AERODYNAMICS

(INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW)
LECTURER: DR. JAY JACK R. MANZANO
September 13, 2020
The Atmosphere Air:
78% Nitrogen
21% Oxygen
1% Other Gases
Using Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure

Where:
pa = dry air pressure
Also, pv = water vapor pressure
The Four Regions of the Atmosphere
Temperature Variations with Altitudes
Pressure and Density Variations with Altitudes

Vertical Forces Acting on the Sample of an Atmosphere

Troposphere: Sea-level to 36,089 ft.

Stratosphere: 36,089 to 65,617 ft.

Temperature is a constant at - 69.7 deg F

Barometric Altimeters
Example 1
A standard altimeter indicates 15,000 ft when the ambient
temperature is 35 deg. F. Calculate the Density altitude and
temperature altitude

Since h = 15,000ft calculate temperature at 5.5deg.F therefor the

atmosphere is not standard. Since the altimeter is a pressure gauge, it
will read the correct pressure. If to be computed the correct pressure
at 15,000ft altitude is 1,194 psf.
Calculating the actual density….

The standard altitude corresponding to this density .001406 slug/ft3 is

approximately 17,000 ft….
Below is calculation of density altitude
This result is close to the 17,000 ft….
Calculate for temperature altitude
Example 2
Because density cannot be measured directly, the density is normally
inferred by calculation from measurements of static, ambient
temperature and static, ambient pressure. Calculate the density ratio if
measurements show that the altimeter reads 5,000 ft and the ambient,
static air temperature is 80 deg. F

Calculating the pressure ratio p/po =0.830 based on SL to 5,000 ft.

Problems:
1. Calculate the pressure, density, and temperature at 30, 500 ft and at
61,500 ft in the standard atmosphere.
2. On a hot day, the measured temperature and pressure are 38 deg C and
29.0 in. Hg respectively. Calculate the density ratio and the density
3. A standard altimeters reads 14,000 ft when the ambient temperature is
35 deg. F. What is the density altitude?
4.At a certain altitude, a standard altimeter reads 10,000 ft. If the density
altitude is 8,000 ft. find the true temperature at that altitude
5. An airplane is fitted with altimeter which is calibrated according to the
standard atmospheric. On a certain day the pressure at sea-level is found to
be 2,130 psf and the measured temperature is -0.0039 deg. R per foot of
altitude. If on this same day, the altimeter reads 15,000 ft, what is the true
altitude of the airplane above sea-level?
The Continuity Equations
Examples of Low Speed Wind Tunnel
The Incompressible Bernoulli Equation
Example:
The windtunnel has a test section at Station 2 of 4 ft by 4.25 ft. At Station 1 its
cross section measures 13 ft by 13 ft. At some tunnel speed, the manometer
reading is 28 inches. The manometer liquid has a specific gravity of 0.85*.
Calculate the airspeed in the test section. Assume that the flow is
incompressible and that standard sea-level conditions prevail.
Pressure difference between Station 1 and 2

and
Low Speed Airspeed Indicators (Incompressible Flow)

Example of Pitot-Static Tube:

This is the Dynamic Pressure!
The density is replaced by
standard sea-level value

This is the Equivalent

Airspeed!
pt-p sensed by pitot tube
The Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
The phenomenon of a wing producing lift can be explained with the
concept of a vortex. A vortex produces a flow field of circular streamlines
with induced velocity

Relationship Between a Vortex and Induced Velocity

Relationship Between Lifts on an Airfoil and a Vortex Around
the Airfoil
Induced Velocity
CL for level, steady state,
straight line path condition
Viscous Effects, The Boundary Layer and Flow Separation

Velocity Distribution Between Two Plates

In reality, the transition is also affected by such factors as pressure
gradient, surface curvature, free stream turbulence and surface
roughness. On an airfoil it has been found that the pressure gradient has
an important influence on the location of the transition point. In general,
the flow will remain laminar in a region of accelerating flow (ie. With a
favorable pressure gradient). In a positive pressure gradient, the
boundary layer flow will be more unstable when disturbed and will
transition to turbulent flow sooner. In the case of surface curvature, it has
been found that the transition Reynolds number is almost unaffected by a
convex surface. However in a region of concave curvature the transition
Reynolds number is reduced. In addition, the transition from laminar to
turbulent boundary layers is hastened by an increase in free stream
turbulence and by surface roughness. For practical applications to
subsonic flow, the transition point can be approximately taken at the
point of minimum pressure if the airfoil Reynolds number, exceeds 107
The Laminar Boundary Layer

Boundary Layer Thickness

The Turbulent Boundary Layer
Flow Separation

Velocity and Pressure Variation over the Upper Surface of an

Airfoil
Problems:
1. Air having the standard sea-level density has a velocity of 100 fps at a
section of a windtunnel. At another section, having half as much cross-
sectional area as the first section, the flow velocity is 400 mph. What is
the density at the second section?
2. A windtunnel has a test section of 4 ft x 4 ft and a largest section of 15
ft x 15 ft. a manometer as shown in the example is used, with mercury
as the manometer fluid. What will be the manometer reading be if the
test speed is 500 mph? Assume that the temperature at the test section
is 80 deg F. Also assume, that the pressure at the test section is the
standard sea-level value (Hint: compressibility cannot be neglected.
Equate the density ratios obtained from the continuity and Bernoulli
equations. The isentropic equation state is also needed)
3. A windtunnel is shown in the example. If the highest attainable
airspeed at the test section is 200 mph. What would the attainable test
speed be if the cross-sectional area at Station 2 is reduced to half of its
original size? Assume that the incompressible flow rate is not changed
4. A low speed airspeed indicator reads 200 mph when the airplane is
flying at an altitude at which the altimeter reads 6,000 ft, while the
ambient temperature is found to be 30 deg. F. Calculate the true airspeed
5. A Pitot static tube is used to measure the airspeed at the test section of
a windtunnel. If the pressure difference across the pitot static tube is 4
inches of water, what is the airspeed at the test section? If the ratio of the
cross-sectional area between the largest section and the test section is
100:1, what is the airspeed at the largest section? Assume incompressible
flow and standard sea-level conditions
6. Two flat plates, one having 6 ft span and 3 ft chord, the other having 9
ft span and 6 ft chord, are placed in different air streams. The free stream
velocity for the smaller plate is 100 fps. It is found that the total skin
friction drag for the two plates is the same. Find the airspeed for the
larger plate. Assume laminar flow at standard sea-level conditions
7. An airplane is flying at a density altitude of 15,000 ft at an ambient
temperature of -39 deg.F. If the wing chord is 6 ft and the equivalent
airspeed is 200 kts, what is the overall Reynolds number of the wing?
8. Consider the stabilizer on a light airplane as a flat plate for the
purpose of determining its skin friction drag. If the transition Reynolds
number is 750,000, what is the total friction drag of a rectangular
stabilizer having a span of 6 ft and a chord of 3 ft at a speed of 100
mph? Assume standard sea-level conditions.
9. In Problem 3, compare the boundary layer thickness at point 5 ft
downstream of the leading edge if the boundary layer is completely
laminar and turbulent respectively