
We note, with reassurance, that as AOL   , the closed-loop gain approaches
the ideal or nominal closed-loop gain, 1  R2 R1 .
Index Finite Open-Loop Gain PMcL

10.9
10.2.2 Inverting Amplifier
For the inverting configuration, we will use the following model for the op-
amp, which has an infinite input resistance, zero output resistance, but a finite
open-loop gain, AOL :
v vo
AOL ( v - v )
Figure 10.5
If we substitute this model into the inverting amplifier configuration, we get:
R2
R1
vi vo
v
AOL ( v - v )
v
Figure 10.6
PMcL Finite Open-Loop Gain Index

10.10
Since v  0 , the voltage at the inverting input terminal must be

v   vo AOL . The current i1 through R1 is therefore:
vi   vo AOL  vi  vo AOL
i1   (10.13)
R1 R1
The infinite input resistance of the op-amp causes this current to go through
R2 . The output voltage is then:
vo
vo    R2i1
AOL
(10.14)
vo v v A 
  R2  i o OL 
AOL  R1 
Collecting terms, the closed-loop gain is found to be:
vo  R2 R1
ACL  
vi 1  1  R2 R1  AOL
(10.15)
Again, we note with reassurance, that as AOL   , the closed-loop gain
approaches the ideal or nominal closed-loop gain,  R2 R1 .
Index Finite Open-Loop Gain PMcL

10.11
10.2.3 Percent Gain Error
We observe that the denominators of both the noninverting and inverting

closed-loop gain expressions are identical. This is a result of the fact that both
configurations have the same feedback loop, which can be seen if the input
signal sources are set to zero.
The numerators, however, are different, for the numerator gives the ideal or
nominal closed-loop gain, which we will denote G. The percent gain error
between the actual and ideal gain, for either configuration, is then:
ACL  G

G
G
G
1  1  R2 R1  AOL

G
1
 1 (10.16)
1  1  R2 R1  AOL

1  R2 R1  AOL
1  1  R2 R1  AOL

1  R2 R1   100%
AOL  1  R2 R1 
For example, if an op-amp with AOL  10 4 is used to design a noninverting
amplifier with a nominal closed-loop gain of G  100 , we would expect the

closed-loop gain to be about 1% below the nominal value.
Thus, in either configuration, to achieve gain accuracy we must have:
AOL  1  R2 R1  (10.17)
PMcL Finite Open-Loop Gain Index

10.12
10.3 Finite Bandwidth

The open-loop gain of an op-amp is finite and decreases with frequency.
The gain is quite high at DC and low frequencies, but it starts to fall off at a
rather low frequency (10’s of Hz). Most op-amps have a capacitor included
within the IC whose function is to cause the op-amp to have a single-time-
constant (STC) lowpass response shown:
|A| (dB)
A0
-20 dB/decade
G
0 fb B ft f (Hz)
log scale
This process of modifying the open-loop gain is termed frequency
compensation, and its purpose is to ensure that op-amp circuits will be
stable (as opposed to oscillating).
For frequencies f  f b (about 10 times and higher), the magnitude of the

open-loop gain A can be approximated as:
ft
A
f
The frequency f t where the op-amp has a gain of 1 (or 0 dB) is known as
the unity-gain bandwidth. Datasheets of internally compensated op-amps
normally call f t the gain-bandwidth product, since:
f t  A0 f b
The noninverting amplifier configuration exhibits a constant gain-

bandwidth product equal to f t of the op-amp. Thus, you can easily
determine the “bandwidth”, B, of a non-inverting amplifier with a gain, G,
since the gain-bandwidth product is a constant:
GB  f t  constant
Index Finite Bandwidth PMcL

10.13
10.4 Output Voltage Saturation

Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the capabilities
of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies. When amplifier
outputs approach their output limitation, they are said to saturate – they cannot
provide the output that is required by a linear characteristic. The resulting
transfer characteristic, with the positive and negative saturation levels denoted
L and L respectively, is shown below:
The transfer
characteristic of a
real amplifier,
vo showing that it
L+ saturates eventually
vi
Figure 10.7
Each of the two saturation levels is usually within a volt or so of the voltage of
the corresponding power supply. Obviously, in order to avoid distorting the
output signal waveform, the input signal swing must be kept within the linear
range of operation. If we don’t, then the output waveform becomes distorted
and eventually gets clipped at the output saturation levels.
The input signal and
the output signal of
a saturated amplifier
showing clipping
Figure 10.8
PMcL Output Voltage Saturation Index

10.14
10.5 Output Current Limits

The output current of an op-amp is normally limited by design to prevent
excessive power dissipation within the device which would destroy it. For
example, the popular TL071 op-amp has a resistor in series with the output:
Figure 10.9
The datasheet specifies that, typically, the output current is limited to 40 mA.
Thus, in designing closed-loop circuits utilizing the TL071, the designer has to
ensure that under no conditions will the op-amp be required to supply an output
current, in either direction, exceeding 40 mA. This current has to include both
the current in the feedback circuit as well as the current supplied to any load. If
the circuit requires a larger current, the op-amp output voltage will saturate at
the level corresponding to the maximum allowed output current.
Index Output Current Limits PMcL

10.15
10.6 Slew Rate

The slew-rate limit of an op-amp is caused by a current source within the
amplifier that limits the amount of current that can be supplied by the first
stage of the amplifier. When the amplifier is pushed to the point where this
limit is reached, it can no longer function properly. The slew-rate limit
manifests itself as a maximum value of dvo dt for the amplifier because there
is an internal amplifier capacitance that must be charged by the first-stage
output current and a first-stage current limit thus corresponds to a maximum
dv dt for this capacitor. We therefore define:
dvo
SR  (10.18)
dt max
If the input signal applied to an op-amp circuit is such that it demands an

output response that is faster than the specified value of SR, the op-amp will
not comply. Rather, its output will change at the maximum possible rate, which
is equal to its SR. The amplifier is then said to be slewing.
theoretical output
vo
slew-rate limited output
Figure 10.10
PMcL Slew Rate Index

10.16
10.6.1 Full-Power Bandwidth
Slew rate can be related to the full-power bandwidth f M , which is defined as

the frequency at which a sine-wave output whose amplitude is equal to the
rated op-amp output voltage starts to show distortion (due to op-amp slewing).
If the op-amp is producing a maximum amplitude output sinusoid, then:
vo  Vm sint  (10.19)
Then:
 Vm cos t 

dvo
dt
dvo
 Vm
dt max (10.20)
Denoting the slew rate by SR, it follows that:
SR  MVm (10.21)
or:
SR
fM  (10.22)
2Vm
Index Slew Rate PMcL

10.17
10.7 Summary
 The input offset voltage, VOS , is the magnitude of DC voltage that, when
applied between the op-amp input terminals, with appropriate polarity,
reduces the DC offset voltage at the output to zero.
 Direct currents exist at the input of the op-amp terminals. The average of
these currents, I B , is termed the bias current. The difference between these
currents, I OS , is called the offset current. These currents produce a DC
voltage at the output. The effect of bias currents can be minimised by
organising for the two op-amp inputs to “see” the same resistance.
 The finite open-loop gain, AOL , of an op-amp causes a gain error. The
open-loop gain also drop off with frequency. For internally compensated
op-amps at high frequencies (> 1 kHz), the magnitude of the open-loop
gain AOL can be approximated as:
ft
AOL 
f
where f t is specified on the op-amp datasheet and is called the gain-

bandwidth product.
 Real amplifiers can only output a voltage signal that is within the
capabilities of the internal circuitry and the external DC power supplies.
 The output current of an op-amp is normally limited by design to prevent

excessive power dissipation within the device which would destroy it.
PMcL Summary Index

10.18
 The maximum rate at which the op-amp output voltage can change is called
the slew rate:
dvo
SR 
dt max
The slew rate is usually specified in op-amp datasheets in V/s. Op-amp

slewing can result in nonlinear distortion of output signal waveforms.
10.8 References

10.19
Exercises
1.
The op-amp circuit below is to be used at DC and very low frequencies.
R2
R1
vi
vo
R3
A closed-loop gain of -200 is required. Specifications indicate that:
(i) the error due to finite open-loop gain cannot exceed 0.1%
(ii) DC output voltage due to input offset voltage  100 mV
(iii) DC output voltage due to input offset current  5 mV
Determine:
(a) the minimum open-loop gain required of the op-amp
(b) the maximum input offset voltage required of the op-amp
(c) assuming that the op-amp’s input offset current is 10 nA, and a suitable
compensating resistor R3 is used, calculate the maximum value of R2 that
can be permitted.

11.1
11 The Phasor Concept
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 11.2

11.1 Sinusoidal Signals.................................................................................. 11.4
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response ......................................................... 11.6
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function ........................................................... 11.12
11.4 The Phasor ........................................................................................... 11.18
.................................................................................................. 11.21
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor
and its Corresponding Sinusoid ................................................ 11.22
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................................................... 11.23
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor .......................................... 11.23
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor ........................................ 11.25
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor ........................................ 11.27
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C .................... 11.29
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships ....................................... 11.30
11.6 Impedance ............................................................................................ 11.31
11.7 Admittance........................................................................................... 11.36
11.8 Summary.............................................................................................. 11.38
11.9 References ........................................................................................... 11.38
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 11.39
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay) ......................................... 11.44
References ............................................................................................... 11.46
PMcL Contents Index
2015 11 - The Phasor Concept

11.2
Introduction
The sinusoid is the most important function in electrical engineering. There are
several reasons for this.
It was the great Swiss mathematician Euler (1707-1783) who first identified
the fact that:
The special
relationship enjoyed For circuits described by linear differential equations a (11.1)
by sinusoids and
sinusoidal source yields a sinusoidal response.
linear circuits
The response sinusoid has the same frequency as the source, it is however
altered in amplitude and phase.
Only sinusoids have this property with respect to linear systems. For example,
applying a square wave input does not produce a square wave output.
The source / response form-invariance of the sinusoid can be attributed to the

fact that derivatives and integrals of a sinusoid yield sinusoids. Euler
recognised that this was because the sinusoid is really composed of exponential
components, and it is the exponential function which enjoys the rather peculiar
property that:
d t
dt
 
e  et (11.2)
That is, the derivative of the exponential function is itself an exponential

function. We have already seen that this relationship plays a vital role in
determining the solution to differential equations, where the form of each term
has to be the same for the differential equation to “work”, i.e. so that each term,
such as 3 dy dt or  5 d 2 y dt 2 , can actually be added together.
11 - The Phasor Concept 2015

11.3
The second major reason for the importance of the sinusoid can be attributed to
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830), who in 1807 recognised that:
Periodic signals are
Any periodic function can be represented as the weighted (11.3) made up of
sinusoids - Fourier
sum of a family of sinusoids. Series
With this observation, we can analyse the behaviour of a linear circuit for any
periodic forcing function by determining the response to the individual
sinusoidal (or exponential) components and adding them up (superposition).
This decomposition of a periodic forcing function into a number of

appropriately chosen sinusoidal forcing functions is a very powerful analytical
method. It is called frequency-domain analysis, and we shall use it extensively.
The third reason is that the sinusoid is easy to generate, transmit and utilise.
Most of our electric power is generated as a sinusoid, and the functional form Sinusoids are
utilised in a lot of
of the sinusoid is needed to make most of our motors turn (it doesn’t really practical
applications
matter about the lights or heaters). It is therefore of great practical importance
to engineers who specialise in “power and machines”.
It is also extremely important to engineers who specialise in communications.

Our modern-day communications are “carried” through the air (and the
vacuum of space) on “sinusoidal carriers”. In fact, the basis of analog
communication is to “modulate” some aspect of a sinusoid such as its
amplitude (AM), its frequency (FM), or its phase (PM).
With digital communications, we encode the binary ones and zeros into some
aspect of the sinusoid, e.g. amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift
keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and Gaussian minimum-shift keying
(GMSK) which is used in the Groupe Spécial Mobile (GSM) mobile telephone
network.
Thus, the sinusoid plays a prominent role in electrical engineering due to both
its theoretical and practical importance.
PMcL Introduction Index

11.4
11.1 Sinusoidal Signals

Consider the sinusoid:
vt   Vm cost  (11.4)
which is shown graphically below:
The cosinusoid
graphed
v( t )
Vm
 
 t (rad)
3 2
2 2
-Vm
(a)
v( t )
Vm
t (s)
T T 3T T
4 2 4
-Vm
(b)
Figure 11.1
The amplitude of the cosine wave is Vm , and the argument is t . The radian
frequency or angular frequency is  . In Figure 11.1 (a) the function repeats

itself every 2 radians, and its period is therefore 2 radians. In Figure 11.1
(b), the function is plotted against t and the period is now T where T  2 .
A cosine wave having a period T seconds per period must execute 1 T periods
each second – its frequency is therefore:
The relationship
1
between frequency
and period f  (11.5)
T
Index Sinusoidal Signals PMcL

11.5
Since T  2 , we have the relationship between frequency and radian

frequency:
The relationship
  2f (11.6) between frequency
and radian
frequency
A more general form of the sinusoid is:
vt   Vm cost    (11.7)
which now includes a phase angle  in its argument t    . Eq. (11.7) is
plotted below as a function of t , and the phase angle appears as the number
of radians by which the original cosine wave, shown as a dotted line, is shifted
to the left or earlier in time.
The phase angle
defined
v( t )
Vm
Vm cos ( t )
 2
 t (rad)
 -Vm
Vm cos ( t + )
Figure 11.2
Since corresponding points on the cosinusoid cost    occur  rad earlier

compared to cost  , we say that cost    leads cost  by  rad.
Conversely, cost    lags cost  by  rad. In either case, leading or
lagging, we say that the cosinusoids are out of phase. If the phase angles are
equal, they are said to be in phase.
In electrical engineering the phase angle is commonly given in degrees rather

than radians. Thus, instead of writing v  100 cos100t   6 we write
v  100 cos100t  30 .
PMcL Sinusoidal Signals Index

11.6
11.2 Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

We are now ready to apply a sinusoidal forcing function to a simple circuit and
obtain the forced response. We shall first write the differential equation which
applies to the given circuit. We know that the complete solution is composed of
the natural response and the forced response.
The natural The form of the natural response is independent of the mathematical form of
response is
determined by the
the forcing function and depends only upon the type of circuit and the element
circuit values. We have already determined the natural response of simple RC and RL
circuits.
The forced response has the mathematical form of the forcing function. We
The forced response therefore expect the forced response to be sinusoidal. The term steady-state is
for a sinusoid is
termed the used synonymously with forced response, and the circuits we are about to
sinusoidal steady-
state response analyse are commonly said to be in the “sinusoidal steady-state”.
Unfortunately, steady-state implies “not changing with time”, but this is not
correct – the sinusoidal forced response definitely changes with time. The
steady-state simply refers to the condition which is reached after the natural
response has died out.
Consider the series RL circuit below:
R i( t )
vs ( t ) =
L
Vm cos( t )
Figure 11.3
The sinusoidal source voltage vs  Vm cost  has been switched into the
circuit at some remote time in the past, and the natural response has died out
completely.
Index Sinusoidal Steady-State Response PMcL

11.7
We seek the forced response, or steady-state response, or particular solution,
and it must satisfy the differential equation:
 Ri  Vm cost 
di
L (11.8)
dt
We now invoke the inverse differential operator to find a particular solution to
the differential equation and write:
LD  R i  Vm cost 
Vm cost 
1
i
LD  R (11.9)
We only know the effect of the inverse differential operator on exponentials.

We therefore use Euler’s formula:
e j  cos   j sin  (11.10) Euler’s identity
and note also that:
e j  cos   j sin  (11.11)
to write:
A cosinusoid
j  j
e e expressed as a sum
cos   (11.12) of complex
2 exponentials
We shall also later use:
A sinusoid
j  j
e e expressed as a sum
sin   (11.13) of complex
exponentials
j2
PMcL Sinusoidal Steady-State Response Index

11.8
Then Eq. (11.9) can be written:
Vm  e jt  e  jt 
i  
LD  R  2  (11.14)
Now remembering that:
f s   0
1 st 1 st
e  e ,
f D  f s 
(11.15)
we can use superposition and rewrite Eq. (11.14) as:
Vm e jt Vm e  jt
i 
R  jL 2 R  jL 2 (11.16)
Realizing the denominators, we get:
R  jL e jt
i 2 Vm
R   2 L2 2
R  jL e  jt
 2 V (11.17)
R  L 2 2 m
2
Collecting terms gives:
RVm  e jt  e  jt 

i 2  
R   2 L2  2 
LVm  e jt  e  jt 
 2  
R   2 L2  j2  (11.18)

11.9
Using Euler’s identities for cos  and sin  , the forced response is obtained:
it   cos t 

RVm
R 2   2 L2
LVm
 2 sin t 
R  L 2 2
(11.19)
This expression is quite unwieldy, and a clearer picture of the response can be
obtained by expressing the response as a single sinusoid with a phase angle.
We will therefore let:
it   A cost    (11.20)
After expanding the function cost    , we have:
(11.21)
cos t 
RVm
A cos  cos t  A sin  sin t 
R   2 L2
2
LVm
 2 sin t 
R   2 L2
Equating like coefficients of cost  and sin t  , we find:
RVm
A cos  
R 2   2 L2
LVm
 A sin   2
R   2 L2 (11.22)

11.10
To find A and  , we square both equations and add the results:
A 2 cos 2   A 2 sin 2   A 2
R 2Vm
2
 2 L2Vm 2 V
2
  2 m 2 2
R  R 
(11.23)
2
 L 2 2 2 2
  2 L2
2
R  L
and also divide one equation by the other:
 A sin  L
  tan  (11.24)
A cos  R
Hence:
Vm
A (11.25)
R  L
2 2 2
and:
L (11.26)
   tan 1
R
The alternative form of the forced response therefore becomes:
The forced current

 L 
it  
response for the Vm
series RL circuit to a cos t  tan 1  (11.27)
sinusoidal voltage
source R  L
2 2 2
 R 
We can see that the amplitude of the response is proportional to the amplitude
of the forcing function – thus linearity between input and output holds (e.g.
doubling the input leads to a doubling of the output). We can also see that the
current decreases for any increase in R ,  or L , but not proportionately.

11.11
Also, the current lags the applied voltage by tan 1 L R  , an angle between
0 and 90 . When   0 or L  0 , the current must be in phase with the
voltage since the former situation is DC and the inductor appears as a short-
circuit, and the latter situation is a resistive circuit. If R  0 then the current
lags the voltage by 90 .
Note also that the frequency of the response is the same as the forcing function.
The applied voltage and the resultant current are shown below:
The forced response
graphed, showing
only an amplitude
v, i and phase change

i( t )
0  2
t
v( t )
Figure 11.4
The fact that current lags the voltage in this simple RL circuit is now visually
apparent.
The method by which we found the sinusoidal steady-state response for the
simple RL circuit is quite intricate. It would be impractical to analyse every
circuit by this method. We shall see in the next section that there is a way to
simplify the analysis. It involves the formulation of complex algebraic
equations instead of differential equations, but the advantage is that we can
produce a set of complex algebraic equations for a circuit of any complexity.
Sinusoidal steady-state analysis becomes almost as easy as the analysis of
resistive circuits.

11.12
11.3 The Complex Forcing Function

It seems strange at first, but the use of complex quantities in sinusoidal steady-
state analysis leads to methods which are simpler than those involving only real
quantities.
Consider a sinusoidal source:
Vm cost    (11.28)
which is connected to a general, passive, linear, time-invariant (LTI) circuit as

shown below:
Excitation of a
passive LTI circuit
by a real sinusoid
produces a real
sinusoidal response
passive
Vm cos ( t+ ) LTI Im cos ( t+ )
circuit
Figure 11.5
A current response in some other branch of the circuit is to be determined, and

we know for a sinusoidal forcing function that the forced response is
sinusoidal. Let the sinusoidal forced response be represented by:
I m cost    (11.29)
Note that the frequency stays the same – only the amplitude and phase are
unknown.
Index The Complex Forcing Function PMcL

11.13
If we delay the forcing function by 90 , then since the system is time-
invariant, the corresponding forced response must be delayed by 90 also
(because the frequencies are the same). Thus, the forcing function:
Vm cost    90  Vm sint    (11.30)
will produce a response:
I m cost    90  I m sint    (11.31)
Since the circuit is linear, if we double the source, we double the response. In
fact, if we multiply the source by any constant k, we achieve a response which
is k times bigger. We now construct an imaginary source – we multiply the
source by j   1 . We thus apply:
jVm sint    (11.32)
and the response is:
jI m sint    (11.33)
The imaginary source and response are shown below:

Excitation of a
passive LTI circuit
by an imaginary
sinusoid produces
an imaginary
passive sinusoidal response
j Vm sin ( t+ ) LTI j Im sin ( t+ )

circuit
Figure 11.6
PMcL The Complex Forcing Function Index

11.14
We have applied a real source and obtained a real response, and we have
applied an imaginary source and obtained an imaginary response. We can now
use the superposition theorem (the circuit is linear) to find the response to a
complex forcing function which is the sum of the real and imaginary forcing
functions. Thus, the sum of the forcing functions of Eqs. (11.28) and (11.32) is:
Vm cost     jVm sint    (11.34)
and it produces a response which is the sum of Eqs. (11.29) and (11.33):
I m cost     jI m sint    (11.35)
The complex source and response may be represented more simply by applying
Euler’s identity. Thus, the forcing function:
Vme j t   (11.36)
produces:
I me j t   (11.37)
The complex source and response are illustrated below:
Excitation of a
passive LTI circuit
by a complex source
produces a complex
response
passive
j ( t+ ) LTI j ( t+ )
Vm e Im e
circuit
Figure 11.7

11.15
We are now ready to see how this helps with sinusoidal analysis. We first note
that the real part of the complex response is produced by the real part of the
complex forcing function, and the imaginary part of the complex response is
produced by the imaginary part of the complex forcing function.
Our strategy for sinusoidal analysis will be to apply a complex forcing function We analyse circuits
in the sinusoidal
whose real part is the given real forcing function – we should then obtain a steady-state by
using a complex
complex response whose real part is the desired real response. forcing function
whose real part is
the given real
We will try this strategy on the previous RL circuit: forcing function
R i( t )
vs ( t ) =
L
Vm cos( t )
Figure 11.8
The real source Vm cost  is applied, and the real response i t  is desired.
We first construct the complex forcing function by adding an appropriate

imaginary component to the given real forcing function. The necessary
complex source is:
Vm cost   jVm sint   Vme jt (11.38)
The complex response which results is expressed in terms of an unknown

amplitude I m and an unknown phase angle  :
I me j t   (11.39)

11.16
Writing the differential equation for this circuit:
di
Ri  L  vs (11.40)
dt
we insert our complex expressions for vs and i :
RI me j t    L
d
dt
 
I me j t    Vme jt (11.41)
Taking the indicated derivative gives:

Using complex
sources and
responses reduces RI me j t    jLIme j t    Vme jt (11.42)
the original
to a complex which is a complex algebraic equation. This is a considerable advantage – we
algebraic equation
have turned a differential equation into an algebraic equation. The only
“penalty” is that the algebraic equation uses complex numbers. It will be seen
later that this is not a significant disadvantage.
In order to determine the value of I m and  , we divide through by the common
factor e jt :
RI me j  jLIme j  Vm (11.43)
Factoring the left side gives:
R  jLI me j  Vm (11.44)
Rearranging, we have:
The complex
Vm
response expressed
I me j  (11.45)
in rectangular form
R  jL

11.17
This is the complex response, and it was obtained in a few easy steps. If we
express the response in exponential or polar form, we have:
The complex
e j tan L R 
(11.46) response expressed
Vm 1
I me j  in polar form
R 2   2 L2
Thus, by comparison:
(11.47)
Vm
Im 
R 2   2 L2
and:
   tan1 L R  (11.48)
We said that the complex response was:
I me j t    I me j e jt (11.49)
and that the real response was just the real part of the complex response.
Therefore, the real response i t  is obtained by multiplying both sides of
Eq. (11.46) by e jt and taking the real part. Thus:
it   I m cost   
The real sinusoidal
steady-state
response
Vm  L 
 cos t  tan 1 
R  L
2 2 2
 R  (11.50)
This agrees with the response derived before using the D operator.
Although the analysis was straightforward, we have not yet taken advantage of
the full power of the complex representation. In order to do so, we must
introduce the concept of the phasor.

11.18
11.4 The Phasor

A sinusoidal voltage or current at a given frequency is characterized by only
two parameters, an amplitude and a phase. The complex representation of the
voltage or current is characterized by a magnitude and an angle. For example,
the assumed sinusoidal form of the current response in the previous example
was:
I m cost    (11.51)
and the corresponding representation of this current in complex form is:
I me j t   (11.52)
Once I m and  are specified, the current is exactly defined. Throughout any
linear circuit operating in the sinusoidal steady-state at a single frequency  ,

every voltage and current may be characterized completely by a knowledge of
its amplitude and phase angle.
A sinusoid of a
given frequency is All sinusoidal responses in a linear circuit have a frequency of  .
Therefore, instead of writing I m cost    , we could just say “amplitude I m ”
specified by an
amplitude and
phase
and “phase  ”.
A complex response
All complex responses in a linear circuit have the factor e jt .
of a given frequency
is specified by a
Therefore, instead of writing I me j t   , we could just say “magnitude I m ”
magnitude and
angle
and “angle  ”.
Thus, we can simplify the voltage source and current response of the example
by representing them concisely as complex numbers:
Vme j 0 and I me j (11.53)
Index The Phasor PMcL

11.19
We usually write the complex representation in polar form. Thus, the source
voltage:
vt   Vm cost  (11.54)
is represented in complex form as:
V  Vm0 (11.55)
and the current response:
it   I m cost    (11.56) A general

sinusoid…
as:
…and its phasor

I  I m (11.57)
representation
The abbreviated complex representation is called a phasor. Phasors are printed

in boldface because they are effectively like a vector, they have a magnitude
and direction (angle). In hand writing, we normally place a tilde underneath:
V  Vm0 and I  I m (11.58)

~ ~
Capital letters are used to represent phasors because they are constants – they
are not functions of time.
In general, we refer to xt  as a time-domain representation and the Introducing the

“frequency-domain”
corresponding phasor X as a frequency-domain representation.
PMcL The Phasor Index

11.20
We can see that the magnitude of the complex representation is the amplitude
of the sinusoid and the angle of the complex representation is the phase of the
sinusoid.
It is a simple matter to convert a signal from the time-domain to the frequency-

domain – it is achieved by inspection:
The time-domain
and frequency-
domain relationships xt   A cost     X  Ae j
for a sinusoid
amplitude  magnitude
phase  angle (11.59)
EXAMPLE 11.1 Phasor Representation

If x t   3sint  30 then we have to convert to our cos notation:
x t   3cost 120 . Therefore X  3  120 .
Note carefully that X  3 cost  120 . All we can say is that

x t   3cost 120 is represented by X  3  120 .
The convenience of complex numbers extends beyond their compact

Phasors make representation of the amplitude and phase. The sum of two phasors corresponds
manipulating
sinusoids of the to the sinusoid which is the sum of the two component sinusoids represented
same frequency
easy by the phasors. That is, if x3  t   x1  t   x2  t  where x1  t  , x2  t  and x3  t  are
sinusoids with the same frequency, then X3  X1  X2 .
EXAMPLE 11.2 Phasor Representation
If x3  t   cost  2sint then X3  10  2  90  1  j 2  2.2463 which
corresponds to x3  t   2.24cost  63 .

11.21
Using Euler’s identity:
e j  cos  j sin (11.60)
we have:
Ae j e jt  Ae j  t    Acost    jAsint  

(11.61)
We can see that the sinusoid Acost    represented by the phasor
X  Ae j is equal to the real part of Xe jt . Therefore:

xt   Re Xe jt  (11.62) The phasor / time-
domain relationship
This can be visualised as:
Graphical
interpretation of
Im rotating phasor /
time-domain
relationship
Xe j t = Ae je j t
A
 Re
x( t )
complex plane
Figure 11.9
Run the Phasor simulation program to see this view of phasors in action!
PMcL The Phasor Index

11.22
11.4.2 Graphical Illustration of the Relationship between a Phasor
and its Corresponding Sinusoid

Consider the representation of a sinusoid by its phasor: xt   Re Xe jt . 
Graphically, x t  can be “generated” by taking the projection of the rotating
phasor formed by multiplying X by e jt , onto the real axis:
A sinusoid can be
generated by taking
the real part of a complex plane time-domain
rotating complex
number
X
Figure 11.10
Phasor Representations
Phasors can be represented in four different ways:
X  X m polar form
X  X me j exponential form
X  X m cos   j sin   trigonometric form
X  a  jb rectangular form

11.23
11.5 Phasor Relationships for R, L and C

Now that we can transform into and out of the frequency-domain, we can
derive the phasor relationships for each of the three passive circuit elements. Phasor relationships
for the passive
This will lead to a great simplification of sinusoidal steady-state analysis. elements
We will begin with the defining time-domain equation for each of the
elements, and then let both the voltage and current become complex quantities.
After dividing throughout the equation by e jt , the desired relationship
between the phasor voltage and phasor current will become apparent.
11.5.1 Phasor Relationships for a Resistor
The resistor provides the simplest case. The defining time-domain equation is:
vt   Ri t  (11.63)
If we apply a complex voltage Vme j t   and assume a complex current
I me j t   , we obtain:
Vme j t    RI me j t   (11.64)
By dividing throughout by e jt , we find:
Vme j  RI me j (11.65)
or in polar form:
Vm  RI m (11.66)
But Vm and I m are just the voltage and current phasors V and I . Thus:
Phasor V-I
V  RI (11.67) relationship for a
resistor
PMcL Phasor Relationships for R, L and C Index

11.24
Equality of the angles  and  is apparent, and the current and voltage are
thus in phase.
The voltage-current relationship in phasor form for a resistor has the same form
as the relationship between the time-domain voltage and current as illustrated
below:
i I
v=Ri R V=R I R
time-domain frequency-domain
Figure 11.11
EXAMPLE 11.3 Phasor Analysis with a Resistor
Assume a voltage of 8 cos100t  50 across a 4  resistor. Working in the

time-domain, the current is:
vt 
it    2 cos100t  50
R
The phasor form of the same voltage is 8  50 , and therefore:
V
I  2  50
R
If we transform back to the time-domain, we get the same expression for the
current.
No work is saved for a resistor by analysing in the frequency-domain – because

the resistor has a linear relationship between voltage and current.
Index Phasor Relationships for R, L and C PMcL

11.25
11.5.2 Phasor Relationships for an Inductor
The defining time-domain equation is:
dit 
vt   L (11.68)
dt
After applying the complex voltage and current equations, we obtain:
Vme j t    L
d
dt

I me j t    (11.69)
Taking the indicated derivative:
Vme j t    jLI me j t   (11.70)
Vme j  jLI me j (11.71)
Thus the desired phasor relationship is:

Phasor V-I
V  jLI (11.72) relationship for an
inductor
The time-domain equation Eq. (11.68) has become an algebraic equation in the
frequency-domain. The angle of jL is exactly  90 and you can see from
Eq. (11.71) that   90   . I must therefore lag V by 90 in an inductor.

11.26
The phasor relationship for an inductor is indicated below:
i I
v=L di L V=j L I L
dt
Figure 11.12
EXAMPLE 11.4 Phasor Analysis with an Inductor
Assume a voltage of 8 cos100t  50 across a 4 H inductor. Working in the

vt 
i t    dt
L
  2 cos 100t  50dt
 0.02 sin 100t  50
 0.02 cos 100t  140
V 8  50
I   0.02  140
jL 100490
current.

11.27
11.5.3 Phasor Relationships for a Capacitor
The defining time-domain equation is:
dvt 
it   C (11.73)
dt
I me j t    C
d
dt

Vme j t    (11.74)
I me j t    jCVme j t   (11.75)
I me j  jCVme j (11.76)
Thus the desired phasor relationship is:

Phasor V-I
I  jCV (11.77) relationship for a
capacitor
Thus I leads V by 90 in a capacitor.

11.28
The time-domain and frequency-domain representations are compared below:
dv
i=C dt I =j C V
v V
C C
Figure 11.13
EXAMPLE 11.5 Phasor Analysis with a Capacitor
Assume a voltage of 8 cos100t  50 across a 4 F capacitor. Working in the

dvt 
i t   C
dt
 4 8 cos 100t  50
d
dt
 3200 sin 100t  50
 3200 cos 100t  40
I  jCV  100490  8  50  320040
current.

11.29
11.5.4 Summary of Phasor Relationships for R, L and C
We have now obtained the phasor V  I relationships for the three passive
elements. These results are summarized in the table below:
Summary of phasor
Time-domain Frequency-domain V-I relationships for
the passive
elements
v V
i I
v  Ri V  RI
R R
v V
i I
di V  jLI
vL
dt
L j L
v V
i 1 1 I
C
v idt V I
jC
C 1 j C
All the phasor equations are algebraic. Each is also linear, and the equations
relating to inductance and capacitance bear a great similarity to Ohm’s Law.
Before we embark on using the phasor relationships in circuit analysis, we

need to verify that KVL and KCL work for phasors. KVL in the time-domain
is:
v1 t   v2 t     vn t   0 (11.78)
If all voltages are sinusoidal, we can now use Euler’s identity to replace each
real sinusoidal voltage by the complex voltage having the same real part,
divide by e jt throughout, and obtain:
KVL and KCL are

V1  V2    Vn  0 (11.79) obeyed by phasors
Thus KVL holds. KCL also holds by a similar argument.

11.30
11.5.5 Analysis Using Phasor Relationships
We now return to the series RL circuit that we considered several times before,
shown as (a) in the figure below. We draw the circuit in the frequency-domain,
as shown in (b):
A circuit and its

frequency-domain
equivalent R R
i( t ) I
VR
vs (t ) = Vs VL j L
L
Vm cos( t )
(a) (b)
Figure 11.14
From KVL in the frequency-domain:
VR  VL  Vs (11.80)
We now insert the recently obtained V  I relationships for the elements:
RI  jLI  Vs (11.81)
The phasor current is then found:
Vs
I
R  jL
(11.82)
The source has a magnitude of Vm and a phase of 0 (it is the reference by

which all other phase angles are measured). Thus:
The response of the

Vm0
circuit in the
I
R  jL
frequency-domain (11.83)

11.31
The current may be transformed to the time-domain by first writing it in polar
form:
  tan 1 L R 
Vm
I
R 2   2 L2
 I m (11.84)
Transforming back to the time-domain we get:
it   I m cost    The response of the

circuit in the time-
Vm  L  domain
 cos t  tan 1  (11.85)
R  L
2 2 2
 R 
which is the same result as we obtained before the “hard way”.
11.6 Impedance
The voltage-current relationships for the three passive elements in the
frequency-domain are:
I
V  RI V  jLI V
jC
(11.86)
If these equations are written as phasor-voltage phasor-current ratios, we get:
Phasor V-I
V V V 1
R  jL  relationships for the
jC
(11.87) passive elements
I I I
These ratios are simple functions of the element values, and in the case of the
inductor and capacitor, frequency. We treat these ratios in the same manner we
treat resistances, with the exception that they are complex quantities and all
algebraic manipulations must be those appropriate for complex numbers.
PMcL Impedance Index

11.32
We define the ratio of the phasor voltage to the phasor current as impedance,
symbolized by the letter Z :
V
Z
Impedance defined
(11.88)
I
The impedance is a complex quantity having the dimensions of ohms.
Impedance is not a phasor and cannot be transformed to the time-domain by

multiplying by e jt and taking the real part.
In the table below, we show how we can represent a resistor, inductor or

capacitor in the time-domain with its frequency-domain impedance:
Impedances of the Time-domain Frequency-domain

three passive
elements
R R
L j L
C 1 j C
Impedances may be combined in series and parallel by the same rules we use
for resistances.
In a circuit diagram, a general impedance is represented by a rectangle:
I Z
V = ZI
Figure 11.15
Index Impedance PMcL

11.33
EXAMPLE 11.6 Impedance of an Inductor and Capacitor in Series
We have an inductor and capacitor in series:
5 mH 100 F
At   104 rads -1 , the impedance of the inductor is Z L  jL  j50  and the
impedance of the capacitor is ZC  1 jC   j1  . Thus the series
combination is equivalent to Zeq  Z L  ZC  j50  j1  j 49  :
j 49 
The impedance of inductors and capacitors is a function of frequency, and this

equivalent impedance is only valid at   104 rads -1 . For example, if
  5000 rads -1 , then the impedance would be Zeq  j 23  .
Impedance may be expressed in either polar or rectangular form.
In polar form an impedance is represented by:
Z  Z 
(11.89)
No special names or symbols are assigned to the magnitude and angle. For
example, an impedance of 100  60  is described as having an impedance
magnitude of 100  and an angle of  60 .

11.34
In rectangular form an impedance is represented by:

Impedance is
composed of a
resistance (real part)
and a reactance
Z  R  jX (11.90)
(imaginary part)
The real part, R, is termed the resistive component, or resistance. The
imaginary component, X, including sign, but excluding j, is termed the reactive
component, or reactance. The impedance 100  60  in rectangular form is
50  j86.6  . Thus, its resistance is 50  and its reactance is  86.6  .
It is important to note that the resistive component of the impedance is not

necessarily equal to the resistance of the resistor which is present in the circuit.
EXAMPLE 11.7 Impedance of a Resistor and Inductor in Series
Consider a resistor and an inductor in series:
20  5H
At   4 rads -1 , the equivalent impedance is Zeq  20  j 20  . In this case the
resistive component of the impedance is equal to the resistance of the resistor

because the network is a simple series network. Now consider the same
elements placed in parallel:
20  5H
The equivalent impedance is:
20 j 20
Zeq   10  j10 
20  j 20
The resistive component of the impedance is now 10  .
Index Impedance PMcL

11.35
EXAMPLE 11.8 Circuit Analysis using Impedance
We will use the impedance concept to analyse the RLC circuit shown below:
i ( t ) 1.5 k 1 k
40 sin (3000t ) V 1
3 H 1
6 F
The circuit is shown in the time-domain, and a time-domain response is

required. However, analysis should be carried out in the frequency-domain. We
therefore begin by drawing the frequency-domain circuit – the source is
transformed to the frequency-domain, becoming 40  90 , the response is
transformed to the frequency-domain, being represented as I , and the
impedances of the inductor and capacitor, determined at   3000 rads -1 , are
j1 k and  j 2 k respectively. The frequency-domain circuit is shown
below:
I 1.5 k 1 k
40 -90° V j1 k -j2 k
The equivalent impedance offered to the source is:
Z eq  1.5 
 j11  j 2  1.5  2  j
j1  1  j 2 1 j
2  j 1 j 1  j3
 1.5   1.5 
1 j 1 j 2
 2  j1.5  2.536.9 k

11.36
The phasor current is thus:
Vs 40  90
I   16  126.9 mA
Zeq 2.536.9
Upon transforming the current to the time-domain, the desired response is

obtained:
it   16 cos3000t  126.9 mA
11.7 Admittance
The reciprocal of impedance can offer some convenience in the sinusoidal
steady-state analysis of circuits. We define admittance as the ratio of phasor
current to phasor voltage:
Admittance defined
I
Y (11.91)
V
and thus:
Admittance is the 1
reciprocal of
impedance
Y (11.92)
Z
The real part of the admittance is the conductance G , and the imaginary part
of the admittance is the susceptance B . Thus:
Admittance is
composed of a
1 1
Y  G  jB  
conductance (real
part) and a (11.93)
susceptance Z R  jX
(imaginary part)
This formula should be scrutinized carefully. It does not mean that G  1 R

(unless Z  R , a pure resistance), nor does it mean B  1 X .
Admittance, conductance and susceptance are all measured in siemens (S).
Index Admittance PMcL

11.37
EXAMPLE 11.9 Admittance of a Resistor and Capacitor in Series
Consider a resistor and a capacitor in series:
0.1F
1
At   5 Mrads-1 , the equivalent impedance is Zeq  1  j 2  . Its admittance
is:
1 1 1 1 j2
Y  
Z 1 j2 1 j2 1 j2
 0.2  j 0.4 S
It should be apparent that the equivalent admittance of a circuit consisting of a

number of parallel branches is the sum of the admittances of the individual
branches. Thus, the admittance obtained above is equivalent to:
5 0.8 F
only at   5 Mrads-1 . As a check , the equivalent impedance of the parallel

network at   5 Mrads-1 is:
5 j 2.5
Zeq   1 j2 
5  j 2.5
as before.
PMcL Admittance Index

11.38
11.8 Summary
 Sinusoids are important theoretically and practically. A sinusoidal source
yields a sinusoidal response.
 The sinusoidal forced response is also known as the sinusoidal steady-state

– the condition which is reached after the natural response has died out.
 A complex forcing function produces a complex response – the real part of

the forcing function creates the real part of the response.
 The application of a complex forcing function to a linear circuit turns the

describing differential equation into a complex algebraic equation.
 The phasor representation of a sinusoid captures the amplitude and phase

information in a complex number – amplitude corresponds to magnitude,
and phase corresponds to angle.
 The phasor corresponding to xt   A cost    is X  Ae j  A .
 Phasor V  I relationships for the three passive elements lead to the

concept of frequency-domain impedance. The impedances of the three
passive elements are: Z R  R , Z L  jL , ZC  1 jC . Impedances can
be combined and manipulated like resistors except we use complex algebra.
 Impedance consists of a real resistive component and an imaginary reactive

component: Z  R  jX .
 Admittance is defined as the inverse of impedance: Y  1 Z  G  jB .
11.9 References
Hill, 1984.
Index Summary PMcL

11.39
Exercises
1.
A sinusoidal voltage is zero and increasing at t  1.6 ms . The next zero
crossing occurs at t  4.65 ms .
(a) Calculate T , f and  .
(b) If v0  20 V , find vt  .
(c) By what angle does vt  lead the current i  5 cost  110 A ?
2.
For the sinusoidal waveform shown below:
f(t)
8
0 t (ms)
1.2
-5
-8
Find:
(a) A and  if f t   A sint    (b) T (c) f (d) 
(e) A and  if f t   A cost    (f) f 0.0014

11.40
3.
200  i ( t )
vs ( t ) 0.1 H
Let i  2 sin500t  40 A . Determine the source voltage vs t  .
4.
300  200 
iL(t)
60cos(2000t ) V 600  150 mH
Find iL t  .
5.
10  i( t )
vs ( t ) 2H
Let vs  20 cos 5t  30 cos10t V . Find i t  .

11.41
6.
Give in polar form:
(a) 20110  840 (b) 6.1  j3.82 1.17  j 0.541
Give in rectangular form:
(c) j 6.3  j9.71 (d) e j 2.152
7.
A box contains a voltage source vs1 and a current source is 2 . The voltage
between an available pair of terminals is labelled v AB .
If vs1  5 cos1000t  40 V and is 2  0.1cos500t  20 A , then
vAB  2 cos1000t  10  3 cos500t  30 V.
However, if vs1  5 cos500t  40 V while is 2  0.1cos1000t  20 A, then
vAB  3 cos1000t  20  2 cos500t  10 V.
Find v AB if vs1  20 cos1000t   10 cos500t  V and
is 2  0.3sin1000t   0.2 sin500t  A .
8.
Assume that only three currents, i1 , i2 and i3 , enter a certain node.
(a) Find i1 t  if I 2  65  110 mA and I3  45  50 mA
(b) Find I 2 if i1 t   55 cos400t  40 mA and i3 t   35 sin400t  70 mA .

11.42
9.
At the input of an RLC circuit it is found that V  41  j18 V and
I  3.5  j 7.5 A . Assuming V and I satisfy the passive sign convention,
determine the power entering the network at:
(a) t  0 (b) t   2
10.
In the figure below, the voltage v is given as the phasor, V  60  j 25 V .
i
circuit
v
element
If   2000 rads -1 , find the power being delivered to the element at

t  0.1 ms if the element is:
(a) a 100  resistor (b) a 50 mH inductor (c) a 5 μF capacitor
11.
The circuit below is operated at   100 rads -1 .
I1
IR
40 F 1H 400 
(a) If I R  0.0120 A , find I1 .
(b) If I1  2  30 A , find I R .

11.43
12.
Using a 1 H inductor and a 1 μF capacitor, at what frequency (in hertz) may an
impedance be obtained having a magnitude of 2000  if the two elements are
combined in:
(a) series (b) parallel
13.
A 10 μF capacitor and a 25  resistor are in parallel. What size inductor
should be placed in series with this parallel combination so that the impedance
of the final series network has zero reactance at 8 krads -1 ?
14.
What size capacitor should be placed in series with the series combination of
800  and 20 mH to give an admittance whose magnitude is 1 mS at
  10 krads -1 ?
15.
If the input admittance and impedance of the network shown below are equal at
every frequency, find R and L.
L
Zin
R 1F
Yin

11.44
Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay)

Fourier is famous for his study of the flow of heat in metallic plates and rods.
The theory that he developed now has applications in industry and in the study
of the temperature of the Earth’s interior. He is also famous for the discovery
that many functions could be expressed as infinite sums of sine and cosine
terms, now called a trigonometric series, or Fourier series.
Fourier first showed talent in literature, but by the age of thirteen, mathematics
became his real interest. By fourteen, he had completed a study of six volumes
of a course on mathematics. Fourier studied for the priesthood but did not end
up taking his vows. Instead he became a teacher of mathematics. In 1793 he
became involved in politics and joined the local Revolutionary Committee. As
he wrote:-
As the natural ideas of equality developed it was possible to conceive the

sublime hope of establishing among us a free government exempt from kings
and priests, and to free from this double yoke the long-usurped soil of
Europe. I readily became enamoured of this cause, in my opinion the
greatest and most beautiful which any nation has ever undertaken.
Fourier became entangled in the French Revolution, and in 1794 he was

arrested and imprisoned. He feared he would go to the guillotine but political
changes allowed him to be freed. In 1795, he attended the Ecole Normal and
was taught by, among others, Lagrange and Laplace. He started teaching again,
and began further mathematical research. In 1797, after another brief period in
prison, he succeeded Lagrange in being appointed to the chair of analysis and
mechanics. He was renowned as an outstanding lecturer but did not undertake
original research at this time.
In 1798 Fourier joined Napoleon on his invasion of Egypt as scientific adviser.

The expedition was a great success (from the French point of view) until
August 1798 when Nelson’s fleet completely destroyed the French fleet in the
Battle of the Nile, so that Napoleon found himself confined to the land he was
occupying. Fourier acted as an administrator as French type political
institutions and administrations were set up. In particular he helped establish
educational facilities in Egypt and carried out archaeological explorations.
Index Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay) PMcL

11.45
While in Cairo, Fourier helped found the Institute d'Égypte and was put in The Institute
d'Égypte was
charge of collating the scientific and literary discoveries made during the time responsible for the
completely
in Egypt. Napoleon abandoned his army and returned to Paris in 1799 and soon serendipitous
discovery of the
held absolute power in France. Fourier returned to France in 1801 with the Rosetta Stone in
remains of the expeditionary force and resumed his post as Professor of 1799. The three
inscriptions on this
Analysis at the Ecole Polytechnique. stone in two
languages and three
scripts (hieroglyphic,
Napoleon appointed Fourier to be Prefect at Grenoble where his duties were demotic and Greek)
enabled Thomas
many and varied – they included draining swamps and building highways. It Young and Jean-
François
was during his time in Grenoble that Fourier did his important mathematical Champollion, a
work on the theory of heat. His work on the topic began around 1804 and by protégé of Fourier,
to invent a method
1807 he had completed his important memoir On the Propagation of Heat in of translating
hieroglyphic writings
Solid Bodies. It caused controversy – both Lagrange and Laplace objected to of ancient Egypt in
1822.
Fourier’s expansion of functions as trigonometric series.
…it was in attempting to verify a third theorem that I employed the This extract is from
procedure which consists of multiplying by cos x dx the two sides of the a letter found among
equation Fourier’s papers,
and unfortunately
 x   a0  a1 cos x  a2 cos 2 x  ... lacks the name of
the addressee, but
was probably
and integrating between x  0 and x   . I am sorry not to have known the intended for
name of the mathematician who first made use of this method because I Lagrange.
would have cited him. Regarding the researches of d’Alembert and Euler
could one not add that if they knew this expansion they made but a very
imperfect use of it. They were both persuaded that an arbitrary…function
could never be resolved in a series of this kind, and it does not seem that
any one had developed a constant in cosines of multiple arcs
[i.e. found a1 , a 2 ,…, with 1  a1 cos x  a2 cos 2 x  ... for   2  x   2 ]
the first problem which I had to solve in the theory of heat.
Other people before Fourier had used expansions of the form
f x  ~ r  ar exp irt  but Fourier’s work extended this idea in two totally

new ways. One was the “Fourier integral” (the formula for the Fourier series
coefficients) and the other marked the birth of Sturm-Liouville theory (Sturm
and Liouville were nineteenth century mathematicians who found solutions to
many classes of partial differential equations arising in physics that were
analogous to Fourier series).
PMcL Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay) Index

11.46
Napoleon was defeated in 1815 and Fourier returned to Paris. Fourier was
elected to the Académie des Sciences in 1817 and became Secretary in 1822.
Shortly after, the Academy published his prize winning essay Théorie
analytique de la chaleur (Analytical Theory of Heat). In this he obtains for the
first time the equation of heat conduction, which is a partial differential
equation in three dimensions. As an application he considered the temperature
of the ground at a certain depth due to the sun’s heating. The solution consists
of a yearly component and a daily component. Both effects die off
exponentially with depth but the high frequency daily effect dies off much
more rapidly than the low frequency yearly effect. There is also a phase lag for
the daily and yearly effects so that at certain depths the temperature will be
completely out of step with the surface temperature.
All these predictions are confirmed by measurements which show that annual
variations in temperature are imperceptible at quite small depths (this accounts
for the permafrost, i.e. permanently frozen subsoil, at high latitudes) and that
daily variations are imperceptible at depths measured in tenths of metres. A
reasonable value of soil thermal conductivity leads to a prediction that annual
temperature changes will lag by six months at about 2–3 metres depth. Again
this is confirmed by observation and, as Fourier remarked, gives a good depth
for the construction of cellars.
As Fourier grew older, he developed at least one peculiar notion. Whether

influenced by his stay in the heat of Egypt or by his own studies of the flow of
heat in metals, he became obsessed with the idea that extreme heat was the
natural condition for the human body. He was always bundled in woollen
clothing, and kept his rooms at high temperatures. He died in his sixty-third
year, “thoroughly cooked”.
References
Körner, T.W.: Fourier Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Index Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) (Jo´ sef Foor´ yay) PMcL

12.1
12 Circuit Simulation
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 12.2

12.1 Project Flow ........................................................................................... 12.3
12.1.1 Starting a New Project ................................................................ 12.3
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic ............................................................... 12.4
12.1.3 Simulation ................................................................................... 12.4
12.2 Schematic Capture ................................................................................. 12.5
12.2.1 Ground ........................................................................................ 12.5
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes........................................................................... 12.6
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names ........................................... 12.6
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes ........................................................................... 12.7
12.3 Simulation.............................................................................................. 12.8
12.3.1 DC Bias....................................................................................... 12.8
12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations ....................................... 12.8
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations ................................................ 12.11
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 12.16
PMcL Contents Index
2015 12 - Circuit Simulation

12.2
Introduction
The most popular circuit simulation “package” is known as PSpice®. SPICE is
an acronym for Simulation Program with Integrated Circuit Emphasis – a
program developed at the University of California, Berkeley in the 1970’s that
was used to simulate analog electronic circuits. It quickly became an industry
standard – versions became available in the public domain and large companies
developed their own versions – and continue to do so. The “P” prefix came
about in 1984 when the first version for a PC became available. Most
professional computer-aided electronic design tools now incorporate PSpice®
compatible simulators.
There are many software packages which use PSpice® (or PSpice® compatible)
simulators, and they are updated frequently. It is not the purpose of this
document to outline how each version of the various software packages are
used. There are many other resources that are available that do this – online
tutorials, textbook appendices, student and demo versions of software, etc.
This document will give an overview of the procedure of circuit simulation,

and then highlight particular topics that are important for us in generating time-
domain and frequency-domain analyses of simple analog circuits.
This document will be based on OrCAD® – an integrated software package

used for electronic design automation (EDA). It “captures” schematic designs,
simulates them, and allows a printed circuit board to be designed for
manufacture. Demo versions are freely available.
Australians tend to use Altium Designer – EDA software originally developed

in Hobart at the University of Tasmania. Altium is now a large international
company listed on the ASX, and has a large share of the EDA market.
PSpice and OrCAD are registered trademarks of Cadence Design Systems, Inc.
12 - Circuit Simulation 2015

12.3
12.1 Project Flow

The basic steps to running a circuit simulation are:
 Start a new project
 Draw the schematic
 Set up and run simulation profiles
12.1.1 Starting a New Project
1. Open OrCAD Capture CIS - Demo Edition (freely available).
2. Go to File New Project….
3. Enter a name for the project.
4. Choose “Analog or Mixed A/D”.
5. Set the location. You should create a new directory for your project since
PSpice will generate a lot of project files in this folder.
6. Click OK.
7. Choose “Create a blank project” and click OK.
8. You should see a window where you can draw the schematic (i.e. your
circuit diagram).
PMcL Project Flow Index

12.4
12.1.2 Drawing the Schematic
To add parts for your circuit (i.e. resistors, etc.)
1. Go to Place Parts.
2. Click on the library you want to use, or select multiple libraries by

holding Ctrl or dragging the mouse. In the part window you should see
at least the ANALOG, BIPOLAR, EVAL, SOURCE and SPECIAL
libraries.
3. Find the part you want to add and press OK.
4. Click where you want to place the part on your schematic. Press R to
rotate the part by 90 degrees.
5. Use wires to connect the part to complete your circuit.
12.1.3 Simulation
Simulations run via “simulation profiles”. You need to set up a simulation

profile for each type of simulation you want to run.
1. Go to PSpice New Simulation Profile.
2. Enter a name for the simulation profile, e.g. “Step Response” or

“Frequency Response”.
3. Press Create.
4. In the “Analysis Type” drop-down list, choose the simulation type, e.g.
“Time Domain (Transient)” for a step response simulation, “AC Sweep /
Noise” for a frequency response simulation.
5. Set up the parameters associated with the type of simulation.
6. To run the simulation, press F11 or choose PSpice Run.
Index Project Flow PMcL

12.5
12.2 Schematic Capture

Here are some tips for laying out the schematic for simulation purposes.
12.2.1 Ground
There are many types of grounds (common points in the circuit) and there may
be more than one common point, e.g. an “analog ground” and a “digital
ground” in a mixed circuit. PSpice uses nodal analysis for circuit simulation
and therefore needs a reference node with “zero voltage”. This is provided by a
special ground symbol called 0/SOURCE. You need to have it in your circuit!
It looks like a ground symbol with a zero. If you don't have it, PSpice may
complain of "floating nodes" even if you have a ground.
To place the ground on the circuit Go to Place Ground and choose 0/source
(if you don't see “source” in the Libraries section, you will need to add the
source library). Alternatively, click on the ground button in the schematic

toolbar and choose 0/source. Or just push “G”.
PMcL Schematic Capture Index

12.6
12.2.2 SI Unit Prefixes
PSpice uses letters to represent the most common SI unit prefixes:
SI Unit Prefix PSpice letter
giga G
mega Meg
kilo k
milli m
micro u
nano n
pico p
femto f
The two differences are “mega” and “micro”.
The “mega” prefix is written “Meg” (case does not matter). “M” is NOT
“mega”, it is “milli”.
Example: For 6.5 MHz, enter "6.5 Meg", for 3 mV, enter "3 m".
The “micro” prefix is not the Greek letter mu (μ) as in the SI system of units,
because it is not supported on a standard keyboard. We use the letter “u”
instead.
Example: For 680 μH , enter "680u".
12.2.3 All Parts Must Have Unique Names
You can't have two parts named "R1" in your circuit. If you are copying and
pasting parts or circuits, OrCAD usually increments the part number
automatically. However, you may accidentally name two parts the same, which
will cause a “netlist” error.
Index Schematic Capture PMcL

12.7
12.2.4 Labeling Nodes
You should use aliases to label your input and output nodes. This makes your
nodes easier to find when dealing with simulation output. V(Vout) is simpler
than finding V(R1:1).
1. Go to Place Net Alias.
2. Enter a name, e.g., Vout or Vin.
3. Place the label close to a node.
The example below shows a simple circuit with aliases:
PMcL Schematic Capture Index

12.8
12.3 Simulation
The following sections detail the procedures used in setting up and running
simulations.
12.3.1 DC Bias
The response of the circuit to DC sources is always calculated. To display DC
bias voltages, currents and power on your circuit after you run the simulation,
click on the Enable Bias Display buttons:
12.3.2 Time-Domain (Transient) Simulations

For sinusoids, use VSIN for your voltage source instead of VAC (VOFF is the
DC offset, VAMPL is the amplitude, and FREQ is the frequency).
For square and triangular waves, use VPULSE:
V2
PW
V1
TR TF
t
TD TD+PER
Parameter Meaning
V1 Initial value (V)
V2 Pulsed value (V)
TD Delay time (s)
TR Rise time (s)
TF Fall time (s)
PW Pulse width (s)
PER Period (s)
We normally set the delay time, TD, to zero.
Index Simulation PMcL

12.9
Square Wave
A square wave is the VPULSE function in the limit of TR=TF=0 and

PW=0.5*PER (PER is the period of the wave). This limiting case, however,
causes numerical difficulties in calculations. In any case, we can never make
such a square function in practice. In reality, square waves have very small TR
and TF. Typically, we use a symmetric function, i.e., we set TR=TF and
PW=0.5*PER-TR. Thus, for a given frequency we can set up the square
function if we choose TR. If we choose TR too large, the function does not look
like a square wave. If we choose TR too small, the program will take a long
time to simulate the circuit and for TR smaller than a certain value, the
simulation will not converge numerically. A good choice for TR is to set it to
be 1% of the PER (a period): TR=TF=0.01*PER, PW=0.49*PER. This
usually results in a nice signal without a huge amount of computational need.
Note that TR does not have to be exactly 1% of PER. You can choose nice
round numbers for TR, TF, and PW.
Triangular Wave
A triangular wave is the VPULSE function in the limit of TR=TF=0.5*PER

and PW=0 (convince yourself that this is the case). As before, the limiting case
of PW=0 causes numerical difficulties in calculations. So we have to choose PW
to be a reasonably small value. A good choice for PW is to set it at 1% of the
PER (period): PW=0.01*PER, TR=TF=0.495*PER. This usually results in
a nice signal without a huge amount of computational need. Again, note that
PW does not have to be exactly 1% of PER. You can choose nice round
numbers for TR, TF, and PW.
Step
A step can be created by setting up a square wave with a period that is much
longer than any time constants in the circuit (this is what we do in the lab).
PMcL Simulation Index

12.10
Simulation Settings
1. Go to PSpice Edit Simulation Profile.
2. Select the "Time Domain (Transient)" Analysis type.
3. Enter a “Run to time”: so that a few periods will be displayed.

Remember that the period (seconds) = 1/frequency (Hz).
Example: If you are using a 1 kHz sine wave, it has a 1/1 kHz = 1 ms
period, so use a “Run to time” of 5 ms for 5 periods.
4. Set the “Maximum step size” to be much smaller than the period.
Example: For a 1 kHz sine wave, it has a 1 ms period, so set a

“Maximum step size” of approximately 0.01ms. This works out to 100
data points per period.
5. If you don't set the “Maximum step size”, PSpice may choose one which
is too big, making your waveforms look angular and ugly (because it
plots straight lines between data points).

12.11
12.3.3 AC Sweep / Noise Simulations
Use VAC for your voltage source.
Simulation Settings
1. Go to PSpice Edit Simulation Profile.
2. Select the "AC Sweep / Noise" Analysis type.
3. Select the frequency range of interest. Don't start frequency sweeps at 0!
4. Set the “Points/Decade” to be at least 20.
Bode Plots
1. Use a logarithmic x-axis for the frequency.
2. The magnitude should be measured in decibels. Use the PSpice DB()

function to convert to decibels.
Example: Use DB(V(Vout)/V(Vin)), assuming you have labelled

your output and input nodes with Vout and Vin aliases.
3. Remember you also need a phase response (unless instructed otherwise).

Use the PSpice P() function to get the phase angle.
Example: Use P(V(Vout)/V(Vin)), assuming you have labelled

your output and input nodes with Vout and Vin aliases.

12.12
4. Be sure to mark the cutoff frequency or other points of interest on your

Bode plots (on both magnitude AND phase graphs). Cutoff frequency is
defined as 3dB below the peak of the magnitude response (NOT always
at -3dB).
a. Click the "Toggle Cursor" button (or go through the menu,

Trace Cursor Display). You will now be able to move the cursor
along your plot.
b. Click the "Cursor Max" button to find the highest point (or go
through the menu, Trace Cursor Max).
c. Click the "Mark Label" button to label that point (or go

through the menu, Plot Label Mark).
d. Click the "Cursor Search" button (or go through the menu,

Trace Cursor Search Commands…).
e. Select 1 for “Cursor To Move” to search along the y-axis of trace 1.
f. Enter "search forward level (max-3)" (don't enter the quotation

marks) to move the cursor to the right, to the point which is 3
below the max.

12.13
g. Or enter "search back level (max-3)" (don't enter the quotation

marks) to move the cursor to the left.
h. Click the "Mark Label" button to label that cutoff point.
 Unclick the “Toggle Cursor” button to disable the cursor so

you can move the label.
 Double-click on the label to edit the text (to add units, or to
name the point).
i. It may help to increase the width of the traces in the plot.
 Right click on a trace. Make sure the selection list has

Information, Properties, Cursor 1, and Cursor 2 (if it lists
Settings and Properties, you clicked on the background, not
on the trace).
 Select Properties.
 You can change the width and other properties of that trace.

12.14
EXAMPLE 12.1 Simulation of a Circuit’s Magnitude Response
We wish to simulate the following circuit to determine its magnitude response:
5 k
10 nF
1 k
vi
vo
We enter the following schematic into OrCAD.
Note the use of a real op-amp – the LF411. You can search for it in the parts
library by Place Part… then Part Search…. The op-amp requires DC voltage
sources on its power pins.

12.15
In this schematic, we have used the power symbol which simply “ties”
nets together with a common name – in this case the name is “+15V”. One
“tie” is placed on the DC voltage source, the other on the op-amp power pin.
This avoids cluttering wires on the schematic.
We set up a frequency response simulation using AC Sweep as shown below:
for which the output is:

12.16
Exercises
1.
Simulate the step response and frequency response of the following circuit:
10 nF
10 k
2.5 k 2
vi
6 vo
TL071
3
Use the following axes for graphing:
Response X Y
Step 0 s to 1 ms -5 V to 0 V
Magnitude 10 Hz to 100 kHz -30 dB to 20 dB
Phase 10 Hz to 100 kHz 90 to 180

13.1
13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 13.2

13.1 Analysis using Phasors .......................................................................... 13.3
13.2 Nodal Analysis ...................................................................................... 13.4
13.3 Mesh Analysis ....................................................................................... 13.6
13.4 Superposition ......................................................................................... 13.8
13.5 Thévenin’s Theorem .............................................................................. 13.9
13.6 Norton’s Theorem................................................................................ 13.11
13.7 Phasor Diagrams .................................................................................. 13.13
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State .................................................. 13.21
13.8.1 Instantaneous Power ................................................................. 13.21
13.8.2 Average Power.......................................................................... 13.22
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values ........................................... 13.24
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid ......................................................... 13.25
13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values ......................................................... 13.26
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values ......................................... 13.27
13.8.7 Apparent Power ........................................................................ 13.27
13.8.8 Power Factor ............................................................................. 13.27
13.8.9 Complex Power ........................................................................ 13.28
13.8.10 Reactive Power ......................................................................... 13.29
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits ........................................... 13.31
13.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 13.34
13.10 References ......................................................................................... 13.34
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 13.35
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) ..................................................................... 13.41
References ............................................................................................... 13.44
PMcL Contents Index
2015 13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

13.2
Introduction
In the analysis of resistive circuits of arbitrary complexity, we are able to
employ many different circuit analysis techniques to determine the response –
nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, source transformations,
Thévenin’s and Norton’s theorems.
Sometimes one method is sufficient, but more often we find it convenient to

combine several methods to obtain the response in the most direct manner.
We now want to extend these techniques to the analysis of circuits in the

sinusoidal steady-state. We have already seen that impedances combine in the
same manner as do resistances. We have seen that KVL and KCL are obeyed
by phasors, and we also have an Ohm-like law for the passive elements,
V  ZI . We can therefore extend our resistive circuit analysis techniques to
the frequency-domain to determine the phasor response, and therefore the
sinusoidal steady-state response.
13 - The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response 2015

13.3
13.1 Analysis using Phasors

Phasors can only be used for sinusoidal steady-state analysis. They cannot be
used to determine transients in a circuit.
Phasor analysis is a transform method of analysis. In phasor analysis we

transform a problem from the time-domain to the frequency-domain. To find a
response in the frequency-domain, we solve equations using complex algebra.
Once the response is found, we transform the solutions back to the time-
domain. This is illustrated conceptually below:
differential
time-domain equations time-domain
problem solution
time-domain transform transform

to to
frequency-domain
complex
frequency- algebra frequency-
domain domain
problem solution
Figure 13.1
Transform methods are a common method of analysis in branches of

engineering, and you will be introduced to more powerful transform methods
in more advanced subjects.
PMcL Analysis using Phasors Index

13.4
13.2 Nodal Analysis

As an example of nodal analysis, consider the circuit shown below:
40 mF
v1 v2
2H
cos(5 t ) A 5 1H 10  0.5 sin (5 t ) A
20 mF
Figure 13.2
Noting from the sources that   5 rads -1 , we draw the frequency-domain

circuit and assign nodal voltages V1 and V2 :
Nodal analysis in
the frequency-
domain
-j5 
V1 V2
j10 
1 0° A 5 j5  10  0.5 -90° A
-j10 
Figure 13.3
Each passive element is specified by its impedance, which has been determined
by knowing the frequency of the sources (which are the same) and the element
values. Two current sources are given as phasors, and phasor node voltages V1
and V2 are indicated.
At the left node, we apply KCL and I  V Z :
V1 V V  V2 V1  V2
 1  1   1  j0 (13.1)
5  j10  j5 j10

13.5
At the right node:
V2  V1 V2  V1 V2 V2
     j 0.5 (13.2)
 j5 j10 j5 10
Combining terms we have the two equations:
0.2  j 0.2V1  j 0.1V2  1

 j 0.1V1  0.1  j 0.1V2  j 0.5
(13.3)
Using Cramer’s Rule to solve, we obtain:
1  j 0.1
j 0.5 0.1  j 0.1 0.1  j 0.1  0.05
V1  
0.2  j 0.2  j 0.1 0.02  j 0.02  j 0.02  0.02  0.01
 j 0.1 0.1  j 0.1
0.05  j 0.1
  1  j2 V
0.05
0.2  j 0.2 1
 j 0.1 j 0.5  0.1  j 0.1  j 0.1
V2    2  j 4 V
0.05 0.05 (13.4)
The time-domain solutions are best obtained by representing the phasors in

polar form:
V1  5  63.4 V
(13.5)
V2  2 5116.6 V
and passing to the time-domain:
v1 t   5 cos5t  63.4 V
(13.6)
v2 t   2 5 cos5t  116.6 V
Note how simple phasor analysis is compared to the work involved if we

stayed in the time-domain solving differential equations!

13.6
13.3 Mesh Analysis

As an example of mesh analysis, consider the circuit shown below:
500 F
3  i1
3
10cos(10 t ) V 4 mH 2 i1
Figure 13.4
Noting from the left source that   103 rads -1 , we draw the frequency-domain
circuit and assign mesh currents I1 and I 2 :
Mesh analysis in the
frequency-domain
-j2 
3
10 0° V I1 I2 2I 1
j4 
Figure 13.5
Around mesh 1:
3I1  j 4I1  I 2   100 (13.7)
while mesh 2 leads to:
j 4I 2  I1   j 2I 2  2I1  0 (13.8)

13.7
Combining terms we have the two equations:
3  j 4I1  j 4I 2  10
2  j 4I1  j 2I 2  0
(13.9)
Solving:
14  j8
I1   1.24029.7 A
13 (13.10)
20  j 30
I2   2.77456.3 A
13
or:
 
i1 t   1.240 cos 103 t  29.7 A
i t   2.774 cos 10 t  56.3 A
(13.11)
3
2
The solution above could be checked by working entirely in the time-domain,

but it would be quite an undertaking!

13.8
13.4 Superposition
Linear circuits are those that consist of any of the following: idealised linear
passive circuit elements (R, L and C), ideal independent voltage and current
sources and linearly dependent voltage and current sources. Such circuits are
amenable to the superposition principle.
We can analyse linear circuits with phasors and the principle of superposition.
(You may remember that linearity and superposition were invoked when we
combined real and imaginary sources to obtain a complex source).
Let’s look again at the circuit of Figure 13.3, redrawn below with each pair of
parallel impedances replaced by a single equivalent impedance (for example, 5
and  j10 in parallel yield 4  j 2 ):
Superposition in the
frequency-domain
V1 -j10  V2
1 0° A 4 -j2  2+j4  0.5 -90° A
Figure 13.6
To find V1 we first activate only the left source and find the partial response:
V1L  10
4  j 2 j10  2  j 4   4  j 28  2  j 2
(13.12)
4  j 2  j10  2  j 4 6  j8
With only the right source active, current division helps us to obtain:
 2  j4   6  j8
V1R   0.5  90 4  j 2   1 (13.13)
 4  j 2  j10  2  j 4  6  j8

13.9
Summing, we get:
V1  2  j 2  1  1  j 2 V (13.14)
which agrees with our previous result.
13.5 Thévenin’s Theorem

We will use the same circuit to see whether Thévenin’s Theorem can help us:
Thévenin’s Theorem
in the frequency-
V1 -j10  V2 domain
1 0° A 4 -j2  2+j4  0.5 -90° A
Figure 13.7
Suppose we determine the Thévenin equivalent faced by the  j10 

impedance. The open circuit voltage (+ reference to the left) is:
Voc  104  j 2  0.5  902  j 4

(13.15)
 4  j 2  2  j1  6  j3
The impedance of the inactive circuit, as viewed from the load terminals, is
simply the sum of the two remaining impedances (because the current sources
are set to zero – open circuits). Hence:
Zth  6  j 2 (13.16)
PMcL Thévenin’s Theorem Index

13.10
Thus, when we reconnect the circuit, the current directed from node 1 toward
node 2 through the  j10  load is:
6  j3
I12   0.6  j 0.3 (13.17)
6  j 2  j10
Subtracting this from the left source current, the downward current through the
4  j 2  branch is found:
I1  1  0.6  j 0.3  0.4  j 0.3 (13.18)
and , thus:
V1  Z1I1  4  j 20.4  j 0.3  1  j 2 V (13.19)
Index Thévenin’s Theorem PMcL

13.11
13.6 Norton’s Theorem

Again using the same circuit, if our chief interest is in V1 we could use
Norton’s Theorem on the three right elements:
Norton’s Theorem in
the frequency-
domain
-j10 
2+j4  0.5 -90° A
Figure 13.8
The short circuit current is obtained using current division:
2  j4
I sc   0.5  90
2  j 4  j10
2 j 1 j
  A
2  j6 4 (13.20)
and the Norton impedance (equal to the Thévenin impedance) is simply:
Zth  2  j 6 (13.21)
PMcL Norton’s Theorem Index

13.12
We thus need to analyse the circuit:
V1
1A 4 -j2  2-j6  1+j

A
4
Figure 13.9
The voltage V1 is therefore:
V1 
4  j 22  j 6 1  0.25  j 0.25
4  j 2  2  j 6
 4  j 28
 0.75  j 0.25  2  j 20.75  j 0.25  1  j 2 V
6  j8 (13.22)
It should now be clear that all methods available for linear circuit analysis can
be applied to the frequency-domain. The slight additional complexity that is
apparent now arises from the necessity of using complex numbers and not from
any more involved theoretical considerations.
Index Norton’s Theorem PMcL

13.13
13.7 Phasor Diagrams

The phasor diagram is a sketch in the complex plane of the phasor voltages and
A phasor diagram is
currents throughout a specific circuit. It provides a graphical method for a graphical sketch of
phasors in the
solving problems which may be used to check more exact analytical methods. complex plane
Since phasor voltages and currents are complex numbers, they may be
identified as points in a complex plane. For example, the phasor voltage
V1  6  j8  1053.1 is identified on the complex voltage plane shown
below:
A simple phasor
diagram
Imaginary
axis (V)
j8 V1
10
53.1°
Real axis (V)
6
Figure 13.10
The axes are the real voltage axis and the imaginary voltage axis. The voltage
V1 is located by an arrow drawn from the origin. Since addition and
subtraction are particularly easy to perform and display on a complex plane, it
is apparent that phasors may be easily added and subtracted in a phasor
diagram. Multiplication and addition result in a change in magnitude and the
addition and subtraction of angles.
PMcL Phasor Diagrams Index

13.14
Figure 13.11 shows the sum of V1 and a second phasor voltage

V2  3  j 4  5  53.1 :
Phasor diagram
showing addition
V1
V1 + V2
V2
Figure 13.11
Figure 13.12 shows the current I1 , which is the product of V1 and the
admittance Y  1  j1 :
Phasor diagram
showing
multiplication
V1
I1= 45°
(1+ j 1) V1
Figure 13.12
This last phasor diagram shows both current and voltage phasors on the same
complex plane – it is understood that each will have its own amplitude scale,
but a common angle scale.
Index Phasor Diagrams PMcL

13.15
The phasor diagram can also show the connection between the frequency-
domain and the time-domain. For example, let us show the phasor V  Vm
on the phasor diagram, as in (a) below:
Phasor diagram
showing
transformation to the
time-domain by
rotating the phasor
and taking the real
Vm  t+  part
t
Vm V= Vm   t+  Vm 
 
(a) (b)
Figure 13.13
In order to transform V to the time-domain, we first need to multiply by e jt .

We now have the complex voltage V  Vme j e jt  Vmt   . This voltage
may be interpreted as a phasor which possesses a phase angle that increases
linearly with time. On a phasor diagram it therefore represents a rotating line
segment, the instantaneous position being t rad ahead (counterclockwise) of
Vm . Both Vm and Vmt   are shown on the phasor diagram in (b).
The transformation to the time-domain is completed by taking the real part of

Vmt   , which is the projection of the phasor onto the real axis. It is helpful See the “Phasors”
PC program
to think of the arrow representing the phasor V on the phasor diagram as the
snapshot, taken at t  0 , of a rotating arrow whose projection onto the real axis
is the instantaneous voltage vt  .

13.16
EXAMPLE 13.1 Phasor Diagram of a Series RLC Circuit
The series RLC circuit shown below has several different voltages associated
with it, but only a single current:
I 3 j6 
VR VL
Vs VC -j 10 
The phasor diagram is constructed most easily by employing the single current
as the reference phasor – all other phasors with have their angles measured
with respect to the reference. Let us arbitrarily set I  I m0 and place it along
the real axis of the phasor diagram, as shown below:
VL VR + VL
j6
j5
VR I
3
-j 4
Vs = VR + VL + VC
-j 5
-j10 VR + VC
VC

13.17
The resistor, inductor and capacitor voltages may next be calculated and placed
on the diagram, where the 90 phase relationships stand out clearly. The sum
of these three voltages is the source voltage for this circuit. The total voltage
across the resistance and inductance or resistance and capacitance or
inductance and capacitance is easily obtained from the phasor diagram.
We can design using the phasor diagram quite easily instead of embarking on
complex algebraic manipulation. For example, suppose we would like to
determine a single extra passive element that can be added in series with the
circuit so that the magnitude of the current does not change. This additional
circuit element will contribute to an additional voltage drop, but we still must
have KVL satisfied so that the total voltage drop magnitude equals the source
voltage magnitude. Therefore, the addition of the voltage drop due to the new
element must keep the source voltage on a circle of radius Vs . From the
phasor diagram, we can see that we can only add an inductor with an
impedance Z Lnew  j8  , so that the additional voltage drop still brings us onto
the circle of radius Vs :
j5
Vsnew = VR + VL + VC + VLnew
j4
VLnew
-j 4
Vs = VR + VL + VC
-j 5

13.18
As another example of the use of the phasor diagram, consider the original
circuit again. We know that an increase in frequency will cause the voltage
across the inductor to increase, whilst simultaneously decreasing the voltage
across the capacitor (although not linearly). In fact, if we increase the
frequency by 29.1%, the inductor voltage and capacitor voltage will exactly
cancel one another, and we have a condition known as resonance. In this case
the supply voltage and current are precisely in phase, and the circuit appears
resistive:
VL
j7.746 VR + VL
Vs = VR I
3
-j 7.746 VR + VC
VC

13.19
EXAMPLE 13.2 Phasor Diagram of a Parallel RC Circuit
The figure below shows a simple parallel circuit in which it is logical to use the
single voltage between the two nodes as a reference phasor:
IR IC
Is V 5 -j 10 
Let us arbitrarily set V  Vm0 and place it along the real axis of the phasor
diagram. The resistor current is in phase with this voltage, I R  0.2Vm A , and
the capacitor current leads the reference voltage by 90 , I C  j 0.1Vm A . After
these two currents are added to the phasor diagram, shown below, they may be
summed to obtain the source current. The result is I s  0.2  j 0.1Vm A .
I C = j 0.1Vm I s = (0.2+ j 0.1)Vm
I R=0.2Vm V= Vm 0°

13.20
If the source current were specified initially as, for example, I s  10 A , and
the node voltage is not initially known, it is still convenient to begin
construction of the phasor diagram by assuming, say V  10 . The source
current, as a result of the assumed node voltage, is now I s  0.2  j 0.1 A . The
true source current is 10 A , however, and thus the true node voltage is
greater by the factor 1 0.2  j 0.1 ; the true node voltage is therefore 4  j 2 V .
The assumed voltage leads to a phasor diagram which differs from the true
phasor diagram by a change of scale (the assumed diagram is smaller by a
factor of 1 20 ) and an angular rotation (the assumed diagram is rotated
clockwise through 26.6 ). The true phasor diagram in this case is shown
below:
IC
I s = 1 0° A
IR
V= 20 -26.6° V
Phasor diagrams are usually very simple to construct, and most sinusoidal
steady-state analyses will be more meaningful if such a diagram is included.

13.21
13.8 Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State

Consider a single sinusoidal source supplying a network as shown below:
i v
v network t
Figure 13.14
If the network contains reactive components, then in general there will be a

phase shift between the voltage and current. Let:
v  Vm cost   
i  I m cost   
(13.23)
and define:
   (13.24)
Thus  is the angle by which the voltage leads the current.
13.8.1 Instantaneous Power
The instantaneous power delivered to the network is:
p  vi
 Vm I m cost   cost   

Vm I m
cos   cos2t     
2 (13.25)
Notice that the first term is a constant, and the second term oscillates with time
at double the supply frequency.
PMcL Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State Index

13.22
13.8.2 Average Power
Average power is just the average value of the instantaneous power. We define
this average in the normal way (the “mean value theorem”) as:
pt dt
1 T2
T   T  T 2
P  lim (13.26)
If the instantaneous power is periodic with period T0 , we have the special case:
pt dt
1 T0 2
P
T0   T0 2
(13.27)
That is, for a periodic instantaneous power, we can integrate over one period,
and divide by the period. A graph of the instantaneous power in a network
operating in the sinusoidal steady-state, Eq. (13.25), is shown below:
Vm Im /2
Vm Im
cos 
2
Vm Im /2 t
T0 T0
2
Figure 13.15
From this graph it is easily seen that the average power is the constant part of
the instantaneous power (the oscillating part averages to zero) and we have:
P is the average
Vm I m
value of p
P cos  (W) (13.28)
2
Index Power in the Sinusoidal Steady-State PMcL

13.23
EXAMPLE 13.3 Instantaneous Power and Average Power
A graph of the instantaneous power is shown below for V  40 and

I  2  60 :
6
p
4 v
2 i P
t
0 T0
-2
Figure 13.16
Note that, on occasion, the power delivered to the network is negative, which
implies that the network is actually sourcing power back to the voltage supply.
The average power is calculated to be:
P
Vm I m
cos   1
2 42cos 60  2 W
2
Both the 2 W average power and its period, one-half the period of either the
current or the voltage, are evident in the graph. The zero value of the
instantaneous power at each instant when either the voltage or current is zero is
also apparent.

13.24
13.8.3 Root-Mean-Square (RMS) Values
It is customary, when dealing with AC power, to refer to voltage and current

using a root-mean-square, or RMS value. As we shall see, this leads to some
simplification for many power formulas. The concept of an RMS value for a
voltage or current comes about by considering the average power dissipated in
a resistor when it carries a periodic current:
1 T0 2 2
T0  T0 2
P Ri dt  RI 2
RMS (13.29)
That is, the RMS value of any periodic current is equal to the value of the
direct current which delivers the same average power. Removing R from the
above formula, we thus have:
RMS value defined

1 T0 2 2
T0  T0 2
I RMS  i dt (13.30)
The operation involved in finding this value is the root of the mean of the
square, hence the name root-mean-square value, or RMS value for short. A
similar expression is obtained for voltage, VRMS (or for any other signal for that
matter).

13.25
13.8.4 RMS Value of a Sinusoid
A sinusoid is the most important special case of a periodic signal. Consider a

sinusoidal current given by:
it   I m cost    (13.31)
The easiest way to find its RMS value is by performing the mean-square
operations in Eq. (13.30) graphically. For the arbitrary sinusoid given, we can
graph the square of the current, i 2 t   I m2 cos 2 t    , as shown below:
2
i (t)
2
Im
equal areas
2
I m
t
T0
Figure 13.17
Note that in drawing the graph we don’t really need to know the identity
cos 2    1  cos 2  2 – all we need to know is that if we start off with a
sinusoid uniformly oscillating between I m and  I m , then after squaring we
obtain a sinusoid that oscillates (at twice the frequency) uniformly between I m2
and 0. We can now see that the average value of the resulting waveform is
I m2 2 , because there are equal areas above and below this value. This is the
mean of the square, and so we now just take the root and get:
The RMS value of

I
I RMS  m (13.32)
an arbitrary sinusoid

13.26
Note that the RMS value depends on the magnitude of the sinusoid only – the
frequency and phase is irrelevant!
In the power industry, it is tacitly assumed that values of voltage and current
will be measured using their RMS value. For example, in Australia the
electricity delivered to your home has a frequency of 50 Hz and an RMS value
of 230 V. This means the voltage available at a general power outlet is a 50 Hz
sinusoid with a peak value of approximately 325 V.
It should be noted that this formula can only be applied to a sinusoid – for other
waveforms, you will obtain a different ratio between the peak and the RMS
value. For example, the RMS value of a triangle waveform is I m 3 whilst for
a square wave it is simply I m .
13.8.5 Phasors and RMS Values
We defined a phasor corresponding to:
it   I m cost    (13.33)
as:
I  I m (13.34)
We could have just as easily defined it to be:
Phasor magnitudes
can be defined as Im
RMS values I   I RMS  (13.35)
2
If we use this definition, then all relationships involving phasors, such as
V  ZI , KCL, KVL, etc. must also use this definition. When working with
power and machines, it is customary to use the RMS value for the phasor
magnitude. In other fields, such as telecommunications and electronics, we use
the amplitude for the phasor magnitude. You need to be aware of this usage.

13.27
13.8.6 Average Power Using RMS Values
Returning to the formula for average power, we can now rewrite it using RMS
values. We have:
The average power

P  VRMS I RMS cos  (W) (13.36) P using RMS values
of voltage and
current
13.8.7 Apparent Power
The average power in a DC network is simply P  VI . In sinusoidal steady-

state analysis, we define:
Apparent power
apparent power  VRMS I RMS (VA) (13.37) defined
Dimensionally, average power and apparent power have the same units, since
cos  is dimensionless. However, to avoid confusion, the term volt-amperes, or
VA, is applied to apparent power.
13.8.8 Power Factor
The ratio of average power to the apparent power is called the power factor,
symbolized by PF:
P
PF 
Power factor defined
(13.38)
VRMS I RMS
In the sinusoidal case, the power factor is also equal to:
PF  cos  (13.39)
We usually refer to leading PF or lagging PF when referring to loads to resolve

the ambiguity in taking the “cos”. The terms leading and lagging refer to the
phase of the current with respect to the voltage. Thus, inductive loads have a
lagging power factor, capacitive loads have a leading power factor.

13.28
13.8.9 Complex Power
Using RMS phasors of v  Vm cost    and i  I m cost    :
Vm
V   VRMS   VRMS e j
2
(13.40)
I
I  m   I RMS   I RMS e j
2
we know that the average power is:
P  VRMS I RMS cos    (13.41)
We can associate the average power with the real part of a complex power:

P  Re VRMS I RMS e j     
 ReV 
(13.42)
j  j
RMS e I RMS e
Thus, we can define average power as:
 
P  Re VI * (13.43)
Note the use of I * because of the way we defined      . It is an accident

of history that  was defined this way, as it just as easily could have been
defined as      .
We therefore define complex power as:
Complex power
defined S  VI * (complex VA) (13.44)

13.29
In polar form the complex power is:
S  VI *  VRMS I RMS  (13.45)
so we can now see that the apparent power is:
S  V I  VRMS I RMS (13.46)
Written in rectangular form, the complex power is:
S  VRMS I RMS cos   j sin    P  jQ (13.47)
13.8.10 Reactive Power
From the rectangular form, we can see that the average power is also the “real”
power. It can also be seen that the “imaginary” power, which we call the
reactive power, is:
Reactive power
Q  VRMS I RMS sin  (var) (13.48) defined
It has the same dimensions as the real power P, the complex power S and the
apparent power S . In order to avoid confusion, the unit of Q is defined as the
volt-ampere-reactive, or var for short.
Reactive power is a measure of the energy flow rate into or out of the reactive
components of a network. It is positive for inductive loads, and negative for
capacitive loads.
The physical interpretation of reactive power causes a lot of confusion. Even

though it is the imaginary component of complex power, it has a physical and
real interpretation, and must be generated by a power system. (A voltage
phasor, such as V  3  j 4 , has an imaginary component of 4 which
contributes to the amplitude and phase of the real voltage sinusoid – so we
expect Q to also be physically real).

13.30
To see how Q manifests itself in the real world, we return to the formula for
instantaneous power. Using cos A  B  cos A cos B  sin A sin B , and noting
that      , we get:
p  VRMS I RMS cos   cos2t     

 VRMS I RMS cos   cos2t  2   
 VRMS I RMS cos   cos2t  2  cos   sin 2t  2 sin   (13.49)
 VRMS I RMS cos  1  cos2t  2   VRMS I RMS sin  sin 2t  2 
Then:
p  P1  cos2t  2   Q sin2t  2  (13.50)
The instantaneous power associated with the real and reactive power
components is shown below:
p associated with P
total p
P
Q
t
0
p associated with Q
Figure 13.18
Note that the instantaneous power associated with P follows a “cos”, and the
instantaneous power associated with Q follows a “sin”. Thus, the two
waveforms are 90° apart and are said to be in “quadrature”. You can see that
reactive power does not transfer energy – instantaneous power is both
delivered to, and received from, the network in a cyclic fashion, with an
average of zero. In contrast, real power does transfer energy – instantaneous
power is always delivered to the network in a cyclic fashion, but it has a non-
zero average.

13.31
13.8.11 Summary of Power in AC Circuits
In summary we have:
S  VI *  S   P  jQ (13.51)
where:
Components of
S  V I  apparent power (VA) complex power
P  S cos   real power (W) Real power is also

known as active
power and average
Q  S sin   reactive power (var)

power
(13.52)
 = angle by which the current I lags the voltage V

S  P2  Q2
2
These relationships are illustrated below:
jQ S
V
|S|

I

P
Figure 13.19
It can be shown that the total complex power S  P  jQ consumed by a

network is the sum of the complex powers consumed by all the component
parts of the network. This conservation property is not true of the apparent
power S .

13.32
EXAMPLE 13.4 Conservation of Complex Power
Consider three loads connected in parallel across a 230 V (RMS) 50 Hz line as

shown below:
V S1 S2 S3
Load 1 absorbs 10 kW and 7.5 kvar. Load 2 absorbs 3.84 kW at 0.96 PF

leading. Load 3 absorbs 5 kW at unity power factor. Find the overall power
factor.
The first load is given in rectangular form:
S1  10  j 7.5 kVA
The complex power supplied to the second load must have a real part of
3.84 kW and an angle (refer to the power triangle) of cos 1 0.96  16.26 .
Hence,
P 3.84
S2      16.26  4  16.26  3.84  j1.12 kVA
cos  0.96
The third load is simply:
S3  5  j 0 kVA
The total complex power is:
Stotal  S1  S2  S3  10  j 7.5  3.84  j1.12  5  j 0  18.84  j 6.38 kVA
Thus, the combined load is operating at a power factor equal to:
P 18.84
PF    0.9472 lagging
S 19.89

13.33
The magnitude of the line current drawn by the combined load is:
S 19890
I   86.48 A RMS
V 230
Electricity supply authorities do all they can to improve the PF of their loads by
installing capacitors or special machines called synchronous condensers which
supply vars to the system. They also impose tariffs which encourage consumers
to correct their PF.
If we now seek to raise the PF to 0.98 lagging, without affecting the existing
real power, the total complex power must become:
cos -1 0.98  19.2211.48  18.84  j3.826 kVA

18.84
S new 
0.98
We would therefore need to add a corrective load of:
S4  Snew  Stotal   j 2.554 kVA
Now since:
2
VV * V
S 4  VI  *  *
*
4
Z4 Z4
then:
2
V 2302
Z4  *    j 20.71 
S4 j 2554
Thus, the corrective load is a capacitor of value:
1 1
C   153.7 μF
X C 2  50  20.71
The magnitude of the line current drawn by the new combined load reduces to:
S 19220
I   83.57 A
V 230

13.34
13.9 Summary
 A linear circuit can be converted to the frequency-domain where we use the
concept of phasors and impedances, and in particular the branch phasor
relationship V  ZI . The circuit is then amenable to normal circuit analysis
techniques: nodal analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, source
transformations, Thévenin’s theorem, Norton’s theorem, etc. Time-domain
responses are obtained by transforming phasor responses back to the time-
domain.
 A phasor diagram is a sketch in the complex plane of the phasor voltages

and currents throughout a circuit and is a useful graphical tool to illustrate,
analyse and design the sinusoidal steady-state response of the circuit.
 The RMS value of a sinusoid xt   X m cos(t   ) is X RMS  X m 2.
 There are many power terms in AC circuits:
- instantaneous power, pt   vt it  (W)

- average power, P  VRMS I RMS cos  (W)
- reactive power, Q  VRMS I RMS sin  , (var)
- complex power, S  VI *  P  jQ , (VA)
- apparent power, S  V I , (VA)
- power factor, PF  cos 
 The average power delivered to the resistive component of a load is

nonzero. The average power delivered to the reactive component of a load
is zero.
 Capacitors are commonly used to improve the PF of industrial loads to

minimize the reactive power and current required from the electricity
utility.
13.10 References
Hill, 1984.
Index Summary PMcL

13.35
Exercises
1.
4 4 4
50 0° V -j4  -j4  -j4  V2
(a) Find V2 .
(b) To what identical value should each of the 4  resistors be changed so

that V2 is 180 out of phase with the source voltage?
2.
400 F
1 1
10cos (104 t +30°) A
1 400 H 2 v3
i3
(a) Find v3 t  in the steady-state by using nodal analysis.
(b) Find i3 t  in the steady-state by using mesh analysis

13.36
3.
2 F 20  4 mH
i2
v1 1 mH v2 3v1
4
10cos (10 t ) A
(a) Find i2 t  .
(b) Change the control voltage from 3v1 to 3v2 and again find i2 t  .
4.
2A
1
4
F
vR 2 vL 2 H
6
1cos (10 t ) A
(a) Find vR t  .
(b) Find vL t  .

13.37
5.
Find the output impedance of the network shown below:
12  j 20 
1
Vx
0.1Vx -j 3 
6.
Use superposition to find I x in the circuit below:
1 0° A
1 j1 
Ix 1 0° V
1 0° V
1
-j1 
1 0° A
7.
For the circuit below, find the phase angles of Vx and Vy graphically if
Vx  90 V and Vy  150 V .
Vx Vy
120 0° V 50 80° V

13.38
8.
If vs  20 cos1000t  30 V in the circuit below, find the power being
absorbed by each passive element at t  0 .
2.5 k
R1
vs 1H 1 F R2 10 k
9.
Determine the average power delivered to each resistor in the network shown
below if: (a) k  0 (b) k  1
I1 20  j60 
10 
1000 0° V kI1
-j50 
10.
The series combination of a 1000  resistor and a 2 H inductor must not
absorb more than 100 mW of power at any instant. Assuming a sinusoidal
current with   400 rads -1 , what is the largest RMS current that can be
tolerated?

13.39
11.
j 100 
100 0° V RMS R j 300 
(a) What value of R will cause the RMS voltages across the inductors to be
equal?
(b) What is the value of that RMS voltage?
12.
A composite load consists of three loads connected in parallel.
One draws 100 W at 0.9 lagging PF, another takes 200 W at 0.8 lagging PF,
and the third requires 150 W at unity PF. The composite load is supplied by a
source Vs in series with a 10  resistor. If the loads are all to operate at 110 V
RMS, determine:
(a) the RMS current through the source
(b) the PF of the composite load

13.40
13.
A load operating at 2300 V RMS draws 25 A RMS at a power factor of
0.815 lagging. Find:
(a) the real power taken by the load
(b) the reactive power
(c) the complex power
(d) the apparent power drawn by the load
(e) the impedance of the load
14.
In the circuit shown below, load A receives S A  80  j 40 VA , while load B
absorbs S B  100  j 200 VA . Find the complex power supplied by each
source.
100 0° V RMS B 2 0° A RMS

13.41
Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925)

The mid-Victorian age was a time when the divide between the rich and the
poor was immense (and almost insurmountable), a time of unimaginable
disease and lack of sanitation, a time of steam engines belching forth a steady
rain of coal dust, a time of horses clattering along cobblestoned streets, a time
when social services were the fantasy of utopian dreamers. It was into this
smelly, noisy, unhealthy and class-conscious world that Oliver Heaviside was
born the son of a poor man on 18 May, 1850.
A lucky marriage made Charles Wheatstone (of Wheatstone Bridge fame)

Heaviside’s uncle. This enabled Heaviside to be reasonably well educated, and
at the age of sixteen he obtained his first (and last) job as a telegraph operator
with the Danish-Norwegian-English Telegraph Company. It was during this
job that he developed an interest in the physical operation of the telegraph
cable. At that time, telegraph cable theory was in a state left by Professor
William Thomson (later Lord Kelvin) – a diffusion theory modelling the
passage of electricity through a cable with the same mathematics that describes
heat flow. I remember my first
look at the great
treatise of
By the early 1870’s, Heaviside was contributing technical papers to various Maxwell’s…I saw
publications – he had taught himself calculus, differential equations, solid that it was great,
greater and
geometry and partial differential equations. But the greatest impact on greatest, with
prodigious
Heaviside was Maxwell’s treatise on electricity and magnetism – Heaviside possibilities in its
power. – Oliver
was swept up by its power. Heaviside
In 1874 Heaviside resigned from his job as telegraph operator and went back to
live with his parents. He was to live off his parents, and other relatives, for the
rest of his life. He dedicated his life to writing technical papers on telegraphy
and electrical theory – much of his work forms the basis of modern circuit
theory and field theory.
In 1876 he published a paper entitled On the extra current which made it clear
that Heaviside (a 26-year-old unemployed nobody) was a brilliant talent. He
had extended the mathematical understanding of telegraphy far beyond
PMcL Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) Index

13.42
Thomson’s submarine cable theory. It showed that inductance was needed to
permit finite-velocity wave propagation, and would be the key to solving the
problems of long distance telephony. Unfortunately, although Heaviside’s
paper was correct, it was also unreadable by all except a few – this was a trait
of Heaviside that would last all his life, and led to his eventual isolation from
the “academic world”. In 1878, he wrote a paper On electromagnets, etc.
which introduced the expressions for the AC impedances of resistors,
capacitors and inductors. In 1879, his paper On the theory of faults showed that
by “faulting” a long telegraph line with an inductance, it would actually
improve the signalling rate of the line – thus was born the idea of “inductive
loading”, which allowed transcontinental telegraphy and long-distance
telephony to be developed in the USA.
When Maxwell died in 1879 he left his electromagnetic theory as twenty

Now all has been
blended into one equations in twenty variables! It was Heaviside (and independently, Hertz)
theory, the main
equations of which who recast the equations in modern form, using a symmetrical vector calculus
can be written on a
page of a pocket notation (also championed by Josiah Willard Gibbs (1839-1903)). From these
notebook. That we
have got so far is
equations, he was able to solve an enormous amount of problems involving
due in the first place field theory, as well as contributing to the ideas behind field theory, such as
to Maxwell, and next
to him to Heaviside energy being carried by fields, and not electric charges.
and Hertz. – H.A.
Lorentz
A major portion of Heaviside’s work was devoted to “operational calculus”.1
This caused a controversy with the mathematicians of the day because although
Rigorous
it seemed to solve physical problems, it’s mathematical rigor was not at all
mathematics is clear. His knowledge of the physics of problems guided him correctly in many
narrow, physical
mathematics bold instances to the development of suitable mathematical processes. In 1887
and broad. – Oliver
Heaviside Heaviside introduced the concept of a resistance operator, which in modern
terms would be called impedance, and Heaviside introduced the symbol Z for
it. He let p be equal to time-differentiation, and thus the resistance operator for
an inductor would be written as pL. He would then treat p just like an algebraic
1
The Ukrainian Mikhail Egorovich Vashchenko-Zakharchenko published The Symbolic
Calculus and its Application to the Integration of Linear Differential Equations in 1862.
Heaviside independently invented (and applied) his own version of the operational calculus.
Index Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) PMcL

13.43
quantity, and solve for voltage and current in terms of a power series in p. In
other words, Heaviside’s operators allowed the reduction of the differential
equations of a physical system to equivalent algebraic equations.
Paul Dirac derived
Heaviside was fond of using the unit-step as an input to electrical circuits, the modern notion of
especially since it was a very practical matter to send such pulses down a the impulse, when
he used it in 1927,
telegraph line. The unit-step was even called the Heaviside step, and given the at age 25, in a paper
on quantum
symbol H t  , but Heaviside simply used the notation 1. He was tantalizingly mechanics. He did
his undergraduate
close to discovering the impulse by stating “… p  1 means a function of t work in electrical
engineering and
which is wholly concentrated at the moment t  0 , of total amount 1. It is an was both familiar
with all of
impulsive function, so to speak…[it] involves only ordinary ideas of Heaviside’s work
and a great admirer
differentiation and integration pushed to their limit.” of his.
Heaviside also played a role in the debate raging at the end of the 19th century
about the age of the Earth, with obvious implications for Darwin’s theory of
evolution. In 1862 Thomson wrote his famous paper On the secular cooling of
the Earth, in which he imagined the Earth to be a uniformly heated ball of
molten rock, modelled as a semi-infinite mass. Based on experimentally The practice of
eliminating the
derived thermal conductivity of rock, sand and sandstone, he then physics by reducing
a problem to a
mathematically allowed the globe to cool according to the physical law of purely mathematical
exercise should be
thermodynamics embedded in Fourier’s famous partial differential equation for avoided as much as
possible. The
heat flow. The resulting age of the Earth (100 million years) fell short of that physics should be
needed by Darwin’s theory, and also went against geologic and palaeontologic carried on right
through, to give life
evidence. John Perry (a professor of mechanical engineering) redid Thomson’s and reality to the
problem, and to
analysis using discontinuous diffusivity, and arrived at approximate results that obtain the great
assistance which
could (based on the conductivity and specific heat of marble and quartz) put the physics gives to
the mathematics. –
the age of the Earth into the billions of years. But Heaviside, using his Oliver Heaviside,
operational calculus, was able to solve the diffusion equation for a finite Collected Works,
Vol II, p.4
spherical Earth. We now know that such a simple model is based on faulty
premises – radioactive decay within the Earth maintains the thermal gradient
without a continual cooling of the planet. But the power of Heaviside’s
methods to solve remarkably complex problems became readily apparent.
Throughout his “career”, Heaviside released 3 volumes of work entitled

Electromagnetic Theory, which was really just a collection of his papers.
PMcL Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) Index

13.44
Heaviside shunned all honours, brushing aside his honorary doctorate from the
University of Göttingen and even refusing to accept the medal associated with
his election as a Fellow of the Royal Society, in 1891.
In 1902, Heaviside wrote an article for the Encyclopedia Britannica entitled

The theory of electric telegraphy. Apart from developing the wave propagation
theory of telegraphy, he extended his essay to include “wireless” telegraphy,
and explained how the remarkable success of Marconi transmitting from
Ireland to Newfoundland might be due to the presence of a permanently
conducting upper layer in the atmosphere. This supposed layer was referred to
as the “Heaviside layer”, which was directly detected by Edward Appleton and
M.A.F. Barnett in the mid-1920s. Today we merely call it the “ionosphere”.
Heaviside spent much of his life being bitter at those who didn’t recognise his
genius – he had disdain for those that could not accept his mathematics without
formal proof, and he felt betrayed and cheated by the scientific community
who often ignored his results or used them later without recognising his prior
work. It was with much bitterness that he eventually retired and lived out the
rest of his life in Torquay on a government pension. He withdrew from public
and private life, and was taunted by “insolently rude imbeciles”. Objects were
thrown at his windows and doors and numerous practical tricks were played on
him.
Heaviside should be Today, the historical obscurity of Heaviside’s work is evident in the fact that
remembered for his
vectors, his field his vector analysis and vector formulation of Maxwell’s theory have become
theory analyses, his
brilliant discovery of “basic knowledge”. His operational calculus was made obsolete with the 1937
the distortionless
circuit, his
publication of a book by the German mathematician Gustav Doetsch – it
pioneering applied showed how, with the Laplace transform, Heaviside’s operators could be
mathematics, and
for his wit and replaced with a mathematically rigorous and systematic method.
humor. – P.J. Nahin
The last five years of Heaviside’s life, with both hearing and sight failing, were
years of great privation and mystery. He died on 3rd February, 1925.
References
Nahin, P.: Oliver Heaviside: Sage in Solitude, IEEE Press, 1988.
Index Oliver Heaviside (1850-1925) PMcL

14.1
14 Amplifier Characteristics
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 14.2

14.1 Amplifier Performance .......................................................................... 14.3
14.1.1 Voltage Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.2 Current Gain ............................................................................... 14.4
14.1.3 Power Gain ................................................................................. 14.4
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers.............................................................................. 14.5
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency .............................................................. 14.8
14.3.1 Efficiency.................................................................................... 14.9
14.4 Amplifier Models ................................................................................ 14.10
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.10
14.4.2 Current Amplifier ..................................................................... 14.11
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier .................................................... 14.12
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier ......................................................... 14.13
14.5 Amplifier Impedances ......................................................................... 14.14
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling ........................................... 14.18
14.6.2 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth .................................. 14.20
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion ............................................................... 14.21
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion ................................................................ 14.21
14.7.2 Phase Distortion ........................................................................ 14.21
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification..................................................... 14.25
14.8 Step Response ...................................................................................... 14.26
14.9 Harmonic Distortion ............................................................................ 14.27
14.10 Summary............................................................................................ 14.29
14.11 References ......................................................................................... 14.30
PMcL Contents Index
2015 14 - Amplifier Characteristics

14.2
Introduction
Amplifiers are designed to have certain performance characteristics that meet
the requirements of a specific application. For example, an amplifier may be
required to amplify a very small voltage from a source that has a relatively
large internal resistance, such as an antenna. The amplifier would need to have
a very large input impedance, and a large gain over a wide band of frequencies.
An audio amplifier may be required to amplify signals in the audio range with
minimal distortion and provide a low impedance output to drive a speaker.
Since each amplifier application is different, we need to study the various

characteristics of amplifiers that will enable us to intelligently design or choose
a suitable amplifier. The characteristics we will look at are: voltage gain,
current gain, power gain, power efficiency, input impedance, output
impedance, frequency response, linear waveform distortion, pulse response and
harmonic distortion.
14 - Amplifier Characteristics 2015

14.3
14.1 Amplifier Performance

The model of a voltage amplifier is shown below, together with an attached
source and load:
A voltage amplifier
with source and load
attached
Rs ii Ro io
vs vi Ri Avovi vo RL
Source Amplifier Load
Figure 14.1
The input resistance, Ri , of the amplifier is the equivalent resistance seen when
looking into the input terminals. Later we will generalise this concept so that
the amplifier has an input impedance, Z i .
The open-circuit voltage gain of the amplifier, Avo , is the value of the VCCS in
the amplifier model (if the load is an open circuit, there is no voltage drop
across the output resistance, and then vo  Avo vi ).
The output resistance, Ro , of the amplifier models the fact that when the load
draws a current there is a reduction in the voltage at the output terminals.
PMcL Amplifier Performance Index

14.4
14.1.1 Voltage Gain
The voltage gain of the loaded amplifier is:
vo RL
Av   Avo (14.1)
vi RL  Ro
and the overall gain between the load and source is:
vo Ri
Gv   Av
vs Ri  Rs
Ri RL
 Avo (14.2)
Ri  Rs RL  Ro
voltage divider  open - circuit voltage divider 
   
 due to source amplifier gain  due to load 
14.1.2 Current Gain
The current gain Ai of a loaded amplifier is the ratio of the output current to
the input current:
io vo RL R
Ai    Av i (14.3)
ii vi Ri RL
14.1.3 Power Gain
The power delivered to the input terminals by the signal source is called the
input power Pi , and the power delivered to the load by the amplifier is the
output power Po . The power gain AP of an amplifier is the ratio of the output
power to the input power:
voio
AP   Av Ai (14.4)
vi ii
Index Amplifier Performance PMcL

14.5
14.2 Cascaded Amplifiers

When we cascade amplifiers, we need to take into account “loading” effects.
Loading refers to the fact that the input impedance of the second amplifier in
the cascade will appear as a load impedance to the first amplifier, thus
changing the gain.
Cascade connection
of two amplifiers
ii1 io1 = ii2 io2
Amplifier Amplifier
vi1 1 vo1 = vi2 2 vo2
Figure 14.2
In the figure above, two voltage amplifiers are cascaded. The overall voltage
gain is determined be considering the gains of each amplifier, under loaded
conditions. Since vi 2  vo1 , we have for the overall gain:
vo 2 vo1 vo 2 vo1 vo 2
Av       Av1 Av 2 (14.5)
vi1 vi1 vo1 vi1 vi 2
In this equation Av1 and Av 2 represent the voltage gains of the individual
stages of the cascade, the values of which are calculated using the specific
loading conditions of the cascade.
PMcL Cascaded Amplifiers Index

14.6
EXAMPLE 14.1 Cascaded Amplifiers
Consider the cascaded amplifiers below:
ii1 Ro1 io1 ii2 Ro2 io2

500  100 
vi1 Ri1 Avo1vi1 vi2 Ri2 Avo2vi2 vo2 RL
100 
1 M =200 vi1 1.5 k  =100 vi2
First stage Second stage
The voltage gain of the first amplifier, which is loaded by the input resistance
of the second amplifier, is:
Ri 2 1500
Av1  Avo1  200   150
Ri 2  Ro1 2000
The voltage gain of the second amplifier, which has a load resistance attached,
is:
RL 100
Av 2  Avo 2  100   50
RL  Ro 2 200
Thus, the overall voltage gain of the cascaded amplifiers is:
Av  Av1 Av 2  150  50  7500
The current gain of the first amplifier is:
Ri1 10 6
Ai1  Av1  150   10 5
Ri 2 1500
and the current gain of the second amplifier is:
Ri 2 1500
Ai 2  Av 2  50   750
RL 100
Thus, the overall current gain of the cascaded amplifiers is:
Ai  Ai1 Ai 2  105  750  7.5  10 7
Index Cascaded Amplifiers PMcL

14.7
We can derive an equivalent circuit, or model, of the two cascaded amplifiers,
by considering the input resistance, output resistance, and overall open-circuit
voltage gain. Looking in from the left, we have:
Ri  Ri1  1 M
whilst looking in from the right, we have:
Ro  Ro 2  100 
The overall open-circuit voltage gain of the cascaded amplifiers (i.e. with the
first amplifier being loaded by the input resistance of the second amplifier, but
with the second amplifier with no load) is:
Avo  Av1 Avo 2  150  100  1.5  10 4
We then have a simplified model for the cascaded amplifiers of:
ii Ro io
100 
vi Ri Avovi2 vo
1 M =15 000vi2
PMcL Cascaded Amplifiers Index

14.8
14.3 Power Supplies and Efficiency

Power is supplied to the internal circuitry of amplifiers from power supplies.
There are two voltage sources to a bipolar amplifier and the total power
supplied is the sum of the powers supplied by each voltage source.
The power supply
delivers power to
the amplifier from
several DC voltage Rs ii Ro io
sources
vs vi Ri Avo vi vo RL
IA IB connected to various
points of the internal
circuit (which are
not shown)
VAA VBB
Power Supply
Figure 14.3
In the figure above, the total power supplied to the amplifier is:
Ps  VAA I A  VBB I B (14.6)
It is quite typical for amplifiers to take power without a zero volt reference or
common – op-amps are a prime example. In these cases the designer of the
internal amplifier circuit has arranged for the output to be exactly half way
between the voltage supplies under zero input conditions. If the bipolar
supplies are symmetric (i.e. they are equal in magnitude), then the output will
be 0 V for no input, with respect to the power supply common. Note that for an
op-amp, which doesn’t have a GND pin, the single-ended voltage output is
normally taken with respect to the power supply common, and symmetric
supplies are assumed.
Index Power Supplies and Efficiency PMcL

14.9
Since amplifiers typically provide power gain, this power must be taken from
the power supplies for conservation of energy to hold.
Illustration of power
flow
Output signal
Input from Po power to load
power supply Ps
Power dissipated
Input from Pd in amplifier
signal source Pi
Figure 14.4
The principle of Conservation of Energy requires that:
Pi  Ps  Po  Pd
 power   power  (14.7)
  
supplied absorbed 
14.3.1 Efficiency
The efficiency  of an amplifier is the proportion of power supplied that is

converted into output power:
Po
 100% (14.8)
Ps
Note that Pi is often insignificant compared to the power supply power, so it

does not appear in the above equation.
PMcL Power Supplies and Efficiency Index

14.10
14.4 Amplifier Models

As far as the external terminal characteristics are concerned, the type of circuit
model used to represent the amplifier is irrelevant. We used this idea to convert
from a practical voltage source to a practical current source via a source
transformation. For an amplifier, which is modelled with dependent sources,
there are four types of equivalent model – each with a different dependent
source. Some models are more suited to particular amplifiers or analysis
techniques, so it is important to be aware of the different models and be able to
convert between them.
14.4.1 Voltage Amplifier
We have already seen the model for a voltage amplifier – it is a practical model
for devices such as the op-amp (since the op-amp is designed to amplify
voltage) as well as for circuits built from op-amps that are designed to amplify
voltage, such as the inverting and noninverting op-amp configurations.
ii Ro io
vi Ri Avovi vo
Voltage Amplifier
Figure 14.5
Note that the output side of the amplifier has a series connection – it is like the
Thévenin equivalent of a linear circuit, except it uses a dependent source to
model the amplifier behaviour. If we do KVL at the output we get:
vo  Avo vi  Roio (14.9)
Index Amplifier Models PMcL

14.11
14.4.2 Current Amplifier
An alternative but equivalent model of the voltage amplifier is the current

amplifier, shown below:
Current amplifier
model
ii io
vi Ri Ais ii Ro vo
Current Amplifier
Figure 14.6
Note that the output side of the amplifier has a parallel connection – it is like
the Norton equivalent of a linear circuit, except it uses a dependent source to
model the amplifier behaviour. If we do KCL at the output we get:
io  Aisii  vo Ro (14.10)
Rearranging in terms of the output voltage, and noting that ii  vi Ri , we

have:
vo   Ais Ro Ri vi  Roio (14.11)
Comparison with the voltage amplifier’s output equation, Eq. (14.9), reveals
that we can convert from one to the other using:
Ro
Avo  Ais (14.12)
Ri
The values of the input and output resistors are the same in each model.
PMcL Amplifier Models Index

14.12
14.4.3 Transconductance Amplifier
Another model for an amplifier is the transconductance amplifier:
Transconductance
amplifier model
ii io
vi Ri Gmvi Ro vo
Transconductance Amplifier
Figure 14.7
Here the controlled source is a voltage-controlled current source. If we do KCL

at the output we get:
io  Gmvi  vo Ro (14.13)
Rearranging in terms of the output voltage, we have:
vo  Gm Rovi  Roio (14.14)
Comparison with the voltage amplifier’s output equation reveals that we can
convert from one to the other using:
Avo  Gm Ro (14.15)
Transconductance models are often used in the analysis of amplifier circuits

that use a transistor known as a metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect
transistor (MOSFET). This type of transistor is controlled by an electric field
(hence a voltage) and can behave like a voltage-controlled current source.
Index Amplifier Models PMcL

14.13
14.4.4 Transresistance Amplifier
The fourth type of model for an amplifier is the transresistance amplifier:

Transresistance
amplifier model
ii Ro io
vi Ri Rmii vo
Transresistance Amplifier
Figure 14.8
Here the controlled source is a current-controlled voltage source. If we do KVL

at the output we get:
vo  Rmii  Roio (14.16)
Noting that ii  vi Ri , we have:
vo  Rm Ri vi  Roio (14.17)
Comparison with the voltage amplifier’s output equation reveals that we can
convert from one to the other using:
Rm
Avo  (14.18)
Ri
Transresistance amplifiers are often used to convert a current into a voltage,

such as when amplifying the output of photo multiplier tubes, accelerometers,
photo detectors and other types of sensors.
PMcL Amplifier Models Index

14.14
14.5 Amplifier Impedances

Amplifiers are designed for specific applications which place demands on their
characteristics. For example, suppose we wish to build a voltage amplifier for a
very weak signal source, such as the output of an electret microphone or a TV
antenna:
Rs ii Ro io
vs vi Ri Avovi vo RL
Figure 14.9
In the figure above, the source has been modelled using a Thévenin equivalent
circuit. Since the application calls for the source voltage to be amplified, we
want to minimise the voltage drop occurring in the source due to the current
drawn by the input of the amplifier. The voltage amplifier therefore needs to
present a very high impedance to the source.
Since the overall gain between the load and source is:
vo Ri RL
Gv   Avo (14.19)
vs Ri  Rs RL  Ro
we can see that the ideal case would be for the amplifier input impedance to be
infinite, and for the output impedance to be zero – we would then achieve the
maximum gain Gv  Avo .
Conversely, applications that call for the internal current produced by the
source to be amplified need to present a low impedance to the source, and as
large an impedance as possible to the load.
Index Amplifier Impedances PMcL

14.15
EXAMPLE 14.2 Transresistance Amplifier
Consider a current source connected to a transresistance amplifier. A model of

such a situation is shown below:
ii Ro io
is Rs vi Ri Rmii vo RL
The expression for the overall gain is:
vo Rs RL
 Rm
is Ri  Rs RL  Ro
current divider  open - circuit voltage divider 
   
 due to source amplifier gain  due to load 
To maximise the gain:
 the input resistance of the amplifier, Ri , should be as small as possible

(ideally zero).
 the output resistance of the amplifier, Ro , should be as small as possible

(ideally zero).
PMcL Amplifier Impedances Index

14.16
A practical transresistance amplifier that achieves these goals is shown below.
Rf
IP
vo
D1
photodiode
transresistance
amplifier
In this example the source is a photodiode (which acts like a current source),
and the requirement of the amplifier is to convert the low-level current to a
voltage. Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity
in science and industry. They are also widely used in various medical
applications, such as detectors for computed tomography, instruments to
analyze medical samples (immunoassay), and pulse oximeters. The photodiode
is designed to operate in reverse bias, where the current is almost linearly
proportional to the light intensity.
Assuming an ideal op-amp, the output voltage is given by:
vo  R f I P
Due to the virtual short-circuit across the op-amp input terminals, the input
resistance of the amplifier is effectively zero. Since the output is taken from the
op-amp output, the output resistance of the amplifier is effectively zero.
Thus, the circuit satisfies the criteria to make a good transresistance amplifier.
It is also known as a current-to-voltage converter.
Index Amplifier Impedances PMcL

14.17
14.6 Frequency Response

If we apply a variable-frequency sinusoidal input signal to an amplifier, we
will find that gain is a function of frequency. Moreover, the amplifier affects
the phase as well as the amplitude of the sinusoid. For a voltage amplifier, we
define the (complex) gain to be the ratio of the output voltage phasor to the
input voltage phasor:
Frequency response
V
Av  o (14.20)
of an amplifier is the
output phasor over
Vi the input phasor
EXAMPLE 14.3 Complex Gain
The input voltage to a certain amplifier is:
vi t   0.1cos2000t  30
and the output voltage is:
vo t   10 cos2000t  15
To find the gain as a complex number, we convert the voltages into their
respective phasors:
Vi  0.1  30 and Vo  1015
The complex gain is then:
Vo 1015
Av    10045
Vi 0.1  30
The meaning of this complex voltage gain is that the output signal is 100 times
larger in amplitude than the input signal. Furthermore, the output signal is
phase shifted by 45 relative to the input signal.
PMcL Frequency Response Index

14.18
14.6.1 AC Coupling and Direct Coupling
Some amplifier stages are “coupled” together using capacitors which block
DC. Thus, only AC signals are amplified. Such amplifiers are known as AC
coupled amplifiers. Examples include audio amplifiers and electro-
cardiographs.
An AC coupled
amplifier
Input Interstage Output
coupling coupling coupling
capacitor capacitor capacitor
First Second
vi amplifier amplifier vo RL
Signal source stage stage
may include a
DC component
Figure 14.1
The capacitors used to couple the stages together are known as coupling
capacitors or DC blocking capacitors. These coupling capacitors may be
external to the amplifier or may be internal to the amplifier. The most common
reason why amplifiers are AC coupled is so that the internal DC biasing
arrangements of the transistors in the amplifier are undisturbed by any DC
component of the input signal, and because the output AC signal is usually
superimposed upon an unwanted DC bias signal.
Amplifiers that provide gain all the way down to DC are known as DC coupled
or direct coupled amplifiers. Examples are op-amps and other integrated circuit
amplifiers where the coupling capacitors cannot be fabricated in integrated
form.
Index Frequency Response PMcL

14.19
If we plot the magnitude of the gain of a typical amplifier versus frequency, a

plot such as the one shown below results:
Gain magnitude
versus frequency for
|A v| AC and DC coupled
Low-frequency Midband region High-frequency amplifiers
|A v mid | region region
0
0
(a) AC coupled amplifier frequency response f
|A v|
Midband region High-frequency
region
|A v mid |
0
0
(b) DC coupled amplifier frequency response f
Figure 14.2
The gain magnitude is constant over a wide range of frequencies known as the
midband region. At high frequencies the gain of an amplifier inevitably falls
off due to the intrinsic capacitances of the internal transistors, which appear
more and more like short-circuits. For AC coupled amplifiers the gain drops
off at low frequencies and is eventually zero at DC due to the coupling
capacitors.

14.20
14.6.2 Half-Power Frequencies and Bandwidth
We usually specify the approximate useful frequency range of an amplifier by

giving the frequencies for which the voltage (or current) gain magnitude is
1 2 times the midband gain magnitude. These are known as the half-power
frequencies because the output power level is half the value of the midband
region. In decibels, the half-power frequencies occur when the gain drops by
20 log 10 1  
2  3.01 dB compared to the midband gain.
The bandwidth B of an amplifier is the difference between the upper and lower
half-power frequencies.
Av
Avmid
Avmid
2
B
0
0 fL fH f
Figure 14.3
In the figure above f L and f H are the lower and upper half-power frequencies,
respectively. The half-power bandwidth of the amplifier is then given by:
B  fH  fL
Bandwidth of an
amplifier defined (14.21)

14.21
14.7 Linear Waveform Distortion

Linear waveform distortion will arise in an amplifier if the magnitude response
is not perfectly flat (amplitude distortion) or if the phase response is not
proportional to frequency (phase distortion). It is termed linear waveform
distortion because the amplifier is still being a linear device (i.e. obeys the
principle of superposition).
14.7.1 Amplitude Distortion
If the gain of an amplifier has a different magnitude for the various frequency
components of the input signal, then amplitude distortion occurs. Audio
systems tend to suffer from amplitude distortion due to the frequency response
of the speakers (not the audio amplifier).
14.7.2 Phase Distortion
If the phase shift of an amplifier is not proportional to frequency, phase

distortion occurs, and the output waveform shape is different to the input. On
the other hand, if the phase shift of the amplifier is proportional to frequency,
the output waveform is a time-shifted version of the input – in this case we do
not say that distortion has occurred because the shape of the waveform is
unchanged.
PMcL Linear Waveform Distortion Index

14.22
EXAMPLE 14.4 Amplitude Distortion
The input voltage to a certain amplifier consists of two frequency components

and is given by:
vi t   3 cos2000t   2 cos6000t 
The magnitude response of the amplifier is shown below, and the phase
response is zero (an ideal case that never occurs in practice):
Av
10
2.5
0
0 1 kHz 3 kHz f
The first term of the input signal (a 1 kHz sinusoid) experiences a gain of 10,
whilst the second term of the input signal (a 3 kHz sinusoid) experiences a gain
of 2.5. The output signal is then:
vo t   30 cos2000t   5 cos6000t 
Plots of the input and output waveform are shown below:
(a) Input waveform (b) Output waveform
Notice that the output waveform has a different shape than the input waveform
because of amplitude distortion.
Index Linear Waveform Distortion PMcL

14.23
EXAMPLE 14.5 Phase Distortion
Suppose that the input signal given by:
vi t   3 cos2000t   cos6000t 
is applied to the inputs of three amplifiers having the phase responses shown
below:
0 1 kHz 3 kHz
0° f
Av
(a)
0 1 kHz 3 kHz
0° f
Av
-45°
(b)
-135°
0 1 kHz 3 kHz
0° f
Av
-45°
(c)
The amplifiers can be categorised as:
(a) No phase shift
(b) Linear phase versus frequency
(c) Constant phase shift
The magnitude response of all three amplifiers is assumed to be 10 for all

frequencies.

14.24
Applying the gain and phase shifts of the individual amplifiers, we find the
output signals for the amplifiers to be:
voa t   30 cos 2000t   10 cos 6000t 

vob t   30 cos 2000t  45  10 cos6000t  135
voc t   30 cos 2000t  45  10 cos6000t  45
Plots of the output waveforms are shown below:
(a) No phase shift
(b) Linear phase versus frequency
(c) Constant phase shift
Amplifier (a) produces an output waveform identical to the input (just

amplified), and amplifier (b) produces an output waveform identical to the
input, except for a time delay. Amplifier (c) produces a distorted output
waveform.
Index Linear Waveform Distortion PMcL

14.25
14.7.3 Distortionless Amplification
To avoid linear waveform distortion, an amplifier should have constant gain

magnitude and a phase response that is linear versus frequency for the range of
frequencies expected from the input signal. Departure from these requirements
outside the frequency range of the input signal does not result in distortion.
These requirement for distortionless amplification are shown below:
Requirements on an
amplifier’s frequency
response for
Gain magnitude is constant distortionless
amplification
|Av |
0
0 f
Frequency range
of input signal
0
f
Av
Figure 14.4
The criteria for distortionless amplification can be generalised to any system

that possesses a frequency response. For example, a twisted pair (as commonly
found in Cat 5 or Cat 6 Ethernet cabling) can be modelled as a passive lowpass
RC circuit. With a time constant around T  RC  1 ns , the twisted pair is
distortionless for frequencies from DC up to around 100 MHz. In this
frequency range waveforms will appear at the output undistorted but delayed
by about 1 ns . At higher frequencies, we get distortion – this fundamentally
limits the rate of “signalling” in digital transmission systems.

14.26
14.8 Step Response

Often we need to specify the performance of an amplifier in the time domain.
In such cases it is usual to look at the step response of an amplifier. A typical
step response is shown below, from which we can define certain quantities:
Time-domain
specifications of an Slew time
amplifier’s step vo( t )
response Settling time
Ringing Tail
Overshoot
Error band Final value
0
0 t
Figure 14.5
The step response displays overshoot and ringing, and the leading edge is
gradual rather than abrupt due to slew rate limiting. The error band is defined
as a given percentage of the final value, and the settling time is the time it takes
for the output to fall within the error band.
If the amplifier is AC coupled, a final value will never be reached and the
output response will gradually decay to zero.
Index Step Response PMcL

14.27
14.9 Harmonic Distortion

Real amplifiers have transfer characteristics that depart from straight lines,
particularly at large amplitudes. This is shown in the figure below:
Transfer
characteristic of a
vo real amplifier
showing deviation
Ideal amplifier from the ideal
Actual
amplifier
vi
Figure 14.6
Curvature of the transfer characteristic results in an undesirable effect known

as nonlinear distortion.
The input-output relationship of a nonlinear amplifier can be written as:
vo  A1vi  A2vi2  A3vi3  A4vi4  (14.22)
where A1 , A2 , A3 , A4 , and so on, are constants selected so that the equation

matches the curvature of the nonlinear transfer characteristic. Usually, the even
powered terms in the expression are negligible since most transfer
characteristics possess odd symmetry.
Consider the case where the input signal is a sinusoid given by:
vi t   Vm cosot  (14.23)
PMcL Harmonic Distortion Index

14.28
Substituting into Eq. (14.22), applying trigonometric identities for cos0 t  ,

n
collecting terms, and defining V0 to be equal to the sum of all the constant
terms, V1 to be the sum of the coefficients of the terms with frequency  0 , and
so on, we find that:
vo t   V0  V1 cosot   V2 cos2ot   V3 cos3ot    (14.24)
The desired output is the V1 cos0 t  term, which we call the fundamental
component. The V0 term represents a shift in the DC level (which does not
appear at the load if it is AC coupled). In addition, terms at multiples of the
input frequency have resulted from the second and higher power terms of the
transfer characteristic. These terms are called harmonic distortion. The 2 0
term is called the second harmonic, the 3 0 term is called the third harmonic,
and so on.
Harmonic distortion is objectionable in an audio amplifier because it degrades

the aesthetic qualities of the sound produced by the loudspeakers.
The nth-harmonic distortion factor Dn is defined as the ratio of the amplitude

of the nth harmonic to the amplitude of the fundamental:
Vn
Dn  (14.25)
V1
The total harmonic distortion (THD), denoted by D, is the ratio of the RMS
value of the sum of all the harmonic distortion terms to the RMS value of the
fundamental:
Total harmonic
distortion defined D  D22  D32  D42  D52   (14.26)
We will often find THD expressed as a percentage. A well-designed audio

amplifier might have a THD specification of 0.01% at rated power output.
Index Harmonic Distortion PMcL

14.29
14.10 Summary
 Amplifier performance measures the voltage gain, current gain and power
gain under certain source and load conditions.
 In a cascade connection, the output of each amplifier is connected to the

input of the next amplifier. Each amplifier presents a load to the preceding
stage which must be taken into account when calculating gain.
 Amplifiers are active devices that require power. The efficiency of an

amplifier is the percentage of the supply power that is converted into output
signal power.
 Several models are useful in characterising amplifiers. They are the voltage
amplifier model, the current amplifier model, the transconductance
amplifier model and the transresistance amplifier model. The different
models are suited to particular amplifiers or configurations.
 The requirements for the input impedance of an amplifier are:
- To sense the open-circuit voltage of a source, an amplifier needs as

large a Z i as possible (ideally ∞).
- To sense the short-circuit current of a source, an amplifier needs as
small a Z i as possible (ideally 0).
 The requirements for the output impedance of an amplifier are:
- If the load requires constant voltage, an amplifier needs as small a

Z o as possible (ideally 0).
- If the load requires constant current, an amplifier needs as large a
Z o as possible (ideally ∞).
 The gain of an amplifier is a function of frequency, i.e. the magnitude of

the gain and amount of phase shift applied to a single input sinusoid
depends on the frequency. Amplifiers can be AC or DC coupled. The
bandwidth of an amplifier is a measure of the frequency range for which
the gain is greater than half the power of the midband gain.
PMcL Summary Index

14.30
 Linear distortion can be either amplitude or phase distortion. Amplitude

distortion occurs if the gain magnitude is different for various components
of the input signal. Phase distortion occurs is the amplifier phase shift is not
proportional to frequency. Distortionless amplification requires the
amplifier to have constant gain magnitude and a phase response that is
linear versus frequency for the range of frequencies expected from the
input signal.
 Amplifier step response is characterised by slew time, overshoot, ringing

and settling time.
 Nonlinear distortion arises in an amplifier when its transfer characteristic

deviates from a straight line. Assuming a sinusoidal input signal, nonlinear
distortion causes harmonics to appear in the output. The total harmonic
distortion (THD) rating of an amplifier indicates the degree of nonlinear
distortion.
14.11 References
Hambley, A.R..: Electrical Engineering – Principles and Applications, 5th Ed.,
Pearson, 2011.

15.1
15 Frequency Response
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 15.2

15.1 Frequency Response Function ............................................................... 15.3
15.2 Frequency Response Representation ..................................................... 15.4
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis ............... 15.5
15.4 Magnitude Responses ............................................................................ 15.7
15.5 Phase Responses .................................................................................. 15.11
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally ....................... 15.13
15.7 Bode Plots ............................................................................................ 15.13
15.7.1 Bode Plot Factors ...................................................................... 15.16
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots ....................................................... 15.18
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors ........................ 15.21
15.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 15.22
15.10 References ......................................................................................... 15.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 15.23
PMcL Contents Index
2015 15 - Frequency Response

15.2
Introduction
The frequency response of a circuit, by definition, is the sinusoidal steady-state
response of the circuit, as a function of frequency. The frequency response is
therefore a description of a circuit’s behaviour in the frequency-domain – we
will use the concepts of voltage and current phasors, and impedance, to
facilitate this view.
It turns out that the frequency response of a circuit gives us enough information
to completely characterise1 a circuit. Thus, if we know the frequency response
of a circuit, then we can determine the circuit’s response to any input, not just
individual sinusoids.
The frequency-domain view of a circuit turns out to be not only a very

powerful mathematical tool, but also a concept that aids engineers to design
real systems with real benefits – the fields of telecommunications and
automated control rely heavily on ‘thinking’ and designing in the frequency-
domain.
For example, in telecommunications the frequency-domain view leads us to the

concept of information being carried by sinusoids – the circuits that generate
and receive telecommunication signals can then be said to carry out
‘information processing’ on these signals. This leads us to the notion of a filter
– something which retains or rejects a signal based on its frequency. A familiar
everyday example of a filter is the circuit that controls the treble and bass in an
audio system. The use of circuits to filter signals is one that is fundamental to
electrical engineering.
1
A formal link between the frequency response of a circuit and it’s time-domain description
will be given in later subjects, where the ideas and mathematics related to the Fourier and
Laplace transforms are elucidated.
15 - Frequency Response 2015

15.3
15.1 Frequency Response Function

If a linear time-invariant (LTI) circuit has a sinusoidal input xt   A cos0 t  ,
then the steady-state response is also a sinusoid of the same frequency, but with
different amplitude and phase, and is given by yt   B cos0 t    . Using
phasors, the sinusoidal input can be represented by X  A0 0 and the output
response by Y  B :
LTI
X = A 0 Y=B 
circuit
input output
Figure 15.1
We now introduce the frequency response function, denoted by T j  , which

is defined to be the ratio of the output phasor to the input phasor of the circuit:
T j  
Y
(15.1)
X
Note that T j  is, in general, a complex function of the complex variable

j . Thus, like all complex numbers, T j  has both a magnitude and an
angle – both of which are functions of j .
We call T j  the magnitude response of the circuit, and we call T j  the
phase response of the circuit. Thus, the system is completely specified if we

know both the magnitude response and the phase response.
The definition above is precisely how we determine the frequency response

experimentally – we input a sinusoid and, in the steady-state, measure the
magnitude and phase change at the output.
PMcL Frequency Response Function Index

15.4
15.2 Frequency Response Representation

The complex function T j  can be written using a complex exponential in
terms of magnitude and phase:
T j   T j  e j   (15.2)
which is normally written in polar coordinates:

The frequency
T j   T j    
response in terms of
magnitude and (15.3)
phase
We plot the magnitude and phase of T j  as a function of  or f . We use

both linear and logarithmic scales. The phase function is usually plotted in
degrees.
If the logarithm (base 10) of the magnitude is multiplied by 20, then we have
the gain of the frequency response in decibels (dB):
The magnitude of
the frequency
response in dB
A   20 log10 T j  dB (15.4)
A negative gain in decibels is referred to as attenuation. For example, -3 dB

gain is the same as 3 dB attenuation.
Index Frequency Response Representation PMcL

15.5
15.3 Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis

We can get the frequency response of a circuit by undertaking frequency-
domain analysis using phasors. In this case, the input sinusoid has a general
frequency  and we are interested in how the output varies as a function of the
frequency.
Let us analyse the following simple circuit:
R R
vi (t ) = 1
C vo Vi Vo
Vm cos( t ) j C
(a) (b)
Figure 15.2
The circuit shown in (a) is the real physical circuit, whilst that shown in (b) is
its frequency-domain representation. The forcing function is regarded as the
input to the circuit, and the voltage across the capacitor is regarded as the
output response. We can find the forced response of this circuit using the
voltage divider rule:
1 jC
Vo  Vi
R  1 j C
(15.5)
1 RC
 Vi
j  1 RC
The frequency response is then the ratio:
T j  
Vo 1 RC
 (15.6)
Vi 1 RC  j
PMcL Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis Index

15.6
EXAMPLE 15.1 Frequency Response of an RC Circuit
For the RC circuit, let 0  1 RC so that the frequency response can be written
as:
T j  
1
1  j 0
The magnitude function is found directly as:
T j  
1
1   0 
2
The phase is:

     tan 1  
0 
These are graphed below, using a normalised log scale for  :
Index Determining the Frequency Response from Circuit Analysis PMcL

15.7
15.4 Magnitude Responses

A magnitude response is the magnitude of the frequency response, plotted
against the frequency of the input. Magnitude responses can be classified The magnitude
according to their particular properties. To look at these properties, we will use response is the
magnitude of the
linear magnitude versus linear frequency plots. For the simple first-order RC transfer function in
the sinusoidal
circuit that you are so familiar with, the magnitude function has three steady state
frequencies of special interest corresponding to these values of T j  :
T j 0  0
T j0  
1
 0.707 (15.7)
2
T j   1
The frequency  0 is known as the half-power frequency. The plot below
shows the complete magnitude response, T j  , as a function of  , and the
circuit that produces it:
A simple lowpass
filter
|T|
1
R
1 2
vi C vo
0
0 0 2 0 
Figure 15.3
PMcL Magnitude Responses Index

15.8
An idealisation of the response in Figure 15.3, known as a brick wall, and the
circuit that produces it are shown below:
An ideal lowpass
filter
|T| Cutoff
1
ideal
vi vo
Pass Stop filter
0
0 0 
Figure 15.4
For the ideal filter, the output voltage remains fixed in amplitude until a critical
frequency is reached, called the cutoff frequency,  0 . At that frequency, and
for all higher frequencies, the output is zero. The range of frequencies with
Pass and stop output is called the passband; the range with no output is called the stopband.
bands defined
The obvious classification of the filter is a lowpass filter.
Even though the response shown in the plot of Figure 15.3 differs from the
ideal, it is still known as a lowpass filter, and, by convention, the half-power
frequency is taken as the cutoff frequency.
Index Magnitude Responses PMcL

15.9
If the positions of the resistor and capacitor in the circuit of Figure 15.2 are
interchanged, then the resulting circuit is:
1
C j C
vi (t ) =
R vo Vi R Vo
Vm cos( t )
(a) (b)
Figure 15.5
Show that the frequency response is:
j
T j   (15.8)
1 RC  j
Letting 0  1 RC again, we can write it in the standard form:
j 0
T j   (15.9)
1  j 0
The magnitude function of this equation, at the three frequencies of special

interest, is:
T j 0  0
T j0  
1
 0.707 (15.10)
2
T j   1
PMcL Magnitude Responses Index

15.10
The plot below shows the complete magnitude response, T j  , as a function

of  , and the circuit that produces it:
A simple highpass
filter
|T|
1
C
1 2
vi R vo
0
0 0 2 0 3 0 
Figure 15.6
This filter is classified as a highpass filter. The ideal brick wall highpass filter
is shown below:
An ideal highpass
filter
|T| Cutoff
1
ideal
vi vo
Stop Pass filter
0
0 0 
Figure 15.7
The cutoff frequency is  0 , as it was for the lowpass filter.
Index Magnitude Responses PMcL

15.11
15.5 Phase Responses

Like magnitude responses, phase responses are only meaningful when we look
at sinusoidal steady-state circuits. From Eq. (15.1), a frequency response can
be expressed in polar form as:
Phase response is
V 
T j   o  o
V obtained in the
 T  (15.11) sinusoidal steady-
Vi Vi 0 state
where the input is taken as reference (zero phase).
We use the sign of the phase angle to classify circuits. Those giving positive  Lead and lag circuits
are known as lead circuits, those giving negative  as lag circuits. defined
EXAMPLE 15.2 Lagging Phase Response
For the simple RC circuit of Figure 15.3, we have already seen that:
   tan 1  0 
Since  is negative for all  , the circuit is a lag circuit. When    0 ,
   tan1 1  45 . A complete plot of the phase response is shown below:
0 0 2 0 
0º
 -45 º
-90 º
PMcL Phase Responses Index

15.12
EXAMPLE 15.3 Leading Phase Response
For the simple RC circuit of , we can show that the phase is given by:
  90  tan 1  0 
The phase response is shown below:
90 º
 45 º
0º
0 0 2 0 
The angle  is positive for all  , and so the circuit is a lead circuit.
Index Phase Responses PMcL

15.13
15.6 Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally

Experimentally, we can apply a sinusoid of a certain frequency to a circuit, and
measure the steady-state output. The output will be a sinusoid of the same
frequency, but with a different amplitude and phase. If we graph the magnitude
change versus frequency and the phase change versus frequency, we have an
experimentally derived frequency response. For example, the frequency
response for an op-amp circuit derived experimentally is shown below:
Magnitude response - lowpass op-amp filter

20
15
10
5
|T(f)| dB
-5
-10
-15
-20
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
f (Hz)
Phase response - lowpass op-amp filter

180
170
160
150
angle(H(f)) degrees
140
130
120
110
100
90
2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10
f (Hz)
Figure 15.8
PMcL Determining the Frequency Response Experimentally Index

15.14
15.7 Bode Plots

Bode* plots are plots of the magnitude function A   20 log T j  and the
phase function    , where the scale of the frequency variable (usually  ) is

logarithmic. The use of logarithmic scales has several desirable properties:
 we can approximate a frequency response with straight lines. This is called

The advantages of an approximate Bode plot.
using Bode plots
 the shape of a Bode plot is preserved if we decide to scale the frequency –

this makes design easy.
 we add and subtract individual factors in a frequency response, rather than

multiplying and dividing.
 the slope of all asymptotic lines is  20n dB/decade in a magnitude plot,

and  n45/decade in a phase plot, where n is any integer.
 by examining a few features of a Bode plot, we can readily determine the

frequency response function (for simple systems).
We normally don’t deal with equations when drawing Bode plots – we rely on
our knowledge of the asymptotic approximations for the handful of factors that
go to make up a frequency response.
*
Dr. Hendrik Bode grew up in Urbana, Illinois, USA, where his name is pronounced boh-dee.
Purists insist on the original Dutch boh-dah. No one uses bohd.
Index Bode Plots PMcL

15.15
EXAMPLE 15.4 Bode Plot of an RC Circuit’s Frequency Response
For the simple lowpass RC circuit, let 0  1 RC so that the frequency

response can be written as:
T j  
1
1  j 0
The magnitude function is found directly as:
 
A   20 log 10 T j   20 log 10  
1
 
 1    0 
2


 10 log 10 1    0 
2

The phase is:

     tan 1  
0 
The Bode plots are graphed below, using a normalised log scale for  :
PMcL Bode Plots Index

15.16
15.7.1 Bode Plot Factors
The primary advantage of a logarithmic scale for Bode magnitude plots is the
Bode plot factors conversion of multiplicative factors into additive factors by virtue of the
are additive if the
magnitude scale is definition of the logarithm. The phase plots are additive by definition of the
logarithmic
multiplication of complex numbers. For example, if we have a frequency
response function of the form:
T j  
T1T2
(15.12)
T3T4
then clearly:
A   20 log10 T1  20 log10 T2

 20 log10 T3  20 log10 T4 (15.13)
 A1  A2  A3  A4
and:
    T1  T2  T3  T4

(15.14)
 1   2  3   4

15.17
There are four different kinds of factors that may occur in a frequency response
function:
The four factors that
Name Factor can occur in a
frequency response
function
Constant gain K
Pole (or zero) at the origin j
Pole (or zero) on the real axis

1  j 0
1  1 Q00  j   j 0 
Complex conjugate poles (or zeros) 2
We can determine the logarithmic magnitude plot and phase plot for these four
factors and then utilize them to obtain a Bode plot for any general form of a
frequency response function. Typically, the curves for each factor are obtained
and then added together graphically to obtain the curve for the complete
frequency response function.

15.18
15.7.2 Approximating Bode Plots
Approximate The hand drawing of the individual Bode plot frequency response factors can
responses can be
easily drawn for the be simplified by using linear approximations to the exact curves.
individual frequency
response factors Approximate Magnitude Response
Consider a frequency response factor 1 1  j 0  . The exact magnitude

response is given by:

A   10 log10 1   0 
2
 (15.15)
For very small frequencies, such that   0 , we can say:
A   10 log10 1  0 dB (15.16)
For very large frequencies, such that   0 , we can say:
A   20 log10  0  dB (15.17)
Thus, on a set of axes where the horizontal axis is log 10  , the “asymptotic”
curves for the magnitude response are straight lines as shown below:
Exact and
approximate
magnitude response
for a “real pole”
factor
Figure 15.9

15.19
The low and high frequency asymptotes meet at the frequency  0 , which is
Break frequency
often called the break frequency or corner frequency. The slope of the high and corner
frequency asymptote can be ascertained from Eq. (15.17). frequency defined
An interval of two frequencies with a ratio equal to ten, such as from 1 to
2  101 , is called a decade. The difference between the logarithmic gains

for   0 , over a decade of frequency is approximated by:
A2   A1   20 log10 2 0 

  20 log10 1 0  The slope of all
 20 log10 2 1 

asymptotic lines on
(15.18) a magnitude plot is
 20 log10 10

a multiple of
±20 dB/decade…
 20 dB
That is, the slope of the high frequency asymptotic line for this frequency
response factor is -20 dB/decade.
A frequency interval from 1 to 2  21 is often used and is called an
octave. The difference between the logarithmic gains for   0 , over an

octave is approximated by:
A2   A1   20 log10 2 1 

 20 log10 2 (15.19)
…or ±6 dB/octave
 6.021 dB
Therefore, the slope of the high frequency asymptote can be specified as either
-6 dB/octave or -20 dB/decade.
Note that the actual gain at the break frequency   0 is -3 dB, so  0 is also
sometimes referred to as “the -3 dB frequency”.

15.20
Approximate Phase Response
Consider a frequency response factor 1 1  j 0  . The exact phase response

is given by:

     tan 1   (15.20)
0 
Instead of graphing this nonlinear function, we often resort to a piece-wise

linear approximation, as shown below:
Exact and
approximate phase
response for a “real
pole” factor
Figure 15.10
The piece-wise linear approximation passes through the correct phase of -45°
The slope of all at the break frequency, and is within 6° of the actual phase curve for all
asymptotic lines on
frequencies. As can be seen from the graph, the slope of the line passing
a phase plot is a
multiple of through the -45° point is -45°/decade. This line only continues a decade above
±45°/decade
and a decade below the break frequency. For   0 the approximating line
is flat at 0°, whilst for   0 the approximating line is flat at -90°.

15.21
15.8 Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors

The table below gives the four frequency response factors and their
corresponding magnitude asymptotic plots and phase linear approximations:
Magnitude Phase
Frequency
Asymptote Linear Approximation Response
Factor
A, dB , 
40
0
20
0 -90
K
-20 -180
-40
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
40
0
20
0 -90 1
-20 -180
 j 0 
-40
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
40
0
20
0 -90 1
-20
1  j 0 
-180
-40
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
40
0
20
1
0 -90
  2
j 
-20 1  2  
  0 Q0 0
-180

-40
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
0.01 n 0.1 n n 10 n 100 n
The corresponding numerator factors are obtained by “mirroring” the above

plots about the 0 dB line and 0° line.
PMcL Approximate Bode Plot Frequency Response Factors Index

15.22
15.9 Summary
 The frequency response T j  is a complex function and can be written
using a complex exponential in terms of magnitude and phase:
T j   T j  e j  
 The magnitude response is a graph of T j  versus frequency.
 The phase response is a graph of   j  versus frequency.
 A Bode plot is a graph of the magnitude response, A   20 log 10 T j  ,
in dB, and the phase response,   j  , on a logarithmic frequency scale.

The advantage of such a representation is that when circuits are cascaded
their Bode plots are simply added.
 Approximate Bode plot factors can be used to analyse and design simple
circuits.
15.10 References
Kamen, E. & Heck, B.: Fundamentals of Signals and Systems using
MATLAB®, Prentice-Hall, 1997.
Index Summary PMcL

15.23
Exercises
1.
With respect to a reference frequency f 0  20 Hz , find the frequency which is
(a) 2 decades above f 0 and (b) 3 octaves below f 0 .
2.
Express the following magnitude ratios in dB: (a) 1, (b) 40, (c) 0.5

16.1
16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 16.2

16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses............................................................... 16.3
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response ..................................................... 16.5
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response ............................................................. 16.7
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses ............................. 16.11
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling ...................................................... 16.11
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising) ......................................... 16.13
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling .................................................................... 16.14
16.3 Cascading Circuits ............................................................................... 16.15
16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit ..................................................... 16.16
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits .................................................................. 16.17
16.6 Cascade Design.................................................................................... 16.19
16.7 Summary.............................................................................................. 16.22
16.8 References ........................................................................................... 16.22
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 16.23
PMcL Contents Index
2015 16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters

16.2
Introduction
Filters are essential to electrical engineering. They are used in all modern
electronic systems. In communications, filters are essential for the generation
Filters are essential
to all modern and detection of analog and digital signals, whether via cable, optic fibre, air or
electronic systems
satellite. In instrumentation, filters are essential in “cleaning up” noisy signals,
or to recover some “special” part of a complicated signal. In control, feedback
through a filter is used to achieve a desired response. In power, filters are used
to inject high frequency signals on the power line for control purposes, or for
removing harmonic components of a current. In machines, filters are used to
suppress the generation of harmonics, or for controlling switching transients.
The design of filters is therefore a useful skill to possess.
Filters can be of two types: analog and digital. In this subject, we will
concentrate on analog filters. There are two reasons for this: analog filters are
necessary components in “digital” systems, and analog filter theory serves as a
precursor to digital filter design. The analog filters we will be looking at will
also be of two types: passive and active. Active filters represent the most
common, and use electronic components (such as op-amps) for their
implementation. This is opposed to passive filters, which use the ordinary
circuit elements: resistors, capacitors, inductors.
Filter has the commonly accepted meaning of something retained, something

A filter is a circuit rejected. For us, a filter is very simple: it is an electric circuit designed to
that implements a
specific frequency implement a specific frequency response. Given a filter, obtaining the
response frequency response is just a matter of applying circuit theory. This is analysis.
The choice of a frequency response and the choice of an implementation for a
filter, however, are never unique. This is called design.
16 - First-Order Op-Amp Filters 2015

16.3
16.1 Bilinear Frequency Responses

Filter design and analysis is predominantly carried out in the frequency-
domain. The circuits we design and analyse will be assumed to be operating
with sinusoidal sources and be in the steady-state. This means we can use
phasors and complex numbers to describe a circuit’s response.
Recall that we define a circuit’s frequency response as the ratio of the output
voltage phasor to the input voltage phasor, as a function of frequency:
T j  
Vo Frequency response
(16.1) defined
Vi
EXAMPLE 16.1 Frequency Response of an RC Circuit
Consider a simple RC circuit:
1
Vi
j C Vo
The frequency response is:
Vo 1 jC
T j  
1 1 1
   , 0 
Vi R  1 jC 1  jRC 1  j 0 RC
This particular frequency response is one member of a larger class of frequency

response functions.
PMcL Bilinear Frequency Responses Index

16.4
The variable of the frequency response, T j  , is j . A first-order

polynomial in this variable would be written as P j   ja1  a2 since the
power of j is one. A first-order polynomial in real numbers could be written
as y  mx  b , which is the equation of a straight line. Thus a first-order
polynomial such as ja1  a2 is also known as a linear polynomial. When a
frequency response is the quotient of two linear polynomials it is said to be
bilinear. Thus a bilinear frequency response is of the form:
ja1  a2
T j  
Bilinear frequency
response defined (16.2)
jb1  b2
where the a and b constants are real numbers. If Eq. (16.2) is written in a
“standard form”:
a2 1  ja1 a2 1  j z
T j  
and rewritten in
terms of poles and K (16.3)
zeros b2 1  jb1 b2 1  j p
then “-z” is the zero of T j  and “-p” is the pole of T j  (the reason for
these names will become apparent later). For real circuits, p will always be a
positive real number, while z may be either a positive or negative real number.
The constant K depends on the circuit used to create the bilinear frequency
response – for active circuits (e.g. those with op-amps) it can be positive or
negative.
Thus for the RC circuit in the example, if we were to write the frequency
response in the standard form, we would identify:
K 1
z (16.4)
p  0  1 RC
Index Bilinear Frequency Responses PMcL

16.5
16.1.1 Bilinear Magnitude Response
For the bilinear frequency response function:
The magnitude
1  j z
T j   K
response is the
(16.5) magnitude of the
1  j p frequency response
the magnitude response is:
1  j z
T j   K
The phase of the
(16.6) bilinear frequency
1  j p response
Thus, the magnitude response is made up of the following three factors:
Tk  K
Tz  1  j z
1
Tp 
1  j p (16.7)
The first factor, K , is flat with frequency – it is just a real number.

16.6
The second and third factors look like:
Tz
2
1
0
log 10 
z
Tp
1
1/ 2
0
log 10 
p
Figure 16.1
If all three factors are combined then the magnitude response takes on one of
two shapes, depending on whether p  z or not:
|T |
0
log 10 
p z
|T |
0
log 10 
z p
Figure 16.2
Thus, we can use the bilinear frequency response to create either a lowpass
response ( p  z ) or a highpass response ( p  z ).

16.7
16.1.2 Bilinear Phase Response
For the bilinear frequency response function:
1  j z
T j   K (16.8)
1  j p
the phase is:
  The phase of the

  K  tan 1    tan 1   (16.9) bilinear frequency
 z  p response
Thus, the phase response is made up of the following three factors:
 k  K
 
 z  tan 1  
z
 
 p   tan 1  
 p (16.10)
The first factor, K , is flat with frequency – it is just a real number. If K is

positive, its phase is 0 , and if negative it is 180 .

16.8
The second and third factors look like:
z
90°
45°
log 10 
0° z
p p
log 10 
0°
-45°
-90°
Figure 16.3
Assuming K  0 , If all three factors are combined then the magnitude

response takes on one of two shapes, depending on whether p  z or not:
 p z
log 10 
0°
90°

90°
log 10 
0° z p
Figure 16.4
Thus, we can use the bilinear frequency response to create either a lag circuit
( p  z ) or a lead circuit ( p  z ).

16.9
EXAMPLE 16.2 Phase Response of an RL Circuit
Consider the RL circuit shown below:
RL
Vi Vo
jL
Using the voltage divider rule, we obtain:
RL  jL
T j  
R  RL  jL
If we write this in the standard form:
1  j z
T j   K
1  j p
then:
RL R R  RL
K , z L and p
R  RL L L
so that p  z . We can see that:
RL
T j 0   K 
R  RL
T j    K
1z
1
1 p

16.10
The magnitude response is:
|T( j) |
1
RL
R+R L
0
log 10 
z p
This does not approximate an ideal brickwall filter very well, but it is still
known as a highpass filter.
From Eq. (16.9) we see that  is characterized by the sum of three angles, the
first due to the constant K  0 , the second a function of the zero numerator
term,  z , and the third a function of the pole denominator term,  p . For p  z
the phase function  z reaches  45 at a low frequency, while  p reaches
 45 for a higher frequency. Therefore, the phase response looks like:

90°
z
45°
 z + p
z
0° p log 10 
p
-45°
-90°
Thus, the circuit provides phase lead.

16.11
16.1.3 Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses

We can summarize the magnitude and phase responses of T j  for various
values of z and p , where K is assumed to be positive, in the table below:
T j  Magnitude Response Phase Response

1 |T | 
90°
K j 0 K
0 log 10 
log 10 
0 0°
|T | 
2 log 10 
0°
K
j  0 K
0
log 10  -90°
0
|T | 
3 90°
K 1  j z 
2K 45°
K
0 log 10 
log 10  0°
z z
|T |  p
4 K log 10 
0°
K/ 2
1 -45°
K
1  j p 0
log 10  -90°
p
|T | 
5 K 90°
j p K/ 2
45°
K
1  j p 0
log 10  log 10 
p 0° p
|T |  p z
6 log 10 
0°
1  j z
K
1  j p 0
log 10  90°
zp
p z
|T | 
7 90°
1  j z
K
1  j p 0
log 10  log 10 
0° z p
pz
z p
Table 16.1 – Summary of Bilinear Frequency Responses

16.12
16.2 Frequency and Magnitude Scaling

In filter design, it is common practice to normalise equations so that they have
the same form. For example, we have seen the bilinear frequency response:
T j  
1 RC
(16.11)
1 RC  j
expressed as:
T j  
1
(16.12)
1  j 0
Normalising the We normalise the equation by setting  0  1 :

cutoff frequency
means setting it to 1
T j  
1
(16.13)
1  j
Every equation in filter design will be normalised so that  0  1 . This is

helpful, since every equation will be able to be compared on the same base.
The difficulty that now arises is denormalising the resulting equations, values
or circuit designs.
Index Frequency and Magnitude Scaling PMcL

16.13
16.2.1 Frequency Scaling (Denormalising)
Frequency scaling, or denormalising, means we want to change  0 from 1

back to its original value. To do this, we must change all frequency dependent and denormalising
terms in the frequency response, which also means frequency dependent means setting the
frequency back to its
elements in a circuit. Furthermore, the frequency scaling should not affect the original value
magnitude of any impedance in the frequency response.
To scale the frequency by a factor k f , for a capacitor, we must have:
1 1 1
ZC   
C k f  1 k f C k f  Cnew
(16.14)
We must decrease the capacitance by the amount 1 k f , while increasing the Frequency scaling
must keep the
frequency by the amount k f if the magnitude of the impedance is to remain the magnitude of the
impedance the
same. same
For an inductor, we must have:
Z L  L  k f   L  k f  Lnew
1
(16.15)
kf
Therefore, new element values may be expressed in terms of old values as

follows:
Rnew  Rold (16.16)
1
Lnew  Lold
kf (16.17)
The frequency
scaling equations
1
Cnew  Cold
kf (16.18)
PMcL Frequency and Magnitude Scaling Index

16.14
16.2.2 Magnitude Scaling
Since a frequency response is always a ratio, if we increase the impedances in

Magnitude scale to
get realistic element the numerator and denominator by the same amount, it changes nothing. We do
values
this to obtain realistic values for the circuit elements in the implementation.
If the impedance magnitudes are normally:
1
Z R  R, Z L  L, ZC  (16.19)
C
then after magnitude scaling with a constant k m they will be:
k m Z R  k m R,
km Z L  kmL,
1
km ZC 
 C km (16.20)
Therefore, new element values may be expressed in terms of old values as

follows:
Rnew  km Rold (16.21)
The magnitude Lnew  km Lold

scaling equations (16.22)
1
Cnew  Cold
km (16.23)
An easy-to-remember rule in scaling R’s and C’s in electronic circuits is that

RC products should stay the same. For example, for the lowpass RC filter, the
cutoff frequency is given by 0  1 RC . Therefore, if the resistor value goes
up, then the capacitor value goes down by the same factor – and vice versa.
Index Frequency and Magnitude Scaling PMcL

16.15
16.3 Cascading Circuits

How can we create circuits with higher than first-order frequency responses by
“cascading” first-order circuits? Consider the following circuit:
R R
vi C C vo
Figure 16.5
Show that the frequency response for the above circuit is:
Vo

1 RC  2
(16.24)
Vi 1 RC 2   2  j 3 RC 
Compare with the following circuit:
R R
vi C C vo
Figure 16.6
PMcL Cascading Circuits Index

16.16
which has the frequency response:
Vo  1 RC  1 RC 
   
Vi  1 RC  j  1 RC  j 

1 RC 2
1 RC 2   2  j 2 RC  (16.25)
Cascading buffered
Therefore, when we cascade circuits, if the “output” of each circuit presents a
circuits is highly low impedance to the next stage, so that each successive circuit does not “load”
desirable from a
design perspective the previous circuit, then we can simply multiply the frequency responses of
the individual circuits to achieve an overall frequency response. Op-amp
circuits of both the inverting and non-inverting type are ideal for cascading.
16.4 Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit

We seek an implementation of the bilinear frequency response that can be
cascaded. The frequency response of the inverting op-amp circuit is:
T j   
Z2
(16.26)
Z1
Therefore, we would like to have:
The inverting op-

amp circuit is one Z2 1  j z
way to implement a T  K (16.27)
bilinear frequency
response
Z1 1  j p
The specifications of the design problem are the values K, z and p. These may
be found from a Bode plot – the break frequencies and the gain at some
frequency – or obtained in any other way. The solution to the design problem
involves finding a circuit and the values of the elements in that circuit. Since
we are using an active device – the op-amp – inductors are excluded from our
circuits. Therefore, we want to find values for the R’s and the C’s. Once found,
Index Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit PMcL

16.17
these values can be adjusted by any necessary frequency scaling, and then by
magnitude scaling to obtain convenient element values.
For the general bilinear frequency response, we can make the following
identification:
1  j z K 1  j p  Z2
K  
1  j p 1 1  j z  Z1
(16.28)
Therefore:
1 1
Z2   (16.29) The impedances for
1 K  j pK 1 R2  jC2 the inverting op-amp
circuit to implement
1 1 a bilinear frequency
Z1   (16.30) response
1  j z 1 R1  jC1
The design equations become:
Element values for

1 1 the inverting op-amp
R1  1, C1  , R2  K , C2  (16.31) circuit in terms of
the pole, zero and
z pK gain
One realisation of the bilinear frequency response is then:
An inverting op-amp
K circuit that
implements a
bilinear frequency
response
1
1
pK
vi
vo
1 z
Figure 16.7
PMcL Inverting Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit Index

16.18
16.5 Inverting Op-Amp Circuits

The approach we took in obtaining a circuit to implement the bilinear
frequency response can be applied to other forms of T j  to give the entries
in the table below:
Frequency Response Circuit

T j 
1 K
1
 K 1  j z  vi
vo
1 z
2 K
1
1
K 1 pK
1  j p vi
vo
3 K
1 p
j p 1
K vi
1  j p vo
4 K
1
1  j z 1
K pK
1  j p vi
vo
1 z
5 K p2
j p1 p 2 1 p1
1 K
K 1
1  j p1 1  j p2  vi
vo
Table 16.2 – Inverting Op-Amp Circuits

Index Inverting Op-Amp Circuits PMcL

16.19
The last entry in the table illustrates an important point. If we use a series RC
connection for Z 1 but a parallel RC connection for Z 2 , then the frequency
response becomes one of second-order. So the manner in which the capacitors
are connected in the circuit determines the order of the circuit.
16.6 Cascade Design

We can make use of cascaded modules, each of first-order, to satisfy
specifications that are more complicated than the bilinear function.
EXAMPLE 16.3 Cascade Design of a Band-Enhancement Filter
The asymptotic Bode plot shown below is for a band-enhancement filter:
A , dB 20 dB
A band-
0 dB enhancement filter
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
 rad/s (log scale)
We wish to provide additional gain over a narrow band of frequencies, leaving

the gain at higher and lower frequencies unchanged. We wish to design a filter
to these specifications and the additional requirement that all capacitors have
the value C  10 nF .
PMcL Cascade Design Index

16.20
The composite plot may be decomposed into four first-order factors as shown
below:
A , dB 20 dB
0 dB
10  rad/s (log scale)
2 3 4 5
10 10 10
Decomposing a
A , dB
Bode plot into first- 1 4
order factors
2 3
Those marked 1 and 4 represent zero factors, while those marked 2 and 3 are
pole factors.
From the break frequencies given, we have:
T j  
14  1  j 
102 1  j 105 
23 1  j 
103 1  j 104 
We next write T j  as a product of bilinear functions:
The frequency
response as a T j   T1  j T2  j 
cascade of bilinear
functions
For a circuit realisation of T1 and T2 we decide to use the inverting op-amp
circuit 4 in Table 16.2. Since one of the design requirements was that all
capacitor values are equal, we need to choose K  z p in each circuit. This
leads to:
T j   T1  j T2  j 
1  j 10 2 1  j 10 5
 0.1  10
1  j 10 3 1  j 10 4
Index Cascade Design PMcL

16.21
Note that, in this design, the DC gains K  z p of each circuit multiply to give
us the overall DC gain we required (of 1). In general though, we might need to
add an additional gain / attenuation stage to the cascade to “meet spec”.
Using the formulas for element values given in Table 16.2, we obtain the
realisation shown below:
-1
1 10 1 10
vi vo A realisation of the
-2 -2 -5 -5 specifications
10 10 10 10
Frequency scaling is not required since we have worked directly with specified
frequencies (we did not normalize the initial Bode plot). The magnitude scaling
of the circuit is accomplished with the equations:
Magnitude scaling is
1
Cnew  Cold and Rnew  km Rold required to get
km realistic element
values
Since the capacitors are to have the value 10 nF, this means k m  10 6 for the
first circuit and k m  10 3 for the second circuit. The element values that result
are shown below and the design is complete:
1 M 100 k 1 k 10 k
vi vo
A realistic
10 nF 10 nF 10 nF 10 nF implementation of
the specifications
PMcL Cascade Design Index

16.22
16.7 Summary
 A bilinear frequency response can be put in the “standard form”:
1  j z
T j   K
1  j p
where z is termed a zero, and p is a pole. Zeros make the magnitude

response increase with frequency, whereas poles make the magnitude
response decrease with frequency. Zeros provide phase lead, whereas poles
provide phase lag.
 It is common in both the algebraic description of a system, and in its circuit

representation, to normalise  0 to 1. We can then frequency scale
inductors and capacitors to set a new  0 . We magnitude scale circuit

elements to get realistic values.
 A circuit can be cascaded when it does not “load” the output of the
previous stage. Circuits in which the output is taken from an op-amp output
terminal are ideal for cascading, since the op-amp effectively acts as an
ideal source.
 Simple op-amp circuits, of both the inverting and non-inverting variety, can
be used to implement bilinear frequency responses.
16.8 References
Van Valkenburg, M. E.: Analog Filter Design, Holt-Saunders, Tokyo, 1982.
Index Summary PMcL

16.23
Exercises
1.
For the circuit shown below, prepare the asymptotic Bode plot for the
magnitude of T j  . Carefully identify all slopes and low and high frequency
asymptotes.
10 k 10 k
10 k 1 nF 10 k 10 pF
vi
vo
2.
Design an RC op-amp filter to realise the bandpass response shown below.
A, dB
20 dB
+20 dB/decade -20 dB/decade
0 dB
10 10 4  rad/s (log scale)
Use a minimum number of op-amps in your design, and scale so that the
elements are in a practical range.

16.24
3.
The asymptotic Bode plot shown below represents a lowpass filter-amplifier
with a break frequency of 0  1000 rads -1 .
A, dB
20 dB
-40 dB/decade
1000  rad/s
Design a circuit to be connected in cascade with the amplifier such that the
break frequency is extended to 0  5000 rads -1 :
A, dB
20 dB
-40 dB/decade
5000  rad/s

17.1
17 The Second-Order Step Response
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 17.2

17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation ................. 17.3
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots ..................................................................... 17.4
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots ................................................................... 17.5
17.1.3 Only Real Roots .......................................................................... 17.6
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots.............................................................. 17.8
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots ......................................................... 17.10
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................. 17.11
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit ................................................ 17.14
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit ....................................... 17.18
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit .............................................. 17.22
17.6 Response Comparison ......................................................................... 17.26
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit ................................................... 17.27
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit ............................................... 17.28
17.8.1 Forced Response ....................................................................... 17.29
17.8.2 Natural Response ...................................................................... 17.30
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time .............................................. 17.37
17.9 Summary.............................................................................................. 17.39
17.10 References ......................................................................................... 17.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 17.40
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) ............................................ 17.44
The Age of the Earth ............................................................................... 17.46
The Transatlantic Cable .......................................................................... 17.49
Other Achievements ............................................................................... 17.52
References ............................................................................................... 17.53
PMcL Contents Index
2015 17 - The Second-Order Step Response

17.2
Introduction
Circuits that contain resistors, inductors and capacitors are known as RLC
circuits. We will examine the simplest RLC circuits – the parallel RLC circuit
where the resistor, inductor and capacitor are in parallel, and the series RLC
circuit in which they are connected in series.
Many circuits can be reduced to one of these equivalent circuits. For example,
transistor amplifiers in analog radios, crystal oscillators driving the clocks of
digital circuits and microprocessors, and power system “power factor
correction” circuits, can each be reduced to a parallel RLC circuit.
The inclusion of both inductance and capacitance in a circuit leads to at least a

second-order system – that is, one that is characterized by a linear differential
equation including a second-order derivative, or by a set of two first-order
differential equations. We shall see that such systems are much more
complicated than first-order systems – there will be two arbitrary constants to
find, we will need initial conditions for variables and their derivatives, and
there are three different functional forms of the natural response that depend
upon element values.
However, there is a side benefit to studying second-order systems: we will see

a unifying underlying structure emerge for all linear circuits, regardless of their
complexity. We will also discover a way to exploit this underlying structure.
17 - The Second-Order Step Response 2015

17.3
17.1 Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation

We have seen that any linear homogeneous differential equation with constant
coefficients of order n is an equation that can be written:
dny d n1 y dy
an n  an1 n1    a1  a0 y  0 (17.1)
dt dt dt
or more simply using the D operator as:
f D  y  0 (17.2)
We have seen that the solution to such an equation was found by using the
property that:
f Dest  f s est (17.3)
then letting:
f s   0 (17.4)
which leads to y  e st as a solution. To find the general solution, we find the n

roots of the nth-order characteristic equation f s   0 , and then form a linear
sum of each individual solution.
PMcL Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation Index

17.4
17.1.1 Distinct Real Roots
The characteristic equation is of degree n. Let its roots be s1 , s2 , …, sn . If

these roots are all real and distinct, then the n solutions:
y1  e s1t , y2  e s2t , …, yn  e snt (17.5)
are linearly independent and the general solution can be written at once. It is:
y  c1es1t  c2es2t    cnesnt (17.6)
in which c1 , c2 , …, cn are arbitrary constants.
EXAMPLE 17.1 Solution of a Second-Order ODE with Distinct Real Roots
Solve the equation:
d2y dy
2
 7  6y  0
dt dt
First write the characteristic equation:
s 2  7s  6  0
s  1s  6  0
whose roots are s  1,  6 . Then the general solution is seen to be:
y  c1et  c2e6t
Index Solution of the Homogeneous Linear Differential Equation PMcL

17.5
17.1.2 Repeated Real Roots
Suppose that f s   0 has repeated roots. Then Eq. (17.6) does not yield the
general solution. To see this, let the characteristic equation have three equal
roots s1  b , s2  b and s3  b . The corresponding part of the solution yielded
by Eq. (17.6) is:
y  c1ebt  c2 ebt  c3ebt

 c1  c2  c3 ebt
 c4 ebt (17.7)
Thus, corresponding to the three roots under consideration, this method yields
only one solution.
What is needed is a method for obtaining m linearly independent solutions

corresponding to m equal roots of the characteristic equation. Suppose that the
characteristic equation f s   0 has the m equal roots:
s1  s2    sm  b (17.8)
Then the operator f D  must have a factor D  b  . We wish to find m

m
linearly independent y’s for which:
D  bm y  0 (17.9)
Turning to Eq. (7.16) in Lecture 7, and writing s  b , we find that:
D  bm t k ebt   0, k  0, 1, ..., m  1 (17.10)
The functions yk  t k ebt where k  0, 1, ..., m  1 are linearly independent
because, aside from the common factor ebt , they contain only the respective
powers t 0 , t1 , t 2 , ..., t m1 .

17.6
The general solution of Eq. (17.9) is therefore:
y  c1ebt  c2te bt    cmt m1ebt (17.11)
Furthermore, if f D  contains the factor D  bm , then the equation
f D y  0 can be written g DD  b y  0 where g D  contains all the

m
factors of f D  except D  b  . Then any solution of D  b y  0 is also a

m m
solution of g DD  b y  0 and therefore of f D y  0 .

m
17.1.3 Only Real Roots
Now we are in a position to write the solution of f D y  0 whenever the

characteristic equation has only real roots. Each root of the characteristic
equation is either distinct from all the other roots or it is one of a set of equal
roots.
Corresponding to a root si distinct from all others, there is the solution:
yi  ci e sit (17.12)
and corresponding to m equal roots s1 , s2 , …, sm , each equal to b, there are

solutions:
c1ebt , c2te bt , …, cmt m1ebt (17.13)

17.7
EXAMPLE 17.2 Solution of an ODE with Repeated Real Roots
Solve the equation:
D 4

 7 D3  18D2  20D  8 y  0
The characteristic equation:
s 4  7s3  18s 2  20s  8  0
has the roots s  1,  2,  2,  2 . Then the general solution is:
y  c1et  c2e2t  c3te 2t  c4t 2e2t
or:
 
y  c1et  c2  c3t  c4t 2 e2t
EXAMPLE 17.3 Solution of an ODE with Repeated Real Roots
Solve the equation:
d4y d3y d2y

2 3  2 0
dt 4 dt dt
s 4  2s 3  s 2  0
with roots s  0, 0,  1,  1. Hence the desired solution is:
y  c1  c2t  c3et  c4te t

17.8
17.1.4 Distinct Complex Roots

In all real systems, the describing differential equation f D y  0 has a
characteristic equation f s   0 that has real coefficients. We know from
algebra that if the characteristic equation has any complex roots then those
roots must occur in conjugate pairs. Thus, if:
s1  a  jb (17.14)
is a root of the equation f s   0 with a and b real and b  0 , then:
s2  a  jb (17.15)
is also a root of f s   0 . According to the preceding section, f D y  0 is

satisfied by:
y  c1ea jb t  c2ea jb t (17.16)
where for y to be real, we must have c1  c2* . Since t is real along with a and b,
Euler’s identity gives us the result:
y  c1eat cos bt  j sin bt   c2eat cos bt  j sin bt  (17.17)
This may be written:
y  c1  c2 eat cos bt  j c1  c2 eat sin bt (17.18)
Finally, let c1  c2  2 Rec1  c3 , and j c1  c2   2 Imc1  c4 , where c3 and
c4 are real arbitrary constants. Then f Dy  0 is seen to have the solution:
y  c3eat cos bt  c4eat sin bt (17.19)
corresponding to the two roots s1  a  jb and s2  a  jb ( b  0 ) of the

characteristic equation.

17.9
EXAMPLE 17.4 Solution of an ODE with Distinct Complex Roots
Solve the equation:
D 3

 5D2  17 D  13 y  0
For the characteristic equation:
s3  5s 2  17s  13  0
one root, s1  1, is easily found. When the factor s  1 is removed, it is seen
that the other two roots are solutions of the quadratic equation:
s 2  4s  13  0
Those roots are found to be s2  2  j3 and s3  2  j3 . The characteristic
equation has the roots s  1,  2  j3 . Hence the general solution of the
differential equation is:
y  c1et  c2e2t cos 3t  c3e2t sin 3t

17.10
17.1.5 Repeated Complex Roots
Repeated complex roots lead to solutions analogous to those brought in by

repeated real roots. For instance, if the roots s  a  jb occur three times, then
the corresponding six linearly independent solutions of the differential equation
are those appearing in the expression:
c  c t  c t e
1 2 3
2 at
 
cos bt  c4  c5t  c6t 2 eat sin bt (17.20)
EXAMPLE 17.5 Solution of an ODE with Repeated Complex Roots
Solve the equation:
D 4

 8D2  16 y  0
The characteristic equation s 4  8s 2  16  0 may be written:
s 2
2
4 0
so its roots are seen to be s   j 2,  j 2 . The roots, s1  j 2 and s2   j 2
occur twice each. Thinking of j 2 as 0  j 2 and recalling that e0t  1 , we write

the solution of the differential equation as:
y  c1  c2 t  cos 2t  c3  c4 t sin 2t

17.11
17.2 The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit

A suitable model for portions of many practical circuits is given by the parallel
RLC circuit:
iL
R L v C
Figure 17.1
We will assume that energy may be stored initially in both the inductor and the
capacitor, and thus nonzero values of both inductor current and capacitor
voltage are initially present. With reference to the circuit above, we may then
write the single nodal equation:
  vdt  iL t0   C
v 1 t dv
0 (17.21)
R L t0 dt
When both sides are differentiated once with respect to time and divided by C
the result is the linear second-order homogeneous differential equation:
d 2v 1 dv 1
  v0 (17.22)
dt 2 RC dt LC
We must solve this equation subject to the initial conditions:
 
iL 0   I 0
v0   V
(17.23)

0
PMcL The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.12
With our theory of the D operator behind us, we now embark on solving
Eq. (17.22). We write the characteristic equation:
f s   s 2 
1 1
s 0 (17.24)
RC LC
and identify the two roots:
2
1  1  1
s1      
2 RC  2 RC  LC
2
1  1  1
s2      
2 RC  2 RC  LC (17.25)
These roots can be either real and distinct, real and repeated, or complex and
distinct depending on the values of R, L and C.
Case Graph of y  f s  Solution of f s   0
Real and distinct y Im s
Re s
s
s -plane
Real and repeated y Im s
Re s
s
s -plane
Complex and distinct y Im s
Re s
s
s -plane
Table 17.1 – Three types of roots to the 2nd-order characteristic equation
Index The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.13
Therefore, there will be three different forms of the natural response,
corresponding to each of the cases in Table 17.1.
It will be helpful to make some simplifying substitutions into Eq. (17.25) for
the sake of conceptual clarity. Let us define the undamped natural frequency:
1
0  (17.26)
LC
We will also define the exponential damping coefficient:
1
 (parallel) (17.27)
2 RC
This description is used because  is a measure of how rapidly the natural

response decays or damps out to its steady final value (usually zero).
Finally, s , s1 and s2 are called complex frequencies and will form the basis for
some of our later work.
Thus, our characteristic equation becomes:
s 2  2s  02  0 (17.28)
and has the two roots:
s1     2  02
(17.29)
s2       2 2
0
It is now apparent that the nature of the response depends upon the relative
magnitudes of  and 0 . The square root appearing in the expressions for s1
and s2 will be real when   0 , zero when   0 , and imaginary when
  0 . Each of these cases will be considered separately.
PMcL The Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.14
17.3 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

When   0 , both s1 and s2 will be real and distinct:
s1     2  02
(17.30)
s2       2 2
0
Thus, the natural response is of the form:
vn  K1es1t  K2es2t (17.31)
We also know that:
   2  02 (17.32)
and therefore:
    
 2  02      2  02  0  (17.33)
s2  s1  0
This shows that both s1 and s2 are negative real numbers. Thus, the response
vt  is the algebraic sum of two decreasing exponential terms, both of which
approach zero as time increases without limit. In fact, since the absolute value
of s2 is larger than that of s1 , the term containing s2 has the more rapid rate of
decrease.
It only remains to find the arbitrary constants K1 and K 2 using the initial
conditions, and we have the solution.
Index The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.15
EXAMPLE 17.6 The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the circuit:
iR iL iC
2
4
9
H v 10 mF
in which v0  0 and iL 0  8 . We may easily determine the values of the
several parameters:
  25  0  15
s1  5 s 2  45
and since   0 immediately write the general form of the natural response:
vt   K1e 5t  K 2 e 45t
Only evaluation of the two constants K1 and K 2 remains. Using the initial
value of vt  :
v0  0
and therefore:
0  K1  K 2
A second relation between K1 and K 2 must be obtained by taking the
derivative of vt  with respect to time, determining the initial condition of this
derivative through the use of the remaining initial condition iL 0  8 , and
equating the results.
PMcL The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.16
Taking the derivative of both sides of the response, we get:
dv
 5K1e 5t  45K 2 e 45t
dt
Evaluating the derivative at t  0 :
dv
 5K1  45K 2
dt t 0
We next pause to consider how the initial value of the derivative can be found
numerically. This next step is always suggested by the derivative itself, dv dt
suggests capacitor current, for:
dv
iC  C
dt
Thus:
dv i 0  i L 0  i R 0  i L 0  v0 R

 C    800 Vs -1
dt t 0 C C C
We thus have our second equation:
800  5K1  45K 2
and we can solve our two equations in K1 and K 2 simultaneously to get

K1  20 and K 2  20 . Thus, the final numerical solution for the natural
response is:

vt   20 e 5t  e 45t 
We can interpret this result. We note that vt  is zero at t  0 , as required. We
also interpret the first exponential term as having a time constant of 1 5 s and
the other exponential, a time constant of 1 45 s . Each starts with unity
amplitude, but the second decays more rapidly – vt  is thus never negative.
We thus have a response curve which is zero at t  0 , zero at t   , and is
Index The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.17
never negative. Since it is not everywhere zero, it must have at least one
maximum, and this can be found easily.
We differentiate the response:
dv
dt

 20  5e 5t  45e 45t 
Then set the derivative to zero to determine the time t p at which the voltage
reaches its peak:

5t p 45t p
0  5e  45e
 45 5
40t p
e
ln 9
tp 
40
 54.93 ms
and obtain:
vt p   13.51 V
A reasonable sketch of the response may be obtained by plotting the two

exponential terms 20e 5t and 20e 45t , taking their difference, and noting the
peak value obtained above:
20
-5 t
20 e
16
v( t ) 12
(V)
8
4 -45 t
20 e
0 t (s)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
You can see that the dominant term is 20e 5t for large t since the other term
has effectively decayed to zero.
PMcL The Overdamped Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.18
17.4 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit

The very special case of   0 is known as critical damping. Any one of the
three elements R, L or C may be changed to obtain critical damping – however
it is usual to select R to obtain critical damping in a circuit, and thus leave 0
unchanged.
For critical damping, we have real repeated roots :
s1    0
(17.34)
s2    0
vn  K1  K 2t et (17.35)
In a real physical system it is impossible to obtain the exact conditions

necessary for critical damping, since even an infinitesimally small change in
the circuit’s conditions will cause  to differ from  0 . However, it can always
be a design goal to obtain a critically damped response.
Index The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.19
EXAMPLE 17.7 The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit
We will use the same circuit as before as an example, but this time set
R  3 13  to obtain critical damping:
iR iL iC
33 
1 4
9
H v 10 mF
The initial conditions are again v0  0 and iL 0  8 . In this case:
   0  15
s1  s 2  15
and since   0 immediately write the general form of the natural response:
vt   K1  K 2 t e 15t
We establish the values of K1 and K 2 by first imposing the initial condition on
vt  itself, v0  0 . Thus, K1  0 . This simple result occurs in this example
because the initial value of the response was selected as zero.
The second initial condition must be applied to the derivative dv dt just as in

the overdamped case. We therefore differentiate, remembering that K1  0 :
 K 2 t  15e 15t  K 2 e 15t

dv
dt
Evaluating the derivative at t  0 :
dv
 K2
dt t 0
PMcL The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.20
We next express the derivative in terms of the initial capacitor current:
dv i 0  i L 0  i R 0  i L 0  v0 R

 C    800 Vs -1
dt t 0 C C C
and thus:
K 2  800
The natural response is therefore:
vt   800te 15t
Before plotting the response, we try to anticipate its form by qualitative

reasoning. We note that vt  is zero at t  0 , as required. It is not immediately
apparent that the response also approaches zero as t becomes infinitely large.
Using l’Hôpital’s rule:
lim vt   800 lim

t 1
15t
 800 lim 0
t  t  e t  15e15t
and once again we have a response which begins and ends at zero and has
positive values at all other times.
A maximum value v p again occurs at time t p :
t p  1 15 s and v p  19.62 V
This maximum is larger than that obtained in the overdamped case and is a
result of the smaller losses that occur in the larger resistor. The time of the
maximum response is slightly larger than it was with overdamping.
Index The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.21
The natural response curve for critical damping is shown below:
v ( t ) (V)
20
15
10
0 t (s)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
PMcL The Critically Damped Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.22
17.5 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit

If we further increase the resistance R from the value we had at critical
damping, whilst leaving L and C unchanged, the damping coefficient 
decreases while 0 remains constant. We thus have   0 , and the roots of
the characteristic equation become:
s1     2  02    j 02   2
(17.36)
s2     2  02    j 02   2
We now take the new square root, which is real for the underdamped case, and
call it d , the damped natural frequency:
d  02   2 (17.37)
Thus, the roots are distinct complex conjugates and are located at:
s1    jd
(17.38)
s2    jd
vn  et K1 cos d t  K 2 sin d t  (17.39)
Index The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.23
EXAMPLE 17.8 The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit
We will use the same circuit as before as an example, but this time set
R  5 95  , L and C are unchanged:
iR iL iC
59 
5 4
9
H v 10 mF
Again we have v0  0 and iL 0  8 . In this case:
1
 9
2 RC
1
0   15
LC
and since   0 we identify:
 d  02   2  12
and immediately write the general form of the natural response:
vt   e 9t K1 cos 12t  K 2 sin 12t 
The determination of the two constants proceeds as before. Again, if v0  0

then K1  0 . Hence:
vt   K 2 e 9t sin 12t
The derivative is:
dv
 12 K 2 e 9t cos 12t  9 K 2 e 9t sin 12t
dt
PMcL The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.24
and at t  0 :
dv  i 0
 12 K 2  L  800
dt t 0 C
The natural response is therefore:
vt   200 3 e 9t sin 12t
Notice that, as before, vt  is zero at t  0 , as required. The response also has a
final value of zero because the exponential term vanishes for large values of t.
As t increases from zero through small positive values, vt  increases because
the exponential term remains unable to damp the increase due to the sinusoidal
term. But at a time t p , the exponential function begins to decrease more
rapidly than sin 12t is increasing, so vt  reaches a maximum v p and begins to
decrease. We should note that t p is not the value of t for which sin 12t is a
maximum, but must occur before sin 12t reaches its maximum value.
When t   d   12 , vt   0 . For the interval  d  t  2 d , the
response is negative, becoming zero again at t  2 d .
Thus vt  is an oscillatory function of time and crosses the time axis an infinite
number of times at t  n d where n is any positive integer.
The oscillatory nature of the response becomes more noticeable as 

decreases. If   0 , which corresponds to an infinitely large resistance, then
vt  is an undamped sinusoid which oscillates with constant amplitude. We
have merely assumed an initial energy in the circuit and have not provided any
means to dissipate this energy. It is transferred from its initial location in the
inductor to the capacitor, then returns to the inductor, and so on, forever.
Index The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit PMcL

17.25
Differentiation of the natural response locates the first maximum of vt  ,
t p1  77.27 ms and v p1  26.60 V
the succeeding minimum,
t p 2  339.1 ms and v p 2  2.522 V
and so on.
The natural response curve for the underdamped case is shown below:
v ( t ) (V)
25
20
15
10 200 e -9 t
3
5
0 t (s)
0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0
-5
-10 200 -9 t
- 3 e
-15
-20
Notice that the “envelope” of the damped sinusoid is given by Ke t .
PMcL The Underdamped Parallel RLC Circuit Index

17.26
17.6 Response Comparison

The overdamped, critically damped and underdamped responses for the
example circuit are shown on the same graph below:
v ( t ) (V)
Underdamped iL
4
25
R 9 H v 10 mF
Critically damped
20
15 Overdamped
10
0 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 t (s)
The table below shows the possibilities and names associated with the
second-order natural response.
Condition Criteria Natural Response Example
  0
v ( t ) (V)
Overdamped f n  K1e s1t  K 2 e s2t 25
20
15
s1, 2       2 2
0
10
0 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 t (s)
  0 f n  K1  K 2 t e t
v ( t ) (V)
Critically 25
20
damped
s1, 2   15
10
0 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 t (s)
  0 f n  e t K1 cos d t  K 2 sin d t 

v ( t ) (V)
Underdamped 25
20
s1, 2    j d 15
10
d    
5
2 2
0 0 0.2 0.6 0.8 1.0 t (s)
Table 17.2 – Second-Order Natural Responses
Index Response Comparison PMcL

17.27
17.7 The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit

The series RLC circuit is the dual of the parallel RLC circuit, and this makes
the analysis fairly simple. The figure below shows the source-free series RLC
circuit:
i L
R C vC
Figure 17.2
KVL around the circuit gives:
  idt  vC t0   0
di 1 t
Ri  L (17.40)
dt C t 0
When both sides are differentiated once with respect to time and divided by L
the result is the linear second-order homogeneous differential equation:
d 2i R di 1
2
  i0 (17.41)
dt L dt LC
This is the dual of Eq. (17.22). Thus, if we define:
R
 (series) (17.42)
2L
then we get the same characteristic equation as for the parallel RLC circuit,
Eq. (17.28). It is now apparent that our discussion of the parallel RLC circuit is
directly applicable to the series RLC circuit.
PMcL The Source-Free Series RLC Circuit Index

17.28
17.8 Complete Response of the RLC Circuit

Consider a series RLC circuit with a DC source that is connected by a switch
that closes at t  0 :
t=0 i (t ) R L
1.3 mH
Vs C v (t )
1V 1.1F
Figure 17.3
Assuming zero initial conditions, we would like to calculate the capacitor

voltage vt  at t  120 μs for the following values of resistance R:
1. R  330 
2. R  68.7552 
3. R  33 
Index Complete Response of the RLC Circuit PMcL

17.29
17.8.1 Forced Response
First, we find the forced response. Since we have a DC source, we can find this
part of the solution by replacing the inductance by a short circuit and the
capacitance by an open circuit, i.e. we analyse the circuit under DC conditions.
This is shown below:
if R
Vs vf
1V
Figure 17.4
The current is zero, the voltage drop across the resistance is zero, and the
voltage across the capacitance (an open circuit) is equal to the DC source
voltage. Therefore, the forced response is:
v f  Vs  1 V (17.43)
Notice that in this circuit the forced response for vt  is the same for all three
values of resistance.
PMcL Complete Response of the RLC Circuit Index

17.30
17.8.2 Natural Response
First, we can write an expression for the current in terms of the voltage across
the capacitance:
dv
iC (17.44)
dt
Then, we write a KVL equation for the circuit:
 Ri  v  Vsu t 
di
L (17.45)
dt
Using Eq. (17.44) to substitute for i , we get, for t  0 :
d 2v dv
LC 2  RC  v  Vs (17.46)
dt dt
Dividing through by LC, we have:
d 2v R dv 1 1
2
  v  Vs (17.47)
dt L dt LC LC
In D operator notation, the equation is:
 2 R 1  1
D  D  v  Vs (17.48)
 L LC  LC
Therefore, the characteristic equation is:
R 1
s2  s 0 (17.49)
L LC

17.31
If we let:
R 1
 and 0  (17.50)
2L LC
then the characteristic equation can be written as:
s 2  2s  02  0 (17.51)
which has general solutions:
s1     2  02
(17.52)
s2       2 2
0
Next, we find the natural response and complete response for each value of R.
For all three cases we have:
1
0   26444 (17.53)
LC

17.32
Case I – Overdamped ( R  330 )
In this case, we get:
R
  126923 (17.54)
2L
Since we have   0 , this is the overdamped case. The roots of the
characteristic equation are given by:
s1     2  02
 126923  1269232  264442
(17.55)
 2785
and
s2     2  02 (17.56)
 251060
For the overdamped case, the natural response has the form:
vn  K1e s1t  K 2 e s2t (17.57)
Adding the forced response given by Eq. (17.43) to the natural response, we
obtain the complete response:
vt   1  K1es1t  K 2es2t (17.58)

17.33
Now, we must find values of K1 and K 2 so the solution matches the known
initial conditions in the circuit. It was given that the initial voltage on the
capacitance is zero, hence v0  0 . Evaluating Eq. (17.58) at t  0 , we obtain:
0  1  K1  K 2 (17.59)
Furthermore, the initial current was given as i0  0 . Since the current through
the capacitance is given by:
dv
iC (17.60)
dt
we conclude that:
dv
0 (17.61)
dt
Taking the derivative of Eq. (17.58) and evaluating at t  0 , we have:
s1 K1  s2 K 2  0 (17.62)
Now, we can solve Eqs. (17.59) and (17.62) for the values of K1 and K 2 . The
results are K1  1.0112 and K2  0.01122 . Substituting these values into
Eq. (17.58), we have the solution:
vt   1  1.0112e 2785t  0.01122e 251060t (17.63)
Evaluating this expression at t  120 μs , we get:
v120μs   0.27607 V (17.64)

17.34
Case II – Critically Damped ( R  68.7552 )

In this case, we get:
R
  26444 (17.65)
2L
Since   0 , this is the critically damped case. The roots of the characteristic
equation are given by:
s1  s2     2  02    26444 (17.66)
The natural response has the form of:
vn  K1  K2t es1t (17.67)
Adding the forced response to the natural response, we find that:
vt   1  K1  K2t es1t (17.68)
As in Case I, the initial conditions require v0  0 and dv0 dt  0 . Thus,

substituting t  0 into Eq. (17.68), we get:
0  1  K1 (17.69)
Differentiating Eq. (17.68) and substituting t  0 yields:
s1 K1  K 2  0 (17.70)
Solving Eqs. (17.69) and (17.70) yields K1  1 and K 2  26444 . Thus the
complete response is:
vt   1  e 26444t  26444te 26444t (17.71)
v120μs   0.82528 V (17.72)

17.35
Case III – Underdamped ( R  33 )

For this value of resistance, we have:
R
  12692 (17.73)
2L
Since   0 , this is the underdamped case. Using:
d  02   2 (17.74)
we compute the damped natural frequency:
d  23199 (17.75)
The natural response has the form:
vn  et K1 cos d t  K 2 sin d t  (17.76)
Adding the forced response found earlier to the natural response, we obtain the
complete response:
vt   1  et K1 cos d t  K 2 sin d t  (17.77)
As in the previous cases, the initial conditions are v0  0 and dv0 dt  0 .
Evaluating Eq. (17.77) at t  0 , we obtain:
0  1  K1 (17.78)
Differentiating Eq. (17.77), we get:
dvt 
 e t  d K1 sin d t  d K 2 cos d t 
dt (17.79)
 e t K1 cos d t  K 2 sin d t 

17.36
Evaluating at t  0 , we have:
d K2  K1  0 (17.80)
Solving Eqs. (17.78) and (17.80), we obtain K1  1 and K 2  0.5471 . Thus,

the complete solution is:
vt   1  e12692t cos 23199t

(17.81)
12692t
 0.5471e sin 23199t
v120μs   1.16248 V (17.82)
For this underdamped case, the response will look like:
v (t )
vp
1.00
0
t
tp
Figure 17.5

17.37
17.8.3 Maximum Value and Peak Time
We can evaluate the maximum value, and the time to reach the maximum value
(called the peak time), by observing that the derivative of vt  is zero at
relative maxima and minima.
We already found the derivative of vt  :
dvt 
 K1e t cos d t  d K1e t sin d t
dt (17.83)
 K 2 e t sin d t  d K 2 e t cos d t
Grouping terms, this can be written:
dvt 
 e t  d K 2  K1  cos  d t   d K1  K 2 sin  d t  (17.84)
dt
By applying the dv0 dt  0 initial condition, we can see that:
d K 2  K1  0 (17.85)
Therefore, the derivative is:
dvt 
 e t d K1  K 2 sin d t (17.86)
dt
Equating this to zero, we get:
sin d t  0 (17.87)
Therefore, the times of relative maxima and minima are:
n
tm  (17.88)
d

17.38
The case of n  1 corresponds to the peak time. Thus:

tp  (17.89)
d
Substituting this value into the output expression:
vt   1  et K1 cos d t  K2 sin d t  (17.90)
we get:
v p  vt p   1  K1e d (17.91)
Putting values of this particular case into Eqs. (17.89) and (17.91), we get:

tp   0.13542 ms (17.92)
23199
and:
12692

vp  1 e 23199
 1.17929 V (17.93)
Thus, the output exhibits a “peak overshoot” of about 18%.
It is important to note that the formula obtained for the peak time, Eq. (17.89),
is only valid for this particular case of zero initial conditions. In the general
case it can be shown that the times of relative maxima and minima for an
underdamped response are given by:
1   K  K1 
tm  tan 1  d 2  (17.94)
d   d K1  K 2 
from which Eq. (17.89) is a special case. Derive this general formula.

17.39
17.9 Summary
 For the RLC circuit, we define the undamped natural frequency:
1
0 
LC
 For the RLC circuit, we define the exponential damping coefficient:
1
 parallel
2 RC
R
 series
2L
 The RLC circuit exhibits three different forms for the natural response:
Overdamped (   0 )
The natural response is of the form:
f n  K1e s1t  K 2 e s2t
Critically Damped (   0 )
f n  K1  K 2 t e t
Underdamped (   0 )
f n  e t K1 cos  d t  K 2 sin  d t , d  02   2
 The complete response is the sum of the forced response and the natural
response.
17.10 References
Hill, 1984.
PMcL Summary Index

17.40
Exercises
1.
iR iL iC
1
2 L v 20 F
 
Let L  1.25 H and determine vt  if v 0  100 V and:
(a)  
iC 0  20 A (b)  
iL 0  20 A
2.
50  125 mH
8 F v
200  50 
120 V 6V
Both switches close at t  0 after having been open for a very long time.
(a) Find vt  .
(b) Determine the maximum and minimum values of vt  .

17.41
3.
The capacitor voltage in a parallel RLC circuit that is critically damped is given
by vt   1000e500t t  0.01 V . If the energy stored in the capacitor is 2 mJ at
t  0 , find:
(a) R.
(b) The initial energy stored in the inductor.
4.
5 L v C
The voltage is given by vt   e7t 20 cos 24t  5 sin 24t  V for t  0 . Find:
(a) L and C .
(b) The initial energy stored in the circuit.
5.
1 t=0
10
1.5 V H 1 nF 50 k
101
What is the maximum voltage magnitude present across the switch after t  0 ?
(Note that it is much safer to solve this problem analytically than to do so
experimentally.)

17.42
6.
F
20
10 
3 2 mH
100 V t=0 40  vR
The switch closes at t  0 . Find vR t  .
7.
t=0 2.5 mH
10 V v 10 nF 0.5 
The switch has been closed for hours. It is opened at t  0 . Show that a 10 V
battery can create a high voltage by finding v at t  2.5 μs .
8.
A 2.5 H inductor, a 4  resistor, and a 25 mF capacitor are in parallel.
An 80 V battery is then placed in series with the inductor.
(a) After a long time has passed, find the energy stored in the inductor and in
the capacitor.
(b) The battery voltage drops suddenly to 40 V at t  0 . Find the energy

stored in the inductor and in the capacitor 0.25 s later.

17.43
9.
20 H 1.2 k
iC
F
20 V 10
vC 3 50 u (t ) V
Find vC t  and iC t  .
10.
25 
iL
2.5 mH 25  F vC
3-5u (t ) A
Find:
(a) vC t 
(b) iL t 
11.
A 5 mH inductor, a 50 μF capacitor, and a 25  resistor are in series with a
voltage source vs t  . The source voltage is zero prior to t  0 . At t  0 it
jumps to 75 V, at t  1 ms it drops to zero, at t  2 ms it again jumps to 75 V,

and it continues in this periodic manner thereafter. Find the source current at:
(a) t 0 (b) t  1 ms (c) t  2 ms

17.44
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907)

William Thomson was probably the first true electrical engineer. His
engineering was firmly founded on a solid bedrock of mathematics. He
invented, experimented, advanced the state-of-the-art, was entrepreneurial, was
a businessman, had a multi-disciplinary approach to problems, held office in
the professional body of his day (the Royal Society), published papers, gave
lectures to lay people, strived for an understanding of basic physical principles
and exploited that knowledge for the benefit of mankind.
William Thomson was born in Belfast, Ireland. His father was a professor of
engineering. When Thomson was 8 years old his father was appointed to the
chair of mathematics at the University of Glasgow. By age 10, William
Thomson was attending Glasgow University. He studied astronomy, chemistry
and natural philosophy (physics, heat, electricity and magnetism). Prizes in
Greek, logic (philosophy), mathematics, astronomy and physics marked his
progress. In 1840 he read Fourier’s The Analytical Theory of Heat and wrote:
…I had become filled with the utmost admiration for the splendour and
poetry of Fourier… I took Fourier out of the University Library; and in a
fortnight I had mastered it - gone right through it.
At the time, lecturers at Glasgow University took a strong interest in the

approach of the French mathematicians towards physical science, such as
Lagrange, Laplace, Legendre, Fresnel and Fourier. In 1840 Thomson also read
Laplace’s Mécanique Céleste and visited Paris.
In 1841 Thomson entered Cambridge and in the same year he published a

paper on Fourier's expansions of functions in trigonometrical series. A more
important paper On the uniform motion of heat and its connection with the
mathematical theory of electricity was published in 1842.
The examinations in Cambridge were fiercely competitive exercises in problem

solving against the clock. The best candidates were trained as for an athletics
contest. Thomson (like Maxwell later) came second. A day before he left
Cambridge, his coach gave him two copies of Green’s Essay on the
Index William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) PMcL

17.45
Application of Mathematical Analysis to the Theories of Electricity and
Magnetism.
After graduating, he moved to Paris on the advice of his father and because of
his interest in the French approach to mathematical physics. Thomson began
trying to bring together the ideas of Faraday, Coulomb and Poisson on
electrical theory. He began to try and unify the ideas of “action-at-a-distance”,
the properties of the “ether” and ideas behind an “electrical fluid”. He also
became aware of Carnot’s view of heat.
In 1846, at the age of twenty two, he returned to Glasgow on a wave of

testimonials from, among others, De Morgan, Cayley, Hamilton, Boole,
Sylvester, Stokes and Liouville, to take up the post of professor of natural
philosophy. In 1847-49 he collaborated with Stokes on hydrodynamic studies,
which Thomson applied to electrical and atomic theory. In electricity Thomson
provided the link between Faraday and Maxwell. He was able to mathematise
Faraday’s laws and to show the formal analogy between problems in heat and
electricity. Thus the work of Fourier on heat immediately gave rise to theorems
on electricity and the work of Green on potential theory immediately gave rise
to theorems on heat flow. Similarly, methods used to deal with linear and
rotational displacements in elastic solids could be applied to give results on
electricity and magnetism. The ideas developed by Thomson were later taken
up by Maxwell in his new theory of electromagnetism.
Thomson’s other major contribution to fundamental physics was his

combination of the almost forgotten work of Carnot with the work of Joule on
the conservation of energy to lay the foundations of thermodynamics. The
thermodynamical studies of Thomson led him to propose an absolute
temperature scale in 1848 (The Kelvin absolute temperature scale, as it is now
known, was defined much later after conservation of energy was better
understood).
PMcL William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) (1824-1907) Index

17.46
The Age of the Earth
In the first decades of the nineteenth century geological evidence for great
changes in the past began to build up. Large areas of land had once been under
water, mountain ranges had been thrown up from lowlands and the evidence of
fossils showed the past existence of species with no living counterparts. Lyell,
in his Principles of Geology, sought to explain these changes “by causes now
in operation”. According to his theory, processes – such as slow erosion by
wind and water; gradual deposition of sediment by rivers; and the cumulative
effect of earthquakes and volcanic action – combined over very long periods of
time to produce the vast changes recorded in the Earth’s surface. Lyell’s so-
called ‘uniformitarian’ theory demanded that the age of the Earth be measured
in terms of hundreds of millions and probably in terms of billions of years.
Lyell was able to account for the disappearance of species in the geological
record but not for the appearance of new species. A solution to this problem
was provided by Charles Darwin (and Wallace) with his theory of evolution by
natural selection. Darwin’s theory also required vast periods of time for
operation. For natural selection to operate, the age of the Earth had to be
measured in many hundreds of millions of years.
Such demands for vast amounts of time run counter to the laws of
thermodynamics. Every day the sun radiates immense amounts of energy. By
the law of conservation of energy there must be some source of this energy.
Thomson, as one of the founders of thermodynamics, was fascinated by this
problem. Chemical processes (such as the burning of coal) are totally
insufficient as a source of energy and Thomson was forced to conclude that
gravitational potential energy was turned into heat as the sun contracted. On
this assumption his calculations showed that the Sun (and therefore the Earth)
was around 100 million years old.

17.47
However, Thomson’s most compelling argument concerned the Earth rather

than the Sun. It is well known that the temperature of the Earth increases with
depth and
this implies a continual loss of heat from the interior, by conduction

outwards through or into the upper crust. Hence, since the upper crust does
not become hotter from year to year there must be a…loss of heat from the
whole earth. It is possible that no cooling may result from this loss of heat
but only an exhaustion of potential energy which in this case could scarcely
be other than chemical.
Since there is no reasonable mechanism to keep a chemical reaction going at a

steady pace for millions of years, Thomson concluded “…that the earth is
merely a warm chemically inert body cooling”. Thomson was led to believe
that the Earth was a solid body and that it had solidified at a more or less
uniform temperature. Taking the best available measurements of the
conductivity of the Earth and the rate of temperature change near the surface,
he arrived at an estimate of 100 million years as the age of the Earth
(confirming his calculations of the Sun’s age).
The problems posed to Darwin’s theory of evolution became serious as

Thomson’s arguments sank in. In the fifth edition of The Origin of Species,
Darwin attempted to adjust to the new time scale by allowing greater scope for
evolution by processes other than natural selection. Darwin was forced to ask
for a suspension of judgment of his theory and in the final chapter he added
With respect to the lapse of time not having been sufficient since our planet
was consolidated for the assumed amount of organic change, and this
objection, as argued by [Thomson], is probably one of the gravest yet
advanced, I can only say, firstly that we do not know at what rate species
change as measured by years, and secondly, that many philosophers are not
yet willing to admit that we know enough of the constitution of the universe
and of the interior of our globe to speculate with safety on its past duration.
(Darwin, The Origin of Species, Sixth Edition, p.409)

17.48
The chief weakness of Thomson’s arguments was exposed by Huxley
…this seems to be one of the many cases in which the admitted accuracy of
mathematical processes is allowed to throw a wholly inadmissible
A variant of the appearance of authority over the results obtained by them. Mathematics
adage: may be compared to a mill of exquisite workmanship, which grinds you stuff
“Garbage in equals of any degree of fineness; but nevertheless, what you get out depends on
garbage out”.
what you put in; and as the grandest mill in the world will not extract
wheat-flour from peascods, so pages of formulae will not get a definite
result out of loose data.
(Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, Vol. 25, 1869)
However, Thomson’s estimates were the best available and for the next thirty
years geology took its time from physics, and biology took its time from
geology. But Thomson and his followers began to adjust his first estimate
down until at the end of the nineteenth century the best physical estimates of
the age of the Earth and Sun were about 20 million years whilst the minimum
the geologists could allow was closer to Thomson’s original 100 million years.
Then in 1904 Rutherford announced that the radioactive decay of radium was
accompanied by the release of immense amounts of energy and speculated that
this could replace the heat lost from the surface of the Earth.
The discovery of the radioactive elements…thus increases the possible limit

of the duration of life on this planet, and allows the time claimed by the
geologist and biologist for the process of evolution.
(Rutherford quoted in Burchfield, p.164)
A problem for the geologists was now replaced by a problem for the physicists.
The answer was provided by a theory which was just beginning to be gossiped
about. Einstein’s theory of relativity extended the principle of conservation of
energy by taking matter as a form of energy. It is the conversion of matter to
heat which maintains the Earth’s internal temperature and supplies the energy
radiated by the sun. The ratios of lead isotopes in the Earth compared to
meteorites now leads geologists to give the Earth an age of about 4.55 billion
years.

17.49
The Transatlantic Cable
The invention of the electric telegraph in the 1830s led to a network of

telegraph wires covering England, western Europe and the more settled parts of
the USA. The railroads, spawned by the dual inventions of steam and steel,
were also beginning to crisscross those same regions. It was vital for the
smooth and safe running of the railroads, as well as the running of empires, to
have speedy communication.
Attempts were made to provide underwater links between the various separate
systems. The first cable between Britain and France was laid in 1850. The
operators found the greatest difficulty in transmitting even a few words. After
12 hours a trawler accidentally caught and cut the cable. A second, more
heavily armoured cable was laid and it was a complete success. The short lines
worked, but the operators found that signals could not be transmitted along
submarine cables as fast as along land lines without becoming confused.
In spite of the record of the longer lines, the American Cyrus J. Fields proposed
a telegraph line linking Europe and America. Oceanographic surveys showed
that the bottom of the Atlantic was suitable for cable laying. The connection of
existing land telegraph lines had produced a telegraph line of the length of the
proposed cable through which signals had been passed extremely rapidly. The
British government offered a subsidy and money was rapidly raised.
Faraday had predicted signal retardation but he and others like Morse had in
mind a model of a submarine cable as a hosepipe which took longer to fill with
water (signal) as it got longer. The remedy was thus to use a thin wire (so that
less electricity was needed to charge it) and high voltages to push the signal
through. Faraday’s opinion was shared by the electrical adviser to the project,
Dr Whitehouse (a medical doctor).
Thomson’s researches had given him a clearer mathematical picture of the

problem. The current in a telegraph wire in air is approximately governed by
the wave equation. A pulse on such a wire travels at a well defined speed with
no change of shape or magnitude with time. Signals can be sent as close
together as the transmitter can make them and the receiver distinguish them.

17.50
In undersea cables of the type proposed, capacitive effects dominate and the
current is approximately governed by the diffusion (i.e. heat) equation. This
equation predicts that electric pulses will last for a time that is proportional to
the length of the cable squared. If two or more signals are transmitted within
this time, the signals will be jumbled at the receiver. In going from submarine
cables of 50 km length to cables of length 2400 km, retardation effects are
2500 times worse. Also, increasing the voltage makes this jumbling (called
intersymbol interference) worse. Finally, the diffusion equation shows that the
wire should have as large a diameter as possible (small resistance).
Whitehouse, whose professional reputation was now involved, denied these

conclusions. Even though Thomson was on the board of directors of Field’s
company, he had no authority over the technical advisers. Moreover the
production of the cable was already underway on principles contrary to
Thomson’s. Testing the cable, Thomson was astonished to find that some
sections conducted only half as well as others, even though the manufacturers
were supplying copper to the then highest standards of purity.
Realising that the success of the enterprise would depend on a fast, sensitive
detector, Thomson set about to invent one. The problem with an ordinary
galvanometer is the high inertia of the needle. Thomson came up with the
mirror galvanometer in which the pointer is replaced by a beam of light.
In a first attempt in 1857 the cable snapped after 540 km had been laid. In
1858, Europe and America were finally linked by cable. On 16 August it
carried a 99-word message of greeting from Queen Victoria to President
Buchanan. But that 99-word message took 16½ hours to get through. In vain,
Whitehouse tried to get his receiver to work. Only Thomson’s galvanometer
was sensitive enough to interpret the minute and blurred messages coming
through. Whitehouse ordered that a series of huge two thousand volt induction
coils be used to try to push the message through faster – after four weeks of
this treatment the insulation finally failed; 2500 tons of cable and £350 000 of
capital lay useless on the ocean floor.

17.51
In 1859 eighteen thousand kilometres of undersea cable had been laid in other
parts of the world, and only five thousand kilometres were operating. In 1861
civil war broke out in the United States. By 1864 Field had raised enough
capital for a second attempt. The cable was designed in accordance with
Thomson’s theories. Strict quality control was exercised: the copper was so
pure that for the next 50 years ‘telegraphist’s copper’ was the purest available.
Once again the British Government supported the project – the importance of
quick communication in controlling an empire was evident to everybody. The
new cable was mechanically much stronger but also heavier. Only one ship
was large enough to handle it and that was Brunel’s Great Eastern. She was
fives time larger than any other existing ship.
This time there was a competitor. The Western Union Company had decided to
build a cable along the overland route across America, Alaska, the Bering
Straits, Siberia and Russia to reach Europe the long way round. The
commercial success of the cable would therefore depend on the rate at which
messages could be transmitted. Thomson had promised the company a rate of
8 or even 12 words a minute. Half a million pounds was being staked on the
correctness of the solution of a partial differential equation.
In 1865 the Great Eastern laid cable for nine days, but after 2000 km the cable
parted. After two weeks of unsuccessfully trying to recover the cable, the
expedition left a buoy to mark the spot and sailed for home. Since
communication had been perfect up until the final break, Thomson was
confident that the cable would do all that was required. The company decided
to build and lay a new cable and then go back and complete the old one.
Cable laying for the third attempt started on 12 July 1866 and the cable was
landed on the morning of the 27th. On the 28th the cable was open for business
and earned £1000. Western Union ordered all work on their project to be
stopped at a loss of $3 000 000.

17.52
On 1 September after three weeks of effort the old cable was recovered and on
8 September a second perfect cable linked America and Europe. A wave of
knighthoods swept over the engineers and directors. The patents which
Thomson held made him a wealthy man.
For his work on the transatlantic cable Thomson was created Baron Kelvin of
Largs in 1892. The Kelvin is the river which runs through the grounds of
Glasgow University and Largs is the town on the Scottish coast where
Thomson built his house.
Other Achievements
There are many
other factors Thomson worked on several problems associated with navigation – sounding
influencing local
tides – such as
machines, lighthouse lights, compasses and the prediction of tides. Tides are
channel width – primarily due to the gravitational effects of the Moon, Sun and Earth on the
which produce
phenomena akin to oceans but their theoretical investigation, even in the simplest case of a single
resonance in the
tides. One example ocean covering a rigid Earth to a uniform depth, is very hard. Even today, the
of this is the narrow
Bay of Fundy, study of only slightly more realistic models is only possible by numerical
between Nova
Scotia and New
computer modelling. Thomson recognised that the forces affecting the tides
Brunswick, where change periodically. He then approximated the height of the tide by a
the tide can be as
high as 21m. In trigonometric polynomial – a Fourier series with a finite number of terms. The
contrast, the
Mediterranean Sea coefficients of the polynomial required calculation of the Fourier series
is almost tideless
because it is a coefficients by numerical integration – a task that “…required not less than
broad body of water
with a narrow
twenty hours of calculation by skilled arithmeticians.” To reduce this labour
entrance. Thomson designed and built a machine which would trace out the predicted
Michelson (of height of the tides for a year in a few minutes, given the Fourier series
Michelson-Morley
coefficients.
fame) was to build a
better machine that
used up to 80 Thomson also built another machine, called the harmonic analyser, to perform
Fourier series
coefficients. The the task “which seemed to the Astronomer Royal so complicated and difficult
production of ‘blips’
at discontinuities by that no machine could master it’ of computing the Fourier series coefficients
this machine was
explained by Gibbs from the record of past heights. This was the first major victory in the struggle
in two letters to
Nature. These ‘blips’
“to substitute brass for brain” in calculation.
are now referred to
as the “Gibbs
phenomenon”.

17.53
Thomson introduced many teaching innovations to Glasgow University. He
introduced laboratory work into the degree courses, keeping this part of the
work distinct from the mathematical side. He encouraged the best students by
offering prizes. There were also prizes which Thomson gave to the student that
he considered most deserving.
Thomson worked in collaboration with Tait to produce the now famous text
Treatise on Natural Philosophy which they began working on in the early
1860s. Many volumes were intended but only two were ever written which
cover kinematics and dynamics. These became standard texts for many
generations of scientists.
In later life he developed a complete range of measurement instruments for

physics and electricity. He also established standards for all the quantities in
use in physics. In all he published over 300 major technical papers during the
53 years that he held the chair of Natural Philosophy at the University of
Glasgow.
During the first half of Thomson's career he seemed incapable of being wrong
while during the second half of his career he seemed incapable of being right.
This seems too extreme a view, but Thomson's refusal to accept atoms, his
opposition to Darwin's theories, his incorrect speculations as to the age of the
Earth and the Sun, and his opposition to Rutherford's ideas of radioactivity,
certainly put him on the losing side of many arguments later in his career.
William Thomson, Lord Kelvin, died in 1907 at the age of 83. He was buried
in Westminster Abbey in London where he lies today, adjacent to Isaac
Newton.
References
Burchfield, J.D.: Lord Kelvin and The Age of the Earth, Macmillan, 1975.
Körner, T.W.: Fourier Analysis, Cambridge University Press, 1988.
Encyclopedia Britannica, 2004.
Morrison, N.: Introduction to Fourier Analysis, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1994.
Thomson, S.P.: The Life of Lord Kelvin, London, 1976.
Kelvin & Tait: Treatise on Natural Philosophy, Appendix B.

18.1
18 Waveform Generation
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 18.2

18.1 Open-Loop Comparator ......................................................................... 18.3
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger) ..................................... 18.4
18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) ..................................... 18.6
18.4 Waveform Generator ............................................................................. 18.9
18.5 Summary.............................................................................................. 18.12
18.6 References ........................................................................................... 18.13
PMcL Contents Index
2015 18 - Waveform Generation

18.2
Introduction
A comparator uses the op-amp in an open-loop mode. For a very small input
voltage, the output will saturate close to one of the power supply voltages due
to the very large gain of the op-amp.
Positive feedback can be applied to a comparator to create hysteresis. This can

be used to “clean-up” noisy digital waveforms, amongst other applications, and
is an example of a bistable circuit (it has two stable states). It can also be used
to make an astable multivibrator. The output will oscillate at a rate which can
be set by a few passive components.
A comparator with hysteresis can also be used to generate simple waveforms

such as square waves and triangle waves. With proper filtering, sinusoids can
also be generated.
18 - Waveform Generation 2015

18.3
18.1 Open-Loop Comparator

A comparator is an example of a non-linear op-amp circuit. It is a switching
device that produces a high or low output, depending on which of the two
inputs is larger. A simple comparator can be made from an op-amp with no
feedback connection (open-loop) as shown in the figure below:
vo
positive saturation
vi
vo vi
negative saturation
Figure 18.1
Since the open-loop voltage gain of an op-amp is very large, when there is no
feedback an input voltage difference of only a few microvolts is sufficient to
drive the output voltage to either its maximum ( VOH ) or to its minimum value
( VOL ). These values are determined by the op-amp supply voltages and its
internal structure; their magnitudes are always slightly lower than that of their
respective supply values ( VOH  VCC , VOL  VEE ).
This feature is used in comparator circuits, when one wishes to know whether a
given input is larger or smaller than a reference value. It is especially useful in
digital applications, such as in analog to digital converters (ADCs).
In practical applications that require a comparator, an op-amp should not be

used. Semiconductor manufacturers produce specific integrated circuit
comparators that have a different output stage to op-amps and are specifically
designed to optimise operation in “saturation”.
PMcL Open-Loop Comparator Index

18.4
18.2 Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger)

The Schmitt trigger shown in Figure 18.2 is an extension of the comparator.
The positive feedback and absence of negative feedback ensures that the output
will always be at either its highest ( VOH ) or its lowest ( VOL ) possible value.
The voltage divider formed by R1 and R2 sets V at a fraction of the output.
R2 vo
R1 VOH
vo
vi VTL 0 VTH vi
VOL
Figure 18.2
If vi  V , the output is negative, if vi  V the output is positive. Each time the
difference vi V changes sign, the polarity of the output, and consequently of
V , changes. No further change is possible until vi reaches the new reference
value V . The result is that the output may be at either extreme value ( VOH or
VOL ) for the same value of the input; whether the output is positive or negative
is determined by its previous state. The circuit therefore possesses memory.
The consequence of this is that the voltage transfer characteristic of a Schmitt
trigger follows a different curve, depending on whether the independent
variable is increasing or decreasing. This property is called hysteresis and is
depicted in Figure 18.2. Since the circuit has two stable states, it is also called a
bistable circuit.
Index Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger) PMcL

18.5
The thresholds for a change of an output state can be calculated as:
R1
VTL  VOL
R1  R2
(18.1)
R1
VTH  VOH
R1  R2
It is important to note that in order for the output to change state all that is
needed is a short departure of the input voltage above or below the respective
threshold. This initiates the regenerative process that results in changing the
state.
The figure below shows a noninverting Schmitt trigger with an adjustable

reference voltage.
R1 R2
vi
vo
VREF
VCC VEE
R3
Figure 18.3
Using superposition, we can write the expression for v  :
R2 R1
v   vi  vo (18.2)
R1  R2 R1  R2
Let’s assume that the circuit is in the positive stable state with vo  VOH . Then,
in order to change this state to negative output, we must make v  V  VREF .
PMcL Comparator with Hysteresis (Schmitt Trigger) Index

18.6
This means we need to apply:
 R  R
vi  VTL  VREF 1  1   VOH 1 (18.3)
 R2  R2
Similarly, to change the state from low to high, the input voltage must satisfy
(even for a brief moment) the following inequality:
 R  R
vi  VTH  VREF 1  1   VOL 1 (18.4)
 R2  R2
18.3 Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock)
When a negative feedback path consisting of a resistor R and a capacitor C is
added to the Schmitt trigger in Figure 18.2, the new circuit has no stable state.
The output will continuously switch between its two extremes at a rate
determined by the time constant T  RC . The circuit is shown below:
R2
R1
vo
Figure 18.4
Immediately after a transition of the output to either its positive extreme ( VOH )
or its negative extreme ( VOL ), the RC network will begin an exponential

transition; the capacitor will begin to charge or discharge, depending on its
Index Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) PMcL

18.7
previous state, with its voltage approaching the new value of vo . When the
capacitor voltage v passes the value of v , which is determined by R1 and

R2 , the op-amp output will suddenly switch to its opposite extreme. The
capacitor voltage will then begin to charge in the opposite direction until
switching occurs again. The process will be repeated indefinitely, giving a
square-wave output without the need for an input voltage source.
v
vo
VOH
VOH R 1
R 1+R 2 vC
0 t1 t2 t
VOL R 1
R 1+R 2
VOL
Figure 18.5
Suppose that at t  0 the output voltage is VOL , and the capacitor voltage v
has just fallen below v  VOL R1 R1  R2  . The output will switch from VOL to
VOH because v  v has just become positive. The capacitor voltage begins to
increase, and is given by:
 R1   RCt
vC t   VOH  VOL  VOH e t0 (18.5)
 R1  R2 
Substitution of t  0 shows that the above equation indeed satisfies the initial
condition vC 0  VOL R1 R1  R2  . When t   , we obtain lim vC t   VOH .
t 
So, the capacitor voltage begins to increase toward VOH , reaching
v  VOH R1 R1  R2  at time t1 .
PMcL Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) Index

18.8
Solving the above equation for this condition, one gets:
 VOH R2 
t1   RC ln  
VOH R1  R2   VOL R1 
(18.6)
At this point v  v changes sign and vC begins to decrease, now governed

by the equation:
t1
 R1   tRC
vC t   VOL  VOH  VOL e t  t1 (18.7)
 R1  R 2 
At time t 2 , vC reaches vC t2   VOL R1 R1  R2  . Solving the above equation for
this condition, one gets:
 VOL R2 
t2  t1   RC ln  
 
(18.8)
 VOL R1  R2  VOH R1 
The period of the output waveform is just T0  t2 . Therefore we have:
T0  t2  t1   t1
 VOL R2   VOH R2 
  RC ln    RC ln  
VOL R1  R2   VOH R1  VOH R1  R2   VOL R1 
 VOL R2 VOH R2 
  RC ln   
VOL R1  R2   VOH R1 VOH R1  R2   VOL R1  (18.9)
In the special case of R1  R2 and VOL  VOH , the above equation simplifies to
a function of only R and C:
T0  RC ln 9  2.2RC (18.10)
Index Astable Multivibrator (Schmitt Trigger Clock) PMcL

18.9
18.4 Waveform Generator

The exponential waveform (across the capacitor) generated in the astable
circuit of Figure 18.4 can be changed to triangular by replacing the lowpass RC
circuit with an integrator (the integrator is, after all, a lowpass circuit with a
corner frequency at DC). The integrator causes linear charging and discharging
of the capacitor, thus producing a triangular waveform. The resulting circuit is
shown below:
Triangular and
square waveform
generator
C
R2
R
R1
vo1
vo2
Figure 18.6
This circuit oscillates and generates a square waveform at the output of the
noninverting Schmitt trigger, vo1 , and a triangular waveform at the output of
the inverting integrator, vo 2 .
PMcL Waveform Generator Index

18.10
Let the output of the bistable circuit be at VOH . A current equal to VOH R will
go into the resistor R and then on to the capacitor C, causing the output of the
integrator to linearly decrease with the slope  VOH RC , as shown in the figure
below. This will continue until the integrator output reaches the lower
threshold, VTL , of the bistable circuit.
VOH
vo1 vo2 slope = RC
T1 T2 T1 T2
VOH VTH
t t
0 0
VOL VTL VOL

slope =
T0 RC
(a) square wave (b) triangular wave
Figure 18.7
At this point the bistable circuit will switch states, its output becoming negative
and equal to VOL . At this moment the current through R will reverse direction
and its value will become equal to VOL R . The output of the integrator will
therefore linearly increase with time. This will continue until the integrator
output voltage reaches the positive threshold of the Schmitt trigger, VTH . The
Schmitt trigger switches states again, starting the new cycle.
Index Waveform Generator PMcL

18.11
From Figure 18.7 it is relatively easy to derive an expression for the period T0
of the square and triangular waveforms. During the interval T1 we have:
VTH  VTL VOH VTH  VTL

  T1  RC (18.11)
T1 RC VOH
Similarly, during T2 we have:
VTH  VTL  VOL VTH  VTL

  T2  RC
T2 RC  VOL (18.12)
Thus, to obtain symmetrical waveforms we need a bistable circuit with

VOL  VOH . The oscillation frequency is equal to:
1 1 1 VOLVOH
f0   
T0 T1  T2 RC VTH  VTL VOL  VOH  (18.13)
PMcL Waveform Generator Index

18.12
18.5 Summary
 An op-amp comparator with hysteresis is known as a Schmitt trigger:
R2 vo
R1 VOH
vo
vi VTL 0 VTH vi
VOL
 The astable multivibrator is a simple circuit based on the Schmitt trigger

that can produce a square wave at low frequencies:
R2
R1
vo
 A waveform generator circuit that utilises a Schmitt trigger and produces

both a triangular and square waveforms is:
C
R2
R
R1
vo1
vo2
Index Summary PMcL

18.13
18.6 References

19.1
19 Second-Order Frequency Response
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 19.2

19.1 Resonance .............................................................................................. 19.3
19.2 Parallel Resonance ................................................................................. 19.5
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit............................... 19.8
19.3 Quality Factor ........................................................................................ 19.9
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations........................................................... 19.12
19.5 Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 19.13
19.6 Series Resonance ................................................................................. 19.17
19.7 Other Resonant Forms ......................................................................... 19.19
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response .............................. 19.25
19.8.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.27
19.8.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.29
19.8.3 Bode Plots ................................................................................. 19.34
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response ............................. 19.35
19.9.1 Peak Frequency......................................................................... 19.37
19.9.2 Bandwidth ................................................................................. 19.37
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses .................. 19.38
19.11 Summary............................................................................................ 19.39
19.12 References ......................................................................................... 19.39
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 19.40
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) ............................................................. 19.44
References ............................................................................................... 19.48
PMcL Contents Index
2015 19 - Second-Order Frequency Response

19.2
Introduction
The use of both capacitors and inductors in a circuit gives rise to an important
phenomenon – the exchange of electric and magnetic stored energy in a
sinusoidal fashion between the ideal elements without dissipation. The peak
energy stored in the elements reaches a maximum when a sinusoidal forcing
function drives the circuit into resonance at a frequency close to the natural
frequency of the circuit.
The resonance phenomenon occurs in many natural systems, and is the result
of systems being able to store energy in different ways. For example, a
pendulum, without friction, will oscillate forever once set in motion, and there
will be a continual exchange of kinetic energy (the velocity of the pendulum
mass) and potential energy (stored by virtue of the position of the pendulum in
a gravitational field) as the pendulum oscillates in a sinusoidal fashion.
In an electric circuit the resonant condition can be used to create a highly

“selective” circuit in the sense that a narrow band of frequencies of the forcing
function will cause the circuit response to be large whilst all other frequencies
result in a response which is much smaller. This property of second-order
circuits is not exhibited by passive first-order circuits (or cascades of them).
The “width of the magnitude response”, or bandwidth B, for a second-order

circuit will be seen to be related to a quantity called the quality factor, Q0 . The
quality factor, together with the undamped natural frequency, 0 , uniquely

determine the properties of many second-order systems. These parameters can
be determined for a parallel passive RLC circuit, an electronic op-amp circuit, a
mechanical system, a hydraulic system, etc. Thus, it pays to express second-
order frequency response quantities in terms of 0 and Q0 for the sake of
uniformity across the disciplines.
19 - Second-Order Frequency Response 2015

19.3
19.1 Resonance
A system being driven by a sinusoidal forcing function will produce a
sinusoidal steady-state response at the frequency of the driving force. The
amplitude of the response may be larger than the forcing function when the
frequency of the driving force is near a “natural frequency of oscillation” of the
system.1 This dramatic increase in amplitude near a natural frequency is called
resonance, and we denote the frequency at which it occurs as  r , which is
called the resonance frequency of the system.2
The phenomenon of resonance is a familiar one (at least qualitatively). For

example, a child using a swing realizes that if the pushes are properly timed,
the swing can move with a very large amplitude. The quartz crystal in a
computer or watch is made to mechanically vibrate at a resonance frequency
which is determined by its “cut” (its shape and size). A further illustration is
furnished by the shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical
tone of the right pitch. The condition of resonance may or may not be
desirable, depending on the circumstances.
The reason for large-amplitude oscillations at the resonance frequency is that

energy is being transferred to the system under favourable conditions. In fact,
for a parallel RLC circuit, maximum power will be dissipated by the circuit
when the forcing function’s voltage and current are in phase – i.e. the circuit
appears to be purely resistive. This leads us to a precise definition for a
resonance frequency,  r .
1
A natural frequency of oscillation only occurs in systems that are second-order or higher.
Even then, a large amplitude response will occur only under certain conditions.
2
This assumes that one natural frequency gives rise to one resonance frequency. Certain
topologies of circuit components can give rise to two resonance frequencies even though there
is only one natural frequency. Circuits and systems of high-order can have multiple natural
frequencies and consequently may have multiple resonance frequencies. Also, even though the
amplitude response is very large at a resonance frequency, it is not necessarily the maximum
amplitude response – it depends on how we define “response”.
PMcL Resonance Index

19.4
In a two-terminal electrical network containing at least one inductor and one
capacitor, we define resonance to be the condition which exists when the input
impedance of the network is purely resistive:
Resonance defined
n th -order
circuit
Z ( j ) (n  2)
at resonance when Z is real
Figure 19.1
The resonant condition can be achieved by adjusting any circuit parameter. We

normally devote our attention to the case for which  is the variable, and since
we have denoted the resonance frequency as  r , then resonance occurs if:
ImZ jr   0 (19.1)
Thus, a two-terminal circuit is said it be in resonance when the sinusoidal

voltage and current at the circuit input terminals are in phase.
This definition also implies that at resonance:
ImY jr   0 (19.2)
since Z  R is real at resonance and therefore Y  1 R  G is real also.
It should be noted that the resonance condition ImZ jr   0 may not be
satisfied at any real positive frequency  r . Thus, resonance is a condition
which a circuit may achieve, but only if its topology and component values
allow it.
Index Resonance PMcL

19.5
19.2 Parallel Resonance

We shall apply the definition of resonance to the parallel RLC circuit:
IR IL IC
1
Is R jL jC V
Figure 19.2
The admittance offered to the ideal current source is:
1  1 
Y  j C   (19.3)
R   L 
Obviously, if the impedance is to be purely resistive at resonance, then so is the
admittance. Thus, resonance occurs when:
1
r C  0 (19.4)
r L
Hence, the resonance frequency for this simple case is:
1
r   0 (19.5)
LC
This resonance frequency is identical to the undamped natural frequency that
was defined whilst considering the step-response of the parallel RLC circuit.
Let us examine the magnitude of the response, the voltage V as indicated in

Figure 19.2. For a constant-amplitude sinusoidal current source input, the
response is proportional to the input impedance Z .
PMcL Parallel Resonance Index

19.6
The admittance as a function of  can be written as:
1 1
Y  jC 
R jL
(19.6)
   j RC  1 LC
2
C
j
The response is therefore given by:
1 j
V  ZI 

C 1 LC    j RC
2
Is
 (19.7)
The response starts at zero, reaches a maximum value at the resonance

frequency, and then drops again to zero as  becomes infinite:
Typical magnitude
and phase response
of a second-order |V|
bandpass circuit
R |I s|
R |I s|/ 2
1 pole roll-off
0
0 1 0 2 
90
45
V
(°) 0 2
0 1 
-45
-90
Figure 19.3
The frequency response is referred to as a bandpass response, since it passes

only “midband” frequencies whilst attenuating low and high frequencies.
Index Parallel Resonance PMcL

19.7
To show that the maximum response is R I s , and that this occurs at resonance,
we could take the magnitude of Eq. (19.7), differentiate and equate to zero to
obtain the frequencies of any relative maxima and minima, and then use these
values to obtain the magnitude of the response. However, there is a simpler
way.
The admittance contains a constant conductance and a susceptance which has a

minimum magnitude (of zero) at resonance. The minimum admittance
magnitude therefore occurs at resonance, and it is 1 R . Hence, the maximum
impedance magnitude is R , and it occurs at resonance.
At the resonance frequency, therefore, the voltage across the parallel circuit is
simply RI s , and we can see that the source current goes through the resistor.
However, there is also a current in L and C, since there is a voltage across
them:
RI
I Lr 
j r L (19.8)
I Cr  jr CRI
Since 1 r C  r L at resonance, we find that:
I Cr  I Lr (19.9)
and therefore I Lr  I Cr  0 . We thus have a circulating current around the LC

part of the circuit which is the cause of the never-ending exchange of energy
between the inductor and the capacitor at resonance.
Although the height of the response curve depends only upon the value of R,
the width of the curve or the steepness of the sides depends upon the other two
element values also. The width of the response curve is most easily expressed
when we introduce a very important parameter, the quality factor Q.
PMcL Parallel Resonance Index

19.8
19.2.1 Phasor Diagram of the Parallel RLC Circuit
It is instructive to illustrate resonance with the aid of phasor diagrams. The

figure below shows phasor diagrams, as well as illustrations of the sinusoidal
currents, for the parallel RLC circuit at three different frequencies:
i
IC
iR
iL
iC
IR V
t
I s = I R+ I L + I C
IL + IC
 < r
IL
i
IC iR iL iC
IR V
t
I s = I R+ I L + I C
IL + IC = 0
 = r
IL
IC
i
IL + IC iR
I s = I R+ I L + I C iC
iL
IR V
t
IL
 > r
Figure 19.4
Index Parallel Resonance PMcL

19.9
19.3 Quality Factor

We define quality factor, Q, as:
maxmium energy stored

Q  2 (19.10)
total energy lost per period
The constant 2 is put into the definition in order to simplify the more useful
expressions for Q that occur in the study of second-order systems.
For the parallel RLC circuit, energy is only lost in the resistor. We can
therefore express Q in terms of the instantaneous energy associated with each
of the reactive elements and the average power dissipated in the resistor:
Q  2
wL t   wC t max
(19.11)
PRT0
We will apply this definition and determine the value of Q at the resonance
frequency  r  0 , which is denoted by Q0 . We select the forcing function:
it   I m cos0t  (19.12)
and obtain the corresponding voltage at resonance:
vt   Ri t   RI m cos0t  (19.13)
The instantaneous energy stored in the capacitor is:
2 2
wC t   12 Cv  cos 2 0t 
CR
2 Im (19.14)
2
PMcL Quality Factor Index

19.10
The instantaneous energy stored in the inductor is:
2
1 t 
wL t   12 Li  12 L  vdt 
2
L
L 0 
R 2 I m2 CR 2 I m2
 sin 0t  
2
sin 2 0t 
20 L2
2 (19.15)
The total instantaneous energy stored is therefore constant:
CR 2 I m2
wL t   wC t   (19.16)
2
and this constant value must also be the maximum value.
In order to find the energy lost in the resistor in one period, we take the average
power absorbed by the resistor:
PR  12 RI m2 (19.17)
and multiply by one period, obtaining:
RI m2
PRT0  (19.18)
2 f0
We thus find the quality factor at resonance:
CR 2 I m2 2
Q0  2 2  2f 0CR  0CR (19.19)
RI m 2 f 0
This equation holds only for the simple parallel RLC circuit.
Index Quality Factor PMcL

19.11
Equivalent expressions for Q0 which are often useful may be obtained by

substitution:
R R C
Q0  0CR   R (19.20)
X C 0 X L0 L
It is apparent that Q0 is a dimensionless constant which is a function of all

three circuit elements in the parallel resonant circuit, and it turns out that it can
be evaluated from a knowledge of the natural response, as will be illustrated
later.
A useful interpretation of Q0 is obtained when we inspect the capacitor and

inductor currents at resonance:
ICr  I Lr  j0CRI  jQ0I (19.21)
Each is Q0 times the source current in magnitude and they are 180 out of
phase. Thus if we apply 1 mA at the resonance frequency to a parallel resonant
circuit with a Q0 of 50, we find 1 mA in the resistor, and 50 mA in both the
inductor and capacitor. A parallel resonant circuit can therefore act as a current
amplifier (but not a power amplifier, since it is a passive network).
PMcL Quality Factor Index

19.12
19.4 Second-Order Circuit Relations

The two parameters  and d were introduced in connection with the natural
response of a second-order circuit. These two parameters can be related to the
undamped natural frequency, 0 , and the quality factor at resonance, Q0 .
We have:
1 1
 
2 RC 2Q0 0C C
(19.22)
and thus:
0
 (19.23)
2Q0
We also have:
d  02   2 (19.24)
and thus:
2
 1 
d  0 1    (19.25)
 2Q0 
When we analyze second-order circuits in the time-domain, we usually resort

to using  , 0 and d (for an underdamped circuit). When we discuss
second-order circuits in the frequency-domain, we usually use 0 and Q0 .
Index Second-Order Circuit Relations PMcL

19.13
19.5 Bandwidth
The “width” of the response curve for the parallel RLC circuit can be defined
more carefully and related to Q0 .
|T|
R |I|
R |I| / 2
B
0
0 1 0 2 
Figure 19.5
The two half-power frequencies 1 and 2 are those frequencies at which the
magnitude of the voltage response is 1 2 times its maximum value (or -3 dB

down from the peak).
We select 1 as the lower half-power frequency and 2 as the upper half-
power frequency. These names arise from the fact that a voltage which is 1 2
times the resonance voltage is equivalent to a squared voltage which is one-half
the squared voltage (and therefore the power) at resonance.
The bandwidth of a resonant circuit is defined as the difference of these two

half-power frequencies:
B  2  1 rads -1 (19.26)
We can also refer to bandwidth as:
B  f 2  f1 Hz (19.27)
The context of the analysis or design makes the units of bandwidth clear.
PMcL Bandwidth Index

19.14
The use of half-power frequencies in the definition of bandwidth is an arbitrary
but widely accepted criterion used by the engineering profession. The concept
of bandwidth is used in many other electrical systems and is a very important
parameter in the design of filters, amplifiers and electrical systems in general.
One should also be aware that bandwidth is only defined for systems with a
single peak response – otherwise the definition is ambiguous.
We think of this bandwidth as the “width” of the response curve, even though
the curve actually extends from   0 to    .
We can express the bandwidth B in terms of  0 and Q0 . The admittance of the

parallel RLC circuit is:
1  1 
Y  j  C  
R  L 
1 1  0CR 0 R 
  j   
R  0 0 L 
(19.28)
R
1   0  
 1  jQ0   
R  0   
The magnitude of the admittance at resonance is 1 R , and we seek frequencies
at which the magnitude reaches 2 R to achieve half-power. This must occur

when the imaginary part of the bracketed quantity has a magnitude of unity.
Thus:
     
Q0  1  0   1 and Q0  2  0   1 (19.29)
 0 1   0 2 
Index Bandwidth PMcL

19.15
Solving, we have:
  
2 
1 1
1  0  1     
  2Q0  2Q0 
 
(19.30)
  
2 
1 1
2  0  1     
  2Q0  2Q0 
 
Although individually complicated, their difference provides a very simple
formula for the bandwidth:
Bandwidth defined
0 for a parallel
B  2  1  rads 1 (19.31) resonant circuit
Q0
This equation tells us that Q0 and B are inversely related, as shown below:
The inverse
relationship between
|T| B and Q0
|T| max
1.0 Low Q0 , large B
1/ 2
0.5
High Q0 , small B
0 
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0
Figure 19.6
PMcL Bandwidth Index

19.16
Circuits possessing a higher Q0 have a narrower bandwidth – they have greater

frequency selectivity or “higher quality”. Such circuits were used extensively in
receivers of the old analog broadcast systems, such as AM and FM radio and
TV, to “tune into a station” whilst rejecting all others.
If we multiply the two half-power frequencies together, we can show that:
12  02 (19.32)
and therefore:
0  12 (19.33)
That is, the resonance frequency is the geometric mean of the two half-power
frequencies.
For high-Q circuits ( Q0  5 ), we can show that:
  
2 
1 1   0  B
1, 2  0  1     (19.34)
  2Q0  2Q0  2
 
and:
1  2
0  12  (19.35)
2
That is, for high-Q circuits, each half-power frequency is located
approximately one-half bandwidth from the resonance frequency – the
resonance frequency is approximately the arithmetic mean of the half-power
frequencies.
Index Bandwidth PMcL

19.17
19.6 Series Resonance

The series resonant circuit finds less use than the parallel circuit. Consider the
series RLC circuit below:
R I jL
1
V
jC
Figure 19.7
We can derive the important equations for the series resonant circuit by using a
“dual language” on the parallel circuit. We find that resonance occurs when:
1
r   0 (19.36)
LC
which is the same as for the parallel RLC circuit. However, the quality factor at
resonance for the series RLC circuit is different:
0 L X L0 X C 0 1 L
Q0     (19.37)
R R R R C
PMcL Series Resonance Index

19.18
If the response is taken across the resistor so that it is proportional to the

current, then we achieve a similar response to that of the parallel resonant
circuit (a bandpass response). In this case the equations for the half-power
frequencies, the bandwidth, and the resonance frequency are the same as
before:
  
2 
1 1
1, 2  0  1      (19.38)
  2Q0  2Q0 
 
0
B  2  1  rads 1 (19.39)
Q0
0  12 (19.40)
The series resonant circuit is characterized by a low impedance at resonance.

The series resonant circuit provides inductor and capacitor voltages which are
greater than the source voltage by the factor Q0 . The series circuit thus
provides voltage amplification at resonance.
Index Series Resonance PMcL

19.19
19.7 Other Resonant Forms

The parallel and series RLC circuits of the previous two sections represent
idealized resonant circuits – they are useful approximations to real physical
circuits where the resistance of the wire making up the inductor and the losses
in the capacitor’s dielectric are small. The network shown below is a
reasonably accurate model for the parallel combination of a physical inductor,
capacitor and resistor. The resistor RL represents the ohmic losses, core losses,
and radiation losses of the physical coil. The resistor R represents the losses in
the dielectric within the physical capacitor as well as the resistance of the
physical resistor that is placed in parallel with the inductor and capacitor.
RL
1
jC R
Y jL
Figure 19.8
In this circuit, there is no way to combine elements and produce a simpler

model. We have to resort to first principles to determine its resonant condition.
The definition of resonance is unchanged, and we determine the resonance
frequency by setting the imaginary part of the admittance to zero:
ImY jr   0
1 1  (19.41)
Im  jr C    0
R RL  jr L 
PMcL Other Resonant Forms Index

19.20
Realizing the denominator of the inductor branch, we get:
1 R  jr L 
Im  jr C  L2 0
2 2 
(19.42)
R RL  r L 
Thus:
L
C (19.43)
RL2  r2 L2
and:
2
1  RL 
r    (19.44)
LC  L 
We note that  r is less than 1 LC , but sufficiently small values of the ratio
RL L may result in a negligible difference between  r and 1 LC .
The maximum magnitude of the input impedance is not R , and it does not
occur at  r (or at   1 LC ). The proof is algebraically cumbersome, but
the theory is straightforward (set the derivative of the impedance magnitude to
zero to find relative maxima and minima, etc.).
It should also be pointed out that if RL L  1 LC then resonance will never

occur, since Eq. (19.44) results in an imaginary quantity. Thus, we must be
careful in any analysis we undertake to check the conditions under which a
circuit may exhibit the phenomenon of resonance.
Index Other Resonant Forms PMcL

19.21
EXAMPLE 19.1 Resonance in a Circuit
Consider the simple RLC circuit shown below:
1
L= 4 H
i v
R= 2 
1
v s (t ) = cos (4 t ) V C= 8 F
By KVL, for the mesh on the left:
di
L  v  vs  0
dt
while, by KCL, at node v:
dv v
iC 
dt R
Substituting the second expression into the first, we get:
d 2 v L dv
LC   v  vs  0
dt 2 R dt
from which:
d 2v 1 dv 1 1
2
  v vs
dt RC dt LC LC
Thus we see that the undamped natural frequency is:
1 1
0    32  4 2 rads -1
LC  1  1 
  
 4  8 

19.22
However, the impedance seen by the source is:
R1 jC 
Z  jL 
R  1 jC
R
 jL 
1  jRC
R1  jRC 
 jL 
1   2 R 2C 2
R  R 2 C 
  j 
 L  
1   2 R 2C 2  1   2 R 2C 2 
The imaginary part of Z vanishes when:
r R 2C
r L  0
1   r2 R 2 C 2
 r L1   r2 R 2 C 2   R 2 C   0
R 2C  L 1 1
 r  0 and  r    2 2
R 2 LC 2 LC R C
We can see that neither of these resonance frequencies is equal to the

undamped natural frequency, i.e.  r  0 . The two resonance frequencies are:
1 1
 r  0 and  r    4 rads -1
   2
   2 2  
1 1 1
 4  8  8

19.23
Since the frequency of the source is   4 rads -1 , the circuit is in resonance.

The circuit is shown below in the frequency-domain:
I j V
1
1 0° V 2 - j2 
=4
By nodal analysis:
1 V V V
 
j 2  j2
from which:
2 2
V   2  45
1 j 245
and:
1  V 1  2 1  j   1  j  1  j   1  j
I     10
j j j 1 j
So:
vt   2 cos4t  45
and:
it   cos4t 

19.24
The energy stored in the inductor is:
wL t   Li t   cos 2 4t 
1 2 1
2 8
and the energy stored in the capacitor is:
wC t   Cv t   cos 2 4t  45

1 2 1
2 8
Using the trigonometric identity:
cos 2 x 
1
1  cos 2 x 
2
the total stored energy is:
wL t   wC t  
1
1  cos 8t   1 1  cos8t  90
16 16
 2  cos 8t  sin 8t 
1
16

1
16

2  2 cos 8t  45 
and this has a maximum value of:
wL t   wC t max 
1
16
2 2 J 
The power dissipated by the resistor is:
2
1 V 12 1
PR     W
2 R 22 2
and the energy lost in a period is:
 2  1  2  
PRT0  PR      J
 r  2 4  4
Thus the Q0 of the circuit is:
Q0  2
1 162  2   1 1
 1.707
 4 2

19.25
19.8 The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response

Consider the series RLC circuit again, but this time the response is taken as the
voltage across the capacitor:
R jL
1
Vi Vo
jC
Figure 19.9
In this case the frequency response is given by the voltage divider rule:
T j  
Vo
Vi
1 j C

R  jL  1 jC
1 LC

1 LC   2  jR L (19.45)
Noting that 0  1 LC and Q0  0 L R for the series RLC circuit, this can be
written as:
02
T j   2
0   2  j 0 Q0 
(19.46)
This has the form of a second-order lowpass frequency response – it passes low
frequencies but attenuates high frequencies.
PMcL The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response Index

19.26
The magnitude
02
T j  
response of a
lowpass second-
   
(19.47)
 2 2
Q0 
order frequency 2 2
response 0 0
and the phase is:

The phase response
of a lowpass
  Q 
second-order
T j    tan 1  2 0 20  (19.48)
 0   
frequency response
The magnitude and phase functions are plotted below for Q0  1.25 :
Typical magnitude
and phase
responses of a  p =  0 1-(1/2 Q02 )
lowpass second-
order frequency |T|
Q0
response (V/V)
1
-40 dB / decade
0
0 0 
T 0
(°) All Q0
-90
-180° asymptote
for all Q0
-180
0 0 
Figure 19.10
Index The Second-Order Lowpass Frequency Response PMcL

19.27
19.8.1 Peak Frequency
The peak of the frequency response does not correspond to the resonance
frequency  0 (nor does it have any relation with  d , which arises in the
description of the time-domain natural response). To obtain the peak of the
frequency response, we find the relative maximum in the usual way.
To simplify the algebra, we let:
u   0 
2
(19.49)
Then the magnitude response can be written as:
T j  
1 1

1  u  Gu 
(19.50)
u Q
2 2
0
where:
G u   1  u   u Q02
2
 
(19.51)
 u  1 Q  2 u 1
2 2
0
We want to find  p so that T j p   max , or equivalently, Gu p   min .
To find u that minimizes Gu  , we let:
d
du
Gu   2u  1 Q02  2  0   (19.52)
Solving this for u we get:
1
up  1 (19.53)
2Q02

19.28
Thus, the frequency at which the magnitude response reaches a peak is:
1
 p  0 1  , Q0  1 2
2Q02 (19.54)
 p  0, Q0  1 2
Notice that the peak response always occurs before the resonance frequency for
the lowpass response, and we approach  p  0 for high Q0 (say Q0  5 ).
We can also see that a relative peak will not occur in the magnitude response if
Q0  1 2 (for then  p is an imaginary quantity!). In this case, the absolute
peak occurs at 0 Hz, or DC.
The special value of Q0  1 2 causes the relative and absolute “peak” to

coincide at DC, and the magnitude response in this special case is known as
maximally flat (all derivatives of the magnitude response at DC are zero).
At the peak frequency, the magnitude of the frequency response is:
T j p  
Q0
, Q0  1 2
1  1 2Q0 
2
(19.55)
T j p   1, Q0  1 2
For high Q0 (say Q0  5 ), the magnitude response is T j p   Q0 .

19.29
19.8.2 Bandwidth
The bandwidth of the lowpass RLC circuit is the difference between the two
half-power frequencies on each side of the peak frequency:
|T|
|T ( jp)|
|T ( jp)|
2 1
0
0 1 p 2 
Figure 19.11
That is, the usual definition of bandwidth applies:
B   2  1 rads -1 (19.56)
By definition, the two half-power frequencies must satisfy:
T j1, 2 
2
1

T j p 
2
(19.57)
2
However, as will be seen, the relative peak in the magnitude response only
occurs when Q0  1 2  0.7071 , and when this is the case the peak is only
greater than 2 when Q0  1  1 2  1.307 . Therefore, we need to consider

three separate cases to determine the bandwidth of the lowpass frequency
response.

19.30
Case I – Relative Peak > 2 ( Q0  1  1 2)

As shown before:
T j  
1 1
 2
2

Gu  u  1 Q02  2 u  1  (19.58)
and for the case of a relative peak:
T j p 
2 Q02

1  1 2Q0 
2
(19.59)
so we have:
T j1, 2 
2

1  1 2Q   Q 2 2

1
 
0 0
T j p 
(19.60)
2
u  1 Q  2 u 1
2 2
0 2
This can be rewritten as:
  
u 2  1 Q02  2 u  1  2 1  1 2Q0 
2
Q 2
0 0 (19.61)
which can be solved for u to get:
2
1 1  1 
u1, 2 1 2
 1    (19.62)
2Q0 Q0  2Q0 
The two half-power frequencies are therefore:
1  u10
(19.63)
 2  u 2 0

19.31
and the bandwidth is thus:
B  2  1   u2  u1 0  (19.64)
For high Q0 (say Q0  5 ), we can simplify this result in the following way.
Firstly:
1
u1, 2  1  (19.65)
Q0
then, using the binomial series:
1  x  1 1
1
2
1 x  x2   (19.66)
2 8
we can approximate the u terms with the first two terms from the series:
B  u2  u1 0 
 1 1 

  1
Q
 1
Q 0
 0 0 
 1  1  
 1   1   0

 2Q0  2Q0  
0

Q0 (19.67)
The lowpass circuit in this case exhibits bandpass behaviour, and it is debatable
whether we should still call it a lowpass filter. However, since the circuit still
passes low frequencies down to DC (but at levels which are below half-power),
the circuit is still classified as a lowpass filter. Perhaps the best name would be
a “lowpass filter with band enhancement”.

19.32
Case II – Relative Peak < 2 (1 2  Q0  1  1 2)
From Eq. (19.62), it can be shown that when Q0  1  1 2  1.307 , then u1

will be negative and the lower half-power frequency will cease to exist. In this
case, the bandwidth is:
B  2  u2 0
2
1 1  1  (19.68)
 0 1   1   
2Q02 Q0  2Q0 
This is because the peak response falls below 2 , and therefore

T j p  2  1 . This case is illustrated below:
|T|
|T ( jp)|
|T ( jp)| 1
2
0
0 p 2 
Figure 19.12

19.33
Case III – No Relative Peak ( Q0  1 2)
If there is no relative peak in the magnitude response (for Q0  1 2  0.7071),

then the peak response occurs at DC with a magnitude of 1. We then have only
one half-power frequency.
In a manner similar to the derivation for Case I, we can show that the
bandwidth is given by:
2
1  1 
B  0 1   1  
 2Q 2 
1  (19.69)
2Q02  0 
This case is illustrated below:
|T|
1
1
2
0 
0 B
Figure 19.13

19.34
19.8.3 Bode Plots

The magnitude and phase Bode plots for a range of values of Q0 are shown
below for a normalised resonance frequency of 0  1 :
Figure 19.14
The asymptotic Bode magnitude plot decreases at the rate of -40 dB / decade,
and this is sometimes described as two-pole rolloff. Note the symmetry in the
phase response around -90. Do you know why?

19.35
19.9 The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response

Consider the series RLC circuit again, but this time the response is taken as the
voltage across the inductor:
1
jC
Vi jL Vo
Figure 19.15
The frequency response is given by the voltage divider rule:
T j  
Vo
Vi
jL

R  jL  1 jC
2

1 LC   2  jR L (19.70)
Noting that 0  1 LC and Q0  0 L R for the series RLC circuit, this can be
written as:
 2
T j   2
0   2  j 0 Q0 
(19.71)
This has the form of a second-order highpass frequency response – it attenuates

low frequencies but passes high frequencies.
PMcL The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response Index

19.36
The magnitude
2
T j  
response of a
highpass second-
   
(19.72)
 2 2
Q0 
order frequency 2 2
response 0 0
and the phase is:

The phase response
of a highpass
  Q 
second-order
T j   180  tan 1  2 0 20  (19.73)
 0   
frequency response
The magnitude and phase functions are plotted below for Q0  1.25 :
Typical magnitude
and phase
responses of a p = 0
highpass second- 1-(1/2 Q02 )
order frequency |T|
response Q0
(V/V)
1
0
0 0 
T 180
All Q0
(°)
90
0° asymptote
for all Q0
0
0 0 
Figure 19.16
Index The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response PMcL

19.37
19.9.1 Peak Frequency
In a similar manner to the lowpass response, the peak of the frequency

response for the highpass response does not correspond to the resonance
frequency  0 . If we proceed in a similar manner to that shown for the lowpass
response, we find that the frequency at which the magnitude response reaches a
peak is:
0
p  , Q0  1 2
1
1 (19.74)
2Q02
 p  , Q0  1 2
Notice that the peak response always occurs after the resonance frequency for
the highpass response, and we approach  p  0 for high Q0 (say Q0  5 ).
At the peak frequency, the magnitude of the frequency response is:
T j p  
Q0
, Q0  1 2
1  1 2Q0 
2
(19.75)
T j p   1, Q0  1 2
For high Q0 (say Q0  5 ), the magnitude response is T j p   Q0 .
19.9.2 Bandwidth
If there is a relative peak in the magnitude response, then the two half-power
frequencies are the same as for the lowpass case (the circuit exhibits bandpass
behaviour) and the bandwidth is thus:
B  2  1   u2  u1 0  (19.76)
If Q0  1  1 2  1.307 then the peak is below 2 and the bandwidth is

infinite.
PMcL The Second-Order Highpass Frequency Response Index

19.38
19.10 Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses

The table below shows the possibilities and names associated with the
second-order frequency response.
Frequency Response Magnitude Response Name
 02
TLP  Lowpass
 02   2  j  0 Q0 
j  0 Q0 
TBP 
   2  j  0 Q0 
2 Bandpass
0
2
THP 
 02   2  j  0 Q0 
Highpass
 02   2
TBS  2
 0   2  j  0 Q0 
Bandstop
“notch”
 02   2  j  0 Q0 
TAP 
 02   2  j  0 Q0 
Allpass
Table 19.1 – Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses
Index Standard Forms of Second-Order Frequency Responses PMcL

19.39
19.11 Summary
 Resonance is a phenomenon that only occurs in 2nd-order or higher circuits,
and even then, only under certain conditions. It occurs when the forcing
function drives the circuit near one of its natural frequencies of oscillation.
 For the RLC circuit, we define the resonance frequency:
1
r   0
LC
 For the RLC circuit, we define the quality factor at resonance:
R R C
parallel Q0  0CR   R
X C 0 X L0 L
0 L X L0 X C 0 1 L
series Q0    
R R R R C
 The RLC circuit can be used to create a lowpass, bandpass or highpass

filter.
 The two half-power frequencies 1 and 2 are those frequencies at which
the magnitude of the response is 1 2 times its maximum value

(or -3 dB down from the peak).
 The bandwidth of an RLC circuit is defined as the difference of the two

half-power frequencies (if they exist):
B  2  1 rads -1 or B  f 2  f1 Hz
 For a lowpass RLC circuit, if there is only one half-power frequency then
the bandwidth is equal to it (the formulae above apply with f1  1  0 ).
19.12 References
Hill, 1984.
PMcL Summary Index

19.40
Exercises
1.
Find 0 and Q0 for a parallel resonant circuit in which:
(a) C  1 4 μF , L = 4 H, R  20 k .
(b)   1000 s-1 , C  5 nF , L  1 72 H .
(c)   50 s-1 , d  600 rads -1
2.
Let vs t   100 cos0t  V in the circuit shown below:
10 k
i1 i2 i3
vs 40 k 50 mH 1.25 F v( t )
(a) Find the equivalent parallel RLC circuit and then determine
0 , Q0 and vt  .
(b) Find i1 t  , i2 t  and i3 t  .
(c) Calculate the average power loss in the 10 k resistor and the maximum
energy stored in the inductor.

19.41
3.
Find the resonance frequency of the circuit shown:
10 
0.2 H 25 
500 F
4.
400 H 20 k
1 0° mV 100 pF 80 k V0
Find:
(a) r (b) Q0 (c) B (d) 1 (e) 2 (f) V0 at  r
5.
A parallel RLC circuit used in a radio frequency (RF) amplifier is intended to
have an impedance magnitude of 5 k at resonance, 0  107 rads -1 , and
3 k at a frequency 5 kHz below resonance. Specify R, L and C.

19.42
6.
In the series RLC circuit shown below:
100 pF
i 50 
100 cos ( t ) V 400 H
(a) At what value of  is the amplitude of i a maximum?
(b) By how many rads -1 would  have to be increased to reduce I by 5%?
7.
Find the effective values of 0 and Q0 for the network shown below:
0.1 H
0.1  F vC
20  0.04vC

19.43
8.
Determine reasonably accurate values of  r and Q0 for the resonant circuits
shown below:
250 
0.1 0.15 1 k
2 mH
2 mH 20  F 20  F
(a) (b)
9.
A series RLC circuit has an impedance of 10  j 40  at   100 rads -1 . After it
is scaled in magnitude and frequency by the same factor (i.e. km  k f ), it is
found to have an impedance of 30  j180  at   50 rads -1 . Determine the

elements in the original network.

19.44
James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879)

Maxwell produced a most spectacular work of individual genius – he unified
electricity and magnetism. Maxwell was able to summarize all observed
phenomena of electrodynamics in a handful of partial differential equations
known as Maxwell’s equations3:

E 

B
E  
t
B  0
E
  B  J  
t
From these he was able to predict that there should exist electromagnetic waves
which could be transmitted through free space at the speed of light. The
revolution in human affairs wrought by these equations and their experimental
verification by Heinrich Hertz in 1888 is well known: wireless
communication, control and measurement - so spectacularly demonstrated by
television and radio transmissions across the globe, to the moon, and even to
the edge of the solar system!
James Maxwell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland. His mother died when he
was 8, but his childhood was something of a model for a future scientist. He
was endowed with an exceptional memory, and had a fascination with
mechanical toys which he retained all his life. At 14 he presented a paper to the
Royal Society of Edinburgh on ovals. At 16 he attended the University of
Edinburgh where the library still holds records of the books he borrowed while
still an undergraduate – they include works by Cauchy on differential
equations, Fourier on the theory of heat, Newton on optics, Poisson on
3
It was Oliver Heaviside, who in 1884-1885, cast the long list of equations that Maxwell had
given into the compact and symmetrical set of four vector equations shown here and now
universally known as “Maxwell's equations”. It was in this new form ("Maxwell redressed," as
Heaviside called it) that the theory eventually passed into general circulation in the 1890s.
Index James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) PMcL

19.45
mechanics and Taylor’s scientific memoirs. In 1850 he moved to Trinity
College, Cambridge, where he graduated with a degree in mathematics in 1854.
Maxwell was edged out of first place in their final examinations by his
classmate Edward Routh, who was also an excellent mathematician.
Maxwell stayed at Trinity where, in 1855, he formulated a “theory of three

primary colour-perceptions” for the human perception of colour. In 1855 and
1856 he read papers to the Cambridge Philosophical Society “On Faraday’s
Lines of Force” in which he showed how a few relatively simple mathematical
equations could express the behaviour of electric and magnetic fields.
In 1856 he became Professor of Natural Philosophy at Aberdeen, Scotland, and

started to study the rings of Saturn. In 1857 he showed that stability could be
achieved only if the rings consisted of numerous small solid particles, an
explanation now confirmed by the Voyager spacecraft.
In 1860 Maxwell moved to King’s College in London. In 1861 he created the

first colour photograph – of a Scottish tartan ribbon – and was elected to the
Royal Society. In 1862 he calculated that the speed of propagation of an
electromagnetic wave is approximately that of the speed of light:
We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse
undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic
phenomena.
Maxwell’s famous account, “A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic
All the mathematical
Field” was read before a largely perplexed Royal Society in 1864. Here he sciences are
founded on relations
brought forth, for the first time, the equations which comprise the basic laws of between physical
laws and laws of
electromagnetism. numbers, so that the
aim of exact science
Maxwell also continued work he had begun at Aberdeen, on the kinetic theory is to reduce the
problems of nature
of gases (he had first considered the problem while studying the rings of to the determination
of quantities by
Saturn). In 1866 he formulated, independently of Ludwig Boltzmann, the operations with
kinetic theory of gases, which showed that temperature and heat involved only numbers. – James
Clerk Maxwell
molecular motion.
PMcL James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) Index

19.46
Maxwell was the first to publish an analysis of the effect of a capacitor in a

circuit containing inductance, resistance and a sinusoidal voltage source, and to
show the conditions for resonance. The way in which he came to solve this
problem makes an interesting story:
Maxwell was spending an evening with Sir William Grove who was then
engaged in experiments on vacuum tube discharges. He used an induction
coil for this purpose, and found the if he put a capacitor in series with the
primary coil he could get much larger sparks. He could not see why. Grove
knew that Maxwell was a splendid mathematician, and that he also had
mastered the science of electricity, especially the theoretical art of it, and so
he thought he would ask this young man [Maxwell was 37] for an
explanation. Maxwell, who had not had very much experience in
experimental electricity at that time, was at a loss. But he spent that night in
working over his problem, and the next morning he wrote a letter to Sir
William Grove explaining the whole theory of the capacitor in series
connection with a coil. It is wonderful what a genius can do in one night!
Maxwell’s letter, which began with the sentence, “Since our conversation
yesterday on your experiment on magneto-electric induction, I have considered
it mathematically, and now send you the result,” was dated March 27, 1868.
Preliminary to the mathematical treatment, Maxwell gave in this letter an
unusually clear exposition of the analogy existing between certain electrical
and mechanical effects. In the postscript, or appendix, he gave the
mathematical theory of the experiment. Using different, but equivalent,
symbols, he derived and solved the now familiar expression for the current i in
such a circuit:
di 1
L  Ri   idt  V sin t
dt C
The solution for the current amplitude of the resulting sinusoid, in the steady-
state is:
V
I
2
 1 
R   L 
2

 C 
from which Maxwell pointed out that the current would be a maximum when:
1
L 
C

19.47
Following Maxwell, Heinrich Hertz later showed a thorough acquaintance with
electrical resonance and made good use of it in his experimental apparatus that
proved the existence of electromagnetic waves, as predicted by Maxwell’s
equations. In the first of his series of papers describing his experiment, “On
Very Rapid Electric Oscillations”, published in 1887, he devotes one section to
a discussion of “Resonance Phenomena” and published the first electrical
resonance curve:
The first electrical

resonance curve
published, by Hertz,
1887
When creating his standard for electrical resistance, Maxwell wanted to design
a governor to keep a coil spinning at a constant rate. He made the system stable
by using the idea of negative feedback. It was known for some time that the
governor was essentially a centrifugal pendulum, which sometimes exhibited
“hunting” about a set point – that is, the governor would oscillate about an
equilibrium position until limited in amplitude by the throttle valve or the
travel allowed to the bobs. This problem was solved by Airy in 1840 by fitting
a damping disc to the governor. It was then possible to minimize speed
j
fluctuations by adjusting the “controller gain”. But as the gain was increased,
the governors would burst into oscillation again. In 1868, Maxwell published

his paper “On Governors” in which he derived the equations of motion of s -plane
engines fitted with governors of various types, damped in several ways, and
explained in mathematical terms the source of the oscillation. He was also able
to set bounds on the parameters of the system that would ensure stable
operation. He posed the problem for more complicated control systems, but
thought that a general solution was insoluble. It was left to Routh some years
later to solve the general problem of linear system stability: “It has recently
come to my attention that my good friend James Clerk Maxwell has had
difficulty with a rather trivial problem…”.
PMcL James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) Index

19.48
In 1870 Maxwell published his textbook Theory of Heat. The following year he
returned to Cambridge to be the first Cavendish Professor of Physics – he
designed the Cavendish laboratory and helped set it up.
The four partial differential equations describing electromagnetism, now

known as Maxwell’s equations, first appeared in fully developed form in his
Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism in 1873. The significance of the work
was not immediately grasped, mainly because an understanding of the atomic
nature of electromagnetism was not yet at hand.
The Cavendish laboratory was opened in 1874, and Maxwell spent the next 5
years editing Henry Cavendish’s papers.
Maxwell died of abdominal cancer, in 1879, at the age of forty-eight. At his

death, Maxwell’s reputation was uncertain. He was recognised to have been an
exceptional scientist, but his theory of electromagnetism remained to be
convincingly demonstrated. About 1880 Hermann von Helmholtz, an admirer
of Maxwell, discussed the possibility of confirming his equations with a
student, Heinrich Hertz. In 1888 Hertz performed a series of experiments
which produced and measured electromagnetic waves and showed how they
behaved like light. Thereafter, Maxwell’s reputation continued to grow, and he
may be said to have prepared the way for twentieth-century physics.
References
Blanchard, J.: The History of Electrical Resonance, Bell System Technical

Journal, Vol. 20 (4), p. 415, 1941.

20.1
20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 20.2

20.1 Filter Design Parameters ....................................................................... 20.2
20.2 The Lowpass Biquad Circuit ................................................................. 20.4
20.3 The Universal Biquad Circuit ................................................................ 20.9
20.4 Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter ............................................. 20.10
20.5 The Butterworth Lowpass Filter .......................................................... 20.13
20.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 20.16
20.7 References ........................................................................................... 20.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 20.17
PMcL Contents Index
2015 20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

20.2
Introduction
With the advent of op-amps and circuit miniaturization, engineers developed
what is known as a universal filter. It’s frequency response takes the form of a
biquadratic equation, and so it is also known as a biquad. Depending on the
connections made and the point at which the output is taken, the universal filter
can deliver lowpass, highpass, bandpass, bandstop (notch) and allpass
responses. It is one of the most useful circuits to the electrical engineer and is
widely available.
20.1 Filter Design Parameters

Jargon fills a special need for the engineer. It is shorthand that permits the
expression of ideas quickly and compactly. “Design a lowpass filter with an
 0 of 10,000 and a Q0 of 5.” We will explore how this can be carried out.
We begin with the RLC circuit shown below, which has the now familiar form
of a voltage-divider circuit.
R jL
1
Vi Vo
jC
Figure 20.1
20 - Second-Order Op-Amp Filters 2015

20.3
The frequency response for this circuit is given by:
T j  
Vo 1 LC
 (20.1)
Vi 1 LC   2  jR L
This result can be put into a standard form by noting that 0  1 LC and
Q0  0 L R for the series RLC circuit. We can then write:
02
T j   2
0   2  j 0 Q0 
(20.2)
The two parameters  0 and Q0 uniquely specify the standard form of the  0 and Q0
uniquely specify a
second-order frequency response. second-order
frequency response
The historical identification of Q0 with RLC circuits is no longer appropriate,
since we can identify many kinds of circuits with the parameter Q0 . We can
now make the association of  0 and Q0 with any second-order circuit, as

suggested by the figure below:
R jL
1 0
Vi Vo
jC Vi
Q0
Vo
any second-order circuit standard form
Figure 20.2
PMcL Filter Design Parameters Index

20.4
20.2 The Lowpass Biquad Circuit

The standard form of a lowpass second-order frequency response, as in
Eq. (20.2), does not recognise the availability of gain that is possible with
active circuits. Also, an active circuit may be inverting or non-inverting. A
more general form for T j  is therefore:
Standard form of a
 H02
lowpass second-
T j   2
0   2  j 0 Q0 
order frequency
(20.3)
response with gain
We seek a circuit that will implement this second-order frequency response, as

well as any other “biquadratic” frequency response. (A biquadratic, or biquad
frequency response is similar to the way a bilinear frequency response was
defined – a biquadratic function is a ratio of second-order polynomials).
Normalising so that  0  1 , and anticipating an inverting realisation for the

frequency response, we have:
Standard form of a
H
T j  
normalised lowpass Vo

1   2  j 1 Q0  Vi
second-order (20.4)
frequency response
with gain
We can manipulate this equation so that it has a form that can be identified
with simple circuits we have seen before. We first rewrite Eq. (20.4) as:
1  j j  1 Q0 Vo  HVi (20.5)
Dividing by j  j  1 Q0  , it becomes:
 1  H
1   o
V  Vi
   
(20.6)
 j j  1 Q0  j j  1 Q0
Index The Lowpass Biquad Circuit PMcL

20.5
We can manipulate further to form:
 1 H   1 
Second-order
Vo   Vo  Vi    1    frequency response
(20.7)
  
made from first-
 j j   j  1 Q0  order parts
The (–1) term can be realised by an inverting circuit of gain 1. The factor
1  j  1 Q0  is realised by a “lossy” inverting integrator. Two operations are
indicated by the remaining factor. The circuit realisation must produce a sum
of voltages, and it must have a frequency response of the form  1 j  .
The three circuits that provide for these three operations are shown below:
The three first-order
circuits that make a
1 second-order circuit
1
1
1
vo
1
vi 1 Q0
1/H
Figure 20.3
PMcL The Lowpass Biquad Circuit Index

20.6
If we connect the three circuits together, including a feedback connection of the

output vo to the input, the result is a scaled version of the Tow-Thomas biquad
circuit:
The normalised
Tow-Thomas biquad
circuit
1
1 1
1/H Q0
vi 1
1
vo
Figure 20.4
There are many circuits that implement biquadratic frequency responses. The
Tow-Thomas circuit is one of them, the Kerwin-Huelsman-Newcomb (KHN)
circuit is another. For brevity, we will simply refer to the Tow-Thomas biquad
circuit as “the biquad”.
With the elements identified by R’s and C’s, we have:

The Tow-Thomas
biquad circuit
R5
C1 C2
R2
R1
vi R2 R4
R3
vo
Figure 20.5

20.7
Show that the frequency response is:
 1 R1R3C1C2
T j   The biquad’s
1 R3 R5C1C2   2  j 1 R4C2 
(20.8) frequency response
Comparing this with Eq. (20.3), we have:
1
0  (20.9)
R3 R5C1C2
R42C2 The biquad’s design
Q0  (20.10) equations
R3 R5C1
R5
H (20.11)
R1
An important property of the biquad is that it can be orthogonally tuned. Using The biquad can be
the above equations, we can devise a tuning algorithm: orthogonally tuned
1. R 3 can be adjusted to the specified value of  0 .
2. R4 can then be adjusted to give the specified value of Q0 without

The biquad’s tuning
changing  0 . algorithm
3. R1 can then be adjusted to give the specified value of H without
affecting either  0 or Q0 .
Other advantages of the circuit are:
 the input impedance is purely resistive
 there is effectively “pre-amplification” built-in to the topology via the

gain setting resistor R1 (the incoming signal amplitude is amplified and
then filtered, which eliminates more “noise” than filtering and then
amplifying).
PMcL The Lowpass Biquad Circuit Index

20.8
EXAMPLE 20.1 Design of a Lowpass Biquad Circuit
We require a circuit that will provide an  0  1000 rads-1 , a Q0  0.866 and a
DC gain of H  2 . We set  0  1 and use the biquad circuit of Figure 20.4
with the values of Q0 and H specified above.
We then perform frequency scaling to meet the specifications, by setting

k f  1000 . The biquad circuit then becomes:
1
1 mF 1 mF
1
0.5
vi 1 0.866 
1
vo
Figure 20.6
We then select km  10 000 to give convenient element values. A realistic

circuit that meets the specifications is then:
10 k
100 nF 100 nF
10 k
5 k
vi 10 k 10 k 8.66 k 
vo
Figure 20.7

20.9
20.3 The Universal Biquad Circuit

By applying a feedforward scheme to the lowpass Tow-Thomas biquad circuit,
A universal filter can
a “universal” filter can be implemented. A universal filter is one that can be implement any
biquadratic
made either a lowpass, highpass, bandpass, notch or allpass filter by frequency response
appropriate selection of component values.
The normalised
Tow-Thomas
1
universal filter
1 1
1 Q0
1
vo
R1 R2 C3
vi
Figure 20.8
In terms of the quantities in Figure 20.8, show that:
Vo 1 R1  C3 2  j 1 R2 

1   2  j 1 Q0 
(20.12)
Vi
If we choose C3  1 and R1  R2   , then the first and third terms in the
numerator vanish, leaving only the   2 term. Writing this result we have:
The universal
 2 biquad circuit can
T j   implement a
1   2  j 1 Q0 
(20.13) highpass second-
order frequency
response
which means we have now created a highpass filter.
PMcL The Universal Biquad Circuit Index

20.10
The universal Starting with the universal biquad circuit, it is possible to realise a lowpass,
biquad can
implement many highpass, bandpass, bandstop or allpass filter by making simple changes such
second-order
frequency as the removal of a resistor. The normalised design values for the various
responses
responses are given in the table below, where H is the passband gain.
Table 20.1 – Design Values for the Tow-Thomas Universal Filter
Table of design
Design Values
values for a
Filter Type R1 R2 C3
universal filter
Lowpass 1H  0
Bandpass  Q0 H 0
Highpass   H
Notch  0 n  H
2
 H
Allpass 1H Q0 H H
An example of a commercially available universal filter is the UAF42 from

Texas Instruments. This uses the “state-variable” biquad topology rather than
the Tow-Thomas. It requires just four external resistors to set the filter
parameters, and makes available lowpass, highpass and bandpass outputs:
The UAF42
universal filter from HP Out BP Out LP Out
Texas Instruments R F1 R F2
12 13 8 7 14 1
R1
50 k
R2 C1 C2
50 k
2
1 nF 1 nF
50 k
RG A1 A2 A3
v i
3
R4
50 k
RQ
UAF42
11
Figure 20.9
Index The Universal Biquad Circuit PMcL

20.11
20.4 Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter

The ideal lowpass filter characteristic is the brick wall filter. Although we
cannot achieve the ideal, it provides a basis on which we can rate an
approximation. We want T to be as constant as possible in the passband, so The features we
want when
that different low frequency signals are passed through the filter without a approximating the
ideal lowpass filter
change in amplitude. In the stopband we require n-pole rolloff, where n is
large, in contrast to the n  2 rolloff for the biquad circuit. We want the
transition from passband to stopband to be as abrupt as possible.
This is summarised in the figure below:
Approximating the
|T| Small error
1 Brick wall
n-pole rolloff
0
0 1 
Figure 20.10
PMcL Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter Index

20.12
The method we will use in the approach to this problem is illustrated below:
We achieve the
approximation to the
by cascading
|T|
1.5
|T1 |
Brick wall
1.0 |T2 |
|T3 |
0.5
|T1 ||T2 ||T3 | product

0
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 
Vi T1 T2 T3 Vo
Figure 20.11
We will connect modules in cascade such that the overall frequency response is
of the form given in Figure 20.10. For the example in Figure 20.11, large
The cascaded
circuits have the values of T1 are just overcome by the small values of T2 and T3 to achieve
same  0 but
the approximation to the brick wall. The frequency responses have the same
different Q0
value of  0 , but different values of Q0 . Determining the required values of Q0
is a part of filter design.
Index Approximating the Ideal Lowpass Filter PMcL

20.13
20.5 The Butterworth Lowpass Filter

The Butterworth1 response is the name given to the following magnitude
function:
Tn  j  
1 The Butterworth
magnitude response
1   0 
2n
(20.14)
defined
Normalising such that  0  1 gives:
The normalised
Tn  j  
1 Butterworth
(20.15)
1  2n magnitude response
From this equation we can observe some interesting properties of the

Butterworth response:
1. Tn  j 0  1 for all n.
1. Tn  j1  1 2  0.707 for all n.

Properties of the
normalised
Butterworth
2. For large  , Tn  j  exhibits n-pole rolloff. magnitude response
3. Tn  j  has all derivatives but one equal to zero near   0 . The response
is known as maximally flat.
1
Stephen Butterworth was a British engineer who described this type of response in connection
with electronic amplifiers in his paper “On the Theory of Filter Amplifiers”, Wireless Eng.,
vol. 7, 1930, pp. 536-541.
PMcL The Butterworth Lowpass Filter Index

20.14
These properties are shown below:
Butterworth lowpass
magnitude
responses 1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
n =1
|Tn( j )| 0.5
0.4 2
0.3
6 4
0.2
8
0.1
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0

Figure 20.12
The Butterworth response is well-known and has been studied extensively.

Since all normalised Butterworth responses have  0  1 , we can draw up a
table of Q0 values for each value of n:
Table 20.2 – Q0 for Butterworth Filters
n
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Table of Q0 for 0.707 1.000 0.541 0.618 0.518 0.555 0.510 0.532 0.506
Butterworth filters 1.307 1.618 0.707 0.802 0.601 0.653 0.561
1.932 2.247 0.900 1.000 0.707
2.563 2.879 1.101
3.196
Note: For n odd, there is an additional first-order factor with a cutoff frequency
at  0  1 .
Index The Butterworth Lowpass Filter PMcL

20.15
EXAMPLE 20.2 Butterworth Lowpass Filter Design

We are required to implement a 5th-order Butterworth lowpass filter with an
0  1248 rads -1 .
From Table 20.2, for n  5 the required values of Q0 are 0.618 and 1.618.
There is also a first-order term with a cutoff frequency at 0 .
The realisation to meet these specifications can be shown in block diagram

form:
cutoff at  0 =1248  0 =1248

Vi Vo
 0 =1248 Q0 =0.618 Q0 =1.618
1st-order 2nd-order 2nd-order
Figure 20.13
Each second-order block could be realised using the biquad circuit. The first-
order circuit can be realised with a simple buffered RC circuit. If we use the
circuit of Figure 20.4 for the biquad, then we must frequency scale using
k f  1248 . We then perform magnitude scaling to achieve practical element
values.
The Butterworth response is not the only response that can be used to
approximate the ideal brickwall filter. Other common responses are the
Chebyshev response, inverse Chebyshev response and Cauer (or elliptic)
response. Each has their advantages and disadvantages.
PMcL The Butterworth Lowpass Filter Index

20.16
20.6 Summary
 The universal biquad circuit is a ready-made module which provides a
variety of second-order frequency responses – lowpass, highpass, bandpass,
notch or allpass.
 The design of a biquad circuit is specified by just three parameters – the

resonance frequency 0 , the quality factor at resonance Q0 , and the
passband gain H.
 Butterworth filters are easily designed using a table of Q0 values and can
be implemented as a cascade of first-order and second-order circuits.
20.7 References
Huelsman, L. P.: Active and Passive Analog Filter Design, McGraw-Hill,
Singapore, 1993.
Sedra, A. & Smith, K.: Microelectronic Circuits, Saunders College Publishing,

Sydney, 1991.
Van Valkenburg, M. E.: Analog Filter Design, Holt-Saunders, Tokyo, 1982.
Index Summary PMcL

20.17
Exercises
1.
R
Vo
2R R
Vi1
2R 1
Vi2
j C
(a) Show that:
1 1
Vo  Vi1  Vi 2
jCR jCR
(b) Show that the use of this circuit in the lowpass biquad circuit permits us to
reduce the number of op-amps by one.
2.
(a) Design a lowpass second-order filter with  0  10 000 , Q0  5 and H 2
using 1 nF capacitors.
(b) Design a highpass second-order filter with  0  5 000 , Q0  8 and H 1

using 10 nF capacitors.

20.18
3.
Derive the frequency response of the so-called Sallen-Key circuit:
2Q0
1 1
vi
vo
1
2Q0
This can be used instead of the biquad as a single op-amp lowpass second-
order circuit.
4.
Derive the frequency response of the so-called Friend circuit:
1
2Q0
2
4 Q0
1
vi
vo
1
2Q0
This can be used instead of the biquad as a single op-amp bandpass second-
order circuit.

21.1
21 Complex Frequency
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 21.2

21.1 Complex Frequency............................................................................... 21.3
21.2 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function ............................................ 21.7
21.3 Generalized Impedance and Admittance ............................................. 21.11
21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of  ............................................ 21.14
21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of  ............................................ 21.18
21.6 The Complex-Frequency Plane ........................................................... 21.23
21.7 Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot ....... 21.29
21.8 Summary.............................................................................................. 21.32
21.9 References ........................................................................................... 21.32
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 21.33
PMcL Contents Index
2015 21 - Complex Frequency

21.2
Introduction
We have analysed circuits with DC sources and sinusoidal sources – DC can be
considered a special case of a sinusoidal source (one that has zero frequency).
We have also seen that sinusoids are made up of exponentials with imaginary
exponents, and that the exponential function plays a special and key role in the
determination of the natural response of circuits.
It is only natural, then, to try and extend our study of circuits to a more general
class of exponential functions – specifically to complex exponential functions,
which then include DC, exponential, and sinusoidal functions as special cases.
The introduction of a complex exponential forcing function leads to a natural

definition of complex frequency. Analysis of circuits using the concept of
complex frequency leads to special insight into circuit behaviour. We will see
that complex frequency unifies concepts and results in many advantages – from
a deeper insight into understanding circuit behaviour, to analytical techniques
associated with establishing the natural, forced and complete response of a
circuit, and eventually to “intuition” and circuit design.
21 - Complex Frequency 2015

21.3
21.1 Complex Frequency

Consider an exponentially damped sinusoidal function, such as the voltage:
vt   Vmet cost    (21.1)
(This is termed a damped function because  is generally negative).
There are several special cases of this function.
When both  and  are zero, we have DC:
vt   Vm cos   V0 (21.2)
When only  is zero, we have a sinusoid:
vt   Vm cost    (21.3)
If only  is zero, we have an exponential voltage:
vt   Vmet cos   V0et (21.4)
The form of this exponential voltage reminds us of the complex exponential

representation of a sinusoid:
V0e jt (21.5)
The only difference is that the exponent is real in one case, and imaginary in
the other. Since t must be dimensionless, we define  to be a “frequency”.
Perhaps we should generalise our complex exponential representation of a

sinusoid by including this new frequency,  ? Thus, we define complex
frequency:
s    j (21.6)
PMcL Complex Frequency Index

21.4
Now, suppose we declare a function of the form:
f t   Kest (21.7)
where K and s are complex constants (independent of time). We say that the
function is characterised by the complex frequency s . For example, a constant
voltage V0 may be declared in the required format as:
vt   V0e0t (21.8)
The complex frequency of a DC voltage or current is thus s  0 .
The exponential function:
vt   V0et (21.9)
is already in the required format, and we identify s    j 0 .
A sinusoidal function cannot be expressed in the required format. Given:
vt   Vm cost    (21.10)
we use Euler’s identity to express it as:

vt   12 Vm e j t    e  j t   
 12 Vme j e jt  12 Vm e  j e  jt (21.11)
 K1es1t  K 2es 2t
Therefore, we have the sum of two complex exponentials – a pair of conjugate,

counter-rotating phasors. Therefore, two complex frequencies are present, one
for each term. The complex frequency of the first term is s  s1  j and that
of the second term is s  s2   j . Thus, s1  s*2 and the two values of K are
also conjugate, K1  12 Vme j and K 2  K1*  12 Vme j .
Index Complex Frequency PMcL

21.5
Lastly, let us determine the complex frequency associated with the
exponentially damped sinusoidal function. We again use Euler’s identity:
vt   Vm et cos t   


 12 Vm et e j t    e  j t    (21.12)
 12 Vm e j e  j t  12 Vm e  j e  j t
We therefore find once again that a conjugate complex pair of frequencies is

required to describe the exponentially damped sinusoid, s1    j and
s2  s1*    j . In general, neither  nor  is zero, and we see that the

exponentially varying sinusoidal waveform is the general case – the constant,
exponential and sinusoidal waveforms are special cases.
As numerical illustrations, we should now recognize by inspection the complex

frequencies associated with these voltages:
vt   100 s0
vt   5e  2t s  2  j 0
s1  j 500 (21.13)

vt   2 sin 500t  
s 2  s1   j 500
*
s1  3  j 6
vt   4e 3t sin 6t  10 
s 2  s1  3  j 6
*
PMcL Complex Frequency Index

21.6
The reverse should also be true – given a complex frequency or a pair of

conjugate complex frequencies, we should be able to identify the mathematical
form of the function with which they are associated. Thus, the most special
case s  0 defines a constant:
s0  f t   Ke0t  constant (21.14)
where K must be real if the function is to be real.
A negative real value, such as s  5  j 0 , defines a decaying exponential:
s  5  j 0  f t   Ke5t (21.15)
where again K must be real if the function is to be real.
A purely imaginary value of s , such as s  j10 , can never be associated with a

real quantity. In order to construct a real function, it is necessary to consider
conjugate values of s , such as s1, 2   j10 , with which must be associated
conjugate values of K . Loosely speaking, however, we may identify either of

the complex frequencies s  j10 or s   j10 with a sinusoidal voltage at the
radian frequency 10 rad/s. The presence of the conjugate complex frequency is
understood. Thus:
s1  j10 
  f t   A cos10t    (21.16)
s 2   j10
In a similar manner, a general value for s , such as s  3  j5 , can be

associated with a real quantity only if it is accompanied by its conjugate:
s1  3  j5 
  f t   Ae 3t cos5t    (21.17)
s 2  3  j5

21.7
In general, the complex frequency s describes an exponentially varying
sinusoid. The real part of s is associated with the exponential variation – if it is
negative, the function decays to zero as t increases, if positive, the function
increases, and if it is zero, the sinusoidal amplitude is constant. The imaginary
part of s describes the sinusoidal variation – it is specifically the radian
frequency.
21.2 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function

The general exponentially varying sinusoidal voltage:
vt   Vmet cost    (21.18)
is expressible in terms of the complex frequency s by making use of Euler’s

identity:

vt   Re Vmet e j t    (21.19)
Collecting factors:

vt   Re Vme j e  j t  (21.20)
we now substitute s    j , and obtain:

vt   Re Vme j est  (21.21)
We note the resemblance to the corresponding representation of the undamped

sinusoid:

vt   Re Vme j e jt  (21.22)
PMcL The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function Index

21.8
The only difference is that we now have s where we previously had j . Thus,
our approach will be to develop a frequency-domain description of the
exponentially varying sinusoid in exactly the same way as we did for the
undamped sinusoid: omit the Re notation and suppress est .
Thus, if we apply the forcing function:
vt   Vmet cost   

 
(21.23)
or vt   Re Vme e j st
then we expect the forced response, say a current in some branch of the circuit,
to be:
it   I met cost   

 
(21.24)
or it   Re I me e j st
where the complex frequency of the source and the response must be identical.
We recall that the application of a complex source results in a complex

response, and that the real part of the source resulted in the real part of the
 
response. Thus, given the real forcing function vt   Re Vme j est we apply the
complex forcing function Vm e j est . The resultant forced response, I me j est is

complex and it must have as its real part the desired time-domain forced
response it   ReI me j est  .
Index The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function PMcL

21.9
EXAMPLE 21.1 The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function
i (t ) 2 3H
v( t ) 0.1 F
We shall apply the forcing function:
vt   60e2t cos4t  10
and we desire the forced response:
it   I me2t cos4t   
We first express the forcing function as the real part of a complex function:
vt   60e 2t cos 4t  10


 Re 60e 2t e j 4t 10  
 Re60e j10
e  2 j 4 t

or:

vt   Re Vest 
where:
V  6010 and s  2  j 4
After dropping the Re, we are left with the complex forcing function Vest . In a
similar manner, we represent the unknown response by the complex quantity
Iest where I  I m .
PMcL The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function Index

21.10
From KVL we obtain:
idt  vt 
di 1
dt C 
Ri  L 
2i  3  10 idt  vt 

di
dt
and we substitute the given complex forcing function and the assumed complex
forced response:
10 st
2Iest  3sIest  Ie  6010est
s
The common factor est is “suppressed” by dividing both sides by e st :
10
2I  3sI  I  6010
s
and:
6010
I
2  3s  10 s
The left side of this equation is a current. On the right, the numerator is a
voltage, and so the denominator must be interpreted as an impedance.
We now let s  2  j 4 and solve for the complex current I :
6010
I
2  3 2  j 4  10  2  j 4
After manipulating the complex numbers, we find:
I  5.37 106.6
Thus, the forced response is:
it   5.37e2t cos4t  106.6
Index The Damped Sinusoidal Forcing Function PMcL

21.11
21.3 Generalized Impedance and Admittance

In order to apply Kirchhoff’s Laws directly to a circuit with a complex forcing
function, we need to determine the relationship between the complex voltage
across an element and the complex current through it, i.e. the impedance or
admittance of an element.
We will consider the inductor, and then state the relationships for the other
elements, since the derivations are similar.
The defining time-domain equation for the inductor is:
dit 
vt   L (21.25)
dt
d st
Vest  L Ie (21.26)
dt
Vest  sLIest (21.27)
Suppressing est , we find the desired voltage-current relationship:
V  sLI (21.28)
Thus, the impedance of the inductor is:

Generalized
impedance of an
Zs  
V
 sL (21.29) inductor
I
and the admittance is:
Ys  
I 1
 (21.30)
V sL
PMcL Generalized Impedance and Admittance Index

21.12
We still call V and I phasors. These complex quantities have a magnitude
and angle which, along with a specific complex frequency value, enable us to
characterize the exponentially varying sinusoidal waveform completely. The
phasor is still a frequency-domain description, but we have now expanded its
definition to include complex frequency.
The frequency-domain equivalent of an inductor is shown below:
i I
v=L di L V=s L I sL
dt
Figure 21.1
In the table below, we show how we can transform a resistor, inductor or

capacitor from the time-domain into its frequency-domain impedance:
Generalized Time-domain Frequency-domain

impedances of the
three passive
elements
R R
L sL
C 1
sC
Table 21.1 – Generalized impedances
Index Generalized Impedance and Admittance PMcL

21.13
EXAMPLE 21.2 Generalised Impedance
If we now reconsider the series RLC example in the frequency domain, the
source voltage:
vt   60e2t cos4t  10
is transformed to the phasor voltage:
V  6010
A phasor current I is assumed, and the impedance of each element at the

complex frequency s  2  j 4 is determined and placed on a frequency-
domain circuit diagram:
I 2 -6+ j 12 
10
60 10° = -1- j2 
-2+ j 4
s =-2+ j 4
The phasor current is now easily found by dividing the phasor voltage by the
sum of the three impedances:
6010 6010
I   5.37  106.6 A
2   6  j12   1  j 2  5  j10
The forced response is then:
it   5.37e2t cos4t  106.6
Thus, the previous result is obtained, but much more easily and rapidly.
PMcL Generalized Impedance and Admittance Index

21.14
21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of 

Suppose we have a circuit which is excited by a single source, Vs  Vs 0 ,
and that the desired response is a current I . This phasor response is a complex
number, and it can be represented by two numbers – a magnitude and a phase.
If the source varies as a function of only radian frequency  , then we can plot
the magnitude response as a function of  and the phase response as a
function of  .
EXAMPLE 21.3 Frequency Response as a Function of 
Suppose we have a series RL circuit:
I R
Vs sL
The phasor voltage Vs  Vs 0 is applied, and the response is the phasor
current I . The forced response is:
Vs
I
R  sL
If Vs represents a sinusoidal forcing function, then s  j and we have:
Vs
I
R  jL
The magnitude of the response is:
Vs
I 
R   2 L2
2
Index Frequency Response as a Function of PMcL

21.15
and the phase of the response is:
L
I   tan 1
R
These are the analytical expressions for the magnitude and phase angle of the
response as a function of  – we can now present the same information
graphically.
For the magnitude curve, we note that we are plotting the absolute value of
some quantity and so the entire curve lies above the  axis. The response is
Vs R at zero frequency, and the response approaches zero as frequency
approaches infinity. We graph both positive and negative values of frequency:
|I |
Vs / R magnitude of
Vs
I ( j ) =
R+ j  L
0 
- 2R -R R 2R
L L L L
The second part of the response, the phase angle of I versus  , is an inverse
tangent function:
90°
angle of
Vs
I ( j  ) = R+ j  L
2R R 0 R 2R 
- L -L L L
-90°
PMcL Frequency Response as a Function of Index

21.16
EXAMPLE 21.4 Frequency Response as a Function of 
Suppose we have a parallel LC circuit:
1
Is V sL sC
The voltage response is easily obtained:
V  Is
sL 1 sC   I sL
sL  1 sC s LC  1
s 2
For a sinusoidal forcing function, then s  j and the circuit presents an

impedance to the current source of:
V jL 1 
Z  j
I s   LC  1
2
C   1 LC
2
By letting 0  1 LC , we can express the magnitude of the impedance in a

form which enables those frequencies to be identified at which the response is
zero or infinite:
1 
Z
C    0    0 
Such frequencies are called critical frequencies, and their early identification
simplifies the construction of the response curve. We note that the response has
zero amplitude when   0 . When this happens we say that the response has a
zero at   0 , and we also describe the frequency at which it occurs as a zero.
A response of infinite amplitude is noted at   0 and   0 . These
frequencies are called poles, and the response is said to have a pole at each of
these frequencies. Finally, we note that the response approaches zero as
   , and thus    is also a zero (it is customary to consider plus
infinity and minus infinity as being the same point).

21.17
The locations of the critical frequencies should be marked on the  axis, by
using small circles for the zeros and crosses for the poles. The drawing of the
graph is made easier by adding broken vertical lines as asymptotes at each pole
location. The completed graph of magnitude versus  is shown below:
| Z|
2
0C
1
0C
- 2 0 -0 0 0 2 0 
The corresponding phase response is, from an inspection of the original

equation:
90°
- 2 0 -0 0 0 2 0 
-90°

21.18
21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of 

By analogy with the response due to a varying  , we now consider a response
due to a varying  . Suppose we have a circuit which is excited by a single
source, Vs  Vs 0 , and that the desired response is a current I . This phasor
response is a complex number, and it can be represented by two numbers – a
magnitude and a phase. If the source varies as a function of only  , then we
can plot the magnitude response as a function of  and the phase response as a
function of  .
EXAMPLE 21.5 Frequency Response as a Function of 
Suppose we have a series RL circuit:
I R
Vs sL
The phasor voltage Vs  Vs 0 is applied, and the response is the phasor
current I . The forced response is:
Vs
I
R  sL
We now set   0 , s    j 0 , thus restricting ourselves to time-domain
sources of the form v s  Vs et . Thus:
Vs
I
R  L
As  varies, we can obtain a qualitative description of the circuit’s behaviour.

When  is large and negative, the current response is negative and relatively
small in amplitude. As  increases, becoming a smaller negative number, the
magnitude of the response increases, until we encounter    R L , a pole of

21.19
the forced response, at which point the response is infinite. As  continues to
increase, the next noteworthy point is   0 , where we have the case of a DC
source, v s  Vs , and the forced response is obviously I  Vs R . Positive values
of  must all provide positive amplitude responses, and the response must
decrease as  get larger. Finally, as    , we have a zero-amplitude
response, and therefore a zero. The only critical frequencies are the pole at
   R L and the zero at    .
This information is plotted graphically below:
|I |
Vs
R
0 
-R
L
The phase response, not shown, is either 0 or 180 .
In the example above, a finite critical frequency occurred at    R L . That

is, when the circuit is excited at this frequency by the voltage:
vs  Vs eRt L (21.31)
we get an infinite response. Why? The forcing function has a familiar form – it
is the same form as the natural response of the circuit. We know that if we have
a source-free circuit, then the response due to an initial current would be:
i  I 0e Rt L (21.32)
Thus, a zero-amplitude input produces a finite response. Since the circuit is

linear, we conclude that a non-zero-amplitude forcing function will produce an
infinite forced response.

21.20
This result is quite general:
When any circuit is excited at a frequency which is a pole of

(21.33)
the response, then an infinite response must result.
We also have:
The frequencies of the poles are directly related

(21.34)
to the natural response of the circuit.
Suppose we have a series RC circuit, excited by an exponential current source

i s  I s et :
i s  I s e t v C
The voltage across the source is:
 1    1 RC
V  ZI   R   I s  RI s
 C  
We can now identify the poles and zeros of the response from the form of the
equation – it indicates a pole at   0 and a zero at   1 RC .

21.21
The response magnitude is plotted as a function of  below:
|V |
RIs
0 
- 1
RC
The reason for the pole at zero frequency may again be explained on physical
grounds. If I s  0 , then the current source is an open-circuit and the response
is the initial capacitor voltage. A non-zero I s must therefore produce an

infinite forced voltage response. In other words, if a constant current has been
applied to the circuit forever, then the capacitor voltage would be infinite.
Suppose we have a series RLC circuit, excited by an exponential voltage

source:
i (t ) 6 1H
t
100 e V 0.2 F
The current is easily found:
100 
I  100
6   5    1  5

21.22
The response curve is most easily found by first indicating the locations of all
poles and zeros on the  axis, and placing vertical asymptotes at the poles. We
can then seek out relative minima and maxima, and make a sketch of the
response:
|I |
-5 -1 0 
The two poles may again be used to construct the natural response:
in t   A1et  A2e5t
Compare this with the case of an overdamped series RLC circuit:
2
R  R  1
s1, 2     
2L  2L  LC
 3  3 2  5
  1 and  5
Once again, at either of these two frequencies, a zero-amplitude forcing

function may be associated with a finite-amplitude response which can be
interpreted as the natural response of the circuit.

21.23
21.6 The Complex-Frequency Plane

Now that we have considered the forced response of a circuit as  varies (with
  0 ) and as  varies (with   0 ), we are prepared to develop a more
general graphical representation by graphing quantities as functions of s .
After we develop the concept of the complex-frequency plane, or s -plane, we

shall see how quickly the behaviour of a circuit can be obtained from a
graphical representation of its critical frequencies.
The response of a circuit to a complex frequency s is a complex function of s .

Thus, we need a method of representing both the magnitude and phase of the
response as s varies. Therefore, we represent the magnitude and phase
individually, using a three-dimensional model built over the s -plane, where the
height at any point is equal to the value of the quantity we are representing –
either the magnitude or the phase.
The s -plane consists of a  axis and a j axis, perpendicular to each other:
Im s
s = + j
j
0  Re s
complex plane
Figure 21.2
PMcL The Complex-Frequency Plane Index

21.24
We are familiar with the type of time-domain function associated with a

particular value of the complex frequency s . It is now possible to associate the
functional form of a forcing function or forced response with the various
regions in the s -plane.
j
s -plane
Figure 21.3
The origin, for example, must represent a DC quantity. Points lying on the 
axis must represent exponential functions, decaying for   0 , increasing for
  0 . Pure sinusoids are associated with points on the positive or negative
j axis. Points in the left half-plane (LHP) describe the frequencies of
exponentially decreasing (or damped) sinusoids. The RHP contains points
describing exponentially increasing sinusoids.
We may represent the magnitude of a function of s as a surface lying above (or

just touching) the s -plane.
Index The Complex-Frequency Plane PMcL

21.25
EXAMPLE 21.8 Admittance Magnitude on the Complex Plane
Suppose we want to graph the magnitude of the admittance of the series

combination of a 1 H inductor and a 3  resistor:
Ys  
1
s3
We identify the pole immediately as s  3  j 0 – thus our 3D model of the

magnitude of Ys  must have infinite height over this point. When s is
infinite, the magnitude of Ys  must be zero. The model must have zero height
at points infinitely far away from the origin. A cut-away view of the magnitude
of Ys  is shown below:
1
The graph of the
0.8 magnitude of Ys 
over the s-plane
0.6
forms a surface with
|Y|
poles and zeros
0.4
0.2
0
-6
10
-4 5
0
-2
-5
0 -10
j

We can completely specify Ys  , apart from a constant gain factor, by drawing
a so-called pole-zero plot:
j
A pole-zero plot is a
-3
 shorthand way of
representing a
complex function
s -plane of s

21.26
A pole-zero plot locates all the critical points in the s-plane that completely
specify the function Ys  (to within an arbitrary constant), and it is a useful
analytic and design tool.
One cut of the surface has been fortuitously placed along the imaginary axis. If
we graph the height of the surface along this cut against  , we get a picture of
the magnitude of the frequency response versus  :
The frequency
|Y|
1/3 magnitude ofresponse is
obtained from the
1 j-axis of a plot of a
Y( ) =
3+ j function over the
entire s-plane
0 
We can obtain a mental image of the surface that represents the magnitude of a
function over the s-plane quite quickly if we imagine a rubber sheet model. At
zeros, we secure the rubber sheet to the plane (tent pegs). At poles, we prop the
rubber sheet up with infinitely high and thin poles.

21.27
EXAMPLE 21.9 Impedance Magnitude on the Complex Plane
We are given a pole-zero plot of some impedance Zs  .
j
-1+ j 5
-2 
s -plane
-1- j 5
If we visualize a rubber-sheet model, tacked down at s  2  j 0 and propped

up at s  1  j5 and s  1  j5 , we should see a terrain with two mountains
and one valley. The portion of the model for the upper LHP is shown below:
0.8
0.6
|Z|
0.4
0.2
0
-10
10
8
-5 6
4
2
0 0
 j

21.28
We can build up the expression for Zs  which leads to this pole-zero
configuration. The zero requires a factor of s  2 in the numerator, and the
two poles require the factors s  1  j5 and s  1  j5 in the denominator.
Except for a multiplying constant k, we now know the form of Zs  :
s2
Zs   k
s  1  j5s  1  j5
s2
k 2
s  2s  26
The plots Z  versus  and Z  versus  may be obtained exactly from
this expression, but the general form of the function is apparent from the pole-
zero configuration and the rubber-sheet analogy. Portions of these two curves
appear at the sides of the 3D model above.

21.29
21.7 Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot

The frequency response can be visualised in terms of the pole locations of the
response function. For example, for an underdamped second-order lowpass
system:
02 Standard form for a

Vo  Vi lowpass second-
s  0 Q0 s  
(21.35) order response
2 2
0 function
the poles are located on a circle of radius  0 and at an angle with respect to the
negative real axis of   cos 1 1 2Q0  . These complex conjugate pole

locations are shown below:
Pole locations for an

underdamped
j lowpass second-
order response
function
p j 0


p* - j 0
Figure 21.4
In terms of the poles shown in Figure 21.4, the response function is:
02
Underdamped
Vo 
lowpass second-
s  p s  p 
Vi (21.36) order response
function using pole
factors
PMcL Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot Index

21.30
When s  j the two pole factors in this equation become:
j  p  m1 1 and j  p  m2  2
Polar representation
of the pole factors
(21.37)
In terms of these quantities, the magnitude response is:
Magnitude function
02
T j  
written using the
Vo
polar representation
of the pole factors
 (21.38)
Vi m1m2
and the phase response is:

Phase function
T j   1  2 
written using the
polar representation (21.39)
of the pole factors
Vectors representing Eq. (21.37) are shown below:
Determining the
magnitude and
j j j
phase response
m1 j 2
from the s-plane
m1
p p j 0 p
1
m1 1 1
j 1
  
m2 m2 m2
2 2 2
p* p* p*
|T| T
Q0 1 0 2
0 
1
-90 º
-180 º
0 1 0 2 
Figure 21.5
Index Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot PMcL

21.31
Figure 21.5 shows three different frequencies – one below  0 , one at  0 , and
one above  0 . From this construction we can see that the short length of m1
near the frequency  0 is the reason why the magnitude function reaches a peak
near  0 . These plots are useful in visualising the frequency response of the
circuit.
PMcL Visualization of the Frequency Response from a Pole-Zero Plot Index

21.32
21.8 Summary
 Complex frequency is defined as s    j .
 A whole class of forcing functions and responses (exponentially damped

sinusoids) can be expressed using f t   Kest , where K is a complex
constant. If s is complex, then a real function must be composed of a
conjugate pair: f t   Ke st  K *e s t .
*
 A complex forcing function for a voltage can be expressed as Vest , where

V  Vm  is a phasor with the complex frequency s.
 The generalised impedances of the three passive elements are:
1
ZR  R , Z L  sL , ZC 
sC
 Critical frequencies of a forced response occur at zeros and poles. A zero is

a frequency at which the response is zero. A pole is a frequency at which
the response is infinite.
 The poles of a circuit determine the form of its natural response.
 The frequency response of a circuit can be evaluated at each point in the

s-plane. The response along the j axis represents the sinusoidal steady-
state frequency response.
 A pole-zero plot encapsulates all of the information about a circuit’s

response, apart from a multiplicative constant. We can also use a pole-zero
plot to visualize the frequency response.
21.9 References
Hill, 1984.
Index Summary PMcL

21.33
Exercises
1.
Find the complex frequencies associated with the natural response of a source-
free series RLC circuit in which L  10 H , C  250 μF , and R  :
(a) 500  (b) 320 
2.
(a) If i1 t   2e 100t cos1000t  35 mA and
i2 t   4e 100t sin1000t  20 mA , find the phasor representing the sum

of these two currents.
(b) Find the phasor corresponding to it   2e 5t 3 cos 50t  2 sin 50t  mA .
3.
1 1H i (t )
vs 1F 1H
Find i t  at t  0.5 s if:
(a) v s  10 V
(b) vs  10 cos2t  V
(c) vs  10e 3t V
(d) vs  10e 3t cos2t  V

21.34
4.
5
vs 2H 20  is
If vs  20e 4t cos 3t V , while is  3e 3t cos 4t A , find the energy stored in the
inductor at t  0 .
5.
0.1 F
is v 2 k 1 k 0.2 F
Find all the critical frequencies of the ratio V I s , and graph the magnitude of
the ratio as a function of  (use a spreadsheet).
6.
One of the critical frequencies of the impedance of a series RLC circuit occurs
at s  4  j10 s -1 . If the minimum impedance magnitude is 100  ,
determine:
(a) R (b) L (c) C

21.35
7.
The pole-zero plot of an input impedance displays a zero at s  50 and poles
at s  20  j30 .
(a) Determine the magnitude and angle of each vector from a critical frequency
to the point s  j 20 .
(b) Calculate the (complex) ratio of Z in  j 20 to Z in  j 40 .
8.
In 1945, Dr Hendrik W. Bode published Network Analysis and Feedback
Amplifier Design, codifying in one classic book the filter and feedback-
amplifier theory upon which much of the electronics industry still relies.
One of the many results his seminal work revealed was the constant-resistance
network:
R1 R2
L1 C2
Zin
The figure shows only one of many forms of this circuit.
Show that, as long as you let R1  R2 and scale the components such that the
time constant L1 R1 equals the time constant R2 C 2 , then the impedance of the
whole circuit remains constant at all frequencies, and is equal to R1 .
The circuit occasionally sees application in digital systems as a terminating

network, where C 2 represents the unavoidable capacitance of a logic gate
input.

22.1
22 Specialty Amplifiers
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 22.2

22.1 Differential and Common-Mode Signals .............................................. 22.3
22.2 Difference Amplifiers ............................................................................ 22.4
22.2.1 Difference Amplifier Deficiencies ............................................. 22.6
22.2.2 Difference Amplifier ICs ............................................................ 22.6
22.3 Instrumentation Amplifiers.................................................................... 22.7
22.3.1 In-Amp Advantages .................................................................... 22.8
22.3.2 In-Amp Disadvantages ............................................................... 22.9
22.3.3 In-Amp Application .................................................................. 22.10
22.4 Programmable Gain Amplifiers........................................................... 22.11
22.4.1 PGA Design Issues ................................................................... 22.12
22.4.2 PGA Example ........................................................................... 22.12
22.5 Isolation Amplifiers ............................................................................. 22.13
22.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 22.16
22.7 References ........................................................................................... 22.16
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 22.17
PMcL Contents Index
2015 22 - Specialty Amplifiers

22.2
Introduction
There are several popular types of specialty amplifiers, or amplifiers that are
based in some way on op-amp techniques. In an overall application sense, they
are not generally used as universally as op-amps. Examples of specialty
amplifiers include difference amplifiers, instrumentation amplifiers,
programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs) and isolation amplifiers. These will be
looked at briefly because they are used in the important areas of data
acquisition and distribution systems and embedded systems.
In addition, there are many other types of amplifiers such as audio and video
amplifiers, cable drivers, high-speed variable gain amplifiers and various
communication-related amplifiers.
22 - Specialty Amplifiers 2015

22.3
22.1 Differential and Common-Mode Signals

A difference amplifier is one that responds to the difference between the two
signals applied at its input and ideally rejects signals that are common to the
two inputs. The representation of signals in terms of their differential and
common-mode components is given below:
vi1 = vicm vid /2
vid /2
vid = vi2 vi1
vicm = 1 (vi1 + vi2)
2
vicm vid /2
vi2 = vicm + vid /2
Figure 22.1 – Common-Mode and Differential Signals
Although the ideal difference amplifier will amplify only the differential input
signal vid and reject completely the common-mode signal vicm , practical
circuits will have an output voltage vo given by:
vo  Ad vid  Acmvicm (22.1)
where Ad denotes the amplifier differential gain and Acm denotes its common-
mode gain (ideally zero). One measure of a differential amplifier’s
performance is the degree of its rejection of common-mode signals in
preference to differential signals. This is usually quantified by a measure
known as the common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), defined as:
Ad
CMRR  20 log10 dB (22.2)
Acm
PMcL Differential and Common-Mode Signals Index

22.4
22.2 Difference Amplifiers

A simple difference amplifier can be constructed with four resistors and an
op-amp, as shown below:
Difference amplifier
R2
R1
v i1
R3
v i2
vo
R4
Figure 22.2 – A Difference Amplifier
It is often used in applications where a simple differential to single-ended

conversion is required. Because of its popularity, this circuit will be examined
in more detail, in order to understand its fundamental limitations before
discussing instrumentation amplifiers.
We can use superposition to determine the output:
Analyzing a
using superposition R2 R2
R1 R1
v i1
vo1 vo2
R3
v i2
R3 R4 R4
(a) (b)
Figure 22.3 – Analyzing a Difference Amplifier
Index Difference Amplifiers PMcL

22.5
We have:
R2
vo1   vi1 (22.3)
R1
and, since we normally select R4 R3  R2 R1 , we also have:
 R2  R4 R
vo 2  1   vi 2  2 vi 2 (22.4)
 R1  R3  R4 R1
Thus:
R2
vi 2  vi1   R2 vid  Ad vid
The differential gain
vo  (22.5) of a difference
amplifier
R1 R1
Thus, for exact resistor ratios R4 R3  R2 R1 , the common-mode gain is zero.

Any mismatch, however, will lead to finite CMRR.
The differential resistance of the amplifier is calculated as shown below:

Determining the
input resistance of a
R2 difference amplifier
ii R1
v id R1
ii
R id R2 Virtual short circuit
Figure 22.4 – Determining the Input Resistance of a Difference Amp
Thus, the input resistance is:

Rid  2R1 (22.6)
of a difference
amplifier
PMcL Difference Amplifiers Index

22.6
22.2.1 Difference Amplifier Deficiencies
If the amplifier is required to have a large differential gain R2 R1 , then R1 will

be relatively small and the input resistance will be correspondingly low, a
drawback of this circuit.
Another drawback is that it is not easy to vary the differential gain, since we
need to maintain the resistors in the ratio R4 R3  R2 R1 .
It is also extremely sensitive to source impedance imbalance (the two inputs

see different input impedances, so a balanced source is not necessarily a good
thing).
A major difference
amplifier deficiency A net matching tolerance of 0.1% in the resistor ratios yields a worst case DC
is due to inevitable
unequal resistor CMRR of 66 dB, which is quite low (compared to the op-amp which typically
ratios
has a CMRR of 100 dB).
22.2.2 Difference Amplifier ICs

To overcome the matching tolerance problem on the resistors, it is usual to
seek out an integrated circuit difference amplifier which includes on-chip laser
trimmed precision thin film resistor networks. An example is the INA146 from
Texas Instruments:
The Texas
Instruments INA146,
a difference R G1 R G2
amplifier with laser-
trimmed resistors – V+
a very flexible IC! 7 5
R1 R2
100 k 10 k
2
v IN
R5
10 k 6
A2 vo
(1%)
A1
R3 R4
100 k 10 k
3
v+ IN
INA146
4 1 8
V- vo 1
Figure 22.5 – The Texas Instruments INA146
Index Difference Amplifiers PMcL

22.7
22.3 Instrumentation Amplifiers

The most popular among all of the specialty amplifiers is the instrumentation
amplifier (or simply in-amp). The in-amp is widely used in many industrial and
measurement applications where DC precision and gain accuracy must be
maintained within a noisy environment, and where large common-mode signals
(usually at the AC power line frequency) are present.
The internal configuration of an in-amp is shown below:

A 3 op-amp
instrumentation
amplifier (in-amp)
v i1
A1
R4
R2 R3
RG A3
R2 R3 vo
R4
A2
v i2
Figure 22.6 – A 3 Op-Amp Instrumentation Amplifier
It has a pair of differential input terminals, and a single-ended output that

works with respect to a reference or common terminal. The input impedances
are balanced and high in value, typically greater than 1 G . The in-amp uses
an internal feedback resistor network, plus one gain set resistance, RG , which
is external to the package.
PMcL Instrumentation Amplifiers Index

22.8
An analysis of the in-amp is shown below:

Analysis of the
in-amp to determine
the differential gain
v i1
vo1
0V A1
R4
v i1 0
v id /R G R 2 v id /R G
R3
(v i2 v i1 ) 2R 2
RG v id (1+ RG ) A3
= v id
R 2 v id /R G R3 v o = R 4 (1+ 2R 2 )v id
v i2 0 R4 R3 RG
0V A2 vo2
v i2
Figure 22.7 – Analysis of the In-Amp
The analysis shows that the gain of the in-amp is given by:
The differential gain

R4  2 R2 
of a difference
amplifier vo  1  vid  Ad vid (22.7)
R3  RG 
Note that this formula is only valid for perfect op-amps and matched resistors.
In this case, there is no output component due to the common-mode voltage,
and so the common-mode gain is Acm  0 . Real in-amps have CMRRs ranging
from 90 to 130 dB, i.e. the common-mode gain is around a million times
smaller than the differential gain!
22.3.1 In-Amp Advantages
The in-amp gain can be set by the user by selecting the external RG .
In-amp gain can also be preset via an internal RG by pin selection (again
isolated from the signal inputs). Typical in-amp gains range from 1 to 1000.
The internal resistors are trimmed so that standard 1% or 0.1% resistors can be
used to set the gain to popular values, such as 2, 5, 10, …, 200, 500, 1000.
Index Instrumentation Amplifiers PMcL

22.9
Furthermore, common-mode signals are only amplified in the first stage by a

factor of 1 regardless of gain. When the two input terminals are connected
together to a common-mode input voltage vicm , it is easy to see that an equal
voltage appears at the negative input terminals of A1 and A2 , causing the The in-amp has a
very high CMRR
current through RG to be zero. Thus there will be no current in the R2
resistors, and the voltages at the output terminals of A1 and A2 will be equal to
the input (i.e. vicm ). Thus the first stage does not amplify vicm , it simply
propagates vicm to its two output terminals where they are subtracted to
produce a zero common-mode output by A3 .
Another important feature of the in-amp is that the internal resistance network
and RG are isolated from the signal input terminals.
22.3.2 In-Amp Disadvantages
From Figure 22.7, we can see that for the in-amp to “work”, the sum of the
common-mode voltage and the signal voltage at the outputs of A1 and A2 must
fall within the amplifier output voltage range. Otherwise, one of these op-amps
will saturate and the output of the difference amplifier will not be proportional
to the differential voltage.
Unlike the difference amplifier, there is no attenuation of the input voltage

before it “meets” the op-amp terminals. Therefore, the input voltages to the in-
amp must lie within the supply voltage range for the in-amp to “work”.
The CMRR is a function of frequency – it falls off at around 10-100 Hz. In

addition, the bandwidth (which is dependent on the gain) falls within the range
1-1000 kHz. This makes the in-amp only suitable for very low frequency
applications, such as weigh scales, ECG and medical instrumentation and
industrial process controls where the frequency of the sensor signals is
naturally low.
PMcL Instrumentation Amplifiers Index

22.10
22.3.3 In-Amp Application
An example of a commercially available in-amp is the AD620. An application

of the in-amp is shown below, where it is used in a data acquisition system to
amplify the output from a pressure transducer bridge (which is normally
balanced) from a single 5 V supply:
Typical application
of an in-amp (the
AD620 from Analog +5 V
Devices) as an
amplifier for a
pressure transducer 3 7
3 k 3 k 20 k
8
REF
G=100 AD620B 6 IN
499 
3 k 3 k 1 5 DIGITAL
10 k ADC DATA
2 4 OUTPUT
AD705 AGND
20 k
1.7 mA 1.3 mA 0.1 mA 0.6 mA

MAX MAX
Figure 22.8 – A Pressure Monitor Circuit
The in-amp is ideally suited for this application because the bridge output is
fundamentally balanced, and the in-amp presents it with a truly balanced high
impedance load.
Full scale output voltages from a typical bridge circuit can range from
approximately 10 mV to several hundred mV. Typical in-amp gains in the
order of 100 to 1000 are therefore ideally suited for amplifying these small
voltages to levels compatible with popular analog-to-digital (ADC) input
voltage ranges (usually 1 V to 10 V full scale).
In addition, the in-amp’s high CMRR at power line frequencies allows

common-mode noise to be rejected, when the bridge must be located remotely
from the in-amp.
Index Instrumentation Amplifiers PMcL

22.11
22.4 Programmable Gain Amplifiers

Most data acquisition systems with wide dynamic range need some method of
adjusting the input signal level to the analog-to-digital converter (ADC). A PGA is used to
increase the
Typical ADC full scale input voltage ranges lie between 1 V and 10 V. To dynamic range of a
system
achieve the rated precision of the converter, the maximum input signal should
be fairly near its full scale voltage.
Transducers however, have a very wide range of output voltages. High gain is
needed for a small sensor voltage, but with a large output, a high gain will
cause the amplifier or ADC to saturate. So, some type of predictably
controllable gain device is needed.
Such a device has a gain that is controlled by a digital input. This device is
known as a programmable gain amplifier, or PGA. Typical PGAs may be
configured either for selectable decade gains such as 10, 100, 1000, etc., or
they might also be configured for binary gains such as 1, 2, 4, 8, etc.
A PGA is usually located between a sensor and its ADC, as shown below:
A PGA’s location in
a system
gain
control
sensor
digital
PGA ADC output
Figure 22.9 – Use of a Programmable Gain Amplifier
Thus, a digital processor can combine PGA gain information with the digital
output of the ADC to increase its resolution. Some ADCs have on-chip PGAs.
PMcL Programmable Gain Amplifiers Index

22.12
22.4.1 PGA Design Issues

 How to switch the gain
 Effects of the switch on-resistance ( RON )
 Gain accuracy
 Gain linearity
 Bandwidth
 DC offset
 Gain and offset drift over temperature
 Settling time after switching gain
22.4.2 PGA Example
An example of a PGA with programmable gains of 1, 10, 100 and 1000 is
shown below:
A PGA with a
decade scale that is
not influenced by 100  +15 V
switch resistance v in
AD8610 v out
20 pF
-15 V
1 12 +5 V
1 k
2 3 G= 1
8 13 +15 V 10 k
0-5 V GAIN 7 6 G= 10
CONTROL
9 4 -15 V 1 k
10 11 G= 100
16 5 100 
15 14 G  1000
ADG1412 11 
Figure 22.10 – A PGA with Decade Gains
Index Programmable Gain Amplifiers PMcL

22.13
22.5 Isolation Amplifiers

There are many applications where is it desirable, or even essential, for a
sensor to have no direct (“galvanic”) electrical connection with the system to Electrical isolation is
necessary in a wide
which it is supplying data. This might be in order to avoid the possibility of variety of
dangerous voltages or currents from one half of the system doing damage in applications
the other. Such a system is said to be isolated, and the arrangement that passes
a signal without galvanic connections is known as an isolation barrier.
Examples include the need to prevent the ignition of explosive gases by sparks
at sensors and the protection from electric shock of patients whose ECG or
EEG is being monitored. In the ECG case, protection may be required in both
directions: the patient must be protected from accidental electric shock, but if
the patient’s heart should stop, the ECG machine must be protected from the
very high voltages (> 7.5 kV) applied to the patient by the defibrillator which
will be used to attempt to restart it.
A summary of applications for isolation amplifiers (both analog and digital) is

given below:
 Sensor is at a high voltage relative to other circuitry (or may become so
under fault conditions)
 Sensor may not carry dangerous voltages, irrespective of faults in other
circuitry (e.g. patient monitoring and intrinsically safe equipment for
use with explosive gases)
 To break ground loops (two “grounds” in the same system at different
voltages, causing current between them)
The most common isolation amplifiers use transformers, which exploit

magnetic fields, and another common type uses small high voltage capacitors,
exploiting electric fields. Optoisolators, which consist of an LED and a
photocell, provide isolation by light. Different isolators have differing
performance: some are sufficiently linear to pass high accuracy analog signals
across an isolation barrier. With others, the signal may need to be converted to
digital form before transmission for accuracy to be maintained.
PMcL Isolation Amplifiers Index

22.14
EXAMPLE 22.1 Isolation Amplifier
An example of a 3-port isolation transformer is the Analog Devices AD210. It

allows the user to select gains from 1 to 100, using external resistors, with the
input section op-amp. It uses transformers to achieve 2500 V RMS (3500 V
peak) isolation.
A typical application using the AD210 is shown below:
High voltage
AC Input = 230 V
INPUT OUTPUT
FB
T1
+15 V
-IN DEMOD
Motor control +IN
MOD
FILTER
vo
0.1 RG AD620
current sensing
REF COM i COM o
using an analog -15 V
3-port isolator –
providing power, +Viss T2 POWER T3 +Voss
input and output INPUT
POWER
OUTPUT
POWER
isolation M -V iss SUPPLY SUPPLY
-V oss
POWER
OCILLATOR
AD210
PWR COM PWR
+15 V
The AD210 is used with an AD620 in-amp in a high-side current-sensing

system for motor control. Current is sensed on the high (230 V) side of the
motor (as opposed to using a resistor on the ground side – so-called low-side
sensing) so that any fault current from the motor to the chassis (earth) is also
detected.
The input of the AD210, being isolated, can be directly connected to a 230 V
power line without protection being necessary. The input section’s isolated
±15 V powers the AD620, which senses the voltage drop in a small value
current sensing resistor. The AD210 input stage op-amp is simply connected as
a unity-gain follower. The 230 V RMS common-mode voltage is ignored by
this isolated system.
Index Isolation Amplifiers PMcL

22.15
EXAMPLE 22.2 Digital Isolator
An example of a digital isolator is an LED / phototransistor optocoupler:
425  10 k
VDD1 VDD2 (5 V)
(5 V)
CMOS
A digital isolator
GATE
IIN IOUT v OUT using a LED and
v IN phototransistor
HIGH VOLTAGE GND 2
GND 1 ISOLATION BARRIER
A current of approximately 10 mA drives an LED transmitter, with light

output received by a phototransistor. The light produced by the LED saturates
the phototransistor (drives the collector-emitter voltage low). Input / output
isolation of 5000–7000 V RMS is common. Although fine for digital signals,
most optocouplers are too nonlinear for most analog applications. Also, since
the phototransistor is being saturated, response times can be around 10-20 s
for slower (cheap) devices, limiting high speed applications.
The availability of low cost digital isolators solves most system isolation
problems in data acquisition systems as shown below:
ISOLATION BARRIER
DIGITAL MICRO-
Practical application
SENSOR ADC
ISOLATORS CONTROLLER of digital isolation in
a data acquisition
system
ground reference A ground reference B
In this system, digitizing the signal first using an ADC with serial output, then
using digital isolation, eliminates the problem of analog isolation amplifiers
(which are expensive).
PMcL Isolation Amplifiers Index

22.16
22.6 Summary
 The two signals that appear at the inputs of difference amplifiers can be
split into a common-mode signal and a differential signal. This aids in
calculating the output of a difference amplifier, and gives rise to a measure
of difference amplifier performance, known as the common-mode rejection
ratio, or CMRR. It is usually expressed in dB.
 Difference amplifiers are used to amplify the difference between two

signals, and to reject the common-mode. However, they are very sensitive
to the values (i.e. tolerance, drift due to temperature, etc.) of the resistors
used in the circuit. Therefore, only integrated circuit packages with laser-
trimmed resistors in close proximity are used in practice.
 Instrumentation amplifiers are an arrangement of op-amps that overcomes

some of the deficiencies of the standard difference amplifier. They have a
very large balanced input impedance, and can provide large differential
gain whilst rejecting the common-mode signal. They are readily available
in integrated circuit packages, and are commonly used in bridge circuits.
 Programmable gain amplifiers are used in data acquisition systems where

the transducer exhibits a very large range of output voltages. They can be
controlled digitally.
 Isolation amplifiers provide electrical isolation between sensors and

electronic circuitry, and are used in environments where a direct electrical
connection would be hazardous, such as in mining and biomedical
applications.
22.7 References
Jung, W: Op-Amp Applications, Analog Devices, 2002.
Index Summary PMcL

22.17
Exercises
1.
Consider the instrumentation amplifier implementation shown below:
v i1
vo1 R3 R5
A1
10 k 10 k
R1
RG 100 k
A3 vo
1 k R2
100 k
R4 R6
A2
vo2 10 k 10 k
v i2
(a) Determine expressions for the output voltages of A1 and A2 in terms of

the input voltages vi1 and vi 2 .
(b) Find the overall differential voltage gain Ad of the in-amp.
(c) The following voltages are applied to the in-amp: vi1  230 mV ,
vi 2  235 mV . Determine the final output voltage.
(d) What value of RG must be used to change the gain of the in-amp to
1000?

22.18
2.
Consider the two-op-amp instrumentation amplifier shown below:
v i1
A1 vo
R4
40 k
RG R3
16 k 10 k
R2
10 k
A2
v i2
R1
40 k
Determine the value of the overall differential voltage gain Ad of the in-amp.

23.1
23 Transfer Functions
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 23.2

23.1 Transfer Functions ................................................................................. 23.3
23.1.1 Characteristic Equation ............................................................... 23.4
23.1.2 Pole-Zero Plot ............................................................................. 23.4
23.1.3 Transfer Function Form .............................................................. 23.5
23.1.4 Relationship to Differential Equation ......................................... 23.6
23.1.5 Circuit Abstraction...................................................................... 23.7
23.2 Forced Response .................................................................................... 23.8
23.4 Natural Response ................................................................................. 23.15
23.5 Complete Response ............................................................................. 23.21
23.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 23.24
23.7 References ........................................................................................... 23.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 23.26
Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) ......................................................... 23.29
PMcL Contents Index
2015 23 - Transfer Functions

23.2
Introduction
In any particular circuit, the phasor ratio of the desired forced response to the
forcing function, written in terms of the complex frequency s, is called the
transfer function. Thus, a transfer function is an input-output description of the
behaviour of a circuit, and it does not include any information concerning the
internal structure of the circuit and its behaviour (we have already seen that the
RLC circuit can be replaced by a biquad circuit utilising op-amps – both have
the same input-output behaviour within certain bounds).
The transfer function is intimately related to the characteristic equation – it

completely characterises a circuit. We can thus dispense with circuit
schematics, and start to think in terms of cascaded and interconnected “blocks”
that are described by transfer functions – so-called block diagrams.
The transfer function will also be seen to hold information about the form of
the circuit’s natural response. Thus, given a transfer function of a circuit, we
can write down an expression for the natural response by inspection. If we are
given a forcing function and the initial conditions, we can then determine the
complete response.
We shall also see that circuits are not special – we can model any system
described by linear differential equations (e.g. mechanical, hydraulic,
electrical, thermal, fluid) with block diagrams.
23 - Transfer Functions 2015

23.3
23.1 Transfer Functions

Let us analyse the following simple circuit:
vs ( t ) C v( t )
Figure 23.1
We can find the forced response of this circuit by working in the frequency-
domain (if the source has a functional form that we can transform to the
frequency-domain, such as an exponentially damped sinusoid). Then we have:
1 sC 1 RC
V Vs  Vs (23.1)
R  1 sC s  1 RC
A transfer function is the ratio of the desired forced response to the forcing
function, using phasor notation and the complex frequency s. It is usually
designated Ts  :
Ts  
V
(23.2)
Vs
With this notation, we can see that the transfer function is a complex function
of the complex variable s . Thus, in this case, we have:
Ts  
1 RC
(23.3)
s  1 RC
Several important conclusions can be drawn from the form of the transfer
function.
PMcL Transfer Functions Index

23.4
23.1.1 Characteristic Equation
Setting the denominator of the transfer function to zero, we get the

characteristic equation of the circuit, s  1 RC  0 . This corresponds exactly
to that obtained from the original source-free homogeneous differential
equation for the circuit, dv dt  v RC  0 . Thus we see that the denominator
of the transfer function seems to come directly from the source-free circuit
itself, and is thus dependent only on the topology and types of passive circuit
components. We will see later that the form of the natural (i.e. source-free)
response is directly related to the characteristic equation.
23.1.2 Pole-Zero Plot
Roots of the characteristic equation give us the poles of the transfer function. In
this case there is one pole at s  1 RC  j 0 . Zeros are obtained by finding
those frequencies for which the transfer function is zero. In this case, there is a
zero at s   . When plotting poles and zeros, we normally don’t show poles
and zeros at infinity, and so the pole-zero plot corresponding to this particular
transfer function is:
j
-1

RC
s -plane
Figure 23.2
This pole-zero plot conveys exactly the same information as the transfer
function, apart from the multiplicative factor 1 RC . For example, from the plot
K
above we know the transfer function has the form . In many instances,
s  1 RC
just the form of the transfer function tells us a lot about the circuit’s behaviour,
so engineers make a lot of use of pole-zero plots.
Index Transfer Functions PMcL

23.5
23.1.3 Transfer Function Form
The form of a transfer function is such that it can always be written as a ratio of
two polynomials. The numerator polynomial can be factored into m “zero”
terms, the denominator can be factored into n “pole” terms.
Ts   K
s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
s  p1 s  p 2 s  p n 
(23.4)
The number of pole terms determines the order of the circuit. For our simple
example RC circuit, we have a first-order circuit, since there is one pole. There
are no zeros (except for the implicit one at s   ).
Some of the poles in the transfer function may occur as complex conjugate
pairs. For example, if the first two pole terms are complex conjugates, then the
transfer function can be written as:
Ts   K
s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
s  p1 s  p1* s  p n 
s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
(23.5)
K 2
s  p1  p1* s  p1p1* s  p n 
If we let p1  x  jy then p1*  x  jy , then p1  p1*  2 x and p1p1*  x 2  y 2 ,
both of which are real quantities. Thus, if we define the real numbers a  2 x
and b  x 2  y 2 , then the transfer function can be written as:
Ts   K
s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
s2  as  bs  pn  (23.6)
This is an extremely important observation – it tells us that a transfer function

can be written with real coefficients as a product of first-order and second-
order factors! Thus, if we become familiar with the properties of first-order and
second-order circuits, we can handle circuits of any order!

23.6
23.1.4 Relationship to Differential Equation
Returning to the original circuit, we can do KVL around the loop and write the
describing differential equation in the form:
dv v v
  s (23.7)
dt RC RC
or, using the D operator:
 1  vs
 D  v  (23.8)
 RC  RC
Now, putting aside all mathematical formality, we substitute s for D, and

transform into the frequency-domain:
 1  1
s  V  Vs (23.9)
 RC  RC
We now get:
 Ts  
V 1 RC
(23.10)
Vs s  1 RC
Thus, we can directly convert a differential equation into the frequency-domain

by setting all derivatives to s. It also turns out that integrals in the time-domain
turn into 1 s factors when converting to the frequency-domain.
A more mathematically formal way to transform from the differential equation

(the time-domain) to the transfer function (the frequency-domain) will come
later with a study of the Laplace Transform.
Index Transfer Functions PMcL

23.7
23.1.5 Circuit Abstraction

The transfer function is a relationship between the input and output of a circuit
only, expressed in the frequency-domain using the notion of complex
frequency and phasors. It tells us nothing about internal voltages, currents,
consumed power, topology or even components. Thus, we could represent the
RC circuit as a simple “black box” that converts one phasor into another:
vs ( t ) C v( t )
Vs 1/RC V
s  1/RC
Figure 23.3
The representation of a circuit in terms of its input signal, transfer function and
output signal is known as a block diagram. The block diagram is a concept that
is used often across all disciplines of engineering, and can be applied to any
linear system, not just electrical circuits. It is a way to characterize a system
without resorting to writing differential equations – instead we represent a
system by its transfer function and work with input and output phasors. The
only drawback to this approach is that we must work with algebraic equations
involving complex numbers – but most of us would prefer this to solving
differential equations!

23.8
23.2 Forced Response

For now, we can only consider cases where the forced response can be
expressed as an exponentially damped sinusoid (in the most general case). This
includes DC, exponential and sinusoidal waveforms as special cases.
To determine the forced response, the transfer function is evaluated at the

complex frequency of the forcing function, say s  s f . Then, to determine the
phasor representation of the desired response, we simply multiply the phasor

representation of the forcing function by the transfer function (which is now
just a complex number).
That is, the output phasor representing the forced response is given by:
V f  Ts  ss Vs (23.11)

f
For example, suppose the forcing function is v s t   V0 , a DC voltage. Then we
know that this forcing function has a complex frequency s  0 , so evaluation

of the transfer function at s  0 gives:
Ts  s0 
1 RC
1 (23.12)
s  1 RC s0
Thus, the desired forced response voltage phasor is:
Vf  Ts  s0 Vs  1V0  V0 (23.13)
Converting back to the time-domain, we find that the forced response is V0 ,

which we know is true from other circuit analysis methods.
Index Forced Response PMcL

23.9
If we had a sinusoidal forcing function, vs t   Vm cost    , then we
evaluate the transfer function at s  j :
Ts  s j 
1 RC
s  1 RC s  j
1 RC

j  1 RC
1
 , 0  1 RC
1  j  0 (23.14)
Thus, the desired forced response voltage phasor is:
V f  Ts  s j Vs
1
  Vm 
1  j  0
Vm 

1  j  0 (23.15)
In more advanced circuit analysis, when the Laplace Transform is introduced,

we will be able to handle almost any type of forcing function, rather than just
exponentially damped sinusoids (or its special cases), by replacing the forcing
function phasor (which is a constant) by a forcing function which is a
mathematical expression containing s.
PMcL Forced Response Index

23.10
EXAMPLE 23.1 Forced Response
0.01 F
0.2 H
is (t ) v1(t) 1 3 v2(t)
We transform to the frequency-domain:
100 
0.2 s  s
Is V1 1 3 V2
and, using the current-divider rule, we write down the transfer functions:
V1 3  0.2s  100 s s 2  15s  500

 T1 s   
Is 4  0.2s  100 s s 2  20s  500
V2
 T2 s   3
1 15s
 2
Is 4  0.2s  100 s s  20s  500
Note that the denominators are the same!
Index Forced Response PMcL

23.11
Suppose we want to find V2 for I s  0.20 A and s  0 . Then:
15  0
V2  T2 0I s  0.20  0
0  20  0  500
2
Thus, the output voltage for a DC current source is zero, as can be seen by
inspection of the circuit – the capacitor acts as an open circuit.
Suppose now that s   . Then:
15 
V2  T2  I s 
15 s
0.20  0.20  0
1  20 s  500 s 2
1  20   500  2
Thus, the output voltage for an infinitely high frequency source (say a
sinusoidal source) is zero, as can be seen by inspection of the circuit – the
inductor acts as an open circuit.
Suppose now that s  10 . Then:
15   10
V2  T2  10I s  0.20  0.075
 10 2
 20   10  500
Thus v2 t   0.075e10t . Note that this is a forced response due to the forcing
function v2 t   0.2e10t , and not the natural response.
Now apply a sinusoidal forcing function, with s  j10 . Then:
V2  T2  j10I s
15   j10
 0.20
 j10 2
 20   j10  500
j3
 0.20
8  j4
 0.0670863.4
Thus v2 t   67.08 cos10t  63.4 mV .
Lastly, let s  10  j 20 . Then since we are exciting the system at the same
frequency as a pole, the response must be infinite.
PMcL Forced Response Index

23.12

Frequency response, by definition, is the sinusoidal steady-state response, i.e.
the forced response to a sinusoid. As shown above, we can derive the
frequency response directly from the transfer function. All we have to do is
evaluate the transfer function at an arbitrary sinusoidal frequency s  j :
Ts s j  T j   frequency response (23.16)
For example, for the simple RC circuit, we have:
Ts  s j 
1
, 0  1 RC (23.17)
1  j  0
Thus, it is a simple matter to derive expressions for the frequency response

from the transfer function. We can now determine the magnitude response and
phase response for the simple RC circuit:
T j  
1
1   0 
2
(23.18)
T j    tan 1  0 

23.13
EXAMPLE 23.2 Frequency Response from Transfer Function
For the circuit seen previously, in the frequency-domain:
100 
0.2 s  s
Is V1 1 3 V2
we can use the transfer function to establish the frequency response quite
quickly. For example, we know:
T2 s  
15s
s  20s  500
2
Then the frequency response is given by:
15  j
T2  j  
 j 
 20  j  500
2
j15

500   2  j 20
The magnitude and phase responses are, respectively:
15
T2  j  
500    2 2
 400 2
 20 
T2  j   90  tan 1  2 
 500   

23.14
Bode plots of these responses are shown below:
The circuit, with the output taken as v2 t  , is thus a bandpass filter.

23.15
23.4 Natural Response

The natural response is, by definition, of a form independent of the forcing
function. Thus, we should be able to find the natural response by setting the
forcing function to zero. In the example RC circuit, we work in the frequency-
domain and set Vs  0 . Thus, we have:
1 RC
V Vs
s  1 RC
1 RC
 0
s  1 RC (23.19)
At first glance, it appears as though the response phasor must be zero. This is
true for most frequencies, but what happens when the forcing function happens
to be at a complex frequency s  1 RC  j 0 ?
We know that if we excite the circuit at s  1 RC  j 0 with a finite voltage,

we get an infinite voltage (the definition of a pole). Mathematically, we have:
Vs
V  (23.20)
0
So we conclude that if we “excite” the circuit at the same frequency with a zero
voltage, that we get a finite response. Mathematically, we have:
0
V
0
V 0  0
finite  0  0 (23.21)
Thus, the natural response must occur at frequencies corresponding to the poles
of the transfer function.
PMcL Natural Response Index

23.16
For the example RC circuit, the pole of the transfer function occurs and infinite
voltage results when the operating frequency is s  1 RC  j 0 . A finite
voltage at this frequency thus represents the natural response:
Vn  A at s  1 RC  j 0 (23.22)
Transforming this natural response to the time-domain:
vn t   Ae t RC (23.23)
For an arbitrary transfer function:
Ts   K
s  z1 s  z 2 s  z m 
s  p1 s  p 2 s  p n 
(23.24)
the poles of Ts  occur at s  p1 , p 2 , p n , and if the input forcing function is

operating at any of these frequencies, an infinite forced response will result.
Thus, a finite response at each of these frequencies is possible for the natural
response. We thus have the form of the natural response by inspection of the
poles of the transfer function. The most general expression is:
f n t   A1e p1t  
 B1ebt  B2te bt  B2t 2ebt  
(23.25)
 C1e1t cosd 1t   D2e1t sin d 1t   
 E1  E2t  e 2t cosd 2t   F1  F2t  e 2t sin d 2t   
or, in words:
natural response  reponse due to real and distinct poles

 response due to real and repeated poles
(23.26)
 reponse due to complex and distinct poles
 response due to complex and repeated poles
The coefficients of the natural response must be evaluated using a knowledge

of the forcing function and the initial conditions.
Index Natural Response PMcL

23.17
EXAMPLE 23.3 Frequency Response from Transfer Function
Consider the circuit seen previously in the frequency-domain:
100 
0.2 s  s
Is V1 1 3 V2
The transfer functions were derived as:
V1 3  0.2s  100 s s 2  15s  500

 T1 s   
Is 4  0.2s  100 s s 2  20s  500
V2
 T2 s   3
1 15s
 2
Is 4  0.2s  100 s s  20s  500
Consideration of either transfer function will determine the form of the natural
response. First, we find the poles by setting the denominator to zero, and thus
obtain the roots by solving the characteristic equation:
s 2  20s  500  0
s  102  400  0
s  10  j 20
Thus, we have two complex and distinct poles. The form of the natural
response for either v1 t  or v2 t  is thus:
vn t   Ae 10t cos20t   Be 10t sin20t 
To evaluate A and B, we need to know the initial conditions and the forcing
function.

23.18
Note that the denominators of the two transfer functions in the preceding
example are the same. This is not a coincidence. Provided that one portion of a
circuit is not separated from the rest, each transfer function will have the same
denominator regardless of which voltage or current is chosen as the output
variable. This should not be surprising however, for the denominator (via the
characteristic equation) determines those values of s, called poles or natural
frequencies, that determine the natural response – and the form of the natural
response is the same throughout a nonseparated circuit.
If the natural response is desired for a circuit that contains no forcing function,
then we can insert any source we like into the circuit, evaluate the transfer
function, and then determine the natural response by inspection of the poles.
If the circuit already contains a source, then we are allowed to set it to zero,
apply a forcing function in a more convenient location, and then determine the
poles from the resulting transfer function.
These methods will work since the poles of the transfer function are a
characteristic of the circuit only, and not of the forcing function – we will
obtain the same poles for any of the many source locations that are possible –
apart from two special cases:
(a) if a forcing function is naively applied in a portion of the circuit that is

separated from the response, then the transfer function Ts   0 will result.
A case of this type can often be recognised by an inspection of the circuit
before the source is installed.
(b) if a forcing function is naively applied in a portion of the circuit so that it is

the response, then the transfer function Ts   1 will result. A case of this
type will occur if a voltage source is placed in parallel with a desired
voltage response or a current source is placed in series with a desired
current response.

23.19
EXAMPLE 23.4 Natural Response from the Transfer Function
Consider the source-free circuit:
3F
v1(t) 1 2F 1
2
 v2(t)
We seek expressions for v1 t  and v2 t  for t  0 , given the initial conditions,

v1 0  v2 0  11 V .
Firstly, note that this is not a single time constant (STC) circuit, since we
cannot reduce the circuit further. We thus need to investigate this circuit by
examination of a transfer function.
Let us install a current source I s in parallel with the 1  resistor, and find the
transfer function Ts   V1 I s , which also happens to be the input impedance

seen by the current source.
We have:
Is 3s  2I s
V1   2
1  2s  6s 3s  2 6s  13s  2
V 1 s  2 
Ts   1  2 3
I s s  2s  16 
Thus, v1 t  must be of the form:
v1 t   Ae 2t  Be t 6

23.20
The solution is completed by using the given initial conditions to establish the
values of A and B. Since v1 0 is given as 11, then:
11  A  B
The necessary additional equation is obtained by differentiating v1 and

applying KCL at the bottom node:
dv1 i 11  22
 C   2 A  1 6 B
dt t 0 C 2
Thus, A  8 and B  3 , and the desired solution is:
v1 t   8e2t  3et 6
The natural frequencies comprising v2 are the same as those of v1 , and a

similar procedure to evaluate the arbitrary constants leads to:
v2 t   12e2t  et 6

23.21
23.5 Complete Response

As we know, the complete response is the sum of the forced response plus
natural response:
complete forced
  natural (23.27)
response response response
The transfer function can be used to give us both the forced response and
natural response, and therefore the complete response!
EXAMPLE 23.5 Complete Response Using the Transfer Function
We wish to find the complete response i t  of the following circuit:
1
3
F
t=0 2
i(t )
vC1
vs ( t ) 1
 vC2 1F
2
= e -tcos(2t)
The switch is in an open position prior to t  0 , and thus all currents and
voltages to the right of the switch are assumed to be zero. At t  0 the switch is
closed, and the current through the switch is to be found. This response is
composed of both a forced response and a natural response:
it   i f t   in t 
Each may be found through a knowledge of the transfer function, Ts   I Vs ,

which is also the input admittance of the circuit to the right of the switch.
We have:
Vs ss  2Vs
I 
2  3 s  1 s  2 2ss  2  3s  2  s
PMcL Complete Response Index

23.22
After combining and factoring:
ss  2
Ts  
I

Vs 2s  1s  3
In order to find the forced response, the frequency-domain voltage source

Vs  10 at s  1  j 2 may be multiplied by the transfer function, evaluated
at s  1  j 2 :
I f  Ts  s 1 j 2 Vs 
 1  j 21  j 2  1   5
2 j 22  j 2 j81  j 
and thus:
5 2
If  45
16
Transforming to the time-domain, we have:
i f t   e cos2t  45
5 2 t
16
The form of the natural response can be written by inspection of the poles of
the transfer function:
in t   Ae t  Be 3t
The complete response is therefore:
it   e cos2t  45  Ae t  Be 3t

5 2 t
16
The solution is completed by using the given initial conditions to establish the
values of A and B. Since the voltage across both capacitors is initially zero, the
initial source voltage of 1 V must appear across the 2  resistor. Thus:
i0 
1 5 2 1
  A B
2 16 2
Index Complete Response PMcL

23.23
Again, it is necessary to differentiate and then to obtain an initial condition for
di dt . From the expression for the complete response, we first find:
di 5 2 2 1 
     A  3B
dt t 0 16  2 2
15
   A  3B
16
The initial value of this rate of change is obtained by analysing the circuit.
However, those rates of change which are most easily found are the derivatives
of the capacitor voltages, since i  C dv dt , and the initial values of the
capacitor currents should not be too difficult to find. KVL around the circuit
gives:
2i  vs  vC1  vC 2
Dividing by 2 and taking the derivative:
di 1 dvs 1 dvC1 1 dvC 2

  
dt 2 dt 2 dt 2 dt
The first term on the right-hand side is obtained by differentiation of the source
function and evaluation at t  0 , the result is  1 2 As-1 .The second term is
numerically equal to  3 2 of the initial current through the 1 3 F capacitor, or
 3 4 As-1 . Similarly, the last term is  1 4 As-1 . Thus:
di 1 3 1 3
   
dt t 0 2 4 4 2
We may now use our two equations in A and B to determine the unknown
coefficients of the natural response:
A  0 and B  3 16
The complete response is therefore:
it   5 16 2et cos2t  45  3 16 e3t
PMcL Complete Response Index

23.24
23.6 Summary
 A transfer function is the ratio of the desired forced response to the forcing
function, using phasor notation and the complex frequency s. It is usually
designated Ts  .
 A transfer function is always the ratio of two polynomials in s. It can be

written as:
s  z 1 s  z 2 s  z m 
Ts   K
s  p1 s  p 2 s  p n 
where z i is termed a zero and p j is termed a pole.
 A pole-zero plot provides an alternative description of a transfer function

(to within an arbitrary constant K) as it specifies all zeros and poles.
 The transfer function can be derived from the differential equation

describing a circuit by replacing the D operator with s.
 The transfer function can be derived by working directly in the frequency-

domain with the concept of generalized impedance ( R , sL and 1 sC ).
 The transfer function can be used to determine the forced response phasor –
by evaluating it at the complex frequency of the forcing function and
multiplying the resultant complex number by the input phasor.
 The transfer function can be used to determine the frequency response of a

circuit by letting s  j :
Ts  s j  T j   frequency response
 The transfer function can be used to determine the natural response of a

circuit, since the poles of a circuit determine the form of its natural
response.
 The transfer function is a complete description of a circuit – from it we can

derive the forced response, the natural response, the complete response, and
the frequency response!
Index Summary PMcL

23.25
23.7 References
Hill, 1984.

23.26
Exercises
1.
The capacitors in the circuit shown below carry charge at t  0 .
250 k
i1 i2
1 F v 50 k 8 F
Find the frequencies present in the specified response for t  0 :
(a) i1n t  (b) i2 n t  (c) v n t 
2.
Find vt  for all values of time in the circuit shown below:
12 
i s(t) t=0 v( t ) 3 2H 6H
= e -tcos(2t)
3.
Find it  for all values of time in the circuit shown below:
t=0 10  0.8 H
i
12 V 2 0.1 H

23.27
4.
2.5i 2
5 2
1
2 H 0.1 F v2
i2
Determine:
(a) The transfer function V2 I s1 , if I s1 is in parallel with the inductor with

its arrow directed upward.
(b) The transfer function V2 I s 2 , if I s 2 is in parallel with the capacitor with

its arrow directed upward.
(c) The transfer function V2 Vs1 , if Vs1 is in series with the inductor with its
positive reference on top.
(d) Specify the form of the natural response v2 n t  .

23.28
5.
1 0.5 H 1
i (t )
2 u (t ) V vs 0.8 F 0.5 H
(a) Write the transfer function for I Vs and find the three natural
frequencies (possibly complex) associated with the response i t  .
Hint: There is a pole at s  2 .
(b) If i t  is represented as a forced response plus a natural response,

i f t   in t  , find i f t  by working in the frequency-domain.
(c) Write down the form of the natural response, in t  .
(d) Determine the complete response i t  .
6.
There is no initial energy stored in the following circuit:
L R2
i2(t )
vs R1 C
(a) Transform the circuit into the s-domain and formulate mesh-current
equations.
(b) Solve the mesh equations to establish the transfer function I 2 Vs .
(c) Find i2 t  if vs t   12ut  V , R1  1 k , R2  2 k , L  4 H and

C  500 nF .

23.29
Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827)

The application of mathematics to problems in physics became a primary task
in the century after Newton. Foremost among a host of brilliant mathematical
thinkers was the Frenchman Laplace. He was a powerful and influential figure,
contributing to the areas of celestial mechanics, cosmology and probability.
Laplace was the son of a farmer of moderate means, and while at the local
military school, his uncle (a priest) recognised his exceptional mathematical
talent. At sixteen, he began to study at the University of Caen. Two years later
he travelled to Paris, where he gained the attention of the great mathematician
and philosopher Jean Le Rond d’Alembert by sending him a paper on the
principles of mechanics. His genius was immediately recognised, and Laplace
became a professor of mathematics.
He began producing a steady stream of remarkable mathematical papers. Not

only did he make major contributions to difference equations and differential
equations but he examined applications to mathematical astronomy and to the
theory of probability, two major topics which he would work on throughout his
life. His work on mathematical astronomy before his election to the Académie
des Sciences included work on the inclination of planetary orbits, a study of
how planets were perturbed by their moons, and in a paper read to the
Academy on 27 November 1771 he made a study of the motions of the planets
which would be the first step towards his later masterpiece on the stability of
the solar system.
In 1773, before the Academy of Sciences, Laplace proposed a model of the

solar system which showed how perturbations in a planet’s orbit would not
change its distance from the sun. For the next decade, Laplace contributed a
stream of papers on planetary motion, clearing up discrepancies in the orbit’s
of Jupiter and Saturn, he showed how the moon accelerates as a function of the
Earth’s orbit, he introduced a new calculus for discovering the motion of
celestial bodies, and even a new means of computing planetary orbits which
led to astronomical tables of improved accuracy.
PMcL Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) Index

23.30
The 1780s were the period in which Laplace produced the depth of results
which have made him one of the most important and influential scientists that
the world has seen. Laplace let it be known widely that he considered himself
the best mathematician in France. The effect on his colleagues would have
been only mildly eased by the fact that Laplace was right!
In 1784 Laplace was appointed as examiner at the Royal Artillery Corps, and
in this role in 1785, he examined and passed the 16 year old Napoleon
Bonaparte.
In 1785, he introduced a field equation in spherical harmonics, now known as

Laplace’s equation, which is found to be applicable to a great deal of
phenomena, including gravitation, the propagation of sound, light, heat, water,
electricity and magnetism.
Laplace presented his famous nebular hypothesis in 1796 in Exposition du

systeme du monde, which viewed the solar system as originating from the
"Your Highness, I contracting and cooling of a large, flattened, and slowly rotating cloud of
have no need of this
hypothesis. "
incandescent gas. The Exposition consisted of five books: the first was on the
- Laplace, to apparent motions of the celestial bodies, the motion of the sea, and also
Napoleon on why
his works on atmospheric refraction; the second was on the actual motion of the celestial
celestial mechanics
make no mention of bodies; the third was on force and momentum; the fourth was on the theory of
God.
universal gravitation and included an account of the motion of the sea and the
shape of the Earth; the final book gave an historical account of astronomy and
included his famous nebular hypothesis which even predicted black holes.
Laplace stated his philosophy of science in the Exposition:
If man were restricted to collecting facts the sciences were only a sterile
nomenclature and he would never have known the great laws of nature. It is
in comparing the phenomena with each other, in seeking to grasp their
relationships, that he is led to discover these laws...
Exposition du systeme du monde was written as a non-mathematical

introduction to Laplace's most important work. Laplace had already discovered
the invariability of planetary mean motions. In 1786 he had proved that the
eccentricities and inclinations of planetary orbits to each other always remain
small, constant, and self-correcting. These and many of his earlier results
Index Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) PMcL

23.31
formed the basis for his great work the Traité du Mécanique Céleste published
in 5 volumes, the first two in 1799.
The first volume of the Mécanique Céleste is divided into two books, the first
on general laws of equilibrium and motion of solids and also fluids, while the
second book is on the law of universal gravitation and the motions of the
centres of gravity of the bodies in the solar system. The main mathematical
approach was the setting up of differential equations and solving them to
describe the resulting motions. The second volume deals with mechanics
applied to a study of the planets. In it Laplace included a study of the shape of
the Earth which included a discussion of data obtained from several different
expeditions, and Laplace applied his theory of errors to the results.
In 1812 he published the influential study of probability, Théorie analytique

des probabilités. The work consists of two books. The first book studies
generating functions and also approximations to various expressions occurring
in probability theory. The second book contains Laplace's definition of
probability, Bayes's rule (named by Poincaré many years later), and remarks on
mathematical expectation. The book continues with methods of finding
probabilities of compound events when the probabilities of their simple
components are known, then a discussion of the method of least squares, and
inverse probability. Applications to mortality, life expectancy, length of
marriages and probability in legal matters are given.
After the publication of the fourth volume of the Mécanique Céleste, Laplace
continued to apply his ideas of physics to other problems such as capillary
action (1806-07), double refraction (1809), the velocity of sound (1816), the
theory of heat, in particular the shape and rotation of the cooling Earth
(1817-1820), and elastic fluids (1821).
Many original documents concerning his life have been lost, and gaps in his
biography have been filled by myth. Some papers were lost in a fire that
destroyed the chateau of a descendant, and others went up in flames when
Allied forces bombarded Caen during WWII.
Laplace died on 5 March, 1827 at his home outside Paris.

PMcL Pierre Simon de Laplace (1749-1827) Index

24.1
24 Sensor Signal Conditioning
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 24.2

24.1 Sensors ................................................................................................... 24.3
24.2 Process Control Systems ....................................................................... 24.4
24.3 Programmable Logic Controllers .......................................................... 24.5
24.4 Smart Transducers ................................................................................. 24.6
24.5 Programmable Automation Controllers................................................. 24.7
24.6 Bridge Circuits ....................................................................................... 24.8
24.6.1 Bridge Design Issues ................................................................ 24.12
24.6.2 Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs ............................ 24.13
24.6.3 Driving Remote Bridges ........................................................... 24.16
24.6.4 Integrated Bridge Transducers .................................................. 24.19
24.7 Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements ................................. 24.20
24.8 High Impedance Sensors ..................................................................... 24.22
24.9 Temperature Sensors ........................................................................... 24.23
24.10 Summary............................................................................................ 24.25
24.11 References ......................................................................................... 24.25
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 24.26
PMcL Contents Index
2015 24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning

24.2
Introduction
A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus and responds with an
electrical signal. Sensors and their associated circuits are used to measure
Sensors translate a
physical quantity to various physical properties such as temperature, force, pressure, flow, position,
an electrical quantity
light intensity, etc. These properties act as the stimulus to the sensor, and the
sensor output is conditioned and processed to provide the corresponding
measurement of the physical property.
Sensors which measure different properties may have the same type of
electrical output. For example, a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) is a
variable resistance, as is a resistive strain gauge. Both RTDs and strain gauges
are often placed in bridge circuits, and the conditioning circuits are therefore
quite similar. Therefore bridges and their conditioning circuits will be looked at
in detail.
Active sensors require an external source of excitation. Examples include RTDs

and strain gauges.
Passive or self-generating sensors do not require external power. Examples

include thermocouples and photodiodes.
The full-scale outputs of most sensors are relatively small voltages, currents, or
resistance changes, and therefore their outputs must be properly conditioned
before further analog or digital processing can occur. Amplification, level
translation, galvanic isolation, impedance transformation, linearization and
filtering are fundamental signal-conditioning functions that may be required.
24 - Sensor Signal Conditioning 2015

24.3
24.1 Sensors
There are many types of sensors – we will briefly look at those which lend
themselves to measurement systems, data acquisition systems and process
control systems.
Some typical sensors and their output formats are shown in the table below:
Some typical
Property Sensor Active / Output sensors and their
output formats
Passive
Temperature Thermocouple Passive Voltage

Silicon Active Voltage / Current
RTD Active Resistance
Thermistor Active Resistance
Force / Pressure Strain Gauge Active Resistance
Piezoelectric Passive Voltage
Acceleration Accelerometer Active Capacitance
Position Linear Variable Active AC Voltage
Differential Transformer
(LVDT)
Light Intensity Photodiode Passive Current
Table 24.1 – Typical Sensors
PMcL Sensors Index

24.4
24.2 Process Control Systems

A common application of sensors is within process control systems. One
example would be control of a physical property, such as temperature. A
sample block diagram of how this might be implemented is given below:
A typical process
control system,
showing where the REMOTE CONTROL ROOM
sensor fits into the SIGNAL 4 TO 20mA 4 TO 20mA SIGNAL
overall system CONDITIONING TRANSMITTER RECEIVER CONDITIONING
SENSOR ADC
PC or MICRO-
PROCESS
SCADA CONTROLLER
ACTUATOR DAC
SIGNAL 4 TO 20mA 4 TO 20mA SIGNAL

CONDITIONING RECEIVER TRANSMITTER CONDITIONING
Figure 24.1 – A Typical Process Control System
In this system, an output from a temperature sensor is conditioned, transmitted

over some distance, received, and then digitized by an analog-to-digital
converter (ADC). The microcontroller or host computer determines if the
temperature is above or below the desired value, and outputs a digital value to
the digital-to-analog converter (DAC). The DAC output is conditioned and
drives the remotely located actuator, in this case a heater. The interface
between the control room and the remote process is via an “industry standard”
4-20 mA current loop.
Index Process Control Systems PMcL

24.5
24.3 Programmable Logic Controllers

Many industrial processes are controlled at the “remote” end, with the
microcontroller taking the form of a Programmable Logic Controller, (PLC).
A PLC is a digital computer used for automation of processes, such as control
of machinery on factory assembly lines, chemical processes, etc. Unlike
general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple input and output
arrangements, extended temperature ranges, immunity to electrical noise, and
resistance to vibration and impact. They are generally programmed with
proprietary software from the PLC vendor.
A Programmable
Logic Controller
(PLC)
Figure 24.2 – A Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
PMcL Programmable Logic Controllers Index

24.6
PLCs communicate with a Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition

(SCADA) system using “industrial Ethernet” or a vendor proprietary protocol.
The control room has a human interface to the SCADA system.
A process control
scheme that uses
PLCs and a SCADA REMOTE to other PLCs
CONTROL ROOM
system
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
SENSOR ADC
MICRO- HUMAN
PROCESS SCADA
CONTROLLER INTERFACE
ACTUATOR DAC
SIGNAL
CONDITIONING
to other PLCs
PLC
Figure 24.3 – A Process Control System with PLCs and SCADA
24.4 Smart Transducers

By including the microcontroller (with integrated ADC and DAC), the sensor,
and the actuator into one device, a “smart transducer” can be implemented with
self-contained calibration and linearization features, among others.
A smart transducer
Smart Transducer
Digital
PHYSICAL MICRO- NETWORK Communication
PROCESS
TRANSDUCER CONTROLLER INTERFACE System
Figure 24.4 – A Smart Transducer
Index Smart Transducers PMcL

24.7
24.5 Programmable Automation Controllers

Modern industrial automation is starting to use a new device known as a
Programmable Automation Controller (PAC). PACs are used to interface with
simple sensors and actuators, just like a PLC, but they also have advanced
control features, network connectivity, device interoperability and enterprise
data integration capabilities. PACs are multifunctional, handling the digital,
analog, and serial signal types common in all types of industrial applications.
The same hardware can be used for data collection, remote monitoring, process
control and discrete and hybrid manufacturing. PACs also use standard IT
components and protocols, with Ethernet and TCP/IP being very common.
A PAC in a modern
industrial application
(Courtesy Opto 22)
Figure 24.5 – A PAC in a Modern Industrial Application
In the example shown above, the PAC is operating in multiple domains to

monitor and manage a production line, a chemical process, a test bench, and
shipping activities. To do so, the PAC must simultaneously manage analog
values such as temperatures and pressures; digital on/off states for valves,
switches, and indicators; and serial data from inventory tracking and test
equipment. At the same time, the PAC is exchanging data with an OLE for
Process Control (OPC) server, an operator interface, and a Structured Query
Language (SQL) database. Simultaneously handling these tasks without the
need for additional processors or “middleware” is a hallmark of a PAC.
PMcL Programmable Automation Controllers Index

24.8
24.6 Bridge Circuits

Resistive elements are some of the most common sensors. They are
inexpensive, and relatively easy to interface with signal-conditioning circuits.
Resistive elements can be made sensitive to temperature, strain (by pressure or
by flex) and light. Using these basic elements, many complex physical
phenomena can be measured.
Sensor element resistance can range from less than 100  to several hundred
Resistive elements
form the basis for k , depending on the sensor design and the physical environment to be
many types of
physical measured. The table below shows the wide range of sensor resistances used in
measurements
bridge circuits.
Sensor Resistance Range

Strain Gauges 120  , 350  , 3500 
Weigh-Scale Load Cells 350  - 3500 
Pressure Sensors 350  - 3500 
Relative Humidity 100 k - 10 M
Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs) 100  , 1000 
Thermistors 100  - 10 M
Table 24.2 – Sensor Resistance Ranges
Resistive sensors produce relatively small percentage changes in resistance in

The change in a
resistive element is
response to a change in a physical variable. For example, RTDs and strain
small and therefore gauges present a significant measurement challenge because the typical change
accurate
measurement is in resistance over the entire operating range may be less than 1% of the
essential
nominal resistance value. Accurately measuring small resistance changes is
therefore critical when applying resistive sensors.
Rather than trying to measure the sensor output directly, a bridge circuit is
often used. The ability to balance the bridge initially (and zero the output, v o )
is a significant advantage of the bridge, since it is much easier to measure small
changes in voltage vo from a null voltage than from an elevated voltage v o ,
which may be as much as 1000 times greater than vo .
Index Bridge Circuits PMcL

24.9
A resistance bridge, or Wheatstone bridge, shown in the figure below, is used

to measure small resistance changes accurately.
The Wheatstone
bridge is the basis of
many types of
VB sensor
The Wheatstone bridge:

R4 R3
 R1 R2 
vo    VB
 1
R  R4 R2  R3 
vo
At balance,
R1 R2
R1 R2 vo  if 
R4 R3
Figure 24.6 – The Wheatstone Bridge
It consists of four resistors connected to form a quadrilateral, a source of

excitation voltage VB (or, alternately, a current) connected across one of the
diagonals, and a voltage detector connected across the other diagonal. The
detector measures the difference between the outputs of the two voltage
dividers connected across VB . The general formula for the output vo is:
 R1 R2 
vo    VB (24.1)
 1
R  R4 R2  R3 
For sensor applications, the deviation of one or more of the resistors in a bridge
from an initial value is measured as an indication of the change in the measured
variable. In this case, the output voltage change is an indication of the
resistance change. Since very small resistance changes are common, the output
voltage change may be as small as tens of millivolts, even with an excitation
voltage of VB  10 V (a typical value).
PMcL Bridge Circuits Index

24.10
In many bridge applications, there may not just be a single variable element,
but two, or even four elements, all of which may vary. The figure below shows
those bridges most commonly suited for sensor applications:
Bridges that are
commonly suited for
sensor applications VB VB VB VB
R+  R R-  R
R R R+  R R R R-  R
vo vo vo vo
R R+  R R R+  R R R+  R
R-  R R+  R
VB  R VB  R VB  R R
vo : VB
4 R+ 2R 2 R+ 2R 2 R R
(A) Single-Element (B) Two-Element (C) Two-Element (D) All-Element

Varying Varying (1) Varying (2) Varying
Figure 24.7 – Bridges for Sensors
Note that since the bridge output is always directly proportional to VB , the
measurement accuracy can be no better than that of the accuracy of the
excitation voltage.
In each case, the value of the fixed bridge resistor R is chosen to be equal to
the nominal value of the variable resistor(s). The deviation of the variable
resistor(s) about the nominal value is assumed to be proportional to the
quantity being measured, such as strain (in the case of a strain gauge), or
temperature (in the case of an RTD).
The single-element varying bridge (A) is most suited to temperature sensing

The single-element using RTDs or thermistors. All the resistances are nominally equal, but one of
varying bridge is
most suited to them (the sensor) is variable by an amount R . As the equation indicates, the
temperature sensing
relationship between the bridge output and R is not linear. Also, in practice,
most sensors themselves will exhibit a certain specified amount of nonlinearity,
which must be taken into account. Software calibration is used to remove the
linearity error in digital systems.

24.11
The two-element varying bridge (C) requires two identical elements that vary
in opposite directions. For example, this could correspond to two identical
strain gauges: one mounted on top of a flexing surface, and one on the bottom.
This configuration is linear, and the terms R  R and R  R can be viewed
as two sections of a linear potentiometer.
The all-element varying bridge (D) produces the most signal for a given
resistance change, and is inherently linear. It is also an “industry-standard”
configuration for load cells constructed from four identical strain gauges.
Load cells – bridge
elements are “strain
gauges” arranged in
a particular
orientation
Figure 24.8 – Load Cells

24.12
24.6.1 Bridge Design Issues
 Selecting the configuration (1, 2, 4-element varying)
 Selection of voltage or current excitation
 Stability of excitation or ratiometric operation
 Bridge sensitivity: Full-Scale Output / Excitation

1 mV/V to 10 mV/V typical
 Full-scale bridge outputs

10 mV to 100 mV typical
 Precision, low-noise amplification / conditioning techniques required
 Linearization techniques may be required
 Remote sensors present challenges
Regardless of the absolute level, the stability of the excitation voltage or

current directly affects the accuracy of the bridge output. Therefore stable
references and / or ratiometric drive techniques are required to maintain
highest accuracy.
Ratiometric refers to the use of the bridge drive voltage of a voltage-driven

bridge as the reference input to the ADC that digitizes the amplified bridge
output voltage.

24.13
24.6.2 Amplifying and Linearizing Bridge Outputs
The output of a single-element varying bridge may be amplified with an

instrumentation amplifier (in-amp):
The output of a
single-element
varying bridge is
VB normally amplified
with an in-amp
VREF = VB
optional ratiometric output
R R +VS
RG
VB  R
IN AMP
vo =  R GAIN
REF 4 R+ 2
R R+  R -VS
Figure 24.9 – Bridge Output Using an In-Amp
The in-amp provides a large and accurate gain that is set with a single resistor,
RG . The in-amp also provides dual, high-impedance loading to the bridge
nodes – it does not unbalance or load the bridge. Using modern in-amps with
gain ranging from 10-1000, excellent common-mode rejection and gain
accuracy can be achieved with this circuit.
However, due to the intrinsic characteristics of the bridge, the output is still
nonlinear. In a system where the output of the in-amp is digitized using an
ADC and fed into a microcontroller, this nonlinearity can be corrected in
software.
The bridge in this example is voltage driven, by the voltage VB . This voltage
can optionally be used for an ADC reference voltage, in which case it is an
additional output of the circuit, VREF .

24.14
An analog circuit for linearizing a single-element bridge is shown below:

An analog circuit for
linearizing a single-
element varying
bridge
VB
VB  R R2
R R vo = 1+
2 R R1
vo
R+  R R R2
R1
Figure 24.10 – Linearizing a One-Element Varying Bridge
The top node of the bridge is excited by the voltage VB . The bottom of the
bridge is driven in complementary fashion by the left op-amp, which maintains
a constant current of VB R in the varying resistance element, R  R , which is
the mechanism for linearity improvement. Also, the bridge left-side centre
node is “ground-referenced” by the op-amp, making this configuration
suppress common-mode voltages.
The output signal is taken from the right-hand leg of the bridge, and is
amplified by a second op-amp connected as a noninverting gain stage.
The circuit requires two op-amps operating on dual supplies. In addition,

paired resistors R1 and R2 must be ratio matched and stable for overall
accurate and stable gain. The circuit is practical if a dual precision op-amp
(with high gain, low offset / noise and high stability) is used.

24.15
A circuit for linearizing a two-element bridge is shown below:

An analog circuit for
linearizing a two-
element varying
bridge
R +VS
R+  R
IB RG IN AMP
R
vo = IB GAIN
REF 2
R R+  R -VS
+VS
IB
R SENSE
-VS
VREF
Figure 24.11 – Linearizing a Two-Element Varying Bridge
This circuit uses an op-amp, a sense resistor, and a voltage reference, set up in
a feedback loop containing the sensing bridge. The net effect of the loop is to
maintain a constant current through the bridge of I B  VREF RSENSE . The
current through each leg of the bridge remains constant ( I B 2 ) as the

resistance changes. Therefore the output is a linear function of R . An in-amp
provides the additional gain. If ratiometric operation of an ADC is desired, the
VREF voltage can be used to drive the ADC.

24.16
24.6.3 Driving Remote Bridges
Wiring resistance and noise pickup are the biggest problems associated with
remotely located bridges. The figure below shows a 350  strain gauge which
is connected to the rest of the bridge circuit by 30 m of twisted pair copper
wire. The temperature coefficient of the copper wire is 0.385 %/°C. The figure
shows nominal resistor values at 25 C .
Wiring resistance is
a big problem for
remotely located +10 V
bridges
350  350 
R LEAD
10.5 (10.904 )
vo
0 23.45 mV Strain Gauge
350  (5.44 mV 28.84 mV)
350  353.5 FS
R LEAD
R COMP 10.5 (10.904 )
21 
Offset error over temperature = +23% FS

Gain error over temperature = -0.21% FS
Figure 24.12 – A Bridge with Wiring Resistance
The full-scale variation of the strain gauge resistance above its nominal 350 
value is +1% (  3.5  ), corresponding to a full-scale strain gauge resistance of
353.5  which causes a bridge output voltage of +23.45 mV. Notice that the
addition of the 21  resistor, RCOMP , is used to compensate for the wiring
resistance and balances the bridge when the strain gauge is 350  .
Assume that the cable temperature increase  10 C above a nominal room

temperature of 25 C . The values in parentheses in the diagram indicate the
values at  35 C . With no strain, the additional lead resistance produces an
offset of +5.44 mV in the bridge output. Full-scale strain produces a bridge
output of +28.84 mV (a change of +23.4 mV from no strain). Thus, the
increase in temperature produces an offset voltage error of +5.44 mV, or +23%
full-scale, and a gain error of -0.05 mV (23.4 mV – 23.45 mV), or -0.21% full-
scale.

24.17
The effects of wiring resistance on the bridge output can be minimized by the
3-wire connection shown below:
Wiring resistance for
a remotely located
+10 V bridge can be
overcome using a 3-
wire connection
350  350 
R LEAD
10.5 (10.904  )
vo
0 24.15 mV I=0 Strain Gauge
(0 24.13 mV)
R LEAD 350  353.5 FS
350 
10.5 (10.904  )
Offset error over temperature = 0% FS

Gain error over temperature = -0.08% FS
Figure 24.13 – A 3-Wire Connection for a Bridge
We assume that the bridge output voltage is measured by a high impedance

device, therefore there is no current in the sense lead. The sense lead measures
the voltage output of a divider: the top half is the bridge resistor plus the lead
resistance, and the bottom half is strain gauge resistance plus the lead
resistance. The nominal sense voltage is therefore independent of the lead
resistance. When the strain gauge resistance increases to full-scale ( 353.5  ),
the bridge output increases to 24.15 mV.
Increasing the temperature to  35 C increases the lead resistance in each half

of the divider. The full-scale bridge output voltage decreases to +24.13 mV,
but there is no offset error. The gain error due to the temperature increase of
 10 C is therefore only -0.02 mV, or -0.08% full-scale.
The three-wire method works well for remotely located resistive elements
which make up one leg of a single-element varying bridge. However, four-
element varying bridges are generally housed in a complete assembly, as in the
case of a load cell. When these bridges are remotely located from the
conditioning electronics, special techniques must be used to maintain accuracy.

24.18
Most four-element varying bridges (such as load cells) are six-lead assemblies:
two leads for the bridge output, two leads for the bridge excitation, and two
sense leads. To take full advantage of the additional accuracy that these two
extra leads allow, a method called Kelvin or 4-wire sensing is employed, as
shown below:
A 6-lead bridge uses

Kelvin sensing to
overcome lead VB
resistance in both
the sensing R LEAD
terminals and the
+FORCE
excitation terminals
6-lead +SENSE R LEAD

bridge
R LEAD
vo
R LEAD
-SENSE R LEAD
-FORCE R LEAD
Figure 24.14 – A 6-Lead Bridge Using Kelvin Sensing
In this setup the drive voltage VB is not applied directly to the bridge, but goes
instead to the input of the upper precision op-amp, which is connected in a
feedback loop around the bridge (+) terminal. Although there may be a
substantial voltage drop in the +FORCE lead resistance of the remote cable, the
op-amp will automatically correct for it, since it has a feedback path through
the +SENSE lead. The net effect is that the upper node of the remote bridge is
maintained at a precise level of VB . A similar situation occurs with the bottom
precision op-amp, which drives the bridge (-) terminal to ground level. Again,
the voltage drop in the –FORCE lead is relatively immaterial, because of the
sensing at the –SENSE terminal.

24.19
24.6.4 Integrated Bridge Transducers
A very powerful combination of bridge circuit techniques is shown below:

A bridge transducer
ADC can be used to
connect directly to a
+5V +5V/+3V
+FORCE R LEAD 6-lead bridge
+SENSE R LEAD AVDD DVDD

6-lead
bridge +VREF
R LEAD
+A IN
AD7730
R LEAD
-A IN
-SENSE R LEAD
-VREF
GND
-FORCE R LEAD
Figure 24.15 – An Integrated Bridge Transducer
This is an example of a basic DC operated bridge, utilising ratiometric

conversion with a high performance ADC, combined with Kelvin sensing to
minimize errors due to wiring resistance.
The Analog Devices AD7730 Bridge Transducer ADC can be driven from a
single supply voltage of 5 V, which in this case is used to excite the bridge.
Both the analog input and the reference input to the ADC are high impedance
and fully differential. By using the +SENSE and –SENSE outputs from the
bridge as the differential reference voltage to the ADC, there is no loss in
measurement accuracy as the actual bridge excitation voltage varies.
The AD7730 is one of a family of “sigma-delta” ADCs with high resolution

(24 bits) and internal programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs) and is marketed as
a “Bridge Transducer ADC”. The chip has a self-calibration feature which
allow offset and gain errors due to the ADC to be minimized. A system
calibration feature allows offset and gain errors to be reduced to a few
microvolts.

24.20
24.7 Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements

The most popular electrical elements used in force measurements include the
resistance strain gauge, the semiconductor strain gauge, and piezoelectric
A strain gauge can
be used to measure transducers. The strain gauge measures force indirectly by measuring the
strain, force,
pressure and flow deflection it produces in a calibrated carrier. Pressure can be converted into a
force using an appropriate transducer, and strain gauge techniques can then be
used to measure pressure. Flow rates can be measured using differential
pressure measurements, which also make use of strain gauge technology.
Measurement Sensor
Strain Strain gauge, Piezoelectric transducer
Force Load cell
Pressure Diaphragm to force to strain gauge
Flow Differential pressure techniques
Table 24.3 – Sensors used for Typical Measurements
The resistance-based strain gauge uses a resistive element which changes in

length, hence resistance, as the force applied to the base on which it is mounted
causes stretching or compression. It is the most well known transducer for
converting force into an electrical variable.
Index Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements PMcL

24.21
A bonded strain gauge consists of a thin wire or conducting film arranged in a

coplanar pattern and cemented to a base or carrier. The basic form of this type
of gauge is shown below:
A bonded strain
gauge
FORCE
Small surface area

Low leakage
High isolation
FORCE
Figure 24.16 – A Bonded Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is normally mounted so that as much as possible of the length
of the conductor is aligned in the direction of the stress that is being measured.
Lead wires are attached to the base and brought out for interconnection.
Semiconductor strain gauges have a greater sensitivity and higher-level output

than wire strain gauges. They can also be produced to have either positive or
negative changes when strained. However, they are temperature sensitive, are
difficult to compensate, and the change in resistance is nonlinear.
PMcL Strain, Force, Pressure and Flow Measurements Index

24.22
24.8 High Impedance Sensors

Many popular sensors have output impedances greater than several megohms,
and thus the associated signal-conditioning circuitry must be carefully designed
to meet the challenges of low bias current, low noise, and high gain. A few
examples of high impedance sensors are:
High impedances
sensors…  Photodiode preamplifiers
 Piezoelectric sensors
 Humidity monitors
 pH monitors
 Chemical sensors
 Smoke detectors
Very high gain is usually required to convert the output signal of these sensors
into a usable voltage. For example, a photodiode application typically needs to
detect outputs down to 30 pA of current, and even a gain of 106 will only yield
30 mV. To accurately measure photodiode currents in this range, the bias
current of the op-amp should be no more than a few picoamps. A high
performance JFET-input op-amp is normally used to achieve this specification.
Special circuit layout techniques are required for the signal conditioning
…require special
interfacing circuits circuitry. For example, circuit layouts on a printed circuit board (PCB)
typically need very short connections to minimise leakage and parasitic
elements. Inputs tend to be “guarded” with ground tracks to isolate sensitive
amplifier inputs from voltages appearing across the PCB.
Index High Impedance Sensors PMcL

24.23
24.9 Temperature Sensors

Temperature measurement is critical in many electronic devices, especially
expensive laptop computers and other portable devices – their densely packed Temperature is an
extremely important
circuitry dissipates considerable power in the form of heat. Knowledge of physical property to
system temperature can also be used to control battery charging, as well as to measure
prevent damage to expensive microprocessors.
Accurate temperature measurements are required in many other measurement

systems, for example within process control and instrumentation applications.
Some popular types of temperature sensors and their characteristics are
indicated in the table below:
Popular types of
Sensor Range Accuracy Excitation Feature temperature sensor
and their
Thermocouple -184°C to High accuracy Needs cold Low- characteristics
+2300°C and junction voltage
repeatability compensation
RTD -200°C to Fair linearity Requires Low cost
+850°C excitation
Thermistor 0°C to Poor linearity Requires High
+100°C excitation sensitivity
Semiconductor -55°C to Linearity: 1°C Requires 10 mV/K,
+150°C excitation 20 mV/K
Accuracy: 1°C
or 1A/K
typical
output
Table 24.1 – Popular Types of Temperature Sensors
In most cases, because of low-level and/or nonlinear outputs, the sensor output
must be properly conditioned and amplified before further processing can
occur. Sensor outputs may be digitized directly by high resolution ADCs –
linearization and calibration can then be performed in software, reducing cost
and complexity.
PMcL Temperature Sensors Index

24.24
Resistance Temperature Devices (RTDs) are accurate, but require excitation

current and are generally used within bridge circuits.
Thermistors have the most sensitivity, but are also the most nonlinear. They are
popular in portable applications for measurement of battery and other critical
system temperatures.
Modern semiconductor temperature sensors offer both high accuracy and

linearity over about a -55°C to +150°C operating range. Internal amplifiers can
scale output to convenient values, such as 10 mV/°C.
Index Temperature Sensors PMcL

24.25
24.10 Summary
 A sensor is a device that receives a signal or stimulus and responds with an
electrical signal. The full-scale outputs of most sensors are relatively small
voltages, currents, or resistance changes, and therefore their outputs must
be properly conditioned before further analog or digital processing can
occur.
 Amplification, level translation, galvanic isolation, impedance

transformation, linearization and filtering are fundamental signal-
conditioning functions that may be required with sensors.
 A resistance bridge, or Wheatstone bridge, is used to measure small

resistance changes accurately. There are a variety of different bridge
circuits, and a variety of amplifying and linearizing techniques to suit each
type.
 There are a variety of methods for interfacing to remote bridges. Many

integrated bridge transducers are available as “one-chip” solutions to bridge
driving and measurement.
 There are many types of sensors – their use in a certain application requires
an understanding of their physical construction and operation, as well as the
required performance and cost demanded by the overall system.
24.11 References
Jung, W: Op-Amp Applications, Analog Devices, 2002.
PMcL Summary Index

24.26
Exercises
1.
For temperature measurements only one active transducer is used and so it is
not possible to have a linear output if it is placed in a bridge.
(a) Show that the output from a single-element varying bridge is given by:
VB R
vo 
4 R  R
2
(b) Since the active transducer resistance change can be rather large (up to
100% or more for RTDs), the nonlinearity of the bridge output
characteristic (the formula above) can become quite significant. It is
therefore desired to linearize the output of a temperature transducer using
the following circuit:
R 2+ R
R1
VB
vo
R1
R2
Derive an equation for the output voltage.

25.1
25 System Modelling
Contents
Introduction ................................................................................................... 25.2

25.1 Differential Equations of Physical Systems .......................................... 25.3
25.2 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems......................................... 25.5
25.3 The Transfer Function ........................................................................... 25.8
25.4 Block Diagrams ..................................................................................... 25.9
25.5 Feedback .............................................................................................. 25.16
25.6 Summary.............................................................................................. 25.19
25.7 References ........................................................................................... 25.19
Exercises ...................................................................................................... 25.20
PMcL Contents Index
2015 25 - System Modelling

25.2
Introduction
In order to understand, analyse and design complex systems, we must obtain
quantitative mathematical models of these systems. Since most systems are
dynamic in nature, the descriptive equations are usually differential equations.
If the system stays “within bounds”, then the equations are usually treated as
linear differential equations, and the method of transfer functions can be used
to simplify the analysis.
In practice, the complexity of systems and the ignorance of all the relevant
factors necessitate the introduction of assumptions concerning the system
operation. Therefore, we find it useful to consider the physical system,
delineate some necessary assumptions, and linearize the system. Then, by
using the physical laws describing the linear equivalent system, we can obtain
a set of linear differential equations. Finally, utilizing mathematical tools, such
as the transfer function, we obtain a solution describing the operation of the
system.
In summary, we:
1. Define the system and its components.
2. List the necessary assumptions and formulate the mathematical model.
3. Write the differential equations describing the model.
4. Solve the equations for the desired output variables.
5. Examine the solutions and the assumptions.
6. Reanalyse or design.
25 - System Modelling 2015

25.3
25.1 Differential Equations of Physical Systems

The differential equations describing the dynamic performance of a physical
system are obtained by utilizing the physical laws – this approach applies
equally well to electrical, mechanical, fluid and thermodynamic systems.
For mechanical systems, Newton’s laws are applicable.
EXAMPLE 25.1 Spring-Mass-Damper Mechanical System
Consider the simple spring-mass-damper mechanical system shown below:
K
f
Friction Mass y
M
r (t )
Force
This is described by Newton’s second law of motion (this system could
represent, for example, a car’s shock absorber). We therefore obtain:
d2y dy
M 2
f  Ky  r
dt dt
where K is the spring constant of the ideal spring and f is the friction constant.
PMcL Differential Equations of Physical Systems Index

25.4
EXAMPLE 25.2 Parallel RLC Circuit
Consider the electrical RLC circuit below:
r (t ) R L C v( t )
This is described by Kirchhoff’s current law. We therefore obtain:
dv v 1
dt R L 
C   vdt  r
In order to reveal the close similarity between the differential equations for the
mechanical and electrical systems, we can rewrite the mechanical equation in
terms of velocity:
dy
v
dt
Then we have:
dv
M  fv  K  vdt  r
dt
The equivalence is immediately obvious where velocity vt  and voltage vt 
are equivalent variables, usually called analogous variables, and the systems
are analogous systems.
The concept of analogous systems is a very useful and powerful technique for
system modelling. Analogous systems with similar solutions exist for
electrical, mechanical, thermal and fluid systems. The existence of analogous
systems and solutions allows us to extend the solution of one system to all
analogous systems with the same describing differential equation.
Index Differential Equations of Physical Systems PMcL

25.5
25.2 Linear Approximations of Physical Systems

Many physical systems are linear within some range of variables. However, all
systems ultimately become nonlinear as the variables are increased without
limit. For example, the spring-mass-damper system is linear so long as the
mass is subjected to small deflections y t  . However, if y t  were continually
increased, eventually the spring would be overextended and break. Therefore,
the question of linearity and the range of applicability must be considered for
each system.
A necessary condition for a system to be linear can be determined in terms of a

forcing function xt  and a response y t  . A system is linear if and only if:
ax1 t   bx2 t   ay1 t   by2 t  (25.1)
That is, linear systems obey the principle of superposition, [excitation by

x1 t   x2 t  results in y1 t   y 2 t  ] and they also satisfy the homogeneity
property [excitation by ax1 t  results in ay1 t  ].
It may come as a surprise that a system obeying the relation y  mx  b is not

linear, since it does not satisfy the homogeneity property. However, the system
may be considered linear about an operating point x0 , y0  for small changes
x and y . When x  x0  x and y  y0  y , we have:
y  mx  b
(25.2)
y0  y  mx0  mx  b
and, since y0  mx0  b , then y  mx , which is linear.
In general, we can often linearize nonlinear elements by assuming small-signal

conditions. This approach is the normal approach used to obtain linear
equivalent circuits for electronic circuits and transistors.
PMcL Linear Approximations of Physical Systems Index

25.6
Consider a general element of a system which can be described by a

relationship between the excitation variable xt  and the response y t  :
y
y=f ( x)
tangent
y0
operating point
0 x0 x
Figure 25.1
The normal operating point is designated by  x0 , y 0  . A Taylor series

expansion about the operating point gives:
y  f x0  x   f x0   x
df
 (25.3)
dx x  x0
The tangent to the curve at the operating point is a good approximation to the
curve for small x . Thus, for a small region about the operating point, a
reasonable first-order approximation of the element is:
y  f x0   x
df
 y0  mx (25.4)
dx x  x0
which can be written as the approximate linear equation:
y  mx (25.5)
This linear approximation is only accurate for a range of small signals which
depends on the actual nonlinear element’s characteristic.
Index Linear Approximations of Physical Systems PMcL

25.7
EXAMPLE 25.3 Pendulum Oscillator
Consider the pendulum oscillator:
Length L

Mass M
The magnitude of the torque on the mass is:
T  MgL sin 
where g is the gravity constant. The equilibrium position for the mass is
 0  0 . The nonlinear relation between T and  is shown graphically below:
 
  
2 2
The first derivative evaluated at equilibrium provides the linear approximation

which is:
T  MgL
d
sin    0 
d  0
 MgLcos 0  0

 MgL
This approximation is reasonably accurate for   4     4 . For example,

the response of the linear model for the swing through  30 is within 2% of
the actual nonlinear pendulum response.
PMcL Linear Approximations of Physical Systems Index

25.8
25.3 The Transfer Function

We have already seen that the transfer function, which represents the
input/output relationship of a system in terms of complex frequency, has a
simple relationship to the differential equation describing the system.
Differentiation in the time-domain turns into multiplication by s in the
frequency-domain:
d
s (25.6)
dt
Similarly, integration in the time-domain turns into division by s in the
frequency-domain.
t 1
 0 
d 
s
(25.7)
EXAMPLE 25.4 Transfer Function from a Differential Equation
For the simple spring-mass-damper mechanical system, the describing

differential equation was found to be:
d2y dy
M 2
f  Ky  r
dt dt
Transforming to the frequency-domain, we get:
Ms 2 Y  fsY  KY  R
Thus, the transfer function is:
Y 1

R Ms  fs  K
2
Alternatively, the transfer function of a system can be obtained by analysis

performed entirely in the frequency-domain (as we do for the transfer function
of circuits).
Index The Transfer Function PMcL

25.9
25.4 Block Diagrams

We can represent a transfer function graphically, with a block diagram. This
shows the relationship between the forced response and the forcing function –
an input/output relationship. For example, the simple RC circuit can be
represented by:
vs ( t ) C v( t )
Vs 1/RC V
s  1/RC
Figure 25.2
EXAMPLE 25.5 Block Diagram of a Spring-Mass-Damper System
The block diagram for the simple spring-mass-damper mechanical system is:
R 1 Y
2
M s + f s +K
PMcL Block Diagrams Index

25.10
With this representation, we understand that we have to multiply the input

phasor by the transfer function in the box to obtain the output phasor. In
general, we use the following notation, where G s  is the transfer function,
X is the input, and Y is the output:
A block represents
multiplication with a
transfer function X Y
G ( s)
Figure 25.3
Blocks can be connected in cascade, but only if the outputs are “buffered”, i.e.
the connection does not cause the transfer function of each individual block to
be different from the “unloaded” or open condition:
Cascading blocks
implies multiplying
the transfer
functions X Y= G1X Z= G1G2 X
G 1( s ) G 2( s )
Figure 25.4
Obviously, op-amp circuits are ideal for cascading.
Most systems have several blocks interconnected by various forward and

backward paths. Signals (e.g. voltages, currents) in block diagrams can not
only be transformed by a transfer function, they can also be added and
subtracted.
Addition and
subtraction of
signals in a block X Z= X+ Y X Z= X - Y
diagram
Y Y
Figure 25.5
Index Block Diagrams PMcL

25.11
EXAMPLE 25.6 Block Diagram of an Ideal Integrator Op-Amp Circuit
Consider the ideal integrator op-amp circuit:
R
vi
vo
We know that the gain can be expressed as:
Vo Z 1 sC
 2 
Vi Z1 R
Therefore, the op-amp integrator can be represented by:
Vi -1 Vo
s RC
Thus, an integrator circuit has a 1 s term in its transfer function. This makes
intuitive sense, since multiplication by s represents differentiation, and so
division by s must be representative of integration.

25.12
EXAMPLE 25.7 Block Diagram of a Summing Lossy Integrator
The op-amp circuit:
RF
R2
v2
CF
R1
v1
vo
can be represented by:
V2 1 I2
R2
V1 1 I1 -1/CF Vo
R1 s + 1/R FCF

25.13
EXAMPLE 25.8 Block Diagram of a Bilinear Op-Amp Circuit
The bilinear op-amp circuit:
K p
1 z
1 K
Vi
Vo
can be represented by:
Vi s +z Vo
-K s +p
It should be obvious that we can now establish a “cookbook” approach to

circuit design – if we have a transfer function that we want to implement, we
simply find the appropriate op-amp circuit in the “cookbook”.

25.14
EXAMPLE 25.9 Block Diagram of a Field-Controlled DC Motor
The DC motor is a power actuator device that delivers energy to a load as

shown below:
A schematic diagram of the DC motor is shown below:
Armature
Ra
La
Rf
ia
vf Lf
Inertia = J
if Friction= f
Field 
Load

25.15
For a field-controlled DC motor, the armature current is assumed to be constant

and the torque developed by the motor is assumed to be linearly related to the
field current:
Tm  K mi f
The motor torque is delivered to the load, which can also be subjected to
external disturbances (e.g. wind-gust forces for a tracking antenna):
TL  Tm  Td
The load torque for a rotating system with inertia and friction comes from the
rotational form of Newton’s second law:
d d
TL  J  f , 
dt dt
The blocks are derived from the differential equations governing the various
parts of the system. The block diagram of a field-controlled DC motor is
therefore:
disturbance
torque
Td
field field armature load

voltage current torque torque speed position
Vf 1 If Tm TL 1  1 
Km
Rf + s L f f +sJ s
motor windings motor friction and
action
inertia
If there is no disturbance torque, then the model of the field-controlled DC

motor is:
Vf Km 
s (R f + s L f) (f +s J )

25.16
25.5 Feedback
Perhaps the most important block diagram is that of a feedback connection,
shown below:
Standard form for
the feedback
connection
R E C
G ( s)
H ( s)
Figure 25.6
We have the following definitions:
G s  = forward path transfer function

Hs  = feedback path transfer function
r t  = reference, input, or desired output
ct  = controlled variable, or output
et  = actuating error signal
r t   ct  = system error
C
= closed-loop transfer function
R
Gs Hs  = loop gain
Index Feedback PMcL

25.17
To find the closed-loop transfer function, we solve the following two equations
which are self-evident from the block diagram:
C  G s E
E  R  Hs C
(25.8)
Then the output C is given by:
C  G s R  G s Hs C
C1  G s Hs   G s R
(25.9)
and therefore:
Transfer function for
C G s  the standard
 negative feedback
R 1  G s Hs 
(25.10) connection
Note that for negative feedback we get 1  GsHs and for positive feedback
we get 1  Gs Hs  .
Negative and
positive feedback
negative feedback positive feedback
1+ GH 1- GH
Figure 25.7
PMcL Feedback Index

25.18
EXAMPLE 25.10 Block Diagram of a Noninverting Amplifier
Consider a noninverting amplifier where the op-amp is modelled as having

infinite input impedance, zero output impedance, and a large but finite gain A:
vi
A vo
R2
R1
The voltage fed back to the inverting terminal is negative feedback. Let the
proportion of the voltage fed back be given by:
R1
v o  v o
R1  R2
Then a block diagram that models the non-inverting amplifier is:
Vi Vo
A
The transfer function can be simplified to:
Vi A Vo
1+A 
For large values of A such that A  1 , the transfer function reduces to:
1 R2
 1
 R1
Index Feedback PMcL

25.19
25.6 Summary
 We model linear time-invariant systems by making necessary simplifying
assumptions before applying the basic physical laws. The result is a linear
differential equation describing the system.
 A linear differential equation can be turned into a transfer function by

replacing the derivative operator with the complex frequency s.
Alternatively, the transfer function of a system can be obtained by
performing analysis directly in the frequency-domain.
 A transfer function can be represented graphically in the form of a block

diagram. Block diagrams can be connected together in cascade, and signals
can be added and subtracted.
 Negative feedback in a system is a very important concept. For a forward

path transfer function G and a feedback path transfer function H, the
closed-loop transfer function is:
Ts  
G
1  GH
25.7 References
Dorf, R.: Modern Control Systems, 5th Ed., Addison-Wesley, 1989.
PMcL Summary Index

25.20
Exercises
1.
RF
R1
R5
C1
R3 C5
v in1 R0
-1 R2 R4
A1
A2
v out1 A3 v out3
v7 R7 R6
v8 R8
A4 v out4
(a) Construct a block diagram of the circuit.
(b) Show that the transfer function T1 s   Vout3 Vin1 is:
R3 R0 R2 R4 C1C5
T1 s  
 1 1   R3 1 
s 2    s    
 1 1
R C R5 5 
C  2 4 F 1 5
R R R C C R1 5 1 5 
R C C
(c) By comparing with the “standard form” of a second-order all-pole

transfer function:
K102
T1 s  
s 2  2s  02
write expressions for K1 ,  and 0 in terms of R’s and C’s.

25.21
(d) For the special case of when R1  R5 , C1  C5 and RF  R4 , and defining
d  02   2 , show that the poles of the transfer function are located
at p1, 2    j d where:
1 R 1
 d  3
R1C1 R2 R4C1
(e) For the special case of when R1  R5 , C1  C5 and RF  R4 , show that
the transfer function T2 s   Vout1 Vin1 can be put in the form:
K 2 s   
T2 s  
s  2s   02
2
(f) For the special case of when R1  R5 , C1  C5 , RF  R4 , R6  R8 and
, show that the transfer function T3 s   Vout4 Vin1 can be put

2 R0 R8

R1 R7
in the form:
T3 s  

K 3 s 2   02  2 2 
s 2  2s   02
(g) Draw pole-zero plots for each of the three transfer functions.
(h) Perform a simulation of the circuit and determine each transfer function’s
frequency response. Hence, classify each of the transfer functions in
terms of their frequency response (e.g. lowpass, highpass, notch, etc.).

26.1
26 Revision
Contents
26.1 Basic Laws and Op-Amp Amplifiers .................................................... 26.2

26.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis ...................................................................... 26.2
26.3 Circuit Analysis Techniques .................................................................. 26.3
26.4 Linear Op-Amp Applications ................................................................ 26.3
26.5 Reactive Components ............................................................................ 26.4
26.6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits ........................................................... 26.4
26.7 Source-free RC and RL Circuits ............................................................ 26.5
26.8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications........................................................... 26.5
26.9 The First-Order Step Response.............................................................. 26.6
26.10 Op-Amp Imperfections ........................................................................ 26.6
26.11 The Phasor Concept ............................................................................. 26.7
26.12 Circuit Simulation................................................................................ 26.7
26.13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response................................................ 26.8
26.14 Amplifier Models ................................................................................ 26.8
26.16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters ................................................................. 26.9
26.17 The Second-Order Step Response ..................................................... 26.10
26.18 Waveform Generation ....................................................................... 26.10
26.19 Second-Order Frequency Response................................................... 26.11
26.20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters .......................................................... 26.11
26.21 Complex Frequency ........................................................................... 26.12
26.22 Specialty Amplifiers .......................................................................... 26.12
26.23 Transfer Functions ............................................................................. 26.13
26.24 Sensor Signal Conditioning ............................................................... 26.13
26.25 System Modelling .............................................................................. 26.14
PMcL Contents Index
2015 26 - Revision
26.2
26.1 Basic Laws and Op-Amp Amplifiers

Know
 Current, voltage, power and circuits.
 Circuit elements and types of circuits.
 Ohm’s Law.
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
 Resistance and source combination.
 Voltage and current dividers.
 Amplifiers.
 The ideal op-amp.
 Negative feedback.
 The noninverting amplifier.
 The inverting amplifier.
Know the passive and active sign conventions and have confidence in applying
KCL and KVL to any circuit. Know and use Ohm’s Law. Know circuit
analysis short-cuts with series / parallel combinations, voltage and current
dividers. Know what parameters are used for an ideal op-amp, the concept and
application of negative feedback and the concept of the “virtual short-circuit”.
You should know the gain formulas for both noninverting and inverting
amplifiers, and be able to derive them if necessary.
26.2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

Know
 Nodal analysis.
 Mesh analysis.
Know that nodal analysis applies KCL and finds nodal voltages, whilst mesh
analysis applies KVL and finds mesh current. Know how to perform, by hand,
analysis on a three-node or three-mesh circuit composed of resistors, ideal
independent and ideal dependent sources.
Index Basic Laws and Op-Amp Amplifiers PMcL
26 - Revision 2015
26.3
26.3 Circuit Analysis Techniques

Know
 Source transformations.
 Linearity and superposition.
 Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems.
You should be able to convert between a real voltage source and a real current
source (a special application of Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems). Know
when linearity applies (and does not apply), and be able to use superposition
appropriately (e.g. DC and AC sources, common-mode and differential mode).
Know how to apply Thévenin’s and Norton’s Theorems to any linear circuit,
even if it contains dependent sources.
26.4 Linear Op-Amp Applications

Know
 Summing amplifier.
 Difference amplifier.
 Integrator.
 Differentiator.
Know the basic functionality of the summing and difference amplifier,

integrator and differentiator. You should be able to derive output equations
from first principles if needed, using the basic circuit laws and the concept of
the virtual short-circuit.
PMcL Circuit Analysis Techniques Index
2015 26 - Revision
26.4
26.5 Reactive Components

Know
 Capacitor and inductor construction and v-i relationships.
 Stored energy relationships for inductors and capacitors.
 Series/parallel connection of inductors and capacitors.
 Circuit analysis with inductors and capacitors.
Familiar
 Physical characteristics of inductors; parasitic effects.
 Physical characteristics of capacitors; parasitic effects.
Aware
 Duality.
Know the v-i relationships and the energy stored for C and L, and how they can
be combined in series and parallel. Know how to write nodal or mesh equations
for any circuit. Know how to perform DC analysis for any circuit.
Familiar with the fact that real components exhibit other characteristics, and we
initially study idealized forms of components. The most important nonideality
of the passive components is the resistance of the inductor windings.
Aware of the concept of duality – be able to recognise circuits that are “duals”.
26.6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

Know
 Ideal diode.
Familiar
 Diode models.
 Rectifier circuits.
 Limiting and clamping circuits.
 LEDs.
Know the operation of an ideal diode.
Familiar with the fact that real signal diodes exhibit a 0.7 V voltage drop when
conducting, the principles of rectification and why we rectify, application of
diodes to limiting and clamping voltage signals, light emitting diodes have a
forward voltage drop different to 0.7 V (depends on the colour).
Index Reactive Components PMcL
26 - Revision 2015
26.5
26.7 Source-free RC and RL Circuits

Know
 Differential operators.
 Properties of differential operators.
 The characteristic equation.
 The simple RC circuit.
 Properties of the exponential response.
 Single time constant RC circuits.
 The simple RL circuit.
 Single time constant RL circuits.
Know how to write a differential equation using the D operator, write a

characteristic equation by inspection of a differential equation, analyse any
first-order RC or RL circuit to obtain the natural response, expressed in terms
of the appropriate time constant.
26.8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

Familiar
 Op-amp comparators.
 The superdiode.
 Precision half-wave and full-wave rectifiers.
 Precision peak detector.
 Limiters.
 Clamps
Familiar with nonlinear op-amp circuits such as the comparator, superdiode,

precision rectification, limiters and clamps.
PMcL Source-free RC and RL Circuits Index
2015 26 - Revision
26.6
26.9 The First-Order Step Response

Know
 The unit-step forcing function.
 The driven RC circuit.
 Forced and natural response.
 RC circuits.
 Analysis procedure for single time constant RC circuits.
 RL circuits.
 Analysis procedure for single time constant RL circuits.
Know the definition of a unit-step as applied to a voltage or current source, that

a driven circuit has a forced response and a natural response, and that these
correspond to the particular solution and complementary solution to the
circuit’s describing differential equation, how to analyse any first-order circuit
with a step (DC) forcing function.
26.10 Op-Amp Imperfections

Know
 DC imperfections (offset voltage, bias and offset currents).
 Finite open-loop gain.
Familiar
 Finite bandwidth.
 Output voltage saturation.
 Output current limits.
 Slew rate.
 Full-power BW.
Know how to calculate the effect of DC imperfections on an op-amp circuit’s

output, and derive gain expressions if the op-amp has finite gain.
Familiar with other limitations of the op-amp, as observed in the laboratory.
Index The First-Order Step Response PMcL
26 - Revision 2015
26.7
26.11 The Phasor Concept

Know
 Sinusoidal signals.
 Sinusoidal steady-state response.
 Complex forcing function.
 Phasors.
 Phasor relationships for R, L and C.
 Impedance.
 Admittance.
Know the general expression for a sinusoid, the concepts of amplitude and
phase, that a sinusoidal input yields a sinusoidal output in the steady-state
(“sinusoid in = sinusoid out”), complex forcing functions can be created from
real sinusoidal forcing functions, the concept of a phasor (visualize a rotating
phasor, and how to obtain the real part), phasor relationships for R, L and C and
the concepts of impedance and admittance.
26.12 Circuit Simulation

Familiar
 DC analysis.
 AC analysis.
 Transients.
Familiar with the schematic capture process, simulation in the time-domain

(transient analysis) and frequency-domain (AC analysis).
PMcL The Phasor Concept Index
2015 26 - Revision
26.8
26.13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

Know
 Nodal analysis.
 Mesh analysis.
 Superposition.
 Source transformations.
 Thévenin’s Theorem.
 Norton’s theorem.
 Phasor diagrams.
 Power in AC circuits.
Know how to apply nodal and mesh analysis to circuits in the frequency-
domain, apply superposition, source transformations, Thévenin’s and Norton’s
Theorems and draw phasor diagrams. Know the different forms of power such
as instantaneous, average, real, reactive and complex.
26.14 Amplifier Models

Familiar
 Circuit models for amplifiers.
 Cascaded amplifiers.
 Efficiency.
 I/O impedances.
 Ideal amplifiers.
 Frequency response.
 Linear distortion.
 Transfer characteristic.
 Nonlinear distortion.
Familiar with the circuit models used for real amplifiers, cascading amplifiers,
efficiency, input and output impedances, ideal amplifier characteristics,
frequency response including the concepts of bandwidth and half-power, linear
amplitude and phase distortion, nonlinear distortion.
Index The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response PMcL
26 - Revision 2015
26.9

Know
 Decibels.
 Cascading two-ports.
 Logarithmic frequency scales.
 Bode plots.
 First-order lowpass filters.
 First-order highpass filters.
Aware
 Fourier analysis, cascade filters.
Know the definition of the decibel and its application to amplifier circuits, how
to cascade circuits, logarithmic scales, Bode plots, how to derive the equations
for the frequency response for first-order lowpass and highpass filters, and
sketch their responses.
26.16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters

Know
 Bilinear frequency response.
 First-order lowpass filters.
 First-order highpass filters.
Know the form of the bilinear frequency response, and be able to derive a
suitable op-amp implementation of it, how to implement lowpass and highpass
filters using cascaded op-amp circuits.
2015 26 - Revision
26.10
26.17 The Second-Order Step Response

Know
 Solution of the homogeneous linear differential equation.
 Source-free parallel RLC circuit.
 Overdamped parallel RLC circuit.
 Critical damping.
 Underdamped parallel RLC circuit.
 Source-free series RLC circuit.
 Complete response of the RLC circuit.
Know the solution of the second-order homogeneous linear differential

equation from inspection of the roots of the characteristic equation, the natural
response of the parallel RLC circuit for the overdamped, critically damped and
underdamped cases, the natural response of the series RLC circuit and the
complete response of any RLC circuit.
26.18 Waveform Generation

Familiar
 Open-loop comparator.
 Comparator with hysteresis.
 Astable multivibrator.
 Waveform generator.
Familiar with the open-loop comparator, hysteresis, the astable multivibrator

and waveform generation from laboratory experience.
Index The Second-Order Step Response PMcL
26 - Revision 2015
26.11
26.19 Second-Order Frequency Response

Familiar
 Lowpass, bandpass and highpass responses.
 Resonance.
 Bandwidth.
 Quality factor.
Familiar with the concept of lowpass, bandpass and highpass frequency

responses for second-order systems. The concept of resonance, bandwidth and
quality factor for a second-order system and the relationships between them.
The concept of frequency selectivity and its application to filtering signals in
the frequency-domain.
26.20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

Familiar
 Filter design parameters.
 The lowpass biquad circuit.
 The universal biquad circuit.
Aware
 Approximating the ideal lowpass filter.
 The Butterworth lowpass filter.
Familiar with op-amp circuits that implement second-order systems, such as

the universal biquad filter, and their advantages and disadvantages. Aware of
the concept of cascade filter design, the ideal filter and various practical
response types such as the Butterworth response.
PMcL Second-Order Frequency Response Index
2015 26 - Revision
26.12
26.21 Complex Frequency

Know
 Complex frequency.
 Damped sinusoidal forcing function.
 Generalized impedance and admittance.
 The complex-frequency plane.
Aware
 Visualization of the frequency response from a pole-zero plot.
Know the concept of complex frequency, the damped sinusoidal forcing

function, generalized impedance and admittance, frequency response for both
 and  . Aware of visualization of the frequency response from a pole-zero
plot.
26.22 Specialty Amplifiers

Know
 Differential and common-mode signals.
 Difference amplifiers.
Aware
 Instrumentation amplifiers.
 Programmable gain amplifiers.
 Isolation amplifiers.
Know the concept of the differential and common-mode signals, and why we
split signals up in this way. Know the difference amplifier and its limitations.
Aware of the existence of other types of amplifier, which are based on the op-
amp, such as the instrumentation amplifier which is suited to specific
applications, such as those found in data acquisition and distribution systems.
26 - Revision 2015
26.13
26.23 Transfer Functions

Know
 Transfer functions.
 Forced response.
 Natural response.
 Complete response.
Know the concept of the transfer function, how to find the forced response and
natural response from it.
26.24 Sensor Signal Conditioning

Familiar
 Bridge circuits.
Aware
 Strain, force, pressure and flow measurements.
 High impedance sensors.
 Temperature sensors.
Familiar with bridge circuits and their linearization.
Aware of a few sensors and their signal-conditioning circuits, with an emphasis

on bridge circuits which are found in process control systems and data
acquisition systems.
2015 26 - Revision
26.14
26.25 System Modelling

Familiar
 Differential equations of physical systems.
 Linear approximations of physical systems.
 The transfer function.
 Block diagrams.
 Feedback
Familiar with the concept of system modelling and linear approximations,

derivation of the transfer function from the describing differential equation,
block diagrams, modelling of electromechanical systems and the principles of
feedback.
Index System Modelling PMcL
26 - Revision 2015
M.1
Matrices - Quick Reference Guide
Definitions
Symbol Description
aij Element of a matrix. i is the row, j is the column.
 a11 a12 a13  A is the representation of the matrix with elements
A  a21 a22  
a23   aij aij .
a31 a32 a33 

 x1  x is a column vector with elements xi .
x   x2 
 x3 
0 0 0  Null matrix, every element is zero.
0  0 0 0
0 0 0
1 0 0 Identity matrix, diagonal elements are one.
I  0 1 0
0 0 1
 0 0  Scalar matrix.
I   0  0 
 0 0  
1 0 0  Diagonal matrix, aij  0 i  j  .
Λ   0 2 0 
 0 0 3 
Multiplication
Multiplication Description
Z  kY Multiplication by a scalar: zij  kyij
z  Ax n
Multiplication by a vector: zi   aij x j
j 1
Z  AB n
Matrix multiplication: zij   aik bkj .
k 1
AB  BA In general, matrix multiplication is not commutative.
PMcL Matrices - Quick Reference Guide Index
2015 Matrices - Quick Reference Guide

M.2
Operations
Terminology Description
 a11 a21 a31  Transpose of A (interchange rows and columns):
A  a12 a22 a32 
t aijt  a ji .
a13 a23 a33 
a11 a12 a13 Determinant of A.
A  det A  a21 a22 a23 If A  0 , then A is singular.
a31 a32 a33 If A  0 , then A is non-singular.
a11  a1 j  a1n Minor of aij . Delete the row and column containing
. . . . . the element aij and obtain a new determinant.
aij  ai1  aij  ain
. . . . .
an1  anj  ann
Aij   1 aij
i j
Cofactor of aij .
 A11 A21 A31  Adjoint matrix of A. Replace every element aij by its
adj A   A12 A22 A32  cofactor in A , and then transpose the resulting
 A13 A23 A33  matrix.
adj A Reciprocal of A: A 1A  AA 1  I .
A 1 
A Only exists if A is square and non-singular.
Formula is only used for 3x3 matrices or smaller.
Linear Equations
Terminology Description
a11x1  a12 x2  a13 x3  b1 Set of linear equations written explicitly.
a21x1  a22 x2  a23 x3  b2
a31x1  a32 x2  a33 x3  b3
 a11 a12 a13   x1   b1  Set of linear equations written using matrix elements.
a a23   x2   b2 
 21 a22
a31 a32 a33   x3  b3 
Ax  b Set of linear equations written using matrix notation.
x  A 1b Solution to set of linear equations.
Eigenvalues
Equations Description
Ax  x  are the eigenvalues. x are the column eigenvectors.
A  I  0 Finding eigenvalues.
Index Matrices - Quick Reference Guide PMcL
Matrices - Quick Reference Guide 2015

A.1
Answers
1.1
(a) To the left (b) 300e 100t mA (c) 4.055 ms (d) 0.3820 A/mm2
q i
(mC) (mA)
3 300
1.8963
110.4
t (ms) t (ms)
(e) 0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
(f) 1.860  1016
1.2
(a) 10 µC (b) 10 µC (c) 12.71 mA
1.3
(a) 975 C (b) 383 C
1.4
(a) 31.1 kC (b) 48 W (c) 373 kJ (d) 24.9 W
1.5
8.0 C
1.6
(a) 120.8 V (b) 8.453 kW (c) 754.0 W/mm2
1.7
(a) 10 V (b) 5 A (c) 50 W
1.8
(a) -3 A (b) 3 V (c) 15 W
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.2
1.9
-30 W
1.10
Pvx  68.48 W , P50 V  168.9 W , P0.2vx  13.70 W , P10   114.1 W
1.11
(a) -20 V, -20 mA, 50 mA (b) 26 23 V , 26 23 mA , 3 13 mA
1.12
(a) 6 23 V , 3 13 A , 66 23 W (b) 20 V, 10 A, 200 W
1.13
(a) 8  (b) 3.7 
1.14
(a) 2.5 A (b) 4 V
1.15
R1 R3 R2  R3
v3  is i1  is
R1  R2  R3 R1  R2  R3
1.16
5.5 V, 3.975 A
1.17
(a) 30 W (b) -2 A
1.18
(a) 0 V, 1 mA, 1 mA, -10 V, -10 mA, -11 mA
(b) -10 V/V (c) -10 A/A (d) 100 W/W
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.3
1.19
R2
(c)  (b) R1 (c) same results, thanks to the VSC
R1
1.20
R1 can be any non-zero value, R2  200 
1.21
(a)  R (b) 0 
1.22
  R   R1
(a)   R1  1  1  R3  (b) 0  (c) 1 
  R2   R2
1.23
 R  Ri
(a) 1  2  Ri (b) Ri (c)
 R1  R1
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.4
2.1
(a) -33 (b) 17, -34, -11
2.2
2A
2.3
25.64 W
2.4
(a) 6 A (b) 3 A
2.5
-3.5 mA
2.6
20 mA, -80 mW
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.5
3.1
80 W
3.2
4A
3.3
(a) 150 V (b) 110 V
3.4
(a) 15 A, 2  (b) 2  (c) 112.5 W
3.5
381 mW
3.6
8 9
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.6
3.7
R2 I S
(a) i A 
rm  R2
(b) It is indeterminant – iA   A . For this special case you can show that
KVL is violated – the circuit becomes:
- rm IS iA
Thus, the “branch” containing i A , which has 0 V across it, appears in

parallel with a Thévenin equivalent ideal voltage source equal to
VTh  rm I S , which is impossible.
Note that there is no Norton equivalent circuit!
(c) In a practical setting, it is impossible to create ideal circuit elements, so the

real circuit’s behaviour would be perfectly explainable and measureable if
modelled correctly (inclusion of finite wire resistance, linear range of
power supplies, etc).
A large but finite current i A would result – either briefly (before a fuse
blows or a protection device trips), or continuously (limited by the power
supply’s output current and voltage capability).
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.7
4.1
25 nF
10 k
vi
vo
4.2
100 k
1 M
100 k
v1 1 M
vo
100 k
v2
4.3
vo  v1  v2  2v3
4.4
10 k
10 k
1 k
vi vi  10 mV when the source is attached
4.5
vi
io  
R
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.8
5.1
(a) 20.6 ms (b) 177.7 ms
5.2
2 t  0.001 A , 0.01 / t  0.001 V
5.3
(a) 9.6 V, 192 mW, 1.152 mJ (b) 16 V, 0 W, 3.20 mJ
5.4
(a) 2 nF (b) 2.4 nF
5.5
12 12
(a) μF (b) μF (c) 9 μF
7 11
5.6
(a) 60 cos 10t V (b) 5  2 sin 10t A
5.7
 2  10 4 v  25 vdt  is  i L 0

dv t
(a) 2  10 4
dt 0
 5000i  5000 idt  v s  vC 0

di t
(b) 0.04
dt 0
5.8
Use v1 , v 2 , vC left to right.
v1  vC  3v1
v1 vC  v2  dv
10 v1  v2 dt  0.5  0.8e 100t 
t
  2  10 4 C  0
0 20 50 dt
v2  vC 
10 v2  v1 dt  0.5  0.8e 100t 
t
0
0 50
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.9
7.1
100  , 2 μF
7.2
(b) 50 mC (b) 38.9 mC
7.3
76.10 V
7.4
3et 0.003 mA
7.5
t  122.6 s (over 2 minutes)
7.6
 6.75et 40 μA
7.7
153.7 ms
7.8
 
(a) 9.6 A (b) 2.4 A (c) 9.6e2t A (d) 2.4e4t A (e) 19.2 e4t  e2t V
7.9
(a) 28.95 ms (b) 144.3 ms
7.10
(a) 800 mA (b) 280 mA
7.11
10e80t V
7.12
60  4e250t  40e200t mA
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.10
8.1
+12 V
R4 5.1 k 
R1 13 k
LM311
VTH = 5.5 V
2 7
1
R2 vi
2 k
LM311
2 7
vo
VTL = 4.5 V 3
R3 9 k 1
8.2
vo
1
1
vi
8.3
vo
1
1
vi
-5 V 0
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.11
8.4
vi vo
C
8.5
Full-wave Threshold
Differentiator
rectifier detector
(i) (ii) (iii)
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.12
9.1

20  1 u t  0.2n  V
n
n 0
9.2
  
50 1  e10t ut  V , 20  25e10t ut  V 
9.3

20 1  e10 t 3 ut  V
6

9.4
(a) 
100u- t   40  60e6250t ut  V 
(b) 100 V
9.5
76.28 k , 62.13 F
9.6
10  30e40000t V
9.7
22.31 mA, 9.812 mA
9.8
(a) 
0.4 1  e1250t  A
(b) 
10 23 e100t  e1250t A 
(c) 
0.2 2 cos1250t  45  e1250t A 
9.9
 40  200e 15000t
ut  V
9.10
(a) 0 W (b) 200 W (c) 131.7 W (d) 0 W
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.13
10.1
(a) AOL  200799 V/V
(b) VOS  497.5 μV
(c) R2  500 kΩ
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.14
11.1
(a) 12.5 ms, 80 Hz, 502.7 rad/s
(b) 27.77 cos160t  43.92 V
(c) 66.08
11.2
(a) 8.00 and  38.68 (b) 11.17 ms (c) 89.54 Hz (d) 562.6 rad/s
(e) 8.00 and  128.7 (f) 0.8983
11.3
412.3 cos500t  116.0 V
11.4
80 cos2000t  36.87 mA
11.5
2 cos5t  45  1.342 cos10t  63.44 A
11.6
(a) 18.83133.5 (b) 5.584  56.87
(c)  0.07248  j 0.04702 (d) 0.05243  j 0.1838
11.7
15.98 cos1000t  71.23  4.598 cos500t  38.22 V
11.8
(a) 95.79 cost  94.01 mA (b) 25.14  111.6 mA
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.15
11.9
(a) 143.5 W (b) -135.0 W
11.10
(a) 39.99 W (b) 9.512 W (c) -9.512 W
11.11
(a) 26.00  47.38 mA (b) 0.769237.38 A
11.12
(a) 384.2 and 65.92 Hz (b) 203.8 and 124.3 Hz
11.13
1.25 mH
11.14
125 nF
11.15
1 Ω, 1 H
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.16
12.1
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.17
13.1
(a) 7.809  128.7 V (b) 4 6 
13.2
 
(a) 6.468 cos 104 t  44.04 V  
(b) 3.234 cos 104 t  44.04 A
13.3
 
(a) 11.09 cos 104 t  33.69 A  
(b) 3.288 cos 104 t  170.5 A
13.4
(a)  4  2 cos106 t  45 V (b)  

2 cos 106 t 135 V
13.5
6  j17 
13.6
1.581  18.43 A
13.7
65.05 and  60.72 , or  112.8 and 13.00
13.8
p R1  4.8 mW , p L  110.9 mW , pC  110.9 mW and p R2  19.2 mW
13.9
(a) P20  10 kW , P10  5 kW (b) P20  3.125 kW , P10  6.25 kW
13.10
6.622 mA
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.18
13.11
300
(a)  106.1  (b) 61.24 V RMS
2 2
13.12
(a) 4.471 A RMS (b) 0.9150 lagging
13.13
(a) 46.86 kW (b) 33.32 kvar (c) 57.535.41 kVA
(d) 57.5 kVA (e) 9235.41 
13.14
There are two possible solutions:
SV  98.04  j35.57 VA SV  118.0  j124.4 VA

or
S I  81.96  j124.4 VA S I  298.0  j35.57 VA
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.19
16.1
| T(j  ) |
(dB)
0 dB 10 3 10 4 10 5 10 6 10 7 10 8
-20
-20 dB/decade
-40
-60
-80 -40 dB/decade

-100
16.2
One possible solution is:
100 k
1 F
10 k 10 nF
16.3
One possible solution is:
10 k 10 k 10 k 10 k
vi vo
100 nF 20 nF 100 nF 20 nF
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.20
17.1
(a) 200e2t  100e8t V, t  0 (b)  100e2t  200e8t V, t  0
17.2
(a)  40e500t  55e2000t V, t  0 (b) 15.00 V and  17.00 V
17.3
(a) 25  (b) 1.28 mJ
17.4
(a) 14
125 H, 1
70 F (b) 3.630 J
17.5
12.89 kV
17.6

200 e5000t  e15000t V, t  0 
17.7
9.992 kV
17.8
(a) 500 J in L, 80 J in C (b) 335.4 J in L, 62.21 J in C
17.9

20  250 e100t  e150t V ,  1
24 3e 150t

 2e100t A
17.10
(a) 
 50  253 16e2000t  e8000t V, t  0 
(b) 
 2  5 3 4e2000t  e8000t A, t  0 
17.11
(a) 0 A (b) 1.748 A (c) -1.073 A
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.21
19.1
(a) 1000 rads -1 , 5 (b) 120 krads -1 , 60 (c) 602.1 rads -1 , 6.021
19.2
(a) 4 krads -1 , 40, 80 cos4000t  V
(b) 2 cos4000t  mA , 400 sin4000t  mA ,  400 sin4000t  mA
(c) 20 mW, 4 mJ
19.3
115.5 rads -1
19.4
(a) 4.999 Mrads-1 (b) 49.99 (c) 100.0 krads -1
(d) 4.949 Mrads-1 (e) 5.049 Mrads-1 (f) 40  88.85 mV
19.5
5 k , 2.360 μH , 4.237 nF
19.6
(a) 5 Mrads-1 (b) 20.59 krads -1
19.7
4.472 krads -1 , 22.36
19.8
(a) 5 krads -1 , 40.01 (b) 5 krads -1 , 20.03
19.9
10  , 514.3 mH, 875 μF
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.22
20.1
(a) If we analyse the circuit:
R
vo
R1 R2
v i1
R5
v i2 C
then the output voltage phasor is found to be:
2 R2 R5 Vi1  R1Vi 2 

Vo 
jCR1R2 R5  R1R2  R2 R5  R1R5
Note that we must have R2  R1 || R5 for the circuit to be a pure
integrator. If R1  R5  2R then R2  R and we have:
2Vi1 2Vi 2 1 1
Vo    Vi1  Vi 2
jCR1 jCR5 jCR jCR
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.23
(b) The circuit is a noninverting integrator, so that it accomplishes the same

objective as cascading an inverting integrator and an inverter. A
normalized version of the biquad with the noninverting integrator is
shown below:
R5 Q0
R 1
1
vo
2 2
H 1+ H
vi
R1 R2
1
Note that we must have R2  R1 || R5 for the noninverting integrator to be
a pure integrator, and if H  1 then R1  R5  2 and R2  1 .
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.24
20.2
(a) One possible solution is:
100 k
1 nF 1 nF
100 k
50 k
vi 100 k 100 k 500 k
vo
(b) One possible solution is:
20 k
10 nF 10 nF
20 k
20 k 160 k
20 k
vo
10 nF
vi
20.3
T j  
1
1    j 1 Q0 
2
20.4
 j 2Q0
T j  
1   2  j 1 Q0 
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.25
21.1
(a) -10, -40 (b)  16  j12
21.2
(a) 5.754   58.50 mA (b) 7.211   33.69 mA
21.3
(a) 10.00 A (b) -1.995 A (c) -97.01 mA (d) 53.90 mA
21.4
2.508 J
21.5
Zeros: s  3333,  ; poles s  2500,  10 000
V()

Is ()
5000
-20 -10 0 10 20  (kHz)
21.6
(a) 100  (b) 12.5 H (c) 689.7 μF
21.7
(a) 53.85 21.80 from zero at s  50 ,
53.85 68.20 from pole at s  20  j30 ,
22.36   26.57 from pole at s  20  j30
(b) 1.137 42.13
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.26
22.1
 R  R
(a) vo1  1  1 vi1  1 vi 2
 RG  RG
 R  R
vo 2  1  2 vi 2  2 vi1
 RG  RG
(b) Ad  201
(c) 1.005 V
(d) 200.2 
22.2
Ad  10
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.27
23.1
(a), (b) and (c) -2 and -5
23.2
15 8 2et cos2t  45  9 8 e3t ut  V 

23.3
6 5  4 5 e 25t

 2e10t ut  A
23.4
(a) 0 (b) 10 s  17.5  (c) 0 (d) Ae 17.5t V
23.5
(a)   
I Vs  5 s  2 s 2  2s  5 , s  2,  1  j 2
(b) i f t   1 A
(c) in t   Ae 2t  Be t cos2t   Cet sin2t 
(d)  
it   1  e2t  et sin2t  ut  A
23.6
 R1  sL  R1   I  V 
(a)  1     s 
1
  R1 R1  R2   I 2   0 
 sC 
R1
s
(b)
I2

 R1  R2 L
Vs  R1 R2 1  R1
s 2    s 
 R1  R2 L R1  R2 C  R1  R2 LC
(c) i2 t   
3 1000 3t
500
e 
 e 500t u t 
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.28
24.1
VB
(b) vo   R
R1  R2
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.29
25.1
(a)
1
RF
Vin1 -1 -1/C1 Vout1 R3 1 -1/C5 Vout3

R0 s + 1/R 1C1 -R R4 s + 1/R 5C5
2
1
R7
-1 Vout4
R8 - R6
(b) Considering just the output Vout3 , this can be reduced to:
Vin1 -1 -R 3 / R 2 R 4 C1 C5 Vout3
R0 (s + 1/R 1C1 )(s + 1/R 5C5 )
1
RF
Further reduction gives:
Vin1 R 3 /R 0 R 2 R 4 C1C5 Vout3

(s + 1/R 1C1 ) (s + 1/R 5C5 ) + R 3 / R 2 R 4 R F C1C5
Expansion of the denominator results in the given transfer function.
(c)
R1 R3 R5 RF
K1 
R0 R1 R3 R5  R2 R4 RF 
1 1 1 
    
2  R1C1 R5C5 
R3 1
0  
R2 R4 RF C1C5 R1 R5C1C5
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
A.30
(d)
1 1 1  1 2 1
      
2  R1C1 R1C1  2 R1C1 R1C1
R3 1 1 R3 1
d  2 2
 2 2 2 2 
R2 R4 C1 R1 C1 R1 C1 R2 R4C1
(e) From the block diagram, we can see that:
Vout3 R3 1

Vout1 R2 R4C5 s  1 R5C5
Then:
s  1 R5C5
Vout1 Vout3 Vout3 R0C1
 
Vin1 Vin1 Vout1 2  1 1  R3 1
s    s  
 R1C1 R5C5  R2 R4 RF C1C5 R1 R5C1C5
For the special case of R1  R5 , C1  C5 and RF  R4 , this reduces to:
Vout1

1 s     K s   
Vin1 R0C1 s  2s  0 s  2s  02
2 2 2 2
(f) The output voltage Vout4 is given by:
R6 R
Vout4  Vin1  6 Vout1
R8 R7
Then substituting for Vout1 gives:
R6 R 1 s 
Vout4  Vin1  6 Vin1
R8 R7 R0C1 s  2s  02
2
The transfer function is then:
Index Answers PMcL
Answers 2015
A.31
 s 2  2s  02 s  
T3 s   6
R R8
 2  2
 s  2s  0 R0 R7C1 s  2s  0 
2 2
R8
Substituting the special conditions on the values gives:
 R8  R8
s 2   2  s  02 
 R0 R7C1  R0 R7C1 s 2  02  2 2
T3 s    2
s 2  2s  02 s  2s  02
(g) The pole-zero plots for T1 s  , T2 s  and T3 s  are respectively:
j j j
j 0 j 0 j 0
j d j d j d
j  02  2 2
     
-j  02  2 2
-j d -j d -j d
-j 0 -j 0 -j 0
(h) Lowpass, lowpass, notch.
PMcL Answers Index
2015 Answers
Index
A B
admittance Bode plot, 15.14
defined, 11.36 approximate magnitude response,
generalized, 21.11 15.18
approximate phase response, 15.20
amplifier, 1.51 factors, 15.16, 15.21
AC coupled, 14.18
amplitude distortion, 14.21 Boltzmann's constant, 6.4
bandwidth, 14.20
cascaded, 14.5 biquad circuit
circuit model, 1.56 design, 20.8
current, 14.11 frequency response, 20.7
current gain, 14.4 Tow-Thomas, 20.6
DC coupled, 14.18 tuning algorithm, 20.7
definition, 1.51 universal, 20.9
distortionless, 14.25
frequency response, 14.17 block diagram, 23.7, 25.9
half-power frequencies, 14.20 bilinear op-amp circuit, 25.13
harmonic distortion, 14.27 feedback, 25.16
impedances, 14.14 field-controlled DC motor, 25.14
isolation, 22.13 ideal integrator, 25.11
linear waveform distortion, 14.21 noninverting amplifier, 25.18
models, 14.10 summing lossy integrator, 25.12
performance, 14.3
phase distortion, 14.21 breakdown
power gain, 14.4 avalanche, 6.7
power supplies, 1.54 Zener, 6.7
saturation, 1.55
bridge
step response, 14.26
3-wire connection, 24.17
transconductance, 14.12
4-wire sensing, 24.18
transresistance, 14.13
design issues, 24.12
units of gain, 1.52
integrated transducer, 24.19
voltage, 14.10
linearizing, 24.14, 24.15
voltage gain, 14.4
output using an in-amp, 24.13
astable multivibrator, 18.6 resistance, 24.9
Wheatstone, 24.9
attenuation
defined, 15.4 bridge circuit, 24.8
bridges
driving remotely, 24.16
buffer, 1.76
PMcL
2015
C complex power, 13.29
capacitance, 5.3 conductance, 1.14

defined, 1.14, 11.36
capacitor, 5.3
characteristics, 5.10 conductance matrix, 2.8
circuit symbol, 5.5
defined, 5.3 critical frequencies, 21.16
energy stored, 5.7
model, 5.25 current, 1.4
v-i relationships, 5.5 defined, 1.4
mesh, 2.23
capacitors
DC circuits, 5.33 current divider rule, 1.38
electrolytic, 5.25
current sources
in parallel, 5.31
practical, 3.12
in series, 5.32
practical, 5.24
D
cascade design, 16.19
damped natural frequency, 17.22
cascading circuits, 16.15
dependent sources, 1.40
characteristic equation, 7.9, 17.13,
23.4 difference amplifier, 4.6, 22.4
deficiencies, 22.6
circuit elements, 1.6 gain, 22.5
ICs, 22.6
circuits input resistance, 22.5
planar, 2.21
clamp, 8.25 homogeneous, 7.9
of physical systems, 25.3
common, 2.5
differential operators, 7.3
common-mode rejection ratio, 22.3 properties, 7.5
common-mode signals, 22.3 differential signals, 22.3
comparator, 8.3 differentiator, 4.11
open-loop, 18.3
with hysteresis, 18.4 diode
analysis techniques, 6.10
complementary solution, 9.12 breakdown region, 6.6
dynamic resistance, 6.22
complete response, 9.10, 9.18 forward-bias region, 6.4
graphical analysis, 6.10
complex forcing function, 11.12
light emitting diode (LED), 6.8
complex frequency, 21.3 models, 6.14
numerical analysis, 6.12
complex-frequency plane, 21.23 photodiode, 6.8
PMcL
2015
p-n junction, 6.3 definition, 3.4
reverse-bias region, 6.6 damped sinusoidal, 21.7
Schottky, 6.9
symbol, 6.7 Fourier, 11.3
varactor, 6.9
frequency-domain
diode circuits impedance, 21.12
full-wave rectifier, 6.27 representation, 11.19
half-wave rectifier, 6.25
limiter circuits, 6.28 frequency response
as a function of , 21.14
diode model as a function of , 21.18
constant voltage drop, 6.17 bilinear, 16.3, 16.11
ideal, 6.15 bilinear magnitude response, 16.5
piece-wise linear, 6.19 bilinear phase response, 16.7
small signal, 6.21 experimentally, 15.13
from a pole-zero plot, 21.29
diodes from circuit analysis, 15.5
breakdown, 6.7 function, 15.3
in decibels, 15.4
duality, 5.37 representation, 15.4
second-order, 19.38
E second-order lowpass, 19.25
standard form of second-order,
Earth, 2.5 20.4, 20.5
emission coefficient, 6.4

G
Euler, 11.2
gain
exponential damping coefficient, common-mode, 22.3
17.13 complex, 14.17
differential, 22.3
exponential response
properties, 7.16 homogeneous equation
distinct complex roots, 17.8
exponentially damped sinusoid, 21.3 distinct real roots, 17.4
only real roots, 17.6
repeated complex roots, 17.10
F repeated real roots, 17.5
solution, 17.3
filter
approximating, 20.11
Butterworth, 20.13 H
flux linkage, 5.13 full-power bandwidth, 10.18
forced response, 9.9, 9.11, 9.17 half-power frequency, 19.13

RL circuit, 11.10, 11.17
homogeneity, 25.5
forcing function
PMcL
2015
I K
impedance, 11.31 Kirchhoff’s Current Law, 1.21
circuit symbol, 11.32
defined, 11.32 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law, 1.25
generalized, 21.11
polar form, 11.33 L
rectangular form, 11.34
level detector, 8.5
in-amp, 22.7
advantages, 22.8 limiter, 8.23
application, 22.10 double limiter, 8.23
disadvantages, 22.9
gain, 22.8 linearity, 3.3
independent sources, 1.7 loop, 2.22

combining, 1.32
Independent Sources, 1.1 M
inductance, 5.13 magnitude response

defined, 15.3
inductor, 5.11
characteristics, 5.23 magnitude response, 15.7
circuit symbol, 5.16 lowpass second-order, 19.26
defined, 5.11
maximum power transfer
energy stored, 5.20
theorem, 3.16
model, 5.27
v-i relationships, 5.15 mesh, 2.22
inductors mesh analysis, 2.21
DC circuits, 5.33 circuits with current sources, 2.27
in parallel, 5.29 circuits with dependent sources,
in series, 5.28 2.29
practical, 5.26 circuits with resistors and
independent voltage sources only,
input bias current, 10.6
2.25
input offset current, 10.6 methodology, 2.24
with capacitors, 5.35
integrator with inductors, 5.35
inverting, 4.9
noninverting, 4.16 Miller integrator, 4.9
practical circuit, 4.10
inverse differential operator, 9.13
inverting amplifier, 1.77

equivalent circuit, 1.79
finite open-loop gain, 10.10
input resistance, 1.79
PMcL
2015
N input bias currents, 10.6
offset voltage, 10.5
natural response, 9.11, 9.17, 21.20, output current limits, 10.15
21.22 output voltage saturation, 10.14
percent gain error, 10.12
negative feedback, 1.63 slew rate, 10.16
amplifier, 1.65
open-circuit, 1.14
negative impedance converter, 4.12
operating point, 25.5, 25.6
nodal analysis, 2.4
circuits with dependent sources, OrCAD
2.15 AC simulation, 12.12
circuits with resistors and drawing the schematic, 12.5
independent current sources only, ground, 12.6
2.7 labeling nodes, 12.8
circuits with voltage sources, 2.13 schematic capture, 12.6
methodology, 2.4 SI unit prefixes, 12.7
using branch element stamps, 2.10 simulation, 12.5, 12.9
with capacitors, 5.35 starting a new project, 12.4
with inductors, 5.35 transient simulation, 12.9
noninverting amplifier, 1.68

equivalent circuit, 1.73
P
finite open-loop gain, 10.9
parallel RLC circuit
input resistance, 1.73
bandwidth, 19.13, 19.15
with an ideal op-amp, 1.71
critically damped, 17.18
Norton’s theorem, 3.20 mechanical analog, 25.4
natural response, 17.14, 17.18,
17.22
O overdamped, 17.14
phasor diagram, 19.8
Ohm’s Law, 1.10 quality factor, 19.11
response comparison, 17.26
op-amp, 1.57 source-free, 17.11
circuit model, 1.59 underdamped, 17.22
defintion, 1.57
fabrication and packaging, 1.62 particular solution, 9.12
feedback, 1.58 by inspection, 9.15
ideal, 1.60 using an integrating factor, 9.16
op-amp circuit path, 2.22
integrator, 25.11 closed, 2.22
inverting, 16.18
inverting bilinear, 16.16 peak detector, 8.18
precision, 8.19
op-amp imperfections
DC, 10.4 permeability, 5.14
finite bandwidth, 10.13
finite open-loop gain, 10.9 permittivity, 5.4
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2015
phase response, 15.11 programmable automation controller
defined, 15.3 (PAC), 24.7
lowpass second-order, 19.26
programmable gain amplifier (PGA),
phasor 22.11
analysis, 11.30
defined, 11.18 programmable logic controller (PLC),
diagrams, 13.14 24.5
formal relationship, 11.21
graphical illustration, 11.22 Q
mesh analysis, 13.7
nodal analysis, 13.5 quality factor, 19.9
Norton’s theorem, 13.12
relationship for a capacitor, 11.27
relationship for a resistor, 11.23 R
relationship for an inductor, 11.25
RC circuit
relationships, 11.23
driven, 9.7
representation, 11.19, 11.20, 11.22
energy, 7.15
RMS value, 13.27
natural response, 7.13
summary of relationships, 11.29
power, 7.15
superposition, 13.9
single time constant, 7.19
Thévenin’s theorem, 13.10
step-response, 9.19
transform, 11.20
time constant, 7.17
transform method, 13.4
RC circuits
pole, 21.16
analysis procedure, 9.29
pole-zero plot, 21.25, 21.27, 23.4
RL circuit
power, 1.44 natural response, 7.21
absorbed in a resistor, 1.50 single time constant, 7.24
apparent, 13.28 time constant, 7.23
average, 13.23
RL circuits
average (using RMS values), 13.28
analysis procedure, 9.32
complex, 13.29
complete response, 9.30
definition, 1.44
instantaneous, 13.22 reactance, 11.34
reactive, 13.30
sinusoidal steady-state, 13.22 rectifier
precision, 8.7
power factor precision full-wave, 8.15
defined, 13.28 precision inverting half-wave, 8.10
single-supply half-wave and full-
power supplies, 14.8
wave, 8.17
efficiency, 14.9
superdiode, 8.8
practical source
reference node, 2.5
equivalence, 3.14
process control systems, 24.4
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2015
sensor, 24.3
resistance high impedance, 24.22
internal, 3.11 temperature, 24.23
output, 3.11
sensors, 24.3
resistor, 1.10
circuit symbol, 1.11 series RLC circuit
defined, 1.10 complete response, 17.28
critically damped, 17.34
resistors, 1.15 forced response, 17.29
combining, 1.28 natural response, 17.30
'E’ Series, 1.16 overdamped, 17.32
in parallel, 1.29 peak time, 17.38
in series, 1.28 quality factor, 19.17
marking codes, 1.18 resonance, 19.17
practical, 1.15 source-free, 17.27
preferred values, 1.16 underdamped, 17.35
resonance, 19.3, 19.4 Shockley equation, 6.4

defined, 19.4
parallel, 19.5 short-circuit, 1.13
frequency, 19.3
sinusoid, 11.4
response function, 3.4 frequency, 11.4
phase angle, 11.5
root-mean-square (RMS), 13.25 radian frequency, 11.5
RMS value, 13.26
S
sinusoidal steady-state response, 11.6
s-plane, 21.23
slew rate, 10.16
responses, 21.24
smart transducer, 24.6
saturation current, 6.4
source transformations, 3.10
scaling, 16.12
frequency, 16.13 strain gauge, 24.21
magnitude, 16.14
summing amplifier
Schmitt trigger, 18.4 inverting, 4.3
clock, 18.6
noninverting, 18.5 summing junction, 4.4
second-order highpass, 19.35 superposition, 3.4, 25.5
bandwidth, 19.37 limitations, 3.9
peak frequency, 19.37 theorem, 3.6
second-order lowpass susceptance
bandwidth, 19.29 defined, 11.36
Bode plots, 19.34
peak frequency, 19.27
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2015
T U
thermal voltage, 6.4 undamped natural frequency, 17.13
Thévenin equivalent circuits unit-step, 9.3

finding, 3.28 as a switch, 9.6
Thévenin resistance, 3.21, 3.24, 3.26 universal filter

design, 20.10
Thévenin’s theorem, 3.20
Tow-Thomas, 20.6 V
transfer function, 23.3, 25.8 voltage, 1.5

circuit abstraction, 23.7 defined, 1.5
complete response, 23.21
forced response, 23.8 voltage divider rule, 1.36
form, 23.5
voltage sources
frequency response, 23.12
practical, 3.10
natural response, 23.15
relationship to differential equation, voltage-to-current converter, 4.14
23.6
transient response, 9.10
W
waveform generator, 18.9
weighted summer, 4.4
Z
zero, 21.16
zero crossing detector, 8.4
PMcL
2015

Electronics and Circuits: Lecture Notes

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What are some of the different circuit elements described in the notes?

What are some of the different circuit elements described in the notes?

What are independent sources and how are they classified?

What are independent sources and how are they classified?

48520

Using the electronic version of these notes

Office: CB11.9.128 - Building 11 (Broadway), Level 9, Room 9.128

1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51

2 Nodal and Mesh Analysis

3 Circuit Analysis Techniques

4 Linear Op-Amp Applications

6 Diodes and Basic Diode Circuits

7 Source-Free RC and RL Circuits

8 Nonlinear Op-Amp Applications

9 The First-Order Step Response

11 The Phasor Concept

13 The Sinusoidal Steady-State Response

16 First-Order Op-Amp Filters

17 The Second-Order Step Response

19 Second-Order Frequency Response

20 Second-Order Op-Amp Filters

24 Sensor Signal Conditioning

Matrices - Quick Reference Guide

1 Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1.3

PMcL Contents Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.15 Amplifiers .............................................................................................. 1.51

Index Contents PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

PMcL Introduction Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

The unit of current is the ampere (A) and is equivalent to Cs -1 . In a circuit

A current which is constant is termed a direct current, or simply DC. Examples

Index Current PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

EXAMPLE 1.1 Voltage Polarity

Note the voltages across the circuit elements below:

In both (a) and (b), terminal B is 5 V positive with respect to terminal A.

In both (c) and (d), terminal A is 5 V positive with respect to terminal B.

PMcL Voltage Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1.3 Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits

Circuit elements can be categorised as either active or passive.

1.3.1 Active Circuit Elements

Active circuit elements can deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

Passive circuit elements cannot deliver a non-zero average power indefinitely.

There are three types of passive circuit element. They are:

The interconnection of two or more circuit elements forms an electrical

Index Circuit Elements and Types of Circuits PMcL

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

1.4 Independent Sources

1.4.1 The Independent Voltage Source

An independent voltage source is characterised by a terminal voltage which is

PMcL Independent Sources Index

2015 1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers

1 - Basic Laws & Op-Amp Amplifiers 2015

An independent current source establishes a current which is independent of Independent current