Name: Nargas

Roll No: CA654031

ASSIGNMENT: 1
COURSE CODE: 8625
Subject: HIGHER EDUCATION
PREFFERED TEACHER: FARHAD ALI
TEACHER CONTACT NUMBER: 03065974605

Q.1 Critically discuss the provision of higher education in Pakistan. How these
provisions are linked with the current socio-economic status of our country?
Ans:
Higher Education in Pakistan (Perspective – Planning)

Higher education is recognized today as a capital investment and is of paramount

importance for economic and social development of the country (Barnet, 1990). Institutions
of higher education have the primary responsibility for equipping individuals with advanced

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knowledge and skills required for positions of responsibility in government, business, and
other professions (Mughal & Manzoor, 1999). Quality higher education is a source of great
potential for the socio economic and cultural development of the country. Stone, Horejs, &
Lomas (1997) found “The nation can be transformed into a developed nation within the life
time of a single generation.” Factors such as the distinctive nature of higher education
institutions, international mobility of students, and teacher’s accessibility of computer based
learning pursuit of research and scholarship, globalization of economy, and emerging
challenges of the 21st century have a direct impact on the future development of higher
education. (Mughal & Manzoor, 1999).

The purpose of higher education is not simply to impart knowledge in certain branches of
knowledge; it has deeper meaning and objectives. The purpose may be multidimensional
and may be termed as personal, social, economic, and cultural (Moore & Farris, 1991).
Education and particularly higher education cannot be divorced from its milieu and social
context. Religious, moral, historical, and cultural ethos permeates through the fabric of the
educational system of a country (Best, 1994).

The people in Pakistan are neither deficient in talent nor in moral qualities in comparison to
any other nation of the world, but about two centuries of foreign rule and blind imitation of
western attitudes and methods, unsuited to the genius and spiritual conditions of its people,
have spoiled some of the virtues and have brought a bad name to their intellectual capacities
(Siddiq, 1978). Hassan (1990) observed “Pakistan is unfortunately really backward in
education as in certain other spheres of intellectual activities but luckily people are not
inherently incompetent or morally incurable.” It is however necessary that the diagnosis
about maladies should be correct and the measures for curing these maladies should be
appropriate in the light of that diagnosis (Abdullah, 1992).

Challenges in Higher Education

Higher education is faced with very severe challenges in the shape of various economic,
social, political, and moral changes, and its future depends on the response made by its
people to these challenges (Rao, 2003).

Hayes (1987) found “The problems plaguing the educational system of Pakistan are
multidimensional like population explosion, lack of resources, non-participation of the
private sector, scarcity of qualified man power, inconsistency in the policies of various
regimes, political instability, inefficient educational management system, wastage of
resources, and poor implementation of policies and programme etc.”

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The major challenges in higher education include:
(i) Quantity
Despite the constraints of resources, the quantitative expansion has been highly
spectacular in the post-independence period. The institutions have not only been
multiplied, the student enrolments at colleges and universities have registered
exceptionally high rate of growth.
“The quantitative expansion is evident due to increasing aspiration of the people and
social, economic, and political forces influencing the development of higher education.
In the post-independence period, the role of higher education has been very well
recognized in the development of science and technology, as well as various arenas of
human advancement” (Mohanthy, 2000).
(ii) Equity
Qureshi (1997) stated “The ideal of equity was severely constrained by exiting in
qualities in the distribution of property and productive resources, low level of
education and awareness among the people, and strong influences exercised by
individual and group to further their own sectional interest rather than total social
interest.”
(iii) Quality
Development of society not only depends upon quantity of goods and services
produced, but also on their quality. “It again leads to quality of life of the people and
the quality of the society in general” (Hayes, 1987). It is rightly said that the
philosophical basis of quality is the innate characteristics of a human being to attain a
higher standard and the need of excellence for attaining a higher stage in the
development (Quddus, 1990).
Attempts to realize specific objectives of quality tend to narrow down the scope and
discourage efforts to attain quality in various walks of life. Allen (1988) determined
that “Various programs have been developed and are being implemented for the last
two decades for improving the quality of teachers and their proficiency in discharging
their duties and responsibilities.”
(iv) Student Unrest
Among the challenges of higher education is the vital role of addressing student’s
unrest. Bayli (1987) studied that “The condition of higher education in universities and
colleges is not satisfactory in the eyes of students. Lack of physical and educational
facilities is bringing much hindrance in the way of development”. Iqbal
(1981) states “Teachers are less motivated to do certain research work. Most teachers
are not competent, and they are teaching in higher education institutions.” They have
limited knowledge about subject matter they taught and many of them have no clear
idea about the subject. “Even in Pakistani universities, the teacher at

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 M.Phil and Ph.D. level, are not competent” (Rao, 2003). “They feel it difficult to
indulge in research work due to lack of knowledge about research methodologies”
(Mughal & Manzoor, 1999).
(v) Emotional Integration
Education can play a vital role in strengthening emotional integration. It is felt that
education should not aim at imparting knowledge but should develop all aspects of a
student’s personality
“Students, the future citizens of the country, should be trained in democracy, its value
and ideals so that they will have sense of justice which is conducive for the
development of national integration especially in the particular situation of developing
countries which are striving to build up a structure of democratic living” (Rao, 2003).
(vi) Administrative Reform
In the last fifteen years or so, Pakistan has been giving increasing attention to the
problems of university administration (Adeeb, 1996). Abdullah (1992) observed “They
have noticed that despite the resources available for university expansion, they have
not been able to obtain the best possible results.” “Further they have also begun to
realize that much of this is due to lack of proper administration and what the outcome
is on the development of higher education” (Aeth, 1975).
Social and cultural factors, which are often ignored, are as significant as any of the
purely technical factors in the formulation and implementation of administration
policy. Barnet (1990) states that “The linkages between the policy and these factors are
neither casual nor limited to the contemporary period so the university administration
clearly demonstrates that the success or failure of university administrative reforms
hinges on the presence and absence of certain variables given below.”
1. Strong commitment and determined leadership
2. Appropriate political environment
3. Supportive social environment
4. Types of reform agents
5. Nature of reforms
6. Favourable bureaucratic attitude towards change

(vii) Faculty
The current size of present faculty is very small according to the general
international standard. Mughal & Manzoor (1999) found that “The teacher/student
ratio is very small even according to many third world countries standards. The quality
of university education at the college has decreased because of the exiting faculty”.
“Many present faculty members are teaching courses which are not their own
specialization” (Bayli, 1987). “Many faculty members in most of universities are just
master degree holders with little or no practical knowledge and higher education
experiences” (Iqbal, 1981).
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“The salary, financial rewards and benefits for the faculty is very low according to the
rising cost of living in Pakistan. The higher education commission is making an effort
to provide facilities to their teachers and hiring foreign faculty for the uplift of
educational standards in Pakistan” (Rao, 2003). Still the staff and technical support of
the teaching professor are not present. Adeeb (1996) found that “There is no real plan
or set of rules for teaching evaluation or teaching effectiveness. The above problem is
a great challenge for higher education in Pakistan.”
(viii) Educational Policies
The faculty should have primary responsibilities for determining the educational
policies of the institution. Barnet (1990) found “If this responsibility is not conferred
and defined by the character of the institution, it should be expressed in legislation of
the governing board.” “Educational polices include such fundamental matters as the
subject matter and methods of instruction, facilities and support for the research work
of faculty members and students, standards for admission of students, etc” (Aeth,
1975).
Mohanthy (2000) observed that “The faculty should also actively participate in
decisions made on other matters that may directly affect the educational policies for
which it is primarily responsible.” “These matters include major changes in the size of
the student body, significant alteration in the academic calendar, establishment
of new colleges and universities or division, the provision of extension services to the
community, and assumption by the institution of research or service obligations to
private or public agencies” (Allen, 1988).
(ix) Academic Freedom
The right of academic freedom must be recognized in order to enable the faculty
members, researchers, and students to carry on their roles. Gibbons (1998) studied
“The freedom of universities in making professional appointments, tenure research,
salary scales, and all academic decision.” “Academic freedom and university
autonomy are sometimes regarded as synonymous, but they are two quite different
concepts, although they overlap at many points” (Taylor &Tashakkori, 1997).
Rao (2003) found that “These two functions are the essence of the progress and
development of the higher education and administrative endeavours.” Quddus (1990)
studied that “The basic function of a college or university is to preserve, augment,
criticize, and transmit knowledge and to foster creative capacities.” “These functions
are performed by a community of scholars who must be free to exercise independent
judgment in the planning and execution of their educational responsibilities”
(Varghese, 1980).
“Unfortunately, a university may find it difficult to earn the academic freedom or
autonomy and retain it in a new state where most, if not all, the cost of university
education is a direct charge on the government” (Siddiq, 1978). Qureshi (1997)
identified that “The board of trustees should be more concerned with matters affecting

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 the relations of the university with the outside bodies and general policy than with the
routine administration work which is dealt with by the university council.”
(x) Courses and Curricula
The courses and curricula are not designed in accordance with the standard of
higher education of the present day. Iqbal (1981) observed that “There is no continuity
of some of the important courses: there is also no relationship between the related
courses of common or similar knowledge.” Bayli (1987) studied that “So many
important and modern courses required for higher education are not taught at all.”
“The curricula are not written in detail and are left to the professors personal likes,
dislikes, interests or experience” (Adeeb, 1996).

Quddus (1990) observed that “The basic science courses are not designed well to fit
the need of the students, and they are not well organized, or correctly supervised by the
department.” “Generally speaking, there are not enough well equipped faculty and
administration offices, classrooms, or engineering, science, and other laboratories for
the growing student body and faculty members” (Hassan, 1990).

Taylor &Tashakkori (1997) studied that “The workshops at the higher level are not
suitable for training, because necessary materials, equipment, space, and techniques
are not up to the mark according to the required standard.” “Equipment is old and not
fit for some of the more specialize laboratory experiments” (Quddus, 1990). Varghese
(1980) identify that “There has been constant change in and lowering of the standard
of syllabi and courses leading to lazy mindedness resulting in lack of
Urge for higher achievements.” “Frequent change of study material and difficulties in
availability is another contributory factor” (Quddus, 1990).
(xi) Budgeting and Financing
Central to all the foregoing is a new concept of budgeting and financing at the higher
level. Bayli (1987) observed “The conventional system of an annual budget is probably
the most confusing and least understood.” “The budget of course, performs a number
of essential functions which even the most frustrated will acknowledge” (Rao, 2003).
Allen (1988) identify “The concern here is with the budget as an instrument of
academic planning which may promote the special aims of each college and constitute
a practical means by which all university purpose may be realized ideally it must not
only insure financial solvency of the university, but should also place responsibility
and commensurate authority where it may be exercised most.”
Rao (2003) studied “In fact realistic planning and decisive action are the only way to
prevent educational strategies from degenerating into irregular reactions to unforeseen
exigencies.” “The university’s aim should be to fashion a system which in its year to
year operation may provide for its own continuing renewal” (Adeeb, 1996).

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 (xii) Population Explosion
“The fast growing population in Pakistan and South Asian developing countries is
another problem by causing overcrowding in the higher educational institution because
the number of higher level institutions is deficient” (Hayes, 1987). Mohanthy (2000)
observed “The demand for the quantitative expansion of education at all levels remains
one of the primary concerns because of the continuous population expansion.”

Q.2 compare liberal arts philosophy with Vocational philosophy in higher education
which philosophy do you think better and why?
Ans.
Philosophy of Higher Education

The philosophy of education can be well-defined as the study of the objectives, procedures,
nature and principles of education. The word ‘education’ is derived from one or both of the
following concepts:
• ‘Educare’ – to draw out and realize potential;
• ‘Educere’ – to bring up and nurture.

Both of these concepts fuse in Kant’s famous statement that the objective of education is to
empower humanity to grow and to progress: ‘Man can only become man by education’
(Kant 1803/1960: 6).

Sharing of knowledge and experiences has been one of the major keys for human success
and survival for millennia. The sense of shared responsibility of community begins from
homes: from parent to child, from scholar to learner and from craftsman to apprentice. In
this age of internet, where we find human understanding as a Google-search way, the role
and philosophy of education still needs to be well defined. What is needed to cater the needs
of today’s learners is proposed to be distilled into four categories.
1. Curriculum
2. Teaching Staff

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3. Learning Environment
4. Learning Community/Cadre

These four pillars emerge from theory or philosophy of education.

These four pillars are also important in philosophy of education. Philosophy of education
can refer either to the application of philosophy to the problem of education, examining the
definition, goals and meaning of education, or to any particular vision of or approach to
education. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of
education and its problems...its central subject matter is education, and its methods are those
of philosophy. “One can learn a lot about an institution’s or individual’s philosophy of
education based on the which of the four elements is either given priority or is the sole focus
of the program. It’s been observed that many traditional institutions put the biggest emphasis
on the quality of the curriculum, protecting that content as if it were their exclusive domain.
Thus the belief is essentially that the educational process is data transferal from one
generation to the next. In this model getting an education is having access to this curriculum
and the business model is that one must pay tuition to have access to this curriculum.
Importance of Philosophy of Education
Now, let us study how significant educational philosophy is in academic life. Philosophy of
education is very important as all educational theories arise from philosophy. If we are able
to examine the philosophy of education, we can easily see how different theories oppose or
complement each other. Therefore, an understanding of educational philosophy is helpful in
directing and presenting a critique on development of educational theories. Philosophy is
also important for promotion of professional and philosophical activities. Several
educational ideas are drawn from other disciplines, and a philosophy of education can
deliver a didactic history of thoughts, models and terminology. It supports to place the
educational discipline on a comparable philosophical balance to other disciplines through
the establishment of a different discourse and justification.
Philosophy of Higher Education in Pakistani Context
We have to look the philosophy of Higher education from Pakistani context. As we know
that the quick growth of digital revolution has given rise to the demand of highly educated
personnel. Globalization, internationalization, and the concepts of life-long learning has
added new and shared views about higher education at national and international levels. In
the pursuit of excellence, the institutes of higher education, especially universities, have to
play a very significant role in the world education map. To meet the challenges of t
emerging trends, our institutions have to produce the manpower enable to compete
worldwide. The education Policy of 1998 also looks forward to the importance of higher
education in Pakistan. The policy stresses on philosophy of higher education as source of
great potential for socio-economic and cultural development of the country. The important
factors in the policy regarding higher education are: accessibility of computer-based
education, international mobility of students and teachers and pursuits of scholarships and
results.

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Q.3 critically analyze status of higher education in Pakistan. Give from current
articles written (in newspapers/ research journals) in this regard.
Ans.
Higher Education: Genesis and development (Policies & Plans)

At the time of establishment of Pakistan on 14 August 1947, the country had only one
institution of higher learning, the Punjab University and among forty colleges expanded to
four provinces of Pakistan. Education policy revised by Prime Minister Liaqat Ali Khan, the
government established various universities and colleges in all over the country. This led the
establishment of University Grants Commission (UGC) by the constitution in Pakistan in
1947. The same year, Mohammad Ali Jinnah held a National Education Conference (also
known as Pakistan Education Conference) of academicians and state holders to revise the
policy of higher education in the country, as he stated:

"... the importance of education and the type of education cannot be over-emphasized ...
there is no doubt that the future of our State will and must greatly depend upon the type of
education we give to our children, and the way in which we bring them up as future citizens
of Pakistan ... we should not forget that we have to compete with the world which is moving
very fast in this direction."
Many recommendations were directed and accepted by the government to establish the UGC
as a federal regulatory institution in 1947. Efforts led by government led to the imposition of
Soviet-oriented first five-year plans which explained the first official education policy in
1956. The first plan was an attempt to make education development suitable for the socio-
economic development in the country.
In 1959, the government recognized the need to expanding powers granted to the UGC and
appointed the UGC as federal commission.[7] In 1960s, the financial policies and economic
programmes introduced by government greatly emphasized to importance of higher
education in the country.[9] A huge revenue and a huge percentile of budget was actually
spent to promote higher education efforts in the country. ₨. 912 million was spent annually
for the fiscal period of 1960–65 in a joint collaboration led by ministry of finance, ministry
of education, UGC and Planning Commission. Colleges were transformed into full-scale
research universities and special research institutes were established in all over the country.
According to the calculations performed by the Ministry of Statistics, around 430,000
students were enrolled in different universities to pursue their higher education over the

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fiscal period of 1960–65.[9] From 1965 to 1971, the government spent ₨. 173.8 million on
the education sector as opposed to actual
allocations of ₨. 278.6 million.

After the 1971 war with India which saw the separation of East-Pakistan as Bangladesh, the
new education policy was announced with the implementation of nationalization programme
in 1972. Under this policy, all two-year colleges were transformed to university status under
the state-controlled policy; privatized universities were nationalized. During this time,
government had spent 70% of natural resources on higher education efforts; enrollment in
the universities increased to 56%.Government period saw the sought to integrated social
change; thus economic progress through nationalization.

In 1979, government announced "The National Education Policy, 1979" (NEP-79) which
saw the harmonization of higher education in Pakistan with Islamic concepts and the
national ideology. Government policies led to the fundamentalist ideas flaring in the higher
education system in the country.[9] In 1992, government announced a "National Education
Policy 1992" (NEP-92) to streamline the process of higher education. This was followed by
the Eighth Plan launched by government in 1993 which focused on primary education.

The different higher education policies, priorities, and the need of competition between the
political forces in Pakistan led to disturbances in the higher education as well as effecting
the UGC ability. The inadequate financial funding and policy implementation never
matched the need of higher education in the country. In 2002, the government took over the
initiatives in devolving the UGC into Higher Education Commission in 2002.

2009 policy states that Government shall develop and enforce minimum quality standards
for organizations involved in literacy in the form of literacy certification and accreditation
regime. The literacy providers shall be required to offer the literacy programmes according
to the specified standards

2017-2025 policy highlights that Total enrollment in higher education institutions in

Pakistan has increased from 0.276 million during 2001-02 to 1.298 million by 2014-15,
registering 300% surge over a period of about 15 years. However, still Pakistan’s Gross
Enrolment Ratio (GER) in higher education was just 10% during 2015-16, which is lower
than many other developing countries of South Asia. For example, GER of India in higher
education is 24%, followed by 21% in Sri Lanka, 16% in Nepal and 13% in Bangladesh
(UNESCO, GEM Report 2016). An encouraging development is that Gender Parity or
enrolment of females in higher education has increased from 36.8% in 2001 to 47.2% by
2014. Universities get about 40% of their budget through Fees from the students and other
sources of income. This has made access to higher education less equitable. Public sector

10
universities are insufficient in number to meet learning needs of all the students from low
income families. Since most of the parents are unable to pay exorbitant fees of private sector
universities, resultantly participation rate at higher education level remains low

Policy suggests that Number of public sector universities will be increased from existing 99
(2015) to 195 by establishing 96 new universities by 2025. Projected number of private
universities is expected to reach from existing 76 to 105 by 2025 with total number of
universities touching the figure of 300 in the country. HEC will set up 72 new smart sub-
campuses of Tier II universities in under -served large districts. vii. Existing (2015)
enrollment of 1.298 million (in public, private, distance universities and in affiliated
colleges) shall be increased to 7.172 million by 2025.
Challenges of Higher Education in Pakistan

The status of higher education in Pakistan is not encouraging, although this sub-sector has
registered enormous growth after 2002, when Higher Education Commission was
established and Government of Pakistan started according priority to tertiary education. The
important sub-sector of higher education is confronted with following broader issues and
challenges:-
1. Participation rate at higher education level is low; Gross Enrolment Ratio is just 10%.
Only 8% of relevant age group of 17-23 years are enrolled in tertiary education.
2. Most of the universities and their campuses are concentrated in urban centers and more
developed regions of the country, hence restricting accessibility of millions of youth in
rural and under developed areas to access higher education opportunities. Out of 120
districts in the country, 65 districts do not have any university or its campus.
3. Quality of higher education is not compatible with international standards. None of the
Pakistani universities is included in the list of top 500 universities of the world.
4. Only 27% faculty members of universities possess higher qualification of Ph.Ds.
5. Most of the universities lack a culture of research. Ratio of internationally recognized
research publications is minimal.
6. Budgetary allocations for higher education are not proportionate to the needs of the
country. Provinces are spending less than 13% of their education budget on higher
education.
7. HEIs are also facing issues relating to governance. Appointments of senior leadership
in universities are sometimes politicized, thus affecting quality of education and
research in these institutions.
8. Due attention is not paid on Research and Development (R & D). Linkages between
universities and industry are weak. There is a dire need to address these issues through
a well thought out policy on higher education.
Q.4 investigate through interview of at least 3 educationists from some higher
education institution about the role of higher education commission in development of
higher education in Pakistan.

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Ans.
Educational Applications
Cost-effectiveness studies have been carried out on teacher training (Tatto et al. 1991),
teacher selection (Levin 1970), educational television and radio (Jamison et al. 1978), choice
of a mathematics curriculum (Quinn et al. 1984), computer-assisted instruction (Levin et al.
1987) and also increasing the school day, reducing class size, and cross-age tutoring (Levin
et al. 1987). Lockheed and Hanushek (1988) have provided a good summary of cost-
effectiveness studies of educational radio and of textbook provision for several countries.
Their comparisons among studies and interventions should be viewed cautiously given that
the studies were done independently for different years (with no standardization for changes
in price levels or exchange rates) and are not necessarily based upon the same cost
methodology.

1. Educational Television
The 1970s witnessed a great interest in educational television as a way of improving
educational quality in developing countries, as well as expanding their educational
systems (Mayo et al. 1975, Jamison et al. 1978). In many developing, societies
adequate numbers of trained teachers are unavailable-particularly in rural areas-or
populations are so sparsely distributed that there are not adequate numbers of students
in school attendance boundaries to justify minimum personnel requirements.
Educational television has been viewed as an alternative for delivering instruction that
might be less costly and that also might raise the quality of education. Studies were
undertaken of educational television ' as a partial replacement for teachers in rural
areas where examination test scores were used as a basis for effectiveness. Such
studies found that the television was relatively cost-effective in comparison with
traditional schools in that it produced comparable student achievement at lower cost
(Mayo et al. 1975). However, these results depended heavily on certain assumptions
which were highly controversial, illustrating the fact that cost-effectiveness
comparisons must be reviewed carefully before using them for decision-making
(Carnoy and Levin 1975).

2. Curriculum:
Curriculum is an area that is very appropriate for cost-effectiveness analysis. In the
quest for educational improvement, schools face numerous ways in which they can
organize the pace, content, and method of instruction. Some are
likely to be more effective than others, and there may also be substantial differences in
resource requirements with respect to such ingredients as teacher time, materials,
equipment, and so on. As with many other areas of education, the potential for using
cost-effectiveness analysis has barely been tapped in the curriculum field. An excellent

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 cost-effectiveness study of fifth grade mathematics curriculum was carried out by
Quinn et al. (1984). Their evaluation compared two approaches to teaching
mathematics, a traditional curriculum and an alternative one. Using the ingredients
method, the researchers found that the alternative mathematics program cost about 50
percent more than the traditional mathematics program, but the effectiveness of the
alternative program was also higher. Depending upon how student achievement was
measured, the alternative mathematics program was found to be from 60 percent to
300 percent more costeffective -- cost per point of achievement score -- than the
traditional program.
3. Teacher Training:
A study of teacher training in Sri Lanka compared the costeffectiveness of training in
colleges of education and in teachers' colleges as well as through distance education
(Tatto et al. 1991). Teacher performance and pupil achievement were used as measures
of effectiveness. Teachers who had received distance education were almost as
effective as those trained in colleges of education and teachers' college, but the costs of
their training were a small fraction of the costs of institutional training. In a country
that has a shortage of teachers, it appears that expansion of qualified teachers could be
done more efficiently using distance education.

Financing Higher Education

The way in which education is financed will affect the scale and type of educational
provisions, the composition of the student body, the style of governance of educational
institutions, the range , level and type of curricula offered and, indeed, the very quality of
teaching and research in higher education. In other words, whatever objectives educational
decision making are pursuing, the way that education is finance will have implications for
their attainment.

There are different methods of financing higher education:

1. Institution-based funding
The controls that are attached to the funds provided to institutions in higher education may
well affect the efficiency with which education is provided. We shall briefly explore two
such controls.
First Implications of allowing virement when awarding grants to institutions,
Second, implications of awarding moneys to institutions in the form of fee rather than
recurrent grants.

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The virement is allowed, institutions are able to switch the use of funds from one activity to
another. So, for example, if a university receives a grant based in part on a given amount of
spending on science education, and then finds for some reason that it does not need the
money in science, or decided that some other activity has a higher propriety, it will be free to
switch its spending to this other activity. For convenience, we shall assume total virement in
this analysis, although in the real world of educational finance it is more likely that virement
will be allowed in certain areas of spending but not in others.

Virement will have implications for both production and exchange efficiency. Production
efficiency is concerned with maximizing output at least cost, we have to ask how virement
might affect its achievement.

Exchange efficiency is concerned with the matching of educational outputs with society’s
demands, however established, we have to ask whether this is likely to occur when
institutions are free to vary their spending and therefore their outputs in accordance with
their own individual interests.

As for as implications of awarding money to institutions in the form of fee income rather
than a recurrent grants, the implications of efficiency are less clear cut. Universities are
forced to recognize that they are in the business of recruiting students. The likely result,
unless there is shortage of university places, is that competition will develop between
universities in which special facilities, new courses, special inducement and so non are
offered to students in the UK as a result of the Conservative Government’s introducing
“full-cost” fees for overseas students in 1980.It is very likely in such a situation that the
amount and quality of research will fall. Whether the amount and quality of teaching will
fall.

2. Loans
In many countries throughout the world, in Scandinavia and North America in particular.
Loans scheme have been introduced to finance students in higher education. In other
countries, such as Pakistan and the UK, there are proposals to introduce loans schemes for
students in higher education. In other countries, such as Pakistan and the UK, there are
proposals to introduce loans schemes for students in higher education. These proposals have
given rise to heated debate in which both the advocates and opponents of the scheme have
employed efficiency and equity arguments to support their case. Economics analysis can
help to clarify the arguments and thus to assist educational planners in reaching a decision
about the merits and demerits of introducing a loans scheme.
If the costs of administering the loans scheme are exorbitant when compared to the benefits,
the introduction of the scheme cannot be justified. On the grounds that it reduces public
spending. If the costs of collection are high (for example, because of default by students) in

14
relation to the returns, one of the basic canons of taxation developed by Adam Smith will be
offended. This canon states that no government should introduce a tax whose collection will
cost more that the revenue it raises. This canon seems equally applicable to loans. If
offended, some other justification for a loans scheme is required. Another effect of loan
scheme is on student’s motivation. If students are informed beforehand that they are going to
have to repay at least part of the costs of going to university, it is argued that they will think
much more carefully about whether it is worth their while to attend university and they will
also take more pains to choose the courses they take up. It is further argued that, once
enrolled, they will work more conscientiously in order to achieve a high grade. In short, a
loans scheme produces educational output of a higher quality. Alternatively, it has been
argued that a loans scheme will reduce the quantity of output: it will discourage certain well-
qualified students from entering higher education. The two most commonly cited of these
groups are women, who would be worried about meeting repayments if they had to leave
paid employment to have children, and the children of lower income families who, having
short time graduation. These are questions of equity rather than efficiency, however because
the discouraged students have voluntarily elected to refuse higher education if available at
the “price” implied by the loan and its repayments.
The introduction of any loans scheme is bound to affect the way that universities are run.
Proponents of a loan scheme maintain that the universities will be forced to respond to consumer
(student) choice and that this will lead to “exchange efficiency” in so far as they will try to
minimize their costs per students. This latter effect will result only if students have o pay part of
the institutional costs of universities. And, although this may be desirable to encourage
production efficiency, it may be inefficient in so far as it will increase the size of loan. Increasing
the amount that has to be repaid may discourage able students from entering universities.

The introduction of a loan scheme will affect the number of students enrolling. The precise
effect will depend on the type of loans scheme introduced. Where previously there was no
way in which students could receive financial support, the introduction of loans will almost
certainly increase enrolments. However, if the loans scheme was replacing a very generous
student grants scheme the reverse effect would result.

Q.5 Explain the higher education system in United States what are the unique
characteristics if this system?
Ans.
Higher Education in USA
The United States is a federal republic made up of 50 states, one district (the capital) and
four territories. The national Department of Education sets guidelines relating to general
education policy, collects data and awards subsidies and scholarships, but exerts limited
influence on the content, learning outcomes or quality of education Dutch comparison of
qualifications (Education system United States 2016).

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Higher education is provided by colleges, universities, or institutes in USA after the high
school education. USA has a unique, decentralized, diverse higher education system in the
world. Some features of the its higher education system are described here
Institutions of Higher Education and Commonly Awarded
Degrees/Certificates
The higher education system in USA is diverse and following institutions are responsible for
higher education:
i. Public four-year colleges/ universities:
Which usually offer either four years of general undergraduate education or a
combination of general and paraprofessional education whereas universities offer both
undergraduate and graduate education as well as professional degrees?
ii. Public two-year colleges, generally called ‘community, junior, or technical colleges iii.
Private non-profit institutions iv. For-profit private sector (OECD, 2012)

There are over 4000 public and private higher education institutions in the United States.
The fact that an institution is public or private is no indication of the quality or level of the
programs offered. The same applies to the terms ‘college’ and ‘university’. The quality of
the education can be good or substandard at either type of institution. Officially, the
difference between universities and colleges is that a university offers both graduate and
undergraduate programs and has more professional schools, whereas colleges concentrate on
undergraduate programs. There are many exceptions, however because states have different
regulations and traditions. For example, many institutions called “universities” do not offer
degrees beyond the master’s degree; some offer no degrees beyond the bachelor’s degree.
Some “colleges” offer doctorates. A few prestigious comprehensive research universities in
the country are known as “institutes” for example, California Institute of Technology and
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Education system United States 2016).

There is no national qualifications framework in the U.S., but the credentials awarded by
postsecondary institutions. There is no distinction between academic educations and higher
professional education in the United States i.e. no binary education system. OECD, (2012)
provides a summary of the features of the most commonly awarded degrees, which can be
obtained in either type of education below:
 Postsecondary certificates: These are 3-months to under 2-years occupational skills
certificates• Associate’s degrees: associate’s degrees are of two types first are
academic associate’s degrees, which are followed by a 4-year bachelor’s degree. The
second is the occupational associate’s degree, which is designed as a terminal degree
to prepare students for work.
 Bachelor’s degrees: These are four-year degrees that can be awarded in academic or
occupationally related fields (e.g., engineering, education, business administration).
Master’s degrees: These are 2-year post-baccalaureate degrees.

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 Doctorate degrees: These are 4-year post-baccalaureate degrees and are typically
intended to prepare students to be researchers and/or postsecondary instructors.
 First professional degrees: These post-baccalaureate degrees are usually of 4-6 years in
duration and prepare students for professional practice (most commonly in law or
medicine.

The Academic Year

The academic year ranges in length from 32 to 36 weeks. It usually begins in late August or
early September and ends in early or late May. Most colleges and universities divide the
September to May academic year into two semesters. Others divide the entire year into four
periods of 12 weeks each, called quarters (one “free” week separates each of the quarters);
the three quarters that fall between September and May are regarded as a normal academic
year, and the fourth quarter is a summer session. A few institutions divide the entire year
into three equal trimesters. At most colleges and universities, a two- to three-week holiday
begins in mid-December and continues into January. Most also have a two- to three-day
holiday in November for Thanksgiving and a one-week spring holiday in March or April.

Colleges and universities on the semester system vary in their scheduling of summer
sessions. Although courses held during a summer session usually have the same number of
class hours as those held during the spring and fall semesters, they are more concentrated.
The number of weeks in a summer session typically varies from three to eight (American
Council on Education, 2001).
Admission Criteria for Students
Criteria of admission for students in higher education institutions varies widely. These
education institutions contain unique admission policies according to their missions. Some
institutions possess, admission criteria comprises of students’ grades, their test scores, letters
of recommendation, language proficiency for foreign students, community and leadership
activities, and an application essay. There are institutions which use admissions procedures
where often applications are received in advance of the enrollment period of about one year.
These institutions evaluate entire applicant group and then decisions regarding admission is
taken. The importance on grades, examinations, and other factors varies in these institutions.
Most of the community colleges and a few colleges and universities provide “open door” or
non-restricted admissions to the students. These institutions usually give admission to
students as soon as their applications are received and keep admissions open just before the
beginning of the classes. They admit all secondary school graduates and give no importance
to previous grades or test results in this regard. “Open door” admissions commonly apply to
those students which are not foreign.Admission to a college or university does not
necessarily guarantee admission to a specialized program or major within the institution. For
example, admission to an accredited nursing program usually is based not only on the
admissions criteria of the institution, but also on satisfactory scores in the pre-nursing
examination designed by the National League for Nursing. In the case of the fine arts (art,
music, and theater), applicants typically are asked to demonstrate their talents through

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presentation of a portfolio of their artistic works (or performance audition in music or
theater). Science and engineering programs often require that the applicant have higher
standardized test scores in mathematics than are required for general admission to the
institution(American Council on Education, 2001).
Administrative Structure in Higher Education Institutions
The organizational structure of a college or university reflects the institution’s size,
philosophy, and objectives and usually is influenced by the relative priorities placed on
teaching, research, and public service.

Many colleges and universities, as well as scholarship sponsors, require applicants to take
entrance examinations. These provide a common measure for comparison and aid in the
evaluation of academic potential.

Most first-year undergraduate applicants are required to take one or more of the tests
sponsored by either the College Entrance Examination Board or the American College
Testing Program.

Most academic graduate departments establish their own entrance requirements, including
admission tests, and must be contacted directly to find out which tests are required. This is
particularly true for graduate students seeking admission to programs in mathematics,
history, engineering, physics, and chemistry, for which some departments within an
institution require one or more of the Graduate Record Examinations, while others do not.
Many US higher education institutions are intensifying their efforts to internationalize their
curriculum, research, and service functions.

The American Association for Higher Education (AAHE) is the individual membership
organization that promotes the changes higher education must make to ensure its
effectiveness in a complex, interconnected world. The association equips individuals and
institutions committed to such changes with the knowledge they need to bring about those
changes .To achieve this, AAHE articulates agendas for change, provides forums and
contributes to knowledge, advocates effective practices, documents and promotes new
concepts of scholarship, and helps institutions develop their capacities.

AACTE is a private, nonprofit, nongovernmental association committed to the improvement

of teacher education. Its members are U.S. higher education institutions engaged in teacher
and administrator preparation, in-service education, and educational research.
States and abroad, are professionals working in admissions, enrolment management,
financial aid, registration, records, scheduling, academic standards, institutional research,

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and student progress. Its corporate members are drawn from education-related businesses
and agencies, as are its associate

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