Water Surface Profiles

 Two types of non-uniform (Varied) flow:

o Gradually varied flow – Changes in conditions occur over a long distance. This
can occur with either subcritical or supercritical flow.
o Rapidly varied flow (also known as local non-uniform flow) – Changes are rapid,
and confined to a short distance (as the case is for the hydraulic jump)
Gradually Varied Flow

Fig. 3: Energy considerations for non-uniform flow

 Remember: The principal forces involved in open channel flow are inertia, gravity,
hydrostatic (due to change in depth), and friction.
 Looking at Fig.3, with L = length of channel; ∆x = horizontal distance between sections 1
and 2.
2
V
H = z +y + α (α usually assumed to be 1) 1
2g
With α = 1, the rate of energy dissipation is found to be:
dH dZ dy 1 d (V ¿¿ 2)
dx
= + +
dx dx 2 g dx
¿ 2

 Referring to Fig.3,
dH dH
 Energy gradient S = - dL ≈ - dx
dZ
 Slope of channel bed So = - dx
−dZ dy
 Slope of HGL (or Water surface) Sw = −
dx dx

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 The energy equation for steady flow between the two sections ∆x apart is:
2 2
V1 V2
Z1 +y1 + α1 = Z2 +y2 + α2 + hL 3
2g 2g

As Z1 - Z2 = So(∆x) and hL ≈ S(∆x), the energy equation may be written,

with α = 1, as:

V 12 V 22
y1 + =¿ y2 + + (S – So) (∆x) 4
2g 2g
 An approximate analysis of gradually varied, non-uniform flow can be achieved by
considering a length of stream as consisting of a number of successive reaches, in each
1 2 /3 1/ 2
of which uniform flow occurs. The manning formula ( R S o ) is applied to average
n h
conditions in each reach to provide an estimate of the value of S for that reach as
follows:

S=¿ 5
Where Vm and Rm are the means of the respective values at the two ends of the reach.
With this value of S, and with So and n known, and with the velocity and depth at one end
of the reach given, the length ∆x to the end corresponding to the other depth can be
computed from equation 4 using equal small increments, rearranged as follows:

∆x = ¿ ¿ ¿ 6
Example
At a certain section in a very smooth 2 m -wide rectangular channel, the depth is 1.00 m
when the flow rate is 5.5 m3/s. Compute the distance to the section where the depth is
1.10 m if So = 0.0020 and n = 0.012.

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 Solution
y A P Rh v 2 y+ Numerato Vavg Ravg S Deno- ∆x
v
(2+2y V
2 r Minator Eqn.
) 2g y 6
m m2 m m/s
m 2g ∆( y+
V2 m/s m Eqn.5
m S - So m
2g
)
1.0 2.0 4.00 0.50 2.75 0.385 1.385
0 0 0 4 4
0.0142 2.68 0.50 0.0025 0.00057 25
5 6 7
1.0 2.1 4.10 0.51 2.61 0.349 1.399
5 0 2 9 6 6
0.0189 2.56 0.51 0.0022 0.00027 70
0 8 7
1.1 2.2 4.20 0.52 2.50 0.318 1.418
0 0 4 0 5 5

Summation of = 95
 Solution amenable to computerization
Water Surface Profiles in Gradually Varied flow
 There are 12 different circumstances giving rise to as many fundamental types of varied
flow. A logical scheme of type classification is necessary. Flow situations can be
aggregated to fit into either uniform flow or the non-uniform flow classifications.
 Treatment foregoing is based on rectangular cross-sections, for simplicity. Section is
sufficiently wide and shallow so as to have a section of unit width through which velocity
is essentially uniform. The following development is based on a constant value of q, and
n.
dH dZ dy 1 d (V ¿¿ 2)
 Considering equation 2 i.e
dx
= + +
dx dx 2 g dx
¿, and since V = q / y ,

1 d (V ¿ ¿2) 1 d q2 2
−q 1 dy
¿= ( ) = g 3 dx
2g dx 2 g dx y 2 y
Substituting this, plus the S and So terms earlier defined, yields
dy −q2
−S = −So + (1 ¿
dx gy 2

dy S o −S So −S S −S
Or = 3 = = o 2 7
dx 2
1−q /gy
2
1−V / gy 1−F

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 Evidently, if the value of dy /dx as determined by equation 7 is negative, it will be
decreasing. Examining the numerator and denominator of the equation,
S may be considered as energy gradient (obtaining from equation 5) which would carry the given
discharge at y with uniform flow. From equation 5, noting that R h = y for a very wide rectangular
channel, and that V = q / y , we get
2 2
V n q 2 n2
S= = , Which, for uniform flow in a very wide rectangular channel may be
Rh 4/ 3 y 10/3
expressed as:
2 2
q n
So = 10/ 3
yo

Comparing these two expressions, we see that S/ So =¿ ¿ ¿ ¿. Consequently, for constant q

and n:
 When y > yo , S < S0, and the numerator is positive
 Conversely, when y < yo , S > S0, and the numerator is negative

dy S o−S
Investigating the denominator of equation 7 i.e. = , we observe that, if:
dx 1−F2

 F = 1, dy / dx = ∞
 F > 1, denominator is negative
 F < 1, denominator is positive

 The foregoing analyses have been combined graphically into the series of curves in Fig. 4.
These surface profiles are classified according to slope and depth. Note: The scale of the
drawings is greatly reduced in the horizontal direction.

 Bed slopes, So, are either Mild [M, Critical [C], Steep [S], Horizontal [H], or
Adverse [A]

 For positive So (i.e. downhill) – M when yo > yc; C when yo = yc ; and S

when yo < yc
 So = 0 – channel bed is H
 Negative So – A

 Depth of flow, y (Stream surface):

 Type 1 – Stream surface lies above both normal (uniform) flow and
critical depth lines
 Type 2 - Stream surface lies in between both normal (uniform) flow and
critical depth lines

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  Type 3 - Stream surface lies below both normal (uniform) flow and critical
depth lines
 In practice, gradually varied flow generally extends over quite some distance, and change
in depth scarcely discernible.
 Additionally, since even hydraulically steep slopes vary by a few degrees from the
horizontal, it makes little difference whether the depth y is measured vertically (as shown)
or perpendicular to the bed.

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 Fig.4: Types of Non-Uniform flow (with flow from left to right)
 Looking at Fig.4, physical explanation is that, for type 1 curves, surface must approach a
horizontal asymptote since the velocity is progressively reduced because of increasing
depth.

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  Likewise, all surfaces approaching the normal or uniform depth line, must do so
asymptotically because uniform flow will prevail at sections sufficiently far from the
disturbances.
 Theoretically, the curves which cross the critical-depth line must do so vertically (as per
dy S o−S
the equation 7 i.e. = ) as the denominator becomes Zero in this case.
dx 1−F2
 The critical slope curves, for which y o = yc , constitute exceptions for the foregoing
statements since it is not possible for a curve to be both a tangent and perpendicular to the
critical-uniform depth line.
 Referring to Fig.4, on the right hand of the curves is shown representative examples of
how the curves can occur.
 Many of these show a rapid change in depth from below critical to above critical, the
local phenomenon called a hydraulic jump.
 The curve forms of Fig.4 apply to any channel of uniform cross-section that satisfies the
equation Q2 / g=¿ ¿ . (Recall: Treatise on Critical depth in non-rectangular channels).
 The step-by-step method used in the previous example is suitable for computation of
water surface profile of any stream whatsoever, and not restricting to uniform channels.
More Examples of Water surface Profiles
The M1 Curve

Fig. 5: Backwater curve in a natural stream

 Depth already above critical, and increased further by a dam.
 Case found on the upper limb of the Specific energy diagram. As depth increases,
velocity diminishes without any abrupt transitions so that a smooth surface obtains
 In the case of artificial channel with constant bed slope, water surface curve would be
asymptotic, at infinity, to the surface for uniform flow.
 Of practical significance is that of a dam on a natural stream, and the extent to which it
raises the water surface at various points upstream. Resulting water surface profile in that
case is called a Backwater curve. This would be dealt with using the procedure in the
example done earlier in this section. A depth change of up to 10% gives acceptable
results for the step-by-step procedure.

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  For a natural stream, application of equation 4 on a reach-by-reach basis, because of the
various slopes and cross-sections possibilities, is applied by doing adequate assumptions
on the values of ∆x, accuracy of results depending on the selection of a proper value of
Manning’s n.
The M2 Curve

Fig.6 a: Free Fall (Mild Slope) ; Fig. 6b: Free Fall (Steep slope)
 Represents accelerated subcritical flow on a slope flatter than critical, because of a
control downstream (not an obstruction, but removal of hydrostatic resistance
downstream), in this case the free fall.
 As in the M1 curve, the water surface curve would be asymptotic, at infinity, to the
surface for uniform flow.
 Because of slight wave action and other irregularities, the distinction between the M2, or
drop-down curve, and the curve for uniform flow, disappears within a finite distance.
M3 Curve
 Occurs because of an upstream control, as seen in Fig.5.
 The bed slope is not sufficient to sustain lower depth flow, and, at a certain point
determined by energy and momentum relationships, the surface will pass through a
hydraulic jump, unless this is omitted by existence of a free overfall before the M3 curve
reaches critical depth.
The S Curves
 Analysed in much the same way as the M curves.

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  The S2 curve shows accelerated lower-depth flow, smoothly approaching uniform depth
(Supercritical for steep slopes) . Such a curve will always result whenever a steep channel
receives flow at critical depth, such as from an obstruction or reservoir as shown in Fig.5.
 The sluice gate on a steep channel will produce the S3 curve, which also approaches
smoothly the uniform depth line.
The C Curves
With the anomalous condition (dy /dx =∞) at yo = yc , these curves are not of frequent
occurrence.
The H and A curves
 Commonly have no condition of uniform flow possible
 H2 and A2 curves are like the M2 curves, but more pronounced.
 The value of yb = 0.72yc in Fig.6a applies more strictly to the H2 curve, and only
approximately for the M2 one.
 The sluice gate on the horizontal and adverse slopes produce H3 and A3 curves similar to
the M3, but they do not exist for as great a distance before a hydraulic jump occurs.
Other Examples

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 Fig.7: Subcritical flow water surface profiles. (a) Constant section with change in slope
(b) Constant mild slope with change in width
 These occur when a channel of uniform section changes slope from mild to milder, or a
constant mild slope has an abrupt change in width, as shown in Fig.7. In this case, flow is
everywhere subcritical.
 In the case of change of slope abruptly from steep to either steeper or less steep. In these
cases, flows are supercritical. Similar profiles occur when a channel on a constant steep
slope has an abrupt change in width.
 In each of the cases of the profiles for steep slopes (supercritical flow), uniform flow
occurs upstream of the change in either slope or width, while with mild slopes
(subcritical flow), uniform flow prevails downstream of the change.

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