This subject is designed to enhance the understanding of the

principles and concepts in the study of biology, particularly

heredity and variation, and the diversity of living organisms,
their structure, function, and evolution.

General Biology 2
 Grading System
Components %
Written Work (WW) 25 %

Performance Task (PT) 45 %

Quarterly Assessment (QA) 35 %

TOTAL 100 %
 MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE OF DNA,
RNA, AND PROTEINS
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
 describe the building blocks of DNA, RNA and proteins;
 identify the structural and functional differences between DNA
and RNA;
 discuss the different levels of protein structure (primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary), and
 explain how protein structural features may influence their
functions.
5
DNA
•DNA is often called
the blueprint of life.
•In simple terms,
DNA contains the
instructions for making
proteins within the cell.

6
Watson & Crick’s Model
Why do we study DNA?
We study DNA for many
reasons, e.g.,
• Its central importance
to all life on earth,
• Medical benefits such as
cures for diseases,
• Better food crops.

8
 Chromosomes and DNA

•Our genes are on our

chromosomes.
•Chromosomes are
made up of a
chemical called
DNA.

9
 The Shape of the Molecule

•DNA is a very long

polymer.
•The basic shape is like a
twisted ladder or zipper.
•This is called a double
helix.

10
The Double Helix Molecule
•The DNA double
helix has two
strands twisted
together.

11
One Strand of DNA
•The backbone of phosphate
the molecule is
alternating
phosphates and
deoxyribose sugar deoxyribose
•The teeth are
nitrogenous bases.

bases

12
 O
O -P O
NUCLEOTIDES
O
One deoxyribose together with
O its phosphate and base make a
O -P O nucleotide.
O O
O -P O
O Nitrogenous
O base
Phosphate
C

C C

O Deoxyribose 13
One Strand of DNA
nucleotide
•One strand of DNA is
a polymer of
nucleotides.
•One strand of DNA
has many millions of
nucleotides.

14
Four nitrogenous bases
DNA has four different bases:
•Cytosine C
• Thymine T
• Adenine A
• Guanine G

15
Two Kinds of Bases in DNA
N
•Pyrimidines are N C
single ring bases. O C C
N C

•Purines are double N

ring bases. N C
C C
N
N C
N C

16
Thymine and Cytosine are
pyrimidines

• Thymine and Cytosine each have one ring of

carbon and nitrogen atoms.

O
N
N C N C

O C C
O C C C
N C
N C
thymine cytosine
17
Adenine and Guanine are purines
•Adenine and Guanine each have two rings
of carbon and nitrogen atoms.

N O

N C N C

C C N C C
N N

N C N C
C
Adenine
N C Guanine
N
18
 Purines Pyrimidines
NH2 O O
Thymine Uracil
Adenine CH3 (DNA) (RNA)
N N NH NH
N N N O N O
O
NH2
Guanine
N Cytosine
NH
N
N N NH2 N O
Base Pairing
Guanine And Cytosine

-
+

+ -

+ -
Base Pairing
Adenine And Thymine

+ -
Adenine Thymine

-
+
Base Pairing
Adenine And Cytosine

-
Base Pairing
Guanine And Thymine

+
Two Stranded DNA
•Remember, DNA
has two strands
that fit together
something like a
zipper.
•The teeth are the
nitrogenous bases
but why do they
stick together?

24
 Hydrogen Bonds
• The bases attract each other

N
because of hydrogen bonds.

C
• Hydrogen bonds are weak but

N
there are millions and millions
of them in a single molecule of

C
dna.

C
C
O

N
• The bonds between cytosine
and guanine are shown here

C
with dotted lines N
C N

C C O
25
C N
 Hydrogen Bonds, cont.
O
• When making N C
hydrogen bonds,
cytosine always O C C C
pairs up with
guanine
N C
• Adenine always
pairs up with
thymine
• Adenine is bonded
to thymine here

26
 5’Phosphate group
OH
3’Hydroxyl group
NH2 H OH
HO P O
N
O N
N N
CH2 O

D
O CH2
O

H O P HO
O
O H OH
H2O

N
HO P O
N
O NH
N N NH2
CH2 O
O CH2
O

A HO
O

O
O
H
NH2

N
H
O
P
O
H
HO

H2O

N O
5’Phosphate
O
CH2
O CH2

group
O

3’Hydroxyl group
O HO
OH H P
HO
 -
The Watson - Crick - A T
-
Model Of DNA - C G -
- G C -
- T A - 3.4 nm
Minor -
- 1 nm
groove - -
G C
- T A -
- C G -
-
A T -
Major -
-
groove
A T
- -
- C G -
- G C -
- T A -
0.34 nm
-
CHARGAFF’S RULE:
• Adenine and Thymine always
join together
A T
• Cytosine and Guanine always
join together
C G

29
 DNA by the Numbers
• Each cell has about 2 m of
DNA.
• The average human has 75
trillion cells.
• The average human has
enough DNA to go from the
earth to the sun more than
400 times. The earth is 150 billion m
• DNA has a diameter of only or 93 million miles from
0.000000002 m. the sun.

31
Types of Nucleic Acids

What are the two types of

nucleic acids?
• Ribonucleic acid
(RNA) – single stranded
• Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
-Double helix
• (Twisted ladder)
DNA
• Deoxyribose sugar
• Base pairs
A-T G-C

• Phosphate
• Most importantly---
• Contains the code for ALL the proteins in the body
 RNA
• Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
• Sugar + phosphate backbone
• Differs from DNA
• Single stranded
• Ribose sugar
• Base pairs A-U, G-C
• Are there T’s in RNA?
• A, U no T’s in rna
• RNA assists DNA in manufacturing
needed proteins
There are 4 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene.

The genomic DNA contains all the information for the structure and
function of an organism. In any cell, only some of the genes are
expressed, that is, transcribed into RNA.

1. mRNA - Messenger RNA: Encodes amino acid

sequence of a polypeptide.
2. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to
ribosomes during translation.
3. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins,
makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that
translate the mRNA.
4. snRNA - Small nuclear RNA: With proteins, forms
complexes that are used in RNA processing in
eukaryotes. (Not found in prokaryotes.)
Questions:
• Name one difference between DNA and RNA.
• DNA – double helix, rna – single stranded

• DNA --- A-T, RNA ---A-U

• DNA ---deoxyribose sugar, RNA---ribose

• What is the similarity of DNA and RNA?

• G binds with C in both DNA and RNA

• Both have sugar and phosphate backbone

 DNA
• What is the main job of DNA?
• It contains the code for the proteins an organism may
produce.
• What are the basic units or monomers of DNA?
• Nucleotides make up DNA.
• Where is DNA found?
• It is found mostly in the nucleus of a cell making up its
chromosomes.
RNA
• What is the main job of RNA?
• It retrieves the protein code from DNA and carry
out the processes needed to produce proteins.
• What are the basic units or monomers of RNA?
• Nucleotides
• Where is RNA found?
• It is found both inside and outside of the nucleus.
Proteins
Proteins are the most versatile
macromolecules in living systems and
serve crucial functions in essentially all
biological processes. They function as
catalysts, they transport and store other
molecules such as oxygen, they provide
mechanical support and immune
protection, they generate movement, they
transmit nerve impulses, and they control
growth and differentiation.
 Abbreviations for Amino acids

Amino acid Three-letter abbreviation One-letter abbreviation

Alanine Ala A
Arginine Arg R
Asparagine Asn N
Aspartic Acid Asp D
Cysteine Cys C
Glutamine Gln Q
Glutamic Acid Glu E
Glycine Gly G
Histidine His H
Isoleucine Ile I
Leucine Leu L
Lysine Lys K
Methionine Met M
Phenylalanine Phe F
Proline Pro P
Serine Ser S
Threonine Thr T
Tryptophan Trp W
Tyrosine Tyr Y
Valine Val V
Asparagine or aspartic acid Asx B
Glutamine or glutamic acid Glx Z
Proteins: Key properties
1.Proteins are linear polymers made of Amino
Acids
2.Proteins contain many functional groups
(i.e.. side chain of AA)
3.Proteins interact with proteins and with
other biological molecules to form
complexes
4.Proteins can bind with and/or modify other
molecules
5.Proteins can be rigid or can have regions
with high flexibility
Other properties of proteins
• Colloids
– Pass through filter paper, not membranes
– Protein shouldn’t be found in urine unless
cellular damage
• Indicator of kidney damage

•Proteins are Polypeptides

•Proteins- Amino Acids are linked by peptide
bonds
Protein Functions
Protein structure
It is convenient to describe protein structure in
terms of 4 different aspects of covalent structure
and folding patterns. The different levels of protein
structure are known as primary, secondary, tertiary,
and quaternary structure.
Primary Structure of Proteins

The primary structure is the sequence

of amino acids that make up a
polypeptide chain. 20 different amino
acids are found in proteins. The exact
order of the amino acids in a specific
protein is the primary sequence for
that protein.
Secondary Structure of Proteins

Protein secondary structure refers to regular, repeated patterns of folding of

the protein backbone. The two most common folding patterns are the alpha
helix and the beta sheet.

Alpha Helix Beta sheet

In an alpha helix, the polypeptide In the beta sheet secondary
backbone coils around an imaginary structure, the polypeptide backbone
helix axis in clockwise direction.
is nearly fully extended. The R-
In this illustration, only the N-C-CO
backbone atoms are shown. Note the
groups (not shown) are alternately
coiling of the backbone around an pointed above and then below the
imaginary axis down the center of the extended backbone.
helix.
Tertiary Structure of Proteins

Tertiary structure refers to the overall

folding of the entire polypeptide
chain into a specific 3D shape. The
tertiary structure of enzymes is often
a compact, globular shape.
Quaternary Structure of Proteins

Many proteins are formed from more than one

polypeptide chain. The quaternary structure describes the
way in which the different subunits are packed together to
form the overall structure of the protein. For example, the
human hemoglobin molecule shown below is made of four
subunits.