CHAPTER V

FLUID FLOW MEASUREMENT

Numerous devices are used in engineering practices

to measure the flow of fluids.

 Velocity measurements
 Pitot tubes
 current meters
 rotating and hot-wire
anemometers

 Discharge measurement
 orifices,
 tubes,
 Nozzles
a) Rotating anemometer b) Hot-wire anemometer

 Venturi meters and flumes,

 Weirs
 numerous modifications of the
foregoing, and various patented
meters.
In order to apply the hydraulic devices intelligently, use of the
Bernoulli equation and additional knowledge of the
characteristics and coefficients of each device are very
important. In the absence of reliable values of coefficients, a
device should be calibrated for the expected operating
conditions.
DETERMINATION OF STREAM FLOW DISCHARGE

1. Select a section of stream or river and subdivide into convenient subsections.

V
I
IV
II III
2. Measure the average velocity at each subsection
a. Using float (average velocity of the stream is estimated 85% of float velocity)
b. Using a current meter,
 For shallow depth, average velocity is measured at about 0.60 x depth from
water surface
 For deep water, average velocity is measured by taking the average of the
velocities at 0.20 x depth and 0.80 x depth from water surface
3. Determine the average area of each subsection in the reach of stream over which the velocity
measurement was made.

4.Compute the discharge of each subsection

𝑄1 = 𝐴1 𝑉1

𝑄2 = 𝐴2 𝑉2

𝑄3 = 𝐴3 𝑉3

… … … 𝑄𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 𝑉𝑛

4. Compute the total discharge 𝑄 = 𝑄1 + 𝑄2 + 𝑄3 + … … … … … 𝑄𝑛

 ORIFICES, NOZZLES AND TUBES

Among the devices used for the measurement of discharge are orifices and nozzles. Tubes are rarely
used but included since their theory is the same and experiments upon tubes provide information
relating to entrance losses from reservoirs into pipelines.

x
Vena contracta

Do/2
y
DERIVATION OF ORIFICE, TUBE AND NOZZLE FORMULA (flow under atmospheric pressure)

Energy equation from 1 and 2. Neglecting friction.

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

where: 𝑧1 = 𝑧2
𝑉2𝑖 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑎 𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 (𝑓𝑟𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤)
2
𝑉12 𝑉2𝑖
0+ℎ+ =0+0+
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉12
𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝐻 = ℎ + 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛,
2𝑔
2
𝑉2𝑖
𝐻 =
2𝑔

Thus,
𝑉2𝑖 = 2𝑔𝐻
Discharge at ideal flow
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑉2𝑖

where: 𝐴𝑜 =area of opening of orifice, nozzle or tube

Note: When area of tank is more than 16 times the area of orifice neglect the velocity of water in the tank.

Actual velocity at vena contracta

𝑉2 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉2𝑖

where: 𝐶𝑣 =coefficient of velocity < 1.0

Actual area of flow at vena contracta

𝐴2 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴𝑜

where: 𝐶𝑐 =coefficient of contraction < 1.0

Actual discharge at vena contracta
𝑄2 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑖

where: 𝐶𝑑 =coefficient of discharge < 1.0

Coefficient of discharge
𝑄2 𝑄𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝐶𝑑 = =
𝑄𝑖 𝑄𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙

𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐶𝑑 =
𝐴𝑜 𝑉2𝑖

𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣
ORIFICES

It is an opening (usually circular) in the wall of a tank or in a plate normal to the axis of a pipe, the plate
being either at the end of the pipe or in some intermediate location
Submerge Orifice

Energy equation from 1 to 2

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔
𝑉22
0 + ℎ1 + 0 = 0 + ℎ2 +
2𝑔

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: ℎ1 − ℎ2 = ℎ

𝑉2 = 2𝑔ℎ

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴 2𝑔ℎ
Orifice at the end of a pipe and inside the pipe (considering velocity of approach)

Energy equation from 1 to 2

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

where: V1=velocity of approach

By continuity equation

𝑄1 = 𝑄2 = 𝐶𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐶𝐴2 𝑉2

𝜋𝐷 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐴1 =
4
𝜋𝑑2
𝐴2 =
4
D =diameter of pipe
d= diameter of orifice
Head Loss in the Orifice

HL

𝑉1 = 0

𝑉12 = 𝑉 2 − 2𝑔𝐻

0 = 𝑉 2 − 2𝑔𝐻

𝑉2
𝐻 =
2𝑔

From the figure, 𝐻𝐿 = ℎ − 𝐻

𝑉2
𝐻𝐿 = ℎ − … … … … . . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
2𝑔

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 = 𝐶𝑉 2𝑔ℎ

𝑉 2 = 𝐶𝑉 2 2𝑔ℎ

𝑉2
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑛, ℎ =
2𝑔𝐶𝑉 2

From equation1
𝑉2 𝑉2
𝐻𝐿 = 2 −
2𝑔𝐶𝑉 2𝑔

𝑉2 1
𝐻𝐿 = 2 − 1
2𝑔 𝐶𝑉
Orifice with Falling Head (Unsteady Flow)

1. Time to remove water from h1 to h2 for cylindrical tank

ℎ1
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡=
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴 2𝑔ℎ

ℎ1
𝐴𝑠 ℎ−1/2 𝑑ℎ
𝑡=
ℎ2 𝐶𝐴 2𝑔ℎ

ℎ1
2𝐴𝑠 ℎ1/2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔 ℎ2

2𝐴𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔
2. Time to empty the container using average discharge method

2𝐴𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔

2𝐴𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2 ℎ1 + ℎ2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔 ℎ1 + ℎ2

𝐴𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔 ℎ1 + ℎ2
2

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑡=
𝐴𝑣𝑒. 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
3. Time to empty the container with liquids having different specific gravities

4 3
ℎ1 = 4 +
2

ℎ1 = 10

ℎ2 = 10 − 4 = 6

2𝐴𝑠 10 − 6
𝑡1 =
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔

2𝐴𝑠 4− 0
𝑡2 =
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦, 𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

4.Time to empty a container with composite sections

For the cylindrical portion

2𝐴𝑠 10 − 4
𝑡1 =
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔

2
𝜋 3
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐴𝑠 =
4

For the conical portion

𝐴𝑠 = 𝜋𝑥 2

𝑥 1.5
=
ℎ 4

1.5
𝑥= ℎ
4
4
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡2 =
0 𝐶𝐴 2𝑔ℎ

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦, 𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2

5. Time for the water level to be of the same level

2𝐴𝐵 ℎ
𝑡=
𝐴 + 𝐵 𝐶𝐴𝑏 2𝑔

where:
𝐴𝑏 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐴
𝐴 = 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘 𝐵
ℎ = ℎ1 − ℎ2 (𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑙)
6. Time for the water surface to be h=1m apart after its initial position between the two tanks A
and B

Use average discharge method:

ℎ1 + ℎ2 + 1 = 4

ℎ1 + ℎ2 = 3

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛

10ℎ1 = 40ℎ2

ℎ1 = 4ℎ2

4ℎ2 + ℎ2 = 3

ℎ2 = 0.60

ℎ1 = 4(0.60)

ℎ1 = 2.4

Volume of Water out=10(2.4)=24 cu.m

𝐶𝐴 2𝑔 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

𝐶𝐴 2𝑔 4− 1
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒 =
2

𝑉
𝑡=
𝑄𝑎𝑣𝑒
NOZZZLE

It is a converging tube, if it is used for liquids; but for gas or a vapour a nozzle may first converge and
then diverge to produce supersonic flow. In addition to possible use as a flow measuring device a nozzle
has other important uses, such as providing a high-velocity stream for fire fighting or for power in a
stream turbine.
The discharge through nozzle can be calculate using the following equation

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴𝑛 2𝑔𝐻

where: C = coefficient of discharge

An = area at the nozzle tip
H = total head at base of nozzle

The following table gives the mean values of coefficient for water discharging through a nozzle having a
base diameter of 40mm and Cc=1.0.

Tip diameter in mm 19 22 25 29 32 35
Cv 0.983 0.982 0.980 0.976 0.971 0.959
TUBES

It is a short pipe whose length is not more than two or three diameters. There is no sharp distinction
between a tube and the thick-walled orifices. A tube may be uniform diameter or it may be diverge.

Standard Short Tubes

a b
b
Converging Tubes

Conical converging tubes has the from of a frustum of right circular cone with the larger end adjacent to
the tank or reservoir.

Diverging Tubes

A diverging tube has the form of a frustum of a right circular cone with the smaller end adjacent tot he
reservoir or tank

Re-entrant Tubes

These are tube having their ends projecting inside a reservoir or tank.

Submerged Tubes

An example of submerged tube is a culvert conveying water through embankments.

The discharge through a submerged tube is given by the formula

𝑄 = 𝐶𝐴 2𝑔𝐻

where: C = coefficient of discharge

A = area of the opening
H = difference in elevation of the liquid surfaces
 Problem:

1. Water issue from a circular orifice under a head of 12m. The diameter of the opening is 10cm.
The discharge through the orifice is 13.50 m3 in 3min. Calculate for the orifice its coefficient of
discharge, coefficient of contraction and coefficient of velocity. The diameter of the jet at vena
contracta is 8cm
Answer: 0.623; 0.637; 0.978

2. A jet discharges from an orifice in a vertical plane under a head of 3.65m. The diameter of the
orifice is 3.75cm and the measured discharge is 6.0li/sec. The coordinates of the jet centreline
are 3.46m horizontally from the vena contracta and 0.90m below the center of the orifice.
Calculate the coefficient of discharge, coefficient velocity and coefficient contraction.
Answer: 0.642; 0.955; 0.673

3. A jet is issued from the side of the tank under a constant head of 3m. The side of the tank has
inclination of 1H:1V. The total depth of water in the tank is 6.70m. Compute
a. The maximum height to which the jet rises
b. The point it strikes a horizontal plane 1.20 below the bottom of the tank
c. Its theoretical velocity as it strikes the ground
Neglecting air resistance and assume Cv=1.0.
Answer: 1.50m; 9.197m; 12.45m/s
4. Determine the discharge coefficient of a small orifice in the vertical side of a rectangular tank
with an area of 300 sq.mm. The horizontal sectional area of the tank is 0.40sq.m at a given
instant the head on the orifice is 1.20m and 312 sec. Later it is 0.60m.
Answer: 0.62

5. Two vertical circular cylinder tanks are connected near the bottom by a short tube having a
cross-sectional area of 725 sq.cm. The inside diameters of the tanks are 3m and 1.5m. The
tanks contains oil (s.g.=0.80). With a valve in the connecting tube closed, the oil surface in the
larger tank is 4m above the tube and in the smaller tank 1m above. Assuming a constant
discharge coefficient for the tube of 0.75, find the time in which the oil surfaces in the two
tanks will reach the same elevation following a quick opening of the valve.
Answer: 20.331 sec

6. Compute the time required to drain the full contents of the swimming pool, 15m long, 10m
wide, 3m deep at one end and 1.60m on the other end. It is filled with drainpipe 8inches in
diameter at the lower end of the pool. Use C=0.80.
Answer: 2497 sec
ANSWERS TO THE PROBLEMS
1. Water issue from a circular orifice under a head of 12m. The diameter of the opening is 10cm.
the discharge through the orifice is 13.50 m3 in 3min. Calculate for the orifice its coefficient of
discharge, coefficient of contraction and coefficient of velocity. Diameter of jet at vena
contracta is 8cm.
Solution:
Coefficient of discharge, 𝐶𝑑
𝑄2 13.50 𝑚 3
𝐶𝑑 = where 𝑄2 = 60 𝑠 = 0.075 𝑚3 /𝑠
𝑄𝑖 3 min ×
1 𝑚𝑖𝑛
Π
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑜 𝑉2𝑖 = 0.102 2𝑔 × 12
4
𝑄2 0.075
𝐶𝑑 = =Π
𝑄𝑖 0.10 2 2𝑔×12
4
∴ 𝑪𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟐𝟐𝟑

Coefficient of contraction, 𝐶𝑐
Π
𝐴2 4
0.08 2
𝐶𝑐 = = Π
𝐴𝑜 0.10 2
4
∴ 𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟎

Coefficient of velocity, 𝐶𝑣
𝐶𝑑 0.6223
𝐶𝑣 = =
𝐶𝑐 0.640
∴ 𝑪𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟐
2. A jet discharges from an orifice in a vertical plane under a head of 3.65m. The diameter of
the orifice is 3.75cm and the measured discharge is 6.0li/sec. the coordinates of the jet
centerline are 3.46m horizontally from the vena contracta and 0.90m below the center of
the orifice. Calculate the coefficient of discharge, coefficient of velocity and coefficient of
contraction.
Solution:
Coefficient of discharge, 𝐶𝑑
𝑄2 6/1000
𝐶𝑑 = =Π
𝑄𝑖 × 0.0375 2 × 2𝑔×3.65
4
∴ 𝑪𝒅 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟒𝟐

Coefficient of velocity, 𝐶𝑣
𝑉2
𝐶𝑣 =
𝑉2𝑖
where,
𝑔𝑥 2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan θ − 2 cos 2 𝜃
2𝑉2
𝑔 3.46 2
−0.90 = 3.46 tan 0 −
2𝑉2 2 cos 2 0
𝑔 3.46 2
−0.90 = −
2𝑉𝑜 2 1 2
𝑉2 = 8.0775 m/s
𝑉2 8.0775
𝐶𝑣 = =
𝑉2𝑖 2𝑔×3.65
∴ 𝑪𝒗 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟓

Coefficient of contraction, 𝐶𝑐
𝐶𝑑 0.642
𝐶𝑐 = =
𝐶𝑣 0.955
∴ 𝑪𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟕𝟐
3. A jet is issued from the side of a tank under a constant head of 3m. The side of the tank has an
inclination of 1H:1V. The total depth of water in the tank is 6.70m. Compute
a. The maximum height to which the jet rises
b. The point it strikes a horizontal plane 1.20m below the bottom of the tank
c. Its theoretical velocity as it strikes the ground
Neglecting air resistance and assume Cv=1.0
Solution:
1
𝑉1 2 = 𝑉𝑜 𝑦 2 − 2𝑔𝑦1
1
1 y1
where,
6.70 m o
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐶𝑣 2𝑔ℎ
= 1 × 2𝑔 × 3 = 7.672 𝑚/𝑠 4.90 m
𝑉𝑜 𝑦 = 7.672 sin 45° 1.20 m
0 2 = 7.672 sin 45° 2 − 2𝑔 𝑦1 2
𝒚𝟏 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝒎 , maximum height to which the jet rises x2

𝑔 𝑥2
𝑦 = 𝑥 tan 𝜃 −
2𝑉𝑜 2 cos 2 𝜃
𝑔 𝑥22
−4.9 = 𝑥2 tan 45° −
2 7.672 2 cos 2 45
−4.9 = 𝑥2 − 0.1667𝑥2 2
𝒙𝟐 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟗𝟓 𝒎 , horizontal distance from the orifice

Work-Energy equation between O and 2

𝐾𝐸𝑂 + 𝑊𝑦2 = 𝐾𝐸2
1𝑊 1𝑊
𝑣 2 + 𝑊ℎ = 𝑣2 2
2𝑔 𝑜 2𝑔
7.672 2 𝑣2 2
+ 4.9 =
2(9.81) 2𝑔
𝒗𝟐 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 𝒎/𝒔
4. Determine the discharge coefficient of a small orifice in the vertical side of a cylindrical tank
with an area of 300mm2. The horizontal sectional area of the tank is 0.40m 2 at a given
instant head on the orifice is 1.20m and 312sec later it is 0.60m.
Solution:
2𝐴𝑠 ℎ1 − ℎ2
𝑡=
𝐶𝐴 2𝑔
2𝐴𝑠 ℎ 1 − ℎ2
𝐶=
𝑡𝐴 2𝑔
where, 𝐴𝑠 = 0.40 𝑚2
ℎ1 = 1.20 𝑚
ℎ2 = 0.60 𝑚
𝑡 = 312 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑚
𝐴 = 300 𝑚𝑚2 = 0.0003 𝑚2
2 0.40 1.20− 0.60
𝐶=
312 0.0003 2𝑔
𝑪 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟏𝟗
5. Two vertical circular cylinder tanks are connected near the bottom by a short tube having a
cross-sectional area of 725cm2. The inside diameters of the tanks are 3m and 1.5m. The tank
contains oil (s.g.=0.80). With a valve in the connecting tube closed, the oil surface in the
larger tank is 4m above the tube and in the smaller tank 1m above. Assuming a constant
discharge coefficient for the tube of 0.75, find the time in which the oil surfaces in the two
tanks will reach the same elevation following a quick opening of the valve.
Solution:
2𝐴𝐵 ℎ
𝑡=
𝐴+𝐵 𝐶𝐴𝑏 2𝑔
𝜋 2
Where 𝐴 = 3
4
𝜋
𝐵= 1.52
4
1𝑚 2
𝐴𝑏 = 725 𝑐𝑚2 × = 0.0725 𝑚2
10000 𝑐𝑚 2
ℎ = 4𝑚 − 1𝑚 = 3𝑚
𝐶 = 0.75

2𝐴𝐵 ℎ
𝑡=
𝐴+𝐵 𝐶𝐴𝑏 2𝑔

𝜋 𝜋
2 32 × 1.52 3
4 4
𝑡= 𝜋 𝜋
32 +4 1.52 0.75 (0.0725) 2𝑔
4

𝒕 = 𝟐𝟎. 𝟑𝟑𝟑𝟏 𝒔𝒆𝒄

6. Compute the time required to drain the full contents of the swimming pool, 15m long, 10m
wide, 3m deep at one end and 1.60m on the other end. It is filled with drainpipe 8inches in
diameter at the lower end of the pool. Use C=0.80.
Solution:

15m
10m
Level1 1.6m

Level2 1.4m

Level3

Time from level1 to level2

(constant level surface)
2𝐴𝑠
𝑡1 = 𝐻1 − 𝐻2
𝐶𝐴𝑜 2𝑔
Where,
𝜋 0.0254 𝑚 2
𝐶𝐴𝑜 2𝑔 = 0.80 × 8 𝑖𝑛 × 2𝑔
4 1 𝑖𝑛
𝐴𝑠 = 10 × 15 = 150𝑚2
𝐻1 = 3𝑚
𝐻2 = 1.4𝑚

So,
2 150
𝑡1 = 𝜋 0.0254 𝑚 2
3 − 1.4
0.80× 4 8 𝑖𝑛× 2𝑔
1 𝑖𝑛

𝑡1 = 1432.802 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

Time from level2 to level3

ℎ 1 𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡2 = ℎ 2 𝐶𝐴𝑜 2𝑔ℎ
Where,
𝐴𝑠 = 10𝑥
𝑥 15
=
ℎ 1.4
𝑥 = 10.714ℎ
𝐴𝑠 = 10 10.714ℎ = 107.14ℎ
𝜋 0.0254 𝑚 2
𝐶𝐴𝑜 2𝑔ℎ = 0.80 × 8 𝑖𝑛 × 2𝑔ℎ
4 1 𝑖𝑛
𝜋 0.0254 𝑚 2 1
𝐶𝐴𝑜 2𝑔ℎ = 0.80 × 8 𝑖𝑛 × 2𝑔 ℎ2
4 1 𝑖𝑛
ℎ1 = 1.4 and ℎ2 = 0
ℎ1 107.14ℎ 𝑑ℎ
𝑡2 = ℎ2 𝜋 0.0254 𝑚 2
1
0.80× 8 𝑖𝑛× 2𝑔 ℎ 2
4 1 𝑖𝑛

ℎ1 1
𝑡2 = 932.341 ℎ2
ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
1.4 1
𝑡2 = 932.341 0
ℎ2 𝑑ℎ
2 3 1.4
𝑡2 = 932.341 ℎ2 0
3
2 3 2
𝑡2 = 932.341 1.4 −0
3
𝑡2 = 1029.617 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑠

Total time to empty,

𝑡 = 𝑡1 + 𝑡2
𝑡 = 1432.802 + 1029.617
∴ 𝒕 = 𝟐𝟒𝟔𝟐. 𝟒𝟏𝟗 𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒔
7. An orifice has initial head of 9.0m and when the flow was stopped, the head was measured at 4.0m.
Under what constant head H would the same orifice discharge the same volume of water in the same
time interval? Cd is constant.

Find the head H = ?,

Given:

H 1  9.0m
H 2  4.0m
Solution:

Eq.1, Vlost  Qt

Use the formula:

t
2 As
 h1  h2 
C d Ao 2 g

t
2 As
 9 4 
C d Ao 2 g

2 As
Eq.2, t 1
C d Ao 2 g

Eq.3, Q  Ao C d 2 gH

The head difference:

Vlost  As h

h=9-4=5m

Then equate eq.1,2,3

As 5 
2 As
C d Ao 2 gH 
C d Ao 2 g
5
H 
2

H=6.25m
8. The height of the circular tank is 10m and it is full of water. It takes 8.40 minutes to empty the tank
through a hole at the bottom. How long will it take the water level to drop at 3m?

Find t = ?,

Given:

H 1  10m
H 2  7m

t  8.40 min
Solution:

To empty the tank 1:

Use the formula,

t
2 As
 H1  H 2 
C d Ao 2 g

8.4 
2 As
 10  0 
C d Ao 2 g

Where,

2 As
K  2.656
C d Ao 2 g

In the tank 2:

t
2 As
Cd Ao 2 g
 H1  H 2 

t  K 10  7 

 2.656 10  7 
60 sec
t  1.37 min x =82.31sec.
min
9. A tank cylindrical in cross-section contains water with 50mm diameter standard orifice located on its
vertical side 600mm above the bottom. At 1.50m directly above this orifice is another standard circular
orifice 75mm in diameter. Determine the combined discharge from the two orifices if the head on the
upper orifice is 1.50m, Cv = 0.98 and Cd = 0.607.

Find the discharge Q = ?,

Given:

Ø1  50mm  0.050m

Ø2  75mm  0.075m

H 1  1.5m
H 2  1.5m
C v  0.98, C d  0.607
Solution:

QT  Q1  Q2

Use the formula for orifice 1:

Q1  C d Ao 2gH 1

 (0.075) 2 
 0.607   19.62(1.5)
 4 
 0.015m 3 / s

Repeat the procedure for orifice 2:

Q2  C d Ao 2gH 2

 (0.05) 2 
Q2  0.607   19.62(3)
 4 

Q2  0.009m 3 / s

From the formula above

QT  Q1  Q2

QT  0.015  0.009

QT=0.024m3/s
 WEIRS

Weirs are obstruction structures placed in an open channel that cause the water to back up behind it
and flow over it. They are built across an open channel for the purpose of measuring or controlling the
flow of liquids.

Weirs are classified according to their shape. It may be rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, circular,
parabolic or of any other regular form. The most commonly used shapes are the rectangular, triangular
and the trapezoidal shapes. According to the form of the crest, weirs may be sharp-crested or broad-
crested.

The flow over a weir may either be free or submerge. If the water surface downstream from the weir is
lower than the crest, the flow is free, but if the downstream surface is higher than the crest, the flow is
submerged.
Derivation of Formula of Rectangular Weir without end-contraction (Suppressed Weirs)

Vo 2/2g
Nappe h
H

Crest
P Weir
Vo

L=b

Consider a differential area of length L and height dh to be located h measured below the liquid surface.

𝑑𝐴 = 𝐿𝑑ℎ
𝑑𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑑𝐴

From orifice theory, the theoretical velocity through this area is

𝑉𝑖 = 2𝑔𝐻

Thus ,
𝑑𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔𝐻 . 𝐿𝑑ℎ = 2𝑔 𝐿𝐻1/2 𝑑ℎ
Integrate both sides, considering the velocity of approach

𝑉𝑜 2
+ℎ
2𝑔
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝐿 𝐻1/2 𝑑ℎ
𝑉𝑜 2
2𝑔
3/2 3/2
2 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝐿 +ℎ −
3 2𝑔 2𝑔

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒, 𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑖
3/2 3/2
2 𝑉𝑜 2 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝐿 +ℎ −
3 2𝑔 2𝑔

2
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
3

Therefore,
3/2 3/2
𝑉𝑜 2 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿 ℎ + −
2𝑔 2𝑔

If the ratio H/P is sufficiently small, the velocity of approach becomes very small and velocity of
approach may be neglected.

𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿ℎ3/2
Rehbook formula for weir coefficient on rectangular weir without end contraction
2
𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔
3
1 𝐻
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐶𝑑 = 0.605 + + 0.08
1000𝐻 𝑃

𝐻&𝑃 = 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝐻 = 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 (0.024𝑚 𝑡𝑜 0.60𝑚)
𝑃 = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 (0.10𝑚 𝑡𝑜 1.0𝑚)
𝐻
< 1.0
𝑃

Degree of accuracy of the formula is up to 0.50%.Itis even valid for greater ratios than 1.0 if the bottom
of the canal is lower than that of approach channel so that backwater does not affect the head. The
values of 𝐶𝑑 average at 0.623, and for H/P<0.40, the value of Cw may be used as

𝑄𝑎 = 1.84 𝐿ℎ3/2 (𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑆. 𝐼. )

𝑄𝑎 = 3.33 𝐿ℎ3/2 (𝐹𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡)

Formula for Rectangular weir with end contraction

3/2 3/2
𝑉𝑜 2 𝑉𝑜 2
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿′ ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐿′ = 𝐿 − 0.1𝑛ℎ
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡

L L

a) One-end contraction (n=1) b) Two-end contraction (n=2)

Triangular weir (V-Notch)

At very low heads, the nappe of a rectangular weir has a tendency to adhere to its downstream face. A
weir operating under such condition would give a very inaccurate result. For a very low heads, a V-notch
weir should be used. The vertex angle θ of a V-notch weir is usually between 10o to 90o but rarely larger.

x h
dh

H
H-h
θ

Ideal discharge

𝑑𝑄𝑖 = 𝑉𝑑𝐴
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑉 = 2𝑔𝐻
𝑑𝐴 = 𝑥𝑑ℎ

Then
𝑑𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔𝐻𝑥𝑑ℎ

By ratio and proportion

𝑥 𝐵
=
𝐻−ℎ 𝐻
𝐻−ℎ
𝑥= 𝐵
𝐻
Thus,

𝐻−ℎ
𝑑𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔ℎ 𝐵𝑑ℎ
𝐻
𝑄𝑖 𝐻
𝐻−ℎ 1 2
𝑑𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝐵 ℎ 𝑑ℎ
0 0 𝐻
𝐻
1 2
ℎ3 2
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝐵 ℎ − 𝑑ℎ
0 𝐻
𝐻
ℎ3 2 1 ℎ5 2
= 2𝑔 𝐵 −
3/2 𝐻 5/2 0
3 2 5 2 𝐻
2ℎ 2ℎ
= 2𝑔 𝐵 −
3 5 𝐻 0

2 3/2 2
= 2𝑔 𝐵𝐻 −0 − 𝐻 5/2 − 0
3 5𝐻
2 3/2 2 3/2
= 2𝑔 𝐵 𝐻 − 𝐻
3 5
4 3/2
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝐵 𝐻
15

𝜃
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐵 = 2𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑛 , 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
2

𝜃 4 3/2
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 2𝐻𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻
2 15

8 𝜃
𝑄𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻 5/2
15 2

Actual discharge
8 𝜃
𝑄= 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻 5/2
15 2
 8
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶 2𝑔
15 𝑑

𝐶𝑑 = 0.58 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝜃𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 22.5𝑜 𝑡𝑜 120𝑜 (𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)

Thus,
𝜃
𝑄𝑎 = 𝐶𝑤 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻 5/2
2

For standard weir, θ=90o

𝑄𝑎 = 1.40𝐻5/2 (𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

𝑄𝑎 = 2.50𝐻 5/2 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
Trapezoidal sharp crested Weir

The discharge of trapezoidal weir is the same as that from rectangular weir plus the triangular weir.

θ/2 θ/2 H

𝑄 = 𝑄𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 + 𝑄𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟

2 8 𝜃
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝐿𝐻 3/2 + 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐻 5/2
3 15 2
Cipolletti Weir

Cipolletti weir are trapezoidal weirs with side slope of 1H:4V. The additional area at the sides adds
approximately enough effective width of the stream to offset the side contractions.

4 4 H
1 1

L
1 1 H
4 4
𝑄𝑎 = 1.859𝐿 𝐻 3/2 (𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝑄𝑎 = 3.37𝐿L 𝐻 3/2 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
Suttro Weir or Proportional Flow Weir

It may be noted that, in a rectangular weir, discharge varies with 3/2 power of H and in a triangular weir,
with 5/2 power of H. There exist a shape for which the discharge varies linearly with the head, the
proportional flow or Rettger weir, also known as Suttro weir.

Hyperbolic x H

y
Hyperbolic x H

y
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜋𝐾 2𝑔 𝐻 (𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒)
1
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝜋𝐾 2𝑔 𝐻 (𝐷𝑜𝑢𝑏𝑙𝑒)
2

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐾 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑦

Broad Crested Weir

The crest of weir is sufficiently wide to prevent the nappe from springing free at upstream corner. Its
advantages is that rugged and can withstand up well under field conditions

2
V /2g
2
Vc /2g

H
yc

P Vo

For rectangular channel broad crested weir

𝑉𝑐 = 𝑔𝑦𝑐
2
𝑦𝑐 = 𝐸𝑐
3
Flow over broad-crested weir

2/3
2 2/3
23/2
𝑄𝑖 = 𝐴𝑉 = 𝐿𝑦𝑐 𝑔𝑦𝑐 = 𝐿 𝑔 𝐸𝑐 = 𝐿 𝑔𝐸
3 33/2

23/2 21/2 (2) 2 (2)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: = = , 𝑡ℎ𝑢𝑠
33/2 33/2 33/2

𝑄𝑖 = 0.385 2𝑔𝐿𝐸𝑐 2/3

𝑉𝑜 2
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐸 = 𝐻 +
2𝑔
3/2
𝑉𝑜 2
𝑄𝑖 = 0.385𝐿 2𝑔 𝐻 +
2𝑔

Actual Discharge, Q
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝑄𝑖

where 𝑄𝑎 = 1.859𝐿 𝐻 3/2 (𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

3/2
𝑄𝑎 = 3.37𝐿 𝐻 3/2 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ
𝑉𝑜 2 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
1 𝐻 + 2𝑔
𝐶𝑑 =
3 𝐻

For high weirs, Vo 0 H/P=high ratio

𝐶𝑑 = 0.5774
Submerged Sharp Weir

The discharge over a submerged sharp-crested weir is affected not only by the head on the upstream
side H1 but by the head downstream H2. The discharge for a submerged weir is related to the free or
unsubmerged discharge.

H1
H2

𝑛 0.385
𝑄𝑠 𝐻2
= 1−
𝑄 𝐻1

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝑄𝑠 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑚𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟

𝑄𝑎 = 1.859𝐿 𝐻 3/2 (𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠) 2
𝑄 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑑 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟
3/2 𝑎 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝐻1 = 𝐶 2𝑔 𝐿𝐻1 3/2
𝑄𝑎 = 3.37𝐿 𝐻 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠) 3 𝑑
𝑛 = 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑.
3 5
= 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟, 𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟
2 2
Unsteady Flow Weir (Variable Head)

Reservoir or tank with constant

water surface are, As

Weir with varying head

𝐻1
𝐴𝑠 𝑑ℎ
𝑡=
𝐻2 𝑄𝑜
If the flow is through suppressed rectangular weir

𝐻2
𝐴𝑠 𝑑𝐻
𝑡=
𝐻1 𝐶𝑤 𝐿𝐻 3/2
𝐻2
𝐴𝑠 𝐴𝑠 𝐻2
𝑡= 𝐻 −3/2 𝑑𝐻 = 2𝐻 −1/2
𝐶𝑤 𝐿 𝐻1 𝐶𝑤 𝐿 𝐻1

2𝐴𝑠 1 1
𝑡= −
𝐶𝑤 𝐿 𝐻2 𝐻1

where:
𝐶𝑤 = 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑟 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐿 = 𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 3/2
𝑄𝑎 = 1.859𝐿 𝐻 (𝑆𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑜𝑖𝑟
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠) 𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝐴𝑠 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓
3/2
𝑄𝑎 = 3.37𝐿 𝐻 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
𝐻1 = 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
𝐻2 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑑
Problems:
1. A rectangular sharp-crested weir 0.90m high extends across a rectangular channel which is
2.40m wide. Calculate the rate of discharge in the channel when the weir head is 36cm.
a. Neglecting velocity of approach
b. Considering velocity of approach
3 3
Answers: Qa=0.954m /s; Qa=0.973m /s

2. A rectangular channel 7.50m wide has 1.20m depth of water flowing with a mean velocity of
0.75m/s. Determine the height of a standard sharp-crested weir that will increase the depth in
the channel approach to 1.80m. Consider the velocity of approach and assume Cd =0.623.
Answer: P=1.19m

3. A rectangular weir has end-contraction at both ends. Considering the velocity of approach,
calculate the discharge in a rectangular channel with a width of 3.0m if the weir has L=2m,
h=0.40m and P=0.90m. Use Cw=1.84
Answers: Vo=0.231m/s; Q=902l/s

4. A rectangular sharp-crested weir with two-end contractions is 1.40m long. How high should it
be placed a channel to maintain and upstream depth of 2.35m for a flow of 400li/sec?
Answer:P=2.05m

5. A suppressed weir 7.5m long is discharge 10.125m3/s of water into a channel. The weir factor
C=1.88. To what height P may the weir be built, if the water behind the weir must not exceed
1.80m deep?

Answers: H=0.777m; P=1.023m

6. A sharp-crested rectangular weir 1m long with end contractions suppressed and 90 o V-notch
weir are placed in the same weir box with the vertex of 90 o V notch weir 150mm below the
crest of the rectangular weir. Determine the head on the rectangular weir when the discharge
are equal.
Answer: H=0.891m

7. A trapezoidal weir having a side slope of 1H:2V discharges 50m3/s under the constant head of
2m. Find the length of the weir assuming C=0.60.
Answer: L=9.15m

8. A trapezoidal weir having a side slope of 2H:1V and 1H:1V discharges 3.34m 3/s under the
constant head of 0.60m. Find the length of the weir.
Answer: L=1.714m

9. A flow of 10m3/s passes over a suppressed weir which 5m long. The total depth upstream
from the weir must not exceed 3m. Using C=1.85. Considering the velocity of approach,
determine the height of the crest.
Answer: P=1.967m
3
10. A suppressed weir having a head of 0.3 m carries a discharge of 0.8m /s. The depth of water
upstream from the weir is 2.485m.Using Francis formula, find the width of the channel at the
back of the suppresses weir (a) considering the velocity of approach and (b)neglecting the
velocity of approach.

Answer: L=2.646m and L=2.639m

 ANSWERS TO THE PROBLEMS
1. 1. A rectangular sharp-crested weir 0.90m high extends across a rectangular channel which is 2.40m
wide. Calculate the rate of discharge in the channel when the weir head is 36cm.
a. Neglecting velocity of approach
b. Considering velocity of approach
Solution:
a. Neglecting velocity of approach, 0.36m
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿𝐻 3/2
𝑄 = 1.84(2.40)(0.36)3/2 0.90m
𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟓𝟒 𝒎𝟑 𝒔
2.40m

b. Considering velocity of approach,

𝑄 0.954
𝑉= = = 0.315 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 0.90+0.36 ×2.40

3 3
𝑉𝑜 2 2 𝑉𝑜 2 2
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔
3 3
0.315 2 2 0.315 2 2
𝑄 = 1.84 2.40 0.36 + −
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟕𝟐 𝒎𝟑 𝒔
1. 2. A rectangular channel 7.50m wide has 1.20m depth of water flowing with a mean velocity of 0.75m/s.
Determine the height of a standard sharp-crested weir that will increase the depth in the channel
approach to 1.80m. Consider the velocity of approach and assume C d=0.623.
Solution:
h
1.80m
P

7.50m
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 = 7.5 × 1.20 × 0.75 = 6.75 𝑚3 /𝑠
6.75
𝑉𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐 ℎ = = 0.5 𝑚/𝑠
7.5×1.8
2 2
𝐶𝑤 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔 = × 0.623 × 2𝑔 = 1.84
3 3
3 3
2
𝑉𝑜 2 2
𝑉𝑜 2
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔
3 3
0.52 2 0.52 2
6.75 = 1.84 7.5 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔

ℎ = 0.609 𝑚
∴ 𝑃 = 1.80 − ℎ = 1.80 − 0.609
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎
1. 3. A rectangular weir has an end contraction at both ends. Considering velocity of approach, calculate
the discharge in a rectangular channel with a width of 3.0m if the weir has L=2m, h=0.40m and P=0.90m.
Use Cw=1.84.
Solution:
3 3
𝑉𝑜 2 2 𝑉𝑜 2 2 0.40m
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿′ ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔
0.90m 2m
where, 𝐿′ = 𝐿 − 0.1𝑛ℎ
𝐿′ = 2 − 0.1 2 0.4 = 1.92 3m
𝑄 𝑄
𝑉𝑜 = = = 0.256𝑄
𝐴 3× 0.4+0.9

3 3
0.256𝑄 2 2 0.256𝑄 2 2
𝑄 = 1.84 1.92 0.4 + −
2𝑔 2𝑔

By trial & error, 𝑸 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝟑 /𝒔

∴ 𝑉𝑜 = 0.256𝑄 = 0.256 0.902
𝑽𝒐 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟑𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
1. 4. A rectangular sharp-crested weir with two end-contractions is 1.40m long. How high should it be
placed a channel to maintain and upstream depth of 2.35m for a flow of 400li/sec?
Solution:
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿′ℎ3/2 h
′
Where, 𝐿 = 𝐿 − 0.1𝑛ℎ 2.35m
P
′ 1.40m
𝐿 = 1.4 − 0.1 2 × ℎ

0.4 = 1.84 1.4 − 0.1 2 × ℎ ℎ3/2

By trial & error,
ℎ = 0.30 𝑚
𝑃 = 2.35 − ℎ = 2.35 − 0.30
∴ 𝑷 = 𝟐. 𝟎𝟓 𝒎
1. 5. A suppressed weir 7.5m long is discharging 10.125m 3/s of water into a channel. The weir factor
C=1.88. To what height P may the weir be built, if the water behind the weir must not exceed 1.80m
deep?
Solution:
3 3
𝑉𝑜 2 2 𝑉𝑜 2 2 h
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔 1.80m
𝑄 10.125 P
where, 𝑉𝑜 = = = 0.75 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 7.5×1.8
3 3
0.75 2 2 0.75 2 2
10.125 = 1.84 7.5 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔

ℎ = 0.777 𝑚
𝑃 = 1.8 − ℎ = 1.8 − 0.777
∴ 𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝟐𝟑 𝒎

7.50m
1. 6. A sharp-crested rectangular weir 1m long with end contractions suppressed 90˚ V-notch weir are
placed in the same weir box with vertex of 90˚ V-notch weir 150mm below the crest of the rectangular
weir. Determine the head on the rectangular weir when the discharge is equal.
Solution:
3/2
For rectangular channel, 𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 1.84𝐿𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
5/2
For triangular channel, 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 1.40𝐻𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
where, 𝐻𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 0.150 + 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑄𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 𝑄𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
3/2 5/2
1.84𝐿𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 1.40𝐻𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
3/2 5/2
1.84 1 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 = 1.40 0.150 + 𝐻𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
∴ 𝑯𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒍𝒆 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟏 𝒎
1. 7. A trapezoidal weir having a side slope of 1H:2V discharges 50m 3/s under a constant head of 2m. Find
the length of the weir assuming C=0.60.
Solution:
2 8 𝜃
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 2𝑔𝐿𝐻 3 2 + 𝐶 2𝑔 tan 𝐻 5 2
3 15 𝑑 2
2 3 2 8 1
50 = 0.60 2𝑔𝐿 2 + 0.60 2𝑔 25 2
3 15 2
2 8 1
0.60 2𝑔𝐿 23 2 = 50 − 0.60 2𝑔 25 2
3 15 2
𝑳 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝒎
1. 8.A flow of 10m3/s passes over a suppressed weir which is 5m long. The total depth upstream from the
weir must not exceed 3m. Using C=1.85. Considering the velocity of approach, determine the height of
the crest.
Solution:
3 3
𝑉𝑜 2 2 𝑉𝑜 2 2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑤 𝐿 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑄 10
where, 𝑉𝑜 = = = 0.667 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 5×3
3 3
0.667 2 2 0.667 2 2
10 = 1.85 5 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔

ℎ = 1.033 𝑚
∴ 𝑃 = 3 − ℎ = 3 − 1.033
𝑷 = 𝟏. 𝟗𝟔𝟕 𝒎
 9. A suppressed weir having a head of 0.3m carries a discharge of 0.8m3/s. The depth of water
upstream from the weir is 2.485m.
a. Neglecting the velocity of approach and using Francis Formula, find the width of the
channel at the back of the suppressed weir.
b. Considering velocity of approach using Francis Formula, find the width of the channel.
Solution:
a. Neglecting velocity of approach,
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿𝐻 3/2
0.80 = 1.84 𝐿 0.30 3/2
𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟒𝟔 𝒎

b. Considering velocity of approach,

3 3
𝑉𝑜 2 2 𝑉𝑜 2 2
𝑄 = 1.84𝐿 ℎ+ −
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑄 0.80
where, 𝑉𝑜 = = = 0.122 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 2.485×2.646
3 3
0.122 2 2 0.122 2 2
0.80 = 1.84𝐿 0.30 + −
2𝑔 2𝑔

∴ 𝑳 = 𝟐. 𝟔𝟑𝟔 𝒎
 PITOT TUBES

Pitot tube is an L-shaped or U-shaped bent tube with both ends open and is used to measure the
velocity of fluid flow or velocity of air flow as used in airplane speedometer. It is named after the French
physicist and engineer Henri Pitot.

When the tube is placed in amoving stream with open oriented into the direction of flow, the liquid
enters the opening at point 2 until the surface in the tube rises a distance of h above the stream surface.
An equilibrium condition is then established, and the quantity of liquid in the tube remains unchanged
as the flow remains steady. Point 2 at the face of the tube facing the stream is called stagnation point.

Stagnation point
h

h2

h1

1 2
V
V2 =0
Pitot tube can be applied for higher flow velocities because it is difficult to read the head differential at
low velocities in which large errors in the estimation of velocities can result (error ±1% of true
velocities).

Energy equation between 1 and 2 at ideal flow or frictionless flow

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑉12 𝑉22
ℎ1 + 0 + = ℎ2 + 0 +
2𝑔 2𝑔

𝑉2
= ℎ2 − ℎ1 + 0
2𝑔

𝑉2
=ℎ
2𝑔

𝑉= 2𝑔ℎ
GATES
hydraulic properties as the orifice. In using gates, calibration test are available if accurate
measurements are to be obtained since its coefficient of discharge varies widely.

Flow conditions through sluice gate

d1 d1
V1
V1

y d2 V2 y

a) Free flow b) Submerged flow

 In the free flow case , neglecting the headloss, energy equation between 1 & 2

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑉12 𝑉22
0 + 𝑑1 + = 0 + 𝑑2 +
2𝑔 2𝑔
𝑉22 𝑉12
− = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 … … … … … … … . 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1
2𝑔 2𝑔

By continuity equation

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴1 2
Substitute the values to equation 1
𝑉22 𝐴2 𝑉22
− = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
2𝑔 𝐴1 2𝑔

2
𝐴2
𝑉22 1− = 2𝑔 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
𝐴1

1
𝑉22 = 2 2𝑔 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
𝐴2
1−
𝐴1

1
∴ 𝑉2𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
2
𝐴2
1−
𝐴1

Actual discharge

𝑄 𝑄= 𝐶=𝑑 𝑄𝑖 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐶
1.859𝐿 (𝐴𝑉
𝐻𝑣3/2 2𝑖 )𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)
(𝑆𝐼
𝑎
𝑄𝑎 = 3.37𝐿 𝐻 3/2 (𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑖𝑠ℎ 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠)

𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒: 𝐴 = 𝑦𝐵
𝐵 = 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔

Neglecting the velocity of approach

∴ 𝑉2𝑖 = 2𝑔 𝑑1 − 𝑑2
VENTURI METER

Venturi meter is an instrument used in measuring the discharge through pipes. It consist of a
converging tube AB which is connected to the main pipe at the inlet at A, and ending in a cylindrical
section BC called the throat and a diverging section CD which is connected again to the main pipe at
the outlet D. The angle of divergence is kept very small to reduce the head lost cause by turbulence
as the velocity is reduced

HGL

h
𝑷𝟏
𝜸
A D
𝑷𝟐
B 𝜸 C
1 𝜃1 2 𝜃2

Throat
𝑧1 Outlet
Inlet 𝑧2 𝜃2 < 𝜃1

DATUM
The pressure at the upstream section and throat are actual pressures and the velocities from
Bernoulli’s equation are theoretical velocities when losses are considered in the energy equation,
the velocities are actual velocities.

Energy equation for ideal case

𝑃1 𝑉12 𝑃2 𝑉22
+ 𝑧1 + = + 𝑧2 +
𝛾 2𝑔 𝛾 2𝑔

𝑉22 𝑉12 𝑃1 𝑃2
− = + 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝛾 𝛾
The left side of the equation is the kinetic energy which shows an increase in value while the left
side of the equation is the potential energy which shows a decrease in value. Therefore, neglecting
head lost, the increase in kinetic energy is equal to the decrease in potential energy. This statement
is known as the Venturi Principle.

By continuity equation

𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝐴1 𝑉1 = 𝐴2 𝑉2
𝐴2
𝑉1 = 𝑉
𝐴1 2

Ideal throat velocity

1 𝑃1 𝑃2
∴ 𝑉2𝑖 = 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2
2 𝛾 𝛾
𝐴
1 − 𝐴2
1
Actual throat velocity
𝑉2 = 𝐶𝑣 𝑉2𝑖

Actual Flowrate

𝑄 = 𝐴2 𝑉2 = 𝐶𝑐 𝐴2 𝐶𝑣 𝑉2𝑖
= 𝐶𝑐 𝐶𝑣 𝐴2 𝑉2𝑖
= 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 𝑉2𝑖

1 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2
2 𝛾 𝛾
𝐴2
1−
𝐴1

Or

1 𝑃1 𝑃2
𝑄 = 𝐶𝑑 𝐴2 2𝑔 + 𝑧1 − + 𝑧2
4 𝛾 𝛾
𝐷
1 − 𝐷2
1
Problem:

1. The cross-section of an irrigation sluiceway is 16m2. In front of sluiceway are 10-600mm by

900mm irrigation gate. a) Determine the discharge through gates if the gate reading at the
sluice way is at elevation 30.5m and that of the canal below the gate is at elevation 29.75m.
Use C=0.85. b) Neglecting the velocity of approach, determine the discharge through the gates.
2. a. Determine the discharge of the horizontal venture meter shown in the figure. Neglect the
headloss.

b. Compute the discharge if the headlost from the inlet to the throat is 300mm of water.
c. What is the coefficient of discharge?

3. Calculate the discharge through the venture meter shown in the figure. Neglect losses.

4. Calculate the air speed using density of air equal to 1.16kg/m3 with differential manometer and
gage difference of 75mm. Use C=1.0.
THANK YOU!!!