CE 112 MODULE 5 NUCLEAR CHEM Used

1
1ST SEM SY 2021-2022

CE 112
CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
1. Module 5. Nuclear Chemistry

2. Introduction
Nuclear chemistry is the study of physical and chemical properties of elements which are
influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus. It also deals with the energy released from
nuclear reactions and its uses. It focuses on the heaviest elements, their nuclear properties, structure,
reactions and decay.
Nuclear chemistry is associated with the manipulation of radioactivity and related phenomena.
While it commands dreads because of recent memories of the previous global war, today advances in the
discipline had somehow tamed the negative attitude on the subject because of its contribution especially
to the many applications towards man’s well-being.
3. Objectives
After finishing the chapter, the students should be able to:
a. Define nuclear chemistry and other terms associated with it.
b. Write, balance and interpret simple nuclear reactions
c. Define and distinguish among various modes of nuclear decay
d. Describe nuclear fission and fusion and explain how both processes could be highly
exothermic.
e. Discuss the potential of both fusion and fission as source of energy and identify the pros and
cons of the two technologies.
f. Explain how penetrating power and ionizing power combine to determine the effect of
radiation on materials including living tissues.
g. Identify and differentiate the physics particles of the atom
h. Name and discuss some of the applications of nuclear chemistry in man’s daily life and
activities.
4. Learning Content
4.1. Models of the Atom
The evolution of the concept of atoms started from crude philosophical description of the idea of
atoms by ancient Greeks as simple small geometrically different objects, like
cubes, spheres, etc. to the modern interpretation known as quantum mechanics.
ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Revision: 01
Effectivity: August 1, 2020
2
Democritus, a Greek philosopher and thinker, by the 5th century, stated that atoms are the smallest
parts of any matter. Atoms is a word which means inseparable or indestructible or indivisible. The 19 th
century saw Dalton proposed his version of atomic theory of matter. From
Fig. 1. The Thomson
the law of constant proportion, he concluded that some matter consists of
model (pudding
small groups of different atoms called molecules. By the later part of the 19th model) of an atom
century a rapid change in the atomic models was ushered based on new
experimental results. Electron was discovered which led to
the “pudding” model of atom by Thomson (1897). The
problem with this theory is that some alpha particles
bounce back when fired at the thin gold foil.
In his model, Rutherford (1898) suggested that the +
charge of the atom should be allocated within the center of
the atoms within a tiny massive core. Problem: there is no
explanation why the negatively charged
electrons do not collapse into the positively
charged atomic nucleus.
Niels Bohr (1922) suggested a new atomic
theory based on an experiment that atoms
absorb light of specific wavelength only,
which seemed to solve Rutherford model
difficulty: that electrons bound within the
atom assume certain levels of energy
(quantized energy). The energy being given
by Coulomb equation: Fig. 2. The alpha particles
and gold foil experiment
Ofb
6C 1s2 ) 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0
11 Na 1s2 ) 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 ) 3s1
−e 2 m v2
F Coulomb= =−F center = (Eq. 1)
( 4 π ε0 ) r2 r
r = radius of the e orbit around the atom

v = velocity of the e- around the positively charged core of the atom
F = energy
1
Ekin = m v2 kinetic energy of the moving electrons (Eq. 2)
2
−me e 4 (Eq. 3)
En = ¿ ¿

Revision: 01
3
−m e e 4 (Eq. 4)
En =En 2−E n1= ¿ ¿
h = 6.6260755x10-34 J∙s = Planck’s constant = 6.6260755x10-27 ergs

n = integer for energy levels
e = elementary charge = 4.8032068 x 10-10 esu
= 1.6027733x10-19 C = 1.6027733x10-20 emu
esu = electrostatic unit of charge = statcoulomb or statC (also franklin or Fr)

( 1 statC = 3.33564095x10-10 C = 3.33564095x10-11 abC)
emu = electromagnetic unit (also abcoulomb or abC. 1 emu = 10 C
m e = mass of the electron
= 9.109 x 10-31 kg
4.1.1. The Atom

The atom is the environment where
most nuclei exist. The radii of atoms are more
or less 1-5 x 10-10 m or 1-5 Å . Angstrom At
the center is the nucleus, a small center with a
radius (r 1−10x 10 -15 m) that contains
almost all the mass of the atom. Fig. 3. Schematic diagram of relative sizes
of atoms and the nucleus
4.1.1.1. The Nucleus Nomenclature

A nucleus is composed of nucleons, namely, the neutrons and the protons. A nucleus
with a given number of neutrons and protons is called a nuclide. The atomic number Z is the
number of protons in the nucleus while N, the neutron number is used to designate the number
of neutrons in the nucleus. The total number of nucleons is assigned the symbol A, the mass
number. So, A=N+Z BUT notice that the mass of the nucleus is not an integer while A, the
number of nucleons is an integer.
A nuclear isomer or metastable state is an atom that has the same atomic number and
mass number as another atom of that element yet has a different excitation state within the
atomic nucleus. Nuclides with the same number of protons in the nucleus BUT differ in
number of neutrons are called isotopes (from Greek word iso + tops meaning “same
place in the periodic table). Isotopes have very similar chemical behavior because they
have the same electronic configurations. Nuclides with the same number of neutrons but
differing number of protons are called isotones. Nuclides same mass number but
differing numbers of neutrons and protons are called isobars. They are important in
radioactive decay processes. Isomer refers to a nuclide in an excited nuclear state that
has a measurable lifetime (>10−9 s). Radioactive nuclides are called radionuclides but
they are not radioisotopes as fondly called by some.
The convention for nuclide designation is: 6C 1s2 2s2 2p2 = 1s2 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0
normal

Revision: 01
4
6C = 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1

excited
A
Z Chemical Symbol N
27
Ex. For Aluminum, 13 Al 14 For carbon: 146C 8
Illustrative Problem. Given are the following nuclei: 60Cm, 14C, 14N, 12C and 13N
Which are isotopes? Isotones? Isobars? Isomers?
Answer: 60Cm is the isomer, 14C and 12C are isotopes of C, 13N and 14N are isotopes of N, 14C and
14
N are isobars (A = 14), while 12C and 13N are isotones (N = 6).
Brain Drill (www.socratic.org)

1. What are isotopes? Isotones? Isobars? Isomers?
48
2. Given the isotopic notation 22 Ti N . Identify the:
a) Name of the isotope d) Number of protons
b) mass number e) Number of neutrons
c) Atomic number f) N
3. What is the isotope notation of Lithium?
4. In an isotope, which part of the atom changes?
5. The atomic number of nitrogen is 7. How many protons, neutrons and electrons make up an
atom of nitrogen-15?
6. An element containing 30 protons, 30 electrons and 26 neutrons will have what symbol?
7. Chlorine has two principal isotopes, Cl-35 and Cl-37. How do you write the correct
notation of these isotopes?
Quiz: Understanding the Concept: Problem. Fill up the following table
Element Z M P N E
1. I 74 53
2. Mn 25 30
3. Ra 88 226
4. Po 209 84
5. Th 90 142
A nuclide (from nucleus) is an atomic species characterized by the specific constitution of its

nucleus, i.e., by its number of protons Z, its number of neutrons N, and its energy state.
The term was proposed by Truman Kohman in 1947.
Types Naturally-Occuring Nuclides

Revision: 01
5
1. Those with T1/2 are 2% as long as the age of the Earth (4.6 x 109 years) These are remnants of
nucleosynthesis that occurred in stars before the formation of the solar system
Ex. 238U (T1/2 = 4.5×109 yr) an isotope of uranium – still abundant in nature

235
U (T1/2 = 0.7×109 yr) is 138 times rarer
2. Radiogenic nuclides 226Ra (T1/2 = 1,602 yr), an isotope of radium, which are formed
by radioactive decay. They occur in the decay chains of primordial isotopes of uranium or
thorium. Some of these nuclides are very short-lived, such as isotopes of francium. There exist
about 51 of these daughter nuclides that have half-lives too short to be primordial.
3. The third group are cosmogenic and nucleogenic nuclides which consist of nuclides that are
continuously being made in another fashion that is not simple spontaneous radioactive decay but
instead involves a natural nuclear reaction. These occur when atoms react with natural neutrons
(from cosmic rays, spontaneous fission or other sources), or are bombarded directly with cosmic
rays.
Ex. Cosmogenic 14C (radiocarbon) that is made by cosmic-ray bombardment of other

elements
Nucleogenic 239Pu which is still being created by neutron bombardment of natural

238
U as a result of natural fission in uranium ores.
(https://enacademic.com)
Size and Density of a Typical Nucleus

mass A amu
ρ ≡density = ≈
volume 4 (Eq. 5)
π R3
3
Assuming: Mass of each nucleon = 1 u Nucleus = spherical
(u = atomic mass unit, amu) Radius = R
The empirical rule to describe the radii of stable nuclei of radii of radius R is
1
R=1.2 x 10−13 A 3
Evaluating for ρ :
ρ=( A u)¿ ¿
ρ=200,000 metric tons/mm3
ρ=2 x 1017 kg /m 3 (200,000,000,000,000,000 kg/m )

3
NOTE: The A factor cancels in the equation WHICH implies that all nuclei have approximately
the same density
(For more understanding about UNITS go to the last topic of the Module)

Revision: 01
6
4.1.2. Atomic Processes

4.1.2.1. Ionization
When collisions of nuclei are inelastic, the two possible occurrences may proceed:
a. Excitation of one or both colliding nuclei. This may happen when electron
configuration is altered.
b. Ionization of one or both atoms to an atomic state where electrons as removed and
becomes a positively charge species.

Revision: 01
7
For ionization to occur, an atomic e- must acquire an energy ≥ its binding energy
For K electrons,
Z eff 2
Binding energy = ( )137
(255.5) keV (Eq. 6)
where Z eff =Z effective

¿ effective nuclear charge felt by the electron
= may be estimated by Z eff =(Z−0.3)
4.1.2.2. X-ray Emission

X-ray is the electromagnetic radiation produced when an electron in an outer atomic
electron shell drops down to fill a vacancy in an inner atomic electron shell.
Example: going from M shell to fill up the vacancy in the L shell
An equation similar to Eq. 3 and Eq. 4 is given below by Bohr’s H model:
X-rays as a result of electron transfer from L to K
shell are called K α X-rays.
K X-ray
X-rays as a result of electron transfer from M to K
emission
shell are called K β X-rays
K α 1 K α 2 refer to X-rays coming from the different
subshells (2 p 3 , , 2 p1 /2 )of the L shell.
2
X-rays from M to L transfer of electrons are called
Lα X-rays. Fig. 4. Diagram showing how X-ray
emission happen to fill up nuclear
decay.
1 1
∆ E=Einitial −Efinal =R∞ hc Z
2
( n 2
initial
−
n 2
final
) (Eq. 7)
where: R∞ =Rydberg constant
h = Planck constant
c = speed of light
n = principal quantum number for the orbial electron
Z = Z effective since the nucleus is surrounded by not only one but many electrons
The X-ray energy is
1 1
E x =−∆ E=13.6 Z 2
( n2
final
−
n2
initial
) eV
1 1
For K α X-rays with only 1e: E x =−∆ E=13.6 Z
K 2
( n 2
final
−
n 2
initial
) eV (Eq. 8)

Revision: 01
8
( 11 − 21 ) Z eV
E Kx =−∆ E=13.6 2 2
2
For Lα X-Rays:
L
E =−∆ E=13.6
x
( 21 − 31 ) Z eV
2 2
2
Mosely’s correction showing the frequencies, v, of the K α series X-Rays:

ν1 /2 =const (Z −1) (Eq. 9)
For Lα series X-rays:
ν1 /2 =const (Z −7.4) (Eq. 10)
1 1
Thus X-ray energies: E x =−∆ E=13.6 Z
2
( n 2
final
−
n 2
initial
)
=hv eV (Eq. 11)
Wilhelm Roentgen was the first to study x-rays in 1895. He called the light “X-radiation” to
indicate that it was a previously unknown type.
X-ray is a part of the electromagnetic spectrum with short wavelength (higher frequency;
wavelength from 0.01-10 nm and frequencies from 3x1016Hz to 3 x 1019Hz) than visible light. Their
energy range is 100eV to 100keV or below 0.2 - 0.1 nm).
Types:
a) Hard X-rays are those with photon energies greater than 5-10 keV. They have sufficient
energy to penetrate matter.
b) Soft X-rays are those with lower energy comparable to the diameter of an atom. They are
absorbed in air or can penetrate water to a depth of about 1 micrometer.
Sources:
a) X-rays may be emitted whenever sufficiently energetic charged particles strike matter.
b) Accelerated electrons are used to produced x-radiation
c) Protons or other positive ions may also be used to generate X-rays (i.e. proton-induced x-ray
emission in an analytical technique)
d) Natural sources: argon gas, radioisotopes, lightning and cosmic rays
(https://www.thoughtco.com/)

Revision: 01
9

Revision: 01
10
4.2. Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

Cosmic rays are atom fragments or atomic nuclei that bombard the Earth from outside of the
solar system blazing at the speed of light and have been blamed for electronics problems in satellites
and other machinery. Ninety nine percent are the nuclei of well-known atoms stripped of their electron
shells and about 1% are solitary electrons (similar to β particles). About 90% of the nuclei are H
nuclei, 9% are alpha particles (He nuclei) and 1% are heavier elements called HZEs (high atomic
number high-energy ions).
Cosmic rays have much higher energies than other atoms. Chemical energies are expressed in
kJ/mol while cosmic rays are measured in electron volts (eV).
Upon entering the atmosphere, the high energy nuclei collide with gaseous molecules creating
nuclear reactions. One such reaction is the formation of the radioisotope called carbon-14 ( 14C) which
is used in carbon dating. When cosmic rays (highly ionizing radiation from space) knocks off
neutrons from atoms in collision with it in the atmosphere, these neutrons are absorbed by N atom
(14N) and it emits a proton, changing that atom to 14C.
Atmosphere
gas molecules
free neutron released
Ionizing radiation • • and absorbed by
(cosmic rays) • Nitrogen (N) nucleus
Fig. 5. Radiation interaction with matter in the atmosphere (ionizing radiation or cosmic rays).
So where does 14C come from? a) from outer space b) the atmosphere by virtue of the diagram above c)
produced in coolant at boiling water reactors (BWRs) and pressurized water reactors (PWRs), typically
released into the atmosphere in the form of CO 2 at BWRs and in the form of methane in PWRs.
Naturally occurring C is 98.9% carbon-12 (126C ) and 1.11% carbon-13 (136C ). These C isotopes are
both stable. 146C is unstable and undergoes spontaneous radioactive decay or disintegration.
4.3 Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions
4.3.1 Radioactive Decay
In the nuclear reactions, the reactants and products are atoms or subatomic particles instead of
molecules. In chemical reactions, reactants are on the left side of the arrow and the products are placed
after the arrow. The species involved are molecules and atoms
14
7 N + 1
0 n ⇢ 146C + 1
1 p
mass number A
Recall: atomic number E Neutron number or Z EN

Revision: 01
11
The equation is not balanced like an ordinary chemical reaction. Nuclear reactions have their
own set of conservation rules. The chemical equation given shows:
 Balanced with respect to mass number and charge: sum is 15 on each side
 Sum of the charges on each side is 7.
 Equation contains only atoms, protons and neutrons
4.3.2 Types of radiation
a. Alpha (⍺) rays. Stopped by thin sheet of Al; deflected by magnetic or electric field; more
massive and positively charged particle; it is actually the Helium nucleus ( 42He )
+¿ ¿
b. Beta (β) rays. Nuclear beta decay occurs in three ways: β−¿ ,β ¿ and electron capture (EC).
The particles passed through thin sheet of Al, deflected by a magnetic or electric field. The particles
that are negatively charged are actually electrons, −10e. However, electrons that are emitted from the
nucleus are usually called beta particles (β- or −10 β ). There is also a positive beta particle called a
positron, 01 β .
c. Gamma (γ ) rays. The particles unaffected, unstopped and undeflected by both Al sheet and
magnetic field. They are high-energy photons of electromagnetic radiation.
4.3.3 Alpha Decay
When a nucleus undergoes an alpha decay, it ejects an alpha particle so that its mass number
decreases by 4 and its atomic number decreases by 2.
90 Th + 2He
238
U ⇢ 234 4
Ex. 92
Parent – the reactant nucleus

Daughter – the product nucleus of the decay
4.3.4. Beta Decay
0
A 14❑C nucleus undergoes spontaneous decay by emitting a beta particle, (β or −1 β , an electron
-
ejected) from the nucleus. The reason for this is that in beta decay, a neutron must decay into a proton
and an electron. There is an additional particle with no charge and virtually no mass MUST also be
emitted. This is called antineutrino, v́.
1
0 n ⇢ p+ 11 β +−10¿ v́ ¿
The proton remains in the nucleus and increase atomic number by 1.
Recall: cosmic ray collision: N + 10n ⇢ 147C + 146¿ 146 p ¿

Radioactive
14 14
6 C decay process: 6 C → 147N + −10 β+ v́
In this process and any β- decay,
a. the atomic number increases by 1.
Revision: 01
12
b. The proton takes the place of the neutron that decayed

c. The emitted beta particle is released and can be detected by C dating.
4.3.5. Gamma Decay
Gamma decay is the emission of a high-energy photon and tends to accompany other types of
decay. How does it happen?
a. When alpha and beta particles leave the nucleus some energy levels in the nucleus are
unoccupied
b. The nucleus is in excited states and to return to its ground state it emits a photon.
c. The photon will take the form of very high energy gamma radiation (wavelength = 10-12 m
and frequency is 3 x 1020 s-1 (105 kJ/mol).
Gamma radiation changes neither the mass number nor the atomic number of a nuclide
accompanies the beta decay of most nuclei including the carbon 14:
14
The reaction is: 6 C → 147N + −10 β + v́+ ¿ 00γ
Note: The balance of the equation is unchanged by the emission of the gamma rays.
4.3.6. Electron Capture
The nucleus captures an electron from the first shell (n=1) in the atom. This is referred to as K
capture. As a result, the proton in the nucleus is converted to a neutron. It is the reverse of beta
emission. Additional particle is needed to conserve energy. In this case, the particle is a neutrino:
1
Equation: 1 p+−10e → 10n+ v
Result: Nuclear charge decreases by 1 a shown by the ff. reaction:
26
13 Al + −10e → 26
12 Mg+ v
4.3.7. Positron Emission
A positron is a positively charged electron, β+ or 01 β . A positron and an electron form a matter-

antimatter pair. They are identical in mass and spin but opposite in charge. A collision of particles and
antiparticles annihilate each other and converts their combined masses to energy.
1
β+ decay process: 1 p→ 10n+ 01β + v (Eq. 12)
Positron decay has the same effect as electron capture: the nuclear charge decreases by 1.
15
Example: Complete the ff equation: 8 O→ 147 N +?
Ans:
4.3.8. Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
In radioactive decay, one can measure each decay by counting the photons produced over a
period of time. The rate at which a sample decays is called activity of the sample. The unit is the
becquerel (Bq) defined as one nuclear disintegration per second. The older term, the curie (Ci) which

Revision: 01
13
much larger unit is defined as the number of disintegrations per second in 1 gram of radium-226. 1 Ci
is exactly 3.7 x 1010 Bq.
∆N
For a sample of N nuclei, rate of disintegration = (Eq. 13)
∆t
By simplification: N=N o e−kt (Eq. 14)
Where: N = number of nuclei after a given period of time t
N o = initial number of nuclei

k = decay constant
Using the natural logarithm: ln N = ln N o - kt
No
ln = kt first order process (Eq. 15)
N
Activity is the number of decays that occur in a radioactive sample in a given amount of time. It
is equal to the number of nuclei present, N, multiplied by the probability of decay per nucleus,
k, that is A = kN. Hence, it will also decrease exponentially with time:
A=A 0 e−kt (Eq. 16)
where: A0 = the activity at t=0
A = number of disintegration per unit time at any time t

k = probability of decay per nucleus
Half-life of a radioactive sample is the amount of time it would take to spend half of the original
1
amount. Hence, N = N
2 o
ln 2 0.693
Evaluating the equation t 1/ 2= or t 1/ 2= (Eq. 17)
k k
Ex. The half-life of 14C, used in carbon dating, is 5730 years. What is the decay constant for
14
C?
Ans: k = 1.21x 10-4 yr-1
Radiocarbon Dating is a procedure of determining the age of artifacts based on the amount of
14
C incorporated in living organisms. The 14C is formed in the atmosphere when the cosmic
radiation from space collides with gaseous molecules in the atmosphere and the carbon is
incorporated into plants and animals. The 14C/12C remain constant over a long period of time.
Illustrative Problem. A piece of cloth is discovered in a burial pit in the southwestern United
States. A tiny sample of the cloth is burned to CO2 and the 14C/12C ratio is 0.250 times the ratio in
today’s atmosphere. How old is the cloth?
Given. A piece of cloth, tiny sample taken
Revision: 01
14
The sample burned to CO2 and the 14C/12C = 0.250 times the
ratio of the present atmosphere
Required: How old is the artifact, t
Solution: The half-life of 14C is 5730 years and k = 1.21 x 10−4 yr−1
No
ln = kt where: N is the amount of 14C now
N
No = the amount of 14C at the time the
artifact existed.
1 N 1 1
t = ln o = −1 ln t = 11,500 yr
k −4
N 1.21 x 10 yr 0.250
4.3.9. Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

The key to understanding energetics of radioactive nuclei is to understand the nuclei and the
forces that hold them together.
Stable nucleus does not tear apart. So, how much energy might be required to take it apart?
Binding energy of a nucleus is the energy that would be released if the nucleus were formed
from a collection of three nucleons. The greater the binding energy the more stable the nucleus is.
The energy in a nucleus is comes from the interconversions of mass and energy, and is given by:
E = mc2 (Eq. 18)

where: m = mass of the atom
c = speed of light = 2.9929 x 108 m/s
E = energy
Illustrative Problem. What is the mass of a Helium-4 atom?
Ans. The He atom has 2 protons, 2 neutrons and 2 electrons
1
H = 1.007825 u
1
n = 1.008665 u
Sum of masses = 2x1.007825 u + 2x 1.008665 u = 4.032980 u
But experimentally, the mass of He-4 atom = 4.002603 u
∆ m=¿ is the difference between the calculated and the observed mass
= also called mass defect
= 4.032980 u – 4.002603 u
= 0.030377 u
Eb = (∆ m)c2
1.66054 x 10−27 kg 2.99792 x 10 8 m 2
= 0.030377 u ( )( ¿
u s
= 4.5335 x 10-13 kg-m2s-2
= 4.5335 x 10-13 J energy release when one 4He is formed
From its constituent nucleons

Revision: 01
15
For one mol of 4He nuclei (N=6.02214 x 1023 nuclei), the energy released is:
Eb = (4.335 x 10-12 J)(6.02214 x 1023 nuclei/mol)
Eb = 2.7301 x 1012 J/mol
This much energy is so tremendous; it is equal to the energy required to drive an
automobile 30 times around the world through the equator!!!
4.4. Transmutation, Fission and Fusion

The atoms contain tremendous amount of energy. Harnessing that energy is a challenge but if
successful would free the world from the energy shortage it is undergoing and free the world from
using more fossil fuels which in turn hurts the planet because of climate change. There are two ways to
do this: fission and fusion.
4.4.1. Transmutation. Transmutation is a process whereby one nucleus changes to another,
either by natural decay or in response to some outside interventions such as neutron bombardment.
First example is the naturally occurring cosmic ray collision with atmospheric gas molecules to
produce 14C which has been shown earlier. Second is the nuclear reaction arising from neutron
capture. An example is the electron capture by 10B as shown below:
B+ 105¿ 10n→ 115 B' → 73 Li+ 42 He ¿

Compound nucleus
Unstable intermediate nucleus
Decays instantly emitting particles (⍺) to form a stable nucleus
4.4.2. Fission. Fission is the process of splitting a large, unstable nucleus into smaller nuclei of
greater stability. Not all nuclei, though, can undergo fission. Those that can undergo fission are said to
be fissionable or fissile.
Types of fission
a. Spontaneous fission. Large nucleus simply breaks into smaller pieces.
b. Induced fission. This is done by neutron bombardment of a fissile material.
Reaction:
U + 235 1 236 ' 141 92 1
92 ¿ 0 n → 92 U → 56 Ba+ 36 Kr ¿+ 30 n
Fig. 6. Diagram showing

how fission
happens
The entire nucleus splits

into two large fragments
called 'daughter nuclei'.

Revision: 01
16
Two or three neutrons also explode out of the fission reaction and these can collide with other
uranium nuclei to cause further fission reactions. This is known as a chain reaction.
Illustrative problem.: Calculate the energy released by a uranium-235 nucleus if it splits into
barium-141 nucleus and Krypton-92 nucleus according to the equation:
U + 235 1 236 ' 141 92 1
92 ¿ 0n → 92 U → 56 Ba+ 36 Kr ¿+ 30n
Given: Uranium-235 nucleus splitting into a Barium-141 and Krypton-92 nuclei

Required: Energy released
Solution: The masses of the particles involved are:
Particle mass, u Particle mass, u

235 141
U 235.0439231 Ba 141.9144064
92Kr 91.9261528 neutron 1.0086649
Mass of reactants = 235.0439231 u + 1.0086649 u

= 236.0525880 u
Mass of products = 141.9144064 u + 91.9261528 u + 3x1.0086649
= 235.8665539 u
Change in mass, ∆ m=¿ 235.8665539 u −¿ 236.0525880 u
= −¿ 0.1860341 u
Energy, using the relativity equation:
E =( ∆ m)c 2
1.66053886 x 10−27 kg 2.99792458 X 10 8 2
= −¿ 0.1860341 u( )( )
u s
E = −¿2.776406 x 10-11 J
4.4.3. Fusion. Nuclear fusion happens when two small, light nuclei join together to make one
heavy nucleus. Fusion reactions occur in stars where two hydrogen nuclei fuse together under high
temperatures and pressure to form a nucleus of a helium isotope.
4 11H → 42 He
Mass of 4 H = 6.693 x 10-27 kg

Mass of 1 He nucleus = 6.645 x 10-27 kg.
Difference = 0.048 x 10-27 kg = amount converted to energy
In all nuclear reactions, a small amount of the mass changes to energy.

Revision: 01
17
4.5. Interaction of Radiation

For example, a 500 ml of water will contain around 3.2
and Matter (IRM)
x 1025 H atoms. Complete fusion of all the atoms would
4.5.1. Classification of release about 3.44 x 1013 J of energy. It is estimated that
the sun releases 3.8 x 1026 J/s of energy
radiation
a. Ionizing radiation. The real problem with fusion is that it requires fusing of
Energy of photon is greater than nuclei which are positively charged. This requires the
the ionization energy of typical nuclei must be in plasma form which is attain at an
atoms or staggering 150,000,000oC temperature, which happens
(b) only in stars like the Sun.
(a)
Fig. 7. (a) Diagram showing how fusion
Happens and (b) electromagnetic
Spectrum of radiation.
molecules, hence, induces ionization in

whatever atom or molecules. Examples
are X-rays
b. Non-ionizing radiation. Non-
ionizing radiation is a form of radiation
with less energy than ionizing radiation. Unlike ionizing radiation, non-ionizing radiation does
not remove electrons from atoms or molecules of materials that include air, water, and living
tissue.
4.5.2. Three main factors governing IRM

There are three factors that govern interaction of radiation ad matter and these are:
a. Amount of radiation matter is exposed to
b. Penetrating power
c. Ionizing power
4.5.2.1. Penetrating and ionizing power
The farther radiation can penetrate into a substance the more extensive the ionization it
will cause. So, the more localized the ionization the less penetrating power it will possess.
a. The alpha (α ¿ particles are the least penetrating ones. They are absorbed by 10 cm
of air, 0.01 mm lead or a sheet of paper. They cause ionization near the surface of the material
they strike, resulting in a small volume of effects. The double charge and considerable mass of
the alphas explains why the impact on matter is so great. Sources of alpha emitters can be
inhaled or swallowed and get lodged in some parts of the body and their cause ionizing effect
where they are localized.
b. The beta ( β ¿ particles penetrate deeper than the alphas and therefore considered
moderate absorbed by 1 m of air, 0.1 mm lead or 3 mm Al sheet. A beta has about 1/8000 of
the mass of an alpha particle and their interaction with matter is less severe compared to alphas
but effects of its ionization is more spread out. All beta radiation sources are dangerous.

Revision: 01
18
c. The gamma (γ) rays have a very low ionizing power and penetrate very deeply into
matter. The penetrating power is therefore very high, about 99.9% is absorbed by 1 km of air or
10 cm lead. Gamma rays are pure energy - no charge and no mass – hence, their interaction with
matter is much less than the other two. When they strike the body, most just pass through it;
only some interact and therefore dangerous. But they are the only radiation source that is worth
the risk of putting inside a patient for diagnostic reasons.
4.5.3. De Broglie Wavelength, Wave-Particle Duality
In quantum theory of atom, there is no distinction between wave and particle description
of matter. It is convenient to describe matter in terms of particles; it also natural to use a wave
description for light.
4..5.3.1. De Broglie Wave Description

h
λ= ` (Eq. 19)
p
where: λ=¿ de Broglie wavelength
p=¿ momentum of the particle
h=Planc k ' sconstant =6.6 x 10−34 J . s
So, the wavelength of a particle is ONLY important when the momentum is very small
For example: Electrons: p = 9 x 10-31 kg
h hc
λ= = (Eq. 20)
p ¿¿
where: m0 = rest mass (can be obtained from
m¿ =γ m0 = mass of particle in motion (Eq. 21)
γ =¿ ¿ Lorentz factor (Eq. 22)
β=¿ v/c (Eq. 23)
v = speed of the particle
c = speed of light
The total energy of the particle is
ETotal =m¿ c 2 (Eq. 24)
BUT total energy is equal to kinetic energy plus the rest mass energy:
ETotal =T +m0 c2 T = kinetic energy (Eq. 25)
Substituting the appropriate values and simplifying:
T =(γ −1)m0 c 2 (Eq. 26)
2
For a mass at rest: ETotal =m0 c (Eq. 27)
For a massless particle like photon: ETotal = pc (Eq. 28)
where: p = momentum of the photon
= MeV/c
m = MeV/c2

Revision: 01
19
Table 2. Magnitudes of de Broglie wavelength of particles (Loveland et al,

2006).
Table 3. Comparison of relativistic and classical expressions for a free particle

moving in x direction (Loveland et al, 2006).
Note: Arbitrary rule is to use relativistic expression when γ ≥1.1
Illustrative Problem. A 20Ne ion with a kinetic energy of 1 GeV per nucleon. Calculate its
velocity, momentum and total energy.
Given : A 20Ne ion T = 1 GeV/nucleon
Required: v, p, ETotal
Solution: Total kinetic energy = 20 x 1 GeV/nucleon = 20 GeV = 20,000 MeV
T =(γ −1)m 0 c 2
m0 = Rest mass = 20 u or (20)(931.5) MeV/c or 18,630 MeV
T 20,000
Solving for γ: γ = + 1=1+
m0 c 2
18,630
γ = 2.07
Recall: γ =¿
β=¿
¿¿
¿ 0.88
Revision: 01
20
v = 0.88c = (0.88)(3.00 x 108 m/s

v = 2.6 x 108 m/s
Momentum, p, is
mv
p= 2
=γmv = (2.07)(20 u)(1.67 x 10-27 g)(2.6 x 108 m/s)
√ 1−β
p = 1.8 x 10-17 kg.m/s
Or in other units:
mcv
pc = ¿=( 931.5 )( 20 ) ( 0.88 ) ( 2.07 )=33.9 GeV
√1−β 2 ¿
p = 33.9 GeV/c
Total energy: ETotal = Ek + m0c2
ETotal =γ m0 c 2=( 2.07 )( 20 u ) ( 931.5 )=¿ 38.6 GeV
4.5.3. Particles Physics
4.5.3.1. Classifications of Particles
a. Fermions obey the Pauli principle and have antisymmetric wave functions and half-
integer spins. The neutrons, protons and electrons are fermions.
b. Bosons do not obey the Pauli principle and have symmetric wave functions and integer
spins. Photons are bosons. They are force carriers, which carry the four fundamental forces.
4.5.3.2. Particle Groups
Particle groups can also be divided into:
a. Leptons such as the electron. They cannot interact via the nuclear or strong
interactions.
b. Hadrons such as neutrons and protons. They can interact via the nuclear or strong
interactions. Fermionic hadrons, called baryons, contains three quarks.
There are six different kinds of leptons:

1. v eelectron neutrino: charge: 0 mass: < 1x 10-11 GeV/c2
2. e electron: charge: -1 mass: 0.000511 GeV/c2
3. v μ muon neutrino charge: 0 mass: < 0.0002 GeV/c2
4. μmuon charge: -1 mass: 0.106 GeV/c2
5. v τ tau neutrino charge: 0 mass: < 0.02 GeV/c2
6. τ tau charge: -1 mass: 1.7771 GeV/c2
They can be arranged in three pairs. The electron (e), the muon (μ) and the tau lepton
each carry a charge of -e and have associated with them the electron neutrino (ve), the muon
neutrino (vμ) and tau neutrinos ( v τ ). The electron neutrino is seen in nuclear phenomena such as
β decay, whereas the other neutrinos are involved in high energy processes.

Revision: 01
21
The fermionic hadrons, called baryons,, are thought to be made up of three

fundamental particles called quarks..
There are six different kinds (flavor) of quarks:

1. U or Up 4. C or charm
2. D or Down 5. T or Top
3. S or Strange 6. B or Bottom
Table 3. Table of quarks and their properties
Flavor Approx. mass, GeV/c2 Electric charge

u up 0.003 2/3
d down 0.006 -1/3
c charm 1.3 2/3
s strange 0.1 -1/3
t top 175 2/3
b bottom 4.3 -1/3
4.5.3.2. Forces Encountered in Nature
There are four fundamental forces found in nature. According to physicists, all the
interactions in the universe are the result of these forces. The weakest is gravity which is
significant when the interacting forces are massive (i.e. planets, stars, etc.). The weak
interaction is important in nuclear β decay. The famous electromagnetic force (emf) which
governs most behavior in the sensory world is next in strength. The strongest force is the
nuclear or strong interaction which is about 100 times stronger than the emf. These are
summarized below:
Table 4. Types of force found in nature.
There is a current effort to unite the strong and electroweak forces (electromagnetic and
weak forces) in a so-called grand unified theory (GUT) with the inclusion of gravity in a final
step: theory of everything.
The force carriers or exchange particles are all bosons, carrying the four fundamental
forces. a) the gluons, - strong interaction carriers b) the W ± ∧W 0 which are the weak interaction
carriers c) the photon – carrier of the electromagnetic force (emf) d) the graviton is the
postulated carrier of gravitation.

Revision: 01
22
The size of each quark is about ¿ 10−18 m.

MeV
The lightest two quarks, the u and d (m 5−10 ∧pointlike ¿ make up the nucleons.
c2
2 2 1
Proton is a uud combination charge: ( + − ¿
3 3 3
2 1 1
Neutron is a udd combination charge: ( − − ¿
3 3 3
The quarks account for 2 % of the mass of the proton;
98 % is in gluons which connect the quarks
197
The top quark (most massive) has a mass of Au with a life of t = 10-24 s
Fig. 8. An artist’s conception of the standard model for atomic particles taken from
Loveland et al (2006).
Units and Conversion Factors

Unit Length: femtometer = 10−15 (it is called fermi
Revision: 01
23
Unit Mass : amu or u = atomic mass unit

u = 1.66 x 10-24
u = 931.5 MeV/c2
Unit energy: E = 106 eV
= 1.602 x 10-13 J
e2
=1.43998 MeV fm
4 π ε0
h=6.58212 x 10−22 MeV s
c=2.9979 x 1023 fm. s−1
hc = 197.3 MeV fm
1 year (sidereal) = 3.1558 x 107 s ≈ π x 107 s
(See Table 1a and Table 5 for more information on Units and Conversions Factors)
Table 5. Conversion Factors and Handy Units
5. Teaching and Learning Activities

Revision: 01
24
Chapter Exercises
A. 1. Alpha Decay Problem. Complete the reaction for each of the following nuclear decay
processes:
Po → 210 206
84 Pb+ 82¿ ¿?
230
90 Th→ ?+ 42 He
2. Beta Decay Problem. Complete the equations for each of the following β- decay reactions
using to represent the beta particle.
234
90 Th→ 234
91 Pa+?
Pa→ ?+ 234 0
91 β + −1 ¿ v́ ¿
3. Gamma ray decay. Complete the equations for the following reactions to represent the γ
particle.
60
27 Co → ?+ e−1+ v +γ
4. Positron Emission Problem. Complete the following equations:
K →? + 40 0
a) 19 ¿ β+ −1¿ v́ ¿ ¿
b) K +? → 40 40
19 Ar+ 18¿ v ¿
B. Problem Solving
1. If radium-223 has a half-life of 10.33 days, what time duration would it require for the activity
associated with this sample to decrease 1.5% of its present value?
2. Determine the number of atoms in a 1.00 mg sample of Carbon-14?
3. What mass of Carbon-14 must be in a sample to have an activity of 2.00 mCi?
4. What are the wavelengths of a 500-MeV photon, a 500-MeV electron, and a 500-MeV proton?
C. Discussion/definition
1. What is the grand unified theory?
2. When a particle is massless (that is m≅ 0, describe its energy with an equation.
3. The idea of an atom is that it is the simplest, indivisible particle of matter. In the light of the
information in this module, write a comment on that idea of Democritus and other scientists
who followed up on his philosophy of atom.
6. Recommended Reading Materials and Resources for Supplementary Reading

A. Videos
1. https://youtu.be/xvqsFTUsOmc
2. https://youtu.be/I2abTNq4AZs
3. Nuclear Chemistry - Radioactivity & Radiation - Alpha, Beta, Gamma
(https://youtu.be/cOE40P5rHCA)
4. How to Balance Nuclear Equations (https://youtu.be/tgBkzUvUy_U)
5. Nuclear Reactions, Radioactivity, Fission and Fusion.

Revision: 01
25
B. Internet Pages and Sites

1.
www.byjus.com/chemistry/nuclear-chemistry
2. http://www.experts123.com/q/where-does-carbon-14-come-from.html
3. https://www.space.com/32644-cosmic-rays.html
4. https://www.bbc.co.uk
5. https://www.cyberphysics.co.uk/topics/radioact/Radio/ion&penet.htm
6. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon-14).
7. Teaching-Learning Modality Adopted
Synchronous and Asynchronous modality (Module, google meet, Edmodo, CP, messenger, e-mail,
exercises and modular quiz)
8. Assessment Task (See Module 5 Assessment Task in separate file)
9. References
1. Brown, Larry and Tom Holme. 2012. Chemistry for Engineering Students. 2nd Edition. Cengage
Learning Asia, Pte. Ltd. ISBN 13-978-981-4392-89-0. 4th Reprint 2013. Philippines.
2. Chartl, Wolfgang. 2014. Basic Physical Chemistry: A complete Introduction to Bachelor of
Science Level. 1st Edition. A Bookboon Publication. ISBN 978-87-403-0669-9
3. Loveland, Walter D., Morrissey, David J. and Glenn T. Seaborg. 2006.Modern Nuclear
Chemistry. Wiley-Interscience. A Publication of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New Jersey.
Simultaneously published in Canada.

Revision: 01

CE 112 MODULE 5 NUCLEAR CHEM Used

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

CE 112 MODULE 5 NUCLEAR CHEM Used

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

CE 112 MODULE 5 NUCLEAR CHEM Used

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

1

1ST SEM SY 2021-2022

1. Module 5. Nuclear Chemistry

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

6C 1s2 ) 2s2 2px1 2py1 2pz0

11 Na 1s2 ) 2s2 2px2 2py2 2pz2 ) 3s1

r = radius of the e orbit around the atom

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

h = 6.6260755x10-34 J∙s = Planck’s constant = 6.6260755x10-27 ergs

esu = electrostatic unit of charge = statcoulomb or statC (also franklin or Fr)

4.1.1. The Atom

4.1.1.1. The Nucleus Nomenclature

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

6C = 1s2 2s1 2px1 2py1 2pz1

Brain Drill (www.socratic.org)

Quiz: Understanding the Concept: Problem. Fill up the following table

A nuclide (from nucleus) is an atomic species characterized by the specific constitution of its

Types Naturally-Occuring Nuclides

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Ex. 238U (T1/2 = 4.5×109 yr) an isotope of uranium – still abundant in nature

Ex. Cosmogenic 14C (radiocarbon) that is made by cosmic-ray bombardment of other

Nucleogenic 239Pu which is still being created by neutron bombardment of natural

Size and Density of a Typical Nucleus

ρ=200,000 metric tons/mm3

ρ=2 x 1017 kg /m 3 (200,000,000,000,000,000 kg/m )

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

4.1.2. Atomic Processes

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

where Z eff =Z effective

4.1.2.2. X-ray Emission

where: R∞ =Rydberg constant

The X-ray energy is

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Mosely’s correction showing the frequencies, v, of the K α series X-Rays:

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

4.2. Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating

4.3 Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions

4.3.1 Radioactive Decay

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

Parent – the reactant nucleus

Recall: cosmic ray collision: N + 10n ⇢ 147C + 146¿ 146 p ¿

b. The proton takes the place of the neutron that decayed

4.3.7. Positron Emission

A positron is a positively charged electron, β+ or 01 β . A positron and an electron form a matter-

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

By simplification: N=N o e−kt (Eq. 14)

Where: N = number of nuclei after a given period of time t

N o = initial number of nuclei

Using the natural logarithm: ln N = ln N o - kt

A=A 0 e−kt (Eq. 16)

where: A0 = the activity at t=0

A = number of disintegration per unit time at any time t

4.3.9. Energetics of Nuclear Reactions

E = mc2 (Eq. 18)

ISUE - CAS - DMS - 016

4.4. Transmutation, Fission and Fusion

B+ 105¿ 10n→ 115 B' → 73 Li+ 42 He ¿

Fig. 6. Diagram showing