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DSD Refresher Course 2016

Lecture 4
Pipe Flows and Open Channel Flows

Open Channel Flows

Open channel flows can be classified into uniform flows
and non-uniform flows.
Uniform flow is characterized by a constant water depth
(cross-section of the channel is also constant) and a
constant flow velocity.
Non-uniform flow has its water depth and flow velocity
varying over distance.
If the changes in water depth and flow velocity occur over
a short distance, the non-uniform flow is called rapidly
varied flow. If the changes occur over a long distance
along the channel, the flow is called gradually varied
flow.
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Classification of flow types:

Open Channel Flow
(Steady)

Uniform Flow
(depth, velocity = constant)

Non-uniform Flow
(depth, velocity constant)

Rapidly Varied Flow

(depth and velocity change
over a short distance)

Gradually Varied Flow

(depth and velocity change
over a long distance)

Steady Open Channel Flows

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Uniform Flow
For uniform flows in an open channel, the flow properties,
i.e. water depth (y) and mean flow velocity (V), at a given
time are constant along the length of the channel.

 =


and

 = 

The changes in water depth and mean flow velocity with

respect to the distance in the flow direction are zero, i.e.

= 0 and
=0


V1
Q = constant

y1

V2
y2
x
5

Uniform flows can only occur in a long straight channel

with constant values of:

flow rate

channel bottom slope

channel sectional shape
The water depth of a uniform water is commonly called
normal depth. Point 1
Point 2
Energy Grade Line
V12 / 2g

hL1-2 = Sf L = S0 L

Water surface
Hydraulic Grade Line

V22 / 2g

P1 /g

z1

P2 /g

S0
L

Datum

z2
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Applying energy equation between point 1 and point 2:


 

+  +
=
+  +
+ 

2 
2

= 

 +  +



=
 +  +
+ 
2
2

For uniform flow,
 =
 and  = 

 =  + 

 =  

  
=
$
$

Where,
Sf = friction slope or energy slope; and
S0 = channel bed slope.

%& = %'

For uniform flow, friction slope (Sf) = channel bed slope

(S0) = water surface slope (Sw), i.e. Sf = S0 = Sw.
Applying the momentum equation to a steady uniform
open channel flow as shown in the figure below gives:
( )* = +   = 0
L
V1
F1

y1
y

Q
V2
W = AL

wPL y2
x
Wsin

F2

x
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For uniform flows, y1 = y2 and V1 = V2. The shear force is

balanced by the gravity force. There is no acceleration and
no deceleration of flow.
) ) ,- $ + ./012 = 0
Where,
F1 and F2 = hydrostatic pressure forces on two sides of the section;
w = average wall shear stress on the wetted surface;
P = wetted perimeter;
L = length of the channel section;
wPL = shear force on the fluid arising from the channels wetted perimeter;
= angle of the channel bottom from the horizontal plan; and
W = weight of the volume of water within the section (= AL), where = g is
the specific weight, A is the cross-sectional area of the flow, is water density
and g is acceleration due to gravity.
9

Since y1 = y2 , then F1 = F2.

,- $ = . sin 2

For a small bottom slope, sin tan = S0 , where S0 is

the channel bottom slope.
,- =

. sin 2 46$%'
=
$
$

,- = 45%'

.(1)

Where,
R = A / P = hydraulic radius.

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For pipe flows with a high Reynolds number, the friction

factor, f, is independent of Reynolds number and is
determined only by the relative roughness, / D . Open
channel flows are mostly turbulent with high Reynolds
numbers. The wall shear stress is independent of the
viscosity, , and is proportional to the dynamic pressure,
(V2)/2, i.e. w ~ (V2)/2 . Eq, 1 becomes:
 
45%' ~
2
24
 ~ 5%'

~

24
5%'


8 = 9 :;<

Chezy equation

Where, C is the Chezy coefficient, which is dependent on the

roughness of the channel surface (unit: m1/2/s).

11

A similar equation developed by R. Manning in 1889 gives

more accurate description of how the flow velocity is
dependent on the hydraulic radius, i.e. V ~ R2/3. The
Manning equation for uniform flow is expressed by:
8=

= ?/A =/?
: ;<
>

Manning equation

Where,
V = average velocity (m/s);
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (s/m1/3);
R = hydraulic radius (m) = wetted perimeter / cross-sectional area of the flow; and
S0 = channel bed slope (for uniform flow).

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Mannings Roughness Coefficient:

Surface

Best

Good

Fair

Bad

Concrete-lined channels

0.012

0.014

0.016

0.018

Cement-rubble surface

0.017

0.020

0.025

0.030

Dry-rubble surface

0.025

0.030

0.033

0.035

Earth, straight and uniform canals and ditches

0.017

0.020

0.0025

0.025

Rock cuts, smooth and uniform canals and ditches

0.025

0.030

0.033

0.035

Natural stream channels with very weedy reaches

0.075

0.100

0.125

0.150

Coated cast-iron pipe

0.011

0.012

0.013

Uncoated cast-iron pipe

0.012

0.013

0.014

0.015

Commercial wrought-iron pipe, galvanized

0.013

0.014

0.015

0.017

0.010
0.011

0.013

0.015

0.017

0.012

0.013

0.015

0.016

Vitrified sewer pipe

Concrete pipe
Source: DSD Sewerage Manual Part 1, Table 6.

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Non-uniform Flow
For non-uniform flows, the water depth along the channel
section varies and is not longer a constant value. The
gravity and friction forces are not balanced, i.e. slope of
the energy grade line is not equal to the channel bottom
slope (Sf S0). The Chezy equation and the Manning
equation for non-uniform flows are:
Chezy equation

8 = 9 :;B

Manning equation

8=

= ?/A =/?
: ;B
>

8=

=. DE ?/A =/?
: ;B
>

Where,
(English unit)
V = average velocity (m/s);
n = Mannings roughness coefficient (s/m1/3);
R = hydraulic radius (m) = wetted perimeter / cross-sectional area of the flow; and
Sf = energy slope or friction slope (energy loss per unit length).

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Froude Number
Froude number (Fr) is generally used to classify the open
channel flow flows, and is a ratio of the inertial force to
the gravitational force.
)F =

G

Where,
V = average velocity (m/s);
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/s2); and
D = characteristic length (m). For open channel flows, D = cross-sectional area /
top width of channel, e.g. rectangular channel, D = water depth.

15

Fr < 1: Sub-critical flow

Fr = 1 : Critical flow
Fr > 1 : Super-critical flow

Q
yc

yn
Q
yc
yn

Fr < 1
Sub-critical flow, yn > yc

Fr > 1
Super-critical flow, yn < yc
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Normal Depth and Critical Depth

The flow depth in uniform flow is called the normal
depth (yn).
When Froude number is equal to 1, the flow is critical and
the average flow velocity in an open rectangular channel
is Vc = (g yc)1/2, where yc is the critical depth.
1 6
1
Manning equation: = 5/I %'/ =
1
1

/I

/

%'

A and P are function of the normal depth, yn.

Froude Number:

)F = 1 =

G

6
 KJ
Ac is function of the critical depth, yc.

17

Water Surface Profiles

North depth: yn
Critical depth: yc
Bed slope: S0
yn > yc
: mild slope
yn < yc
: steep slope
yn = yc
: critical slope
S0 = 0
: horizontal slope
S0 < 0
: adverse slope
Type

Froude Number

Water Depth

Flow Velocity

Critical

Fr = 1

yn = yc

V = Vc

Sub-critical

Fr < 1

yn > yc

V < Vc

Super-critical

Fr > 1

yn < yc

V > Vc
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Gradually Varied Flow

The gradually varied flow occurs over a long distance in
the channel. The friction loss from the channel walls and
bottom is important in affecting the energy balance.
M1 curve
Backwater curve

Non-uniform
flow

Uniform flow
Q
yn
V1

y1

S0 x
1

V2
x

y2

2
20

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The energy equation applied to the open channel flow as

shown above is:

 +



+ %'  =
 +
+ 
2
2

The friction slope Sf over the distance x is a ratio of head

loss hL to the distance, i.e. Sf = hL / x. Therefore,



 +
+ %'  =
 +
+ %& 
2
2
 
%' %&  =

 +

2 2
%' %&  =
+

 

2 2

21

M 
%' %&  =
+

M 2

M 
%' %& =
+
 M 2
M
M  M

M  M

%' %& =
+
= 1+
M M
2 M
M
2 M
Since = +/6, then
M
+
M

+ M6 M

%' %& = 1 +
= 1 I
M
26 M
6 M
M

Noting that dA/dy = T = top width, and A/T = D =

hydraulic depth. Then,
%' %& = 1

+ K M

+ M

=
1

6 6 M
G6 M
22

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Since )F =

+
or )F =
, then
G6
G

ST ;< ;B
=
SU = VW?

The above equation is the differential equation for

gradually varied flow. The flow is one-dimensional and is
steady non-uniform.
For S0 = Sf , the flow is uniform, i.e. dy / dx = 0.

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Computation of Water Surface Profiles

Direct-Step Method is commonly used for the
computation of water surface profiles in a prismatic
channel of which the cross-sectional shape and size of the
channel as well as the bottom slope of the channel are
constant, e.g. man-made channels with shapes like
rectangles, trapezoid, semi-circle.
The energy equation is expressed for a small reach x of
the channel as:

 +



+ %'  =
 +
+ %& 
2
2
24

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%& %'  =
 +

 +
2
2
 =

 +




 + 
2
2
%& %'

+


2

+

%& %'


2

The friction slope Sf can be calculated using Manning

1
equation for non-uniform flow, = 5/I %&/ and the
1
continuity equation, Q = VA.

1+
%& =
65/I


25

For the direct-step method, the flow conditions at a

location are known. Then the conditions at the next
location are specified. The distance between two locations
is determined based on the information given at both
locations. This method is suitable for only for prismatic
channels.

26

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Rapidly Varied Flow

The rapidly varied flow occurs within a short distance in
the channel. The friction loss due to the perimeter (wall
and bottom) of the channel can usually be neglected. For a
horizontal channel, the channel bottom slope S0 is zero.
The energy equation becomes:
   
+
=
+
+  ;
 2  2

 = 

The hydrostatic pressure is P = gy and it is assumed that

there is no head loss, i.e. hL = 0. Then,



 +
=
 +
2
2
27

The term (y + V2/2g) is defined as the Specific Energy (E),

which is the sum of the flow depth and the velocity head.
Y =
+


2

If there is no energy loss between two sections in a

horizontal channel, the specific energy at section 1 is the
same as that at section 2. Using the continuity equation, Q =
VA gives:
+
+

 +
=
 +
26
26

For steady flow condition

Where, Q is the flow rate; A is the cross-sectional area of the flow; subscripts 1
and 2 represent the locations at section 1 and section 2, respectively.
28

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Depending on the shape of the channel section, the crosssectional area, A, is function of the water depth, y.
Therefore, the specific energy depends only on the water
depth at the section. The plot below shows the relationship
between the specific energy and the flow depth.
Steady flow, Q = constant
y
V 2 / 2g
Subcritical flow
y1
y

yc
y2

Supercritical flow
45o
Ec

E = y + V2/2g
29

Critical Flow
A specific energy curve represents a particular flow rate Q
with a constant value. When the flow depth is small, the
kinetic energy as represented by V2/2g is dominant in the
flow energy. Whereas, the flow depth is large, the
potential energy as represented by the water depth y is
dominant.
For a given value of specific energy E, there are two water
depths, y1 and y2. These depths are called alternate
depths. When the specific energy is minimum Ec or Emin,
there is only one value of the water depth yc. It is called
critical depth. If the flow depth is greater than the
critical depth, i.e. y1 > yc, the flow is called subcritical
flow.
30

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For the case where the flow depth is less than the critical
depth, i.e. y2 < yc, the flow is called supercritical flow.
When the flow changes from a subcritical flow to a
supercritical flow, or vice versa, the flow undergoes a
situation where the flow depth is critical and the flow is
called critical flow. In general, for subcritical flow the
water depth is large and the flow velocity is low. The
condition is different for supercritical flow of which the
water depth is low and the flow velocity is high.
For a given flow rate Q, the specific energy E is minimum
at critical flow condition.

31

Taking derivative of the specific energy equation with

respect to y gives:
MY
M

M
+
=

+
=

+
M
M

2
M

26
MY
+ M6
=1 I
=0
M

6 M

Since K =

M6
M

Where, T is the top width of

the channel.

+ K
1
= 0 or + =
6I
1

+ K
=0
6 6

T
dy
y

6I
K

32

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K
= hydraulic depth
6
+
1
=0
G6

Let G =


1
=0
G


= )F = 1
G

Fr is the Froude number, denoting a ratio of inertial force

to gravitational force. At critical flow condition, the
Froude number is unity.

33

Hydraulic Jump
When a flow changes from supercritical flow condition to
subcritical flow condition, a hydraulic jump occurs. In this
case, the flow depth is initially shallow and the flow
velocity is high. After the abrupt change at the location
where hydraulic jump occurs (Fr = 1, water depth =
critical depth), the flow depth becomes deeper and the
flow velocity slows down.
Energy Grade Line
(EGL)
Energy h
L
loss
V12 / 2 g

Hydraulic
jump

V22 / 2 g

Q = constant
V1

y2

V2

y1
34

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It is difficult to quantify the head loss in the hydraulic jump,

the use of energy equation to analyze the relationship
between the flow depth and flow velocity is not suitable.
Instead, the momentum equation is used to study the
hydraulic jump problems. The hydraulic jump occurs within
a short distance, the friction loss is assumed to be negligible.
Applying the momentum equation in the x-direction of a
horizontal channel section as shown in the figure below
Control surface
gives:
( )* = +(   )

Control volume
V2

) ) = +  + 
y1

F1

V1

Q = constant

y2

F2

35

 6  6 = +  + 
Where,
P = pressure at the centroid of the area A;
Q = flow rate;
= fluid density;
V = flow velocity; and
Subscripts 1 and 2 represent the locations at point 1 and point 2, respectively.

For a rectangular channel, the pressure P at the centroid of

the area A is expressed by (gy / 2 ). Therefore,

 (
 ^) 
 (
 ^)

= +  + 
2
2
Where,
B = width of the rectangular channel.

36

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Dividing the above equation by B and letting q = Q/B be

the flow rate per unit width gives:

 


= _  _ 
2
2


_ = 
 = 
 `1M  =


 


 = 
 

2
 




 =
2







 



2)F = 0


37

 1 + 1 4 1 (2)F )
=


2

 =


1 + 1 + 8)F
2

Head loss (hL) for hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel

can be estimated by the following equation:
(

 )I
 =
4



38

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Partially Full Flow

Storm sewers usually do not run full, leading to the
existence of open channel flow condition in the sewers.
Chow V. T. (1959) presented the ratios of the geometric
elements of the section of a circular pipe to the
corresponding elements when the section is flowing full.

Note: the subscript 0 in

the figure refers to flowing
full condition

Source: Chow V. T. (1959), Open Channel Hydraulics,

McGraw-Hill.

39

Source: Chow V. T. (1959), Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill.

40

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From Table 2-1 Geometric Elements of Channel Sections

(Chow, V. T.), the mathematical expressions of area and
hydraulic radius of a circular pipe can be obtained.
/

%& /1
_
6 5/I
=

/
+ 6' 5/I
%& /1
'

_
6 5/I
=
+ 6' 5/I
'

_
6 5
=
+ 6' 5'

1
/012
1

1

M'
(2

/012)M
_ 8
'
4
2
=

+
dM'
dM'
/(dM' )
4
4
_ (2 /012)
/012
=
1
+
2d
2

K = /01

Top width

2
/01
2

=4

Sf and n are constant

/I

/I

(A)
41

2
M = 2
(M'
)
2 '

1
M'
M'

Let x = y / d0 , then

2
/01
2

= 4 1  = 4 4 

2
4  4 + /01
2
1
2
/01
 +
4
2


=0

=0

42

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1 1 /01
2

=
M'

1 1 /01
2
M
=
G

Or

2
2
2
2

1 1 /01
2

2
2

(B)

43

Plotting Eq. (A) and Eq. (B) gives the following figure:
1

0
0.31416
0.62832
0.94248
1.25664
1.5708
1.88496
2.19912
2.51328
2.82744
3.1416
3.45576
3.76992
4.08408
4.39824
4.7124
5.02656
5.34072
5.65488
5.96904
6.2832

0.9
0.8
0.7

d/D

0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

d/do
0
0.006156
0.024472
0.054497
0.095492
0.146447
0.206108
0.273006
0.345493
0.421784
0.500002
0.578219
0.654511
0.726997
0.793895
0.853555
0.90451
0.945505
0.975529
0.993845
1

q/Q
0
5.27613E-05
0.001037663
0.005770749
0.018947831
0.046260657
0.093065505
0.162954506
0.256584775
0.371056282
0.500001949
0.634390939
0.763886142
0.878476525
0.970051333
1.033606826
1.067869492
1.075257838
1.061253232
1.033371983
0.999996103

0.2
0.1
0
0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

0.9

1.1

1.2

q/Q
44

22