The History and Concept of Quantum Entanglement: The Einstein Podolsky Rosen (EPR) Paper

Lecture 1
The history and concept of quantum entanglement
At the heart of quantum physics lie two new concepts: the superposition principle and
quantum entanglement.
Superposition principle:
The superposition principle tells us that a particle can be in the superposition of several
states, such as different polarizations (horizontal and vertical polarization for instance). A
famous and ancient example is the Schrödinger cat that is in a superposition of dead and
alive:
Entanglement:
In the famous Schrödinger cat story, a cat and a poison vial are placed in a box. At some
random time, the poison vial opens and the cat dies. Because the box if entirely closed (no
information can escape the box), we cannot say with any possible measurement whether
the poison vial has opened or not, the cat is therefore in a superposition of dead and alive
the same goes for the poison. We therefore have the following equation that now shows
entanglement between the cat and the poison vial, measuring one of the two gives
information on the other one:
Here making a measurement on the cat (checking whether it is dead or alive) tell us right
away about the state of the poison vial (opened or closed) without any need to make a
measurement on the poison vial.
The Einstein Podolsky Rosen (EPR) paper
Einstein, Podolsky and Rosen introduced the concept of entanglement in 1935 in an attempt
to demonstrate that quantum mechanics is not a complete theory, this includes a discussion
of what is reality and what is a complete physical theory.
They suggested a gedanken experiment in the second half of the article. A particle decays
into two particles of equal mass:
Measuring the momentum of one particle gives information on the momentum of the other
particle instantaneously. This of course was a problem for Einstein at it seems to violate
relativity (nothing can travel faster than light), and also the uncertainty principle as two
independent measurements can be done on the same system.
The first name ‘spuckhafte Fernwirkung’ was coined by Einstein, the term ‘Entanglement’
was coined by Niels Bohr, an interesting discussion between Einstein and Bohr took place on
this.
In 1951, David Bohm turned this concept into a spin ½ particles problem, something easier
to measure in the lab.
Bohm’s concept
Dissociation of a spin zero two-atom molecule where each atom has spin ½. After
dissociation, the atoms travel in opposite directions, making it possible to label the atoms (1)
and (2):
Because the process must conserve angular momentum, there are only two possible
outcomes:
- Particle (1) has spin UP and particle (2) has spin DOWN
- Particle (1) has spin DOWN and particle (2) has spin UP
Each of these two cases are equally likelky, the wave function can be written:
Simpler notation:
Paradox: The atoms travel in opposite directions, after some time they can no longer
interact directly. But still, a measurement on one particle reveals to the experimenter what a
measurement on the other particle would give, wherever the other particle might be. At first
glance, it seems to contradict relativity, however no information is sent faster than light.
When measurements are carried out on one of the two particles, the outcome will be
random: half of the time spin UP and half of the time spin DOWN. However, when both
measurements are compared, something striking emerges: the results are always opposite:
if measurement on particle 1 gives UP, the measurement on particle 2 give DOWN and vice
versa. This is the case whatever the distance between the two particles and the knowledge
we gain is instantaneous. Nothing to worry about since no information travels faster than
light here: we can’t use this to communicate.
We can also see what makes a solid, mathematical definition for an entangled state: it is not
facorizable.
Note 1
Entanglement is not limited to two particles.
N particles can be entangled, for 3 particles, there are for instance the GHZ states named
after Greenberger, Horne and Zeilinger:
Here a measurement on one particle reveals the outcome of measurements on the other
two particles.
Note 2
While spin is often used in entanglement experiments (photon spin ~ polarization),

continuous variables can also be entangled, such as position and linear momentum (as in the
EPR paper). Or between two time bins (time-bin entanglement).
Note 3
Correlations are crucial. For the state
Measurement on individual particles give random results. However, measurements on pairs

give correlated measurements. Correlations are therefore crucial in quantum entanglement
studies. This raises a number of technological questions: how one measure correlations in
the lab? We can look at two detectors and say that we have a correlation even if the two
detectors give detection signals within a given time interval.
Note 4
Hidden variables have been proposed to explain these correlations. The hidden variables
would be determined when pairs are created. ‘God doesn’t play dice’. Fully disproving
hidden variables remains to be done in the lab. One question is how fast could hidden
variables travel. This opens the room for loopholes.
Note 5
Different particles can be entangled. For instance, an electron spin can be entangled with a
photon polarization. In this case measuring the photon polarization would give information
on the electron spin and vice versa.
Note 6
Two particles (or more) can share several types of entanglement. For instance, polarization
and time-bin entanglement. This is called hyper entanglement.
Note 7
To measure and produce the type of entanglement we are discussing here, one needs to be
able to generate and detect light at the single photon level: we need single photon detectors
as well as sources of single of pairs of photons. The generation of single photons Is an active
field of research, a true single photon source on-demand, that would generate one and only
one photon whenever required remains elusive but systems based on nanoscale quantum
systems such as quantum dots are continuously improving.
Quick overview of the experimental setup that will be used in the laboratory.

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Lecture 1

The history and concept of quantum entanglement

The Einstein Podolsky Rosen (EPR) paper

Entanglement is not limited to two particles.

While spin is often used in entanglement experiments (photon spin ~ polarization),

Correlations are crucial. For the state

Measurement on individual particles give random results. However, measurements on pairs

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