ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA

Islam first came to India in 8th century when Arab traders conquered Sindh. However
main impact of it was felt almost 3 centuries later during reign of Moghul period. The
Muslim architecture in India is divided into 2 periods. The earlier period was not so
productive as it was attributed to minor dynasties while the second period was more
productive, original & important i.e. Moghul architecture once their capital was set at
Delhi.

Islamic architecture in India is influenced by Hindu architecture. Qutub minar on the

outskirts of Delhi is the earliest surviving Islamic monument which was constructed to
commemorate the decisive victory of Islam over the Hindus. In other words it is a tower
of victory & inscriptions on it proclaim its purpose to cast a long shadow of Allah over
the conquered city of Hindus. (Delhi was then ruled by Prithviraj Chauhan)

Characteristic of Islamic architecture in India

1. Buildings are monumental in spite look delicate.

2. It is the synthesis of Hindu & Islamic elements as most of the monuments were
constructed by Muslim kings using local Hindu craftsmen. The style is called as
Composite style.
3. Buildings were structurally sound with boldness of proportion & scale like gigantic
edifices .
4. Most buildings have strong central axis & perfect symmetry.
5. The buildings followed very formal design which consists of limited repertoire of
elements such as a. Arcade- series of pointed arches forming a screen. b.
Domed spaces creating very high volume giving feeling of massiveness &
forming complex design. C. Courts generally rectangular surrounded by arcaded
pavilions. d. Gateways were very large portals or entrances.
6. Most buildings frequently extend into formal landscaped garden which forms
integral part of the design & consists of well maintained lawn, water channels,
sprinkling water fountains, shapely trees, patterned tile flooring & pathways.
7. Marble clad walls of the monuments have inlay work of the semiprecious stones.
8. Extensive use of calligraphy on walls as element of decoration is very common in
most of the religious buildings.
9. Exquisite jail work creating play of light & shadow is another feature.
10. Important & common buildings were mosques, tombs & forts & most common
materials are red sandstone & marble.
Mohammedan architecture in India has 2 main conventional divisions of a) Religious &
b) Secular.

Those of religious nature consist of 2 types only – the Mosque & the Tomb. On the
other hand the secular type consist of houses, pavilions, town gates, wells, gardens,
large imperial schemes of palace-forts & even entire cities.

Taking the religious structures first

MOSQUES (Masjid)

It was derived originally from the humble dwelling of the founder of the creed at Medina
in Arabia.

It is basically an open courtyard surrounded by a pillared verandah. The original

intention was to provide no specific structure for devotional purposes, as prayer could
be performed in the open air with nothing between the devotee & his God.

But the natural craving of the mankind for an enclosed building so that one can pray in
an appropriate environment, away from the distraction of everyday life gave the form to
the mosque.

It became the most important structure so that to consolidate their religious & physical
conquest.

It is basically an inward looking building & its main purpose is contemplation & mass
prayer. There is no object of adoration or attention. It usually has courtyard with tank or
fountain for ablutions. This courtyard is surrounded on 3 sides by colonnaded galleries
which has arcades as their front façade.

The courtyard is called as Sahn & the sides enclosed by pillared cloisters are called as
Liwans. These arcades consist of several domes. To meet the demand of some focal
point, the cloisters on the Mecca side (in India it is west) of the courtyard were
expanded & elaborated into pillared hall or sanctuary with a wall at the back containing
a recess or a alcove called as mihrab indicating the quibla or the direction for prayer.

Generally minarets stand in outer courtyard. These are tapering towers carrying
elaborate detailing, calligraphic friezes, powerful ribs & balconies. Generally minarets
are circular in plan. It is from this high tower that muezzin calls the faithful for the prayer.

To create adequate importance to the sanctuary, a screen was thrown across its front,
to form a façade & above it was placed dome.
Every city has Jama masjid a principal mosque in which the faithful assemble for the
Friday prayer. Earliest examples of Islamic mosques in India are Qutb at Delhi & Arhai
din ka jhompra in Ajmer.

TOMBS

Tombs introduced in India entirely new kind of structure. They are the imposing
compositions of vaulted halls & towering domes, & enclosed within a spacious gardens,
all on a grand scale, constructed over a mortuary chamber.

They usually took the form of octagonal tower carrying a pointed central dome
surrounded by small pavilions originating from little Persian turrets eventually developed
into distinctively Indian chattris. Generally tombs stood on very high podium.

The tomb generally consists of a single compartment or tomb chamber with a cenotaph
below. In large tombs mosque was a separate structure.

Most famous tomb is Taj Mahal at Agra- culminating work in life of Shah Jehan erected
to the memory of his favourite wife Mumtaj.

FORTS

Agra fort & Red fort Delhi are some of the examples robust, dynamic, imaginative
architecture of forts built by Islamic rulers. They were constructed of sandstone & had
imposing scale & priceless architectural craftsmanship of Mughal era. They were city by
themselves within massive fortified surrounding walls. Forts had impressive entrance
portal, inside used to be diwan-i- am & diwan-i-khas, imperial quarters, geometric
pavilions, mosques, gardens, throne rooms, special ladies quarters etc. Some Hindu
elements of jharokas, chajjas & chattris were seen along with Islamic elements in most
of the structures as Indian craftsmen were at work.

Islamic architecture in India is resolved into 3 main divisions.

I) Delhi or imperial
II) Provincial
III) Mughul

Moslems firmly established their capital of the sultanate at Delhi in the final years of 13 th
century that Islamic architecture in India had its real beginning. Under the vigorous rule
of the founder of the Slav dynasty Qutb-ud-din Aibak, important building schemes were
initiated. The ruler’s first effort was the creation of the Qutb Mosque in 1195, erected on
the spacious substructure of a Hindu temple & consisting totally of spoils ravaged from
existing temples of the area. Pillars & other temple components were arranged in
columned aisles to create necessary mosque enclosure. But a new expansive arched
screen was added across the western side of the enclosure. Almost contemporary with
this building rose the most stupendous architectural achievement, the Qutb Minar, a
monumental tower as a part of the mosque scheme. This was followed by the
construction of the Mosque at Ajmir known as the Arhaidin ki jhompra, the general plan
of which was carried out from the temple spoils but its arched façade was original.

These 3 buildings form a group executed between1195 to 1205 thus laid the foundation
of the Islamic building art in India.

DELHI OR IMPERIAL STYLE

The earliest appearance of the Islamic architecture in India referred as the imperial style
is divided into 5 phases corresponding to the 5 dynasties who prevailed from 12 th to 16th
centuries. They are 1. Slav 2. Khalji 3. Tughluq 4. Sayyid 5. Lodhi. The rulers of theses
dynasties were very passionate builders.

The first dynasty, known as Slave kings of Delhi (1200 to 1246 A.D.) were really slaves
of Mohammed Ghuri, who was the Persian prince. Ghuri had appointed Qutb-ud-din
Aibak as governer of his possessions in India.On the death of Ghuri, he established the
slave dynasty. Qutb-ud-din & Iltutmish were the most active patrons of the building art.

Qutb-ud-din consolidated his power & made Delhi his Moslem capital. He dismantled
the large temple of the Hindu citadel & built his first mosque. The plinth of the temple
was retained & was made double its original size to accommodate the mosque to cover
a rectangle of size 212’X150’, the whole being enclosed by a wall & with cloisters
around its 4 sides. Materials of 27 Hindu & Jain temples in the vicinity were utilized.
Thus the arcaded walls were supported on the Hindu craftsmenship pillars. On the west
side arrangement of the pillars was made more elaborate into series of bays with
shallow domed ceilings to form the sanctuary. In front of the sanctuary was placed
famous iron pillar from Mathura which was 600year old. Muqsura or the screen
separated sanctuary from the courtyard which was added later, through the openings of
which congregation could view leading priest conducting prayer.

This mosque was called as Qutb mosque or Quwwat-Islam i.e. Might of Islam.

Then in the same complex he started to build lofty tower Qutb Minar, 238’ in height to
proclaim to the whole world the prestige & authority of the Islam. The inscriptions which
are carved on it loudly proclaims the same. This tower of victory was also used to call
faithful for the prayer. In the beginning Minars were separately planned but later Islamic
architecture show them integrated with the design of the mosque.
Qutb Minar consists of 4 stories diminishing as they ascend with a projecting balcony
dividing each stage. Domical roof over fourth storey crowns the entire structure. In plan
the tower is circular, 46’dia. at the base & width of 10’ at the summit. The lowest storey
has stellate pattern , wedge shaped flanges alternating with rounded flutes, the second
has circular projections, the third is star shaped, while the fourth is simply round. One
can enter into it from north side door within which a spiral stairways leads to each
balcony landing.

The most artistic feature are the balconies which look like stepped battlements of the
Assyrian palaces with a stalactite bracketing underneath.

It is in textured red sandstone with the inscriptional bands, rich carving, tapering,
cylindrical appearance is full of vitality & makes it timeless piece of architecture.

One more structure in Ajmir by the name of Arahi din ka jhompra is equally composed
of the spoils of the Hindu temple with later addition of the screen to the sanctuary. It is
even larger than the Delhi mosque.

Last building by this dynasty is the tomb of their king Iltutmish.

The buildings of the Khalji dynasty (1290 TO 1320 A.D.) – the Delhi or Imperial style
continues

After the death of Iltutmish of the Slave dynasty, no buildings of consequence were
undertaken until the rise of Khaljis in the last years of 13 th century.

Ala-ud-din Khalji ascended the throne of Delhi in 1296, a decisive advance in the field of
architecture took place.

The most important building projects consisted of a scheme to construct an immense

congregational mosque at the Qutb, which was to include within its perimeter the 2
mosques already constructed by his predecessors with a large enclosure extending
towards its northern end. Within this spacious northern area he proposed to raise a
colossal minar, its proportion was double of Qutb minar constructed by slave dynasty.
This minar rose only one storey as Ala-ud-din khalji died. This minar was called as Alai
minar.

The only completed part is the southern entrance hall to the courtyard, a self contained
building known as Alai Darwaza, or Gateway of Ala-ud-din. It occupies a key position in
thr evolution of Islamic architecture in India, at the same time western Asian culture can
be detected in this building. It is one of the 4 entrances leading to Qutb mosque &is
completed in all its parts.
Alai Darwaza has strong & rational construction. Inner portion is domed having a
central rectangular bay. The total height till the top of the dome is 60’. The wall
separating interior from exterior has stone perforated window. The outer face contains a
tall archway over a flight of steps leading to the higher floor of interior. Below is the
plinth, its vertical sides elegantly carved in varied bands, while the surface of the wall
above is divided into 2 stories. It is executed in combination of red sandstone & white
marble, with arabesque & decorative inscriptions.

The most outstanding feature is the shape of the arches particularly of the central
opening. The arch is the pointed horse shoe or keel type. It is rare type & not seen in
buildings after Khaljis. The system of its construction is that of radiating voussoirs, a
true arch of dressed stone. Around its outlines is the band of inscriptions carved in white
marble, while on intrados is the fringe of spear heads.

Surface of this gateway are intricately carved with low relief & some parts deeply
incised.

TUGHLAQ DYNASTY (1320 TO 1413 A.D.) – Delhi or Imperial style

Of the eleven rulers forming the dynasty of Tughlaqs, which was in power at Delhi
nearly 100 years, only 3 were interested in art of buildings namely founder of the
dynasty Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq, Mohammed Tughlaq & most prolific was firoz Shah
Tughlaq.

Ghiyas-ud-din Tughlaq concentrated on building 3rd city of Delhi known as

Tughlaqabad which is totally in ruins today. Only broken masses of masonry remain
now. However it is one of those first great complexes combining a city, fort & palace
which grew out of the residential & military requirements of the times.

His tomb is in perfect condition is in the form of self contained fortress. The exterior
plan is irregular pentagon with spreading bastion at each angle. Tomb is correctly
oriented with the direction of Mecca & is in red sandstone, only dome in white marble.
Most striking feature is the slope of the outer walls at an angle of 75degrees.

The interior of the tomb is single chamber 30’ square , light being admitted by 3 arched
openings. Above the domed ceiling is supported on 4 squinch arches like that of the Alai
Darwaza.Dome is tartar or pointed shape which later became characteristic of the Indo
Islamic architecture.

Mohammed Tughlaq built the 4th city of Delhi. Secular architecture of the private
residence of the nobleman Bara Kumba or 12 pillars is the evidence of architecture of
this era. It has enclosed courtyard with the well & bathing facility, quarters for servants,
stables, staircase leading to flat terrace is in state of ruins.

Firoz Shah Tughlaq built 4 fortress cities, including 5 th city of Delhi known as Firuzabad,
tombs & mosques. Amongst the fortified cities that he built are Jaunpur, Fthabad &
Hissar.

Firuzabad has great citadel (palace fortress), a vast walled enclosure containing all the
amenities, Royal residence,& has asymmetrical plan. It was abandoned after 150years.
Now it is in ruins.

II. Provincial style of Islamic Architecture

Jaunpur Style

Jaunpur was the large dependency of the Delhi Empire till the time Timur captured
Delhi, then it became independent under the rule of Shams-ud-din Ibrahim & then
architecture & arts were encouraged. Also it became the leading city of learning in India.

Jaunpur boasted of many fine buildings like palaces, mosques, tombs. Jaunpur is
located on the banks of Gumati river near Benares & was eastern capital of the
Tughlaques before it became independent.

Atala Mosque

Prominent structures are Atala mosque which is built in 1408 by Ibrahim on the
foundations prepared by Firoz shah Tughlaq some 30 years before & Jami Masjid which
was the most ambitious & the largest of the Jaunpur mosques was constructed in 1470.

Atala mosque takes its name from the temple of Atala devi which was the original site
on which the mosque was made. The material of this temple along with the materials of
the temples in the vicinity, were utilized in the construction of the mosque.

The general arrangement is the conventional with square courtyard, on 3 sides of which
are cloisters, & on the 4 th side is the sanctuary. Cloisters are spacious with 2 storey high
having 5 aisles, the lower storey is used as accommodation for the visitors to the
mosque. The entire mosque is 258’ square. In the middle of 3 sides, interrupting the line
of cloisters are handsome gateways surmounted by domes.

The largest & the striking part of the scheme is the sanctuary occupying the whole width
on the western side where remarkably original artistic skills have been used. In the
centre of the entrance wall to the sanctuary lies a lofty pylon like feature with sloping
sides of height 75’.
Within the pylon is the great arched recess eleven feet deep & containing the entrance
to the nave & also the arcaded window openings by which it is illuminated. This arched
pylon becomes the main theme which is repeated on smaller scale by similar pylons
placed on either side of it & by the 3 gateways in the cloisters.

Interior of the central nave has pillared transepts on either side making a rectangular
hall with a single hemispherical dome on it. Western façade has 3 mihrabs. The rear
wall of the sanctuary is the retaining wall with 3 boldly projecting surfaces emphasized
by tapering turrets.

The masjid is directly derived from the architecture of the Tughlaqus.

Other mosques of importance are Khalis Mukhlis masjid & Jahangiri masjid.

Jami Masjid

Largest is the Jami masjid. Many features are taken from Atala masjid but this masjid
is made more impressive by raising it on terrace 20’ high than surrounding & hence the
entrance is approached by steep flight of steps. Square courtyard is 21’ & cloisters are 2
storey high & 2 aisles wide in contrast with 5 aisle cloisters of Atala masjid. 3 Entrance
halls in middle of each side have handsome dome which is prelude to the great central
pylon which soars high above everything at the western end. On each side of this pylon
are the arcaded wings of the side aisles.

Interior consist of square hall of the nave with clear storey arcade in order to light the
inside of the dome. Western wall of the sanctuary has 3 mihrabs. Transept halls are
clear open space without pillars which is very rare in Indo Islamic architecture.

Bridge over Gumati river (1564)

Characteristic of Indo Islamic architecture of Jaunpur

With the Jami masjid, the building art of Jaunpur came to an end. The arches used in
the Jaunpur style were four centred depressed arch of Tudor variety. The mosques
are bold & with coarseness of detailing. The pillars of mosques have square
monolithic shafts with the moulded band across the middle & similar moulding above
forms the capital from which spring the cluster of brackets. Traceried windows with
geometrical pattern have been very intricately carved though not finely chiseled.
Arched pylon in the centre of the façade of the mosque is the keynote of the style &
occurs nowhere else in Indo Islamic architecture except Jaunpur. They were derived
from the fortified gateways as Mohammedanism was the militant movement & followers
had to take shelter behind fortified walls for defense which finally passed in their
religious architecture as well.
The provincial style Malwa: city of Mandu

The provincial style of Indo- Islamic architecture in Malwa, region towards the west
centre of the country, is the storey of 2 cities of Dhar & Mandu. Dhar was the former
capital of this part under the Hindu dynasty of Paramaras. When Moslem rulers Ghuri
captured this city they took inspiration from Delhi architecture & thus one sees
battering walls, pointed arch with spear head fringe, arch-lintel bracket
combination, dome & decorative motifs taken from Delhi Sultanate.

Some original themes were also married to these above mentioned Delhi features such
as combining structural systems of arch with the pillar & beam, forming it out of the
temple materials. Another notable characteristic of the Malwa buildings is the
appearance of long & stately flights of steps leading to their entrances made
necessary by the high plinths on which their structures were raised. These lofty
terraces give dignity to compositions. The most striking composition of the Mandu
architecture is the use of colour in the architecture which made the ornamentation
polychromatic. This colour combination was achieved by different coloured stones,
marble & tiles. Structure is made up of red sandstone, while marble was used as an
overlay, black, yellow slate are also introduced. In interiors semi precious stones like
jasper, agate & cornelian are combined with marble & the great vivid effect is obtained
by the glaze. Mandu had the flourishing industry in glazed earthen ware in 15th
century. Borders & panels mainly have strong patterns of blue & yellow distributed
throughout the buildings.

Buildings at Dhar & Mandu illustrate the various phases of architecture of which first
phase was when the temples were dismantled & converted into mosques, the
second phase was classical when the Moslem rule was firmly established, while the
third phase structures are less austere & became fanciful with pavilions, kiosks,
pillared courts, balconied turrets & colonnaded terraces providing appropriate
setting which brought the Khalji dynasty of Malwa to a close.

The beginning of the second phase coincides with the establishment of the capital at
Mandu. In addition to the battlemnted walls, fortified entrances to the city were
constructed such as Delhi or northern gateway & Tarapur gateway both in 15th
century. Both are grand portals consisting of sequence of arch ways with spear head
fringe. Then started the fortress city of Mandu on rocky lands, with arcaded pavilions,
pillared kiosks, turrets & cupolas, marking the royal halls & palaces. While on spacious
levels, they constructed mosques, colleges, towers & mausoleums.

Now the buildings are in ruins & palaces are crumbling but some of its beauty still
remains. 40Separate structures of consequence now remains in which no consequence
of town planning is observed. There is Jami masjid, Ashrafi mahal, lofty tower of
victory having 7 stories of which only the base remains & Delhi gate remains. The most
impressive is the Jami masjid with a projecting domed entrance hall on its eastern
façade with a wide flight of steps. There are 2 more entrance on the northern side for
priests & private entrance for Zanana. Since the building is raised on high plinth, front
side of basement contains series of arcaded chambers for public use as a serai.

The entrance hall of the mosque shows exquisite coloured borders & panels in glazed
tiles. The square courtyard on all 4 sides is surrounded by arched arcades, the 11
openings in each side forming the façade to the pillared hall within. North & south
pillared halls are 3 aisles deep while the east is in 2 aisles. The western one is the
sanctuary which is 5 aisles deep with 3 large domes, in addition the roof is covered in
symmetrical pattern of cylindrical cupolas, one placed over each bay thus making it 158
in all.

Facing the Jami masjid, & approached by the noble flight of steps is the large structural
complex known as Ashrafi mahal, palace of the gold mohur. It is in ruins. The walls
were made up of roughly prepared rubble. This structure was built by Khalji dynasty
while previous was by Ghuris.

Ashrafi mahal consisted of 3 structures, the first was college or madrassa which is one
storey high having range of halls & compartments around large, rectangular courtyard,
with circular tower at each corner. College rooms have corridors of double arches &
ceilings with pyramidal vaults of interesting design.

This extensive college structure is converted into a terrace on which imperial

mausoleum is raised which constitute a second structure of this premise. The college
courtyard is filled & provided an immense 27’high plinth, in the centre of which a royal
mortuary chamber was made. The entrance to which was provided by grand flight of
steps from front of the madrassa, at top of which a pillared portico was placed with
loggias on each side presenting a very impressive approach. Few portions are intact
which shows hall with a dome of impressive proportion. Each wall was faced with white
marble & doors, windows & cornices were elegantly carved. This mausoleum of Khaljis
was inlaid in parts with choice of stones & friezes had yellow, blue glaze.

The third & the last structure was the tower of victory occupying the north east
angle of the college built by Khalji to commemorate his victory over Rana of Chitor.
Khalji was impressed by the Jaya stambha at chitor which was built by Rana to
commemorate his victory over Mahmud. It is built up of red sandstone in seven stages,
the whole structure rose to the height of 150’ with balconies projecting over marble
string course demarcating each storey. Four openings with eaves, supported by carved
pillars, gave access to each of these balconies while patterns of inlaid marble in a
variety of colours, were carried at intervals around its curved surface. Owing to its
inferior construction the plinth only remains.

2 Other buildings of this classical phase are Hindola mahal & Jahaz mahal both
situated away from the above mentioned buildings are located in the residential
quarter of the plateau. Both are very different architecturally.

Hindola mahal has sloping walls which are very thick & it has a character of fort in
miniature. So pronounced is the battering of its buttresses as they are inclined at an
angle of over seventy seven degrees, it is commonely believed to create illusion that
entire structure is swaying & hence the name Hindola which means swinging palace.
In plan, the building is in form of letter T, the upright stem representing the main hall
while the cross bar indicates transverse portion which was built later. Interior of the
hall is the large compartment having an uninterrupted space with a series of 5 pointed
arches projected across its width acting as ribs to support the flat roof. The transverse
portion is of the same size as main hall but differs from the structure in elevation as it is
in 2 stories. The entire structure of the Hindola mahal was intended as combination of
Audience hall & Royal apartments. The architectural conception is more curious than
beautiful.

The Jahaz Mahall, the final building representing the classical phase of the building art
at Mandu was built by Mahmud in last half of the 15 th century when the style was
beginning to progress towards lightly elegant & fanciful mode which characterized its
third & last appearance.

This palace is long, double storied building extending for 360’ along the water front of
the 2 small lakes while its width being less than 50’, it looks like ship palace. There are
no great walls & excessive solidity, instead it is lively with surfaces in brightly coloured
glazes. The body of the building has continuous arcaded front, shaded by the broad
eave above which is the triforium of recessed arches with a wide parapet displaying
repeating pattern of tiles. On the roof are various open pavilions, airy kiosks &
overhanging balconies all of imaginative nature, the whole of which is reflected in the
still waters of lake.

The interior consists of pillared compartments, cool corridors & bathing halls made for
the enjoyments of the royal ladies. The roofs are cupolas with alternating pyramidal
roofs while projecting eaves & cornices produce passages of light & shade.

The third phase of Malwa style was logical outcome of development of the above
mentioned example of Jahaj Mahal. The third phase prevailed at the end of 15 th century
& first half of 16th century.
Actively encouraged by the ruler, music, poetry & similar forms of expression flourished,
& keeping in character of these arts, beautiful retreats were constructed. The buildings
produced for this purpose took the form of summer houses, palaces & pavilions, the
ground floor of which consisted of series of compartments grouped around a central
courtyard graced with pools & fountains, while above were arcaded loggias roofed with
fluted domes, the surfaces everywhere gorgeous with painted tiles.

Such were the edifices now known as Baz Bahadur’s palace, Rupmati’s pavilion, Nil
Kanth Palace & Chisti Khan’s palace.

Nearby town of Chanderi in Gwalior State shows influence of Mandu style as well as
Ahmedabad style. There are 5 buildings in Chanderi which are a palace, a mosque, 2
tombs & a gateway which shows amalgamation of various schools of design prevailing
at that time & gave a name of Gwalior style which is mix & match of Delhi, Malwa,
Rajputana & Gujarat .

Provincial Islamic style at Deccan

Gulbarga (1347-1422): Bidar (1422-1512): Golconda (1512-1687)

In Deccan, the style of Islamic architecture has definite regional character. It represents
evolving of style from the times when the territory was occupied by Delhi Sultans from
13th century till the Mughal Empire of 17th century.

The rulers of Deccan have ignored the presence of the existing art of the country they
occupied & proceeded to produce an original & independent style of their own. In spite
of the Dravidian & Chalukyan temples of these parts being elegant, Islamic rulers of
Deccan took practically nothing from these fine buildings & made no use of inherent
architectural tradition.

The type of buildings which evolved, eventually show amalgamation of Islamic

architecture followed by Delhi Sultans & architecture of Persia. The Delhi
attribution was brought directly when Sultan Mohammed Tughlaq shifted his capital to
Daulatabad. It was the architectural tradition the exiled Delhi workmen & successors
brought with them to Deccan laid the foundations of the Deccani style.

The second Influence was Persian as the artisans, engineers, & other skilled workmen
arrived in Arab ships from the Persian Gulf to the ports of western India which gave
ready access to the Bahamani kingdoms, so a very strong overseas element mainly
Persian is seen in Deccan. The first independent ruler of Deccan was a Persian
adventurer from the court of Delhi, Ala-ud-din Hasan Bahman Shah, who proceeded
to establish the Bahamani dynasty at Gulbarga in 1347.
Hence instead of strong Indo Islamic element, several important buildings are purely
Iranian in their design & construction. There are totally 30 tombs of various Bahamani
rulers who start with plain, crude imitation of Tughlaq’s buildings in Delhi & sloping
walls & slowly proceed with Persian elements combining with Delhi element specially in
shape of dome which is constricted at the base on octagonal dome till the final
phase in 17th century where the bulbous or tartar dome is fully developed, & the
whole composition indicates the complete amalgamation of the various architectural
forms derived from these 2 independent & widely separated sources.

In Deccan, 3 times the seat of the government changed & accordingly we see 3 periods
of Deccan art. In 1347, the city of Gulbarga was ruled by Bahaman dynasty who laid
the foundation of the 1st phase of the architecture. The second phase was Barid
Shahi kings & finally the Kutub Shahi kings who ruled from the city of Golkonda, until
in 1687 it was conquered by the Mughuls which constitute the 3rd phase.

Representing the preliminary stage the 2 examples are Jami masjid at Daulatabad &
Dayal mosque at Nizamabad near Hyderabad. The former is the large structure 260’
square, planned in orthodox manner, with the pillared sanctuary on the western side of
its enclosure, the entrances in the middle of its east, north, & south sides. The
sanctuary is 5 aisles deep & contains 106 pillars & all the material for construction is
taken from buildings in vicinity.

The Masjid at Nizamabad is the star shaped Jain temple in Chalukyan style of 10th
century transformed by few structural additions to do the service of the mosque & hence
lacks total originality.

The architecture which followed was fortifications of Gulbarga & Daulatabad with
concentric walls, tunneled passages for the forts with great entrance portals like
nine coloured door to the fort of Raichur or Mahakali Gateway of Narnala with imposing
fluted bastion & water pavilion for stern military purposes but still architecturally
beautiful.

Little now remains of the fort of Gulbarga beyond its outer shell, but there is enough to
see its military architecture. It is strong, double walled which are 50’thick &
surrounded by living rock. Hence there is no symmetry as it follows irregular outline of
the rocky terrain. Semi circular bastions are projected at regular intervals in the wall with
revolving platforms for heavy ordnance. Battlements are of gigantic size & cyclopean
construction crown these defences. There are 2 entrances to this fort. The main is on
north east angle with a draw bridge & heavily spiked postern, leading into a wide but
winding passage further into several strong gates, each protected by high watch
towers until it reaches the fort enclosure.
Within the space surrounded by immense ramparts, the pavilions, palaces & kingly halls
are all in ruins now. The only building preserved is the sacred structure of Jami masjid.
The very rare feature is that there is no open courtyard as the whole structure is
entirely covered by a roof. The architect for this mosque was Persian. The mosque in
plan is 216’X176’, around 3 sides of this rectangle are wide cloisters, while at the
western end is the spacious nave of the sanctuary under a high dome. Extensive central
area is completely filled in by rows of aisles forming 68bays each roofed over by a
cupola, thus converting the whole into wide pillared hall. Externally the main dome is
presented with additional height by mounting on a lofty square clear storey, its
spherical volume being repeated to a lesser scale in the lower cupolas over each angle.
Internally the dome is supported on squinches.

The exterior appearance of this mosque at Gulbarga is grave & restrained massiveness
with its plain surfaces & the archways in the enclosing walls. In the middle of the
northern side is the main entrance, a lofty archway breaking austere symmetry.

More than the artistic beauty the mosque represents typical Deccani architecture of
clear storey supporting the dome & wide span & low columns of the cloisters
which are the keynote.

The remaining monuments of Gulbarga belonging to Bahmani period are 7 nos of royal
tombs over a period of half a century which have battering walls, sunken archways,,
heavy battlemented parapet, fluted corner finials & low dome.

The second period of Deccani style of architecture was initiated by Ahmad Shah, the
9th ruler of Bahamani dynasty when he transferred the capital from Gulbarga to Bidar.
The chief architectural productions at Bidar consist of fortress & its palaces, 2
mosques within the fort, a madrassa or college, & the royal tombs.

The fortress at Bidar is larger in area then the one at Gulbarga, but on similar principles.
Palaces inside are still recognizable unlike Gulbarga. There is rangeen mahal inside
which large magnificent structure with coloured decoration, then Zanana mahal, Takht
mahal or throne room, Durbar hall, hall of audience Diwani-am & besides numorous
other palatial buildings each having its particular object & planned & decorated
accordingly. For running water, there were water palaces, tanks & fountains besides
ornamental gardens & hammams, the last being the bathing establishments of the
large & luxurious kind.

The style is Persian adapted to Indian taste where colour was liberally applied over
surfaces in form of mural paintings & coloured tiles in form of arabesque pattern.

The secular structure of palaces is very different from the religious structures of the 2
mosques. Mosques are plain & austere compared to vivacious palaces. The 2 mosques
are Jami masjid & Sola Kumbha (16 pillars). Both are in style with Gulbarga mosque
but with orthodox planning of open courtyard, pillared sanctuary & a nave surmounted
by a dome. In Sola Kumbha , the dome is raised on tall, sixteen sided drum pierced with
arched openings which makes it more light looking.

The building of Bidar which is exotic in character is the Madrassa, or college, founded
in 1472.This Islamia college with its lecture halls, library, mosque & ample
accommodation for teachers & students resembles in architecture to those stately
university buildings which adorn several Persian cities as the craftsmen & material for
its construction was totally imported from Persia.

Covering a rectangular space of 205’X180’, it has conventional quadrangle in the

centre with halls & chambers surrounding all 4 sides. Exteriorly in middle of 3 sides are
prominent semi octagonal projections rising to the considerable height & surmounted
by Tartar domes while the 4th side, which is the main façade, contains the entrance, &
has 2 tall minars in 3 stages, one at each corner. Most of the exterior elevation is in 3
stories of arched window openings, &there is wide parapet over all & like true Persian
architecture, the building gives its aesthetic appeal by its surface treatment on the walls
which have brilliant coloured glazed tiles in combination of green, yellow & white in the
form of floral & arabesque motifs as well decorative inscriptions, lettering on broad
parapet written by expert calligraphists.

Of all the monuments at Bidar, the tombs of the rulers are true in Deccani style, which
are totally 12 in nos. Each one is large, square single building, with tiers of arched
arcades round its vertical walls & having a battlemented parapet & turret at each corner.
Dome rises on octagonal drum. The dome is not hemispherical but stilted like the one in
Gulbarga. The tombs are in form of royal necropolis to the west of the city with a
cenotaph in the centre.

The third & final phase of the Deccani style flourished in the kingdom of Golconda,
where under the Qutb Shahi dynasty, a rich & powerful state was maintained from
1512 until 1687.The most characteristic monuments of this phase are located in the
deserted city of Golconda & also in Hyderabad.

Golconda fort is in state of decay due to the long siege suffered by it in 1687 till it finally
surrendered to the Moghul emperor Aurangzebe. 7 Tombs of the royal dynasty are
better preserved in northwest of city. They are very much similar to the ones at Bidar
but with addition of many decorative elements chiefly of the florid order with volutes &
moulded pattern in stucco, fanciful pinnacles, flimsy battlements. Also by this time
dome has expanded into full blown bulbous creation with the addition of the calyx
formation of massive plastic order at its base.
Some of the Golconda tombs are 2 storied with lower portion being extended into an
arcaded verandah & cornices projected on brackets. Due to the height the mortuary
chamber in the interior is covered at a suitable height with a curved ceiling, leaving the
interior of the dome above as a great unused void which is different from the double
doming system followed by Mughals in north India a t that time.

The most outstanding tomb is that of Abdullah Qutb Shah built in 1672 which is
immense 2 storied monument, its upper portion surrounded by a hanging balcony,
elaborated with perforated panels, merlons & numerous finials.

The most monumental structure of this period is neither, a mosque, or a tomb but a
monumental structure erected in 1591, as a form of triumphal archway, & now called
the Char Minar, or four minars. It served the same purpose as teen Darwaza built
much earlier in the city of Ahmedabad, Gujarat.

Char Minar is the composition of the considerable size as its square plan measures
100’side, & the four minars one at each corner are each 186’ in height. Its ground
storey consists of four spreading archways, one in each side & each of 36’span, over
which rise a series of diminishing stories beginning with substantial arcaded triforium,
& having a smaller arcade & a perforated balustrade above..

There is certain aesthetic excellence in the conception of this grand archway. Specially
the soaring yet delicacy of minars is noteworthy. There were buildings produced in
Deccan after Char Minar, but none attained the superior appearance of this, the leading
example of the style.

Provincial style of Islamic architecture in Bijapur

Comparison between the buildings of Golconda & the provincial style of Bijapur will
show how the building art in India depended on the direction of patronage of the ruling
dynasty. The development of these 2 mediaeval kingdoms, of the Deccan were
remarkably analogous. Both had the same origin, as they broke away from Bahamani
rule at the same time_ 1490. They both flourished in 16 th & 17th century & became
dominant powers in southern country & even both the kingdoms came to an end at the
same time when they were incorporated in Mughal Empire in 1686-1687.

In spite Golconda structures look uninspiring & excessive in detail while Bijapur
structures are very aesthetically & constructionally sound in the whole of Deccan.

Adil Shahis of Bijapur concentrated their energies exclusively on architecture. The

buildings are basically of 3 types – mosques, tombs & palaces. Building operations in
Bijapur started during the first half of 16 th century, by construction of citadel, a fortress
irregularely circular in plan, & containing a palace, imperial buildings, & 2 small
mosques prepared from 2 despoiled temples. As the power of Adil Shahis increased,
around the citadel a city gradually formed & in time was enclosed in fortified walls.
There are 6 city gates in this irregular wall, but they do not form any direct alignment or
concern for systematic town planning. All the monuments are built up of local basalt
stone.

Architectural characters of Bijapur style

The characteristic of most of the buildings is the spherical in shape dome which rises
out of band of conventional petals at its base. These forms were repeated to a small
scale as an ornamental finish to the turrets, also prominent elements in the style &
which surmount the principal angles of the building like slender minarets. The shape of
the arch has lost the angularity & assumed contours of grace. The typical Bijapur arch
is four centered but not like Tudor Gothic but fuller in its curve. Pillars are rare instead
masonry piers in rectangular section are found. There is cornice or chajja, a
characteristic architectural ornament in most of the buildings, remarkable for its size &
projection & for the closely ranked decorated brackets by which it is supported.

The sculptured patterns which embellished the buildings constitute a definite school of
plastic art. Arch spandrils consist of volute bracket holding a medallion, & above the
arch a foliated finial. With this typical design are also rosettes, conventional hanging
lamps, running borders & interlaced symbols either carved in stone or moulded in
stucco.

Jami masjid is one of the earliest example which is powerfully simple; The Ibrahim
Rauza one of the most elaborate; the Gol Gumbaz, showing the style in its most
grandiose form, & the Mihtar Mahall, depicting it in its miniature form but in a refined
manner.

The Jami masjid built at the beginning of Adil Shahi tenure is considered to be the
finest example which is very classical. Unfortunately it never got completed as it lacks
2 minars flanking the front of the eastern exterior. An entrance gateway was provided
later in 17th century by the Moghul Emperor. Its plan is rectangle of 450’X 225’. The
walls are of plain masonry with introduction of 2 rows of arcades within the walling, one
above the other, the lower being merely ornamental, but the upper row is open &
discloses an arched corridor resembling a loggia, running the whole length of the back
& sides of the exterior.

Courtyard is square & having arches on its 3 sides, those on the western façade are
foliated & form the façade of the sanctuary. Over these façade arches projects a wide &
deep cornice on brackets, & above the middle of the sanctuary rises the square
arcaded clearstorey supporting the great dome. The dome is no longer stilted but
hemispherical in contour, its apex rising up into a massive metal finial crown by the
symbol of crescent.

Sanctuary has five aisles. The nave in the centre is square. The arches at the height
form octagonal cornice for the support of dome.

The second building is the Ibrahim Rauza, a mausoleum situated just outside the city
walls on the west as the last resting place for Ibrahim Adil Shah I. The Rauza consist of
2 main buildings, a tomb & a mosque with certain accessories all standing within a
square enclosure, a whole forming an attractive garden retreat.

Within the walled enclosurethe 2 principal buildings stand on an oblong terrace

360’X150’, at the eastern end of which is the tomb & at the western end facing it is the
mosque, the open court within is occupied by the ornamental tank & fountain.

Mausoleum comprises a central chamber contained with an arched verandah, & the
whole surmounted by the dome. Tall minar shaped turrets rise from each angle of the
building, but he crowning element is the elaborately bracketed & battlemented upper
storey carrying the shapely bulbous dome. Intricate patterns on the outer wall of the
tomb are unrivalled as it is ornamented with carving of arabesque or traceried
inscriptions.

The mosque on the opposite side well compliments the tomb.

The 3rd monument at Bijapur is the Mausoleum of Mohammed Adil Shah commonly
known as the Gol Gumbaz or round dome. It is not delicate like Rauza but sheer scale
is magnificent. The total scheme comprises of tomb, mosque, naqqar khana, or a
drum house & gateway, a dharmashala or rest house, & other structural amenities
associated with an imperial mausoleum, all contained within an walled enclosure.

Wall surfaces of this mausoleum are plain & look far from finish. Externally the body of
building is a great cube with a turret or tower attached to each angle, while over all
hangs a large hemispherical dome. There is excellent proportion maintained between
the square part below & dome above. The dome has no complex curves but it is shaped
in form of immense inverted bowl. The deep shadow casted by projecting cornice
which is enriched by closely set brackets is the salient feature. Above this is the
arcade of small arches & top of it are merlons with finials.

Finally there are bold foliations at the base of dome, concealing the point of juncture
with the drum in a most appropriate manner. There are octagonal projecting towers at
the corners which look like pagodas.

The interior consist of one chamber only, but it is a hall of massive proportions &, like
Pantheon at Rome, & St. Sophia at Istanbhul, is one of the largest single cell ever
constructed. The tall, pointed arches forming the sides of this great vaulted hall, give
support to the circular platform above provided to receive the base of the dome. No
double dome is introduced here to save the thickness of masonry.

The construction is simple where the square rises to eight sided base on which the
circular cornice is projected. The dome itself is plain, plastered vault with six small
openings through the drum & a flat section at its crown, but with no central pendant. It is
constructed with horizontal courses of bricks with mortar between each course. The
average thickness of dome is 10’.

The total width of the building is equal to the total height of the building which is little
over 200’ & outside diameter of dome is 144’.

Gol Gumbaz may claim to be the largest domical roof in existence.

Mihtar Mahall is a small beautiful entrance hall to a courtyard of a mosque & not a
mahall as the name suggest. It has a upper storey consisting of a small assembly
room & above that is a open terrace surrounded by a wall with oriel windows & a
perforated parapet. The façade is between 2 slender buttresses rising into turrets, while
the outstanding feature is the window, its balcony projected on brackets & shaded by
an expansive eave. Doorway of the pointed arches with flat paneling around, string
courses & moulding all contribute to the artistic appearance of the building.

The secular architecture of Bijapur compare to religious architecture is of pedestrian

order & in ruins. The only building which survives is Gagan Mahall (1560) which served
2 purposes of royal residence & council chamber. Its plan is rectangular & divided
into 2 parts, the frontal portion forming large open hall, with the other portion at the back
consisting of central hall & smaller chamber on each side; over all was upper storey, for
the accommodation of ladies of the royal family. In India many a instances of such
buildings happen which are designed as a combination of assembly hall & hall of
audience with palace attached. The other instance is the Hindola mahall at Mandu. But
later Moghul adopted a separate hall for private & public. The palace was still another
building. The façade of Gagan Mahall is an impressive conception of 3 archway, the
central one is over 60’ wide & 50’ high.

Bijapur construction maintained quality till end using local masonry of basalt, good in
certain respect but brittle, & chiefly on this account that a number of monuments,
otherwise well constructed, have fallen into ruins.
Moghul Period of Islamic architecture in India

The empire of the great Moghuls under the patronage of Mohammedan dynasty marks
the highest splendor in architecture of that era. It’s a late phase of Islamic movement as
whole. It is also called as “Indian Summer” of Moslem art & architecture.

It was the imperial movement affected very moderately with local influences.

Moghul rulers had pronounced aesthetic nature& also lot of wealth & power which
lasted for 5 generations from Babur(1526-31), Humayun(1531-56), Akbar(1556-1605),
Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan(1627-58) & down fall with the last emperor
Aurangzebe(1658-1707).

Moghul style resolves in 2 main phases, an earlier phase when buildings were
constructed of red sandstone during the reign of Akbar, & a later phase when white
marble was largely used to suit more luxurious taste of Shah Jahan.

Moghul style of architecture did not take concrete form until the reign of Akbar in later
half of 16th century.

Babur laid the foundations of the style. He had constructed lot of ornamental gardens &
architecture of secular nature which is right now in state of decay. There are however 2
mosques Kabuli Bagh at Panipat in Punjab & Jami masjid in Sambhal near Delhi have
survived. Both are large but do not possess distinctive architectural character.

Even during the reign of his son, Humayun, there are hardly any structures; which are
surviving which can be called of having a distinct style of architecture. But his
Mausoleum is an outstanding landmark in development of Moghul style.

Humayun’s Tomb

Humayun’s tomb was not constructed during his life time but much after his death.
Mirak Mirza Ghiyas was the architect for this tomb who was Persian. Hence the tomb is
the Indian interpretation of Persian conception.

Tomb is situated in spacious park like enclosure which provides seclusion as well
appropriate setting. Middle of each sides of the enclosure is the imposing gateway. The
main entrance gateway is on west side with an archway. The central building stands on
lofty terrace 22’high & of sandstone, the sides of which are arcaded, each arch opening
into the small room for accommodation of visitors. The tomb structure is 156’square in
plan with certain projections & chamfered angles of the design. All elevations same with
an arched recess in the centre & on top is the marble dome rising to the height of 140’
with cluster of pillared kiosks having cupola roofs on each side.
The interior is of single cell resolving into number of compartments, in the centre is the
cenotaph. Each room is octagon & they are connected by radiating diagonal passages;
light is conveyed into each part by clear story.

For the first time double dome construction is used in India for this tomb which is
composed of 2 separate shells, an outer & inner with space in between. Outer shell
supports white marble casing of the exterior while the inner forms the vaulted ceiling of
the main hall in the interior. This was the system of domed construction practiced in
west Asia. Double domed structural procedure enabled domed ceiling inside to be
placed lower so as to be in better relation to the hall it covers without disturbing the
soaring effect of the exterior.

At the same time as Humayun’s tomb was being erected, Akbar started massive
building program in Agra which he wanted to be made as his capital.

Characteristics of Akbari style of architecture.

Mostly structures are executed in red sandstone, mostly of trabeated order & Tudor
arch was used in capacity of decorative arcading; thus the style was trabeated &
arcuated in same proportion. The pillar shafts were many sided & capitals in form of
bracket supports. Ornamentations were carved in boldly inlaid patterns, while painted
designs were introduced on the interior walls & ceilings. These were main elements of
Akbari style of architecture.

Fortress Palace of Agra

Akbar laid the foundations of the fort of Agra in 1564. In plan it is irregular semi circle
with its chord, 2700’ in length, lying parallel to the right bank of the river Yamuna. The
most remarkable feature is the massive enclosure wall which consists of solid
sandstone rampart 70’in height & one & half mile in circuit, the first application of
dressed stone on such a large scale. The stones are linked by iron rings forming a
formidable mass of masonry.

Within the fortified wall were the 2 gateways, the southern one for private entry having 2
broad octagonal towers joined by an archway, while the back has arcaded terraces
above surmounted by cupolas, kiosks & pinnacles. Ornamentation is rich with marble
inlay which looks very impressive against red sandstone façade.

Some of the structures are in ruins but one of the palace which is intact is Jahangiri
Mahall, extensive, compact arrangement of compartments which are not in symmetrical
pattern & it is reminiscent of Hindu palace of Gwalior. Many decorative details of pillars
& brackets look as if instead of stone craftsmen have been carving wood.
 The unique picture gallery in this fort in coloured glaze is worth mentioning having
surface panel designs showing sporting events like elephant combats, games of pola &
hunting episodes.

Fatehpur Sikri

The most ambitious architectural project of Akbar’s reign is the conception & creation of
entirely new capital city at Fatehpur Sikri, on a specially selected site 26 miles west of
Agra which comprises of a great complex of palatial, residential, official & religious
buildings forming one of the most spectacular complexes found in whole of India.

This city was designed as ceremonial capital. It was occupied for a very short time &
then abandoned. This city has no streets but arrangement of broad terraces, stately
courtyard around which are located numerous palaces & pavilions each one elegant.

All the buildings are located along north south axis facing the mosque which is the
largest structure on the site. The main approach is from Agra, after passing from Agra
gate & naubat khana or drum house where distinguished visitors were announced, one
comes to diwan-i-am or the hall of public audience, most of the public had right of
admission , from their the road leads to mosque, again open to public.

On the other hand there is a large area to the rear of diwan-i-am reserved for royal
palaces & similar buildings reserved strictly private part of the scheme.

Certain utilitarian edifices such as offices, serais, ornamental gardens, stables are
located down the slope of the hill on the northern side.

There is no evidence of systematic town planning in Fatehpur Sikri. Since the city was
constructed in the record time by army of craftsmen from all over India, one sees
variation in handiwork but overall work was carried under the expert supervision of the
architect, hence quality is maintained. All the buildings are in red sandstone quarried on
the spot from the existing ridge.

The buildings are resolved in 2 categories, one of religious character & second of
secular nature. The religious one consist of great mosque & its Bulund Darwaza & also
within its courtyard the tomb of Salim Chisti.

Secular buildings are of 3 types. They are palaces, administrative buildings & buildings
of miscellaneous type. Largest & most important buildings are palaces which include
Jodha bai’s palace, houses of Mirium the Sultana, & Birbal.

Jodha Bai’s palace

Palace of Jodha Bai is complete in design. There is high & forbidden plain outside wall,
with the principal buildings attached to its inner side & all facing interior courtyard,
entrance allowed only through guarded courtyard, having staggered doorways speaks
of the living conditions of the prevalent time in which this palace was designed. Every
portion of the palace is self contained, with a private chapel for devotion, roof terraces
screened by parapet. Palace is square in plan, enclosing walls 32’ in height are
interrupted on 3 sides , on the east by gatehouse, on north by hanging pavilion or hawa
mahall & on south by service & bathing apartments.

The whole of the architectural effect is being reserved for the interior with symmetrical
buildings surrounding a square quandrangle. Most of the buildings are 2 storied with
open terraced roof.

There is resemblance to temple architecture of western India particularly niches &

brackets with volute forms as well as the shape of the pillar shafts. It was done by the
artisans from Gujarat.

Some of the roofs & cupolas have blue glazed tiles & some part has vaulted ceiling
which stands out in otherwise columnar trabeated structural system.

Other palaces are simple compare to Jodhabai’s palace.

Birbal’s house

Another of these houses is that of Birbal which is similar to Miriam’s house but more
complex in its arrangement & more elaborate in architectural ornamentation. This
building is in 2 stories, four rooms & 2 porches forming the ground floor, but with only 2
rooms above with open terraces enclosed by screen. There are cupolas over the upper
rooms & pyramidal roofs over the porches, all of which are constructed on a modified
principle of double dome with inner & outer shell & empty space between, by means of
which internal environment always remains cool. The rich character of eave brackets is
the outstanding façade of the exterior.

Diwan-i-Khas

Of the administrative buildings of Fatehpur Sikri, the most distinctive is the Diwan-i-khas
or Hall of private audience, not a large structure but conceived in an unusual manner.
Externally it is similar to other secular buildings. It is 2 storied with rectangular plan
having a flat terraced roof with a pillared kiosk rising above each corner. The interior
arrangement is unique & speaks of elusive personality of Akbar the Great who was the
creator of this building. Principal architectural feature is a large pillar occupying the
central position with its massive, expanding capital supporting a stone platform. From
this stone platform, radiate 4 stone bridges in diagonal direction to connect with hanging
galleries which surround its upper portion. The idea behind this was that the Emperor
would sit enthroned on the central platform while listening to arguments from
representatives of different religious communities. The whole arrangement speaks of his
‘Dominion over the 4 quarters’. The main architectural object in this interior is the central
column, its variously patterned shaft branching out into series of 36 closely set volute &
pendulous brackets carrying the throne platform.

There are other buildings of an official or miscellaneous order designed to serve its own
particular purpose such as Panch Mahall or the Palace of five stories, Khwabgah or
House of dreams having the same architectural character. In each building the
treatment of wide eaves which cast deep shadows along the elevation gives the
appearance of horizontality. The counteracting influence is of pillars & brackets which
introduce useful vertical passages of light & shade.

Jami Masjid

It comprises of the most impressive group of structures which are the Gtreat mosque
itself, its souther Gateway or Bulund Darwaza, the tomb of Salim Chisti which is
within the courtyard & the mausoleum of Islam Khan which is on the northern side.

Mosque is rectangular measuring 542’X438’ with an interior courtyard of large

proportions. Mosque & Salim Chistis tomb both started in 1571. First the mosque was
entered through 3 portals, but now only eastern entrance or King’s Gateway remains. It
is the largest in India & most finished with conventional design having pillared cloisters
on 3 sides & the western end occupied by the sanctuary.

Façade of the sanctuary consist of large, rectangular front, in the centre there is a
spacious alcove with a pillared arcade extending on each side in the form of wings.
Behind this central feature rises the large dome & smaller domes over each wing, with a
ranges of pillared kiosks, along all the parapets to break the skyline. Interior of the
sanctuary resolves into nave which is entered by 3 doorways forming the entrance,
while the aisles on each side correspond to the arcaded wings on the façade. The nave
which is square in plan has principal mihrab. Arches & lintels with pendent brackets give
elegance to the structure. Most surfaces of the sanctuary has mural decorations.

Bulund Darwaza

Twenty five years after completing the mosque, when Akbar returned from his victory of
Deccan, he raised the Bulund Darwaza the magnificent gateway to commemorate his
victory on the southern entry of the mosque. Its most imposing structure with the height
of 134’ & approached by steep flight of steps 42’high so that the entire composition rises
to 176’above the roadway. Out of all the architectural compositions of the Mughals, their
gateways were the most successful achievements.
The structure is a work of great force, very imposing when seen from ground below. The
mosque side view of this portal is plain & simple while exterior is elaborately done.
Arched & domed recess is in the centre plane, while the narrower faces on its wings are
in 3 stories with varied openings in each stage. The most striking feature is the arched
recess, the semi dome of which is carried on 5 surfaces in the form of half octagon,
down to the ground. Crowning the whole of this façade is an handsome perforated
parapet behind which rises a range of kiosks, the regular line of their cupolas. The inner
façade though a mass of fine masonry is simple & unpretentious with 3 arched
entrances & parapet in 2 stages going with arches & colonnades of the mosque inside.

The external façade has wide border emphasizing its rectangular formation. It has
beautifully carved calligraphic bands on it.

Tomb of Salim Chisti

It is within the cloistered quandrangle of the mosque & a very notable structure in a
marble giving it a very delicate appearance, chiseled, polished & fretted exquisiteness.
First constructed in sandstone but made in marble later in Shah Jahan’s era retaining its
previous shape & character. The general appearance of the building is low &
unimpressive.

It consists of square exterior of side 24’ & containing the mortuary chamber of size 16’
diameter, whole being covered by a low dome. Around the mortuary chamber is the
wide verandah with its roof supported on pillars with the interspaces filled with
perforated screens. Pillars on the exterior have honeycomb capitals & the brackets
springing from their patterned shafts. The brackets of the pillars are unique in design,
the prototype of which is seen in temples of Gujarat. Structurally these supports have
less value, they are almost decorative & show unrestrained imagination of temple
building than rationality of Islam.

The Moghul period during Jahangir’s reign (1605-27) marks the transition from stone to
marble. In comparison with the ceaseless activity of building construction which was
happening in reign of Akbar didn’t continue in his son Jahangir’s reign as he more
concentrated more on school of miniature paintings. Whenever the constructional work
was contemplated he concentrated on large formal gardens & ornamental retreats than
architectural monuments. The first monument Jahangir constructed was his father
Akbar’s mausoleum in Sikandara near Agra which is really not of architectural
significance & far inferior to buildings in Akbar’s reign.

Jahangiri buildings not only mark the change in architectural style but also started the
trend of using semi precious stones like lapis lazuli, topaz, cornelian, jasper inlay work
in form of graceful foliations in marble. This art was called pietra dura. The tomb of
Itamad-ud-Daula prefigured the phase of white marble garnished with gold & precious
stones which distinguishes the final architectural creations of Mughals.

With the reign of Shah Jahan (1627-58), the golden era of Mughal architecture started
in India. Architecture of exceptional splendor & carried to the highest level of perfection
happened. It was the age of marble took the place of sandstone. One can see that in
fort of Agra, where in the series of palaces occupying the western area, the difference
between the 2 phases of the Mughal style is clearly demarcated. Sandstone buildings of
latter half of 16th century like Jahangiri mahall are next to the 17 th century marble
pavilions of Khas Mahall, in other words from the robust productions of Akbar to the
voluptuousness of Shaha Jahan.

Characteristic of architecture during Shah Jahan’s reign

Marble was obtained from the quarries of Makrana in Jodhpur. It gave delicacy &
refinement due to its graining. White marble arcades of engrailed arches became a
distinguishing feature of the period. The dome became Persian bulbous type constricted
at neck with double doming. Pillars became tapering or baluster shafts, voluted bracket
capitals & foliated bases; added to this was structural ornamental elements of
curvilinear order giving fluidity of line & sensuousness of form.

Shah Jahan replaced the stone buildings in the palace forts of Agra by marble pavilions.

At Agra he built first of its marble hall Diwani-am (1627) which was followed by Diwani-
khas after 10 years. Diwani-khas has very graceful double columns. Also Moti masjid
was added later which was followed by Khas mahall, Shish mahall, Nagina masjid etc.

Moti masjid is the finest example with proportionate arcades in the façade, colonnades
of cloisters, arched entrance, delicate kiosks over the parapet, beautifully raised central
dome over drum makes the building classic.

He transferred the empire to Delhi from Agra & started the layout of city of
Shahajahanabad on right bank of river Yamuna & started a massive program of palace
fortress.

Palace fortress of Delhi (Lal Quila or Red Fort)

Delhi fort is oblong in plan 3100’X1600’. Due to the fix position of mosque layout does
not have any symmetry. This parallelogram in Delhi is enclosed by high & fortified walls
with 2 main gateways, Lahori gate & Delhi gate, one in middle of long side on the west
is the principal ceremonial while the other on south is more private. From these
gateways start 2 thoroughfares communicate with large rectangular area within. Eastern
rampart overlooks the river & accommodates private & royal apartments, outside these
are service quarters.
Palace enclosure is almost symmetrical & is into 4 parts – a large central quandrangle
containing Diwani-am, on each side of it are ornamental gardens & courtyards &
palaces. Palaces are in marble with square plan with balconies, oriel windows, turrets
surmounted by golden cupolas. The pavilions are covered by screened windows with
pillars in between creating stately architectural effect.

Besides this palace is the hall of private audience & a luxurious hammam or bathing
establishment, & between each structure there were wide courts & terraces protected
by graceful balustrades or perforated screens on the rampart side.

Hall of audience & rang mahall are the finest in terms of architecture. Each structure is
one story open pavilion with façade of engrailed arches shaded by wide eave or chajja,
above which rises the parapet & from each corner a graceful kiosk. Interior consist of
engrailed arches in intersecting arcades which divide the whole space into square or
oblong bays with cornice & flat highly decorated ceiling. There are no pillars, but their
place is being taken by 12 sided massive piers which gives spacious soffit to the
arches. Interiors present flowing curves & arcuate shapes due to the fourfold outline of
the underside of arches. There is lot of surface ornamentation in form of gilt, inlaid
patterns in form of scrolls & serpentine lines. Within the traceried foliations on the wall
piers & arches, conventional flowers like roses, poppies, lilies are freely introduced.

Rang mahall is more lavishly ornate. It consists of main central hall with smaller
compartments at each end. This central hall is divided into 15 square bays by
ornamental piers giving it a general effect of pavilion. Originally the exterior arches were
filled with perforated marble screens & there were triple arches of lattice work placed
across the centre of each side for privacy.

The other palace Diwani-khas is more open in its arrangements as it is formed of one
large hall with the arcade of 5 equal arches in its façade providing cool interiors as no
parts are enclosed. This interior is also divided into 15 bays by means of engrailed
arches supported on square marble piers, while the eastern side overlooking the
rampart has arched window openings & perforated tracery.

Continuous supply of water was brought by means of conduit called as Nahar-i-Bahisht

or canal of paradise which entered the fort under king’s tower, at the north east corner.
Such a constant stream enabled to be ornamented with fountains, cascades, water falls
& pools & also hammams for the royal pleasure.

Remaining prominent structure in this royal portion of the fort is Diwani-am which is not
as much decorated as the palace but just designed rightly to suit its purpose. It consist
of square courtyard surrounded by a colonnade with this open pillared hall on its
eastern side, but all the supplementary structures have now disappeared. Sandstone
hall remains with its façade of 9 arches with double pillars between each arch & group
of 4 at corners. 3 aisles of pillars with engrailed arches form the interior. Significant
feature of the interior of the audience hall was the alcove in the back wall where the
emperor sat in state. Here on ceremonial occasions the famous peacock throne was
installed. The decoration of the wall of the alcove above the throne has pietra dure i.e.
inlay work of semiprecious stones which shows Italian influence on the arts of Mughals
of that era.

Other than fortress, Shah Jahan has built large congregational mosque Jami masjid
near the citadel. It is the largest in India. Imposing look is given to the mosque by raising
it on lofty plinth. 3 noble gateways are approached by majestic flights of steps. North &
south gateways are for public while east being served as royal entrance where formally
a processional route connected it with the fort. Within these entrances is the stone
flagged quandrangle of 325’ side fronting the sanctuary which is in red sandstone &
outlines accentuated with black & white marble. On 3 sides of courtyard are cloisters
with their colonnades broken into centre by the inner faces of the gateway. The central
courtyard has large square tank in the centre for ablutions. Sanctuary is 200’ in width &
90’in depth with arcaded exterior of 10 engrailed arches, 5 on each sides forming the
wings. At each end these wings terminate in tall minaret of 4 stages while over the
whole rise 3 large bulbous domes of white marble. Mihrabs are placed in the western
wall of the sanctuary.

Smaller in size is another mosque in Agra built by Shah Jahan which is also Jami
Masjid. Half in size compare to jami masjid Delhi but wel balanced in its proportion &
dedicated by Shah Jahan to his daughter Jahanara Begum with simple tudor type
arches without foliations & domes without any grand heights, in spite very pleasing.

Taj Mahall

The best example of Shah Jahan’s architectural contributions was Taj Mahall, Agra, a
mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahall. The entire plan of the complex is 1900’X1000’
with the central area divided into square garden of 1000’side. On south sides is the road
& service buildings while north consist of raised terrace containing white marble tomb
overlooking the river below. The entire is enclosed within high boundary wall having
broad octagonal pavilions at each corners, & a monumental entrance gateway in the
centre of the southern side. Gardens have fountains, elevated lotus pools. Monument is
delicate & of feminine nature.

Besides the tomb, there is mosque on west side & east is the replica of mosque without
religious purpose just introduced for the purpose of symmetry & it act as reception hall
or guest house.

White marble tomb structure in the centre is the focal point of the entire scheme
elevated on 22’ high plinth, 186’square in plan with its angles chamfered. The building
itself is 108’ in height, having a marble cupola above each corner, while over the centre
is 187’ high great bulbous dome. From each corner of the plinth rises minaret crowned
by kiosk to a height of 137’. The dome is supported by lofty drum with foliated base at
the final.

The arrangement of the compartments of the interior of the Taj Mahall is copied from
that Humayun’s tomb. At Delhi with its same octagonal central hall with subsidiary
chambers in the angles, & all connected by radiating passages. 2Storied treatment of
the exterior, the main hall is also in 2 stories of arcades, over which is the semicircular
vault forming the inner shell of the double dome is also taken from Humayun’s tomb. All
walls have delicate inlaid patterns. The best quality of makrana marble has been used.

Moghul gardens

Beautiful landscaped gardens are another feature of the architecture of the Mughals
which is evident in Shalimar baug of Kashmir with series of rectangular terraces
arranged in descending levels with the object of maintaining continuous flow of water
throughout the entire system, as fountains, pools, basins, cascades to make the whole
into effective water garden.

Moghul garden is based on Char bagh or 4 fold plot. Paved pathways & water channels
follow the shapes of these squares. Chenar, orchards & cypresses graced the gardens.

The central part of the scheme consisted of masonry pavilions, loggias, kiosks. To
ensure privacy, the entire garden was enclosed within a high wall.

With the advent of Emperor Aurangzeb, the last of the grand Moghuls, the decline of
Moghul Empire started. His ideals were very different from his predecessors & he spent
all his time campaigning Deccan that he didn’t have time for the buiding monumental
structures like his previous kings.

After him there was no worthy king belonging to Moghul dynasty & thus there is a end to
the Indian summer of architecture by end of 17 th century.