Pad 803 Ecology of Public Admin

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: PAD 803
COURSE TITLE: ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS MANAGEMENT
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria Island Lagos
Course Code: PAD 803
Course Title: ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Course Developer/Writer: Mrs. Ibeme, Nwamaka P.

School of Management Sciences
National Open University of Nigeria
Victoria Island
Lagos.
Course Editor: Prof. C. P. Maduabum

Victoria Island
Lagos.
Programme Leader: Dr. OKEKE, C.I

Victoria Island
Lagos.
Course Coordiantor: Mrs Ibeme, Nwamaka P.

Lagos.
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© National Open University of Nigeria, 2012
First Printed 2012
ISBN: 978-058…
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PAD 803: ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Unit 1 Concept of Public Administration

Unit 2 Evolution of Public Administration
Unit 3 Ecology of Public Administration
MODULE 2 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND POLITICS
Unit 1 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics

Unit 2 Politics As an Activity
Unit 3 Public Policy Making Process
Unit 4 Political System Process and Forms of Government
Unit 5 Public and Private Administration: Differences and Similarities
MODULE 3 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN

NIGERIA
Unit 1 Concept of Indirect Rule

Unit 2 Nigerian Public Administration from Colonial Government
Unit 3 Development Administration and Administration of Development
Unit 4 Concept of Federalism
MODULE 4 COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Unit 1 Intergovernmental Relations
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Unit 2 Development of British Administration
MODULE 5 PUBLIC SECTOR ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA
Unit 1 Public Sector Administration

Unit 2 Values and Ethics of Public Administration
Unit 3 Principles of Separation of Powers
Unit 4 Concept of Bureaucracy
Unit 5 Criticisms of Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy
MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Unit 1 CONCEPT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Conceptual Clarifications

3.2 Scope of Public Administration
3.3 Functions of Public Administration
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4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
7.0 References/Further Reading
UNIT 2: EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

3.2 Factors that Influence Public Administration in Nigeria
3.3 Public Administration As A Discipline
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment
7.0 Reference/Further Readings
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UNIT 3: ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Ecology of Public Administration

3.2 Environmental Factors that Influence Public
Administration in Nigeria
3.3 Impact of Environmental Factors on Public Administration: Nigerian
Experience
3.4 Ecology of Developed and Developing nations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments
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Unit 1 CONCEPT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main contents
3.1 Conceptual Clarification

3.3 Functions of Public Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Before delving into the concept of Public Administration, it is pertinent to understand the
meaning of the word ‘administration’. Administration has a universal application and is present
in every human endeavour be it social, cultural, religious group, private or public.
Administration is what is done in an organization. The essence of any organization is to focus its
aspirations into productive relationship in a way that will bring out concise responsibility, co-
ordination and control. It has a synergic relationship which can be likened to human body where
every part performs its function in relation with other parts.
Having given this background description of the word ‘administration’, we can go ahead to
discuss the concept of public administration. You will also learn the scope and functions of
public administration in this unit.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this you should be able to do the following:

discuss eruditely the concept of public administration
know the scope and functions of public administration
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Conceptual Clarification
It is generally observed that administration is present in all human organization irrespective of its
nature. It therefore becomes imperative to attempt a definition of the term ‘administration’ before
delving into public administration. Many authorities have tried to define the term
‘administration’ but there is no generally accepted definition yet of that term.
According to Simon (1970:3), administration refers to the activities of groups cooperating to

accomplish goals. MacRae and Pitt (1980), sees it as the co-ordination of men and materials
within organization for the accomplishment of identified purposes. Administration also connotes
such activities as implementation of organizational decisions and goals as well as the systematic
study of these activities.
Omotayo et al (1987), posit that administration is the organization and management of men and
material resources to achieve the goals of collectivity of people. This collectivity may be social,
business religious or public.
Having understood what administration means, we can conveniently conclude that public
administration is that administration which is practiced in the public sector. It is the means,
arrangements, actions and processes by which the policies, programmes, purposes and goals of
government are realized, Adebayo (1981), Omotayo et al (1987) and Maduabum (2008).
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Woodrow Wilson (1887:197) sees Public Administration as the most visible side of government.
Ezeani (2006:3) posits that it is the management of government activities. According to him it
refers both to the activities of bureaucrats concerned with the management or administration of
government organizations and the study of these activities. It is the machinery for implementing
government policies to ensure stability and continuity at all times irrespective of any government
in power even during period of crises.
Public Administration is, generally believed to be, a study that deals with the science of getting
things done in the most efficient way in the public sector.
Adebayo (1992:4) sees Public Administration as a governmental administration that operates in

the particular sphere of government as its machinery for implementing governmental policies.
He believes that its study must therefore lead to the most efficient way of organizing the
executive branch of the government, its functions and its procedures. From his assertion, we can
deduce that Public Administration is basically concerned with the study of how a country’s
administration is organized as well as how it functions.
Basu (2003:3) observes that Public Administration is the management of governmental affairs
at the three tiers of government – national, state and local.
Akpan (1982) contends that Public Administration is the organ that carries out the programmes
and manifestos of politicians in power. He sees Public Administration as the servant of politics.
He went further to say that Public Administration covers every area and activity related to
public policy. Accordingly it includes the formal processes and operations through which the
legislature exercises its power. The functions of the courts in the administration of justice and
the work of the military agencies all form part of the Public Administration.
According to Balogun (1987:11), Public administration is the fusion of human and material
resources in order to achieve the objectives of public policy. One cardinal issue here which
attention must be paid is the issue of policy implementation. This is a very focal point in the
study of public administration.
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Public Administration can also be viewed as a body of knowledge which is directed towards the
understanding of administration of the government business. Olodejeet. al (2007) opines that
Public Administration is the study of the development and maintenance of policy by members of
governments, public agencies and public sector employees and the practice of implementing the
authoritative decisions they have made.
Public Administration concerns itself more with how politicians in government and non-elected
public sector employees devise policy, sustain the machinery of government and ensure policies
are put into practice.
Nnoli (2000:45), describes Public Administration as follows:
“Public Administration is the machinery as well as

the integral process through which the government
performs its functions. It is a network of human relationships and
associated activities extending from the government to the lowest
paid and powerless individual charged with keeping in daily touch
with all resources, natural and human, and all the aspects of life of
the society with which government is concerned. It is a system of
roles and role relationships which defines in a clear and practicable
terms as possible and in as much detail as possible the intentions
and programmes of government; the means
available internally and externally to accomplish them; where, when
and how they are to be accomplished; who is to benefit from them,
and, finally, it is a system that causes these intentions and
programmes to be realized in real life. It is a pattern of routinized
activities, involving decision making, planning, advising,
co-ordination, negotiation, conciliation, arbitration,
command and data gathering, through which the
government carries out its responsibilities.”
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The scope of Public Administration in the present dispensation is many and continuous. The
activities of governmentcover all aspects of human life. Public administration now covers every
activities that government is involved in be it welfare services, regulatory, entertainment,
security, foreign affairs etc.
The responsibility of government for social and economic development is enormous. It is quite
impossible for the political class to carry on these activities alone because they may not have the
relevant professional expertise, time and energy to perform them satisfactorily. This is where the
Public Administration comes in with greater concentration to the service content of
administration. The scope of Public Administration can also be considered by looking at the
functions of an administrator which is represented by the acronym POSDCORB which means:
Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting.
3.3 Functions of Public Administrator
Some authors believe that Nigerian Public Administrators credited themselves before and shortly
after independence. In those days, they were instrument of development insome regions of
Nigeria. They achieved some land mark developments some of which are still in existence. But
after independent these roles were vitiated by political instability and military regimes.The
Public Administration as practiced in Nigeria is still foot dragging when compared with their
counterparts in the developed countries. What then are the roles expected of a public
administrator? The roles of public administrator include;
� Public Administrator is involved in planning, organizing, staffing, directing,

coordinating, reporting and budgeting (POSDCORB).
� Public Administrator serves as a pivot of national development.
� They compliment the efforts of the private sector management.
� They oversee the implementation of the policy as laid down by the political class.
� They modify economic, political and social structures of the country.
� Play vital roles in assisting the politicians in developmental roles.
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� Aid the politician in decision making.
� They plan the work to be done as well as oversee its execution.
� They formulate objectives and goals to be pursued.
� Assist the other organs of government in day to day execution of their duties.
� They provide leadership, direct and supervise employees in public organization.
� They communicates and disseminates information to all those concerned.
� They also appraise job performance.
4.0 Conclusion
In this unit we examined the various definitions, scope as well as functions of Public
Administration. The concept of Public Administration deals with the effective and efficient
management of human and material resources for the maximum attainment of public goals.
5.0 Summary
The concept, scope and the functions of the subject were highlighted in this unit. You learnt that
Public Administration is the action part of government.You also learnt how to effectively
combine both human and materials resources in order provide goods and services for the
common good.You are, therefore, expected to answer the questions that follow this unit
diligently to test your knowledge of the contents of the unit. In the next unit, we
1. What is Public Administration?

2. Public Administration is the action part of government. Discuss.
Adebayo, A. (1981), Principles and Practice of Public Administration in Nigeria,

Ibadan, Spectrum Books Limited.
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Ademolakun, L. (1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative
Perspectives. Lagos: Longman Nigerian Ltd.
Akpan, N. U. (1982), Public Administration in Nigeria. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Ltd.
Okigbo, A.C. &Nsiegbunam, C. (2000), Modern Public Administration: Principles and

Practice. Enugu: Best Publishers.
Ezeani, E. O. (2006), Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:SnaapPress

Limited.
Maduabum, C.P. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in Nigeria: The Journey So Far.
Badagry: ASCON Press.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Limited.
Unit 2: EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MAIN CONTENTS
3.1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

3.2 Factors that Influence Public Administration in Nigeria
3.3 Public Administration as a discipline
3.4 Characteristics of Public Administration
3.5 Why you should Study Public Administration
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4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 Reference/Further Reading
1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you leant that public administration is that part of administration which is
practiced in the public sector. You were told that it is the action part of the government
and the medium for the implementation of government policies.
The art of administration connotes the direction, co-ordination and control of man,
material and resources to achieve some purposes or objectives. An administrator is one
who exercises that art. There are administrators in all human activities.
Public Administration is that type of administration that is carried out in any affair that
concerns the government. It has a universal application irrespective of the system of
government practiced by the country. It is the type of administration that is practiced in
all levels of government be it in the central, intermediate or local levels.
In this unit, we shall be looking at the evolution of Public Administration and the factors
that influenced the growth of public administration in Nigeria. We will also discuss
Public Administration as a discipline.
You are expected to study this unit very well because a proper understanding of the unit
will give you a proper footing and a sound foundation to grasp the rudiments of public
sector administration. So give this unit your unalloyed attention.
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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you will be able to do the following:
Trace the evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria,

Explain the influence of colonial masters as well as other
influenceson the practice of Public Administration in Nigerian,
Compare the modern public administration with the colonial
administration in Nigeria.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA
Maduabum (2006:16), posit that the present day public administration has its origin in the
amalgamation of the colony and protectorates of the northern and southern Nigeria to form the
colony and protectorate of Nigeria in 1914. He equally informed that the Nigeria’s colonial
experience also laid the foundation for economic and political underdevelopment of the country,
(Maduabum, 2008:291).
Before then, the natives formed clusters which were administered on the basis of village or
nomadic communities. Gladden (1972:1) wrote that some form of administration had existed
ever since there had been government. In such communities, people of the same or mixed
kindred found themselves living within common or defined geographical boundaries and interact
as individuals or groups for their collective well being.
They had rule and regulations guiding them and established control measures with the arm of
authority vested on their traditional rulers. This was collaborated by Muwanga (1978:1) who
traced the evolution of administration back to pre-government period. According to him, ‘since
man began to live in groups, even as a hunter, he had to subject himself to some form of
administration or another’. Such were the system of administration and social control in many
parts of Nigeria until the advent of the British who colonized them.
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The emergence of the colonial masters brought a different dimension to the native
administration. The British rule was fashioned to suit the colonial masters at the expense of the
native dwellers. Okigbo (1986) as quoted in Maduabum (ibid) rightly observed that the colonial
public service were created and fashioned to suit the peculiar circumstances of ruling the people
who were held in contempt by the ruling power, and considered valuable only for what they have
to contribute to the metropolitan country. To ensure a smooth administration of the natives, the
colonial masters created two forces: a military force to intimidate their subjects and hold them in
perpetual fear; and a small cadre of dedicated loyal servants to maintain law and order and instill
that fear in the people.
The whites dominated the upper and middle positions in the administration, leaving the menial
jobs in the lowest reaches for the natives irrespective of their educational qualifications and
skills. According to Maduabum (2006:17) the people were rendered completely passive and
highly de-motivated. This informs the non-challant and indifferent attitude to work by the
Nigerian public servants as they regard the job as that of the ‘white-man’ who took all the
benefits that accrued from the collective efforts of both of them.
However, the public service had undergone series of changes and reforms but it is yet to divorce
itself of the class structure and the colonial mentality which it inherited from the colonial
masters. This mentality has continued to be the bane of the public service in Nigeria. In the
words of Maduabum (ibid), ‘the structural deformities and contradictions inherited in 1960 have
continued to militate directly or indirectly against possibilities for growth, stability and
development. Political initiatives and regime initiatives have had to contend with structurally
determined and conditioned crises and contradictions while making it possible for new problems
to emerge and fetter.’ In effect, the post colonial alignment and realignment of class forces in
Nigeria have operated within the overall deformities and distortions introduced and nurtured by
the colonial state and the colonial elite.
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3.2 Factors That Influence Public Administration In Nigeria
As we mentioned earlier, Public Administration is influenced by the factors that operate within
the environment. Some of the factors that affect Public Administration in Nigeria includes;
Colonialism, political, socio-cultural, economic, legal etcetral.
1. Influence of Colonialism
Prior to the advent of the British rule, there was in existence some form of fragmented
administration in the colonies before the amalgamation of the Northern and Southern
Protectorates of the country in 1914. The salient features of the evolution of the Nigeria Public
Administration as listed by Maduabum (2006:14) are enumerated below:
a. From 1866 to 1874 the central administration for Lagos, Gold Coast, Gambia and Sierra
Leone was transferred to Freetown, Sierra Leone.
b. From 1874 to 1886, Lagos and Colony was administered from gold Coast.
c. In 1886 Moloney was appointed Governor of Lagos.
d. In 1889, the Niger Coast Protectorate was merged with the territories of the Royal Niger
Company.
e. On 1st January, 1990, the protectorate of Southern Nigeria was created along with that of
Northern Nigeria.
f. In 1906, Lagos Colony was merged with Southern Nigeria.
g. In 1914, Lagos Colony plus Southern Protectorate were merged with Northern
Protectorate to form an amalgamated territory called Nigeria. Thereafter, a Governor
General named Sir Fredrick Lugard was appointed for the amalgamated colony. He was
assisted by exclusively appointed all European Executive Council members.
Nigeria inherited a rigid centralized administrative structure that was designed to serve the
interest of the colonial masters. It was tailored to guarantee law and order, and to collect taxes
and fines. Theirs was mainly materialistic acquisition and not development administration or
assimilation as was done by their francophone counterparts. Adamolekun (2000:33) rightly puts
it thus, ‘British colonial rule was an administocracy, a dictatorship, and an authoritarian system
of government’.
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In the area of personnel, the upper and middle levels were pre-dominantly occupied by the
‘whites’ while the natives were confines to the menial jobs irrespective of their educational
background or skills. The people were highly demoralized and this made many of them to leave
the public service. Those that remained were very passive and alienated with their jobs which
they see as ‘the white man’s job’. This is partly attributed to the fact that the whites took all the
benefits that accrued from the job even when they did not work for it, leaving the natives who
are the rightful owners as servants and onlookers. This trend continued even after independence.
More so that even today, many Nigerians still regard the Public Service as ‘white man’s job’.
This is a significant legacy left for Nigerians by their colonial masters.
The foregoing has a lot of implications on the development of Public Administration in Nigeria,
some of which are as follows;
a. Native administration system contrasted sharply with the imposed indirect rule system
and complex structure of governance.
b. The creation of a weak, repressive, and non-hegemonic state were strategy by the
colonial rulers to further defraud the natives.
c. The Public sector was imposed on the people for the maintenance of law and order. Rules
and regulations were to be observed. This was quite novel to the people who were used to
their local ways and cultural values. The Public Administration in Nigeria became
obsessed with these rules and ensured its compliance but failed to take into consideration
the fact that the rules were only to be used as guide to an end.
d. The development of indigenous elites and their marginalization in the internal production
and exchange system had a negative impact on the psyche of the indigenous elites and the
society in general.
e. The hierarchical organization of offices in terms of control and supervision contrasts with
the predominantly form of traditional authority and its power structure.
f. The looting of the resources of Nigeria, discouragement of relevant and comprehensive
education, the failure to create useful and democratic institutions, and the failure to build
infrastructure that would facilitate mobility and contract amongst people were a huge set
back to the development of Nigeria.
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g. In area of personnel, the ‘whites’ were the sole occupants of the upper and the middle
echelon of the public administration, leaving the menial and lower cadre for the natives
irrespective of their academic qualifications and skills. This had a negative influence on
the psyche of the natives who felt marginalized and highly demotivated. As a result,
majority of the people regard the Public Service as a ‘white man’s job’.
2. Influence of the ‘Nigerianization’ Policy
Before the First World War, the colonialists avoided appointing Nigerians to positions of
authority based on racial discrimination but by the end of the First World War, the structure of
administration had been sufficiently established.
The Second World War gave a great boost to the ‘Nigerianization’ of the Public service. During
this period, Nigerians agitated for more appointments in the senior cadres which were hitherto
denied them. As a way of compensating Nigerians for supporting Britain in their war campaign,
the Foot Commission of Inquiry was established in 1948, to ascertain the possibility of
indigenizing or ‘Nigrianizing’ the civil service. The report of this commission paved way for the
‘indigenization’ or rather ‘Nigerianization’ of the public service. This policy later spread to the
Eastern and Western regions of the country. The Northern regions were later to tow the same
part. The later introduced nepotism and ethnicity into their administrative system. Nigeria gained
her independence in 1960 and by 1961, the Public service of Nigeria had been fully
Nigerianized.
3. The Political Influence
The political environment consists of the attitudes and actions of political and government
leaders and legislators, which affect all kinds of organizations and individuals. The policies the
political class made affect virtually every aspect of life so do the implementation of such policies
by the Public Administrators.
Nigeria gained independence from British colonial rule in First October, 1960 and since then she
had experienced both democratic and military administrations. Twenty two years out of the Fifty
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years of independence have been under democratic government, while the rest had been under
the military administration.
Nigeria operates a federal system of government with three tiers system of governance; federal
government, the State and the Local governments. The Act of governance is as stipulated in the
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria.
4. Economic Influence
Public Administration of a country is influenced by the Economic policies of the government in

power for instance the privatization and commercialization policy of the Federal government
which has influenced the prices of goods and weakened the purchasing power of the currency.
Nigeria operates a mixed economy whereby government invests in certain enterprises owned by
the state such as PHCN, Nigerian Ports Authority (NPA), Defence etc. These are known as
Statutory Corporations or Parastatals. The workers who work in these corporations are known as
public servants. The corporations are managed like private organizations except that the
management and board members are appointed by the government.
5. Socio-Cultural Influence
The socio-cultural environment also influences the practice of Public Administration in Nigeria.
By socio-cultural environment we mean the desires, expectations, attitudes, degrees of
intelligence and education, beliefs and customs of the people in a given group or society.
3.3 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AS AN ACADEMIC DISCIPLINE
Public Administration as a course of study emerged as a result of the deficiencies observed

byWoodrow Wilson (1887) in the aparatus for performing the numerous tasks of government.
Woodrow highlighted the importance of studying the administrative institution of government.
He opined that the task of public administration was ‘to straighten the paths of government, to
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make its business less un-business like, to strengthen and purify its organizations, and to crown
its duties with dutifulness’.
Other scholars developed interest in the study of public administration and their writings further
awakened general interest in the subject. However, despite the huge awareness generated by
these scholars, the subject lacks a universally accepted definition. While some argue that it
should be treated as a separate subject that should stand on its own, other insist that it should be
treated as a branch of political science.
Public administration can be viewed as those activities involved in carrying out the programmes
and policies of government irrespective of the system of the government in power. Whether
monarchical, totalitarian, socialist, parliamentary or congressional, presidential, all countries of
the world require a machinery to put into effect the policies of the government at all levels, that
machinery is Public Administration.
As a discipline or body of knowledge, Public Administration is geared towards the

understanding of governmental administration. It is concerned towards the accomplishment of
government businesses.
As an academic discipline, it is mostly interested in the structures, finances, materials and

personnel and how it can be more proactive.
However, there have been confusions and debates as to the real status of Public Administration.
While some state that it should be regarded as part of Political Science, some say should stand
alone. There are some that say it is a science; some opined that it is an art. Yet some classify it
as both a science and an art. Let us examine the subject under these three perspectives.
Public Administration As A Science
Some scholars and practitioners of Public Administration are of the opinion that Public
Administration should be regarded as a science. These group contends along with Dahl
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(1978:127) that public administration has a universal validity independent not only of moral and
political ends, but of the frequently nonconformist personality of the individual and the social
and cultural setting too.
Other supporters of public administration as a science argues that public administration is a body
of knowledge, which involves systematic thinking and research. The human activities in
organizations are guarded by principles and theories for the purpose of teaching and impacting
sound knowledge to the practitioners. This group attributes public administration as a body of
knowledge, whose main concern is to study and learn the purposes of government for the
purpose of teaching and assisting practitioners through scientific enquiry on solution to
challenges encountered by public administrators.
Other notable scholars like Willoughby, Taylor, Fayol, Gullick and Urwik etc also defended the
scientific side of public administration by their principles of administration. Pfiffner agrees that
specialists in Public Administration have achieved a considerable degree of uniformity in the
manner of approach to the solution of problems which is characteristics of science.
From the foregoing, Public Administration is a science since it has a well systematized body of
knowledge. It is an applied science because it utilizes the basic principles of sciences. It is
equally a social science since it deals with human beings.
However, we have to note that Public Administration is not a pure science like physics,
chemistry and biology which is subjected to a laboratory scientific experiment.
Public Administration as an Art
Many schools of thought which sees the action part of the administration recognizes public
administration as an art. Webster Dictionary defines art as ‘skill acquired by experience, study or
observation, the conscious use of such skill’. Art is an acquired skill used in doing things.
According to Okigbo et al (2000:32) those who posit that Public Administration is an art has the
following arguments to buttress their assertion:
a. That public administration deals with human behavior which can not lend itself to the
uniformity of nature, nor can it be easily analyzed in the way that physical objects can.
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b. The administrative behavior is not always completely rational.
c. That no concept of Public Administration can be studied as an absolute constant, that is,
something not affected by circumstances of time place and environmental factors
d. That since the various factors that influence the application of the policy cannot be
measured, Public Administration as a subject becomes inconcrete and flexible.
e. That laws also lack universality e.g administration policy changes from country to
country due to differences in political system in various countries.
f. That most principles of Public Administration enunciated by eminent scholars like
Willoughby has received serious challenges by Public Administrators who criticized the
principles as being logically inconsistent (for instance, principles of centralization and
decentralization).
3.4 Characteristics of Public Administration
There are certain characteristics which Public Administration possesses. This is not restricted to
any environment. It is to be found in Public Administration anywhere in the world. Some of
these characteristics are listed below:
a. It is an administration that is found in governmental organizations.
b. It implements government policies.
c. It is involved in policy formulation and evaluation.
d. Public Administration is an action part of any government in power.
e. It is found in all levels of government.
f. It exists in all tiers of government – federal, state and local government.
g. It is bureaucratic in nature.
h. It is involved in POSDCORB – planning, organizing, staffing, directing,
coordinating, reporting and budgeting in achieving its objectives.
i. It concerns itself with ‘what’ government does and ‘how’.
j. It is found in all organs of government – executive, legislature and the judiciary.
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3.5 Why you should Study Public Administration
Some of the reasons why you should study Public Administration are listed below:
a. It will enlighten you to what government does, or expected to do thereby arming
you with a parameter to assess the performing government and the non
performers.
b. You will understand the policy needs, its analysis, formulation, implementation
and evaluation.
c. It will exposes you to understand the constrains of government in executing
certain policies and why some policies succeed and why others policies fail.
d. You will understand who the public administrator is and the role they play in the
society.
e. You will understand the minds and doings of government as to budgetary
allocations; “who gets what and why”.
f. You will understand clearly how and why you as a Public Administrator should
be more proactive, effective and efficient.
g. You will get to know the relevance of Public administration in the society in
general.
h. You will get to know the government parastatals, ministries, departments, their
functions, their characteristics.
Setbacks to the Study of Public Administration
There are some challenges and constraints confronting Public Administration in Nigeria and
some other developing countries. These challenges may not be present in the developed
countries as they might have outgrown them in terms of development and advanced
technology.
Some of these constraints are discussed below:
a. Lack of knowledge as to the real status of Public Administration.
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b. The scope of Public Administration is wide.
c. Inaccessibility of the practicing public administrators by the public administration
students.
d. Dearth of books and professors on the subject.
e. Poor funding for research on the subject.
f. Few Universities offering the course.
g. Difficult to have access to official documents but we hope this will cease with the
passage of FoI into law.
4.0 Conclusion
We can authoritatively say that Public Administration has emerged and has come to stay as a
discipline. Unlike before, the course is now being studied in several universities all over the
country. The profession is practiced in all governmental institutions in the three tiers of
government and their parastatals.
We noted also that the issue of separating public administration as an art or a science poses some
difficulties as we have observed in our discussions above. Public Administration has traces of
Science and Art fused together. Still it will be quite wrong to view the science element of Public
Administration as pure science.
5.0 Summary
It is hoped that our discussion above has thrown more light into the debate as to whether public
administration should be regarded as an art or a science or as both. These discussions have
lessened the fatigue and the confusion shrouded in the search for the real identity of public
administration. It has equally contributed to a better understanding of the subject matter, their
roles and expectations in piloting the business of government for the overall development of the
nation. In the unit you will study the ecology of public administration.
26
1. Write briefly on the following

i. colonialism,
ii. socio-cultural influence,
iii. economic influence,
2. Give five reasons why you should study public administration.

3. What are the factors militating against the study of public
administration
Adebayo A. (1992), Principles and Practice of Public Administration in

Nigeria, Ibadan, Spectrum Books Ltd.
Ademolekun, L. (1986), Public Administration: A Nigerian and
Comparative Experience. Lagos, Longman Nigeria Limited.
Akpan, N.U. (1982), Public Administration in Nigeria, Ikeja: Longman
The Encyclopedia Britannica, (1977), Vol. 2, London: Encyclopedia

Britannica Inc.
Wilson, W. (1887), “The Study of Public Administration”, Political
Science Quarterly Vol. 2, June. Also vol. 56, December, 1941.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008),
27
UNIT 3 ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MAIN CONTNETS
3.1 Ecology and Public Administration

3.2 Ecology of Developed and Developing Nations
3.3 Impact of Environmental Factors - Nigerian Experience
3.3.1 Social Factor

3.3.2 Human Relations Factor
3.3.3 Language
3.3.4 Educational System
3.3.5 Time and Number
3.3.6 Climatic Conditions
3.3.6 Copy-Catism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
28
1.0 Introduction
You are welcome to the study of the Ecology of Public Administration. In this
unit which is basically ecology and its influence in Public Administration, we

shall make concerted effort to explain in details the relevance of ecology to the
study of Public Administration, Though it can be argued that ecology will fit in
better in such fields as Biology but the study will throw more light and bring to
the fore how ecology is just not an interactions between individuals and their
environment, but also as interactions between entire populations and the
universe.
When ecology is applied to Public Administration, it refers to the origin,
importance and impact of Public Administration to Nigerian environment. It
means the influences of all natural, historical, political, economic, socio-
cultural, religious factors and other significant national experiences that in one
way or the other influenced the growth and development of Public
Administration in Nigeria.
The study will also discern how environment ultimately affect the life history
characteristics of the citizens within a community or the entire nation.
You will find this course very interesting and exciting especially if you will take
time to study and understand this unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you are expected to:
Know the meaning of Ecology as it relates to Public Administration,
Describe ecology in relation to the basic types of interactions found
between individuals in ecological communities and how these
interactions may influence a community over time.
Know the difference between the ecology of developed and
developing nations.
29
Understand what competition for scarce resources is in ecological
terms, and how it influences both communities and evolutionary
pathways.
30 MAIN CONTENT:
3.1 ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
Biological Sciences definition of ecology is in relation of interactions

between living organisms and their natural habitat or environment. The Oxford
dictionary definition of ecology sees it as that branch of science that studies the
distribution and abundance of living organisms, and the interactions between
organisms and their environment.The general definition of ecology is the
relationship thatexists between plant and living organisms to each other and to
their environment.Human ecology examines humans and their interactions
with their natural environments. Ecology provides greater insight into the
evolutionary histories of species and provides contemporary examples of factors
that influence historical evolutionary events.
When applied to Public Administration, itmeans an umbrella term for a variety

of projects that involve the origin, importance and impact of Public
Administration to the environment in which it operates. In effect, it means the
influence of all natural, historical, political, economic, socio-cultural, religious
factors and other major national experiences that influenced the growth and
development of Public Administration of any nation. It studies the relationship
between the society and its natural environment. It is concerned with the study
of how different policies in different parts of the world are parts of the global
structure through which one polity exploits or complements the other. This is
necessary since the world is gradually becoming a global village. Political
ecology is actually more in tune with the interactions of the society and states,
rather than the populations and species, as well as politics as it relates to
environmental issues.
30
As a concept, ecology of public administration entails the interactions between
public administration as an organization and its environment.
Ecology of Public Administration in this context is mostly concerned with how

the differences in social, cultural and environmental factor coupled with
historical experiences affect the way in which public administration is
conducted and also how administrative actions affect the society in which it
plays a part. There is a general consensus that the very nature, purpose,
activities, structure and behavior of public administration is determined or
modified by the social, cultural, economic, political, legal, historical and
technological factors in the environment.
Ecology of public administration further means how Public Administration

relates with itself internally as well as how it relates with its external
environment in terms of politics, social, culture, economy,and technology, legal
and so on.
The first principle of ecology is that each living organism has an on-going and
continued relationship with other elements that make up their environment. It
should be noted that Public Administration has no universal application rather
it has to be analysed within the ecological attributes of each administrative
system in which it operates. In order words, Public Administration does not
exist in vacuum but rather exists within a socio-cultural and political
environment.Its activities are deeply embedded in that environment. MacRae
and Pitt (1980:16) state that ‘the cultural norms and values of society limit the
activities of public officials, and the methods which they can adopt to pursue
their goals’. In effect, though the formal structure of Public Administration of
different countries may be the same but their informal and behavioural
patterns possess considerable diversities that are conditioned by its
environment.
Richardson and Baldwin (1976:24) collaborates that Public

Administratorperceives the problems to be resolved, the alternative possibilities
31
within which choices can be made, the resources to be employed, the support
and oppositions to policies and programmes, the client to be served or
regulated, the market forces which establishes the cost of goods and services,
interest groups that are concerned about what the Public Administrator does,
the private and public institutions all form the environment of public
administration. It is within this environment that the consequences of public
administration are to be judged ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ … (Ezeani, 2006:52). In view of
this, public administrators should ensure that environmental factors are taken
into account when making decisions and ‘that environmental transformations
which are occurring by themselves may be modified’ (Riggs, 1980:108). The
environment is constantly changing and exerting influences of various types on
the organization. Some of these influences are beneficial while some are
detrimental. It is the duty of the senior administrators to take advantage of the
beneficial factors while counteracting the harmful ones, all aimed for the good
of the society.
3.2 ECOLOGY OF DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
Administration of development means the process of administering or guiding

the process of development in a country. Development as a concept has
experienced methodological and conceptual shift over the years.
Ecology of developed and developing countries is very unique in the sense that
while the developed nations practice those administrative systems that suit its
socio-cultural environment, the developing nation in turn is very comfortable
with imitating these foreign models or systems without taking into
consideration its socio-cultural environment.
This brings us to the theory of administrative imitation which is an attempt to

explain the persistence of the legacy of the past colonial masters to the
development of the administration of the colonized countries. What is involved
32
here is not absolute imitation, which would in any case be unrealistic, but an
attitude in the sphere of social psychology which will help to throw more light
into the mindset of the operators.
Most of the developed nations have experienced colonization. Most of them

have what is regarded as dual administration. There are elements of traditional
and modern administration taking place in one society.Riggs et al (1964)
investigated the impact of ecological factors in the environment, cultural and
historical experiences of societies on the need and effectiveness of
administrative systems in the management of development programmes. Riggs
and his colleagues opined that administrative systems can be better
understood if the surrounding conditions, influences and forces that come into
their shaping and modifications are identified and classified in relation to their
relative importance and influence. They went further to classify societies into
three groups:
a. Refracted societies - Developed or modern societies

b. Prismatic societies - Transitional societies (Developing)
c. Fused societies - Traditional societies
This classification made it easier to differentiate between developed and

developing nations, that is, refracted and prismatic societies. Riggs model was
that of administration in transition which he refers to as the SALA model.
According to him, developed society belongs to the refractive portion; the
developing countries come into the prismatic category having the combination
of elements of tradition and modernity. Although, they are moving towards the
refractive end, they are yet to completely disengage themselves from the
traditional fused society.The traditional society, on the other hand, belongs to
the fused portion. He posited that at the traditional society, powers are usually
fused, for instance, the Chiefs, Obis, Obas, Emirs exert so much power or
influence over their subjects.
33
Characteristics of prismatic society are as follows:
a. A high degree of heterogeneity -
Here, there is a mixture of traditional and modern society.

There is co-existence of a modern city with its sophistication
of intellectual class, modern gadgets of administration etc and
local villages run by rural leaders whose roles and mode
of administration may be quite local or traditional in character.
b. High degree of formalism -

There is a discrepancy between what isprescribed and what
is being practiced. Here, the laws in the Constitution is one thing
and the actual behavior of the people is another. This explains the
situation in the public sector and indeed the country in general.
c. Over lapping -
Here there is co-existence of formally differentiated structure
and undifferentiated structures.In this situation, new norms or values
that are appropriate to the differentiated structures are paid lip service
while the older values of an undifferentiated society still retains its
stronghold.
In prismatic societies there are;
Nepotism and favouritism:
This is regarded as the influence of family, God fatherismetc on the office

holder.
Ploy Communism:
34
Here the public office holder apply rules to suit his personal interest or to
benefit his constituency and not for the universal interest.
Ploy normalism and lack of consensus:
In this situation, there are so many norms operating in a particular system

and there is lack of rational relationship between ends and means. Power
distribution does not necessarily lie with the formal authority.
It is pertinent to point out that Nigeria Public Administration system is

better described in terms of the ‘Sala Model’.
Other scholars in ecology school of thought explain the features of

administration in the developing countries as follows that:
a. The basic pattern of administration is highly imitative rather than

indigenous.
b. There is wide spread discrepancy between form and norm.
c. Bureaucracy in developing countries does not enjoy operational
autonomy.
d. Bureaucracy is deficient in skilled manpower which is necessary for
developing projects.
There is need for adaptation which can involve imitation but not absolute
imitation which is really unrealistic. Imitation itself makes for balance but the
disadvantages are nevertheless considerable. For instance, imitation prevents
distinctive evolution of the social psychological features of each community and
apes that of another country.
3.3 Impact of Environmental Factors on Public Administration in

Nigeria
There are some environmental factors that impede the development of public
administration. These factors are not peculiar to Nigeria environment alone as
35
there are also found in other developing countries. Some of these are
discussed below:
3.2.1 Social Factor
One problem that is so deeply rooted in the Nigerian Public Administrative
system that has refused to go is nepotism. In this situation, the loyalty to
family, friends, local, state, and ethnic groups take precedence over loyalty to
the nation. This makes supervision and control difficult to implement. It
breeds corruption and mediocrity as merit is not the yardstick for appointment
to public office or the award of contracts.
The Public Sector is also viewed as a faceless entity or as ‘national cake’ which
should be sliced and eaten by those who are fortunate to get close to it. The
bigger your slice, the smarter you are viewed by the society. The same society
regards those who have been to the corridors of power but have nothing to
show for it as very foolish. They are scorned and despised even by their own
families. The result is looting of the public treasury by public officers,
politicians, the military et cetera. This have impoverished the country and
made the Transparency International to rate Nigeria as one of the most
corrupt nations in the world despite the acclaimed fight against corruption in
Nigeria.
3.2.2 Human Relations Factor

There is lack of cooperation and team spirit in the public sector. Undue
animosity, jealousy and bickering are strife in the system. The superiors in
most cases are very reluctant to delegate responsibilities and authority to their
subordinates. The subordinates, on the other hand, are often reluctant to
accept responsibilities from their superiors. The decision-making is usually
concentrated at the topmost levels with the resultant inefficient use of the
talents of both the superiors and the subordinates. Mduabum (2008:295)
contends that this unco-operative attitude snowballs into an aggression which
is misplaced and transferred to the unfortunate public thereby resulting in
36
poor public relations with its attendant consequences of inefficiency,
ineffectiveness, poor performance and poor service delivery.
3.2.3 Language
Nigeria is a populous country with over 400 different languages. There is no
indigenous acceptable lingua franca for the nation with the result that most
people are conducting their business in different languages. This has adverse
effect on productivity as well as on government business because, in most
cases, it is hard to communicate or execute instructioneffectively.
3.2.4 The Educational System

The educational system handed over to the nation by the colonial masters was
superficial. It was not really meant to educate the indigenes rather to serve the
purpose of interpreting their language to the natives, hence the emphasis on
reading and writing as against science and technology. This state of affairs
also was responsible for the emphasis on paper qualifications rather than
acquisition of skills. The paper qualification is tailored towards acquisition of
‘white collar’ jobs which is evident in the majority of the nation’s elites opting
for generalists as against specialists professions.
3.2.5 Time and Number

Nigerian Public Servants are noted for lack of time consciousness. They have
this mindset that their job is a ‘white man’s’ own where one is prone to stroll
in and out as one wishes. There is total disrespect of time which they
nicknamed ‘African-time’. There is lack of result-oriented attitude to their
duties. Our government is very good in shunning out good policies or projects
but find it difficult to define how or when these projects will be completed.
They are always not serious in tagging time to each project and follow it up
with strict compliance. To be result-oriented, according to Maduabum (ibid),
the organs of government should also be time-oriented and number-oriented.
37
3.2.6 Climatic Condition
Nigeria is situated in the tropics with hot and harsh climate which is not
conducive for high productivity in the work place. This is a natural
phenomenon which can be resolved by making sure that the offices are highly
ventilated or furnished with good air conditioners. This of course will suffice if
there is uninterrupted power supply in the country. Added to the above is, as
posited by Maduabum (ibid), to cope with it by establishing a positive
relationship between climatic and working conditions, especially in terms of
hours of work, rest periods, and recreational facilities.
3.2.7 Copy-Catism
Nigerian administrative system relies much on the styles borrowed from the
European system of administration as against the African system or styles.
And because these foreign administrative systems have different cultural
background which does not conform to our cultural values, there is bound to
be conflicts in most of the policy issues raised by the government and this will,
without doubt, be counterproductive in the public sector.
4.0 Conclusion
Public Administrators operate in a complex environment. They affect, and to

some extent, influence the environment in which they operate. In playing
advisory roles to the political class and also in policy implementation they must
consider the internal and external environment. Many governments are making
serious efforts to establish an environment that is beneficial to the society.
Nigerian government is towing similar line.
38
5.0 SUMMARY
From the discussion on the ecology of public administration we have seen the
influence of environmental factors as it impacts on the practice of public
administration in Nigeria. Ecology in Public Administration context is
concerned with the differences in social, cultural and environmental factors
and how environmental factors and historical experiences affect the way in
which administration is conducted. It also deals with how administrative
actions affect the society in which it plays a part.
We also observed that development strategies and approaches must take into
cognizance the very nature of the society involved, drawing at the same time
from its human and material resources to achieve social change in the society.
Ecology of developed and developing countries and their impact on Public

Administration is an interesting reading. We noted three categories of societies;
refracted, prismatic and fused societies. Riggs model which he refers as SALA
was also examined. This model helps to differentiate between developed and
developing societies and their characteristics. Finally, we opined that Nigeria
Public Administration is better understood from Rigg’s et al SALA model.
6.0 TUTOR MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1. What is ecology of public administration?
2. Why is ecology important to a Public Administrator?
3. According to Riggs, societies are classified into three
groups. Mention and discuss these groups.
4. Differentiate between refracted societies and prismatic
societies.
5. Mention and discuss 3 environmental factors that
influenced Public Administration in Nigeria.
39
Ezeani, E.O. (2006). Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu. Snaap

Press Ltd.
Madaubm, C. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria.

Lagos. Concept Publications Ltd.
Maduabum, C. (2006). Reforming Government Bureaucracies in Nigeira. Lagos.

ASCON Printing Press, Topo-Badagry.
Okoye, J.C. (1997). Modern Management Techniques and Development

Administration. Onitsha. Abbot Communication and Prints Ltd.
Okoye, O. M. (2002). Development Administration: Theories And Applications

in Nigeria. Onitsha. Abbot Books Ltd.
Olojede I., Fajonyomi B. (2007). Essentials of Public Administration.

Segeprints@yahoo.com.
Riggs, F.W. (1964). Administration in Developing Countries. Boston: Houghton

Muffin.
MODULE 2 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND POLITICS
Unit 1 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics

Unit 2 Politics as an Activity
Unit 3 PublicPolicy Making Process
Unit 5 Public and Private Administration: Differences and Similarities
40
UNIT 1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND
POLITICS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Contents
3.1 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics

3.2 Dichotomy between Public Administration and Politics
3.3 Challenges to Politics and Administration Dichotomy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
8.0
1.0 Introduction
You are welcome to this unit which is meant to explore the relationship
between Politics and Public Administration. The debate on the relationship of

these two has been going on and on and has always compelled scholars on this
subject toproffer some explanations on the topic in a bid to clear all the grey
areas contained therein.
Among the debaters’ are the groups who posit that politics and administration
are two distinct spheres and with different functions performed by them. The
others contend that there is no distinction or dichotomy between the two
groups. According to Adamolekun (1986:13), this group opined that there is no
rigid distinction between the two groups.
41
Among the two groups, one is vested with the responsibility of policy
formulation while the other is noted with the responsibility of policy
implementation.
This unit will highlight the symbiotic relationship between the two and the
importance of their working harmoniously for the common good.
This unit is very interesting and you will benefit very well if you will pay close
attention to all the issues discussed therein.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you are expected to have a good knowledge of the topics
discussed herein as well as be able to do the following:
� Discuss in detail the relationship between politics and public

administration.
� Differentiate between the administrators and politicians.
� be able to discuss in detailed the functions of the two to the society.
� Advise on the importance of a harmonious relationship between
administration and politics.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN POLITICS AND PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
The relationship between politics and public administration has always been a
case for debate especially at the formative years of public administration. In
those days, public administration had a confused status. Some argued that it
should not stand alone but should be lumped together with political science.
Even in the Political Science department, it was treated with scorn. Some were
of the view that it should be grouped with Management Science but there also
42
it could not find its bearing as it was swallowed up by many management
courses. Finally, it found its bearing when it was accepted as Public
Administration and to stand on its own and treated as such.
The relationship between politics and public administration can be viewed from
two sides of a coin. There are some contenders who feel that there is no
distinctive relationships between Politics and Public Administration as both are
inter-connected. They argue that the name public administration itself
embraces both politics and administration. Administrators sometimes make
political decisions in the course of executing their duties. For instance when
the politicians formulates policies, the administrators while implementing these
policies has to weigh and consider conflicting demands and interests and tries
to balance and synthesize them all for the growth and development of the
polity.
The other school of thought that sees politics and public administration as
different, contend that in all democracies, the politicians who are the
executives are vested with the authority of policy formulation. They set the
broad lines of the policies to be pursued while the public administrators merely
implements these policies and disposes current governmental businesses as
directed by the political class who are their boss. They execute routine tasks
and assignments to achieve the goals and objectives of the government in
power, while the politicians apart from formulating policies dictate the pace of
governance.
3.2 Dichotomy Between Politics And Public Administration
The pioneer scholars and writers on Public Administration notably Woodrow

Wilson (1887) stressed that administration lies outside the proper sphere of
politics and that administrative question are quite different from political
questions. He further maintained that though politicians set the task to be
performed by the administrators, they should not usurp its offices. This
assertion was corroborated by John Pfiffner (1935) as he maintained that
43
politics must be controlled and confined to its proper domain which is
determination, crystallization and declaration of the will of the state while
Administration should confine itself with the role of seeing to the
implementation of this will once it has been clearly defined by the political
class. In other words, politicians should stick to their role of policy
determination and stop meddling in the affairs of the administrators as they
apply their technical expertise in executing these political wills of the
executives.
Frank Goodnow (1914), also corroborated their assertion and made a clear
distinction between politics and administration. His was the classification of
politics as the ‘expression of the will of the state’ and administration as ‘the
execution of that will’. It is interesting to note that one of their contemporaries,
Willoughby (1920), did not dwell in trying to separate the two but went further
to state that administration is the ‘fourth arm’ of government along with the
legislature, the executive and the judiciary (Adebayo, 1992:68).
Dichotomy between Public Administration and Politics and the status of Public
Administration may be viewed by the classical model theory as postulated by
Taylor (1911). Taylor laid emphasis on the efficiency and productivity in
organizations which can be achieved by applying scientific method to guide
division of labour, to assign each worker to a specific task which will be
accompanied by a good reward for accomplishment, thereby increasing
productivity and efficiency. This Scientific method believes that there is one
best way to achieve a set objective. They also opined that once this objective is
defined, the management (administrators) should be given full responsibility
and autonomy to achieve the objective in the most efficient way by applying
the scientific method to the stated objective or problem.
The study of politics and public administration has shown that their roles are
complementary in nature. Whereas politics refers to the process by which
44
policies of the state or organizations are chosen and allocated, administration
deals with the process by which these policies are implemented and executed.
In other words, politics are more concerned with what available resources,
right and duties are allocated and to whom and when, administration deals
with how wealth, resources, rights and duties are distributed to those
concerned. Most of the functions of politicians and administrators are clearly
discernable while some are difficult to distinguish. For instance, the creation
of more local government areas is political while its implementation is
administrative. The chairman of a local government area may be a politician
but is not divorced from the administration of the local government. The
Legislatures also exhibit administrative behavior. Politics and administration
are attributes of both the legislature and the executive branch of the
government. In the earlier phase, public administration and politics are
regarded as the same study but later on distinction between them began to
emerge. While no clear cut formular may be possible in certain areas, it will
suffice to assign politics and politicians to the role of defining the broad
objectives of administration and manipulation of political power while
administration and administrators be confined to the roles of provision of
data, suggestions and criticisms for the formulation of policies and the
execution or implementation of the policy once it is made.
3.3 Challenges to Politics and Administration dichotomy
Political neutrality of the public administrator stipulates that the public

administrators must be politically neutral. They should put their politicking in
their pockets and not meddle with the affairs of the politicians. In other words,
they should not play partisan politics but instead are expected to show
allegiance to any political party in power.
However, the major challenge to issue of dichotomy of politics and

administration as well as political neutrality came to the fore as a result of the
following factors:
45
a. There is no clear cut distinction between politics and administration in
some instances. An example is the usurpation of policy making power by
the administrators. According to Wu (1978:341), this may be due to
increased need for efficiency or increase in the complexity of their duties
or professionalization and specialization of the specialists; administrators
have increasingly gained political power.
b. Added to the above is the demand by the political class, social critics and
the society in general to make public administration more responsive.
This means that the public administrators should showactive
participation and be more responsive to the needs, yearnings and
aspirations of the general public. When they do this they have added to
social equity to the classical objective of the political class. A potential
commitment to social equity means their meddling in politics and policy
making and this inevitably means that they are not politically neutral.
c. The Public Administrators these days are keenly involved in both the
policy-making and policy implementation of the people directly involved.
The administrators play an active role in policy making. According to
Appleby (1949), there is no such thing as policy making being separate
from policy execution. He opines that public administration is policy
making and is part of political process. Richard (1975:648) shares the
same view on this. According to him, Administrators are involved in every
step of the political process from the technical readjustments of
previously enacted policies, to the creation and implementation process
for a completely new and innovative approach to an immediate problem.
In the same vein Gross (1964), punctured Goodnow’s assertion of policy
and administration dichotomy and argued that policy making and its
execution are inseparably intertwined. He argues that purposes are given
meaning and content by the people who cooperate in carrying them out.
Purposes, he says, emanate from an entire organization in interactions
with its environment.
46
Chapman (1959:275) summarized it thus, that ‘policy’ is nothing more
than the political activity of the civil servant.
From the foregoing, we can deduce that it is becoming increasingly
difficult to separatepolicy-making by political actors from policy
implementations by the administrators.
4.0 Conclusion
There are two contending groups to note here; one group argues that
there are dichotomy between the politicians and the administrators while
the other group is insisting that there is no such dichotomy. The true
position, as obtains in most developing countries, is close interaction
between politics and administration rather than dichotomy. This is
evidenced by the following reasons:
� Senior public administrators, by virtue of their functions as
advisers to the politicians on policy matters, are often involved in
policy making.
� Public servants are sometimes prejudiced and their personal
opinions do affect their official assignments.
� Politicians sometimes delegate their duties to senior public
administrators especially on matters with policy implications.
� Even policy implementation itself has policy implications.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we examined the relationship between Public
Administration and politics. The challenges they face were also
discussed. It is hoped that you have acquired a lot of knowledge
regarding this topic that will enable you discuss it intelligently at
any level. In the next unit we will be discussing about politics as
an activity.
47
1. It is said that Politics and Administration are two sides of the same coin.
Discuss.
2. In your own assessment suggest the ideal status of Politics and Public
Administration in the society. Support your claim with necessary data.
3. Mention your duties to the political class as a Public Administrator.
Adebayo, A. (1992), Principles and Practices of Public Administration in

Nigeria. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.
Ademolakun, L. (1986), Politics and Administration in Nigeria, Ibadan:

Spectrum Books Limited.
Appleby, P.H. (1949), Policy and Administration, Alabama: University of

Alabama.
Goodnow, F. J. (1914), Politics and Administration, New York, Macmillian.

Gross, B. A. (1964), The Managing of Organisations, Glencoe.
Pfiffner, J. M. (1935), Public Administration, New York, The Ronald Press

Company.
Richardson, I. I. and Baldwin, S. (1976), Public Administration, Columbus:

Charles Merrill.
Wilson G. (1887), ‘The Study of Administration’ Political Science Quarterly,

vol.2, June.
48
Willoughby, W. F. (1920), The government of Modern States, New York,
Appleton-century Crots Inc.
Unit 2 POLITICS AS AN ACTIVITY
Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Nature of Politics
3.2 Politics as an Activity
3.3 Political and Social Change
3.4 Changes that may occur in the Society
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
7.0 References and Further Readings
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we will be looking at the nature of politics, politics as an activity as well
as the social change that goes on in the political domain. We will examine forms of
political and social changes that occur in governance such as revolutionary change,
change due to act of terrorism, change due to coup d’etat. We will also look at World
economic change.
This unit is very interesting as it will expose you to the happenings in the political
arena. You should study it very well and answer the questions that follow. You will
benefit a lot from this unit if you study it dilligently.
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2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you are expected to do the following:
� Define politics
� Explain the various activities that goes on in the political field
� Understand form of political and social changes that operates in politics
� Understand changes due to act of terrorism or due to coup d’etat
� Define and discuss Revolutionary change as well as
� Be able to write or discuss intelligently on changes in the global economy
� Be able to advise on the ideal social state for the society
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 THE NATURE OF POLITICS
There are many dimensions to the definition of the word politics. Many have this
impression that there is no universally acceptable definition about politics. Some
contend that man is a political animal and so everything man does has some tints of
politics about it.Wherever man is, whatever he does, whether in a village meeting,
church, market, government or family, he is engaged in one form of politics or the
other.There are some who see it as a dirty game played by crooked minded individuals.
There are yet others who see politics as allocation of power and responsibility,Easton
(1963).
Harold (1936), describes politics as ‘who gets what, when and how’.
Aristotle contends that politics is a controlled and coordinated activity without

destroying other things.
Politics is quitecomplex with many definition each correct in its sense. Still we have to
approach the subject from a common definition and operate from there.
Politics has been defined by the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary as the activities
that are involved in getting and using power in public life, and being able to influence
decisions that affect a country or a society, example party politics or local politics.
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3.2 POLITICS AS AN ACTIVITY
Politics as an activity is taken to mean the actions or inactions of those groups of

people vested with the authority and the responsibility of making policy decisions.
Political activities are contained in the decisions and policies of the government in
power. Policy, according to Flippo (1966:52), refers to general guides, rules and
procedures that govern behavior of any organized system. Ezeani, (2003:155) sees it as
‘a purposive programme of action articulated and followed by management to achieve
specific goals of an organization’. It is also a systematic government plan aimed at
introducing changes in government activity.
Politics is not confined to a place, it takes place everywhere but we are concerned with
politics as played in the governmental sphere. There are three levels of playing ground
for politics namely:
a. State which is taken to mean a country

b. Intra-state which means within a country
c. Inter-state which means international
STATE POLITICS
Political activity is first played out in the state or in the country. This involves all the
political decisions, activities or behavior of a state within its geo-political domain.
INTRA-STATE POLITICS
This means all the political activities within or among all the various units or groups
within the state.
INTER-STATE POLITICS
Inter-State politics is played in the international level. It is politics between one

country and the other. There are bodies which regulate the activities of politics as
played in the international level. Examples of such bodies are Organisation of African
Unity (OAU), the United Nations (UN) etc.
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3.3 POLITICAL AND SOCIAL CHANGE
Social change refers to an alteration in the social order of a society. The alteration may
be as a result of social progress or social retrogression or social cultural revolution. It
may equally refer to a paradigm-shift in the socio-economic structure for instance a
shift away from an autocratic to a democratic style of governance. It may also refer to
social revolution such as communist revolution China or the recently Egyptian
revolution or to other civil rights revolutions such as the famous Aba riot or Women’s
Suffrage or Civil Rights Movement. Change is inevitable in any human endeavour. One
of the great Greek philosophers’ Heraclitus once posit that “on those stepping into
rivers staying the same other and other water flow” in other words ‘for the river to
remain the river, change must constantly be taking place’. This is true of every living
organization, which, in order to remain alive, must constantly be changing.
When we talk of political change, we refer to changes that occur in political and social
environment within the political system. This may be peaceful or violent and bloody.
Political and social changes are issues that evolve from time to time in the
contemporary world. The change may be driven by forces such as cultural, economic,
technological, religious or scientific breakthrough.
Social and political institutions dictate the pace for individual and group behaviour
and they are meant to provide the resources individuals and groups need to survive.
The life styles of people are largely determined by the social structures in which they
find themselves. Social justice is, therefore a matter of ensuring that these structures
satisfy the basic needs of the people. When this is not done, what we have is conflicts,
disorder, anarchy, violent demonstrations which may, in worst scenario, be bloody.
Globally, there is greater agitation for change arising out of people’s desires and higher
insistence on freedom and an improved standard of living. Let us examine some of the
social and political changes as well as other related changes that are peculiar to
politics.
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3.4 CHANGES THAT MAY OCCUR IN THE SOCIETY
1. Social Justice
This is a situation where the Institutions and the Structures put in place are
satisfactory and also satisfy the basic needs of the people. In some places,
Institutions or Structures may be saturated with corruption, political exclusion,
unequal access to resources, and exploitation. The political system may be
characterized by ‘win-win’ setting or the ‘winner takes it all’ scenario. In other words,
it creates the system of winners and losers in which people are trapped or caged in a
particular social situation. In this situation, there is poverty, and denial of basic
human rights. The people’s basic needs or vital human interest go unmet and they
are excluded from making their contributions on the subjects that concerns them.
There is high level of discrimination, inadequate employment opportunities, lack of
education, lack of decent accommodation for the teeming population, poor sanitation,
lack of security, no electricity, scarcity of food et cetera. This depicts a faulty system
which will in turn, stunt economic growth and development.
The structures in the above mentioned society is weak and the processes obtained
therein will not be effective in dealing with the injustice and inequality that may
result from the faulty system. When this happens, the result is conflict arising out of
unmet basic social needs. This conflict may most likely continue and escalate until
changes are made to correct the wrong in the social structure. If the conflict
continues unchecked, it may lead to violence.
There are other changes that may occur in the political system. Some of these may be
violent and while others may be non-violent. All these are discussed below:
2. Non-Violent Change
This type of change is characterized by peaceful resolution and transformation

devoid of violence. It may take the form of reforms and democratization and
respect to the rule of law and general discipline of the people. This type of change
does not stop at reorganizing the administrative system or parameter for resource
allocation but should include broad participation of the stakeholders to nation
building and governance.
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Non-violent change encourages democratic development, peaceful dispute
resolution, respect to the rule of law, freedom of expression, increased political
participation et cetera.
In this system, there is also freedom of association of other groups to any political
party of their choice. The government tries to develop a workable political
structure where other multiple social groups can participate to their satisfaction.
This type of state reform will not give room for any violence and will prevent form
of conflict from arising. It will also accelerate nation building and economic
development and growth. It will strengthen civil society which is made up of
business organization, human right activities, schools, churches, social clubs,
women groups, the citizens and so on.
In non-violent change situation, conflict is prevented by removing its underlying
causes and creating the conditions under which it need not occur. Injustice is
addressed before it provokes conflict. Also addressing persistent social problems
such as poverty, environmental degradation and destructive injustice will greatly
strengthen community and civil society. Strong civil society can promote dialogue
and reconciliation as well as foster good governance and build peace.
A good example of avoiding violence situation is by transforming the structures
that govern social and political relations and make power and resources accessible
to the people. This sort of change involves policy or institutional adjustment as
well as the creation of new institution, t meet basic political and socioeconomic
needs of the people.
3. Violent Change
The violent change is characterized by forceful measures to effect a change.
Violent change may be bloody or bloodless. It may be aimed at overthrowing a
government or abolition of a policy or reform. It is affected through the use of
force, threat, revolution, assassination, terror et cetera. Examples of violent
change in the society include but not limited to the following:
a. Mass uprising,
b. Revolution,
c. Coup d’etat.
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In some instances the violent change may occur when all efforts for peaceful and non-
violent change has failed. Violent change usually occurs in the following situations:
i. The disadvantaged or marginalized or frustrated group can mobilize

people with similar ideology to forcefully agitate for a change in
leadership.
ii. When the incumbent government refuses to allow a peaceful change or a

reform that meets the needs of the people, the people will revolt.
iii. When the people are discount or frustrated with the existing political,
economic or social arrangement in the society.
iv. Where the incumbent government refuse to accede to popular demands

of the people for fear of losing grip on power.
4.0 Conclusion
One of the foremost philosophers in history, Aristotle observed that man is a ‘political
animal’. This means that man cannot provide for all his needs working in isolation.
Politics is played in all spheres of life be it in the home, market, church, school,
private of public organizations etc. Whatever one does in life has some elements of
politics embedded in it. Politics takes place whenever there is a struggle over the
distribution of scarce resources by policy makers in any group. But our concern here
is politics as played in the state or political society, meaning people bound by law
within a definite society.
We observed that Positive social and political changes are a necessary tool for
transition to peace and will also address the injustice that brought the conflict in the
first place.
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5.0 Summary
We discussed nature of politics and its impact on the society. Wealso looked at the
relationships between the rulers and those who are called upon to obey. The various
conflicts that occur in the society and what causes them as well as how such conflicts
can be avoided or managed featured in this unit. The role of the Public Administrator
in all this is a vital tool for continuity in governance. In the next unit we are going to
look at the Public Policy Making Process which is a necessary ingredient between
Public Administration and Politics.

1. What is politics?
2. What is the relationship between Politics and Public Administration?
3. What are the Political changes that may occur in the society and why do they
occur?

Appadorarai, A. (1975), Substance of Politics, Delhi: Oxford University Press.
Easton, D. (1968), “Political Science” in International Encyclopedia of the Social
Science vol. 12 New York: Crowell Collier and Maconillan Inc.
Hyneman, C.S. (1959), The Study of Politics, Urban III: University of Illinois Press.
Nnoli, O. (1986), Introduction to Politics, Enugu: Fourth Dimension Publishers.
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Unit 3 Public Policy Making Process
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Definition of Public policy

3.2 Types of Public policy
3.3 Reasons for the study of Public policy
3.4 Policy Making Process
3.5 Ecological Impact on Policy Making and Implementation
3.6 Major Actors in Policy Formulation and Implementation
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
You are welcome to this particular unit which deals with public policy making. In this unit, we
are going to examine the meaning and nature of public policy. We will examine in detail the
processes by which public policy are made or what we call the policy cycle. We will also
examine the relevance of public policy making in public administration.
As a public sector manager, you will benefit immensely if you understand this unit very well. It
is an interesting topic and we have tried to simplify and make it an interesting reading. So give
this unit your maximum attention.
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2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you will be able to do the following.
Explain the concept of public policy

Define and explain fully the public policy process
Understand the environmental impact on public policy making.
Understand the actors in public policy process.
Understand fully the policy cycle stages
3.0 Main content
3.1 Definition of Public Policy
There are various angles and controversies surrounding the definitions of public Policy and up
till now there is no consensus to the Define. Let us examine some of these definitions. Nwiza
(1997) defines Public Policy as pronouncement of government intention(s) by people in position
of public trust demanding government actions or in actions and having impact either negative or
positive on the majority of the members of a given society. This definition is flawed in that were
declaration of intentions, wishes or principles, or expression of desires cannot be regarded as
public policy. Maduabum (2008) posit that public policy is an aggregation of peoples hopes,
aspirations and intentions embodied in official documents such as legislative enactments, white
papers, estimates, government circulars, conclusions of the council of the council of ministers
(executive councils) development or rolling plans, etc, or otherwise enunciated and enacted as
the current stand on certain issues. Accordingly, it is a deliberate and binding action by the
authoritative organs of the state designed to influence the behavior of the society. It is not a
haphazardons action but rather a systematic method of society fundamental national problems.
The systematic approach is vital so that the numerous public problems will be prioritized against
the available resources. As well as harmonize the various sectoral aspects of the total policy.
Asliford, (1981) Ezeani, (2005:289) take it to mean a pattern of purposive action by which
political institutions shape society. This involves varieties of efforts to tackle identified societal
problems. It has direct relationship with politics. Public policies are shaped by the manner in
which power is organized within the government. It is a guide to government actions since those
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values which set priorities and roles within the government and societies are encompassed in it.
It is a road map for politicians to follow in the examination of their political agenda. It equally
gives the public, who are the beneficiaries of these policies, an idea of what to expect from the
government.
In some instances, government’s inaction can also be as a result of its policy too.
According to Dye (1981:8). Public Policy is “whatever government chooses to do or not to do”.
It has to be borne in mind that policy does not mean the same thing as decision. Policy has a
longer time frame and wider in scope than decision. It is policy that provides the framework for
day-to-day decisions that are needed for the attainment of the organizational goals. Public policy
is a written statement of government’s action or inaction in a given political environment. It can
equally be called a guiding practices or actions in a particular activity or a problem areas
(Ezeani,2006:290).
Public Policy is an attempt by the government in power to address a public issue. The
government which may be local, state or federal develops this policy within the context of the
laws, regulations, decisions and actions of the government.
The distinctive features of the Public Policy according to Maduabum (2003:36) are:
I. Public Policy is not a random or a chance behavior but rather a purposive or goal-
oriented action;
II. Public Policy consists of courses or patterns of action by governmental officials;
III. Public Policy is what government actually do, not what they intend to do, or say they are
going to do;
IV. Public Policy involver some form of overt government action to affect a particular
problem;
V. Public Policy involves also a decision by government officials not to take action, to do
nothing, on some matter on which governmental/ involvement is sought; and
VI. Public Policy is based on Law and is authoritative. This means that if has legal qualities
that distinguished it from the policies of the private organization.
It is pertinent to note that policies remain ‘ideas’ unless subjected to thorough analysis to ensure
that they address the goals for which they are being formulated.
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3.2 Types of Public Policy
There are various terminologies which you will see in the study of public policy. These include:
Policy demand, Policy decisions, Policy statements, policy outputs and Policy outcome. Let us
examine these definitions.
1. Policy demands. These are agitations emanating from the public or individual or groups
to the government or its representative demanding for action or in action on certain
issues.
2. Policy Decisions—these are decisions which government or its representatives have
made that given direction to its public actions or in actions.
3. Policy Statements --- these are formal expressions or articulations of public policy.
Examples are legislative statute, presidential orders, decrees, administration rules.
4. Policy Outputs--- these are those things that are actually done as a result of policy
decisions or statements. It is pertinent to note that sometimes policy outputs many differ
from initial policy statements.
5. Policy Outcomes--- these are the consequences that results from government’s actions or
in actions. Example is the consequences (intended or unitended) of the removal of fuel
subsidy.
3.3 Reasons for the study of Public Policy
The study of Public Policy is very crucial to public sector managers because public policy is one
subject that affects the lies and well being of the people and the knowledge of it will adequately
equip than P.Seet.angers with clearer understanding of the reasons for some, if not all, of
governments thought process and its actions or inactions. This will help p.singrs to proffer
intelligent advice to the government. A part from this, there is also three reasons for studying
public policy. They include:
a) Professional Reasons
b) Scientific reasons and
c) Political reasons.
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a. Professional reasons:
The study of public policy will enhance your knowledge of the causes and effects of the
public policy. This will in turn help you to give a professional advice on public policy
issues.
b. Scientific reasons:
Then can study public policy so as to acquire greater knowledge on the origin, the
processes of its development or analysis and its benefits to the society in general. This
will increase the public of the workings of the government.
c. Political reasons:
We can also study public policy for political reasons. For instance, to check the activities
of the government and ensure that they adopt the right policies that will yield the desired
goals and objectives. This will help to correct the excesses of the government.
3.4 Policy Making Process

Public policy making process involves what we call ‘policy cycle’. The policy cycle is
made up of policy initiation, policy formulation, policy implementation, policy
monitoring and evaluation, and policy reformulation.
The policy cycle

Policy Initiation
Policy Formulation
Policy Reformulation
Policy Implementation
Policy Monitoring and

Evaluation
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Before we go further to discuss the stage of this cycle, we to understand what public making is
all about, what exactly is public policy making?
Public policy making according to maduabum (2008), is an actively which provides the
necessary framework for major decision that lead to concrete actions aimed at solving specific
problems or improving an existing situation. In the political sphere, policy making serve as the
instrument for authoritative allocation of resources and values to various sectors and activities
towards achieving specific socio-political and economic objectives of the government. Having
understood the meaning of public policy making, we can now go ahead to explain the stages of
the policy making cycle.
a) Policy Initiation:
This involves intensive research effort geared towards the collection and generation of
relevant information, ideals, and facts and figures to appraise a proposed policy in terms
of its chances of success or otherwise.
At this initial stage, a group of experts from multi- disciplinary sector or ‘think-tank’ may
be utilized. Other groups who may e used to initiate policies are politicians, legislative
class, judiciary, community, professional bodies, pressure groups, or other interact
groups.
This stage will also revel the popularity or otherwise of the policy, the anticipated
problems, the benefits, the cost implication etc. the cost-benefit analysis if thoroughly
done at this stage will facilitate the policy formulation and passage into law. It will also
greatly enhance the success of the policy.
In Nigeria, policy initiation is undertaken by government and the politicians.
Sometimes the interest groups gets involved but government’s reaction towards society’s
popular demand are still weak.
This is not so in the developed countries where lots of think-tank’, data and information
are readily available for the government to articulate any proposed policy.
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b) Policy Formulation:
These are a thin line between policy initiation and policy formulation. In policy
formulation, all the major and vital features of the policy such as unambiguous definition,
policy statement and content, policy objectives, plans, programmers, projects and key
activities policy priorities and its strategies, the resources available, implementation
agencies and their roles, enabling environment for successful implementation are brought
to the drawing table and initially reviewed at this stage. A good policy formulation is sine
qua non to sustainability and positive impact of the policy to the society. In other to
achieve this following stage should be taken in the formulation stage:
i. Identification of the problem
ii. Unambiguous definition of the policy issue,
iii. Identification of the source of data.
iv. Collection of data and data analysis.
v. Formulation of all the policy options.
vi. Organization and institutional framework for policy formulation (e.g. relevant
civil servant departments).
vii. Collection and Analysis of data is done after adequate consultation with the target
groups and political leaders.
viii. Draft content of policy proposal (involving the primary/ secondary data) as well
as stakeholders input, and availability of human and material resources.
The public servants acts as chief advisers in the public policy process but the responsibility for
policy formulation and the policy itself rests with the politicians or the political decision makers.
c) Policy Implementation
This is a very critical stage to the success of any policy process. It is made up of the
following: identification of policy plans, programmers, projects and activities, explicit,
definition of the roles of implementing agencies, detailed strategies and linkages as well
as coordinating mechanisms, resources (human and materials) acquisition and utilization.
For an effective and efficient policy implementation to take place, sound and proper
managerial capabilities in terms of resource mobilization, and rationalization, budgeting,
cost- benefit analysis, proper activity scheduling, supervision, problem solving and sound
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decision making technique is required policy performance standards and targets should
be set and met.
The principal implementing agency or machinery for policy implementation is the public
service. Sometimes, government may use committees or task force or commission for the
implementation of its policy.
Nigeria governments have many good policies but have the problem of implementation.
This is as a result of indiscipline and corruption. The public service which in the major of
organ for policy implementation has been accused as being inefficient and ineffective to
respond adequately and promptly to government needs. There are some other factors
which have been identified for poor policy implementation in Nigeria there are: financial
misappropriation, lack of political will on the part of the government in terms of financial
allocation and prompt release of same, as well as lack of commitment and discipline by
the implementing agencies, undue rivalry, diversion of resources, poor definition of
policy or overlapping roles of the implementing agencies.
To avoid these problems the under listed conditions should be adhered to:
I. Policy objectives should be explicit and unambiguous
II. Principal factors and linkage must be identified.
III. Implementing agencies should be forfeited with adequate and capable staff.
IV. The implementing agencies should be given the necessary incentives and
independence.
V. Supportive roles and procedures for proper accountability, and transparency
should be provided.
VI. Adequate financial resources should be provided.
VII. The stakeholders must be consulted from time to time.
d) Policy Monitoring and Evaluation
This stage involves proper and continues observation of all the activities and output of the
policy, especially the planned activities, programmers undertaken at various stages of the
implementation. It is at this stage that problems are identified and necessary corrections,
adjustments are effected so as to ensure the success of the policy objective. The major
concern at this stage is to ensure that the implementation is in compliance with the policy
specifications, strategies in terms of timing, resources rationalization, adherence to
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planning etc. The evaluation of the policy access the successful implementation on the
basis of efficiency and effectiveness, responsiveness as well as the impact and innovation
of the policy. This may be called appraised. The distinguishing factor between
monitoring and evaluation is that while monitoring is a feed- forward mechanism,
evaluation is a feedback mechanism.
Monitoring provides information about the activity as it progresses with a view to
identifying derivations (if any) and effecting necessary corrections before they get out of
hand. While evaluation provide information about a finished project. This can be
regarded as a postmortem activity which will be utilized as a guide to future plans on
similar event or activity.
e) Policy Reformation
The data gathered at the policy evaluation stage will dictate the possibility or otherwise of
policy reformation.
3.5 Ecological Impact on Policy Making and Implementation
The environment where a policy is formulated and implemented exercises a lot of influence on
the making and successful implementation of that policy. Constraints of the policy makers also
come from the environment. These constraints can be political, economical or social issues.
a. Social Ecology
This includes such factors as: (1) level of literacy
If level of literacy is low, ignorance will be on the high side. this will also reduce peoples
participation in policy making thereby firing the policy makers, and policy implementers the
opportunity their selfish interest.
(2) Ethnicity
Nigeria is a heterogeneous country with many cultural differences which influence the life
styles and values of the people. Each of their tribes tries to protect the interest of their people.
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Often times this is done at the expense of others with the result that most policies in Nigeria
are crippled became of ethnic sentiments or interest.
(3) Religion
Nigeria is a ‘secular society’ but finds it hard to make a unified policy that can
accommodate every member of the society. Sharia practices and policies are offensive to
other religious practices.
(4) Dichotomy between the haves and the have-nots
There is a sharp distinction between the rich, who are in the minority, and the poor. The
former uses their position to influence the policy in their favour.
b. Political Ecology
The political environment involves such factor as:
i. Leadership styles
The type of leadership in the society freats affects the type of policy that
emerges. The leadership style may be (a) autocratic (b) democratic or (c) laissez
– faire
ii. Political system
The political system in any society plays is major impact on the nation policy.
The political system may be capitalist, socialist, democratic, military etc.
Some policies may help to stabilize the country or state while others may lead to
instability of the government.
c. Economical Ecology
These are policies which indicate the rates of society economic development on the
policy. They are:
� Technological development
� Information technology
� Tax policy
� Employment opportunity
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� Gender equality
� Education policy
Other major constraints to policy success especially in Nigeria are;
� Political instability
� Unstable government policy
� Planning without adequate fact
� Selfish interest
� Military intervention in government
� Lack of accountability
� Lack of patriotism
� Lack of Evaluation of policy impact
� Lack of investigative media
� Lack of proper implementation
� Lack of political agenda
� Non adherence to party’s manifesto.
3.6 Major Actors in Policy Formulation and Implementation.
Policy process has two crucial levels;
a. the strategic level and the operational level.
Policy making in done at the strategic level while that its implementation is done at the
operational level.
The strategic level, especially in government, is made up of the political class while the
operational level has the civil servant, which is the bureaucrats, as its members.
Let us examine the major actors in policy formulation and implementation.
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3.6.1 Major Actors in Policy Formulation and Implementation
a. The legislature
This is the major players in policy making process. This is because they represent various
constituencies whose problem they bring to the house and sponsor for the passage of such bills
into law. They also have the power to ensure that the policies are implemented. They do this by
setting up monitoring committees.
b. The Executive
The President and his chief aids are another vital source of public policy. The executive lays
down policy guidelines and the types of policies to be pursued. The success of the government
depends on a good and viable policy agenda set out by the executive and his term.
c. The Bureaucrats
These are the career civil servants. In most cases they initiate policies using their expertise, the
information and data gathered as well as their awarneen of societal needs and demands of
various agencies. They have been classified as partners with the politicians in the collaborative
effort of policy – making but they should not arrogate to themselves the position of policy
makers. Their position is important, no doubt, but should be restricted to collecting, collating,
analyzing data or advising on policy options or alternative courses of action. But the actual
choice of which policy to adopt rests with the political class.
d. Interest Groups
These groups play important role in policy formulation. They send their proposals to the
legislature and also lobby to influence some policy proposals to suit their interest. The success of
these groups of people depends on their financial capabilities resources both human and material
at their disposal, the skill and influence of their leadership. They equally influence policy
implementation by show of support and active participation as well as monitoring the
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performance of those policies that affect them by making sure that such policies are properly
implemented to meet their specific goals. The cooperation of the interest group is crucial to the
suven of policy implementation. Any protest from them will bring adverse effect on the policy.
e. The courts
Court through the exercise of their statutory powers can influence the formulation and
interpretation of public power to review the constitutionality of certain decisions and actions of
the legislative and executive arm of the government and declares them null and void if such
actions ultra vires the constitution when this happens, the rhust of the policy is usually affected.
An example of such action is the 1981 Revenue Allocation Act controversy (Ade molekun
1983:147).
The important lesson here is that the courts can prohibit, facilitate or nullify the formulation or
the implementation of public policy through their decision.
4.0 Conclusion
This unit examines public policy. Policy is a vital tool of governance and the extent to which any
nation can progress in the governance of its people is contingent on the ability of its citizens to
accept and support policies. The environments within which policies are formulated and
implemented have a lot of influence in shaping the policy. The same environment places limits
and constraints on the actions of the policy makers.
5.0 Summary
The unit dealt with the meaning and stages of the policy making process. These stages are policy
identification and formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation as well as policy
reformulation. These stages are also known as the policy cycle. The symbiotic relationships
between all the phases of the cycle were examined. We also examined the environmental effects
of the policy making and its implementation.
We also examined the key players in policy formulation and implementation and the effect of
their actions in shaping and executing the policy process in the society.
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We hope you have learnt the necessary feature of the policy making and implementation. In the
next unit, we will discuss the political system process and forms of government.
6.0 Tutor-marked Assignment
1. What is Public Policy

2. Discuses the policy cycle
3. What is the importance of ecology in the formulation
and implementation of public policy?
4. List the key players in policy making and
Implementation and discuses their roles.
7.0 References/Further Readings
Ashford, D. (1981). Policy and Politics in Britain, as quoted in Maduabum, C. Ed.

(2003).courtemporacy issues in public Administrative ASCON, Badagry
Anderson, J.A. (1975), Public Policy Making: London: Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd.
Dye, T. (1997), Understanding Public Policy. New jersey: prentive Hall.
Ezeani E.O (2006), Fundamentals of Public Administration, Enugu: ZikChuksPiblishers
Maduabum, C.P. (2008), The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria, Lagos: Concept
Maduabrum, C. (2003), ‘Policy Making in Nigeria: Implementation Strategies’; Contemporary

Issues on Public Policy Analysis in Nigeria, Lagos: ASCON press
Nwizu, C. (1997), Organization, Basic Concepts, Enugu: John Jacob Classic Publishers
70
Olanigan, S.A. (2003), “Public policy – making process in Developing countries” in
contemporary issues on public policy Analysis in Nigeria Lagos, ASCON press.
Okoye, J.C, Chuckwaemeka E.E.O., Anazodo R.O (2004), politics and Government:
Introduction and Elements, Enugu: HRV Konsult
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main content
3.1The political process

3.2 Forms of Government
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
According to Segun and Bayo (1987), Political process is the framework of accepted political
institutions and processes through which conflicts flowing from a diversity of social groups in
society are reconciled. The essence of politics lies in reconciling political conflicts. A good
example is what obtains in the policy making cycle where demand is made to the government
71
and other formal institutions of the political system who in turn generates output in form of
policy decision. The output in turn produces a feedback on the impact of the policy in form of
either complaints or commendation and support. The process or the cycle never stops as long as
the political system is in place.
In addition to the above we will be studying the various forms of government. There are no
uniform forms of government in the world. Form of government vary from one country to the
other but in some instances they overlap thereby making it difficult to pin down the government
of a to state to a particular form. It is important to note that all government has certain common
characteristics such as arms of government; sovereignty etc. and you are going to see the
distinguishing and common characteristics of the different forms of government in this unit.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to understand and do the following
explain the political process

explain the various forms of government
distinguish the forms of government
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The political process
Political process is the inter connectivity of the citizens as shown or expressed in political party
activities, pressure groups activities or during elections. It is also those activities shown during
the formulation, implementation and interpretation of government policy political parties in this
context are association of groups of people who share similar political together to pursue
political power and control of government business.
According to Segun et al, (1987: 145). A political party is an organized group of persons who
share similar political view and who act deliberately in concert to gain control of the decision
making machmery of government that creates public policy. Political is the sole aim of parties
and politics thrive best on conflict. Because of the ever present factor of conflict in human
perception and relationship, politics and political parties have continued to play a very important
72
role in the society. There are some political parties whose sole aim is power seeking. Their
target is to create confusion in the polity and dictate the pace for their selfish gains. Political
parties are different from interest groups or pressure groups. The distinguishing factor between
the former and the others lies in the means it employs, the manner of seeking power and the
structure. Pressure or interest groups more often than not concerns themselves with what
government does and sometimes tries to influences government actions to be in conformity with
their own interests. Some political parties may be capitalist, welfares or socialist. While some
may be authoritarian especially if there is a powerful leader who dictates the pace in that party.
Advantages of political parties
Political parties play some vital roles in the political process. Some of their functions are:
1. They nominate candidates for elections.

2. They articulate and present people’s ideas thereby serving as a means for public
opinion.
3. They provide political leadership, recruitment and training of their members for a
greater responsibility of conducting government business.
4. They awaken political consciousness in the people regarding the affairs of their
country and beyond.
5. They form a common base for representation of diverse interest groups in the
society.
6. Political parties sometimes plays a vital role of national or ethnic unity
7. Political parties organize government. For instances the party in power sees to the
governance of the state while the opposition party, criticizes their affairs, thus
providing checks and balance that guides against misruce by the ruling party
8. Political party provides constancy and also an effective means of changing
government
9. They serve as a link between government and the people.
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10. It is not all about politics in political parties; it is also a means for socialization and
relaxation.
11. They are also employers of labour.
Disadvantages of Political Parties

(1) They create enemity between people or communities.
(2) Some parties pursue their selfish interest instead of national interest
(3) Some political parties are sectional or tribalistic thereby fostering political instability
(4) There is god fathenism majority of whom oppress the followers with tyranny
The above disadvantage notwithstanding, political parties is still the most vital organ in
political process.
3.2 Forms of Government
Maduabum (2008) posits that government is an instrument of a state by which its existence is
maintained, its functions carried out and its policies and objectives realized. The state, on the
other hand, comprises the entire community of the people including the government and the
governed. The state has a permanent status which survives every government as government
is transitional. Another vital feature of both state and government are the people whom
without whom the state and the government cannot exist. There are other factors as the
territory and the sovereignty of the state. The type of government adopted by a state serves as
an identity mark for such state.
There is no uniform type of government in the universe rather the type of government
adopted by any state will be used to distinguish the state from others. A government may be
unitary or federal, socialist or capitalist communistic oligarchy democratic or aristocratic.
There are some factors which determine the type of government a state will adopt. Such
factors include the following:
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1. The history of the people will contribute to shape the form of their government. For
instance a review of the history of Nigeria from the has shown that the
amalgamation of the diverse cultural groups into one national government will be
best governed under a federal form of government.
2. The economy plays a vital role in shape the forms of government. Such factors as
the distribution of wealth, mineral, natural and human resources as well as
technological advancement play a leading role in the society. These factors
determine the authoritative allocation of values and who allocates these values and
how.
3. Territory
The Geographical characteristic of a country plays an important role in the form of

government of that country. smaller country are more adoptable to unitary form of
government while large sized country are more suited to federal form of government.
4. Social structure plays an important role in determining who assumes power. It also
helps in shaping peoples idea about the best form of government to adopt for the
state.
5. Level of literacy orientation this refers to the ability of the people towards
happenings in the society. Their ability to decipher the good, the bad and the ufuly
as well as their knowledge of the forms of government will equip them adequately to
the best form of government to adopt.
There are many form of government such as;

1) Socialist as practiced in USSR and Eastern Europe. Their main concern is the equitable
distribution of power.
2) Communist as practiced in China. Communists are authoritarian and thrives best in absolute
control of power and self – perpetuation.
3) Capitalist government is characterized by private ownership of goods and properties and

other factors of power of production. There is a chose link between capitalism and
democracy as the former provides enabling environment for the basic democratic ideas of
75
equality for all, freedom of political association, expression, freedom of worship, Capitalism
is practical mainly in the western world and their former colonies especially in African.
4) Fascist government: according to abenstein (1973) facist government is noted

for distrust of reason, denial of basic human equality, code of behavior based on lies and
violence, government by elite, totalitarianism, racism and imperialism and opposition to
international law and order. Examples of the countries that practiced or that are still practicing
fascist government are Italy, Japan, Argentina and Germany.
5) Democratic government: democracy means government by many as opposed to oligarchy. It is

government of the people, by the people and for the people. Many states are adopting democrat
as their form of government though many of them are far from practicing true democracy.
Some of the countries adopt representative government which is rule by a few or self –
interested oligarchy. Examples of the countries that practice real democracy are England,
Switzerland and parts of Greece. Others are practicing debasement of ideal democratic tenets.
6) Oligarchy: this is government by a minority of the society. It is made up of the
people whose sole aim is acquisition and monopoly of power. They are authoritarian and
totalitarian in governance as evidenced in one party system of government. Examples of such
one party oligarchy are Soviet Union, China, East Germany, and Cuba etc.
Other type of government includes Aristocracy, presidential or monarchical, monolithic or
pluralistic.
Some states combine two or more of these types of government in their state. For instance in
united state of America and Nigeria we find capitalist, democratic and federal system of
government all existing in one state.
4.0 Conclusion
The form of government adopted by a state forms the identity of that state. This form of
government determines the statrility or instability in the policy, welfare of the people, their
rights, and relationship of the people as well as internal and external status of the state.
76
Capitalist which many see as better than other forms of government may infect favour only the
elitist groups who control socio – economic and political power in society.Some forms of
government promote a sense of pride and belongingness while some breeds hostility and
disintegration.The form of government may boost or mar the imagine of the county both
internally and in the international sphere. The best form of government is therefore one that
promotes both socio – economic and political progress.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we looked at the political process as a veritable tool for the reconciliation of
political conflicts. We also discussed political parties, their advantages and disadvantages. We
went further and attempted a definition of government and discussed the various forms of
government and their distinguishing features.In the next unit we will study the public sector and
the private sector Administration with particular reference to their similarities and differences.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assessment

1. Distinguish between politics and political parties.
2. What do you understand by the term ‘political process?
3. List four forms of government and discuss the features of each.
4. What are the disadvantages and disadvantages of political parties
7.0 References/ further readings

Duvener, M. (1954), political parties in Western Democracies, New York, John Wiley
and Sons Inc.
Easton, D, (1957), “An Approach to the Analysis of Political Systems” World
Politics, Vol.9
Ebenstein W., (1973), today’s Isms, New Jersey, Englewood Cliffs, and Prentice – Hall
Inc.
Maduabum, C. (2008), the mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria, Lagos,
concept Publications Limited
77
Segun, O. and Bayo, A. (1987), Elements of Government; An introductory College Text
on Political Science, Lagos, Friends Foundation Publishers Limited.
Unit5 Private and Public Sector Administration: differences and Similarities
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Meaning of Administration

3.2 Meaning of Private Administration
3.3 Meaning of Public Administration
3.4 Comparison of Public and Private Organisation
3.5 Features of Public Organization
3.6 Differences between Public and Private Administration
3.7 Similarities between Public and Private Administration
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor Marked/Assignment
7.0 References/Further Reading.
78
1.0 INTRODUCTION
This unit treats Public and Private Administration with emphasis on their differences and similarities. To
help us understand this unit better we will examine public and private organizations, their settings,
features, goals etc. It is when we have understood this background information about these
organizations that we will be in a better position to appreciate their administration and
performance.You are enjoined to read this unit very well as this will help you understand the topic
better.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:
� Discuss the public and private administration.

� Distinguish between public and private administration.
� Tell the similarities between public and private administration.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 Meaning of Administration
We will begin this unit by tracing the meaning of administration. Administration is simply defined as the
organization and direction of human and material resources in order to achieve specific set goals and
objectives. The rudiment of administration is the coordination, evaluation and the monitoring of
organization’s activities and programmes. Administration exists in both public and private organizations
set up for specific achievements. It may be in school, church/mosque, company, ministries, extra-
ministries, parastatals, local governments, corporations etc. Once it involves the organization of human
and material resources, then administration must exists in all these spheres of endeavours.
According to Simeon, et al, when two men corporate to roll a stone, neither could have moved alone,
then the rudiments of administration have appeared. Administration is also, the capacity of coordinating
many and other conflicting social energies in single organisms.
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3.2 Meaning of Private Administration
Private administration or organization can be defined as all activities that are concerned with profit
making by minimizing cost of productions and maximizing profit. Sometimes, it may perform dual roles,
that is, profit orientation and services rendering e.g communication industries.
Private administration is concerned with the activities of private organizations and institutions that are
not owned jointly or principally by the government.
Whatever management decision or policy implemented in private organizations belong in the realm of
private organization or administration.
Private administration recruits their personnel in a private manner. Their training and development can
be internal or external depending on the organizations and the nature of services rendered.
3.3 Meaning of Public Administration
Public administration has no generally accepted definition. The scope of the subject is so great
and so debatable that it is easier to explain than define. But for the purpose of this study we posit
that Public administration is a field of study (a discipline) and an occupation.
From the academic perspective, public administration can be viewed as "A program that prepares
individuals to serve as managers in the executive arm of local, state, and federal government and
that focuses on the systematic study of executive organization and management. This includes
instruction in the roles, development, and principles of public administration. Public
administration studies the implementation of government policies and prepares civil servants for
this work.As a "field of inquiry with a diverse scope" its fundamental goal is to advance
management and policies so that government can function effectively and efficiently.
Public administration is concerned with the organization of government policies and

programmes as well as the behavior of government officialsin the execution of these policies.
Public administrators are regarded as public servants working in public organisations and
parastatals at all levels of government.
Public administration could be regarded as both an art and science of managing government
affairs, enforcing laws and fulfilling public policies. It is an art because it concerns the practical
management of men and materials for public interest. It is a science in so far as it concerns the
80
knowledge of the ways and methods for efficient fulfillment of public policy. It could however
not be regarded as pure science as its activities could not be subjected to practical laboratory tests
as in physics, chemistry and biology.
3.4 Comparison of Public and Private Organization
Public Administration could be seen as a decision making venture. It’s the formulation and
implementation of the governmental goals, objectives, aims, targets and aspiration. Public
administration is also, the planning, assessment, appraising performance by government
executive and supervisors. It is therefore action part of the government. Public administration
can at times be referred to as public management or the two worlds used interchangeably with
other concepts like government administration and public sector administration. It is concerned
with how a country’s administration is organized and how it functions. In Nigeria, there are three
levels of public administration, which are:
i. Federal Government Administration
ii. State government Administration
iii. Local Government Administration
3.5 Features of Public Organization
The features and processes of administration are much the same for every organization. The
features of public organization assist the organization effectiveness towards the realization of its
goals and objectives so do that of the private organization.
These features are as follows:
1. It acts as a vital link between the government and the people. Information is passed from
the government to the government. In this way, public administration helps in linking the
two segments.
2. Public administration allows public servants for continuity, in the policies of successive
governments despite political instability that has characterized the governments of
African states.
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3. Public Servants/Administrators should not take part in partisan politics, so as not to
endanger the party in government that comes to power. On the other hand, the political
party that comes to power could victimize the public servants, if only they are involved in
politics.
4. The appointment, discipline, dismissal and promotion of civil/public servants rest with a
separate body called the public service commission.
5. Public/Civil Servants must be impartial. This means that public administrators must not
be influenced by party feelings, thus, and to ensure t his, they have been tarred from
participating in politics. This does not mean however that, they cannot vote in elections.
For instance, if a public/civil servant intends to take part in politics by standing for
election, he has to resign from service before contesting for any political post.
6. The principle of Anonymity. The detailed work of the administration is done by the
public/civil servants. They do not receive any blame or credit while discharging their
duties. It is however, the ministers of various ministries that do receive the credit or
blame. Thus, while the minster defends him against any mistake, he does not mention the
name of any public/civil servant.
7. Neutrality of Public Administration. In all the policies of government, they must be seen
protecting the image of the governments, without antagonizing the activities of the
governments and their organs.
8. Organizational Structure. All public organizations or administration must possess internal

structure that may be hierarchical structure also contains chain of command, unity of
control, etc. for the smooth running of the organization.
9. Public organization provides essentially services to the people although; it may be

engaged in profit orientation, as established in the government public corporations and
parastatals.
10. Public organization or administration is established through the Act of Parliament, with
constitutional provision of their services to the three tiers of government.
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It should be noted that all these features and characteristics of public administration can be
applied to private administration. But the principal aim and objective of establishing private
organizations is profit maximization alsothere are no central bodies for recruitment of their staff.
3.6 Differences between Public and Private Administration
As earlier stated in the meaning of Public and Private Administration, there exist some
differences in the two organizations in their sorting, formation and structures.
1. The size of public organizations is usually larger than those of private organizations.
Many private organizations structures do not extend beyond their locality.
2. Public organizations are being financed from various taxes or owned by the tax payers.
But the private organization is owned by private individuals.
3. Recruitment in the public services is based on geographical spread (federal character)

those of the private sector, are mostly on merit irrespective of applicant’s state of origin.
4. Personnel procurement in the public sector is done by a centralized body, civil service
commission, or by ministries acting on their behalf and according to the guideline
formulated by it. While in the private sector, individual organization is responsible for the
living of its staff.
5. Public administration is service oriented and capital intensive while private organization
is a profit-making entity. The private enterprise is essentially business oriented and profit
maximization is their priority.
6. Public administration performs numerous activities e.g. external defence (military

services), police affairs, currency, maintenance of law and order, whereas the private
organizations have limited activities e.g. engineering, industry, production,
communication, textiles, commerce and banking etc.
7. Shareholders control the private sectorsorganizations, while the government controls that
of public sectors.
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8. The public organization is opened to more criticism (either constructive or otherwise)
while this is not so in private organisaations.
9. The private enterprises are engaged mostly in providing basic consumer goods needed by
the populace especially manufacturing goods while public organizations are engaged in
regulating the activities of the manufacturing industries, through the federal and state
ministries of trade and industries or their agencies.
10. The clientage of public organization is very large, and those enjoying the services are
numerous e.g. road, electricity, water, drainage etc. whereas, the clientage in the private
organization is not.
11. Accountability is not strictly adhered to in public organization while reverse is the case in
private organization.
3.7 Similarities between Public and Private Organizations or Administration.
There exist some similarities or comparisons between public and private organizations or
administration in term of conditions of service and other operations of these organizations.
1. Both organizations are guided by government’s circular, gazette, bulletins, constitution

etc. and not necessary control. But the government regulations enable both organizations
to have a healthy environment.
2. Both organizations have conditions of service in terms of employment, recruitment,

promotion, salary, discipline, pension and other welfare incentives offered by these
organizations to their employees, individual and collectively.
3. Both organizations or establishments provides some essentials services like banking

services, petroleum and oil supplies, telephone services and educational services.
4. Both organizations provide satisfaction to the public in respect to their various activities;
programmes and products.
5. Both organizations source for personnel in the labour market, that is, there is always
qualification before recruitment into these organizations.
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6. Both organizations are always established based on certain goals, aspirations, objectives
and aims. That is, no organization can be established without solid reasons and things to
achieve, either for profit, services, or both.
7. Both organization, have the ability to establish management-labour relations and

settlement of conflict that may arise in the course of such relationship.
8. Both organizations source their capital, money or fund used in establishing these
organizations from the people or public (either internally or externally).
9. Both organizations have internal structure of organization, that is, there is always
hierarchical mode of operation, chain of command, division of labour, professionalism
etc. These are so because different people perform different works.
4.0 CONCLUSION
From the discussion above, on the comparison of public and private organization, we can say
that administration which is the organization and direction of human and material resources exist
in both public and private organizations. Public administration as carried out in government
owned organizations within the three levels of government (federal, state and local) and with the
intension to provide efficient services and not for profit making, that private administration is
carried out in private or jointly owned organizations with the intentions to provide essential
services and are profit-oriented. However, both organizations have conditions of services for
their personnel in common market. They both have similar internal structure of organization;
satisfy the public with various services, activities, programmes and products, guided by
government circular, constitutions, source for capital or fund from the people etc.
5.0 SUMMARY
We have learnt in this unit that Public administration is administration as it is practiced in the
three tiers of government and its agencies while private administration is that which is practiced
in the private sector either by an individual or jointly owned businesses ventures. We also
examined their distinguishing factors as well as those factors they had in common. Their
formation, objectives, goals and settings are features that should be borne in mind. Also it should
85
be borne in mind that where one is service oriented the other is profit oriented and both of them
are guided by these goals.
In Module 3, we shall be looking at the development of Public Administration in Nigeria.
6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
1. Distinguish between Public and Private Administration.
2. What are the features of Public Administration?
3. What are the weaknesses of Public Administration in Nigeria?
4. What advantages does Private Administration have over Public Administration in terms
of efficiency and effectiveness?
5. As a Public Administrator what will you introduce into Public Sector Administration to
make it more efficient?
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING
1. Adamolekun, L.(1983), Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative Perspective.

New York: Longman Inc.
2. Adamolekun, L. (1985), Nigerian Public Administration 1960 – 1980: Perspectives and
Prospects. Ibadan: Heinemann.
3. Adebayo, A. (1992), Principles and Practice of Public Administration in Nigeria. Ibadan:
Spectrum Books Ltd.
4. Ezeani,E.O (2006), Fundamental of Public Administration. Enugu: Ziks-Chuks
Publishers.
5. Hughes, O. E. (1998), Public Administration and Administration: An Introduction.
London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
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MODULE 3 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

Unit 2 Nigeria Public Administration from Colonia Era
Unit 3 Concept of Development Administration and Administration of
development
Unit 4 Concept of Federalism

Contents
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1 The Indirect Rule Process
3.2 The Indirect Rule in Northern Nigeria
3.3 The Indirect Rule in Western Nigeria
3.4 The Indirect Rule in Eastern Nigeria
3.5 Disadvantages of Indirect Rule in Nigeria
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Indirect rule system in Nigeria is synonymous with British colonial masters. It is their coinage
for the type of administration they employed to facilitate their agenda in their colonies. He went
further to define it as a British system of ruling her colonies with the use of local chiefs and other
87
appointed intermediaries. The colonial masters used traditional laws and customs as the bases
and guide for administration. The local chiefs and these appointed intermediaries were used as a
means for the maintenance of laws and order while the British officials merely undertook
supervisory roles.
In this unit we will examine the process of indirect rule as was practiced in the Northern,
Western and the Eastern Nigeria during the colonial rule. The defects of indirect rule will also be
treated.
It is imperative you pay attention to this unit as it is very informative and will help you to
understand the genesis of some of the problems in the Nigeria Public Service.
2.0 Objectives
� Understand the process of indirect rule as was practiced in the three geo-political system
in Nigeria, their success and failures as well as its merits and demerits and to whom;
� Know the reason behind the introduction of indirect rule by the colonial masters;
� Know the beneficiaries of the indirect rule administration
3.0 Main content
3.1 The Indirect Rule Process (adapted from Maduabum, 2008:80-88)
Lord Lugard, who was the first Governor General of the amalgamated territory of Nigeria in
1914,is widely regarded as the ‘Father of Indirect Rule in Nigeria’. He was the High
Commissioner of the Protectorate of Northern Nigeria in 1906 and used this system as a
convenient means of administering the territory. Since the system worked well for him in the
Northern Nigeria, he merely extended it to the Southern Protectorate after the amalgamation.
He employed this system to assist the colonial government in maintaining law and order, which
is very vital for progress and development, though one will ask, whose development? The upper
88
echelon of the colonial administration was dominated by the Europeans. Thus all powers
(executive, legislative and judicial), were concentrated in the hands of the appointed colonial
officials to run the affairs of the colony. Because of language barriers and other factors which
made it difficult for the colonial masters to deal with the natives easily, they co-opted the
traditional rulers and other appointed officials in the administration of the country.
3.1.1 Essential Features of Indirect Rule
� Indirect rule used the existing traditional rules.

� It recognized the status of traditional rules.
� Traditional rulers served as the pivot of indirect rule.
� Traditional laws and customs were used in the administration.
� The indirect rule system was supervised by british officials.
� British official did not exert their influence directly on the people but through the
local chiefs.
� The system was meant to assist in development of the traditional political
institutions for effective administration.
� The system did not disrupt the existing traditional system of administration and
political order.
� It was not an expensive system of administration.
3.1.2 Reasons for the introduction of the Indirect Rule System
a. Lack of Personnel
There was dearth of Colonial personnel to assist Lord Lugard in the administration of the
colony as only few Europeans were prepared to venture into West Africa. This was due to its
poor climate and the presence of insects like mosquitoes and tsetse flies which the whites
regard as deadly.
b. Inadequate Fund:
The colonial masters were not willing to spend their money on their colony. Instead they
were sending the resources back to their country at the expense of the people. They
89
natives were also tasked heavily to sustain the colonial administration and paid meager
wages that could barely sustain them. Britain’s reluctance to get deeply involved heavily
in any financial responsibilities of its colonies necessitated the introduction of the indirect
rule by Lord Lugard which he saw as not exerting a heavy financial burden on his
country.
c. Success in Other Countries:
The system worked well in other countries such as India and Uganda and so Lord Lugard
thought it wise to use the system also in Nigeria.
d. Traditional Rulers:
The involvement of the traditional rulers in the art of government may have been
informed bythe belief of Lord Lugardthat any system of government that isolates the
people being governed will not succeed.
e. Inexpensive:
The system of indirect rule was adopted in Nigeria because, economically, it was less
expensive. The colonial masters were not prepared to incur high cost of maintaining the
colonial personnel to run their colony.
f. Favourable Political Climate:
the political atmosphere in Northern Nigeria at the period was favourable for the
introduction of the system. The method of traditional administration at the time was very
difficult for Britain to dismantle. The emirs were highly respected by their people and the
British did not want to attract the hatred of the people of Northern Nigeria by destroying
the premier position occupied by the emirs.
g. Beneficial Effects:
Lugard introduced the system with the hope that it would be beneficial to both Europeans
and Africans. For instance, by using traditional rulers, Lugard viewed it as a way of
providing employment for them.
h. Language Difficulties:
The system of indirect rule was adopted in Nigeria by Lord Lugard in order to reduce the
problems posed by language. The people of Nigeria at that time did neither speak nor
90
understand English language, therefore, going through traditional rulers to govern the
people proved more convenient for them as the whites themselves were not willing to
learn the local languages too.
i. Vast Area Involved:

There were vast areas to be administered and the colonialists were quite reluctant to
penetrate the hinterland due to poor transport and communication system. This hindered
their ability to have direct contact with the people and so indirect rule provided a
convenient alternative.
3.2 The Indirect Rule System in Northern Nigeria
Lord Lugard became the High Commissioner of Northern Nigeria in 1990. He introducedthe
indirect rule system by dividing the northern territory into provinces. Each province was
headed by a resident who reported to the High Commissioner. The Resident entrusted day-to-
day activities to traditional rulers or paramount chief who were assisted by councilors. The
provinces were also divided into administrative division headed by district officers who
reported to the British Resident. The indirect rule system worked well in Northern Nigeria
due to the highly developed traditional system of administration of the area
Why Indirect Rule succeeded in Northern Nigeria
(a) The Use of Traditional Administration:

The use of the existing traditional system of administration led to a huge success of
indirect rule in the North. This is because the Emirs had their subjects perfectly under
control. Besides, there was a neatly structured administrative set-up that enhanced the
achievement of the colonialist administration’s goals.
(b) The Autocratic Nature of Emirs:

The emirs were very influential and had unlimited powers, to the extent that they could
sentence to death any of their subjects who disobeyed them. They were therefore highly
respected and obeyed. These rare qualities helped the system of indirect rule to fully
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succeed when it was introduced, since it was a continuation of the emir’s administration
which accorded with the system the colonialist would have adopted in their quest to
maintain “law and order” and at the same time collect taxes and other exploitative
tendencies.
(c) Religion:
Islam was the dominant religion the people of Northern Nigeria practiced. By its nature,
Islam is a conservative religion and as such, this helped greatly to make the people of the
area more obedient. This again was what the colonialists cherished most from the
colonized territory.
(d) The Submissiveness of the People:
This attribute made the people of Northern Nigeria to accept indirect rule whole-
heartedly without question.
(e) Low Level of Education:
When the system was established in Northern Nigeria, majority of the people were not
fully exposed to Western education and were therefore ill-equipped to challenge the
authorities or question their motives.
(f) Centrality of the Administration:
The centralized administration which had an emir at the head surrounded with many
powerful officials, contributed to the efficient running of the government. That system
was fashionable for administration of the colonies hence the British found it convenient
to adopt.
(g) Well-Organized System of Taxation:
Huge sums of money was generated from this system of taxation which was used in the
running of the government of the area since the British government was not ready to
involve itself in any heavy financial responsibility.
(h) Non-Interference with the Existing Traditions:
Indirect rule succeeded in Northern Nigeria because it did not tamper with the existing
religion, culture and customs of the people.
(i) Absence of Many Whites:
Absence of many Europeans (whites) made it possible for the system to be introduced
and it thrived without attracting criticisms.
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(j) Military Threat:
Many emirs of Northern Nigeria accepted the indirect rule system because of fear of
British military reprisal if it was rejected.
3.3 Indirect Rule System in Western Nigeria
The Obas were used in the indirect rule in the Western Nigeria as was the case with the
Emirs in the North. The system was not as successful in the West as it was in North.
Why the poor rate of Success in the West
(a) The Limited Power of Obas:

One of the reasons why the system was not a total success in the West was because the
obas, unlike the emirs, had questionable and limited powers and were unable to command
as much respect as their counterparts in the Northern Region.
(b) Education:
Education played a significant role in the low success rate of the indirect rule system in
Western Nigeria. At the time the system was introduced, there had grown a significant
crop of the Yoruba educated elite who could question the rationale for system. These
people started kicking against the system because, in their view, whether direct or
indirect, colonialism was highly immoral.
(c) Lack of Submissiveness by the People:
Another reason the system partially succeeded in the West was because the subjects were
not as generally submissive as their counterparts in the North. This made them not to
accept indirect rule blindly.
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(d) Religion:
A large population of the Yoruba’s were Christians and Christianity is not as
conservative as Islam. Christians therefore questioned the morality for the introduction of
indirect rule.
(e) Absence of Highly Centralized Administration:
Unlike the Hausa/Fulani’s, the Yoruba’s did not have a highly centralized system of
administration. This factor could not enhance the success of indirect rule in the West.
(f) Absence of a Well-Organized Taxation System:
This made it difficult to raise money for the administration to thrive, since the British
government was not ready to undertake heavy financial responsibilities in its colonies. A
new system of taxation imposed on the people caused riots in most parts of Yoruba land
such as Abeokuta, Ikire, Iseyin, etc.
(g) Disregard of Treaty:
The influential class of the Western-educated elite in Egbaland viewed Lugard’s action of
bringing Abeokuta under the protectorate’s government in 1914 and the extension of
indirect rule to Egbaland as a serious disregard of the 1893 Treaty which was signed by
the British Government. The treaty granted a quasi-independent status to Abeokuta and
the violation of this treaty by Lugard through the system of indirect rule sparked off
violent protests.
(h) Subordination of Ibadan to Oyo:
The British mistake of trying to make Ibadan, which had been recognized as a Yoruba
state in the 1890s, subordinate to Oyo, was also a contributing factor to the failure of the
system of indirect rule in the Western Region.
(i) Alienation of the Educated Elite:
The educated elite in the Western Region criticized and rejected the indirect rule system
mainly because they were not allowed to take part in the administration. The entire
assignment was given to traditional rulers. The educated elite were sharply alienated,
disregarded and, above all, frustrated.
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3.4 The Indirect rule in Eastern Nigeria
The practice failed completely in the Eastern Nigeria due largely to the absence of a
centralized traditional system of administration. The Igbos had no recognized traditional
leadership as was the case in the Northern and the Western parts of Nigeria. This made
Lord Lugard appoint traditional rulers and imposed them on the people. He called these
rulers ‘warrant chiefs’. Most of these appointed chiefs were of lower class status and the
people refused to recognize or accord them any respect. Aba women’s Riot in 1929 was
fuelled by the imposition of the warrant chief and the taxation burden on the people.
Reasons for the Failure of Indirect rule in the Eastern Nigeria

a. There was absence of Traditional Rulers.
b. The colonial masters appointment Warrant Chiefs who were not recognized nor
respected by the people.
c. The Igbos favoured highly centralized system of administration which did not
accommodate central decision-making body.
d. The Igbo society were in units which was too small for carrying out functions as
was the case in the Northern traditional system.
e. The Igbos lacked a Well-organized system of administration and this adversely
affected the realization of adequate fund for the indirect rule system in the area.
f. The Igbos are not submissive as their counterpart in the Northern Nigeria and
this contributed to the high rate of failure of the Indirect Rule in the region.
g. Religion played a significant role for the failure of the indirect rule in the eastern
region. The easterners were mainly Christians and Christianity is not a
conservative religion.
h. The Igbos viewed the system as major conflict to their traditional system.
i. Unlike in the North the Easterners had more educated elites who were alienated
from the colonial administration. This alienation made them criticize and reject
the system and the people followed suit.
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3.5 Disadvantages of Indirect Rule
The disadvantages of indirect rule are as follows:
1) It brought divisions between the traditional rulers who were regarded as British
puppets and the educated elites who were alienated thereby creating the policy of
‘divide and rule’.
2) The traditional ruler became corrupt under this system and enriched themselves at
the expense of the people.
3) The system encouraged tribalism.
4) The system lacked universal applicability.
5) There were no clear definitions to the limit of the functions and activities of the
different local authorities and some of them abused their power.
6) The people were denied democratic system of checks and balances that were in
existence prior to the advent of the colonial masters.
7) The system encouraged concentration of power in the hands of the few thereby
marginalizing majorities of the people.
8) Concentration of so much power on the traditional rulers led to serious abuse of
power.
9) The people were denied the power to appoint or depose their leaders.
10) The Traditional rulers were very autocratic as a result of the power invested in
them by the system.
4.0 Conclusion
The indirect rule was employed by the colonial masters mainly to serve their convenience in the
administration of their colony. They had no alternative to the system as any other system would
have been very expensive for them and they had no intention of incurring any extra cost in their
colonial administration. Also the advantages of the system to them far outweighed its
disadvantages since it placed no financial burden on them. It equally served their purpose of
colonization very well. But this is quite the opposite for the natives who felt marginalized and
used. Their resources were also carted away and use to develop the colonial masters country at
the expense of the people. This notwithstanding, the system recorded some degrees of success in
some regions while it failed abysmally in other parts of the country.
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5.0 Summary
This unit has discussed the indirect rule system which was a form of administration put in place
by the colonial masters to govern the territory in West Africa. We discussed the system as was
practiced in the three geo-political regions such as the Northern, Western and Eastern parts of
Nigeria. We noted that while the system worked very well in some parts of the country the same
could not be said of other parts of the country. We therefore traced the reason for the success and
failures in these parts of the country. We equally examined the demerits of indirect rule system
in Nigeria. We trust that you have learnt a lot in this unit and this knowledge will guide your
understanding of the next unit which is the Nigerian public administration from the colonial rule.
6.0 Tutor Major Assignment
1. What is Indirect Rule? Discuss its tenets.
2. Describe the operations of indirect rule system in the Eastern, Western and Northern
Nigeria.
3. Trace the reasons for the success and failure of this system in the three geo-
political regions in Nigeria.
4. Indirect Rule is widely believed to be very convenient to the colonial masters.

State your reasons for or against this assertion.
Crowder, M. (1978), The Story of Nigeria. London: Faber and Faber.
Maduabum, C. (2008), the mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria,

Lagos: Concept Publications Limited.
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Okoye, J.C, Chukwuemeka, E.E.O, Anazodo R.O. (2004), Politics and Government:
Introduction and Elements. Enugu: HRV Konsult Computer Syste
Unit 2 Nigerian Public Sector Administration from Colonial Era
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content:Nigerian Public Administration from Colonial Era
3.1 Traditional Administration
3.2 Colonial Administration
3.3 Parliamentary Rule
3.4 Military Rule
3.5 Presidential System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Intorduction
This unit is all embracing as it touches on all aspect of Nigerian administration from the
traditional, colonial to Nigeria’s attempts at self rule. Since independence, Nigeria has witnessed
many forms of administration ranging from the parliamentary to the military and the current
presidential system of administration. We shall discuss these forms of administration and its
impact on the lives of the Nigerian people in particular and the development of the country as a
whole. You will learn a lot from this unit as it has been packaged in a most informative way.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit, you are expected to know the following and be able to discuss them
effectively.
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Traditional administration and the factors that contributed to forming the basic
foundation of the Nigerian state;
Colonial administration, and the legacies it left behind which added coloration to
Nigeria’s administration both on the political and bureaucratic planes;
Parliamentary administration, which became experimental in Nigeria’s attempt at
self-governance;
Military administration which is the longest period in the country’s administration
and which has contributed most to either the development or underdevelopment (or
both) of Nigeria; and
Presidential system of government which is the second experiment at democratic
governance in Nigeria.
3.1 Traditional Administration
Nigeria is a populous country with many different cultural and religious backgrounds. It has
three major ethnic groups in the Hausa, Igbo, and Yoruba. These groups existed in form of
empires and they all had their system of administration before the advent of the colonial
masters.
Igbo was republican in the cultural, traditional, tribal and political organization of its people.
Every clan in Igbo land had its own representatives rather than a village head that could be
called a king, queen or a district monarch. Organisations such as the age grade, the nzes or
ichies, the ozos, etc, were formed for the purpose of ensuring the smooth administration of
the Igbo kingdom. They made use of oracles to instill discipline to their people. One
suchoraclesthat attained adequate prominence in their historywas the Arochukwu Oracle.
The Yoruba kingdoms, had the obas and other lower cadre assistants in the administration of
their land. The ogbonis serve in the following areas: the king-makers, ceremonial activits and
in the courts as adjudicators of cases and one of the general means of restoring sanity to the
kingdom. They pay homage instead of taxes and this was regarded as part of the cultural
heritage of Yoruba kingdoms.
The Hausa/Fulani empires had a much more accomplished political administration of the pre-
colonial era.
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They had a system of taxation which served as a major source of income for the
administration at the time and which the British colonial masters adopted to their advantage.
Unlike the Igbos, they had Monarchy system which was successive and hereditary. The emirs
were supported by a hierarchy of administrators such as the galadima, madawaki and kuwa
as minister for war, general administration and water respectively.
The traditional administration mechanism in Nigeriabefore the arrival of the colonial masters
was relatively beautiful. Though this administrative system cannot be said to be perfect but it
served their purpose. According to Maduabum (2008), if not for their economic and selfish
interest, British incursion into the territories’ administration was unnecessary. This was why
they could not dismantle the structure it met on the ground due to its adequacy but instead,
introduced indirect rule.
3.2 Colonial Administration
Lagos was colonized in 1860 with Megregor as head of the administration.Lord

FriedrickLugard who later took over from him in 1906, introduced the system of indirect rule
to the Northern Nigeria. Traditional institutions existed in Muslim-dominated areas of the
North and Islam, which is a dominant religion in the North, demands total submission of the
subjects to their rulers and the colonialists capitalized on this and other related factors such as
well-laid structure of administration, to make use of traditional rulers for the implementation
of British rule.
The British also used the native authority system in which local rules were confirmed and
given staff of authority. These people were graded and assigned duties. Some of the existing
laws were either condemned or modified to suit the colonial masters. Native courts were also
introduced to try localoffenders. They built local prisons, introduced local government
authorities, and recruited police personnel to enforce law and order. Administration was set
up at ward and village levels. The British colonial master were not prepared to spend British
money to administer Nigeria, hence native revenue and tax system were introduced.
However, the people resisted, especially in the South-West and South-East through riots and
protests (Aba riots) at the harsh and exploitative administration of the colonial masters.
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It should be noted that the indirect rule system was successful in Northern Nigeria, partially
successful in the South-West but failed woefully in the South-East.
Lord Lugard left Nigeria in 1922 and was replaced with Sir High Clifford as governor, under
whose administration a Legislative Council was set up with three Nigerians as members. The
inclusion of Nigerians into the administration did not accord them equal status with the
whites thus they were marginalized and discriminated upon. This made the natives to resort
to enlightenment campaigns.Political parties and media houses were
establishedfor these purposes.
Also during the Second World War in 1939-1945, Africans were made to fight for their colonial
master with the promise that independence would be granted to all their colonies. Consequently,
the blacks fought side by side with their colonial masters; thus, white superiority was
demystified, and this eventually culminated in the agitation for self-rule in Nigeria. Political
activities were intensified until Anthony Enahoro moved a motion for Nigeria‘s independence
in the legislative chamber in 1956. Consequently, Nigeria was granted her political
independence on October 1, 1960 thus bringing the colonial rule to an end.
Some of the certain activities which contributed immensely to forcing the British to reluctantly
grant Nigeria independence in 1960 were:
(a) Formation of political parties and associations. The nationalists formed the earliest
political parties. These included: Nigerian national democratic party (NNDP), by Herbert
Macaulay; national council of Nigeria and the Cameroons (later citizens) NCNC, led by
NnamdiAzikiwe; national youth movement (NYM), led by Ernest Ikoli; action group
(AG) led by obafemiAwolowo and Northern people’s congress (NPC), led by Ahmadu
Bello.
(b) Organization of strikes and boycotts as powerful instruments to back up their demands;
(c) Organization of labour unions and meetings that put pressure on the colonial employers
and government;
(d) Setting up of newspapers such as the Lagos Daily News and the West African Pilot to
champion the demand for independence;
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(e) Writing of petitions to the secretary of state for the colonies in London. A good example
is that which was sent to him in March, 1920 by the delegates to the National Congress of
British West Africa;
(f) Taking active part in constitutional conferences;
(g) Tabling and voting in favour of motions/policies favorable to the attainment of self-rule
in parliament;
(h) Sending of delegates to the British government in London and to the colonial government
in Nigeria to press forward their demands;
(i) Organization of rallies, symposia and lectures to educate the people
(j) The use of other propaganda machinery such as the activities of the West African
Students’ Union (WASU) in London to present their position on the need for
independence in Nigeria. (oyeneye, onyenwenu and olosunde, 2001:140).
Though the British succeeded in merging the diverse entity called Nigeria into one country,
they failed abysmally in resolving the problems attendant on that unification due to lack of
interest at the welfare of the natives. This is why the country has been enmeshed in one
crisis/conflict or the other till date. Notable examples were thirty months of civil war,
military coups and attendant massacre of innocent citizens, etc. in fact, the general instability
of the country are well as the most recent crisis in the Niger Delta area of the country are all
traceable to the weak administrative structure foisted on Nigeria by the British. The issue of
marginalization arising from the dominance of certain parts of the country on others has
become an unending phenomenon in Nigeria all as a result of the problems created by this
weak administrative structure.
There are some legacies left behind by the colonial administration which has been the bane
of Nigeria’s Public Service administration. These are adapted from Maduabum 2006 and
listed below:
(1) The discriminatory practices against Nigerians which were introduced by the British,
particularly in employment and advancement to responsible position in civil service. This
imbued the Nigerian with the spirit of alienation which made him to see the civil service
job as exclusive to the colonial government. The situation is that, up till date, the average
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Nigerian has distanced himself from part-ownership of the civil service; rather, he sees it
as belonging to the government of the day.
(2) The dichotomy between the senior and junior staff, which existed even after the departure
of the Europeans, patterned the nonchalant attitude of the public servant. This is because;
immense benefits and privileges existed only at the senior level occupied exclusively by
the “whites.” The Nigerian senior public servants inherited this discriminatory practice of
the former European senior public servants. As a result, they turned themselves into
virtually ‘white men’ and never took cognizance of the peculiar environment and cultural
values of their country. Thus emerged what Augustus Adebayo (1981:47) described as
“black man in a white man’s skin.” The consequence is that junior public servants do not
believe that they are parts of the service.
(3) The merger of departments then headed by the erstwhile professionals as directors into
ministries and the generalist administrators banqueting of the enviable position of
Permanent Secretary and Accounting Officer of the ministry, subordinated the
professionals to the generalist administrators and the categories of Nigerian public
servants. The conflict arising there from contributes to instability of the service.
3.3 Parliamentary Rule
The Parliamentary system in Nigeria had the Queen of England who was constitutional
monarch between October 1960 and 1963 as the Head of State. Executive authority was
vested in her. She was also part of the Central and Regional Legislatures. But the power,
however, was exercised by the elected Ministers, who were collectively responsible to the
Legislature. The central parliament was made up of the Queen, the Upper house and the
Lower house. The upper house comprised 44 members while the lower house had 305
members. The constitution empowered the governor-general to appoint any member of the
House of Representatives that had majority support as Prime minister, while the prime
minister in turn, and appointed the minister. Each region had a house of assembly and a
house of chiefs. The regional executive was composed of the premier and some other
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ministers who were collectively responsible to the regional legislature but do not interfere
with the power of the central authority.
The constitution prescribed two legislative lists – the exclusive and concurrent lists. The
federal government legislated on the exclusive list while both the federal and regional
governments legislated on the concurrent list. In the event of a conflict between a federal law
and a regional law, the federal law prevailed.
The republican constitution came up on October 1, 1963. It was a constitution that swept
away the last vestiges of colonial rule. The Queen was no longer the head of state. New
provisions were injected into the 1963 constitution. For example, no amendment to the
constitution could be passed until 2/3 majority of each regional legislature assented to it.
Under the republican constitution, the president became the head of state and commander-in-
chief of the armed forces. Dr. NnamdiAzikiwe was so appointed. He was to be in office for
five years except in the event of death or resignation of appointment. The constitution
provided for the establishment of a national police force for the country and also for local
The parliamentary system of government was less expensive to operate but certain factors led
to the collapse of this system of government in Nigeria. These included:
(1) Weak political structure foisted on the country by the British which led to ethnic
imbalance, particularly between the North and South.
(2) Several constitutions were fashioned out in the bid to govern Nigerian, but none of these
had been able to really unite the various peoples of Nigeria.
(3) Political parties were often based on ethnic consideration.
(4) It was impossible to conduct free and fair election in Nigerian
(5) Census was used as a toll for political competition by politicians. Thus, the exercise was
always attended by malpractices and discrepancies.
(6) There was a competition between the various ethnic groups for wealth and power.
(7) The military had also been politicized and divided along ethnic lines.
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What must, however, be acknowledged during this era was the relative low level of corruption
probably because the country was not as rich then as it is today. They also demonstrated a higher
level of responsibility, patriotism, and selflessness than was seen in later years.
The immediate factors responsible for the collapse of the already weak and unstable political
order during the last days of the parliamentary system of government were the federal elections
of 1964, and the Western regional election of 1965. The elections were so violent that their
aftermath was political instability. As a result, many Nigerians believed that the military was the
only institution in the country that could stop the political chaos and restore political order,
security and stability as well as public confidence in the government.
3.4 Military Rule
Nigeria had its first military coup d’etat in January 15, 1966 thus ushering in Major General
J.T.U. Aguiyi-Ironsias the first military head of state of Nigeria.
The attempt by Ironsi administration to make the country a unitary state (Decree no. 34 of 1966)
brought public critisims. The implications of introducing unitary system of government included
the abolition of regions, and the unification of the different public services under a single public
service commission. This sparked off anti-government demonstrations, and riots broke out in
several cities in the North on May 26, 1966. Several people were killed and many lives were lost.
The result of all these was the second coup d’etat on July 29, 1966, which claimed the lives of
General Aguiyi-Ironsi and the then governor of Western Region, Col. AdekunleFajuyi, who had
been playing host to him, as well as other military officers, particularly of the Igbo extraction. Lt.
Col. The Igbos seceded under Major OdumegwuOjukwu and took the name Biafra.
Yakubu Gowon became the new head of state of Nigeria. During his regime which lasted from
July 29, 1966 to July 29, 1975, he prosecuted the civil war which was a consequence of the coup
and killings that accompanied it from July 1967 to January 15, 1970.
Military regimes lasted for some period after Gowon administration. These are as follows:
(a) Murtala Mohammed, July, 1975-February 1976;
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(b) Obsanjo/Yar’Adua, February 1976 – October 1, 1979;
(c) Buhari/Idiagbon, December 31, 1983 – August 27, 1985
(d) Ibrahim Babangida, December 31, 1983 – August 17, 1993;
(e) SaniAbacha, December 17, 1993 – June 8, 1998; and
(f) AbdusalaamAbubakar, June 8, 1998 – May 29, 1999.
From the fore going it will be observed the military ruled the Nigerian nation for over 28 years in
her 51 years of independence. You will also observe that the ex-military men are still active
members of the political class in Nigerian.
Achievements and Failures of Military Rule in Nigeria
According to Maduabum, 2008, the military, as a professional body, was trained to defend the
sovereignty of the country from external aggression and not to govern a society. Nevertheless,
their regimes recorded various degrees of success as listed hereunder.
(a) They restored unity to Nigeria during the civil war though at a huge cost.
(b) The creation of, firstly, 12 states, later 19, then 30, and eventually the present 36 states
and a federal Capital Territory, out of the former four regions that made up the country
was done by the Military.
(c) The military improved the use of annual budgeting as a management tool to ensure that
planned actions aimed at attaining set objectives were met.
(d) The military utilized the bureaucratic process very well. They treated matters with utmost
urgency. This infused the sense of urgency into those who worked with them such as civil
servants.
(e) The military removed the clumsy way of doing things which was characteristic of the
then civilian administration. It introduced urgency, speed, and precision in the conduct of
government business. This was effective as tasks were accomplished ahead of schedule.
(f) They maintained the smartness associated with soldiers which in turn rubbed off on the
civil servants.
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(g) The military exhibited a great deal of development consciousness. Since it was not
involved in partisan politics, it went ahead with speed to carry out development projects,
it avoided the manipulations associated with such projects that sometimes made them
impossible to complete.
(h) The creation of states under the military also ensured infrastructural development close to
the people such as roads, expressways, and health centres.
(i) The establishment of several state and federal universities to cater for the educational
needs of the nation as well as training institution such as the Administrative Staff college
of Nigeria (ASCON).
(j) The creation of many agencies like the national youth service corp. (NYSC) scheme,
Agency for Mass Mobilization, Social and Economic Reformation (MAMSER);
Directorate of food, Roads and Rural Infrastructure (DFRRI), federal road safety
commission (FRSC), nation drug law enforcement agency (NDLEA), etc. and many
agricultural programmers to enhance food security. Although some of these programmers
eventually went into extinction due to bad management, nevertheless their
conceptualization was in good faith aimed at improving the Nigerian society.
The demerits of military regimes in Nigeria included:
(1) Entrenchment of corruption in the nation’s body polity which is still hindering many
aspects of developmental efforts to date.
(2) The military at state levels imposed decision on the executive council. The result was ill-
digested policies and frustration amongst the civil servants whose duties it was to probe
into excesses in policy formulation, implementation and evaluation.
(3) The military sometimes never considered merit as a factor in appointing permanent
secretaries. Appointment of in experienced people to such positions discouraged co-
operation among civil servants.
(4) The military authorities arrogated much power to themselves. They believed that they
had answers to all the country’s problems.
(5) Some of their civil service reforms were too harsh. An example was the mass
retrenchment exercise carried out by the Murtala Mohammed/Obasanjo regime which led
to the removal of thousands of civil servants. Rather than restore confidence in the civil
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service, it made workers less secure in terms of tenure, which the civil servants left the
service or were thrown out without replacement; hence the civil service declined
tremendously in terms of dedication to duty and moral values.
Some other merits and demerits of the Military Administration are tabulated below:
Table 1: Merits and Demerits of Military Administration
S/N MERITS DEMERITS

1. The Military kept the country united Inexperience
2. Reformed the Local Government Corruption
3. Created more states Violation of fundamental
human rights
4. Some economic improvement Indiscipline
5. Improvement in educational facilities Intolerance
6. Improvement in agriculture Reckless spending
7. Some progress in area of foreign policy Favouritism
8. Inability to conduct
reliable census
3.5 Presidential System of Administration
This is a system of government based on the principles of separation of powers. The system
gives each branch of government some roles. For example, the National Assembly enacts laws,
but the president has overriding veto powers. The Supreme Court can declare unconstitutional,
laws passed by the National Assembly and signed by the President. The President appoints the
Justices of the Supreme Court with the approval of the Senate.
The responsibility of amending the constitution rests with the legislature (National Assembly).
The President has no formal authority over constitutional amendments. All such amendments
must be proposed and ratified accordingly. The main characteristics of the presidential system of
government are, among others:
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(1) The Head of State is the Chief Executive,
(2) Supremacy of constitution,
(3) Separation of power,
(4) Political accountability,
(5) Checks and balances as a way of safeguarding against abuses or excesses of one arm of
government over the other; and
(6) The office of Head of Service is separated from that of Secretary to the Federal
Government.
Listed below are some of the successes and failures of Presidential System of Government in
Nigeria.
Table 2: SUCCESS AND FAILURES OF PRESIDENTIAL ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA
S/NO Successes Failure

a. Accountability with due process institutions like ICPC and Insecurity characterized by
EFCC political assassinations
b. Deregulation of Key Sectors of the Economy like Failed promises and non-
Telecommunication (GSM) and private Universities implementation of party
manifestoes
c. Women Empowerment. More women are involved in the Manipulation of electoral
process of governance process through rigging
d. Priority given to issues concerning the environment like Disrespect to court orders that
the setting up of OMPADEC do not favour the party in
power
e. Economic empowerment via poverty alleviation measures Political rascality exhibited by
like NEPAD,NEEDS,AND MDGs politicians is looting the state
treasury.
f. More foreign investment because the country is well Failure in stabilizing the price
accepted by the international community as witnessed by regime in the downstream oil
recent debt relief sector of the economy
g. Consolidation in the banking sector to take care of Incessant rivalries among
distress cases in the industry political functionaries like Mr.
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President and Vice President as
well as Governors and their
Deputies.
4.0 Conclusion
Nigerian Public Administration has come a long way from the tradition system of administration to the
modern day Nigeria. Various administrations have metamorphosed and the nation has tried its hands on
each of them. Some achieved some degrees of development while some did not. However, the nation is
still developing and looks up to the administrators to help sanitize the system.
5.0 Summary
The unit treated the entirety of the Nigerian Public Administration from various stages ranging
from the traditional to the presidential system of administration. We examined the administration
under colonial as well as when we have gained independence to the present dispensation. We
studied the achievements and challenges of public administration under each regime.
1. Under which administration has public administration recorded most of its achievements
in Nigeria? Support your answer with credible data.
Abia, V.E.B. (2003). Understanding Nigerian Government and Politics.Lagos; Concept

Publication.
Faseke, M. (2004). Civil service in Nigeria: a Historical Perspective Lagos: Tidings

Publications.
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Maduabum, C.P. (2006) Reforming Government Bureaucracies in Nigeria: the Journey so
Far. Badagry: ASCON press.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria. Lagos:

Concept Publications Ltd.
Olusanya, G. O. (1975). The Evolution of the Nigerian Civil Service from 1861 to 1960: the
problem of Nigerianization. Lagos: University of Lagos Press.
Unit 3 Concept of Development Administration and Administration of

Developments
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Development Administration
3.2 Administration of Development
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In this unit we will discuss the concepts of Development Administration andAdministration of

Developments. The topic recognizes the importance of environment in the practice of public
administration. It also refutes the assumption that there is a single principle of public
administration especially since there has not been any empirical research to back this
assumption. We shall be discussing this unit from the aspect of a comparative study on public
administration.
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2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you are expected to do the following
understand the full meaning of development administration

understand the full import of administration of development
know what role public administration plays in the administration of development.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Development Administration
To fully appreciate the concept of development administration, it is necessary to understand the

meaning of development. Olugbemi (1987:431) defines development as the progressive creation,
proliferation, and enhancement of the conditions of the good life of the citizens within the
boundaries of a nation. This definition can be assessed in terms of the following parameters:
(1) The enhanced capacity of citizens to meet their vital daily commitments while allowing
them a comfortable margin to save for the rainy day;
(2) The reduction, if not elimination, of inequality, unemployment, poverty, disease and
ignorance;
(3) The diffusion of influence and the guarantee of basic freedoms, including the freedom to
participate meaningfully in the political process; and
(4) The assurance of a stable and peaceful political order essential for sustained productive
activities and a guarantee of the safety of lives and property.
These parameters rhythms very significantly with the development objectives of Nigeria
which were declared in 1970, and aimed at achieving the following:
(a) A united strong and self-reliant nation;

(b) A just and egalitarian society;
(c) A great and dynamic economy;
(d) A land of full and bright opportunities for all citizens; and
(e) A free and democratic society.
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From the foregoing, we can deduce that development can be seen as being much more than
economic growth. Maduabum (2008), posits that it is the creation, the sustenance and the
maximization of opportunities – including economic opportunities –requisite for the attainment
of full and satisfying life for every citizen. It is similarly not a piece meal or a once-and-for-all
process; rather, it is a continuous and cumulative conscious endeavor which should result in
some attainment of any combination of the conditions earlier listed. Furthermore, the pursuit of
development is not, and should not be, the responsibility of government alone. The fact that
governments, especially in the developing countries, had assumed the role of prime movers of
development is attributable to the manifest incapacities of these societies and peoples.
Other definitions of development administration are as follows:
(1) The process of guiding an organization towards the achievement of progressive political,
economic and social objectives that are authoritatively determined in one manner or
another (Edward Weldnes, 1970)
(2) That aspect of public administration in which the focus of attention is on organizing and
administering public agencies in such a way as to stimulate and facilitate defined
programmers of socio-economic progress (George Gant, 1975);
(3) Organized efforts to carry out programmers or projects thought by those involved as
achieving development objective (Fred Riggs, 1973).
Swerdlow (1975) added a different dimension to his definition, according to him, poor countries
have special characteristics which tend to create a different role for government. These
characteristics and their expanded and emphasized role of government particularly as it affects
economic growth, tend to make the operation of public administration significantly different.
When such difference exists, public administration can be fully called development
administration.
These various definitions of development administration by various authors indicate similarities,

though with minor variations. Most of the definitions agree that development administration is
organized to implement government projects or programmers towards reviewing developmental
objectives. The question that arises is, how then does this differ from traditional administration,
given the fact that public administration is equally geared towards implementation of
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development goals? Some of the conceived ideas that development administration is change-
oriented, action-oriented, which is geared towards creativity, innovation and so forth, could be
tailored toward public administration in accordance with the submission of the authors earlier
cited. It is on this basis that the tag ‘Development Administration’ was adopted. If traditional
public administration is directed towards all these, will it qualify to automatically be
development goals of a nation which are effectively achieved through the canopy of traditional
public administration, will it qualify to be called development administration or what?
Other observations that could be made include lack of specific models, paradigms or a
theoretical framework that could make development administration a discipline distinct from
public administration. This may have led scholars like Adamolekun (1983:22-23) to posit that
development administration ideals as it is, do not contribute anything new to the study of public
administration. The position that should be underscored, however, is the implicit assumption that
development administration applies to Third World countries.
Two schools of thought on the issue of development administration emerged: the first is Ecology
of Public Administration that is concerned with the following questions:
(a) How do differences in social, cultural and environmental factors, coupled with historical
experiences, affect the way administration is conducted?
(b) How, in turn, does administrative action affect the society in which it plays a part?
(c) How does the environment affect administration and how does administration affect the
environment?
In his book titled Administration in Development Countries: the Theory of Prismatic Society,
Fred Riggs seems to have provided answers to these questions in that here, he differentiates
between what he called “refracted, prismatic and fused societies”. Prismatic refers to societies
undergoing transition; fused societies are traditional, whereas refracted societies refer to
developed or modern societies. According to Riggs, prismatic societies have the following
features:
(1) High degree of heterogeneity. These societies have traditional and modern features at the
same time.
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(2) High degree of formalism. There is a discrepancy between what is prescribed and what is
being practiced.
(3) Overlapping. The co-existence of formally differentiated structures and undifferentiated
ones.
Riggs also identified the following functions of bureaucracies in the prismatic societies:
(a) Nepotism
(b) Poly-communalism: Public officers apply rules to serve their communities.
(c) Collects a high degree of the influence of interest or ethnic groups with the most
dominant impressing its views on the entire societies.
(d) Bazaar, Canteen Model of the Economy: the price-tag on any commodity depends on
who the customer is.
(e) Poly-Normalism: there are so many norms clashing with each other, no standard norms.
(f) Authority does not lie in formal authority structures.
(g) Policy is based on expediency not on rationality.
He concluded by saying that the Weberian ideal model of bureaucracy cannot work in this type
of environment because of its nature.
The second school of thought is known as the Development Administration School. This school
is concerned with finding appropriate ways of administration in a development situation. The
fundamental issue of this school is whether the classical model of bureaucracy is the most
appropriate for developing countries. This school consequently made the following observations
on bureaucracies in Third World countries:
(a) Administration in this part of the world is basically initiative. There is the tendency to
introduce the Western model of administration.
(b) Bureaucracies in this part of the world lack the skilled manpower necessary for
implementing development programmers.
(c) Administration in this part of the world is not oriented towards production. There is a
wide discrepancy between form and reality.
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In light of the foregoing, this school recommends improving public administration
structures through reforms, and training, and injecting new administration technologies.
Unlike the ecological school, this school of though believes there is room for
improvement. Their ideas led to the setting up of school of administration in Third World
countries.
Development administration has been criticized on the following grounds:
(1) Bureaucracy is by nature conservative and static and therefore, can hardly innovate.
Development entails innovation.
(2) The issue of development in any society calls for participation by a wide range of
people. It is impossible to involve a wide range of people in bureaucracies.
Bureaucracy, by its nature, is not in a position to mobilize the people for purpose of
development.
(3) The development administration approach to development tends to mask the real
issue which is fundamentally the kind of development strategy adopted by the
government.
Development administration is aimed at evolving appropriate ways and means of conducting

administration in a government of an underdeveloped or developing country.
3.2 Administration of Development
Administration of development refers to the instrument of national development. In other words,

the central task of administration of development is how to organize various development tasks
of government and establish the organizations necessary for such tasks in order to achieve the
intended development objectives of government.
For purposes of comparison, Maduabum (2001:85) posit that development administration has
two components:
(1) The administration of development which, according to him, entails the administration of
development programmers. This also includes the methods and techniques adopted by
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government and its agencies in implementing policies enunciated for meeting
development targets; and
(2) The developments of administration which entail improving the administrative machinery
to enable it cope with developmental efforts and demands. He thereafter summarizes the
concept of development administration to mean the adjustment of the bureaucracy to the
vastly increased number, variety and complexity of governmental functions required to
respond to public demands.
In the developed economies, the need for development plans has been emphasized in order to
give greater focus to the goals and programmers of these nations. It is seen as a tool for
modernization.
A vital point to note is that development administration and administration of development are
interwoven concepts. In recognition of this, Esman and Montgomery (1969) insist that
development administration has a twin focus:
(1) To develop administrative institutions and capabilities which would improve the
managing of change processes; and
(2) To administer, shape and implement development programmers in all sectors of public
policy.
4.0 Conclusion
From the discussion above we have learnt that development administration is aimed at evolving
appropriate ways of conducting administration in an environment of underdevelopment. The
crux of development administration is that the classical public administration model is far from
being adequate to sustain the process of administering development programmers. This
assumption emanates from the fact that the bureaucracy of the developing world lacks
organizational capabilities and there is a severe shortage of resources required to cope with the
developmental challenges facing the developing world. In order to cope with the task of national
development, development administration has sought for improved ways of performance through
the restructuring of the bureaucracy.
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5.0 Summary
In this unit we learnt the meaning of development, development administration and

administration of development. We also talked about the features of each. It was also noted that
development administration is associated with the underdeveloped or developing nations. We
believe you have learnt a lot in this unit. In the next unit we will discuss the concept of
federalism.
1. What is development administration?
2. What do you understand by the term administration of development?
3. What are the features of prismatic society as propounded by Riggs?
4. What are the functions of bureaucracies in the prismatic societies?
Adamolekun, L. (1983). Public Administration: A Nigerian and Comparative Pespective. Lagos:

Longman.
Maduabum, C.P. (2001).CapacityBuilding and Utilization in Nigeria. Lagos:TeitlordsPubishers

Ltd.
Publications Ltd.
Riggs, F.W. (1973). Prismatic Society Revisited. Morristown: General Learning Press.
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Unit 4 The Concept of Federalism
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Federalism
3.2 Types of Federalism
3.3 Features of Federalism
3.4 Merits of Federalism
3.5 Demerits of Federalism
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Federation implies the existence in one country of more than onelevel of government, each with
different expenditure responsibilitiesand revenue generating powers.
Federalism is functional arrangement between the states or between communities living and
working together nationally while preserving a reasonable measure of separate identity. It could
also be viewed as a phenomenon of limited union directed at the production of limited unity.
Federalism, as a modern form of government, was developed in the united states of America
(USA) and later adopted by other countries like brazil, Nigeria, Mexico, Switzerland, Canada,
India, etc. other nations in East Africa, the Caribbean Islands, etc. attempted federalism but
failed.
In this unit, we will discuss the concept of federalism, features of federalism, and merits and
demerits of federalism.This is to help us understand better the system of government in Nigeria.
You will benefit a lot from this unit if you study it deligently.
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2.0 Objective
In this unit you will learn the following:

The meaning of federalism
What constitutes a federal state?
Characteristics of federalism
The Pros and Cons of Federalism
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Concept of Federalism

According to Maduabum (2008), federalism is a political concept in which a group of member is
bound together by covenant with a governing representative head. Federalism is also seen as a
system of the government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central
governing authority and constituent political units (like states or provinces). In Federalism, the
power to govern is shared between national and provincial or state governments, creating what is
often called a federation. Proponents of federalism are called federalists.
In the Nigeria context, this consists of a Federal government, 36 states, Federal Capital Territory
and 774 Local Governments.
The federal government has certain express power which isstipulated in the constitution,
including the right to levy taxes, declare war, and regulate interstate and foreign commerce.
There is also what we call the ‘Necessary and Proper Clause’ which gives the federal
government the implied power to pass any law “necessary and proper” for the execution of its
express powers. Power that the constitution does not delegate to the federal government or forbid
to the states-the reserved powers-are reserved to the people or the state.
Some authors see federalism as a form of governmental and institutional structure put in placefor
the purpose of maintaining unity while also preserving diversity. According to Wheare
(1964:28), federalism is the method of dividing powers so that the regional governments are each
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within a sphere, co-ordinate and independent. He goes further to explain the federal principle as
“a principle and practice whose ultimate test is how the federal system operates
A federal society usually becomes one with many ethnic groups of different historical, cultural,
and linguistic backgrounds but each of these ethnic groups occupies a marked and distinctive
geographical location from the others. In this setting, Federalismbecomes the compromising
unity in diversity. Livingston (1956:310) stresses the need for a common political tradition if
federalism is to survive.
From his viewpoint on the developmental approach to federalism, Eleazu (1971:2) identifies
three perspectives, namely: a social fact, he sees federalism as bringing people together, because
socio-cultural conditions make the unitary system unacceptable. The legal basis emanates from
the need to draw up a constitution whereby the basis of agreement is formalized. The political
leaders formalize the agreed relations between the federating units as well as specify the process
of adjusting and accommodating differences.
3.2 Types of Federalism
Centripetal federalism- This is when pre-existing political units came together

for whichever purpose they claim necessary.
Centrifugal federalism- This is when pre-existing political units sub-divide to
accommodate differences of whatever nature that have become one seen as un-
reducible to a common denomination.
Fiscal federalism – federalism involving the transfer of funds between different
levels of government.
Formal federalism (or ‘constitutional federalism’) – the delineation of powers is
specified in a written constitution.
Executive federalism (also known as ‘administrative federalism’).
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One of the cardinal elements of federalism is the participation of the federating state in the
decision-making process at the centre. According to Sclle, (1996:22): there is true federalism
only if associated collectivities participate through their representatives to the constitution of the
federal organs and to the elaboration of their decisions.
Power sharing must be emphasized as another important element of federalism. Ideally, both the
central and the federating state/units are to exercise independent spheres of authority. Federalism
is only to combine the unity amongst the federating units in matters of national concern with
autonomy in matters of state concern. The states are independent entities possessing original and
inherent power.
3.3 Features of Federalism
a. In a federal state, the national government is fully sovereign.
b. The people create both the national and state governments, delegate power to both, and
restrict both through a written constitution of the state.
c. The national or federal government acts directly on the people. For example, it can tax or
draft the people as appropriate. To some extent, the state and the local governments also acts
directly on the people within their areas of jurisdiction. For example, they collect revenue and
provide certain social amenities; but whatever their actions are on the people, they must be in
line with the guidelines of the federal government.
d. In a federal system, each tier of government is limited to its sphere of authority and
within that sphere it is autonomous and independent: neither may arrogate to itself power
assigned to the other.
e. Federal system of government seeks to unite several component units that desire some
degree of unity without sacrificing their own identity or autonomy in local affairs.
f. In a federal arrangement, states/federating units can take their own politicizes

independent of that of the national government, especially their decision on taxing and spending
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and their own economic and social regulations. The right to make policies is only guaranteed by
the federal constitution.
g. In the federal state, both the national and state governments work as partners in progress.
The federal government may delegates some function to the state governments while the later
may do the same to the local governments.
In the final analysis, what seems to be federalism, which involves co-operation between federal
and state officials, is actually decentralization of functions. Whereas policies affecting the
generality of the people are made at the national level, the state and local governments play
administrative roles in the implementation of such policies at both the state and local government
levels.
3.4 Merits of Federalsism
a. The major factor that favours the formation of a federal state is sufficient socio-political
and ideological commitment to the primary concept or value of federation itself which must be
present at formation.
b. The heterogeneous nature of people living together is one of the main factors that favour
the formation of federal states. The progressive existence of these heterogeneous people makes
for corporation of government for mutual benefits and advantages.
c. Linguistic, economic and geographical factors dictated the need for the adoption of a
federal system in Nigeria in order to minimize conflict and to provide unity in diversity as
embodied in the concept of federalism.
d. Another factor in favour of federalism is that it is a weapon for fighting against a

common enemy with a common force. This is what the independent American colonies did to
gain independence from the British and it became natural that they should form themselves into a
single federal union.
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e. Federalism also provides a means of combining local autonomy on matters primarily of
local concern with national unity in matters of general interest.
f. It also balances powers at the centre and federating states, thereby allowing for the
maintenance of self-identities of the federating states with some level of autonomy.
g. The clear division of powers between the states and the central government helps in
keeping the central government under check so that it does not become power drunk.
h. Distribution of national wealth across the board within a federation is another factor that
favours the formation of federal states.
i. Fear of insecurity of wars with other nations or internal wronging favours the formation
of federal states.
3.5 Demerits of Federalism
The disadvantages of federalism are as follows:
a. There is imbalance in power distribution amongst the central and federating governmental
units. A good example is Nigeria where power imbalance makes the federal government to retain
most of this oil revenue and remit paltry sums as allocations to the oil-producing states. This is
why, in Nigeria, the South-south governments are agitating that they should control their natural
resources and pay taxes to the central government, in consonance with the principle of
federalism. It should be borne in mind that the concept of federalism is against the power
inbalance.
b. Bad government may also disfavor the formation of federal states, as is the case in
Nigeria where we now have a proliferation of states due to bad governance that does not cater for
the well-being of all the groups. This is usually characterized by injustice, marginalization and
unfair treatment.
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c. Complexities within the central government. Complexities bring inefficiency and absence
of responsibility. It results to conflicts of jurisdiction. Most federal system like Nigeria and
America have written constitutions, which are known to be rigid with the attendant difficult
amendment procedures and this therefore, does not favour the formation of federal states.
e. Duplication of government machinery. The three level of government (federal state and
local) engage in the same business (though on different scales) and there is a problem in a
distorted federal system like the unitary system of government once practiced in Nigeria where
the central government physically controlled the machinery of government in the states.
f. There may be lopsidedness or structural defects in government, where a particular region

dominates the others in either population (that is, political power), or the bureaucratic power
(public service), disfavors federalism.
g. Restructuring by devolution of power to units and the right of the federating units to
secede is against federalism. For instance, Article 39 of the 1994 Ethiopian Constitution gives
any of the ethnic groups forming the federation of the Republic of Ethiopia the right to secede.
4.0 Conclusion
The important point to learn from all these is that federalism is the co-existence of the different
ethnic, tribal or nation groups that are in geographical proximity to one another but are
compelled by nature to engage in social and commercial interactions. The basic idea is to provide
cohesion for peaceful and progressive co-existence of heterogeneous peoples for mutual benefit
and advantage. Federalism provide linkage of individuals, groups and politics, in lasting but
limited unions, in such a way as to provide for the energetic pursuit of common goals while at
the same time,maintaining the respective integrities of all parties. It is a political synergy and the
juxtaposition of mostly two levels of power, the central and the federating states/units.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we have learnt federalism and federating states. We also looked at the features of
federalism as well as the factors that favours federalism and those that do not. We believe that
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the knowledge you have acquired in this unit will enhance you understanding of the happenings
in the federal system of government in Nigeria.
1. What do you understand by the term federalism?

2. What are the major characteristics of federalism?
3. Is Nigeria practicing true federalism? Support your argument with facts.
4. If you were to advice a heterogeneous nation to adopt federalism, what factors
will you present to the people to enable them adopt this system?
Eleazu, U.O. (1977). Federalism and Nation Building: The Nigerian Experience 1954 – 1964.
Great Britain: Arthur Stockwell Ltd.
Livingston, W.A. (1956). Federalism and Constitutional Change. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration. Lagos: Concept Publications
Ltd.
Sclle, G. (1996). inEyando, S. (Jr.) “Constitution and Federalism: Proceedings of the Conference
on Constitution, Federalism”, Op. cit.
Wheare, K.C.(1964). Federal Government (4thed.) New York: Oxford University Press.
126
Module 4 COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Unit 2 Development of British Administration

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Inter Governmental Relations
3.2 Constitutional Provision of IGR
3.3 Inter Governmental Relations in Practice
3.4 Problems of Inter Governmental Relations
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
Maduabum, (2008:304), defines Inter Governmental Relation (IGR) as the patterns of

interaction among various levels of government in a federal system. These patterns of
relationship may be vertical or horizontal. He went further to say that it inspires a high level of
co-ordination among the various tiers of government in their efforts towards the
implementation of the nation’s policies and programmes. According toAdamolekun (1988:61),
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these can be complex and could take the following dimensions- federal-state; federal-state-
local; federal-local; state-local; interstates; and inter-local governments. We are going to
examine the inter-governmental relationships between the three tiers of government in Nigeria
and the part it plays towards the intra and external administration of the tiers of
government.This will be discussed in three stages, namely: constitutional provisions, practice of
intergovernmental relations since 1999 and problems associated with the practice.
You are expected to read this unit very carefully as a good understanding of this topic will help
you greatly as a public sector administrator.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you are expected to know the following:
interdependence of government
the relationship between the tiers of government
the merits or demerits of intergovernmental relations
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Inter Governmental Relations IGR
Nigeria’s biggest problem to achieving nationhood and full national development is how to
integrate the various ethnic groups in the country. Nigeria adopted federalism as the most
suitable form of government because of the diverse ethnic nature of the country. It is believed
that this will enhance governmental responsibilities among the three levels of government i.e.,
federal state and local governments comprising 36 states and a federal capital territory (FCT) as
well as 774 local government areas excluding the federal government itself.
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What is intergovernmental relation? According to Maduabum (2008), Inter Governmental
Relation refers to the patterns of interaction among various levels of government in a federal
system. These relationships inspire a high level of co-ordination among the various tiers in their
efforts towards the implementation of the nation’s policies and programmers. Babangida
government promulgated decree no. 89 of 1992 which established the National Council on
Intergovernmental Relations. Adamolekun (1988:61), opines that these relations may be
between the federal and state; federal, state and local; federal and local; state and local. It may
be interstates as well as inter-local governments.
William Anderson and Deal Wright were among the pioneer writers of Inter Governmental
Relations (IGR). They laid emphasis on interactions among human who they see as very vital for
the relationships between governments. They however noted that finance is the most critical
element of these interactions. Wright (1979), as stated in Maduabum (2008), identifies the five
distinctive features of IGR in a federal system as follows:
(a) IGR encompasses all the transformations and composites of relations among the units of
government in a federal system;
(b) IGR comprises, the activities and attributes of persons occupying positions in all the
units under consideration- state, local, political, administrative, judicial, legislative or
executive branches of government;
(c) IGR includes concerted and regularized actions of officials as well as new status and
landmarks of court decisions, etc;
(d) Politics, economics and administration combine to put finance as the nerve centre of
IGR; and
(e) Whereas some federal system excludes references to local governments, IGR
encompasses all relationship between governments, including local governments.
Inter governmental relation of any country is usually expressed in the constitution of the
country and this gives it the legal statues.
The mechanism of intergovernmental relation in Nigeria’s context is constitutionally facilitated.
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The provisions of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, schedules 1-4 clearly
stated the type of relationship that will exit between the three tiers of government. Maduabum
(ibid), posit that understanding, interpreting and applying these constitutional provisions by
government operatives are the major determinants of intergovernmental relations under
Nigeria.
3.2 Constitutional Provisions for IGR
Section 2(2) of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999, clearly states that,
“Nigeria shall be a Federation consisting of States and a Federal Capital Territory”. There are
thirty-six states and a Federal Capital Territory, at Abuja, as contained in Section 3(1) of the
constitution. These states are named in the first column of part 1 of the First Schedule of the
constitution. Their areas of occupation and location are shown in the second column of the First
Schedule (Section 3(2), and Section 7(1) of the Constitution respectively, under the caption, the
Constitutional Provision for Local Government System, which is the third tier of government in
Nigeria. This is stated thus:
The system of local government by a democratically elected local government council is,
under this constitution, guaranteed and, accordingly, the government of every state shall,
subject to section 8 of this constitution, ensure their existence under a law which provides for
the establishment, structure, composition, finance and functions of such councils.
130
Levels of Government
The Federal Government
The Federal government is regarded as the parent of both the state and local governments.
Though the state government has its own powers derived constitutionally but the Federal
Government shelters the other levels of government. The Federal government assists the state
and the local government in the following areas.
! Allocation of funds.
! Constitutional supremacy;
! State and local governments as the overall constituency of the President;
! Developmental projects equitably distributed across the country;
! Assent or guarantee of foreign loans for special projects on behalf of states or local
governments;
! Exclusive powers to create states and local governments in accordance with the
provisions of the constitution;
! Acting as conciliation in national disputes or conflicts. (Section 4, Second Schedule of the
constitution).
State Governments
Press and Verburg (1979:86) as cited in Maduabum (2008),states that state governments are
seen as “big government”. By this, they mean that where a state governor is from the ruling
party at the federal level, he will engage in activities that will “sell or deliver the entire state to
the party in power”. The state government has concurrent legislative responsibility in areas like
education policy, transportation policy, etc.
Some of these policies equally receive the attention of the federal government at the federal
level. Whereas each state has power to enunciate policies under the concurrent list, the federal
government can equally legislate on some matters. It has been argued that this is a duplication
of legislative efforts. But, from the practice of democracy, it could be deduced that, where
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there is conflict, the law of the federal government overrides that of the state. This is a very
important aspect of intergovernmental relations, within the context of democracy (Section 8).
Local governments
Local governments are developed to act as a “grass roots” administrative system, thereby
bringing government nearer to the people. Its mode of operation is constitutionally derived.
The local government has a constitutionally elected chairman with councilors representing
various wards in the community. The councilors speak for the people they are representing as it
were, and inform the local government councils about the needs of the people prior to
consideration of projects to be undertaken. This system is referred to as “consultation”. It is
very appropriate because the will of the people has to be unmistakably represented. By so
doing, the people’s yearnings and aspirations will be fulfilled. The local government is also
involved in the policy formulation process since the will of the people at the local government
level is equally important in good governance (4th Schedule (7)).
3.3 Inter Governmental Relations in Practice
A. Allocation of Jurisdictional Powers
This is one of the most vital aspect of IGRin the Nigerian constitution. The extent of federal,
state and local levels of government authority and influence are contained in the constitution.
Allocation of functional jurisdictional powers is the main thrust. This is detailed at the federal-
state, federal-state-local and state-local levels.
As for the federal-state intergovernmental level, three main approaches are possible.
1. anexclusive federal list with residual powers vested in states.
2. an exclusive list for the state legislature
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3. an exclusive and a concurrent list, consisting of subjects upon which both the federal
and state governments have authority to make laws.
All issues that are not covered by both the exclusive and concurrent legislative lists are
regarded as ‘residual’ subjects and left under the jurisdiction of state governments. The
constitutionhas both an exclusive legislative list for the federal government and a concurrent
legislative list for both the federal and state governments. These lists are in the second
schedule of the constitution. In this situation of a dual list, federal legislative actions on subjects
contained in the concurrent list take precedence over the legislative action of any state
government.
In the areas of allocation of jurisdictional powers, the 1999 constitution contrasts with the
1979 constitution in that it categorically spells out under the Fourth schedule, the functions of
local governments. These functions oblige local governments’ interactions with both the federal
and state governments, with particular emphasis on state-local interaction.
The federal, state, or local governments are at liberty to seek judicial interpretation of the
sovereign constitution if either party is dissatisfied on any issue.
The judiciary or a court of competent jurisdiction interprets laws that may have far-reaching
effects on various levels of government. This presupposes that each level of government is
interdependent. It should be noted that the courts in themselves do not have the powers to
arraign offenders before them but such offenders have to be properly arraigned for trial by
person(s) or corporate bodies that have the locus standi to constitute a lawsuit.
B. Intergovernmental Fiscal Relations
Finance is one of the most critical issues of policy regarding IGR in any administrations. This has
become a major object of IGR in terms of how best to administer national revenue to satisfy
each level of government.
The 1999 constitution gives the national and state assemblies the responsibility for revenue
allocations. It also states thatlocal governments should be accepted as having a right to a
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statutory share of national financial resources. Some other provisions on revenue allocation in
the 1999 constitution relate to the sharing of national financial resources among the three
levels of government, e.g. section 162(3). In addition, section 162(7) provides that the National
Assembly would determine the proportion of each state’s total revenue to be paid to local
government councils. Also, section 162(6) of the 1999 constitution states, that “each state shall
maintain a special account to be called state local government joint account, into which shall be
paid all allocations to the local government councils of the state from the Federation Account
and from the government of the state”.
However, with the passing into law of the NDDC Bill, the federal government extends certain
benefits to resource endowed states for developmental purposes. The allocation of funds in
this direction is done by the federal government based on constitutional provisions (Section 4,
Second Schedule on the Exclusive List), through relevant government agencies.
The federal government also assists states in form of grants-in-aid, subject to approval by the
National Assembly as stipulated in the 1999 constitution (section 164(1). The grants-in-aid
enable the states to carry out government programmers that would accelerate the realization
of the peoples’ aspirations. The purpose of grants-in-aid is to utilize fiscal leverage to “induce”
or “assist” states and local governments to carry out certain programmes which centre on
efforts to:
(1) Bring about institutional reforms where the institution is resistant to change and
thereby capable of underrating the intent of the programmme;
(2) Provide the conditions for state or local governments to undertake general
governmental functions of benefit to the public.
(3) Provide the conditions for state or local government to serve a particular constituency,
e.g. the poor, the unemployed, etc.
These grants are under the supervision of a designated federal agency and are based on a
specific formula for the allocation of funds. It should be noted that, if any of the above
criteria is not met, the funds may not be forthcoming and where the programme has been
approved and is in operation, the federal government may withdraw funding in whole or in
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part in the event of any violation of federal laws or any failure to conform to federal
government’s requirements or standards.
3.4 Problems of IGR
In spite of the numerous contributions of IGR to the country’s development, its efforts to
maximize the benefits for its establishment have been hampered. This situation is due to a
number of factors, among which are:
(a) Finance
This is the most critical factor hampering IGR in every federal administration system in
the world. The central problem is how best to administer federal funds to the
satisfaction of each level of government due largely to the size of government in
comparison to its lean financial resources.
(b) The inability of the National Assembly to effectively allocation public revenue among
states and the local government councils.
(c) Lack of appropriate means of ensuring that the state/local government joint accounts
function in the interest of the local government councils.
(d) Due to a large number of separate administrative systems, there are jurisdictional
conflicts and overlapping of functions leading to duplication of efforts,
Other problems include:
- the roles of the different levels of government were not clearly defined in some areas.
- agriculture and education are two subjects that involve the three tiers but the
constitution is not clear on what exactly is expected of each level of government.
- in the provisions of the Fourth Schedule of the Constitution, the local government
council are expected to participate in the governance of a state with respect to
education, agriculture and health, yet, state governments unilaterally determine the
terms of participation without any consultation with local government councils.
- there is absence of any administrative mechanism for the management of IGR.
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- both the state and local government councils accuse the federal government of
reducing and even sitting on funds meant for programmes in the state and local
government councils, whose disbursement is usually at the discretion of the Federal
Government.
- many state and local government legislative bodies are unable to accurately project
incoming revenues, since everything depends on whether or not the federal
government is able to approve grant application.
- the public officials and recipients of government services are uncertain of the scope
and level of services to be provided for on incoming fiscal year as they have to wait
until the grant application is approved. This is partly the reason for so many cases of
uncompleted projects.
These problems can only be ameliorated if the constitution would address them adequately.
For instance, the present federal structure comprising 36 states, the FCT and 774 local
governments should be considered enough to satisfy the yearnings of the various ethnic groups
in the country. This is because, the creation of most of the states was politically motivated
without due regard to other important parameters such as economic viability and population.
On the creation of local governments, a national agency should be given the mandate and
empowered to monitor IGR. In addition, due to the technical and procedural complexities of
the constitution, a specialized agency such as the National Advisory Council on IGR (NACIGR)
could be made to handle the joint functions of states and local governments, i.e,.how states
and local governmentsshare responsibilities.
4.0 Conclusion
The importance of IGR in administration is enormous as each arm of government needs the
other to function fully. A clear-cut separation of powers in a democratic system of
government is a herculean task as there are some overlaps in functions and each arm needs
the other to succeed. But corruption which has become endemic in Nigeria hinders success
operation of IGR. This manifests in the Revenue Sharing Formula and in its implementation.
136
However, some national agencies and councils such as National Economic Council which is a
mechanism for intergovernmental co-ordination in respect of economic matters, the Public
Complaints Commission whose aim is to assists the citizens in seeking redress for whatever
grievance they might have against any individual or corporate entity, as well as National
Youth Service Corps which has the primary goal for national integration and others have all
been put in place for the purpose of intergovernmental relations.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we discussed inter governmental relations among the three tiers of government
in Nigeria. We examined the roles of the federal government as a father figure to both the
state and the local government administration. We looked at the constitutional provision of
inter governmental relations. We also examined inter governmental relation as it is
practiced in Nigeria. Finally, we examined the problems encountered in the practice of IGR
in Nigeria. It is hoped that you have learnt a lot in this unit and are now in a better position
to appreciate the happenings in the three tiers of government in Nigeria. In the next unit,
we will study the development of British administration.
1. What is Inter Governmental Relation IGR?
2. List the functions of the Federal government to the state and local governments?
3. List and explain the functions of the local government?
4. List and explain fully six problems of intergovernmental relations.
137
Adamolekun, L. (1988). Politics and Administration in Nigeria.Ikeja: Perfect Printers Limited.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1975).Main Report of the Public Service Review Commission.
Lagos: Government Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1999).Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999.

Abuja: Government Press.
Press, C. and Verburg, K. (1979).State and Community Governments in the Federal System.
New York: John Wiley and Sons.
Wright, V. (1979).The Government and Politics of France. London: Hutchison and Company
Limited
Unit 2 BRITISH ADMINISTRATION
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Public Administration System in Britain
3.2 Arms of Government in Britain
3.3 Level of Government in Britain
3.4 Bureaucratic System in British Civil Service
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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1.0 Introduction
Great Britain is reputed as one of the world’s oldest democracies. It is situated in Western
Europe. It is a major global economic power. Its economy are generate through manufacturing,
foreign trade and a wide range of international business and commercial activities, such as
banking and insurance. The Gross National Product (GNP) of Britain indicates that it ranks
among the top seven industrialized countries in the world. In this unit, we are going to examine
the public administration system in Britain and see what makes the country so successful.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit you are expected to know the following:
the cultural and political system of Britain.
their parliamentary system
their legislative system
British monarchy
British government and the various arms contained therein
their levels of government
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3.0 Main Content
3.1 Public Administration System in Britain
Great Britain is made up of the natives of the British Isles – English, Welsh, and Irish – each of
which has tried to preserve its culture. After the Second World War, there was an influx of
people, especially Blacks and East Indians, from various parts of the former British-empire into
England’s largest cities. This resulted in a mixed societywhich the English discriminated upon
thus resulting in racial conflict.
The British political system is not contained in a constitution but, rather, on some basic ideas that
are universally accepted (unwritten constitution). Also the British political system uses the term
“parliamentary government” but this is not reflected in practice as stated in theory. Theoretically,
the term ‘parliamentary government’implys that parliament is the chief power in the state. But
although supreme in theory, the parliament is dominated by the cabinet which gets formal only
when the parliament is created.
Britain also uses the bicameral legislative system quite different from the type in other countries.
Here, the upper chamber otherwise known as the House of Lords currently is regarded as an
aristocratic second chamber.
There is also the system of monarchy which is still in place and the Crown plays significant roles
in the administrative system of Britain. According to Pride (1975:17), “the Queen reigns but does
not rule”. All aspects of government are carried out in the name of the queen. The Crown
signifies the sum total of governmental powers (legislative, executive, and judicial aspects) in the
United Kingdom.
Maduabum, (2008:236) opines that the Queen is the titular head, and forms a part of each of the
three branches of government. This merits her acronym‘the Queen-in-Parliament’. She can
summon parliament, prorogue it at the end of each session and also dissolve it, thus provoking a
general election.
The Queen can veto any bill and preclude such from becoming an act of parliament. She is also
called‘Queen-in-Council’, although she does not perform any executive functions except on the
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advice of, or via a minister who is responsible to the parliament. The Queen presides over
meetings of the Privy Council to which all cabinet ministers belong. She plays a vital role in the
appointment of ministers since she must approve such appointments.
The appointed ministers in return must ensure that she is informed of all major matters arising in
the context of their ministries, so that she can see the basis upon which ministerial policy is being
developed.
In the event of any government proposal not being acceptable to her, the Queen would forewarn
against the implementation of such. Thus, she cannot be held responsible for the unpopularity or
unsuccessful implementation of any policy.
As the custodian of justice, justice, and state prosecutions are conducted in The Queen’s name.
She appoints judges and exercises the prerogative of mercy – the right to pardon, either freely or
conditionally, a convicted person, although this prerogative must be exercised on the advice of
the Home Secretary.
Britain operates a central role of the electoral system. It democratizes the parliamentary regime
by enabling three electorates to choose the government. Secondly, the electoral system fosters
political responsibility by avoiding electoral or parliamentary alliances and bargaining between
groups. This means that in the British policy, the people are the real source of political power.
Cabinet, despite its vast powers, remains an essentially democratic organ because it derives its
authority from the people.
3.2 Arms of Government in Britain
1. The Cabinet
The Cabinet is the executive arm of government and occupies a prominent position in the British
administrative system. According to Mathoit (1958:67) as cited in Maduabum (2008:237), “The
Cabinet government developed out of the practice whereby the king used to surround himself
with a group of advisers chosen from certain offices under the crown and the Privy Council.
These people are personal and trusted advisers to the king. They form a committee of state or
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cabinet and pays allegiance to the king and the later confides in them in matters of great
importance to the state.
The modern British cabinet consists of the leaders of the party in power. It includes the heads of
some important departments such as the Lord Chancellor, Chancellor of the Exchequer, the
President of the Board of Trade, the first Lord of the Admiralty, the Ministers of Defence,
Education, Labour, Agriculture and health, and the Secretaries of State for Foreign, home
Affairs, the Colonies, Commonwealth Relations, etc.
The functions of the cabinet are:
a. the determination of the policy to be submitted to parliament; and
b. the supreme control of the executive in accordance with the co-ordination of the work of
the departments of the state.
The cabinet is under the Prime Minister who, is the acknowledged leader of the party which was
elected directly by the electorate through a general election to form government.
2. The Prime minister
The Prime minister is the acknowledged leader of the party elected directly through a general
election to form a government. His power varies according to his personality and the extent to
which his party supports him. Maduabum ibid opines that he is the chief adviser to the monarch
and can control the composition of the cabinet because of his power to ask for the resignation of
his colleagues. He can resign himself, or ask for cabinet dissolution. He presides over cabinet
meetings where his influence is always dominant; resolves intra-cabinet differences; and
exercises his authority as the leader of the party in such a way that the unity of his government is
not jeopardized. He controls the civil service via the instrumentality of the treasury as the Lord
Treasury. Appointments of permanent heads and financial officers of government departments
require his approval. In short, his powers are so extensive that it cuts across all spheres of
government both within Britain and the entire Commonwealth.
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3. The Parliament
This is the legislative arm of government. The British parliament is bi-cameral in nature
comprising two legislative chambers- the House of Lords (senior chamber) and the House of
Commons (lower chamber). The House of Commons is more powerful, having established its
claim over finance and being representative of the electorate of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland. Members of the lower house are usually elected directly through general elections,
unlike those of the higher chamber who are elected through the Electoral College.
Theoretically, parliament is believed to be supreme as its supremacy cuts across every aspect of
government. It is said thatparliament can legislate on any matter which it pleases; that an Act of
Parliament cannot be overruled or repealed except by Parliament itself, and that the power held
by the Prime Minister or any other person is delegated to him by the Parliament. Nonetheless,
under modern conditions, the supremacy of the Parliament is not factual as it is constantly being
manipulated and stage-managed by the executive or cabinet, especially the Prime Minister.
Functions of the parliament
a. bills originate in parliament

b. legislation of bills are undertaken here
c. they submit the bills to the Crown for assent
d. they approves financial estimates and budgets of government
e. policies and programmers of government are normally scrutinized
on the floor of parliament.
4. Judiciary
In practice, there is no real separation of powers in Britain still the judiciary enjoys a
considerable level of independence necessary to safeguard the rights of the citizens. In Britain,
Judges are appointed by the Queen on the advice of the Prime Minister and Lord Chancellor. The
highest officers, once appointed, cannot be removed from office unless by reason of misconduct
and an address presented by both legislative houses to the Queen. Also the independence of the
judges are assured as their salaries are paid directly from the Consolidated Fund. The judges are
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not required to give opinions on political issues. The British judiciary comprises a network of
courts, which exists for the settlement of disputes.
3.3 Levels of Government
Britainis a unitary state which means the supremacy of a legislative authority by one central
power. It has another level of authority called the local authority created by statute (i.e, the Local
Government Acts of 1888, 1894 and 1971). These local authorities are independent and run their
own affairs and are responsible to their own electorates. However, the central government has
come to assume and exercise control over them due to financial assistance it gives them. The
result is a closer co-ordination and greater uniformity.
The local authorities had a variety of function relating to the administration of justice and carried
out a wide range of duties entrusted to them by the Crown or Parliament.
The Local Government Act of 1933 is still in force and it recognized six levels of elected local
authority, which have continued with some modifications. These are: County Borough Councils,
County Councils, and Parishes.
Thediagram below expresses the level of Local Authority in Britain.
Central Government
County Borough Councils County Councils
Borough Councils Urban District Rural District Councils
Parish Councils Parish Meetings
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(Adapted from Maduabum, (2008)).
County Councils were under Chairmen, Borough Councils under Mayors, and County Borough,
Councils under the Lord Mayor. There were some modifications in 1974 which changed County
Borough Councils to Metropolitan County Councils and these were further sub-divided into
Metropolitan District Councils and subsequently Parish Councils. Though these authorities are
independent, still they can only operate within the framework of the law and the central
government exercises control over them through judicial, financial, legislative and administrative
means.
3.4 The BritishPublic Service
The Public Service in Britain is the administrative arm of its government. It comprises all the
organs of government and sees to the implementation of its laws. Britain’s civil service can be
regarded as a child of necessity. It came into existence as a result of the malfunctions in the
political sphere of their administration. The system had lots of arbitrariness. The ‘spoils system’
was the order of the day. Remuneration was not regular, promotion was not based on merit, and
there were no career security and so on. This period was marked with series of agitations for
reforms. The result was series of commissions and the recommendations of these commissions
introduced enormous changes in the Civil Service. For example, the British Civil Service was
initially structured into the following classes:
(1) The Administrative class, ranging from Assistant Principals (lowest grade), to the
permanent heads of departments at the top of the hierarchy. Its functions covered key
government functions and membership was restricted to graduates from Oxford
University and offspring’s of royal families.
(2) The Executive class, which ranged from Executive Officers to Chief Executive Officers
with membership not confined to any social class, the bulk of recruits were those with
GCE A ‘Level and were responsible for putting into effect government policy decisions.
(3) The Clerical class, comprising the broad mass of subordinate office workers in the
government departments.
(4) The Manipulative class, which included all labour workers, etc.
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However, one of the commissions recommended the abolition of this structural system and the
establishment of a corporate body to be responsible for the recruitment of civil servants. To this
end, a Civil Service Commission was established which prescribes the method of recruitment,
conducts the various examinations and issues requisite certificates for appointment into the
service. The present British Civil Service comprises only one class, the level of entry to it being
determined by the entrant’s qualification and experience, with the possibility of promotion from
any level in the class to the topmost rungs of the service.
One striking feature of British Civil Service is that the British civil servant is an administrator of
high quality with unquestionable integrity and outstanding efficiency. Their status has qualities
of permanence, impartiality and anonymity. They play major role in policy making.
4.0 Conclusion
The British administrative system, with all its peculiarities is regarded as both simple and
effective. Although some changes many have been introduced, the British administrative system
still remains an interesting system.
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we have learnt about the British political and administrative system. We examined
their arms of government, the level of their government as well as their civil service and its
bureaucracy. We believe you have learnt substantially from this unit and will be able to compare
their civil service with that of Nigeria.
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1. Trace the British Monarch system and the role it plays in the administration of the
country.
2. Compare and contrast Britain’s civil service and Nigeria’s civil service.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration. Lagos: Concept

Omolayo, S. and Arowolaju, B. (1987). Elements of Government: An Introductory College

Text on Political Science. Lagos: Friends Foundation publishers limited.
MODULE 5 OPERATIONS OF PUBLIC SECTOR ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

Unit 3 Principles of Separation of Powers
Unit 5 Criticisms of Weber
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1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Centralization and Decentralization
3.2 The Public Sector
3.3 Characteristics of the Public Service
3.4 Structure of the Public Service
3.5 Functions of the PublicService
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
To benefit from the effective performance of governmental functions, government

administration is organized and structured into departments, ministries, commissions, public
corporations and local government authorities with duly delegated powers to enable them
perform in their allotted areas of responsibility. For the understanding of the working of these
administrative agencies, we shall examine each in some detail. But before then it is important
to note that in whatever way governmental administration may be structured, two principles
often play a very big role. These principles are:
1. The need to centralize and

2. The need to decentralize
We shall discuss these as well as the civil service structure and functions of the civil service.
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2.0 At the end of this unit you are expected to know the following:
the organization, the structure and functions of public sector administration,

centralization and decentralization of the civil service
characteristics of the civil service
problems of the civil service
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Centralization and Decentralization
The principles of Centralization and Decentralization apply not only to central governmental
administration but also to the organization and inner workings of government agencies such as
ministries, departments, commissions, public corporation and local government authorities.
The term centralization is used to describe a system of governmental administration in which

functions are concentrated in a single central authority. This may be due to the desire for
uniformity and standardization or because such centralized functions or powers are regarded as
belonging in the area of high policy matters or critical decision.
Other reasons include the following:
(a) The size of the country: the need for centralization would be more pressing in a small-
sized country;
(b) Homogeneity of population characteristics: the more homogeneous the population of a
country is, the more suited it is to centralized administration;
(c) A belief in the efficacy of law: this is a belief the law takes care of everything and that
once the law is passed at the centre it will be enforced and obeyed throughout the
length and breadth of the country;
(d) Increasing government expenditure;
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(e) Efficient modern communication media which has tended to render distance irrelevant
to effective co-ordination of the work of administrators; and
(f) The nature of the political structure: the unitary structure of the British political system
and others, e.g. France, comes readily to mind here as a thriving milieu for centralized
governmental administration.
Advantages of Centralization
A centralized administration has the following advantages over a decentralized one.
1. It ensure standardization and uniformity in administration because it is almost always

easier to make a single solution and apply it wholesale rather than make a variety of solutions
and apply them piecemeal. Uniformity is also fostered by the absence in a centralized system of
blocking strategies often employed by local units in a decentralized system.
2. It facilitates the full use of the greater knowledge and capacity that are almost bound
to be at the command of a central authority compared with subordinate authorities.
3. Centralization fosters stronger government and more effective governmental

administration.
4. It is also more economical in human and material resources utilization.
3.1.2 DECENTRALIZATION
Decentralization refers to a system of administration in which powers are not concentrated in

a single central authority or agency of government. Decentralization could be territorial or
functional.
Territorial decentralization refers to the devolution of powers by the central government

upon the authorities of local areas. Another name for territorial decentralization is regionalism,
that is, a geographical concentration of decision-making and executive powers on either
bureaucratically controlled outposts of the central government or on democratically
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elected bodies covering large regional areas. Territorial decentralization is practiced in both
unitary and federal states but it is more inherent in the latter.
In a federal government structure, such problems of decentralization as definition of areas of

authorities, amount of decision-making authority to be delegated and the machinery for the co-
ordination of the various authorities, are less acute than in unitary states. This is because in
federal states, boundaries of the jurisdictional competence of both the central and unit
authorities are clearly determined by the constitution unlike in unitary states where all powers
and the manner of their devolution emanate from the central government.
Functional decentralization, on the other hand, describes a situation where

administrative functions of a non-territorial kind are entrusted to certain extra governmental
bodies or to the agency of various statutory authorities.
Advantages of Decentralization
Decentralization has political, functional, operational and technical advantages. Let us examine
these advantages.
1. Politically, it creates a corporate sense of responsibility by satisfying the demands for

greater and wider participation in the decision-making process which cannot be afforded by
centralization;
2. It is a training in self-government; it gives the administration of real powers to those

who feel most directly the consequences of those powers; and it is capable of quickening the
pace of socio-political and economic advancement of a nation.
3. Functionally, decentralization is reputed for its operational and technical efficiency.
4. Operationally, it ensures that available resources are used for the purpose of achieving
set goals and objectives and with a sense of concern for the type of environment.
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5. Technically, it enables government administration to meet local demands and demands
made by the people generally with the most adequate machinery, thus ensuring better
utilization of manpower and material resources.
Disadvantages
This will be better understood by checking how really efficient decentralization is or how much
of decentralization is likely to be useful? However, too much decentralization is likely to
weaken the central administration, thus jeopardizing general efficiency and effectiveness off
government actions.
3.2 The Public Sector
The Public Sector is the term used to describe the departments of the state which are saddled
with the responsibilities and functions of implementing the policies and programmers of the
government. It is an extension of the executive arm of the government, whose personnel
perform purely administrative and executive duties. The personnel called Civil Servants are
responsible to the Chief Executive of the state through the various departmental heads. These
departmental heads vary in nomenclature from place to place. In some, they are called
Ministers or Commissioners and in others, Secretaries. The term public service is used to mean
the entirety of governmental administration, including the civil service, the armed forces and
the corporation. The service is essentially responsible for the formulation and implementation
of policies and for providing direction to the government. It is believed that the success or
failure of a government may to a large extent depend on the caliber of its public Service.
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3.3 Characteristics of the Public Service
The characteristics of the Public service are as follow:
1. Permanence
Public service is a permanent institution that ensures continuity of its essential services to the
people. There is security of appointment because regardless of changes in formation and
composition of the government the public service is expected to remain, while the employees
should not work under the constant fear of being removed, except if and when found guilty of
offences against the ethics of their profession. This assists the administrators in the fulfillment
of government policies and decisions as they could rely on the wealth of experience acquired
over time on the job. The permanence of the civil service promotes societal welfare and
stability.
2. Anonymity
Civil Servants are not held responsible on matters affecting the Ministry in relation to the
performance of their functions. Though policies may be formulated by the civil servants,
commendation or condemnation for such policies is heaped on the Minister. It is the Minister
or ministerial heads that are held responsible by the Chief Executive of government for the
activities of the ministries or departments under them.
3. Political Neutrality
Civil servants are generally expected to remain loyal and dedicated to the government of the
day. They are not expected to be partisan but to perform their functions without showing
sympathy for any political party or group. The essence of neutrality consists in the need to
retain public confidence in governmental administration. It is also to forestall political
victimization of identified political opponents and the use of undue advantages by their political
friends. A civil servant who wants to vie for any political office or play partisan politics is
expected to resign his office before do so. However, this practice of political neutrality by civil
servants varies from country to country. The tradition is particularly British and most British
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colonies including Nigeria patterned their civil service practice and system on it. France allows
top civil servants to perform such roles as Councilors and Mayors, and they can even run
elections and come back to their civil service posts after political life, even though the practice
is that most never come back.
4. Impartiality
The civil service is financed from public fund. The civil Service is therefore expected to serve all
governments, people and parties in accordance with the same standards with no special
identification with, or bias for, any group. It is only an impartial civil service that can be seen as
the symbol of administrative unity.
3.4 The Structure of the Public Sector
The public service is structured into:
(a) The administrative, executive, and the clerical class and

(b) The professional class.
1. Administrative Class
This is the highest policy making class. It is to formulate policies and to advise the political
heads of the service. It is also to organize and co-ordinate the activities of the Service. The class
is responsible for collating and disseminating reports from other classes, on which the political
head depends for the day-to-day administration.
Recruitment into the class is through either a special examination or interview or both
conducted by the public service commission. Qualifications include good university degrees and
a reasonable length of service within the executive class.
The class is composed of permanent, Deputy and Assistant Permanent Secretaries and other
Principle Officers down to the Assistant Secretaries who constitute the lowest rung of the class.
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Affecting the efficiency of the administrative class are:
(a) Assignments of poor and inadequate intellectual quality, e.g. a graduate of Public
Administration assigned to issuing of allocation papers for toiletries;
(b) General lack of experience and basic skills;
(c) Frequent transfers.
2. Executive Class
The Executive class is responsible for the implementation or execution of policies and decisions
as presented by the administrative class and approved by the political heads. It is the class that
deals with the day-to-day conduct of administration involving supply and petty accounting
duties, internal organization, supervision and control of work of the clerical staff.
Problems of the Executive Class
One of the greatest problems of the Executive Class is that of lack of recognition within the
system. Many personnel within the class are a lot more experienced and demonstrates greater
expertise in specialized fields that officers of the administrative class. But the tendency is to
regard them as of inferior intelligence and education and, therefore, undeserving of promotion
to higher responsibility.
3. Clerical Class
This class can be divided into two sub-classes viz:
(a) The General Clerical Class made up of the clerical grade and
(b) The Clerical Assistant class.
Entry qualification into the clerical class is a minimum of school Certificate, Ordinary
level Certificate of Education or Secondary School class four (S.75) for the clerical
Assistant grade or by promotion from clerical grades. They are responsible for the
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keeping of records, movement of files, payment of claims, and preparation of vouchers.
They include typists and lower categories of personal secretaries who help all other
classes of the service in the performance of their duties.
Problem with the clerical class
The major problem with the clerical class work is by the nature of their duties.
they have little supervisory responsibilities
they have no responsibility of complete jobs,
no serious attention is given to career development for them
Clerical officers perform routine fragmented functions which are devoid of
serious grooming for higher administrative responsibility, and their career
expectation is thus drastically limited,
they are discriminated upon,
because of low formal education, some officers rarely go beyond their class
throughout their service life. This can really be demoralizing and counter-
productive.
Professional Class
This cadre is made up of people with specialized training and skill. They have
professional qualifications to do some specialized or technical duties within the system.
They give advice on technical or specialized matters both at the formulation and
implementation stages of government policies and programmers.
3.5 Functions of the Public Service
The civil servants perform the same general functions as all public administrators so
the functions discussed below are also the functions of public administrators generally.
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These functions include Policy Formulation, Administrative Legislation,Execution of
policies, Administrative Adjudication, Regulatory functions, Service and Supportive
Functions and Management Functions.
a. Policy Formulation
Public administrators are involved in policy formulation. They give advice on policy
matters as well as set down on paper policy alternatives for presentation to the policy
makers who then decide on which alternative to adopt as government policy.
b. Administrative Legislation
Administrative agencies, including the civil service, public corporations and local
governments produce large quantities of rules, regulations and bye-laws under powers
granted to them by the legislature.
c. Execution of Policies
One of the most important functions of administrative agencies is the execution of

policies in an efficient manner to ensure the achievement of governmental objectives
and goals. This is why it is generally believed that they are the bedrock of the executive
arm of government.
d. Administrative Adjudication
Administrative agencies perform a great deal of business which is judicial in character.

They listen to complaints by private persons against certain administrative action or
complaints by one civil servant against another and ensure settlement. More often than
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not, civil servants conduct and decide cases between one private person and another.
Example is Ombudsman.
e. Regulatory Functions
Administrative agencies regulate the operations and activities of private individuals and
organizations to ensure that they do not engage in forbidden practices. This involves
law enforcement agencies.
f. Service and Supportive Functions

The Public Service and the other administrative agencies act as channels for the
provision of social services to the people. Government is assessed on this premise. The
administrative agencies perform other supportive functions to the government by
gathering and supplying important information required for policy making.
Management Functions
The public service like all administrations performs certain functions which an
administrative agency must perform to carry out its operations with maximum efficiency
and economy. These functions are called management functions. Luther Gulick gave it an
acronym “POSDCORB” which stands for planning, organizing, staffing, directing, co-
coordinating reporting and budgeting.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The discussion above cut across the whole public service which is inclusive of the
civil service. The centralization and decentralization of government and government
agencies were discussed with emphases on its usefulness or otherwise.
For effective performance, the government agencies are usually organized into
divisions, each specializing in a properly defined area of activity. Divisions vary in
number, functions and nomenclature from ministry to ministry, depending on the
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responsibilities of each ministry. This is crucial in every ministry because of its significant
functions which include: establishment and structure, overall management and day-to-
day administration.
Each division is headed by a senior officer who coordinates all the activities of the
officers and branches and sections of the division. Usually, each of the branches or
sections is headed by a sectional head who supervises the work of his subordinates and
reports on the general activities of the section to the divisional head.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we studied the Public Sector, its structures and internal administration. We
also examined the functions of the public or civil servants as well as the problems they
encounter in the performance of their duties. We believe that you have understood the
workings in the public service. In the next unit, we will examine the value and ethics of
public administration.
1. Write short note on decentralization of government.

2. What are the merits and demerits of centralization?
3. Distinguish between public service and civil service.
4. What do you understand by the term political neutrality?
5. There are some contentions that public administrators are policy formulators.
Do you subscribe to this assertion? Give reasons for your answer.
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Adebayo, A. (1968). “Introduction: The Evolution, Organisation and Structure of the

Nigerian Civil Service,” in Nigerian Administration and its Political Setting.ed. London:
Hutchinson Educational Ltd.
Omolayo, S. and Arowolaju B. (1987). Elements of Government: An Introductory College

Text on Political Science. Lagos: Friends Foundation Publishers Limited.
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Ethics and Values
3.2 Functions of Ethics Principles
3.3 Ethics in Nigeria’s Public Sector
3.4 Institutions in-charge of Ethics in Nigeria
3.5 Reasons for inefficiency in the System
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
In this unit, we shall be discussing values and ethics of Public Administration. Ethics is bothered
about the conduct of man, his happiness, pleasure, what he considers to be good or bad conduct,
and conditions under which these values may be impeded or realized. Ethics is all about moral
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principles and values. It emphasizes discipline, dealing with good and evil as well as moral duty,
moral principles or practice which guide the behavior of man. Every entity or organization all
over the world, whether religious, private or public organization, has its own acceptable ways of
behavior, norms, interest or values which it expects its members to imbibe. So also it is with
Public Sector Administration in Nigeria. As we progress in this unit, we shall examine the ways
of determining and guaranteeing an adoption of the right behavior that is desired of the various
actors in the conduct of government business in Nigeria.
2.0 Objectives
know all about ethics,
learn about moral values,
know ethical principles in the Public Sector Administration in Nigeria,
and be able to assess whether Public and Civil Servants are applying ethical principles in
the conduct of their business and why, and
be able to correct the wrongs in the system as an informed Public Administrator.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Ethics and Values
Ethics concepts or explanations are proffered regarding what affects or guides the moral conduct
of man. Maduabum (2008) posit thatevery organization has its norms, values, interests and
acceptable ways of behavior and at the same time, employees of the same organization
individually or collectively have their own peculiar behavior acquired prior to joining the
organization. The employees’ behavior reflects and protects their interests, which may be at
variance with the organizational interests. Therefore for an organization to continue to survive
and grow there must be that congruence between the organization’s interest and those of its
employees. This will forestall conflicts, lack of productivity, disenchantment and even industrial
actions. This informs the emphasis on ethic and code of conduct. An organization that does not
enforce its ethics and code of conduct of its employees will collapse. What then is ethics?
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Omoregbe (1993:3-4), states that ethics “can be defined as the branch of Philosophy which deals
with the morality of human actions, or a branch of Philosophy which studies the norms of human
behavior… (or) the systematic study of the fundamental principles of the moral law; or as the
normative science of human conduct.”
Okafor and Eloagu, (2002:85) defines ethics as follows:”Ethics” means discipline dealing with
good and evil and with moral duty, moral principles or practice”.
Values, on the other hand, are abstract ideas or principles which help to decide what to do
because they define what is important in our dealings with other people and things. What we
‘value’ will be very important in deciding how we live our lives, and what methods we well
choose to attain our goals (Murray, 1997:44).
The vital points in these definitions are moral values or principles and all these though not the
same are all geared towards public morality.
3.2 Functions ethics’ principles
(1) They set down specific values which are important to an individual, such as ‘honesty’,
fairness, integrity, reliability, selflessness;
(2) Principles provide general guidance which assists a person to make decisions;
(3) They invite other people to trust that the person can be relied on to observe the ethical
standard for judgment so that everyone can make judgment about the ethics of the person.
Nigerians accepts ‘high’ standards of ethics from the civil servants and public officials, including
the judiciary and elected representatives, who undertake the tasks of government and public
management on its behalf. Ethics problems are generally concerned with choosing between
“right” and “wrong” when we are required to decide what we ought to do in a ‘particular’
situation. In private life, we generally approve of promise keeping, selflessness, responsibility,
reliability, hard work, commitment, courage, honesty, frankness, and above all, trustworthiness.
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Ethics involvesobligation, duty and conflict of interests, responsibility, integrity, fairness, and
trust. On the other hand, special words used to show disapproval of many kinds of ‘unethical’
conduct or behavior are: lying, selfness, cheating, dishonesty, unreliability, abuse of position,
abuse of trust, etc.
Accroding to Whitton (2001:13), the key ethics ideas in civil service rules are that civil servants
and public officials, including judges, ministers and politicians should do the following:
(1) Occupy a position of trust, on behalf of the whole community;

(2) Exercise power assigned by a lawful authority, or law;
(3) Are expected to use that power for a propose as expressed in law;
(4) Are expected to act competently (that is with relevant skill) and responsibly (that is, with
due consideration of the consequences of their actions).
(5) Are expected to be accountable for their actions to a manager, the head of their
organization, and perhaps ultimately to an external authority;
(6) Are expected to recognize that this accountability includes being required to give reasons
for decisions they make;
(7) Are expected to act in the public interest – that is, for the overall good of the community
as a whole;
(8) Are expected to be personally disinterested – that is, to exclude conflicts between their
personal interests or advantage and the public interest, so that their advice, decisions and
actions should be, and appear to be, unaffected by any private interest or personal
advantage; and
(9) Are expected to comply with a civil service code of ethics which will emphasize the
values of responsibility, legitimacy, fairness, efficiency and effectiveness, diligence,
accountability, and integrity.
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3.3 Code of Ethics in the Nigerian Public Service
Code of ethics implies a framework within which staff can be expected to work. Maduabum
(2008) posits that a code of ethics is an important management tool which can positively shape
the culture of an organization. He went further to say thatit is used to help prevent corruption in
the society by specifying punitive measures for corrupt officials. It helps staff in the conduct of
their day-to-day activities. It must also include clearly stated example of conduct and
relationships that are relevant to the particular function of the organization. A code of ethics
should function as a positive guide to decision-making and it must provide specific, concrete
examples to illustrate the ethical problem that might arise in an organization and strategies for
dealing with them. Areas specific concern or ethical risk to the organization such as bribery,
theft, abuse of public office, etc, should be carefully considered and included in the code.
Since no two organizations are the same, the code of ethics should reflect the peculiarity in the
organization if such a code should be relevant. We shall concern ourselves with the code of
ethics or conduct for public servants in Nigeria.
The 1999 constitution stipulates the following as the code of conduct for public officers:
(1) A public officer shall not put himself in a position where his personal interest conflicts
with his duties and responsibilities.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing paragraph, a public office shall not: (a)
Receive or he paid the emolument of any public office at the same time as he receives
or is paid the emoluments of any other public office; or
(b) Except where he is not employed on full-time basis, engage or participate in the
management or running of any private business, profession or trade; but nothing in
this sub-paragraph shall prevent a public officer from engaging in farming.
(3) The President, Vice-President, Governor, Deputy Governor, Ministers of the Government
of the Federation and Commissioners of the Government of the States, members of the
National Assembly and of the Houses of Assembly of the States and such other public
officers or Persons as the National Assembly may by law prescribe, shall not maintain or
operate a bank account in any country outside Nigeria.
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(4) (1) a public officer shall not, after his retirement from public service and while receiving
pension from public funds, accept more than one remunerative position as chairman,
director or employee of:
(a) A company owned or controlled by the government; and
(b) Any public authority.
(2) A retired public servant shall not receive any other remuneration from public funds in
addition to his pension and the emolument of such one remunerative position.
(5) (1) retired public officers who have held offices to which this paragraph applies are
prohibited from service or employment in foreign companies or foreign enterprises.
(2) This paragraph applies to the office of President, Vice-President, Chief Justice of Nigeria,
Governor and Deputy Governor of a State.
(6)(1) A public officer shall not ask for or accept property or benefits of any kind for himself or
any other person on account of anything done or omitted to be done by him in the discharge of
his duties.
(2) For the purpose of sub-paragraph (1) of this paragraph, the receipt by a public officer of
any gifts or benefits from commercial firms, business enterprises or persons who have contracts
with the government shall be presumed to have been received in contravention of the said sub-
paragraph unless the contrary is proved.
(3) a public officer shall only accept personal gifts or benefit from relatives or personal friends to
such extent and on such occasions as are recognized by custom, provided that any gift or
donation to a public officer on any public ceremonial occasion shall be treated as a gift to the
appropriate institution represented by the public officer, and accordingly, the mere acceptance or
receipt of any such gift shall not be treated as contravention of this provision.
(7) the President or Vice-President, Governor or Deputy Governor, minister of the government
of the federation or commissioner of the government of a state, or any other public officer who
holds the of a permanent secretary or head of any public corporation, university, or other
parastatal organization, shall not accept:
(a) A loan, except from government or its agencies such as, a bank building society,
mortgage institution or other financial institutions recognized law; and
(b) Any benefit of whatever nature from any company, contractor, or businessman, or the
nominee or agent of such a person. Provided that the head of a public corporation or of a
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university or other parastatal organization may, subject to the rules and regulations of
the body, accept a loan from such a body.
(8) No person shall offer a public officer any property, gift or benefit of any kind as an
inducement or bribe for the granting of any favour or the discharge in his favour, of the public
officer’s duties.
(9) a public officer shall not do, or direct to be done, in abuse of his office, any arbitrary act
prejudicial to rights of any other person, knowing that such act is unlawful, or contrary to any
government policy.
(10) A public officer shall not be a member of, belong to, or take part in any society, the
membership of which is incompatible with the functions or dignity of his officer.
(11) (1) subject to the provisions of the constitution, “every public officer shall, within three
months after the coming into force of the code of conduct or immediately after taking office and
thereafter:
(a) at the end of every four years; and
(b)at the end of his term of office, submit to the code of conduct Bureau a written
declaration of all his properties, assets, and liabilities and those of his unmarried children under
the age of eighteen.
(2) any statement in such declaration that is found to be false by any authority or person
authorized in that behalf to verify it, shall be deemed to be a breach of the code.
(3) any property or assets acquired by a public officer after any declaration required under the
constitution and which is not fairly attributable to income, gift, or loan approved by the code
unless the contrary is proved.
(12) any allegation that a public officer has committed a breach of, or has not complied with the
provisions of this code shall be made to the code of conduct Bureau.
(13) a public officer who does act in a manner prohibited by this code through a nominee,
trustee, or other agent, shall be deemed ipso facto to have committed a breach of this code.
3.4 Institutional In-charge of Ethics in Nigeria Public Service
The following organs are charged with the responsibilities of enforcing ethical principles in
Nigeria Public Service organizations.
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(a) Code of Conduct Bureau: – its functions are fully explained in the Third Schedule, Part 1,
of the constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999.
(b) Code of Conduct Tribunal: - its functions are equally explained in Part 1 of the Fifth
Schedule of the same constitution.
(c) Anti-Corruption Law which was passed as an Act of the National Assembly, 2000 and
known as accountability and Transparency Act, 2000.
(a) Code of Conduct Bureau

In accordance with the provisions of the Third Schedule, Part 1, of the Constitution of the
Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1999, this body was set up to, among others:
(1) receive from every public officer, written declaration of all his properties, assets, and
liabilities and those of his unmarried children under the age of eighteen immediately after taking
office and therefore, at the end of every four (4) years, and at the end of his terms of office;
(2) examine the declaration in accordance with the requirements of the code of conduct or any
law;
(3) retain custody of such declarations and make them available for inspection by any citizen of
Nigeria on such terms and conditions as the National Assembly may prescribe;
(4) Ensure compliance with, and, where appropriate, enforce the provisions of the code of
conduct or any law relating thereto; and
(5) Receive complaints about non-compliance with breach of the provisions of the code of
conduct or any law in relation thereto, investigate the complaint and, where appropriate, refer
such matter to the code of conduct Tribunal.
(b) Code of Conduct Tribunal: this was established by the same Constitution as contained
in Part 1 of the Fifth Schedule, to
(1) Impose on officers found guilty of contravening provisions of the code of conduct Bureau
such punishment as:
! Vacation of office or seat in any legislative house, as the case may be;
! Disqualification from membership of a legislative house and from holding any public
office for a period not exceeding ten years; and
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! Seizure and forfeiture to the state of any property acquired in abuse of office, or
corruption.
(2) Where the conduct is a criminal offence, the above sanctions will merely be in addition to the
penalties that may be imposed by any law.
(3) Where the Tribunal gives a decision as to whether or not a person is guilty of a contravention
of any of the provisions of the code, “an appeal shall lie as of right from such a decision or from
any punishment imposed on such person to the Court of Appeal at the instance of any party to
the proceeding”.
3.5 Reasons for the Inefficiency in the System
a. Corruption and abuse of office by political office holders.

b. Public offices are the shopping floors of government business.
c. Non compliance with due process
4.0 Conclusion
Code of ethics as we have seen from all the discussions above is a framework within
which individuals are expected to conform to in their place of work or association.It is a vital
management tool which can positively shape the culture of an organization if adhered to. It is a
useful instrument for the prevention of corruption in the society by specifying punitive measures
for corrupt officials. It helps staff in the conduct of their day-to-day activities. It include clearly
stated example of conduct and relationships that are relevant to the particular function of the
organization. A code of ethics function as a positive guide to decision-making and provides
specific, concrete examples to illustrate the ethical problem that might arise in an organization
and strategies for dealing with them. It is indeed an inevitable instrument for the success of any
organization or society.
5.0 Summary
We have discussed ethics and values in Public Administration extensively in this unit.
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We brought the code of conduct in the public service in Nigeria as specified in the constitution of
the Federal Republic of Nigeria. We also noted the failures in the public service and why they
occur. The agencies that are in-charge of the code of conduct as well as their duties were
discussed too. We hope you have learnt a lot in this unit and we believe also that you will put
this knowledge into positive use to remedy the wrongs in the public sector administration in
Nigeria. In the next unit we will be discussing the principles of the separation of powers.
1. Write short notes on the following:

a. Ethics
b. Code of conduct
c. Values
2. What are the reasons for inefficiency in public service in Nigeria?
3. As a Public Administrator, how do you hope to correct the inefficiency in the system?
7.0 References
Federal republic of Nigeria (1999).Constitution of the federal Republic of Nigeria (1999). Abuja:
Government Press.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). Mechanics of Public Administration in Nigeria. Lagos: Concept
Publications Ltd.
Murray, D. (1997). Ethics in Organizations. London: Kogan Page.
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Ogbinaka, K. (2010). A Window into Philosophy. Lagos: Joja Educational Research and
Publishers Ltd.
Okafor, A. O. And U. O. Eloagu, (2002).“National Ethics and Good Government”. Lecture

Modules for the intensive Training Programmer for federal Civil Servants. Abuja: Samfort
Associates.
Omoregbe, J.I. (1993). Ethics: A systematic and Historical Study. Lagos: Joja Educational
Research& Publishers Ltd.
Unit 3 PRINCIPLES OF SEPARATION OF POWER

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Separation of Power
3.2 Separation of Power in the Presidential System of Government
3.3 Checks and Balances in the Presidential System of Government
3.4 Importance of the Doctrine of Separation of Powers
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
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1.0 Introduction
The Principle of Separation of Power is a very important topic in public administration. It is all
about the political class, their powers and limitations. The Public administrators must have a
good knowledge of this political class who are the administrators of the nation. Nigeria practices
Presidential system of government which is modeled after the United States system. As is the
practice in US, Nigeria has three arms of government known as the executive, the legislature and
the judiciary. Most of our discussions in this unit will be tailored after the US presidential system
of government since it is the model which our country has adopted.
The principle of “separation of powers” proposes that it is essential for the enthronement and
maintenance of political and civil liberty that the government be divided into three distinct
braches viz: the legislative, the executive and the judicial branches. Each of these branches must
conform to the exercise of its own functions and not be allowed to encroach upon the functions
of the other arms. This is the full meaning of the principle of the separation of power. The
functionality of this principle is the main focus of this unit. It will be beneficial to you to pay
great attention to this unit so as to have a firm knowledge of this important topic.
2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit, you are expected to know the following:
the full meaning of ethics and ethical principles
code of conduct and its bureau as well as the functions of each
the inefficiency in the public sector and why they occur
be able to correct the ills in the public sector administration
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3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Separation of Powers
According to Segun et al (1987), government in the olden days was one integral process without
any clear cut power or division of labour.A single institution would make rule, try offenders and
administer punishment. This was the practice in traditional African fused societies where role
differentiation was minimal or nonexistent.
Thereafter, some writers like Jean bodin (1530:96), pointed out that some separation of powers
was essential between the legislator and the judge if justice is not to be mingled with “the
prerogative of mercy” and if litigants are not to be “crushed by the authority of the sovereign”.
However, credit for the modern theory of separation of power should be given to Montesquieu
who wrote extensively on this subject in his book “Esprit des Lois” (the spirit of the laws-
published in 1748).
The book was based on his thesis which he did on a study of the British constitution; he divides
the basic powers of government into the legislative, the executive and the judiciary. In his view,
these powers should be kept sharply separate and co-ordinate to safeguard the liberty of the
individual. According to him, a concentration of both the legislative and executive power of
government in the same body of persons would result into tyranny since if the same body of
persons makes repressive laws they would enforce them in like manner. He argues further that
the life and liberty of the citizens would be jeopardized should legislative and judicial power be
combined in the same hands. And in like manner, the executive and the judiciary should not also
be combined in order to preserve the impartiality and neutrality of the judges.
The vital points made by all the proponents of the doctrine of separation of powers are as
follows:
(a) To prevent and outlaw absolute and fascist rule in the political system;
(b) To entrench and demonstrate true democracy or representative government;
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(c) To keep each organ within its bound of authority without unnecessary interference from
any other organ which could delay or disturb its functions;
(d) To ensure the supremacy and respect of the will of the people as expressed in a free and
fair election;
(e) To entrench and safeguard the liberty and freedom of citizens.
The influence of the concept “separation of powers” has spread to most modern political states
though there is no uniformity in its practice it all depends on the country involved. It has been
modified in various ways by different states to suit peculiarities and desires of the state or
nation. There is no political system in the world that separates the functions and structures of
government into rigid compartments as advocated by the principle of separation of power. What
obtains, in actual fact, is varying degrees of fusion and fission of powers.
3.2 Separation of Powers in Presidential System of Government
We will discuss its application in the presidential system of US government where Nigeria
Presidential system adopted most of its practices.
Segunet el (ibid), opines that the structural-functional relationship among the three branches of
the American government shows the real practice of separation of powers which clearly
emphasizes the independence and inter-relationships among the three branches.
The powers conveyed on any branch will receive constitutional backing for it to be effective. In
the US constitution of 1789, Article 1 section 1 says: “All legislative powers herein granted shall
be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of
representative”. Article 11 section 1 say: “The executive power shall be vested in a president of
the united states of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together
with the Vice-president, chose for the same term”. Article 111, section1 say: “the judicial power
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of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the
congress may from time to time ordain and establish”.
These constitutional fiats clearly the separateness of all three organs of government in the
U.S. presidential system of government, so as to ensure the independence of the executive, for
example, the president is elected separately in a presidential election for a fixed term of office of
four years. He does not need a majority of party members in the congress to rule or form his
government.
The president cannot initiate bills but can only recommend to congress that such laws be
made but will not influence the congress to accept his recommendations; neither can he enforce
party discipline to get any bills passed.
The president appoints the heads of important department who are mainly responsible to
him only. He and his cabinet cannot sit in the congress. A vote of no confidence from the
congress cannot remove the president and his cabinet either individually or collectively.
The independence of the congress and the executive is further strenghtened by the fact
that all members of the house of representatives (the lower house) and one-third of the members
of the senate (the upper house) are directly elected every two years independently of indirect
presidential election which hold every four years. In addition, all bills originate from either the
lower house or the upper house of the congress.
The Supreme Court is independent of both the congress and the president. It can annul any of the
executive and legislative acts found to invalidate the provisions of the constitution. Separation is
also evident in the fact that term of office of judges is made independent of the executive and
cabinet member cannot be appointed a judge.
The three organs of government in the U.S are functionally structured as depicted in the diagram
below:
LEGISLATURE EXECUTIVE JUDICIARY

(Congress) (President) (Supreme Court)
LAW
LAW MAKING ENFORCEMENT INTERPRETATION
OF LAWS
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In practice, their functions are not all that smooth sailing as stated in the diagram above. There
are limitations on the practice of the doctrine which we will discuss later in this unit.
3.3 Checks and Balance in the Presidential System of Government
The essence of the Separation of Power is to act as a check-and –balance on one another. In the
US, the congress, for example, checks misgovernment by the executive in a number of ways
such as:
(a) Refusal to vote funds without which the executive cannot implement its programmes.
Many of the president’s policies, especially in the area of foreign affairs, are facing this
hurdle;
(b) Impeachment of the president (the chief executive). For instance, the impeachment of
president Nix-on by the U.S. congress. Also similar experience was witnessed in
Nigeria’s between 1979 and 1983 where a number of state chief executives were
removed from office through impeachment.
(c) Supervision of government activities: it is a common occurrence for government
officials, especially heads of departments, ministers or secretaries to be summoned before
the legislature under investigation of particular government activities: and
(d) The power to refuse presidential recommendations.
The executive, on the other hand, balances these congressional checks mainly through the
exercise of the presidential veto on congressional bills, though the legislature can nullify a
presidential veto if such a bill is passed again by a two-third majority of members of both
chambers of legislation. Through the veto the president, to a large extent, checks bad legislation
on the part of the congress. In the U.S. the president has a special veto power called ‘pocket
veto’ which if exercised, will permanently killed a bill? This type of veto may be exercised
during the period when congress adjourns at the end of session. It is the most effective form of veto
since the adjournment of congress renders the bill obsolete without presidential assent.
The U.S. judiciary also exercises a check on the possible abuse of power by both the congress and
Executive. They do this through the exercise of “judicial Review”. Here, the U.S. Supreme Court or the
highest court in any presidential system has the mandate to declare any bill or executive action
175
unconstitutional. In 1981, Nigeria’s Supreme Court annulled the revenue allocation bill which
had the presidential assent.
Both the Executive and the Legislature also exercises this weapon on the Judiciary. The U.S.
congress, for example, sets up court, draws up rules for court procedure and controls all salaries
while the president appoints judges, though he cannot dismiss or interfere with their salaries. The
president can also alter the court’s decision if he exercises his prerogative of mercy power.
3.4 Importance of the Doctrine of Separation of Powers
The doctrine of the separation of powers has provided the yardstick for judging and
explaining the functionality of the three arms of government with particular emphasis on the
decision-making in government. It is a very useful instrument in check-mating concentration
of too much power in any particular arm of government. It is a good political application in
the economic principle of division of labour. It calls for specialization and efficiency and this
will enhance responsibility and accountability. It enhances political stability and harmony in
government. The importance of this doctrine is inexhaustible and so should not be taken as
limited to the ones listed above.
4.0 Conclusion
The doctrine of separation of power is an appropriate device for ensuring political stability. A
country that adopts this system and imbibes in its tenets will experience political stability,
harmony, peaceful co-existence, development and so on. However, the doctrine is still faced
with the problemsas it is sometimes quite difficult to maintain total separation of powers in
practice. It should be noted that some separation is necessary for the maintenance of liberty
and some union of powers in necessary for harmony in government, while both are essential
176
for efficiency and effectiveness. Absolute separation as advocated by Montesquieu will
paralyse or retard government business.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we discussed extensively on the principles of separation of powers in the three
arms of government. We discussed the doctrine as postulated by Montesquieu in his thesis.
We also discussed the U.S model of the doctrine as their presidential system is what Nigeria
is practicing. We also noted the resemblance of our system and theirs. We discuss also the
importance of this doctrine. It is believed that you have learnt a lot in this unit and will be
able to compare effortlessly Nigeria’s separation of power in government with that of U.S.
In the next unit, we will be discussing Bureaucracy and its applicability in the public sector
in Nigeria.
1. Write short note on the principles of separation of power.

2. Compare and contrast the practice of the principle of
separation of power in the U.S and Nigeria.
Maduabum, C.P. (2008). The Mechanics of Public Administration. Lagos: Concept

Montesquieu de Baron (1687-1755). ‘Espirit des Lois Book IX (Spirit of the Laws)
177
Omolayo, S. and Arowolaju, B. (1987). Elements of Government: An Introductory College
Text on Political Science. Lagos: Friends Foundation publishers limited.
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Bureaucracy
3.2 Characteristics of Bureaucracy
3.3 Principles of Bureaucracy
3.4 Advantages of Bureaucracy
3.5 Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
1.0 Introduction
The word bureaucracy is derived from two words; “bureau” and “kratos”, the former meaning
“office” while the later which is a derivate from the Greek suffix “kretia or kratos” means power
or rule. Therefore, bureaucracy is generally taken to refer to the power of the office in dealing
with the preparation and dispatch of written documents as well as electronic ones.
178
Theconcept of bureaucracy is credited to Max Weber, a German Sociologist, who posits that
bureaucratic organization is the most rational known means of carrying out imperative control
over human beings. He recognized other leadership styles in humans but opines bureaucratic
leadership was indispensable for the mass administration required in a modern society (Albers,
1974:25). The bureaucratic structure goes hand in hand with the concentration of the material
means of management in the hands of the master.
In this unit we are going to examine Weber’s concept of bureaucracy as well as the attributes of
bureaucratic structure.Its usefulness and discomfort in the Public sector administration will be
examined. The unit is very interesting as it will help your understanding of the happenings in the
public sector administration.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit you are expected to know the following:
features of bureaucracy
importance of bureaucracy
demerits and merits of bureaucracy
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Concept of Bureaucracy
McFarland, (1979:297–300) defines Bureaucracy as a system of organization and management in

which roles, tasks and relationships among people and positions are clearly defined, carefully
prescribed and controlled in accordance with formal authority. Can you think of organizations
without structure, without stability, and without order? The outcome of such an organization is
outright chaos and confusion. In a bid to overcome what otherwise would be utter confusion;
man has created bureaucracy to give organizations structure, stability and order.
179
Urwick (1967:9) emphasized that the bureaucratic form of organization is unavoidable if systems
of human collaboration are developed beyond a certain size usually large or complex
organisations. Bureaucracy are vital part of modern government business or other complex
organizations..
3.2 Characteristics of Bureaucracy
The classical view definition of organization describes the perfect or ideal bureaucracy but in
practice, organizations often only partially meet those characteristics. According toAkpala,
(1990:85) the characteristic of bureaucratic organization are as follows;
(a) A hierarchy of authority and levels of organization
(b) Specialization of tasks, duties and responsibilities
(c) Positions designed as “offices”
(d) Planned succession to office
(e) Impersonality of officials
(f) A system of rules and standard of discipline and control
(g) Protection of individuals against arbitrary dismissal
This is further broken down into five sub-headings as listed hereunder:

1. Hierarchy
2. Professional qualities
3. Career Aspects
4. Rules, regulation and procedure
5. Legal authority and power
1. Hierarchy
In a large or complex organization, bureaucracy creates a hierarchy or structure which is
matched with the goal or objective of the organization. These structure or hierarchy is further
divided into sub units and the tasks or work activities to accomplish these objectives are broken
down, typically by specialization, to the smallest possible unit and assigned to specific positions.
Power and authority are assigned beginning from the top to the subordinates. There is clearly
180
defined division of work, competence, authority, responsibility and other job related
components. An official is accountable to his superior for his job and his subordinates’ job while
all are accountable to the highest official at the top of the pyramidal hierarchy. There is what can
be termed chain of command in a bureaucratic organisation.
2 Professional Qualities
Bureaucracy has numerous professional qualities such as free selection of specialists, specialized
training and so on. There is an impersonal relationship in the execution of official duties. There
is a free contractual relationship between the official and the organization. An individual has a
great deal of personal freedom particularly in area not directly related to the work, but he is
subject to authority and control in the area of his official duties. He must live within the broader
regulation of the organization and must not damage the organization in his contact with society.
Pay is by fixed salary and is determined by the demands of the job, not the person’s abilities.
3. Career Aspects
Bureaucracy deals with career job in the public or civil service with tenure and pension rights.
Promotion is based on seniority and achievement which is decided by judgment of superiors.
Dismissals are only for objective cause and this has to follow due process as stipulated in the
condition of service. Bureaucracy maximizes job security.
4. Rules, Regulations and Procedures

In a bureaucracy, there are rules, regulations and procedures which must be rigidly adhered to.
Large use is made of records and files. There is rationality, routine objectivity and consistency in
a bureaucratic organization.
5. Legal Authorities and Power

In a bureaucratic organisation, authority and power rest in the position occupied and not on the
holder of that position. An individual holds an office and the power he exercises are
181
legitimatized in the position and is based on his technical ability.This is not so with the political
class as he or she may hold power through election, appropriation or succession.
3.3 Principles of Bureaucracy
A bureaucratic organization is governed by the following principles:
1) official business is a continuous process

2) official business is conducted with strict accordance to the following rules:
a. the duty of each official to do certain types of work is delimited in terms of impersonal
criteria.
b. the official is given the authority necessary to carry out his assigned functions.
c. the means of coercion at his disposal are strictly limited and conditions of their use
strictly defined.
3) every official’s responsibilities and authority are part of vertical hierarchy of

authority, with respective rights of supervision and appeal.
4) officials do not own the resources necessary for the performance of their assigned
functions but are accountable for their use of these resources.
5) official and private business and income are strictly separated.
6) offices cannot be appropriated by their incumbents.
7) official business is conducted on the basis of written documents.
182
3.4 Advantages of Bureaucracy
There are many advantages of bureaucracy in organizations. Some of them are as follows:
(1) Specialization
(2) Structure
(3) Predictability and Stability
(4) Rationality,
(5) Partial Democracy.
Let us examine each of these functions.
1. Specialization
Bureaucracy enhances specialization in those areas where one is very competent. This makes
it possible to achieve the large increases in productivity that can come from specialization.
Also the person holding each position is competent to handle the details of that position.
Bureaucracy permits specialization at all levels of the organization.
2. Structure
Bureaucracy advocates structure in the work place where job or duties are specified fo all
to follow. The duties of each position are described. Structure helps in dividing activities
into departments, divisions, units, and defining relationship between the heads and
members that make up the units. It is a means of allowing for the limitations of an
individual in that it limits the scope of one’s work to the span of his competence.
Structure makes span of control possible.
3. Predictability and Stability

The rules, regulations, structure, professional aspect and other elements of bureaucracy
enable it to provide predictability and stability to an organization. Bureaucracy provides
183
much of the stability and security we know in life. Bureaucracy produces certainty. It
brings some kind of order into an organization.
4. Rationality
A rational organization is one free from personal caprice and favoritism. It is led by those
best qualified in terms of their ability to do the work. Power in a rational organization is
legal power. The uniqueness of a rational organization is that in it the consideration is
simply who can do the work best, based on impersonal rational grounds.
Therefore, bureaucracy brings rationality to an organization. In a bureaucracy, judgments
are made according to objective and generally agreed upon criteria and not by caprice,
whim or patronage.
5. Democracy
Bureaucracy contributes to democracy by its emphasis on technical competence as the
sole basis for gaining and holding a job. Patronage, favouritism, tradition, and other
arbitrary bases have no effect since it is one’s ability that counts for everything. Because
the opportunity to train, apply and be selected for a job is open to every citizen, a
significant degree of democracy is achieved.
3.5 Disadvantages of Bureaucracy
According to Thompson (1961:152-171)dysfunction has been described as bureau

pathology; a disease of bureaucracy. It is a major disadvantage of bureaucracy.
Below are some of the dysfunctions or disadvantages of bureaucracy:
(1) Rigidity
(2) Impersonality
(3) Displacement of objectives
(4) Limitation of Categorization
(5) Cost of controls
184
(6) Self-perpetuating and empire building
(7) Anxiety.
Let us examine each of these dysfunctions.
1. Rigidity
Bureaucracy is rigid, static and inflexible. It is non-adaptive and is in conflict with the
basic adaptability laws of nature. It preaches strict adherence to regulations and it
produces timidity and conservatism. It does not encourage the ability to use self
judgment or initiative as this is inhibited by rules and regulations. Innovation and
major changes cannot be introduced into the organization and if such an organization
could exist, it would, of course, quickly become obsolete.
2. Impersonality
Bureaucracy emphasizes order, predictability, and rationality and as a result has been
labeled a sterile machine model organization. A bureaucracy subordinates the
individual to the organization. There is lack of personal involvement in bureaucratic
organization. The result is that loss of enthusiasms may occur and hence productivity
may be at the minimum acceptable level.
3. Displacement of objectives
A rational, complex organization has a hierarchy of objectives organized as means

and end chains. The major objective of the organization is the higher objective in the
hierarchy followed by the subunit objectives and individual objectives. But this is
usually displaced when the individual tries to pursue his personal or subunit
objectives which he views as the ultimate ends in themselves thereby discarding his
185
ultimate rational organizational reason for existence which is to contribute to overall
objectives of the organization.
4. Limitations of Categorization
Bureaucracy insists on strict categorization or compartmentalization of activities and

persons. A person works only within his department, with one boss and on one
budget. Even where it is possible to merge duties or unit, bureaucracy discourages
this. This encourages waste of manpower and resources as most often jobs and
personnel are duplicated in offices.
5. Self-Perpetuation and Empire Building
Bureaucracy is averse to innovation and bureaucrats tend to stick to old technology.

He discourages new technology or ideas especially if it emanates from his
subordinates who may be more knowledgeable than him. A fully established
bureaucracy is hard to destroy even if it has outlived its usefulness. A bureaucrat
often builds an empire around him and feels that everything must revolve around him.
Changes or ideas must come from him or his superiors. He surrounds himself with
loads of staff even when it is not necessary. He thinks that holding an office gives
him personal ownership of it and its privileges. Prestige and pay are often determined
by the number of one’s subordinates.
Bureaucrats can use their expertise to maintain or increase their power. First they can
keep their knowledge and intentions secret, thereby often confounding potential
critics. Secondly, their intimate understanding of the operations of a complex
organization makes it very difficult to replace them. In fact they see themselves as
being indispensable in the organization and hence self-perpetuating themselves and
their tendencies.
6. Cost of Controls
186
Red-tapism is the rule of the game in a bureaucratic organization. It is shrouded in too
much rules, regulations and countless procedures and numerous number of staff.
Some writers argue that the cost of maintaining bureaucracy is dysfunctional. Some
career specialists spend full time formulating, implementing, interpreting and
enforcing bureaucratic procedures. Sometimes these are excessive.
7. Anxiety
Some authors are of the opinion that bureaucracy stifles liberty. Added to this is that
bureaucratic spirit corrupts character and engenders moral poverty. The subordinates
are looked down upon and discriminated upon even when they are more
knowledgeable than their superiors. This has made the lower cadre
personnel,especially in the developing countries like Nigeria, feel alienated from the
organization.There is also buck-passing.
4.0 Conclusion
Bureaucracy as put forward by Max Weber is the main focus of this unit. The civil service is
often regarded as the Weberian civil service because of his bureaucratic theory. Weber
described the ideal type bureaucratic organization which he considers to be more rational and
efficient form of organization. He sees it as part of legal domination. According to Weber,
whenever decision is adopted to individual case bureaucracy loses its efficiency. He went
further to enumerate the attributes of bureaucracy to include impersonality, concentration of the
means of administration, etc. We also observed that bureaucratic officials are personally free,
their appointment are done on the basis of conduct and their technical qualifications, they are
responsible for the impartial execution of assigned tasks, their work is full-time occupation and
are rewarded by salary, they also have career advancement.
187
5.0 Summary
In this unit, we examined the Weberian bureaucracy, its characteristics, principles as well as its
usefulness or otherwise in the public or civil service. We noted that bureaucracy lays emphasis
on the organization rather than on the individual performing the tasks thus leading to the
treatment of individual human beings as impersonal objects. This and many more has attracted a
lot of criticisms to bureaucracy as we will see in the next unit which is on the criticisms of
Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy.
1. What are the vital parts of a bureaucratic organization.

2. Do you think that bureaucracy provides some advantages?
3. What are the dysfunctions of bureaucracy?
Adebayo, Augustine (1981) Principles and practice of public Administration, New York: John
Wiley and Sons Ltd.
Akpala, A. (1990) Management: An Introduction and the Nigerian Perspective. Enugu: UNN,
Enugu campus press.
Hicks, Herbert G. and Gullet C.R. (1987). Management, 4th Ed. Singapore: McGraw-Hill Inc.
188
McFarland, D. (1979), Management Fundamentals and Practice, 5th Ed. New York: Macmillian
Publishing Co. Inc.
Norbert, M. I. (1999), Management and Organization Theory and Practice, Enugu: Vougasen
Ltd.
Woodrow, W. (1887), The Study of Administration. Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 2. No.
2.The Academy of Political Science.
Urwick, Lentil F. (1967). “Organisation and Theory about the Nature of Man”.Academy of
management Journal.March.
Unit 5 Criticisms of Weber’s Model of Bureaucracy
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objective
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Criticism of Bureaucracy

3.2 Weakness of Bureaucracy
3.3 Objective view of bureaucracy
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
189
1.0 Introduction
Bureaucracy has been regarded by many authors as mechanisms that rationalize authority and
decision-making in society. Yet subsequent theories have questioned the rationality of
bureaucracy. In this unit, we will examineWeber’s bureaucracy and its influence on the Public
Administration. This will take us to the criticisms and objective views of bureaucracy in its
entirety.
2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit you will be able to:

knowthe criticisms leveled against the bureaucratic model in organization.
buttress your arguments for or against bureaucracy in organization.
tell if bureaucracy can also work effectively in a private organization and why.
Main Content
3.1 Criticisms of Bureaucracy
Thompson, (2005) opines that Weber’s bureaucracy consists of the traditional way of thinking in
public administration that relied on the same “ingredients” to reform public administration based
on the science of administration.
190
Weber defines bureaucracy as “the means of carrying community action over into
rationally ordered social action…. An instrument for socializing relations of power, bureaucracy
has been and is a power instrument of the first order.”
Some scholars (Friedrich, 1940; Finer, 1941; Simon, 1947; Shafritz and Hyde, 1997; and
Marshall in Ventriss, 2000) argue that public administration is a field of control; control of
public administrations, control of people, control of inputs, and control of outputs. All these
kinds of controls seek to achieve one main goal which is to meet the people’s needs and
expectations in an efficient way.
According to Weber (1946), bureaucracy “is, from a purely technical point of view, capable of
attaining the highest degree of efficiency and is in this sense formally that most rational known
means of carrying out imperative control over human beings”.
Weber believes that the evolution of societies is facilitated by three types of authority that he
identifies as traditional, charismatic and legal-rational authority (Fry, 1989). It is the legal-
rational type of authority that constitutes the basis of Weber’s concept of bureaucracy and the
foundation of modern civilization as it is premised on “a belief in the legitimacy of the pattern of
normative rules and rights of those elevated to authority under such rules to issue commands”
(Stillman, 2000, 51).
Since Weber argues that bureaucracy grown because of society’s needs of provision of
education, health, social services, collecting taxes, and others, and therefore work has to be
divided and specialized to achieve the thing desired by the society.
In this vein, Stillman (2000) quotes Weber stating that “the proper soil for bureaucratization of
administration has always been the development of administrative tasks” (stillman, 2000, 52).
Key features of the ideal type of bureaucracy that Weber presents are division of labor,
hierarchal order, written documents, well-trained staff and experts, full working capacity of the
officials, and application of impersonal rules (Hummel, 1998, 307).
191
However, these ingredients of bureaucracy may not, always, help organizations to reach its ideal
work or the most efficient performance.
Michel Crozier (1964) argues that some of the bureaucratic characteristics including the
impersonal rules, hierarchy, and centralization of decision-making might lead to the inability of
the organization to correct or change its behavior by learning from its previous mistakes while
serving the society.
In fact, work within bureaucracy has to be divided rationally into units that can be undertaken by
individuals or groups of individuals in a diligent manner. The hierarchical order is necessary for
separating superiors from subordinates whereas impersonal rules are meant to ensure that
bureaucrats are confined to prescribed patterns of conduct or performance imposed by legal
rules. The rules are meant to facilitate a systematic control of subordinates by their superior,
“thus limiting the opportunities for arbitrariness and personal favoritism” (stillman, 2000:52).
The operations of bureaucracy “exclude irrational feelings and sentiments in favor of the
detached, professional expert” (Fry, 1998:33). Therefore, one may deduce from the foregoing
that Weber believes that organizational goals can be attained if there is a science of
administration which separates facts from values.
Moreover, Weber believes that bureaucracy is the most rational and efficient organizational from
devised by man. Weber’s bureaucracy “is rational in that it involves control based on knowledge,
it has clearly defined spheres of competence, it operates according to intellectually analyzable
rules, and it has calculability in its operations” (Fry, 1998:32). In the same vein, Weber’s
“bureaucracy is efficient because of its precision, speed, consistency, availability of records,
continuity, possibility of secrecy, unity, rigorous coordination. And minimization of
interpersonal friction, personal costs, and material costs” (Fry, 1998:32).
Domination is what Weber’s concept of bureaucracy is all about according to Brian R. Fry
(1998) in Mastering Public Administration. It is a domination that “is exerted through
administration” and “that legal domination requires bureaucracy for its exercise” (Fry, 1998: 15).
192
Bureaucracy, states Fry, is Weber’s tool to express the most efficient and rational form of
organization.
Experience tends universally to show that the purely bureaucratic type of administrative
organization that is, the monocratic variety of bureaucracy is, from a purely technical point of
view, capable of attaining the highest degree efficiency and is in this sense formally the most
rational known means of carrying out imperative control over human beings. It is superior to any
other form of precision, in stability, in the stringency of its discipline, and its reliability… it is
the scope of its operations, and is formally capable of application to all kinds of administrative
tasks (Weber, 1947:337)
Rational decision-making is the underlying root to the success of bureaucracy. The ideal-type of
bureaucracy, according to Weber, possesses rationally discussible grounds for every
administrative act. People are constantly supervised, analyzed, tested, and reprimanded for not
following the norms. People sense that bureaucracy gets involved in every domain in their life
and imposes its rational restrictions and sometimes the irrational ones.
Robert Merton (1952) criticizes Weber’s bureaucracy by observing that the bureaucratic features,
which Weber believes in enhancing rationality and efficiency, is associated with irrationality
inefficiency. It focuses on four main irrational limitation that bureaucracy has in term of its ideal
type, its negligence of informal organization, and its dehumanization as well as its relationship
with democracy. In particular, Weber’s bureaucracy does not consider the important role of the
informal relationships that exist in any human organizations.
Criticism of Bureaucracy can be summed up in the following ways:

As Max Weber himself noted, real bureaucracy will be less optimal and effective than his ideal
type model. Let us revisit each of Weber’s seven principles.
Competences can be unclear and used contrary to the spirit of the law; sometimes a
decision itself may be considered more important than its effect;
193
Nepotism, corruption, political infighting and other degenerations can counter the rule of
impersonality and can create a recruitment and promotion system not based on
meritocracy but on oligarchy;
Even a non-degenerated bureaucracy can be affected by common problems:
Overspecialization, making individual officials not aware of larger consequences of their
actions.
Rigidity and inertia of procedures: makes decision- making slow or even impossible
when facing some unusual case, and similarly delays change, evolution and adaptation of
old procedures to new circumstances;
A phenomenon of going thinking – zealotry, loyalty and lack of critical thinking
regarding the organization which is perfect and always correct by definition, making the
organization unable to change and realize its own mistakes and limitations;
Disregard for dissenting opinions, even when such view suit the available data better than
the opinion of the majority;
as bureaucracy creates more and more rules and procedures, their complexity rises and
coordination diminishes, facilitating creation of contradictory and recursive rules, as
described by the saying “the bureaucracy is expanding to meet the needs of the expanding
bureaucracy”
3.2 Weaknesses of bureaucracy
1. It is an iron Cage of Control

2. Red Tape from all the rules and sign offs
3. Hard to change this form
4. Divisions of labor compartmentalize attention and response.
5. Hierarchy must go up and down chains of command to get things done.
6. It results in certain irrationalities.
194
3.3 Objective view on Bureaucracy
Government or society will not survive without bureaucracy because the government will
not be able to carry out the programmatic promises of its elected leaders. Bureaucracy means
large-scale, formal, and complex, task specialized, and goal oriented organizations. Government
is characterized by values and ethics and it is not totally incompatible with bureaucracy. The
bureaucracy, on one hand, supports values and, on the other hand, has some conflicting
characteristics such as hierarchy and discipline and supervision which conflict with equality and
liberty.
The traditional view is that bureaucrats who are members of professions are especially adept at
evading external control because of special expertise and ties to professional group outside
government. However, bureaucratic professionals often have no monopoly of skills or
information, hold no homogenous values, and are subject to numerous checks. On the positive
side, professionalism promotes bureaucratic responsibility and accountability through
professional norms, as well as democratic decision rules, and provides “as Rosetta Stone for
deciphering and responding to various elements of public interest” (Kearney &Sinha, 1988,571-
579). Moreover, we have to remember that some scholars in field, including (Rohr, 1985), argue
that bureaucrats have the legitimacy to rule based on the following rational justifications:
1. They are competent, well-educated and trained and they do know things.
2. They have long-term tenure which enables them to be experts in the details of the
public issues in contrast to the politicians who have a fixed period.
3. Bureaucrats are from people and they enjoy the values and they have the good will to
serve people and society.
195
4.0 Conclusion
Among the criticisms leveled against Weber is that bureaucracy limits individual freedom and
makes it difficult if not impossible for individuals to understand their activities in relation to the
organization as a whole.
There are also major differences between the administrative tradition and what obtains in the
modern society and due to the irreconcilable differences between the administrative traditions
that were presented by the founding fathers and the impossibility of managing a modern society
without bureaucracy, it is not surprising that scholars within the field of public administration
have so far failed to come up with an adequate theoretical base to explain the relationship
between bureaucracy and representative government (Warner, 2001).
It is apparent that there is a need to restructure or readjust the bureaucracy to adapt to new and
complex problem in the modern world.
5.0 Summary
In this unit we looked at the criticisms leveled against Weber’s bureaucracy. We saw the
rationality and the irrationality of Weber’s bureaucracy as well as the objective view on
bureaucracy.
1. List five criticisms of bureaucracy.

2. In your own words state the reasons for these criticisms.
3. Are Weber’s critics justified? State your reasons for or against.
196
Blau, P. M. And Meyer, M.W. (1987),Bureaucracy InModern Society. New York, NY: Random
House.
Bodley, J. H. (2002). The Power Of Scale: A Global History Approach. M.E. Sharpe Crozier,
Michel. (1964). TheBureaucratic Phenomenon. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press.
Finer, H. (1941).Administrative Responsibility In Democratic Government. Public

Administration Review, Vol. 1:335-350.
Kearney, Richard &Sinha, Chandan. (1988). Professionalism And Bureaucratic Responsiveness:

Conflict Or Compatibility? Public Administration Review, January-February 1988:571-579
Hummel, R. (2007). The Bureaucratic Experience: The Post-Modern Challenge. The 5th
Edition.Library Of Congress Cataloging-In-Publication Data
Lane, Frederick. (1999). Current Issues In Public Administration. Bedford St. Martin’s, Sixth
Edition, Boston: 103
Mcswite, O.C. (1997). Legitimacy InPublic Administration, A Discourse Analysis. Sage

Publications, Inc.
Merton, Robert, (1952). Bureaucratic Structure And Personality In Reader In Bureaucracy. New
York: Free Press
Rhienstein, Max, (1954). Max Weber On Law In Economy And Society. New York: Simon
AndShuster
197
Rohr, J.A. (1985). Professionalism, Legitimacy And The Constitution. Public Administration
Quarterly, 8(4), 401-418.
ShafritzJ. &Hyde A.C (1997) Classics Of Public Administration. Orlando: Harcourt Brace
College Publishers.
Simon H. (1946). Administrative Behavior.New York, NY: Free Press.
Weber, M. (1946).Bureaucracy.Oxford Press
Wilson, J. Q. (1989). Bureaucracy: What Government Agencies Do And Why They Do It.
Basic Books
198

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NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

SCHOOL OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE CODE: PAD 803

COURSE TITLE: ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Course Code: PAD 803

Course Title: ECOLOGY OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Course Developer/Writer: Mrs. Ibeme, Nwamaka P.

Course Editor: Prof. C. P. Maduabum

Programme Leader: Dr. OKEKE, C.I

Course Coordiantor: Mrs Ibeme, Nwamaka P.

Abuja Annex Office

© National Open University of Nigeria, 2012

First Printed 2012

All Rights Reserved

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Unit 1 Concept of Public Administration

MODULE 2 PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND POLITICS

Unit 1 Relationship between Public Administration and Politics

MODULE 3 DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN

Unit 1 Concept of Indirect Rule

MODULE 4 COMPARATIVE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Unit 1 Intergovernmental Relations

MODULE 5 PUBLIC SECTOR ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

Unit 1 Public Sector Administration

MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

Unit 1 CONCEPT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

3.0 Main contents

3.1 Conceptual Clarifications

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments

7.0 References/Further Reading

UNIT 2: EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Ecology of Public Administration

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignments

7.0 References/Further Reading

3.1 Conceptual Clarification

At the end of this you should be able to do the following:

3.0 Main Contents

3.1 Conceptual Clarification

According to Simon (1970:3), administration refers to the activities of groups cooperating to

Adebayo (1992:4) sees Public Administration as a governmental administration that operates in

Nnoli (2000:45), describes Public Administration as follows:

“Public Administration is the machinery as well as

3.3 Functions of Public Administrator

� Public Administrator is involved in planning, organizing, staffing, directing,

6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment

1. What is Public Administration?

7.0 References/Further Reading

Adebayo, A. (1981), Principles and Practice of Public Administration in Nigeria,

Akpan, N. U. (1982), Public Administration in Nigeria. Lagos: Longman Nigeria Ltd.

Okigbo, A.C. &Nsiegbunam, C. (2000), Modern Public Administration: Principles and

Ezeani, E. O. (2006), Fundamentals of Public Administration. Enugu:SnaapPress

Unit 2: EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA

3.0 MAIN CONTENTS

3.1 Evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria

Trace the evolution of Public Administration in Nigeria,

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 EVOLUTION OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN NIGERIA