Microwave & Radiating Systems

(18EC72)

Put together by:

Prof. Ravishankar Holla
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering,
R. V. College of Engineering,
Bengaluru.
ravishankarholla@rvce.edu.in
 UNIT-1
• Transmission Lines : Introduction, transmission lines equations
and solutions, termination of line by infinite line, by
characteristic impedance, short circuit line, open circuit line
and any load resistive impedance ,input impedance reflection
and transmission coefficients, standing waves and SWR(at both
load end and generator end).
 UNIT-2
Microwave Waveguides
Introduction, TE, TM waves Rectangular waveguides (quantitative analysis
TE, TM modes), dominant modes, group velocity phase velocity, and wave
impedance, Microwave cavities (qualitative analysis), resonant frequency.

S-parameters: Introduction, properties of S matrix (qualitative analysis)

Microwave Passive Devices

Waveguide Tee’s, Directional couplers, circulators, power divider, Isolators

(Faraday isolator), phase shifters (Rotatory type), Attenuators (Rotatory
type), (s-parameters of all devices)

Microwave Sources: Klystron Oscillator, Magnetron, TWT amplifiers.

 UNIT-3
Antenna Basics

Introduction, antenna radiation mechanism, basic Antenna parameters,

patterns, beam area, radiation intensity, beam efficiency, diversity and gain,
antenna apertures, effective height, bandwidth, radiation, efficiency,
antenna temperature and antenna field zones. Wire Antennas

Electric dipoles: Introduction, short electric dipole (fields, power density,

power radiated, directivity, radiation resistance), Half wave dipoles(field:
qualitative analysis power density, power radiated, directivity, radiation
resistance).
 UNIT-4
Antenna Types
Folded dipole, Yagi-Uda array, parabolic reflectors, log periodic antenna,
Rectangular patch antenna, horn antenna (Qualitative Analysis only:
Construction, working).

Antenna Arrays
Introduction, pattern multiplication, Array of two isotropic point sources, N
element linear array with uniform spacing and phase(Array factor), Broadside
and end fire array(Directivity, location of beam with, Beam width, etc).
 UNIT-5

Introduction to Computational Electromagnetics:

Classification of CEM, Classification of EM Problems: Classification of

Solution Regions, Classification of Differential Equations, Classification of
Boundary Conditions, Method of Moments, Finite difference time
domain method. Finite element Method-Detailed Discussion. Example:
Design and Simulation of Patch Antenna (coaxial feed), Dipole and Horn
antenna using HFSS.
 Reference Books
1. David M Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”,John Wiley, 3rd
Edition, 2004,ISBN-13: 978-0471644514
2. C A Balanis, “Antenna Theory and Design”, John Wiley & sons,
Inc. publication, 3rd Edition,2005,ISBN-13: 978-0471667827
3. R E Collin, “Foundations of Microwave Engineering”, IEEE Press on
Electromagnetic and Wave Theory, 2nd Edition, ISBN- 13: 978-0-7803-6031-0/ 0-
7803-6031-1
4. Matthew N.O. Sadiku, Computational Electromagnetics with MATLAB, 2019 by
Taylor & Francis Group, ISBN: 13: 978- 1-138-55815-1
 Course Outcomes
CO1: Explain and summarize the working of transmission line, Waveguides ,
Microwave Passive Devices and Antennas
CO2: Analyse wave propagation in transmission line, Waveguides and characterize the
passive microwave components and Antennas.
CO3: Design the transmission lines, passive microwave components and Antennas
for given specification and also match the impedance.
CO4: Evaluate S-Parameter, VSWR for transmission lines, Microwave components
and radiation pattern for Antennas.
Electro Magnetic Spectrum

9
Ionizing and non – ionizing radiations of electromagnetic energy

10
 Wavelengths
Frequency Wavelength l
Long waves 30-300 kHz 10-1 km
Medium waves (MW) 300-3000 kHz 1000-100 m
Short waves (SW) 3-30 MHz 100-10 m
Very high frequency (VHF) waves 30-300 MHz 10-1 m
Microwaves 0.3-30 GHz* 100-1 cm
Millimeter waves 30-300 GHz 10-1 mm
Submillimeter waves 300-3000 GHz 1-0.1 mm
Infrared (including far-infrared) 300-416,000 GHz 104-0.72 mm
* 1 GHz = 1 gigahertz = 10 Hertz or cycles per second,
+ 1 mm = 10-6 m.
 Power Transfer Basics
+ -
I
Low frequencies
 wavelengths >> wire length

 current (I) travels down wires easily for efficient power transmission

 measured voltage and current not dependent on position along wire

High frequencies
 wavelength  or << length of transmission medium

 need transmission lines for efficient power transmission

 matching to characteristic impedance (Z0) is very important for low reflection and

maximum power transfer

 measured envelope voltage dependent on position along line
 Transmission Line
In an electronic system, the delivery of power requires the connection of two wires
between the source and the load. At low frequencies, power is considered to be delivered to
the load through the wire.
In the microwave frequency region, power is considered to be in electric and magnetic
fields that are guided from place to place by some physical structure. Any physical structure
that will guide an electromagnetic wave place to place is called a Transmission Line.

Transmission lines in communication carry telephone signals, computer data in LANs, TV

signals in cable TV systems, and signals from a transmitter to an antenna or from an
antenna to a receiver.

Their electrical characteristics are critical and must be matched to the equipment for
successful communication to take place.
Transmission lines are also circuits.
 Primary Requirements of a TL
1. The line should introduce minimum attenuation to the signal.
2. The line should not radiate any of the signal as radio energy.
Transmission
Lines

Balanced Unbalanced

•two-wire balanced lines, •One wire is at ground

both conductors are potential and the other
carrying the current wire is at signal potential.
•Eg: twin lead, twisted •Eg: Coaxial Cable
Pair
 Various forms of Transmission Lines

Two wire Microstripe

cable Coaxial
line
cable

Rectangular
waveguide
Circular
waveguide
Stripline conductors

per-unit-length parameters:

C = capacitance/length [F/m]
L = inductance/length [H/m]
R = resistance/length [/m] Dz
G = conductance/length [ /m or S/m]
 Secondary Constants of Transmission Line
• There are two secondary constants of transmission line.
(i) Characteristic impedance (ZO) and
(ii) Propagation constant ().
 Transmission-Line Theory
 Lumped circuits: resistors, capacitors, inductors

neglect time delays (phase)

 Distributed circuit elements: transmission lines

account for propagation and

time delays (phase change)

We need transmission-line theory whenever the length of

a line is significant compared with a wavelength.

17
 WAVE MOTION
• Propagation of electrical power along a transmission line occurs in the form of
Transverse Electromagnetic (TEM) waves

• An EM wave is produced by the acceleration of an electric charge.

• H and E are always perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.

• Electromagnetic waves that travel along a transmission line from the source to the
load are called incident waves.

• Those that travel from the load back toward the source are called reflected waves.
TEM
TEM
 SIGNAL INTEGRITY
“According to a research conducted by Collet International
Research Inc., one in five chips fails because of the signal
integrity”
• Signal Integrity addresses two concerns in digital design
• •Timing of signal – Does the signal reach the destination when it is
supposed to?
• •Quality of signal – When the signal reaches, is it in good
condition?

“Timing” is everything in high-speed digital design.

• Goal of Signal Integrity is to ensure reliable, high-speed data

transmission from one point to another point inside the chip
through the metal lines.
Signal Integrity may be affected by various reasons, but major
reasons are:
1.Crosstalk (Delay and Noise )

2.Ground bounce

3.IR Drop

4.Antenna effect

5.Electromigration
 Cross Talk……
• Crosstalk could be defined as a phenomenon in which logic
transmitted in one net creates undesired effects on its
neighboring nets
 Cross Talk……
Crosstalk occurs via two mechanisms:
• Inductive Crosstalk
• Electrostatic crosstalk

• Parasitic capacitances related to Interconnects

Reference: https://www.vlsiguide.com/2018/07/signal-integrity.html
Antenna Effect
Antenna Effect -- Solutions

Process design kit

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Process_design_kit
 Propagation Constant
    j
Where:  = attenuation coefficient (Np/m)
 = phase shift coefficient (rad/m)

• Also known as propagation coefficient

• It is used to express attenuation,, (signal loss) and the phase shift, , per unit length
of a transmission line

• Used to determine the reduction in voltage or current with distance as a TEM wave
propagates down a transmission line
•  : attenuation constant which determines how the voltage or current decreases with distance along
the line
Unit: Nepers per unit length

 : phase shift constant (a function of time and distance) and determined the phase angle of the
voltage or current variation with distance
Unit: radians per unit length

• Because a phase shift of 2 radians occur over a distance of one wavelength:

2

l
 Velocity Factor, vf
• Electromagnetic waves travelling in metallic conductor or in dielectric materials suffer
degradation in speed compared when travelling in free space or vacuum.

• Velocity factor, vf or velocity constant is a ratio of the actual velocity of propagation, vp

in the given medium to the velocity of propagation through vacumm (free space speed).

vf = vp /c
• Velocity factor also depends on the dielectric constant of the given material:

1
v f 
 r
 Phase Velocity, vp
• Phase velocity, vp, is the actual velocity of propagation in the medium, is given by:

1 c
vp  vf c   
r LC 
• Since wavelength is directly proportional to velocity and the phase velocity of a TEM wave varies with
dielectric constant, the wavelength of a TEM waves also varies with dielectric constant.

• Therefore, guided wavelength, lg

vp cv f c
lg   
f f f r
 Characteristic Impedance, Z0

• It is the input impedance of an infinitely long transmission line

Termination of Transmission Lines
A: Terminated in Zo
Zs
Zo Zo r  Zo - Zo  0
Vs
Zo  Zo
B: Short Circuit

Zs
Zo r  0- Zo  -1
Vs
0  Zo

C: Open Circuit

Zs  -
Vs R 1
 
INCIDENT & REFLECTED WAVE
 INCIDENT & REFLECTED WAVE…
• This energy whose travel from the source to the load is called the incident wave.

• A line which is terminated by a load that is not equal to the characteristic

impedance, some of the applied power will be absorbed by the termination
and the remaining power will be reflected.

• The reflected wave travels from the load back to the generator and will
continue to oscillate in the transmission line until completely attenuated of
terminated.
 STANDING WAVE (SW)
• Standing wave is the resultant wave or the algebraic sum of the incident wave
and reflected wave at any point along the line
i. It is a stationary wave
ii. Its pattern along the line varies in magnitude and contains maximum and minimum
at certain points along the line, where adjacent max and min are separated by l/2.
• Standing wave can be used as
INCIDENT WAVE
an indication of how much
signal reflection occurs in the
+ line, i.e. voltage standing wave
ratio.
REFLECTED WAVE
• The formation of standing
= waves in the transmission line
results in inefficient power
transfer and possible
STANDING WAVE ! equipment breakdown.
 Reflection and Transmission Losses
 When the resistive load termination is not equal to the characteristic
impedance, part of the power is reflected back and the remainder is
absorbed by the load

 The amount of voltage reflected back is called voltage reflection

coefficient.

Γ = Vi/Vr
where Vi is incident voltage and vr is reflected voltage.

The reflection coefficient is also given by :

Γ = (ZL - ZO)/(ZL + ZO)
 Transmission Line Equations
i z,t 

v z,t 
+++++++
B x x x
----------

Dz
i(z,t) RDz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GDz CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

43
 TL Equations…
i(z,t) RDz LDz i(z+Dz,t)

+ +

v(z,t) GDz CDz v(z+Dz,t)

- -
z

i( z ,t)
v( z,t)  v( z  D z,t)  i( z,t) R D z  L D z
t
v(z  D z,t)
i( z ,t)  i( z  D z,t )  v ( z  D z,t ) G D z  C D z
t
44
 TL Equations…
Hence

v( z  Dz , t ) - v( z, t ) i ( z, t )
 - Ri ( z , t ) - L
Dz t
i ( z  Dz , t ) - i ( z , t ) v( z  Dz, t )
 -Gv( z  Dz, t ) - C
Dz t
Now let Dz  0:

v i
 - Ri - L
z t “Telegrapher’sE
quations”
i v
 - Gv - C
z t
45
 TL Equations…
To combine these, take the derivative of the first one with
respect to z:

v2
i   i 
 -R - L  
z 2
z z  t  Switch the
order of the
i   i  derivatives.
 -R - L  
z t  z 
 v 
 - R  -Gv - C 
 t 
 v  v 2

- L  -G - C
 t t  2

46
 TL Equations…

v
2
 v   v  v 2

 - R  -Gv - C  - L  -G - C
z 2
 t   t t  2

Hence, we have:

v
2
v  v
2

-  RG  v - ( RC  LG ) - LC  0
z 2
t  t 
2

The same equation also holds for i.

47
 TL Equations…

Time-Harmonic Waves:

v 2
v  v
2

-  RG  v - ( RC  LG ) - LC  0
z 2
t  t 
2

dV
2

-  RG V - ( RC  LG ) jV - LC (- )V  0 2

dz 2

48
 TL Equations…
dV2

  RG V  j ( RC  LG )V -  LC V 2

dz 2

Note that

RG  j ( RC  LG ) -  LC  ( R  j L)(G  j C )
2

Z  R  j L = series impedance/length

Y  G  jC = parallel admittance/length

dV
2

Then we can write:  ( ZY )V

dz 2

49
 TL Equations…

  ZY dV
2

 ( )V
2
Let Then 2

dz 2

Solution: V ( z )  Ae  Be
- z  z

 is called the "propagation constant."

   ( R  j L)(G  jC )
1/ 2
Convention:
z z e j /2
 principal square root
-    

    j   attenuation contant
  0,   0   phase constant
50
 TL Equations…
Forward travelling wave (a wave traveling in the positive z direction):

V  ( z )  V0 e - z  V0 e - z e - j  z


v  ( z , t )  Re V0 e - z e - j  z  e jt 
 Re  V 0

e j e - z e - j z e 
jt

 V0 e- z cos t -  z   

The wave “repeats” when:

l  2
g
t 0
lg
Hence:
V 0

e - z

z 2

l g

51
 Phase Velocity
Track the velocity of a fixed point on the wave (a point of constant phase), e.g., the
crest.

vp (phase velocity)

v  ( z, t )  V0  e - z cos(t -  z   )

52
 Phase Velocity …

Set t -  z  constant
dz
- 0
dt
dz 

dt 

 In expanded form:
Hence v  
p
 v 
p


Im  ( R  j L)(G  jC ) 
1/ 2


53
 Characteristic Impedance Z0
I+ (z)
+
V+(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the positive z direction.

V  ( z)
Z0  
I ( z)

V0 
V  ( z )  V0  e- z so Z0  
I0
I  ( z )  I 0  e- z
(Z0 is a number, not a function of z.)
54
Characteristic Impedance Z0
Use Telegrapher’s Equation:

v i
 - Ri - L
z t

dV
so  - RI - j LI
dz
 - ZI

Hence - V0  e - z  - ZI 0  e - z

55
 Z0 ….
1/2
V0 Z  Z 
From this we have: Z0      
I0  Y 

Using
Z  R  j L
Y  G  jC

1/ 2
We have  R  j L 
Z0   
 G  j C 

Note: The principal branch of the square root is chosen, so that Re (Z0) > 0.
56
General Case (Waves in Both Directions)
V  z   V0 e  z  V0- e   z
 -
 V0 e j e  z e - j z  V0- e j e  z e  j  z

wave in +z
direction wave in -z
Note: direction

v  z , t   Re V  z  e jt 
 V0 e - z cos t -  z    
 V0- e  z cos t   z   - 

57
 Backward-Traveling Wave
I - (z)
+
V -(z)
- z

A wave is traveling in the negative z direction.

V - (z) V - ( z)
 Z0 so  -Z0
-I - ( z) -
I ( z)

Note: The reference directions for voltage and current are the same as
for the forward wave.

58
 General Case
I (z)
+
V (z)
- z

Most general case: A general superposition of forward and backward

traveling waves:

V ( z )  V0  e - z  V0 - e  z Note: The reference

directions for voltage
1 and current are the
I (z)  V0  e - z - V0 - e   z  same for forward and
Z0 backward waves.

59
 Summary of Basic TL formulas

V  z   V0 e - z  V0- e   z
V0 - z V0-   z
I  z  e - e
Z0 Z0 guided wavelength  lg
1
    j    R  j L  G  jC   2
2
lg   m
 R  j L 
1
2 
Z0   
 G  j C 
phase velocity  vp

vp  [m/s]

60
 Lossless Case
R  0, G  0

    j    ( R  j L)(G  j C ) 
1/ 2

 j LC

 0 
so vp 
   LC 

1/2
 R  j L  L 1
Z0    Z0  vp 
 G  j C  C LC
(real and indep. of freq.) (indep. of freq.)
61
 Lossless Case …
1
vp 
LC
In the medium between the two conductors is homogeneous (uniform)
and is characterized by (, m), then we have that

LC  m (proof given later)

1
The speed of light in a dielectric medium is cd 
m

Hence, we have that v p  cd

The phase velocity does not depend on the frequency, and it is always the
speed of light (in the material).
62
 Terminated Transmission Line
Terminating impedance (load)
V  z   V0 e - z  V0- e   z

Ampl. of voltage wave

propagating in positive z
direction at z = 0. 
Ampl. of voltage wave
propagating in negative z
direction at z = 0.

Where do we assign z = 0?

The usual choice is at the load.

Note: The length l measures distance from the load:   -z

63
 Terminated TL…
Terminating impedance (load)
V z  V e 0
 - z
V e0
-  z

What if we know
V  and V - @ z  -

Can we use z = - l as a
reference plane?

V0  V   0   V   -  e-  V -  -   V -  0  e -  

 V0-  V -  0   V -  -  e 
Hence

V  z   V   -   e -   z     V -  -   e  z   
64
 Terminated TL…
Terminating impedance (load)


Compare:

V  z   V   0  e- z  V -  0  e  z

V  z   V   -   e -   z - ( -  )   V -  -   e  z - ( -  ) 

Note: This is simply a change of reference plane, from z = 0 to z = -l.

65
 Terminated TL…
V  z   V0 e - z  V0- e  z Terminating impedance (load)

What is V(-l )?

V  -   V0 e   V0-e-  

propagating forwards propagating

backwards

The current at z = - l is then

V0   V0- - 
I  -   e - e
Z0 Z0 l  distance away from load
66
 Terminated TL…

Z0 , 

Total volt. at distance l

from the load
 V -
-2  
V  -   V0 e   V0-e-   
 V0 e 1   e 
0

 V0 
Ampl. of volt. wave prop.
towards load, at the load Ampl. of volt. wave prop. L  Load reflection coefficient
position (z = 0). away from load, at the
load position (z = 0). l  Reflection coefficient at z = - l

 V0 e  1   L e-2  
Similarly,
V0  
I  -   e 1 -  L e-2  
Z0 67
 Terminated TL…

Z0 , 

Z  - 

V  -   V0 e  1   Le-2  
V0  
I  -   e 1 -  Le-2  
Z0
V  -   1   L e-2  
Z  -    Z0  -2  
I  -   1 -  L e 

Input impedance seen “looking” towards load at z

= -l . 68
 Terminated TL…
At the load (l = 0):

 1  L  Z L - Z0
Z  0   Z0    ZL  L 
 1 - L  Z L  Z0

 1   Le-2  
Recall Z  -   Z0  -2  
 1 -  L e 

Thus,   Z L - Z0  -2  
 1  e 
Z  Z0 
Z  -   Z0   L 
  Z - Z  -2  
 1 -  L 0
 e 
  L Z  Z 0  
69
 Terminated TL…
Simplifying, we have
  Z L - Z0  -2  
 1  e 
  Z  Z 0     Z L  Z0    Z L - Z0  e-2  
Z  -   Z0 L
 Z0 
  Z - Z  -2     Z  Z  -  Z - Z  e-2  
 1 -   L 0 L 0 
 e 
L 0

  Z L  Z0  
  Z L  Z 0  e     Z L - Z 0  e-  
 Z0  -  

  Z L  Z0  e -  Z L - Z 0  e 
 

 Z cosh      Z0 sinh     
 Z0  L 
 Z 0 cosh      Z L sinh     

Hence, we have

 Z L  Z0 tanh     
Z  -   Z0  
 Z0  Z L tanh     
70
Terminated Lossless Transmission Line
    j  j 

V  -   V0 e j  1   Le-2 j  
Impedance is periodic

V j 
e 1 -  L e-2 j  
with period lg/2
I  -   0

Z0
tan repeats when
 1   L e-2 j  
Z  -   Z0 
 1 -  L e -2 j   

  
2
 
 Z L  jZ0 tan      lg
Z  -   Z0  
Z
 0  jZ tan     
L
   lg / 2
Note: tanh      tanh  j     j tan    
71
 Terminated Lossless TL…

Z0 , 

Z  - 

V  -   V0 e j  1   L e-2 j    Z L - Z0
V0 j 
L 
I  -   e 1 -  Le-2 j   Z L  Z0
Z0
2
lg 
Z  -  
V  -   1   L e-2 j  
 Z0 

-2 j   
I  -   1 - Le 

 Z  jZ0 tan      vp 
 Z0  L  
 Z0  jZ L tan      72
 Matched Load

Z0 , 

Z  - 

A Matched load: (ZL=Z0)

Z L - Z0
L  0
Z L  Z0
No reflection from the load

 V  -   V0 e j 
V0  j   Z  -   Z 0
I  -   e
Z0 For any l 73
 Short-Circuit Load
B Short circuit load: (ZL = 0)
0 - Z0
L   -1 Z0 , 
0  Z0
 Z  -   jZ0 tan    

Note:    2
lg Always imaginary!  Z  -   jX sc

X sc  Z0 tan    

 / lg

S.C. can become an O.C. with

a lg/4 trans. line
74
 Example

Z0  

Find the voltage at any point on the line.

 Z L  jZ0 tan   d  
Zin  Z  -d   Z0  
Z
 0  jZ L tan   d  

 Zin 
 V  -d   VTH  
Z
 in  ZTH 
75
 Example …
Note: V  -   V e 1   e
0

j 
L
-2 j  

Z L - Z0
L 
Z L  Z0
At l = d :
 Zin 
V  -d   V e
0
 j d
1   eL
- j 2 d
  VTH  Z  Z 
 in TH 

  Zin  - j d  1 
 V  VTH 
0 e  - j 2 d 
 Zin  ZTH   1   L e 
Hence

 Zin  - j   d -   1   L e- j 2   
V  -   VTH  e  - j 2 d 
 Zm  ZTH   1   L e 
76
 Example…
Hence, we have

Z in  Z 0  1   L e - j 2  d 
  
Z in  ZTH  Z 0  ZTH  1 -  S  L e- j 2  d 

ZTH - Z0
where S 
ZTH  Z0

Therefore, we have the following alternative form for the result:

 Z0  - j   d -   1   L e- j 2   
V  -   VTH  e  - j 2 d 
 Z0  ZTH   1 -  
S L e 

77
 Matched Line (ZL = Z0)

– When this happens, all the energy is absorbed or dispersed by the

load.
– Thus no reflected wave.
– Ideal condition (always desirable)
 Open Circuit (ZL = )
– When incident wave reaches the open circuit at the end of
the line, the magnetic field collapses since the current is
reduced to zero.
– This induces a voltage on the line which adds to the
existing voltage and equal in its magnitude  Voltage
Doubling Effect.
– The induced voltage on the line then travels back along the
line and may be absorbed by the generator impedance if it
equals to Z0.
– If not, it travels to and along the line until it finally
attenuated completely.
 Short Circuit (ZL = 0)

– Since the voltage is zero at the end of the line, there must be a phase reversal of
the incident voltage at the end of the line, so that the incident and the reflected
waves cancel one another at the end of the line.

– The reflected wave that travels back along the line and may be absorbed by the
generator impedance or completely attenuated.
 REFLECTION COEFFICIENT, Γ
• Also known as reflection constant is a measure of how much reflection
occur in the transmission line.
• It is the ratio of the reflected wave over the incident wave at the end
of the line. Mathematically,

•  is a complex and may be written as:

Vr

Vs

   e j r


r
 Γ…
• In terms of impedances, reflection coefficient can be rewritten as:

Z - Zo
 L
• Note : Z L  Zo
– Reflection coefficient is a complex number,
– Magnitude of the reflection coefficient is a real number.
– If ZL < Z0, assume positive value
 Γ…
• Using the impedance definition of reflection
coefficient, the following conclusion is true for the
three special condition (Open, Short and Matched
line).

• Open-Circuit line ( )
ZL  
Zo
1-
ZL
 1
Zo
1
ZL
TOTAL REFLECTION OCCURS!
 Γ…
• Short-Circuit line : ZL  0
0 - Zo
  -1
0  Zo

Z L  Zo  Zin
Total reflection but opposite’s direction (180 out of phase)
o

• Matched line:

ZL - Zo
 no reflected wave  0
ZL  Zo
 Transmission Coefficient, T

• Defined as:
VL 2ZL
T   1 
Vs e - l ZL  Z0

where

V L  V s e - l  Vr e l
 STANDING WAVE RATIO (SWR)

Ratio of the maximum voltage to the minimum voltage or the

maximum current to the minimum current of a standing wave on a
transmission line

V Vs  Vr
VSWR  max  (unitless)
Vmin Vs - Vr
Most of the time, SWR is called the voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR).
 VSWR…

• When the incident and reflected waves are equal in

amplitude (a total mismatch), VSWR =  .
• This is the worst case condition.
• When there is no reflected wave, (Vr = 0)
VSWR = 1.
• This condition only occurs when ZL = Z0 and it is an ideal
condition.
 VSWR…

• In term of reflection coefficient:

1  L
VSWR 
1 - L
 SUMMARY

OPEN MATCHED SHORT

CIRCUIT LINE CIRCUIT

Γ +1 0 -1

 1 0 1

VSWR  1 
 Additional:
• It can be shown that
ZOCZSC = Z02

• Thus

Z0  Z OC Z SC
 Transmission Line Zo

• Zo determines relationship between voltage and

current waves
• Zo is a function of physical dimensions and r
• Zo is usually a real impedance (e.g. 50 or 75 ohms)
 z R L R L

C
G

R  j L  R  j L G  j C 
Lossy line Zo 
G  j C

L
Lossless line Zo     LC
C
Concept of Maximum Power Transfer
In lumped circuit

Zo PL

Vi I Z L VL

Zo ZL

Power delivered at ZL is
2
1 1 1  Vi 
PL  VL I  I 2 Z L    Z L
2 2 2  Z L  Zo 

Power maximum when ZL = Zo

 Resonant Line
A line terminated in other than characteristic
impedance is called a resonant line.

Non-Resonant Line

A line terminated in its characteristics impedance is

called a non-resonant or flat line
 Reflection in Transmission Lines
Reflection of energy occurs when there is an impedance irregularity i.e. when
the primary constants of the line are not uniform along the line or the
terminated impedance at the far end is different from ZO.

•This reflection will be maximum when line is open circuit (terminating

impedance ZR = ).

•This reflection will be negligible (or zero) when line is short circuit (i.e. ZR = 0).

•This reflection normally is undesirable on transmission line.

•If a line is terminated by its characteristic impedance does not reflect power,
such a line is called non-resonant line. The reflection coefficient of such line is
zero. If ZRZO Zo = ZR- Z0/ ZR+ Z0
Transmission Line Terminated with Zo
Zo = characteristic
Zs = Zo impedance of
transmission line

Zo

Vinc

Vrefl = 0 (all the incident power

is absorbed in the load)

For reflection, a transmission line

terminated in Zo behaves like an infinitely
long transmission line
 Transmission Line Terminated with Short,
Open

Zs = Zo

Vinc

Vrefl In-phase (0o) for open,

out-of-phase (180o) for short

For reflection, a transmission line

terminated in a short or open reflects
all power back to source
Transmission Line Terminated with 25 

Zs = Zo

ZL = 25 

Vinc

Vrefl

Standing wave pattern

does not go to zero as
with short or open
 Mismatch in Load
•The mismatch will produce standing waves, but with
less amplitude
 Matched Lines

– A matched transmission line is one terminated in a load that has an

impedance equal to the characteristic impedance of the line.
– Alternating voltage (or current) at any point on a matched line is a
constant value. A correctly terminated transmission line is said to
be flat.
– The power sent down the line toward the load is called forward or
incident power.
– Power not absorbed by the load is reflected power.
 Standing Wave:
The two sets of travelling wave travelling in
opposite direction set-up an interference pattern
known as standing waves.
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) :
The ratio of maximum and minimum
magnitudes of current or voltage on the line having
standing wave is called Standing Wave Ratio (SWR).
Open Load (OC)
Shorted Load (SC)
 Standing Waves…
• Interference of the reflected wave and the incident wave along a
transmission line creates a standing wave.
• Constructive interference gives maximum value for standing wave pattern,
while destructive interference gives minimum value.
• The repetition period is λ for incident and reflected wave individually.
• But, the repetition period for standing wave pattern is λ/2.
• Standing waves are waves of voltage OR current which do not propagate
(i.e. they are stationary), but are the result of interference between incident
and reflected waves along a transmission line.
• A node is a point on a standing wave of minimum amplitude.
 VSWR…
• The Voltage Standing Wave Ratio VSWR compares the
maximum and minimum values of a “standing wave” pattern,
caused by wave reflection.
Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements
• The standing wave conditions resulting from open- and short-
circuited loads must usually be avoided when working with
transmission lines.

• With quarter- and half-wavelength transmission lines, these

open- and short-circuited loads can be used as resonant or
reactive circuits.
 TRANSMISSION IMPAIRMENTS

Signals travel through transmission media, which are not perfect.

The imperfection causes signal impairments.

This means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not the same as the
signal at the end of the medium.

What is sent is not what is received.

 Attenuation
Attenuation means a loss of energy.
When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it loses some of its energy in
overcoming the resistance of the medium.
That is why a wire carrying electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the
electrical energy in the signal is converted to heat.
To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.
•As a signal propagates along a transmission medium its amplitude decreases known as signal
attenuation
• Normally a limit is set on the length of the cable that can be used to ensure that the receiver
circuitry can reliably detect and interpret the received attenuated signal
• If the cable is longer then one or more amplifiers (repeaters) are inserted at intervals along the
cable to restore the received signal to its original level
• Signal attenuation increases as a function of frequency
• To overcome this effect the amplifiers are designed to amplify different frequency signals by
varying amounts
• Devices such as equalizers are used to equalize the attenuation across a defined band of
frequencies
: Attenuation and Amplification
 Loss ( )
• Loss  is measured in dB / m
• Loss is the reduction of signal voltage along a line due to resistance and
leakage
• The resistive losses is due to resistance in conductor and ground plane.
• The dielectric losses is due to the energy needed to change polarization
of the dielectric material.
• The radiation losses is the energy sent from the conductor acting as an
antenna.
 Dielectric Loss ( D )
The dielectric loss D is due to the energy needed to change the
polarization of the dielectric material. The conductance is then:

G = 2  f C tan  [S/m]

The dielectric loss is then:

1
D = 8,68589 G Z 0 [dB/m]
2
Radiation Loss
• All lines are radiating more or less
• Radiation loss is often negligible from a signal integrity standpoint but important
from a EMC standpoint.
• Radiation loss is difficult to calculate

Return Loss
• The Return Loss RL shows the level of reflected wave referenced to the
incident wave, expressed in dB.

Mismatch Loss
• The Mismatch Loss ML is the power lost between two interconnected ports, due to
mismatch.
 Distortion
Distortion means that the signal changes its form or shape.
Distortion can occur in a composite signal made of different frequencies.
 Each signal component has its own propagation speed through a medium and,
therefore, its own delay in arriving at the final destination.
Differences in delay may create a difference in phase if the delay is not
exactly the same as the period duration.
 Delay Distortion
• The rate of propagation of the sinusoidal signal along a transmission line
varies with the frequency of the signal
• Consequently, when we transmit a digital signal the various frequency
components making up the signal arrive at the receiver with varying delays
resulting in delay distortion of the received signal
• As the bit rate increases, some of the frequency components associated with
each bit transition are delayed and start to interfere with the frequency
components associated with a later bit
• Delay distortion is also known as inter symbol interference (ISI)
• The level of inter symbol interference associated with a transmission channel
can be observed by means of an eye diagram
: Distortion
Delay Distortion - ISI
 DISTORTIONLESS LINE
• A transmission line is said to be distortionless when
attenuation constant 'α' is frequency independent and the
phase shift constant 'β' is linearly dependent on the frequency.
• Transmission is said to be distortion-less if the input and
output have identical wave shapes.
 RF Parameters
• As frequencies reach 100 MHz, the voltages and currents are
difficult to measure.
– A more practical set of parameters can be defined in terms of traveling
waves.
– Four such parameters are:
• Reflection Coefficient
• Return Loss
• Voltage Standing Wave Ratio
• Mismatch Loss
 Basic Requirements of an Efficient TL
• High transmission efficiency
• Very small VSWR
• Is able to operate over a wide range of frequencies.
All the above will be affected due to mismatch problems.

Ps Zo ZL

d
x  -d x0
 Effects of Mismatch
o Power loss in feeder line.
o Transmission line may get damaged.
o Frequency stability problem in generator.
o Signal gets reduced due to reduction of signal-to-noise ratio.

Ps Z0 M ZL

In order to avoid the problems we need a Matching Network.

Different types of impedance matching :
 Reflection less match
 Conjugate match
 Zo match
 IMPEDANCE MATCHING
• Whenever the characteristic impedance of a transmission line and its load are not
matched, standing waves are present on the line.
– Thus, maximum power is not transferred to the load.
 Why Matching or Tuning Is Important?
•To maximize power delivery and minimize power loss.

•To improve signal to noise ratio as in sensitive receiver components such as LNA,
antenna, etc.

•To reduce amplitude and phase error as in distributed network such as antenna array.

Zo Matching
Load ZL
Network
 Factors in Selecting Matching Network
• Complexity: simpler, cheaper, more reliable and low loss circuit is
preferred.

• Bandwidth: match over a desirable bandwidth.

• Implementation: depends on types of transmission line either cable,

stripline, microstripline, waveguide, lump circuit etc.

• Adjustability: some network may need adjustment to match a variable

load.
Adding an impedance matching networks
ensures that all power make it or delivered to
the load.

23
 Techniques of Impedance Matching
 Quarter-wave transformer
 Single /double stub tuner :
 Lumped element tuner
 Multi-section transformer

24
 Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements…

• The standing wave conditions resulting from open- and short-

circuited loads must usually be avoided when working with
transmission lines.

• With quarter- and half-wavelength transmissions, these open- and

short-circuited loads can be used as resonant or reactive circuits.
 Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements…

Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components

– Shorted and open quarter wavelengths act like LC tuned or resonant
circuits at the reference frequency.
– With a shorted line, if the line length is less than one-quarter
wavelength at the operating frequency, the shorted line looks like an
inductor to the generator.
– If the shorted line is between one-quarter and one-half wavelength,
it looks like a capacitor to the generator.
– These conditions repeat with multiple one-quarter or one-half
wavelengths of shorted line.
 Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements…

Resonant Circuits and Reactive Components

– With an open line, a one-quarter wavelength line looks like a series
resonant circuit to the generator, and a one-half wavelength line looks like
a parallel resonant circuit, just the opposite of a shorted line.
– If the line is less than one-quarter wavelength, the generator sees a
capacitance.
– If the line is between one-quarter and one-half wavelength, the generator
sees an inductance.
– These characteristics repeat for lines that are some multiple of one-
quarter or one-half wavelengths.
Matched Line Condition

ZL  Zo  Zin

Mismatched Line Condition

Benefits of Matching
 Matching
Techniques

Quarter-wave
Stub Matching Transformer
Matching
Properties of Lines of Various Lengths
 Quarter Wavelength Transformer Matching

• Quarter-wavelength transformers are used to match transmission lines to purely

resistive loads whose resistance is not equal to the characteristic impedance of the
line.

• Keep in mind that a quarter-wavelength transformer is not actually a transformer

but rather a quarter-wavelength section of transmission line that acts as if it were a
transformer.
λ/4 Transformer Matching…
 Properties of l/4 Transformer
1. Quarter-wave transformer has a length of l/4 at only one
frequency.
2. It is highly frequency dependent and in this respect similar to a
high – Q tuned circuit.
3. The practical behavior of transmission line transformer and
ordinary tuned transformer is identical but difference in
construction.
4. Quarter-wave transformer used as a filter, to prevent unwanted
frequencies from reaching the load, such as antenna.
5. If impedance matching is required for broadband, the
transformer must be constructed with high resistance wire to
reduce its Q, thereby increasing bandwidth.
 λ/4 Transformer Matching…
• A quarter- wavelength transformer is simply a length of transmission line
one-quarter wavelength long.
• The characteristic impedance of the quarter-wavelength section is
determined mathematically from the formula:

Z 0'  Z 0 Z L
where
Z0’ is the characteristic impedance of a quarter-wavelength transformer
Z0 is the characteristic impedance of the transmission line that is being
matched
ZL is the load impedance
Ex: Match a load with impedance ZA=100 Ohms to be 50 Ohms using a quarter-wave
transformer
• The problem is to determine Z0 (the characteristic impedance
of our quarter-wavelength transmission line) such that the
100 Ohm load is matched to 50 Ohms.
 Properties of Quarter Wavelength Line
1.Unless a load is resistive and equal to characteristic
impedance of the line, standing waves of voltage and current
are set-up along the line with node and antinode repetition rate
of l/4 shown in Fig.
Note that,
(i)The voltage and current minima are not zero.
(ii)The load is not a short circuit so that SWR is not
infinite.
(iii)The current nodes are separated from the voltage
nodes by a distance of l/4.
•At point A (current node, voltage antinode) the line
impedance is high.
•At point B (current antinode, voltage node) it is
reverse i.e. line impedance is low.
•In order to change the impedance at A, it is
necessary to change the SWR of the line.
If the frequency of operation is reduced, then there is reduction
in shunt inductive reactance and increase in shunt capacitance
reactance.
• Inductive current predominates and thus the
impedance of circuit is purely inductive.
• Now same piece at the new frequency is less than
l/4 long, since how the wavelength is greater and length of line
is unchanged.
• Thus, we have important property that a short
circuited line less than l/4 long appears as a pure capacitance.
• The various possibilities which is nothing but table
of various line lengths, termination and their equivalent LC
circuits.
 SMITH CHART
• The chart was
originally conceived
back in the 1930s by a
Bell Laboratories
engineer named Phillip
Smith, who wanted an
easier method of
solving the tedious
repetitive equations
that often appear in RF
theory
 Smith Chart…
• The most widely used transmission line calculator

• A special kind of impedance coordinate system that portrays the

relationship of impedance at any point along a uniform transmission line
to the impedance at any other point on the line.
 Smith Chart..
• The mathematics required to design and analyze transmission
lines is complex, whether the line is a physical cable connecting
a transceiver to an antenna or is being used as a filter or
impedance-matching network.
• This is because the impedances involved are complex ones,
involving both resistive and reactive elements.
• The impedances are in the familiar rectangular form, R + jX.
 Smith Chart…
• The Smith Chart is a sophisticated graph that permits visual
solutions to transmission line calculations.
• Despite the availability of the computing options today, this
format provides a more or less standardized way of viewing
and solving transmission-line and related problems.
Resistance Circles
Reactance Circles
Two Families of Smith Chart
Combined Together
 Smith Chart…
• The horizontal axis is the pure resistance or zero-reactance
line.
• The point at the far left end of the line represents zero
resistance, and the point at the far right represents infinite
resistance. The resistance circles are centered on and pass
through this pure resistance line.
• The circles are all tangent to one another at the infinite
resistance point, and the centers of all the circles fall on the
resistance line.
 Parameters plotted on the Smith Chart
• Impedance, Z (or admittance, Y) at any point along a transmission line
• Reflection coefficient magnitude ()
• reflection coefficient angle in degrees
• Length of transmission line (in wavelength)
• Attenuation between any 2 point
• Standing wave loss coefficient
• Reflection loss
• Voltage or current standing wave ratio
• Standing-wave ratio
• Limits of voltage and current due to standing wave
 Imaginary
Real Impedance
Axis Smith Chart Impedance Axis

157
 Inductive
Center C/Smith ; r = 1.0 reactance + jx

Wavelength Angle of
towards reflection
generator coefficient
0 λ - 0.5λ

Normalised
Resistance
Normalised
r = 0 (short
Resistance
circuit)
r = ∞ (Open
Circuit)

Wavelength
Angle of
towards load
transmission
0 λ - 0.5λ
coefficient

Capasitive
Reactance -jx
 Toward Constant
Generator Reflection
Coefficient Circle

Away From Scale in

Generator Wavelengths

Full Circle is One Half

Wavelength Since
Everything Repeats
K. A. Connor
160
RPI ECSE Department
• Sample transformations 50 - 50
Z L  50  j 0   0
using Z0 = 50 .


50  50
100 - 50
Z - Zo Z L  100  j 0    0.330
 L 100  50
Z L  Zo
Z L  25  j 0  25 - 50
  0.33180
• Infinite impedance has 25  50
Z L  0  j0  0 - 50
three possible   1180
0  50
combinations:
ZL     - 50
1.   jX   10
  50
2. R + j Z L  0  j 50  j 50 - 50

3. R - j j 50  50
 - 50  j 50  50 - j 50 
   
 50  j 50  50 - j 50 
j 5000
 2  10

50 - - 50 2

Z L  0 - j 50  - j 50 - 50
  1 - 90
- j 50  50
• The top half of the Impedance
Smith Chart represents inductive j50
Ideal Inductor

terminations, while the lower

half represents capacitive
terminations.
– Ideal resistors (X = 0) are located on
the horizontal centerline, 0 
– ideal inductors (R = 0) on the upper
half of the chart’s circumference,
and
• ideal capacitors on the lower half
of the circumference.
-j50

Ideal Capacitor
• The lower part of the commercially available 50  Smith Chart
includes several scales, including ||, Return Loss, Mismatch
Loss, and VSWR.
 Smith Chart…
• The Impedance Smith Chart is a result of a mathematical
transformation of the rectangular impedance Z, to a polar
reflection coefficient , where

Z L - Zo
   
Z L  Zo
 SMITH CHART…

For example,

j 
  L e
j 45 0
 0 .7 e

165
Reflection coefficient at the load
 SMITH CHART…
Scale for magnitude of reflection coefficient

Scale for angle of

reflection coefficient

167
 Amittance VS Impledance
• an admittance is simply the inverse of an
impedance

• where the admittance (Y) contains both a

real and an imaginary part, similar to the
impedance (Z).
Notice that the two
points are located at
exactly the same
distance (d) from the
center of the chart but
in opposite directions
(180◦) from each other.
Admittance Manipulation on the Chart
we begin with an
admittance of Y
=0.2−j 0.5 mho and
add a shunt
capacitor with a
susceptance
(reciprocal of
reactance) of +j 0.8
mho.
 Solutions to Microwave Problems using Smith chart

1. Plotting a complex impedance on a Smith chart

2. Finding VSWR for a given load
3. Finding the admittance for a given impedance
4. Finding the input impedance of a transmission line terminated in a
short or open.
5. Finding the input impedance at any distance from a load ZL.
6. Locating the first maximum and minimum from any load
7. Matching a transmission line to a load with a single series stub.
8. Matching a transmission line with a single parallel stub
9. Matching a transmission line to a load with two parallel stubs.
 Smith Chart…
• Any point on the outer circle represents a resistance of 0 Ω.
• The R = 1 circle passes through the exact center of the
resistance line and is known as the prime center.
• Values of pure resistance and the characteristic impedance of
transmission line are plotted on this line.
• The linear scales printed at the bottom of Smith charts are
used to find the SWR, dB loss, and reflection coefficient.
 Smith Chart …
• ½l = one cycle of SC.
• CW rotation means moving towards generator.
• CCW rotation means moving towards load.
• At left-hand side, z = 0+j0 (short circuit).
• At right-hand side, z =  (open circuit).
• Scales on the outer circumference shows the amount of movement in
wavelength.
 Smith Chart…
• The outside of the chart shows location on the line in wavelengths
• The combination of intersecting circles inside the chart allow us to locate the
normalized impedance and then to find the impedance anywhere on the line
 Smith Chart…
• Thus, the first step in analyzing a transmission line is to locate the normalized load
impedance on the chart
• Next, a circle is drawn that represents the reflection coefficient or SWR. The center
of the circle is the center of the chart. The circle passes through the normalized load
impedance
• Any point on the line is found on this circle. Rotate clockwise to move toward the
generator (away from the load)
• The distance moved on the line is indicated on the outside of the chart in
wavelengths

175
 Finding the VSWR for a given load
• Normalize the load and plot its location on the Smith chart.
• Draw a circle with a radius equal to the distance between the
1.0 point and the location of the normalized load and the
center of the Smith chart as the center.
• The intersection of the right-hand side of the circle with the
horizontal resistance line locates the value of the VSWR.
Finding the Input Impedance at any Distance from the Load

• The load impedance is first normalized and is located on the Smith

chart.
• The VSWR circle is drawn for the load.
• A line is drawn from the 1.0 point through the load to the outer
wavelength scale.
• To locate the input impedance on a Smith chart of the transmission line
at any given distance from the load, advance in clockwise direction from
the located point, a distance in wavelength equal to the distance to the
new location on the transmission line.
 Basic Principles of Plotting Smith Chart

• It is either impedance or admittance value to be

plotted on the Smith Chart.
• The values must be normalized to the
characteristic impedance of the transmission line.
 USE OF SMITH CHART

The Smith Chart is a plot of normalized

impedance. For example, if a Z0 = 50 Ω
transmission line is terminated in a load.
ZL = 50 + j100 Ω as below:

6
To locate this point on Smith Chart, normalize the
load impedance, ZLN = ZL/Z0 to obtain ZLN = 1 + j2Ω

7
The normalized load
impedance is located
at the intersection of
the r = 1 circle and the
x = +2 circle.

8
Plotting Impedance Values…
1+j1

1-j1
 Smith Chart…
• Impedance divided by line impedance (50 Ohms)
– Z1 = 100 + j50
– Z2 = 75 -j100
– Z3 = j200
– Z4 = 150
– Z5 = infinity (an open circuit)
– Z6 = 0 (a short circuit)
– Z7 = 50
– Z8 = 184 -j900

• Then, normalize and plot. The points are plotted as follows:

– z1 = 2 + j
– z2 = 1.5 -j2
– z3 = j4
– z4 = 3
– z5 = infinity
– z6 = 0
– z7 = 1
– z8 = 3.68 -j18S

183
 Example

• Plot below impedances on the Smith Chart with

given Zo = 50
a) Z1  75  j 25
b) Z 2  250 - j80
c) Z 3  25  j150
d) Z 4  20 - j18
 Answers

• First, find the normalized impedances.

a) Z1  1.5  j 0.5
b) Z 2  5 - j1.6
c) Z 3  0.2  j3
d) Z 4  0.4 - j 0.36

• Then, plot on the chart (refer Fig. 5.4)

 3

Figure 5.4 4
 Add Capacitance
Example
• If Z =0.5+j0.7
ohm.
– Series capacitive
reactance of
–j1.0
Add Inductance
Example
Solution: a)

OP 5.25cm
   0.656
OQ 8cm

   POS  40o

  0.65640 o
Solution: b)

SWR=4.85
Solution: c)
Solution: d)
Solution: d)
Solution: e)
Input Impedance
Constant SWR circle
(standing-wave ratio)
Impedance to Admittance Transformation
• This simplified version of a Smith Chart shows both resistance in ohms (numbers on
the horizontal axis that range from 0.2 to 10) and the angle of a quantity called the
reflection coefficient, in degrees on the outer edge of the circle.
Conversion of Impedance to Admittance
• Convert any impedance (Z) to an admittance (Y), and vice versa.
• This can be accomplished by simply flipping the Smith Chart over.
• it can be extremely useful in designing match networks with
components like series or shunt inductors and capacitors
• A shunt inductor causes rotation counter-clockwise along a circle of
constant admittance.
• So, a series capacitor, added to a load, causes rotation counter-
clockwise along a circle of constant resistance, while a shunt
capacitor causes rotation clockwise along a circle of constant
admittance.
 EXAMPLE

The input impedance for a 100 Ω lossless

transmission line of length 1.162 λ is

measured as 12 + j42Ω. Determine the

load impedance.

214
 SOLUTION

(i) Normalize the input impedance:

Z in 12  j 42
zin    0.12  j 0.42
Z0 100

(ii) Locate the normalized input impedance and

label it as point a

215
 SOLUTION…
(iii) Take note the value of wavelength for point a at
WTL scale.
At point a, WTL = 0.436λ
(iv) Move a distance 1.162λ towards the load to point b
WTL = 0.436λ + 1.162λ
= 1.598λ
But, to plot point b, 1.598λ – 1.500λ = 0.098λ

Note: One complete rotation of WTL/WTG = 0.5λ

216
 SOLUTION…
(iii) Take note the value of wavelength for point a at
WTL scale.
At point a, WTL = 0.436λ
(iv) Move a distance 1.162λ towards the load to point b
WTL = 0.436λ + 1.162λ
= 1.598λ
But, to plot point b, 1.598λ – 1.500λ = 0.098λ

Note: One complete rotation of WTL/WTG = 0.5λ

217
 SOLUTION…

(v) Read the point b:

Z NL  0.15 - j 0.7
Denormalized it:

Z L  Z NL Z 0
 15 - j 70

218
 EXAMPLE

On a 50  lossless transmission line,

the VSWR is measured as 3.4. A voltage
maximum is located 0.079λ away from
the load (towards generator). Determine
the load.

220
 SOLUTION
j
(i) Use the given VSWR to draw a constant L e 

circle.

(ii) Then move from maximum voltage at

WTG = 0.250λ (towards the load) to point a
at WTG = 0.250λ - 0.079λ = 0.171λ.

(iii) At this point we have ZNL = 1 + j1.3 Ω,

or ZL = 50 + j65 Ω.

221
EXAMPLE
 SOLUTION

Step-2

• Draw VSWR circle with radius of ZL

and center as epicenter of smith
chart.

• Project the VSWR circle as shown

onto the linear scale at the bottom
of chart to read VSWR and
Reflection coefficient value
 SOLUTION
Step-3

• Join the load point and the center.

Extend the line to the periphery of
the chart. The angle which it makes
with real axis is the angle of
reflection coefficient

• Traverse towards source /

generator (Clock wise) by
wavelength equivalent distance of
2.5cm to reach generator G

Step-4

• Join the generator G to the center,

the intersection of this line with the
VSWR line gives the normalized Zin
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
 SOLUTION
Step-1

• Locate the point –j2.5 (normalized) on the R = 0 circle

Step-2

• Draw VSWR circle with radius of ZL and center as epicenter of smith chart.

• Project the VSWR circle as shown onto the linear scale at the bottom of chart to read
VSWR and Reflection coefficient value
Step-3

• Move from input towards load (anti clock wise) for distance of 3/8λ to reach the load

• Join this load point to center, whose intersection with VSWR circle would read the
normalized load impedance value
 SOLUTION
Step-4

• Join the generator G to the center, the intersection of this line with the VSWR line gives
the normalized Zin

Step-5

• Maximum impedance (Vmax) is the point of intersection of real axis with VSWR circle at
your far right

Step-6

• Minimum Voltage (Zmin) is the point of intersection of real axis with VSWR circle at your
far left
 SOLUTION
• VSWR = infinite

• Reflection coefficient = 1

• Load impedance = -j0.425

• Maximum impedance = infinite

• Minimum Voltage = 0
Types of Matching Network :
1. Impedance matching using L or C of a transmission line.
2. Impedance matching using L- C of a transmission line.
3. Impedance matching using quarter wave transformer.
4. Impedance matching using half wave lines.
5. Impedance matching using short circuit stubs.

Stub Matching : [ Tuning Stubs]

For high microwave frequencies, a section of a transmission line
can be used as matching network at suitable distances.
It can be connected in two ways (OC & SC)
1. Series (series reactance)
2. Parallel (Shunt reactance )
 Stubs
It is possible to connect sections of open or short circuited
line known as stub or tuning stub in shunt with the main
line at a certain point to effect the impedance matching.
• The matching with the help of tuning stub or
stub is called stub matching and it has following advantages.
(i) Length (l) and characteristic impedance
(ZO) remains unchanged.
(ii) Mechanically, it is possible to add
adjustable susceptance in shunt with the line.
•A stub matching is of two types.
Stub Matching

Single Stub Matching Double Stub Matching

 STUB MATCHING…
• A load which is purely inductive or purely capacitive does not absorb any
energy.
• When the load is a complex impedance (which is usually the case), it is
necessary to remove the reactive component to match the transmission
line to the load. Transmission line stubs are commonly used for this
purpose.
• A transmission line stub is simply a piece of additional transmission line
that is placed across the primary line as close to the load as possible. The
susceptance of the stub is used to tune out the susceptance of the load.
• Stubs are shorted or open circuit lengths of transmission line intended to
produce a pure reactance at the attachment point for the line frequency
of interest. Any value of reactance can be made as the stub length is
varied from zero to half a wavelength.
• Shorted stubs are preferred because open stubs will tend to radiate,
especially at the higher frequencies.
 Types of Stubs
1. Single Stub
2. Double stub
3. Triple stub
D
Z0

ZL

L
Single Stub Tuning

Single-stub tuning
circuits.
(a) Shunt stub.
(b) Series stub.
Shorted-Stub Matching Network
Advantages of short circuited stub −
(i) Less power radiation and
(ii) Effective length variation is possible by
shorting bar, thus, a short circuited stub is invariably used.
For lossless short circuited stub VR = 0.

Demerits of Single Stub Matching

•The single stub matching suffers from the two main
disadvantages as follows:
(i)The range of terminating impedances which can be
transferred is limited.
(ii)It is useful only for a fixed frequency because as the
frequency varies, the position of stub has to be varied.
 Stub Matching Step
• Consists of 2 basic steps:
i. The distance d is selected so
as to transform the load
admittance, YL = 1/ZL into an
admittance of Yd=Yo+jB when
looking towards the load at
MM’

ii. The length l of the stub line

is selected so that its input
admittance Ys at MM’ is equal
to –jB

The parallel sum of the two admittances at MM’ yields Yo=Yin,

the characteristic admittance of the line.
Stub Design Method
 Single-Stub Matching

Yin  1  jB Load impedance

1-  Input admittance=S
Yin  S
1 
If YL is real, then the reflection coefficient is real
Let d 0 be the distance from the voltage - minimum point where
Yin  1  jB
l S -1
d0  cos -1
4 S 1
l S
The stub length  0  tan -1
2 S 1
Example on Stub Matching
 ZL 450- j600
zL   1.5 - j2
Zo 300
Identify the point
of intersection.
(Point A)

Draw a circle with a

radius of OA

It cuts the center

line at 4.6,
therefore SWR=4.6

Draw a line OA and

extend it to B.

B represents
normalized
admittance, yL
The drawn circle cuts
r=1 circle at point C
 Stub length:
 0 .334 l - 0 .25 l
 0 .084 l
Know that:
f  20 MHz c 3  10 8 m / s
l   15m
f 20MHz

Stub length:  0.084  15m

 1.26m

Stub distance:  0.128  15m

 1.92m

The designed stub parameters are:

• Stub length = 1.26m
• Stub distance = 1.92m
Stub Design Example