BIOLOGICAL SOIL CONSERVATION

1. INTRODUCTION

The major causes of land degradation and depletion of soil nutrients are the exploitative uses of land
that entail rapid physical, chemical and biological deterioration of the soil. The indiscriminate
removal of vegetation cover through deforestation, overgrazing and clean cultivation, the use of
marginal lands for agriculture, failure to invest part of agricultural products back to the soil and poor
cultural practices are regarded as exploitative use of land. Poor cultural practices like over
cultivation (destruction of soil structure), cultivating along the slope, cultivating to the edges of
dissected lands (e.g. gullies), cutting drainage furrows straight along steep slopes, continuous
depletion of soil organic matter and organic residues/vegetation cover are the major factors
causing/aggravating soil erosion and depletion of soil nutrients. These practices led to the
irreversible land degradation problems including the depletion of soil nutrients, diminishing of crop
yields and frequent failure of crops.

Soil Fertility is basically depleted due to the removal of nutrients by crops and weeds, leaching
of nutrients, soil erosion and gaseous loss of nutrients either by volatilization or denitrification.
Maintenance of soil fertility should be considered as essential practice to sustain the agricultural
productivity and ecological stability. Suitable cultural practices such as addition of organic
manures, green manures, the use of bio-fertilizers, conservation tillage and application of
appropriate soil conservation practices are essential components of sustainable soil fertility
management practices.

The management practices must maximize the recycling of nutrients within the profile and within
the farm, and it must minimize nutrient losses due to natural processes and management. High
biological activity in the soil is an essential element in soil management program. The diversity of
the fauna and flora of the microorganisms is very important aspect for sustaining soil productivity.
2. An Overview of Biological Soil Conservation
While soil conservation measures are primarily divided into physical and biological, the
biological measures are further divided into agronomic, soil management practices and
vegetative soil conservation measures.
2.1 Concepts
The natural ecosystem maintains its productivity and stability through the processes of nutrient
recirculation within a relatively closed cycle. These processes were broken since the beginning of
agricultural practices as a result of the disruption of vegetation cover and recircultion of the
nutrients. Natural ecosystems are characterized by: continuous vegetation cover; litter layer on the
soil; microbial activities; retention of nutrients in living tissues and broad heterogeneity in rooting
structure. Therefore, natural ecosystem can be used as a basis for developing farming systems,
which simulate the natural ecosystem in maintaining continuous vegetation cover and recirculation
of the nutrients. The biological soil conservation principles and techniques evolved from natural
ecosystems and hence can effectively protect the ecology against degradation and improve
agricultural productivity on sustainable basis.

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2.2 Definition
Biological Soil Conservation can be defined as a conservation measure designed to prevent the loss
of soil and moisture through improved soil management and farming practices that can
maintain/restore agricultural productivity and agro ecosystem stability. The underlying factor for the
effectiveness of biological soil conservation is the application of land husbandry techniques that
guarantee adequate ground cover in space and time, and the recycling of organic matter and
nutrients in the agro ecosystem. In general, it is a rational land use, proper land and crop
management practice to increase agricultural productivity and ecological stability. Hence, the
objective of soil conservation is primarily achieved as a result of better land husbandry practices.

2.3 Principles
There are three basic principles through which biological soil conservation prevents soil erosion.
The first principle is prevention of the direct impact of raindrops through the provision of adequate
vegetation cover. Raindrop causes soil erosion because of its kinetic energy. Kinetic energy is the
product of two factors (mass & velocity; i.e. K= MV 2; where K -is kinetic energy; M- is mass; and
V- is velocity). The impact of raindrop is directly proportional to its size (mass) and speed
(velocity). Any vegetation barrier, which is between the ground and raindrop, breaks up the
raindrop into a number of tiny droplets (masses) that can hardly disintegrate the soil particles and
cause splash erosion. The barrier does not only change the big mass into smaller, but also intercepts
the velocity of the raindrop before reaching the ground thereby nullifying its erosive force. Thus, the
vegetation cover, being a barrier to both mass and velocity of the raindrop kills the kinetic energy of
the raindrop and its erosivity.
The second principle is the prevention of concentration of surface flow of water in order to prevent
the formation of sufficient volume of water that causes runoff. That is, in order to prevent
detachment and transportation of soil particles by runoff, the first and foremost action is the
prevention of concentration of surface flow. To this effect, any vegetation (alive or dead) uniformly
covering the ground, spreads out the surface flow thinly so that it does not concentrate in one spot to
form bigger volume of water that eventually creates erosive runoff.
The first principle of having adequate cover on the ground plays substantial role in preventing the
concentration of surface flow of water in addition to its effect on preventing direct impact of
raindrops. The ground cover also increases the contact time between the water and the soil, by
retarding the movement of water, thereby increasing the infiltration rate.

The overall result is reduced volume of surface flow and runoff. Moreover, creation of a physical
barrier and/or depression to pond the water is also important to increase further the contact time
between the soil and water, and infiltration rate. If the surface flow and runoff are inevitable, the
vegetation cover forms surface roughness thereby posing resistance to the surface flow and velocity
of the runoff. In such a way, the detachment and transportation of the soil particles is
reduced/prevented.

The third principle is increasing resistance of the soil to erosion. The technique that is used to
increase resistance of the soil is improvement of soil aggregates through soil organic matter
management. With the improvement of soil organic matter content, the percentage of water stable
soil aggregates substantially increases, thereby increasing its resistance to detachment by the direct
impact of raindrops and/or runoff. When the soil is rich in organic matter content, its elasticity
increases and it absorbs the kinetic energy of the raindrop without being smashed into pieces.

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2.4 Economic and ecological links
Biological soil conservation aims at maximizing biomass production in order to provide adequate
ground cover and to narrow down the gap between population pressure and carrying capacity of the
land. Maximizing the amount of ground cover, particularly when supported by improved soil
conditions, is effective in managing the rainfall and runoff. In such a way, the rainfall is
systematically intercepted before reaching the ground and made gradually percolate into the soil
before causing any damage to the land. Consequently, both of the important natural resources (soil
and water) are effectively conserved.

In addition to controlling the erosive forces, maximization of biomass production avails the
opportunity of recycling more organic matter. When the soil is rich in organic matter content it
provides favorable conditions for plant growth. The organic matter releases nutrients, gradually
while decomposing, making the soil fertile. Moreover, the organic matter improves the physical
property of the soil because of the better soil aggregates, which in turn improve aeration and
infiltration. The improvement of the physical properties of the soil creates favorable conditions for
the root system development. Organic matter favors the existence of microorganisms, which effect
biological activities.
The improvement of the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil improves the
agricultural productivity of the farm households. The increase in the overall agricultural
productivity and hence income, improves the economic capacity of the households, thereby capacity
of the community to invest for the soil and water conservation technologies.
2.5 Components
The major biological soil conservation components are: agronomic soil conservation, soil
management practices and vegetative conservation measures as illustrated bellow (Fig.1).

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2.5.1 Agronomic Conservation Measures
There are several agronomic principles and crop management techniques that can educe soil erosion
and maintain or improve fertility of the soil. These techniques, if properly designed and applied
accordingly, can effectively maintain agricultural productivity and ecological stability of the
farmlands.
The various agronomic techniques that can be applied under various farming conditions include:
crop rotations, intercropping, strip cropping, ley cropping, alley cropping, cover/green manure
crops, stubble mulching/crop residue management, contour cultivation and fertilization. Moreover,
relay or double cropping can also be applied as appropriate. The different agronomic conservation
techniques and their specifications, methods of application under specific farming system, designs
and the management techniques are elaborated in the following sections.
All of the agronomic conservation measures primarily control soil erosion through the provision of
adequate ground cover in space and time. The effectiveness of adequate ground cover on splash
erosion and erosivity of raindrops is illustrated in figure 2.

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Fig. 2 Effect of ground cover on splash erosion (a) and rainfall erosivity (b)
2.5.1.1 Crop rotation
Crop rotation: - is a practice of growing different crops one after another on the same piece of land
season after season or year after year. Crop rotations once have been the essential basis for stable
agriculture and still they appear to be essential for sustainable agricultural production. The
essentiality of crop rotation has been realized with continued decline of crop yields with use of
chemical fertilizers, but without the practice of crop rotation. This has been experienced by the
large majority of farmers in Hadya, Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Region where
farmers have been compelled to practice mono cropping (the growing of wheat after wheat) with the
use of chemical fertilizers as a result of increased population pressure and extremely reduced size of
land holding.
Economic consideration is the major factor influencing the decision of kind of crop(s) in rotations.
Usually there are few main crops, which are the primary targets for improving crop yields through
rotation. Wheat has been the most attractive crop in terms of generating cash and higher yields for
the households in Hadya zone. In contrast, the yields of grain legumes could not justify the use of
legumes such as horse bean and peas in regular rotations to meet the needs of cash and food for the
households. Crop rotation has been a valuable traditional practice, which plays remarkable role in
maintaining/restoring ecological stability and agricultural productivity in many parts of the world.
Plants of the same crop develop their roots in the same depth of soil profile resulting in strong
competition for moisture and nutrients. Therefore, if the same crop is grown on the same piece of
land year after year, the soil nutrients in a given stratum deplete sharply and the crop yield declines.
On the other hand, if different crops are rotated, the depletion of soil nutrients and the decline in
crop yields are not as serious as when the same crop is grown year after year. Different crops have
different morphological characters (roots and shoots) that enable them exploit the physical resources
(solar radiation, soil moisture, nutrients, etc.) from different strata. For instance, if two or more
crops are rotated, the intensity of nutrient depletion is not severe, as the different crops proliferate
their roots at different soil strata, and hence take the nutrients from different soil layers.

Crops also differ in their effect on the soil. Some crops restore or build fertility of the soil, while
others deplete its fertility. For instance, legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen and hence enrich soil
fertility. Forage legumes and grasses provide good ground cover that protects soil erosion and
enriches the soil with organic matter, which in turn improves the structure and biological activities
as a result of dead roots and shoots. In contrast, cereals such as sorghum and maize deplete soil
fertility through their big stalks and biomass, which are often removed from the field for different
uses. Crop rotation experiment conducted between 1984 to 89 on Andosols and Vertisols in two
major wheat growing areas in the Southern part of the country showed significant increase in grain
yield of wheat. For instance, on the Andosols, monoculture wheat yielded the lowest while the first
crop of wheat after faba bean gave the largest yield (75.3% higher) increment relative to
monoculture wheat.
Crop rotation, in addition to its positive effects on fertility restoration and soil and water
conservation, is a popular traditional cropping practice for controlling diseases, pests and weed
infestation. It is well established that different crops are not equally susceptible to certain kind of
pests or diseases. Growing the same crop year after year leads to build up of pests and diseases in
the field, in favor of that particular crop. If the practice continues for several years, it may
eventually lead to a total loss of crop yields. But, crop rotation maintains or improves productivity
as a result of improved fertility of the land and break of the cycle of pests/diseases. In this regard,

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different crop varieties/species vary in their response to the attacks of different pests and diseases:
some crops are resistant to some pests and diseases including weeds, while others are susceptible.
For instance, Sorghum is found to be more susceptible to the parasitic weed (Striga) than
leguminous crop (e.g.chick pea) and oil crop (noug -Guizota abyssinica). Therefore, it is advisable
to grow legumes or oil crops after sorghum than growing sorghum after sorghum or millet after
sorghum and vice-versa. In general, infestation of crops by pests/diseases or weeds is often
intensified with the depletion of soil fertility. Therefore, systematic crop rotation, which allows
gradual build up of soil fertility, should be followed. The crop rotations that have to be adopted for
fertility management and soil conservation for the major agro climatic zones are illustrated bellow:
Dega: Barley Horse bean/peaswheat short improved fallow with vetch, lupins or tree
Lucerne, then back to same cycle.
Weine Dega: Barleychickpea or other food legume wheat/teff improved fallow with
Sesbania sesban, vetch, alfalfa or tree lucerne (tree lucerne for the upper altitudinal ranges).
Kolla: Sorghum + mung bean, etc  Teff chick pea  Maize + haricot bean, etc
OR: Teff chick peasorghum+ mung bean, etcmaize+cowpea, etc
Note: Other legumes that can be used for intercropping with sorghum in these areas include:
pigeon peas and haricot bean.
Improvement of ground cover and soil structure through crop rotation substantially influences the
effect of runoff and soil loss. The benefits of crop rotation in soil conservation can be illustrated by
the results from Kenya at 20% slope, where the soil is silt and rainfall is 960 mm/year (Table 1).

Table 1. The effects of crop rotation with pasture ley on runoff and soil less
Practice Runoff Soil loss
% Ton/ha
Continuous maize 40 242.21
Permanent pasture 4 0.0049
Wheat in rotation 25 14.83
Maize in rotation 24 103.81
First year ley 18 1.48
Second year ley 13 0.49
Permanent pasture 4 0.0049
Source: Wenner (1981)

2.5.1.2 Intercropping
Intercropping: - is a practice of growing two or more crops simultaneously on the same piece of
land in a fixed pattern in one season. While the principles and objectives of intercropping and
mixed cropping are the same, the patterns are different. Intercropping follows specific arrangements
and configuration; and thus, it is not difficult to distinguish the rows of the main crops from that of
companion crops in intercropping practice. However, in mixed cropping, two or more crops are
mixed up and broadcast over the field so that one cannot distinguish the rows of one crop from

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another. Moreover, the different management aspects are much easier in intercropping than in
mixed cropping because of the distinct pattern in intercropping.

The aim of intercropping is to increase productivity of the land and to protect the soil against
erosion. A good stand of intercrops makes better use of the available environmental resources. The
various leaf arrangements of the different plants allow the optimal interception of light. Similarly,
the contrasting patterns of the root system in different soil layers allow efficient utilization of soil
moisture and nutrients. A mixed stand of crops suffers less from the damages of insects and
diseases. It also protects the soil surface more effectively than pure stand. The overall output per
unit area can also be greater and the chances of total crop losses are lower in intercrops.
Intercropping seems to be more feasible in row crops such as maize and sorghum. These crops are
normally grown at lower population density as compared to small cereals. Hence, they do not form
good ground cover at early establishment. When the crops begin to form dense canopy, it is already
at higher elevation from the ground, and the ground often remains open with little obstruction to
runoff and soil loss (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Exposure of soil to direct impact of raindrops and runoff at early stage (A) and to runoff at
later stage (B) in sorghum/maize field justifying the need of intercropping (C) in row crops

Besides, these crops have bulky biomass, which is often not returned to the soil. The big stalks that
may exploit nutrients in proportion to their size are often removed for various purposes. As a result,
these crops are very exhaustive and hard to the land. They deteriorate fertility of the land in two
ways. Firstly, their morphology is such that they expose the land to erosion. Secondly, the crops
exploit the nutrients in their stalks, which do not often return to the soil, resulting in the depletion of
soil fertility. So, planting suitable legume species between the rows of maize/sorghum crops
mitigates the problem of soil erosion, maintains or increases soil fertility and optimizes the use of
the physical resources (moisture, nutrients, etc).
Intercropping, if applied correctly, could be a key solution to the low crop yields and soil erosion in
row crops. Fodder legumes tend to produce more biomass than food legumes and the amount of
nitrogen fixed is proportional to their biomass. Thus, the inclusion of forage legumes in
intercropping is likely to increase the level of atmospheric nitrogen utilization. The contribution of
N by legumes to a subsequent crop is less controversial than immediate availability of N to the

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current crop. It is generally agreed that some quantity of N would be available to the subsequent
crop from root and nodule decay. It has been studied elsewhere that the N requirement of the non-
legume crop can be considerably reduced after intercropped with fodder legume (Table 2).

Table 2. Grain yield of wheat in relation to preceding intercrops

Yields kg/ha
Treatment 1978 1979 Mean
Sole Sorghum 340 361 351
Sorghum + green gram 405 375 390
Sorghum + ground nuts 433 401 417
Sorghum + grain cowpea 430 403 417
Sorghum + fodder cowpea 469 411 440
Sorghum + soybean 361 347 354
Source: Nnadi and Hague (1985)
Applicability
Intercropping - is one of the agronomic practices that is applicable to dry farming system, where
sorghum and maize are dominantly grown. There are two major intercropping practices in the
country; these are sorghum based and maize based intercropping practices. While the sorghum
based intercropping is in the kolla areas, the maize based intercropping is dominating in the mid-
altitudes. The suitable intercropping practices in the agro climatic zones are as follows:
Suitable intercropping practices in Weine Dega agro ecological zone
Maize with pigeon peas, maize with cow peas, maize with mung bean and maize with haricot
bean.
Suitable intercropping practices in kolla agro ecological zone
Sorghum with pigeon peas, Sorghum with cowpeas, sorghum with mung bean, sorghum with
haricot bean, sorghum with ground nut, etc. However, research results at Nazareth and kobo showed
that Sorghum and mungbean yields are highest when sorghum intercropped with mung bean. With
regard to the intercrops arrangement and plant population, sowing two rows of sorghum alternately
with one row of haricot bean at a population of 89,000 and 375,000 plants/ha respectively gave the
best results.
There are different methods adapted to maximize the benefits from intercrops depending on the
interest of farmers. In most cases, farmers want to minimize reduction in the yield of the main crop.
The major method adapted to minimize the effects of the companion crop on the main crop is
adjustment of sowing dates to minimize competition. In this regard, companion crop is sown
sometime after the main crop is planted; and the wider the interval between the two, the lesser the
competition. The practice would be most effective for conservation and weed control if the
companion crop and main crop are sown at the same time at the earliest possible after the onset of
rain. However, in order to reduce the effect of the companion crop on the yield of the main crop, it
is important to make additional supply of the major limiting factor(s) to the soil (e.g. moisture,
nutrient, etc). As the most limiting factor of crop production in dry areas is moisture, every thing

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possible should be done to increase the moisture content of the soil through the moisture
conservation techniques described in this manual.
Intercropping can also be practiced with other row crops such as coffee, fruit trees and other
plantation crops. In all row crops, where the plants are grown in rows, or sparsely populated, the
practice is highly valuable in both increasing productivity and arresting the declining of soil fertility.
2.5.1.3 Strip cropping
Strip cropping: - is a cropping practice where strips of two or more crops are alternately
established on the contour for erosion control. The practice is useful against soil erosion in areas
where cropping system is dominated by row or sparsely populated crops that often expose the
ground to erosive forces. As far as erosion is concerned, the application of this practice would be
justifiable only if the two strip crops have contrasting characters in terms of controlling soil erosion.
In this regard, if the first strip crop is a row crop or a crop, which is susceptible to erosion like
sorghum and maize, the second strip crop should be a crop that effectively controls soil erosion. So,
if the first strip is maize or sorghum, the second should be forage/food legume that forms dense
ground cover. In this case, maize or sorghum is regarded, as soil depleting/degrading crop while the
legume is soil-conserving crop. Similarly, other crops that can effectively control the impact of
raindrops and runoff can be grown in alternate strips with crops like maize and sorghum.
In strip cropping, erosion is largely limited to the strips of row crops and soil removed from these
strips is trapped in the next down slope strips planted with soil conserving crops. Strip cropping
intended for erosion control is not normally required on slopes less than 3%, and can be effective up
to 10% if well designed. The strips can be rotated to optimize the benefits of strip cropping.
However, on steeper slopes it may be necessary to support it with additional vegetative barriers like
grass strips and hedgerows of grass or shrubs to maximize its effectiveness.
Strip cropping is best suited to well drained soils, because the reduction in runoff velocity, if
combined with a low rate of infiltration on a poorly drained soil can result in waterlogging. Strip
widths vary with the degree of erosion hazard, but are generally between 15 and 45 m, with the
narrower strips on steep slopes and wider strips on gentle slopes. The arrangement of soil depleting
and conserving crops in alternate strips of strip cropping is illustrated (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4 Alternate strips of soil conserving crop (A) and erosion susceptible crop (B) in strip
cropping practice
Applicability
Strip cropping- is applicable to all agro ecological zones, where cultivation is practiced on slope
lands and farmers are growing more than one crop, which have contrasting characters in terms of

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soil erosion control. The kind of strip cropping practices and the crops that can be used in alternate
strips in different agro ecological zones are described bellow.
Dega agro ecological zone
In the Dega agro ecological zone, erosion susceptible crops like sorghum and maize are not
commonly grown. However, the commonly grown cereals (wheat and barley) are more susceptible
to erosion than the pulses (peas and horse beans) grown in these areas. The frequency and intensity
of cereal crop cultivation destroys the soil aggregates and makes the farmlands susceptible to soil
erosion, especially during the early stage of establishment before the crops form sufficient ground
cover. On the other hand, pulses like peas and horse beans are often planted with the first
cultivation (i.e. with minimum tillage). In this case, the disturbance to the soil aggregates is very
minimal; moreover, the natural vegetation/grass is still growing in the field together with pulses.
These, all together make the pulse plots quite resistant to soil erosion. Moreover, while the pulses
fix atmospheric nitrogen, the minimum cultivation of the plots makes them like fallow lands. In this
regard, the pulse strips can be considered as improved fallow.
Thus, while the pulses improve fertility of the land through atmospheric nitrogen fixation, the
naturally growing vegetation/grasses are improving fertility of the land through the recycling of
nutrients from deeper soil profile and through the accretion of soil organic matter content. The
mixture of legumes and the naturally growing grasses provide sufficient ground cover from the
beginning of planting time and can effectively control the soil erosion in the pulse strips. Therefore,
it is highly justifiable to grow the cereals in alternate strips with the legume strips.

Design and application

The strip width of both the legume and the cereal crops can vary according to the steepness of the
slope and severity of the soil erosion. When the soil erosion is severe, it is advisable to make the
legume strip wider and the cereal strip narrower. The ideal proportion of the width of the cereal and
legume is 1:1 so that the balance of depletion and build up of soil fertility would be maintained
through constant rotation of the cereal and legume strips year after year. Consistently, the width of
both the legume and cereal strips could be 20-30m depending on the severity of soil erosion; the
narrower strips being for severe soil erosion. But, if the farmer is keen to make the cereal strip wider
and the legume strip narrower, it is possible to vary the widths of the legume and cereal strips as
necessary.
In this case, the farmer may divide his farmland into three equal size plots and may put two of the
plots under cereal crop(s) and one of the plots under legume every year. The farmer keeps rotating
the crop in each plot every year. Accordingly, each strip would be under cereal twice and under a
legume once every three years. The rotational sequence and arrangement of the cereal and legume
plots are illustrated (fig. 5).

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Fig. 5 Rotational sequence and arrangement of the plots (1, 2 & 3) in strip cropping practice
where A & B are cereal crop(s) and C is a legume crop
Weine Dega and Kolla agro ecological zones

The two crops (maize and sorghum), which are susceptible to erosion are mainly grown in these
agro ecological zones. While maize is an important crop in the mid-altitudes, sorghum is mainly
grown in the low altitudes. The design and application procedures of strip cropping in these agro
ecological zones are similar to that of Dega. However, the legume species suitable for strip crop-
ping in Weine dega and kolla areas differ from those in Dega. The species specifically suitable in
the two agro ecological zones include cowpeas, lalab and siratro. For detail design and applica-
tion procedures refer to the descriptions given for strip cropping in Dega agro ecological zone.

2.5.1.4 Ley cropping

Ley cropping: - is a cropping practice in which legume based pastures are rotated with food
crops. Legume based pastures are grown on fallow lands for sometime to improve fertility of the
soil and hence yields of the subsequent crops (mainly cereals). Ley farming has an extra
advantage of linking livestock with crop production where shortage of grazing land and
feed constrained livestock productivity. The practice appears feasible in the highlands of
Ethiopia where fallowing is a common practice. The objective of fallowing in the highlands is to
restore fertility of the land. There are three major pathways through which soil fertility
restoration takes place in the natural fallowing practice.

The first is through atmospheric nitrogen fixation by the native legumes, the second is through
the recycling of nutrients from deeper soil profile by deep-rooted natural vegetation and thirdly
through the restoration of soil organic matter from the vigorous and dense vegetation growing on
the fallow land.
However, in the current fallowing practice, the land is overgrazed and no vegetation/residue
remaining on the land. Because of this, there are no native legumes to fix nitrogen, no vegetation to
recycle nutrients from deeper soil profile and to accumulate organic material to restore the soil
organic matter. Thus, the land is exposed to erosive forces (impact of raindrops and runoff), which
further aggravate the depletion of soil fertility as a result of soil erosion. Consequently, the objective
of fallowing in Ethiopia and the end results remain contradictory. In order to reconcile such
contradictory events, it is necessary to introduce a technology that leads to the achievement of the

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objectives. In this regard, ley cropping appears to be the appropriate technology to realize the basic
objectives of fallowing.
In ley cropping, vigorous vegetation, which provides good ground cover and stimulates biologi-
cal activity in the soil, is established on the fallowing land. The establishment of dense, produc-
tive forage crops during fallowing period provides a thick ground cover during rainy season pre-
venting the soil erosion. The substantial biomass produced is harvested and made into hay to be
fed to livestock during dry season or maintained on the ground and incorporated to raise fertility
of the soil. This system has been studied in Ethiopia, by international livestock centre for Africa
(ILCA) in its research stations (Shola and Debre Zeit). Results show that Vetch, Lablab and
some Clovers are capable of leaving 30 to 60 kg N/ha in the top 20 cm of the soil profile through
their root systems. In deed, this amount is not sufficient enough to give maximum yields, but it
can play significant role in increasing crop yields in subsistent farming system. Table 1 shows
the effect of previous cropping on subsequent sorghum and maize grain yields on a soil with ver-
tic properties. In 1985, the yield of sorghum after Trifolium steudneri was double of that after
oats (Avena sativa), while in 1986 Vetch (Vicia dasycarpa) increased maize yield twofold com-
pared with the control, Avena sativa (Table 3).
Table 3. Effect of preceding crops on the yields of sorghum and maize
on a soil with Vertic properties Debre Zeit, Ethiopia 1985

1984 crop 1985 Sorghum 1986 Maize

Yield (kg/ha) Yield (kg/ha)
Trifolium Steudneri 2632.0 2730.7
Vicia dasycarpa 2130.3 3273.7
Lablab purpureus 1549.7 2461.7
Trifolium tembense 1842.0 2170.7
Avena sativa 1386.0 1571.3
Source: ILCA Bulletin (April, 1988)
Applicability
Ley cropping is applicable to the major agro ecological zones of the country (e.g. Dega, Weine
Dega and Kolla), particularly where fallowing is traditionally practiced for the restoration of soil
fertility. The practice is so attractive, in terms of both economic benefits and ecological protection,
that it could be introduced to mixed farming system even where traditional fallowing practice is not
common. In areas where the availability of arable land limits the introduction of improved fallow
practice only small portion of the land can be put under improved fallow practice at a time. In this
case, the farmland is divided into three equal size plots and two third of the farmland is always put
under the regular crops and one third under improved fallow practice. The rotational sequence and
layouts of the plots are illustrated in section 3.1.3. In this regard, it is possible that the yield of the
cereal after the improved fallow practice, from two thirds of the farmland is more or equal to the
yield from the whole farmland before the introduction of improved fallow practice.

Besides, the farmer enjoys the extra benefits from livestock production and ecological protection as
a result of substantial amount of biomass from the improved fallow plots and improvement of soil

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properties due to the introduction of improved legumes. Ley farming is therefore, economically
viable and ecologically sound technology, worth considering particularly in mixed farming system.
Suitable species
Dega:
The appropriate legumes to improve fertility of the fallow lands in this agro ecological zone include:
Trifollium spp., Vetch (Vicia dassycarpa), Tree lucerne and Medicago spp.
W/Dega:
The appropriate species for this agro ecology is Sesbania sesban, Vetch (vicia dassycarpa) and
Trifolluim species.
Kolla:
The appropriate species include- pigeon peas, siratro and stylos.
Design and application
The vegetation cover (live or dead) on the land to be improved through fallow practice need to be
minimized as much as possible before sowing the legume. The vegetation cover can be minimized
through intensive grazing by large number of livestock before the onset of rain. As soon as the rain
started and sufficiently moistened the soil, the land is lightly disturbed (cultivated) and the seed is
broadcast on the field at a given seed rate for the species to be sown. Branches or leaves of trees are
lightly pulled over the field to cover the seed with soil; but extra care is needed not to heavily
cover (bury) the seed, especially the smaller seeds.

Period of ley farming

Many studies indicate that optimum crop yields could be obtained from improved fallow practices
when the improved fallow period is limited to one year. Although, crop yields continue to increase
after one year, they increase at a decreasing rate with the increase of improved fallow period.
However, the percentage of water stable soil aggregates continues to increase at a better rate than
the increase in crop yields with the increase of improved fallow period, which in turn increases the
resistance of soil to erosion. Therefore, in areas where shortage of land is apparent, the application
of prolonged improved fallow period does not justify optimal economic benefits. Thus, a one year
ley farming period is preferred in areas where population pressure is high.
Management
The first and foremost management aspect that needs attention is the exclusion of livestock from the
land. The second important management aspect is the control of aggressive weed(s) that may affect
the growth and normal development of introduced legume species.

Utilization of the product

After the end of the rainy season the introduced legume together with naturally growing grass
should be harvested (cut) at a height of about 10 cm above the ground. The purpose of harvesting
(cutting) the pasture at about 10 cm above the ground is to prevent soil erosion problem that may
arise before the next planting time. Moreover, the remaining above ground biomass together with
the root biomass allows the incorporation of enough organic material for the restoration of soil
nutrients and organic matter content of the soil. The harvested material should be properly dried
(made into hay) and stored under shade to bridge feed gaps or to improve the nutritive value of
poor feed supply during the dry season. The protection of livestock from the improved fallow

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land (plot) should continue even after the pasture is harvested. Livestock control is important
even after the harvest to prevent overgrazing which otherwise affects the validity of the practice.
2.5.1.5. Alley cropping
Alley cropping: - is a cropping practice where crops are grown in alleys in between hedgerows of
trees/shrubs and hence it is an agroforestry system. However, agroforestry system is not necessarily
an alley cropping practice, but vice versa. Alley cropping retains the basic features of bush fallow
system in that it restores fertility of the soil through the recycling of organic matter and nutrients in
the agro-ecosystem. The major distinction between alley cropping and the traditional shifting
cultivation & bush fallow systems is that the cropping and fallow phases can take place
simultaneously on the same land in alley cropping, enabling the farmer to cultivate his land
continuously without returning the land to bush fallow. Alley crops are grown in between
established hedgerows, in alley cropping practice (Fig. 6).

Alley cropping is developed by international institute for tropical agriculture (IITA) in Nigeria,
primarily to meet the fertilizer need of subsistence farmers who cannot afford purchasing chemical
fertilizers. The technology has proved to provide substantial amount of organic manure (green
manure) that can substitute the need for chemical fertilizers. The level of substitution depends on the
type of tree/shrub used, agro climatic and management conditions, which determine the growth of
species and spacing of the hedgerows. When the spacing of the plants in the hedgerows is close
enough to form dense hedgerows and spacing between the hedgerows is 8-10 m, with Leucaena
leucocephala in humid climatic condition of Nigeria, the fresh organic material that can be
harvested from the hedgerows per year/ha is found to be about 5 ton. This amount of fresh organic
material is estimated to substitute for 50 kg N from chemical fertilizers. When the spacing between
the hedgerows is reduced to half (i.e. 4-5 m) the amount of organic material becomes double of the
amount given above and the level of substitution is nearly 100 kg N/ha/year.

Fig. 6 Arrangement of food crop and established hedgerows in alley cropping

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Most of the shrub legumes so far used in alley cropping contain fairly good amount of nitrogen
content (3 to 4% in their leaves on dry basis) with very marginal differences. But their effectiveness
in increasing crop yields varies considerably due to their differences in organic composition (e.g.
tannin, lignin, etc) in the green manure, which affect the rate of decomposition and availability of
nutrients to the crops. Shrub/tree legumes such as Leucaena and Sesbania produce highly
decomposable green materials from which nutrients are easily released and made available to
growing crops. In contrast, the green manure from other species like Calliandra and Acacia species
have much lower benefits for growing crops in shorter period of application because of the lower
decomposition rate. These differences affect the time of application; thus, easily decomposable
green manure can be applied only few days before planting, but the less decomposable ones need
more time for decomposition.
Other factors like, soil moisture and temperature because of their effect on biological activity
(activity of soil microorganisms) determine the rate of decomposition. The higher the soil moisture
and the temperature, the better would be the microbial activities and hence the rate of
decomposition. In drier soils, the decomposition rate is slow, hence, the time of green manure
application should be much earlier than in moist soils. Similarly, when the green manure material is
resistant to decomposition, it should be applied much earlier, before planting time.
Substitution of green manures for chemical fertilizers
The field trials carried out on sandy soil in Southern Nigeria showed that application of Leucaena
pruning significantly increased maize grain yields. 5 tons of fresh weight of Leucaena pruning,
which corresponds to about 1.33 tons of dry weight was nearly equivalent to 52 kg N. The trial
indicated that application of 5 tons/ha of fresh Leucaena pruning at planting supplemented with
50kg N/ha or 10 tons of fresh prunings can give the optimum yield of maize. The result also
demonstrated that the application of optimum rate of green manure of Leucaena pruning gave
similar yield with optimum rate of chemical fertilizer (Table 4).

Table 4. Effect of application of nitrogen and Leucaena pruning on grain yield (kg/ha) of maize
grown in alleys between Leucaena hedgerows
Nitrogen rates Leucaena pruning added at time of
(Kg/ha) planting fresh weight, tons/ha
0 5 10
0 2109 2732 3221
50 2572 3166 3256
100 3377 3450 3432
Source: Kang et al (1981)

Applicability of the technology

The preliminary studies in drier areas of the country (e.g. Kobo, Sirinka and Nazreth) show that
there are some shrub legumes (e.g. Sesbania sesban, Leucaena leucocephala, Cajanus cajan, etc)
that are suitable for alley cropping where food crops like sorghum, maize, wheat, teff, faba bean and
haricot bean can be grown in alleys in between their hedgerows. However, there is a strong need of

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combining the water harvesting or moisture conservation techniques and adaptable species with the
alley cropping practices in order to optimize the ecological and economic benefits of alley
cropping in dry areas.

Suitable species
Dega : Tree lucerne, Erythrina brucei and Acacia decurrens
W/Dega: Sesbania sesban, Croton macrostachyus, Calliandra callothyrus, Leucaena leucocephala
Kolla: Cajanus Cajan, Calliandra callothyrus, Leucaena leucocephala, Cassia siamea, Gliricidia
sepium
Design and application
In the establishment of alley cropping, objective of the system should be defined beforehand and the
techniques should be designed accordingly. If the establishment of the system is aimed at meeting
both the objectives of soil fertility management and erosion control, the design and specification of
the hedgerows should meet the needs.
Design for erosion control
For effective soil erosion control, the plants and branches in the hedgerows should be fairly dense
and compact. To this effect, the hedges should be established in double rows of 30-40 cm spacing
between the rows and about 20 cm between the seedlings in each row, in a staggered pattern. The
double hedgerows are more effective in controlling soil erosion than single hedgerow, because in
the double hedgerows, the force of the runoff that could not be checked by the first row could be
checked by the second row.

Design for green manure production

These types of hedgerows are considered when the farmland is situated on flat land or gentle slope,
without erosion risks. In this case, the major objective of the hedgerows is to meet the needs of
green manure as much as possible. The major factor affecting the amount of green manure
production in the hedgerows is the spacing between the consecutive hedgerows.
Therefore, the importance of using double hedgerows and close spacing of the seedling is not
apparent. The spacing between the seedlings in each hedgerow is more flexible and can be 30-50
cm and the optimum spacing between consecutive hedgerows to get the optimum amount of green
manure is about 4m. The total amount of green manure production depends on the number of
hedgerows in a given farm plot/land when other conditions are optimal. When there is more number
of hedgerows in the farmland, the expected amount of green manure production would be higher.
On the other hand, the number of hedgerows on a given plot of land depends on the spacing
between the consecutive hedgerows; when the spacing between the consecutive hedgerows is less,
the number of the hedgerows is more and vice versa.
With regard to establishment of the system, direct seeding is the cheapest method, but seedlings
from direct seeding are usually very small during the early development and need extra care and
protection. Establishment with seedlings is used when direct seeding does not give desirable
results.

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Management of the hedgerows

The seedlings in the hedgerows are first cut when they reach a basal diameter, over 6 cm, just at
about 10-15 cm height above the lowest branching. Such low cutting stimulates strong branching
from the tree bottom resulting in the formation of denser/closer branches.
The double hedgerows are suitable for enhancing faster bench terrace formation, because the space
in the double hedgerows allows collection and accumulation of straws, crop residues and other
trashes which block the openings in the hedgerows and facilitate faster deposition and accumulation
of soil above the hedgerows.
Height of hedgerow cutting
The permanent height for regular hedgerows cutting is about 70 cm from the ground. Periodical
pruning/cutting of the hedgerows is necessary during cropping season to avoid shading of the
companion crop. Pruning intensity varies with shrub or tree species. Fast growing plants, such as
Leucaena and
Gliricidia, require pruning every five to six weeks during cropping when growing conditions are
optimal. Too low or too frequent cutting causes dieback; that is, certain percentage of the leaves
should be maintained on the plants at every cutting in order to guarantee continuity of the
photosynthesis and hence persistence of the plants.

Utilization of the product

The growth and regrowth of hedgerows may be cut several times a year depending on the growth
factors (e.g. soil fertility & water) and stored safely under shade after drying in the sun. Then the
material is used for green manuring or livestock feed. The dried material can be used for livestock
in combination with grass hay or crop residues. Its use can substantially increase the digestibility
and intake of feed, and hence improve livestock productivity.
Likewise, the material can be used as organic fertilizer, and can be applied few weeks or days
before planting, depending on the type of species. In general, alley cropping provides green manure
or mulch for companion food crops in such a way that nutrients are recycled from deeper soil layers.
Pruning applied as mulch and shade on the ground during off-season suppress weeds, and provide
favourable conditions for soil microbiology in addition to the nitrogen supply to companion crops
from biologically fixed nitrogen.

2.1.6 Cover/green manure crops

Cover crops- are crops grown as ground protection under row plantation crops such as rubber and
sisal or as conservation measure on fallow lands during off-season. Cover crops provide proper
ground cover to protect the soil from erosive agents. While the main objective of cover crops is to
protect the soil from the direct impact of erosive agents, they also play additional role of
replenishing soil organic matter and nutrients. The replenishment of organic matter and nutrients
comes from the addition of decaying roots and shoots of the cover crops. Cover crops are grown
under tree crops mainly to protect the soil from the impact of water drops falling from the tree
canopy. They are particularly important with tall trees, where their height causes the drops to
approach erosive velocity. Under dry conditions where competition from cover crops affects the tree
crops, mulches may be used to prevent erosion.
Green manure

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Undecomposed plant material used as manure is called green manure. It is obtained in two ways:
by growing green manure crops or by collecting green leaf (along with twigs) from plants grown
in wastelands, field bunds and forest. Green manuring is growing in the field plants usually
belonging to leguminous family and incorporating into the soil after sufficient growth. The plants
that are grown for green manure are known as green manure crops. The most important green
manure crops are sun hemp, dhaincha, pillipesara, cluster beans and Sesbania rostrata (Table 5).

Table 5. Biomass production and N accumulation of green crops

Crop Age Dry matter N accumulated

(days) (ton/ha) (kg/ha)

Sesbania aculeata 60 23.2 133

Cowpea 60 23.2 74
Cluster bean 50 3.2 91
Sesbania rostrata 50 5.0 96

Sesbania rostrara is a stem nodulating green manure crop, which is a native of West Africa. As it
is a short- day plant and sensitive to photoperiod, the length of vegetative period is short when
sown in August or September. Nitrogen content of green manure crops and green leaf manure is
shown in table 6.

Table 6. Nutrient Content of Green Manure Crops and Green Leaf Manure

Scientific Name Nutrient Content (%) on air dry basis

N P2O3 K2O
Sesbania aculeata 3.50 0.60 1.20
Gliricidia sepium 2.76 0.28 4.60
Azadiracta indica 2.83 0.28 0.35
Cassia fistula 1.60 0.24 1.20

Application to the field, green leaves and twigs of trees, shrubs and herbs collected from
elsewhere is known as green leaf manure, plants growing in wastelands, field bunds etc. are
another sources of green leaf manure. The important plant species useful for green leaf manure
are neem, mahua, wild indigo, glyricidia, Karanji (Pongamia glabra) calotropis, avise (sesbania
grandiflora), subabul and other shrubs.

Several advantages accrue due to the addition of green manures. Organic matter and nitrogen are
added to the soil. Growing deep-rooted green manure crops and their incorporation facilitates in
bringing nutrients to the top layer from deeper layers. Nutrient availability increases due to
production of carbon dioxide and organic acids during decomposition. Green manuring improves

- 19 -
soil structure, increases water-holding capacity and decreases soil loss by erosion. Growing of
green manure crops in the off-season reduces weed proliferation and weed growth. Green
manuring helps in reclamation of alkaline soils. Green manuring can control root knot
nematodes.

Green manure crops: - are crops grown mainly to maintain or increase the soil organic matter and
nutrients. In addition, the crops protect the soil against erosion during off-season. The major
difference between green manure and cover crops is the main objective for which they are grown.
Green manure crops are mainly grown to enrich the soil with organic matter and essential nutrients
while the aim of growing cover crops is to protect the soil against erosive agents. Although the
objectives of growing the two crops are different, the ultimate benefits gained are often the same.

The heavy nitrogenous fertilizer consumption in sugarcane plantation compels investors elsewhere
to look for alternatives to reduce the demand for chemical fertilizers. Thus, green manure crops
have been used to cut down the requirement of chemical fertilizers. Consistently, Cowpeas, Velvet
beans and other leguminous green manure crops have been commonly used. Such crops can protect
the soil during the rains, and if ploughed in before planting, the amount of chemical fertilizer needed
will be less. The amount of nitrogen present in a hectare of the common green manure crops used
for sugarcane is illustrated (Table 7).

Table 7. Amount of nitrogen present in a hectare of the common green manure crops used for
sugarcane
Variety Crop metric Nitrogen Sulfate of ammonia
tons/ha kg/ha Equivalent kg/ha
Cowpea 11.4 80.7 393
Poona pea 11.8 113.3 558
Mauritius bean 8.6 123.3 602
Gambia pea 28.6 232.0 1132
Velvet Bean 17.4 339.4 1646

Source: FAO (1977)

Suitable cover crops should be easy to establish, cover the ground quickly and exclude weed
growth, but should not be too aggressive to cover its companion crop or compete adversely with it
for light, water and nutrients. Research results from elsewhere indicate that tropical Kudzu or Puero

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(Pueraria phaseoloides) growing as an inter-row cover crop with sisal, increased the yield of sisal by
48% compared with the clean weeded inter-row crop.

Benefits of cover/green manure crops

The growing of cover/green manure crops suppresses the growth of weeds and prevents weed
infestation. Farmers cultivate their land a number of times basically to control weed infestation.
The introduction of cover/green manure crops minimizes the number of cultivation and helps the
realization of minimum tillage. The reduction in the number of cultivation reduces the requirement
of traction power; labor and time for cultivation (weed control). Moreover, the reduction in the
number of cultivation rewards the advantage of minimum tillage, which in turn maintains the
stability of soil aggregates.

Applicability of the technology

This technology is less applicable to the dry conditions, where the duration of the Meher rains and
amount of Belg rains do not allow the growing of cover/green manure crops that would be ploughed
in before planting of the main crops. However, the technology is applicable to dry areas getting
supplementary irrigation where the use of cover/green manure crops is most feasible.

Suitable species

In the central plateaus of the mid-altitudes where the amount of rainfall is 800 mm or more and
duration of rain is 5 months or above the following species can be grown and ploughed under before
planting of the main crops. These are: Lablab, Medicago, Colopogonuim, etc. In the higher
altitudes: Vicicia dasycarpa, Medicago, etc. are among the suitable species to be used. In the
Southwestern and Western parts of the mid and low altitudes receiving relatively high rainfall and
relative humidity, tropical Kudzu or Puero (Pueraria phaseoloides), is suitable.

Design and application

The cover crops are planted in April/May, 45 to 60 days before sowing of the main crops and
ploughed under in June/July about 10-15 days before planting of the main crops. In areas receiving
supplementary irrigation, planting of the cover crops could be done in any month of the year when
the temperature allows germination and growth. But, the cover crops should be allowed 45 to 60
days in the field to grow and produce enough biomass and nutrients before ploughed in to improve
fertility of the soil.

Application in plantation crops

In areas where tree crops like Sisal and Rubber can be introduced, cover crops can be grown all the
year round to protect the ground from erosive forces. The cover crops can occasionally be
incorporated during the period of the year when the soil erosion risks are low to improve fertility of
the soil. But another cover crop should be established, before the onset of rain that causes erosion (if
possible).

2.1.7 Mulching/crop residue management

Mulching: - is the covering of the soil with crop residues such as straw, maize or sorghum stalks or
standing stubble. The cover protects the soil from raindrop impact and reduces the velocity of

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runoff. Maintaining crop residues or mulches on the farm controls effectively soil erosion and has
considerable potential for the restoration and maintenance of soil fertility.
Mulching is one of the most effective methods to minimize erosion. A crop residue covering the
ground intercepts raindrop impact preventing splash erosion, slows down the water flows and
increases the infiltration rate. It also encourages insects and worms to make holes into the ground,
thus increasing the permeability of the soil. The effectiveness of mulching for infiltration is
illustrated (Fig. 7).

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Fig. 7 Effectiveness of mulching for infiltration, compared with other practices
Source: wenner (1981)
The second major advantage of ulching/crop residue management is the maintenance or
improvement of soil organic matter. A continuous mulching and/or crop residue management
practice leads to a gradual build up of soil organic matter and hence fertility of the soil. Mulching
also helps in reducing evaporation and in maintaining soil moisture. In order to sustain the supply
of nutrients, the soil organic matter content should be maintained at optimum level at all times by a
continuous supply of mulches/green manures or by maintenance of crop stubble on the ground.
However, mulching may encounter some shortcomings under certain circumstances. In cool
climates the reduction in soil temperature shortens the growing season while in wet areas, higher
soil moisture may induce gleying and anaerobic conditions. Other problems with mulching are that
mulches compete with the main crop for nitrogen and harbour diseases (e.g. maize/sorghum stalk
borer). Crop residues of different crops and their nutrient value is illustrated (table. 8).

Table 8. Crop residues of different crops and their nutrient value

Total yield Stubble
Crop (Grain+straw) Weight Nutrient content (%)
(kg/ha) (Kg/ha) N P202 K20
Rice 15,536 4,200 0.42 0.066 0.66
Sorghum 5,150 2,889 0.21 0.086 0.33
Maize 14,950 667 0.21 0.060 0.83
Finger millet 18,800 3,111 1.40 0.120 0.66
Foxtail millet 6,500 1,200 0.98 0.070 0.17
Gingerly 500 338 0.70 0.098 0.17

Design and application

It is advisable to apply mulches in the form of trash line along the contour at 2-3 metres interval to
reduce the problem of tillage operation. That is, if the mulches are uniformly applied to the whole
area, they may cause inconveniencies to oxen drawn implements. The other residue management
practice that does not interfere too much with tillage operation is standing stubble. In this case,
livestock interference should be controlled and the straw should not be cut after the crop is
harvested. This type of cover is effective in controlling soil erosion and it poses less interference to
tillage operation than mulches applied at the surface. The recommended rate of crop residues
application is 2 to 4 ton per ha; with the largest rate for relatively humid areas and the smallest for

- 23 -
drier areas. The largest rate in justified for humid areas because of the expected higher
decomposition rate than the drier areas and vice versa.
2.1.8 Contour Cultivation
Contour cultivation and planting-is a practice of ploughing the land and planting crops along a
contour line as opposed to along the slope. Carrying out cultivation and planting on the contour was
found to reduce soil loss on slope land by up to 50 percent compared with cultivation up-and-down
a slope. In dry areas, contour cultivation can be adjusted to standard ridge and furrow system to
make it effective in controlling soil erosion and moisture conservation. Ridging is a widely used
tillage practice for soil and moisture conservation in dry areas. The most effective way to reduce
soil erosion and conserve soil moisture is by minimizing the rate of runoff on the surface of the
land.

Different types of tillage methods have been used for soil and moisture conservation and control of
runoff. These include, contour ploughing, open ridges & tied ridges (furrows tied at intervals) and
ridges tied but alternative furrows left open. Tie ridging is the most effective tillage method used
for conserving soil and moisture and for increasing crop yields in semi-arid areas. Tie ridging is
undesirable during years of above average rainfall, because they cause waterlogging. Contour
ridging is generally ineffective on its own as a soil conservation measure on slopes steeper than 8
percent. Greater storage of water and more effective erosion control can be achieved by connecting
the ridges with cross ties over the intervening furrows, thereby forming a series of rectangular
depressions which fill with water during rain. This practice should only be used on well-drained
soils; if applied to clay soils, waterlogging is likely to occur.

2.1.9 Fertilization and manuring

Fertilization-refers to the application of chemical fertilizers while manuring is the application of

various manures (e.g. green manure, compost, farmyard manure, etc). In the absence of chemical
fertilizers or when farmers cannot afford purchasing chemical fertilizers, manuring could be an
option for maintaining fertility of the land. Fertilization/manuring in addition of increasing crop
yields promotes quicker and denser vegetation cover, and hence effective in earlier erosion control.
The same crop planted on the same soil, with the same rate and date of planting, with and without
fertilizer, greatly varies in terms of forming effective ground cover for erosion control. Therefore,
improvement of fertility of the land has both economic and ecological benefits.
Fertilization can affect the success of nitrogen fixation by legumes used for green manuring.
Phosphorus is the nutrient critically needed for legumes growth and nitrogen fixation. Poor growth
of legumes does not affect only the amount of nitrogen fixation, but also the level of ground cover
provided by the current and subsequent crops, and the protection against erosion. Therefore, to
achieve good results in terms of production and erosion control, fertilization of land with optimum
requirements of essential nutrients is compulsory.

Manures and Fertilizers

Plant nutrients are lost from the soil in different ways. Large quantities are removed from the
soil due to harvest of crops. Weeds remove considerable quantities of plant nutrients from the
soil. Leaching and erosion also lose nutrients. Nitrogen is also lost by volatization and
denitrification. Soil is the important source of plant nutrients. When the crop requirements are
higher than the soil supplying power, nutrients are applied as manures or fertilizers or both.

- 24 -
Manures
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as sources of plant nutrients. They release
nutrients after their decomposition. Manures can be grouped into bulky organic manures and
concentrated organic manures based on concentration of the nutrients. Bulky organic manures
contain small percentage of nutrients and they are applied in large quantities. Farmyard manure
(FYM), compost and green manure are the most important and widely used bulky organic
manures. Uses of bulky organic manures have several advantages: (1) they supply plant
nutrients including micronutrients; (2) they improve soil physical properties like structure, water-
holding capacity etc. (3) they increase the availability of nutrients, (4) carbon dioxide released
during decomposition acts as a CO2 fertilizer and (5) plant parasitic nematodes and fungi are
controlled to some extent by altering the balance of microorganisms in the soil.
Animal Manures
Animal manure is among the locally available and commonly used organic fertilizers. While quite
substantial amount of animal manure is produced in livestock-crop mixed farming system, its
benefit as organic fertilizer is not optimized in most cases. Constraints on the use of manure on land
include, inadequate quantity and competing other use. Except in some cases, mostly near the
homestead, cattle manure is used mainly as source of fire. Animal manure includes, poultry
manure, cattle manure and sheep and goat manure. Animal dung and urine excreted by dairy or beef
cattle are the most commonly used manure in Ethiopia followed by that of sheep. Assuming one
tropical livestock unit (TLU), which is 250 kg will void 3 kg dry matter (DM) dung multiplied by
the number of cattle expressed in TLU, about 61,000 to 81,000tones of DM dung is produced per
day in the country. To calculate the potential of this manure for fertility, one should multiply by the
portion of OM and nutrient contained in it, which is about 320 kg of carbon, 8kg of nitrogen, 4kg of
phosphorus and 16 kg of potassium per tone of DM.

Several trials were conducted to evaluate the relative effectiveness of farmyard manure (FYM)
as compared to NP fertilizers. At holeta it was found that the yield increase of FYM at the rate of
6 t/ha is comparable with 50 kg DAP.

Sheep and Goat Manure

The droppings of sheep and goats contain higher nutrients than farmyard manure and compost.
On an average, the manure contains 3 per cent N, 1 percent P2O5 and 2 percent K2O. It is
applied to the field in two ways. The sweeping of sheep or goat sheds are placed in pits for
decomposition and it is applied later to the field. The nutrients present in the urine are wasted in
this method. The second method is sheep penning, wherein sheep and goats are kept overnight
in the field and urine and fecal matter added to the soil is incorporated.

Poultry Manure
The excreta of birds ferment very quickly. If left exposed 50 per cent of its nitrogen is lost
within 30 days. Poultry manure contains higher nitrogen and phosphorus compared to other
bulky organic manures. The average nutrient content is 3.03 per cent N; 2.63 percent P2O5 and
1.4 per cent K20.

Farmyard Manure
Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm animals along
with litter and left over material from roughages or fodder fed to the cattle. On an average well-

- 25 -
decomposed farmyard manure contains 0.5 percent N, 0.2 percent P 2O5 and 0.5 per cent k2O.
The present method of preparing farmyard manure by the farmers is defective. Urine, which is
wasted, contains one per cent nitrogen and 1.35 per cent potassium. Nitrogen present in urine is
mostly in the form of urea, which is subjected to volatilization losses. Even during storage,
nutrients are lost due to leaching and volatilization. However, it is practically impossible to
avoid losses altogether, but can be reduced by following improved method of preparation of
farmyard manure. Trenches of size 6m to 7.5m length, 1.5m to 2.0m widths and 1.0m deep
are dug. All available litter and refuse is mixed with soil and spread in the shed so as to
absorb urine. The next morning, urine-soaked refuse along with dung is collected and
placed in the trench. A section of the trench from one end should be taken up for filling with
daily collection. When the section is filled up to a height of 45 cm to 60 cm above the ground
level, the top of the heap is made into a dome and plastered with cow dung earth slurry. The
process is continued and when the first trench is completely filled, second trench is prepared.
The manure becomes ready for use in about four to five months after plastering.

If urine is not collected in the bedding, it can be collected along with washings of the cattle shed
in a cemented pit from which it is later added to the farmyard manure pit.

Partially rotten farmyard manure has to be applied three to four weeks before sowing
while well rotten manure can be applied immediately before sowing. Generally 10 to 20 t/ha
is applied, but more than 20 t/ha is applied to fodder grasses and vegetables. In such cases
farmyard manure should be applied at least 15 days in advance to avoid immobilization of
nitrogen. The existing practice of leaving manure in small heaps scattered in the field for a very
long period leads to loss of nutrients. Spreading the manure and incorporating by ploughing
immediately after application can reduce these losses.

Vegetable crops like potato, tomato, sweet potato, carrot, radish, onion etc., respond well to the
farmyard manure. The other responsive crops are sugarcane, rice, and nappier grass and orchard
crops like oranges, banana, mango and plantation crop like coconut.

The entire amount of nutrients present in farmyard manure is not available immediately. About
30 per cent of nitrogen, 60 to 70 per cent of phosphorus and 70 per cent of potassium are
available to the first crop.
Night-paddocking
The practice of rotationally keeping animals on farmlands during night has been a very common tra-
ditional practice in many parts of the country. The practice has been very effective in maintaining
soil fertility when the size of grazing lands and livestock holding was sufficient enough to justify the
validity of the practice. However, the practice is now limited to areas where the number of live -
stock justifies its significance.
Nitrogen losses from manures
The major factors affecting maximization of its benefits are the use of animal manure for fuel and
the loss of nitrogen during storage and application in the field. Nitrogen is lost from manure through
leaching and volatization under different conditions. In this case, nitrogen is lost through
volatization in the form of ammonia (NH3) when manure is applied on the surface of the field
without incorporating into the soil. Similarly, nitrogen could be lost in the form of ammonia from
part of the manure exposed to the sun, if the manure is stored in open field without any shade. The

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other way through which nitrogen is lost from manure is through leaching of the nitrates (-NO 3 ) in
heavy rains especially in lighter soils. Moreover, nitrogen is easily lost from animal urine,
particularly when animals are kept in a paddock or in a pen without bedding material on the ground.

Methods of minimizing nitrogen losses

Storing manure under shade before applied to the field can minimize the losses at storage. The
shade minimizes losses through both volatization and leaching by preventing the direct exposure of
manure to sun heat and rain. In order to minimize losses after field application, manure should be
incorporated into the soil immediately. Losses through leaching could be minimized by reducing the
time interval between application of the manure and planting time.
Spreading bedding material on the ground of animal pen at night could minimize the loss of
nitrogen from urine. The bedding material could be a crop residue or grass hay offered as
supplementary feed during night. In absence of crop residues or grass hay, soil can be used to
absorb and increase the recovery of nitrogen from urine. The bedding material absorbs the urine
and minimizes the loss of nitrogen from urine. Moreover, the bedding material when mixed with
manure increases the C:N ratio and reduces the overall losses of nitrogen from the manure. Besides,
the bedding material increases the amount of organic fertilizer available for improving fertility of
the soil. In this regard, it is highly advisable to use bedding material to reduce the loss of nitrogen
from manure and to increase the amount of organic fertilizer.
Another strategy to optimize the quality and quantity of animal manure and the overall organic
fertilizer from the system is the increase of quantity and quality of feed in confined feeding system.
Confined livestock feeding system with improved quality and quantity of feed dramatically
increases the amount and quality of manure. Confined livestock feeding system also conserves
livestock energy for higher productivity which otherwise could be lost by animals roaming around
in search of feed. The value of confined feeding system to natural resources conservation and
development is immense and more than it could be described in words.

Fertilizer Dose
Crop nutrient requirements are met by soil contribution and fertilizer application. The soil
contribution is estimated by soil tests. Although soil testing is generally accepted as a workable
practice, there are some differences in interpreting the tests. This results in radically different
fertilizer recommendations to the farmers.

Blanket Recommendation
Based on the fertilizer experiments conducted in different regions with improved varieties,
fertilizer dose is recommended for each environment. This approach does not consider soil
contribution.

Integrated Nutrient Management

Plant nutrients can be supplied from different sources viz. organic manures, crop residues, bio
fertilizers and chemical fertilizers. It is advisable and preferable to follow integrated soil fertility
management strategy in order to guarantee sustainable ecological protection and agricultural
production. For better utilization of resources and to produce crops with less expenditure,
integrated nutrient management is the best approach. In this approach, all the possible sources of
nutrients are applied based on economic consideration and the balance required for the crop is
supplemented with chemical fertilizers. The contribution from crop residues is generally
ignored. However, crop residues add considerable amount of nutrients and the amount depend

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on the crop. Finger millet crop residues add about 43 kg N/ha, while rice crop residues add 17kg
N/ha. The addition of phosphorus is 3.7 and 2.9 kg P 2O5/ha by finger millet and rice residues
respectively. By estimating the appropriate amount of nutrients added to the soil by crop
residues, chemical fertilizer application can be reduced.

2..2 Soil fertility Management Practices

Soil management practices refer to the practices applied to restore or maintain the physical and
chemical properties of the soil to optimize conditions for germination, establishment and crop
growth. Whereas the agronomic soil conservation practices described earlier significantly
contribute to the restoration and maintenance of soil fertility, soil organic matter management,
manuring and conservation tillage are essential components of soil management practices.

2.2.1 Soil Fertility and Productivity

Soil fertility is the status of the soil to supply nutrients to plants. Soil productivity is the capacity
of the soil to produce crops with specific systems of management and is expressed in terms of
yields. All productive soils are fertile, but all fertile soils need not be productive. It may be due
to some problems like water logging, saline or alkaline condition, adverse climate etc. Under
these conditions, crop growth is restricted though the soil has sufficient amounts of nutrients.

Influence of pH
PH influences nutrient availability, soil physical condition and plant growth. PH influences rate
of nutrient release through its influence on decomposition, cation exchange capacity and
solubility of materials. However, soil pH influences plant growth through its effect on nutrient
availability and soil physical condition.

Organic Soil Colloids (Humus)

Humus is a product of decomposition of plant and animal residues, which are fairly, stable,
amorphous and brown to black in colour. On equal weight basis, organic colloids exhibit five to
seven times higher adsorption of water and cations than inorganic colloids.

Soil Biological environment

The soil biological environment is composed of several organisms belonging to both plant and
animal kingdom. Because of their number and activity, several changes take place, which are
generally helpful to the plants while a few of them are harmful. The activity and number of soil
organisms can be modified by management practices so as to provide suitable environment for
plant growth.

Soil Fungi. The number of soil fungi per unit weight of soil is less than the number of soil
bacteria (0.9 to 1.4 million per g of soil) but their weight is approximately equal because of their
bigger size than bacterial. Fungi dominate in acid soils, since bacteria and actinomycetes are
inactive. The optimum pH range is 4.5 to 6.5. They perform two important functions: (1) act as
scavengers and decompose several types of materials. Bacteria cannot decompose lignin while
fungi can. (2) Certain fungi feed on protozoa and nematodes and thus maintain micro flora
equilibrium in the soil.

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Mycorrhizal another soil fungi, solubilizes phosphates in soils and makes available to plants on
which they live. They decompose all types of materials and are also capable of decomposing
more resistant organic matter. However, the rate of decomposition is slow compared to bacteria
and fungi.

Soil Fauna: - The macro fauna consists of earthworms, moles ants etc. These organisms
consume plant residues and help in decomposition of organic matter. Protozoa and nematodes
constitute the micro fauna. Protozoan feed on bacteria and actionomycetes. Some nematodes
are parasitic on crop plants and some live on organic matter.
2.2.2 Concepts & principles of soil organic matter

The soil organic matter is made up of all the dead organic material of animal or vegetable origin,
together with the organic products produced by itas transformation. Soil Organic Matter is the main
factor in soil fertility. Organic matter improves the soil structure and thus enables the soil to: resist
erosion; hold more water without waterlogging; remain moist for a longer period during dry spells;
and to hold a greater reserve of plant nutrients. Further, it helps to prevent the building up of
extremes of soil acidity or alkalinity. The arrangement of primary particles and their aggregates
into certain defined patterns is called soil structure.
Stable aggregates are those that resist break down by disruptive forces such as water and wind.
Soil structure is an important soil property which influences the soil environment through its
effect on the amount and size of pore space, water holding capacity, availability of plant
nutrients and growth of microorganisms. The altered soil environment affects germination and
root growth of crops.
In tropical soils, high temperatures lead to very rapid oxidation and loss of soil organic matter.
Moreover, the higher frequency of cultivation in the tropics accelerates the rate of soil organic
matter breakdown and its disappearance from the system. The two, high temperature and frequent
cultivation, together accentuate the rate of organic matter loss from the system in tropical soils.
Therefore, the need for continuous supply of organic materials appears to be more critical in the
tropics than in the temperate areas.

After fresh organic residues are added to the soil, there is a rapid rise in the organism population due
to the abundance of easily decomposable material, including sugars and proteins. As the amount of
easily decomposable organic matter declines, the number of organisms also diminishes. With the
gradual decomposition of the organic matter, the population of organisms reduces and the N once
again becomes available for the plants, establishing a C/N ratio of between 10 and 12. In order to
avoid competition between the organisms and the plants for the N, it is necessary to wait until the
organic residue reach an advanced stage of decomposition before establishing a new crop. The
nutrient content of the organic matter is important for the plants. Through the activity of the flora
and fauna present in the soil, these nutrients are transformed into inorganic substances that are then
available to the plants.
Addition of organic material like compost to the soil has a very beneficial effect upon soil structure.
The humus into which the organic material gradually changes is a colloidal material, which together
with the gums and hyphae of certain microorganisms helps soil particles to bind into crumbs or
granules with passages between them. Organic matter also increases the number of earthworms,
which burrow through the soil. The formed pores reduce soil bulk density at the same time
increasing permeability to air and water. The changes allow easier penetration of plant roots and
percolation of rainwater. Stickiness of the soil is also reduced making it easier to work.

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Organic matter can absorb considerable amount of water, often 5 to 6 times its own weight.
Hence, the addition of organic material like compost to the soil will greatly increase the water
retention in soils, holding up more water in the crop root zone and allowing less to pass to the
subsoil layers. Likewise, it reduces the rate of water evaporation into the atmosphere. Under
conditions of very heavy rainfall, the elasticity of soil of high organic matter content helps to
absorb the energy of falling raindrops, so that surface damage is lessened.

Organic components such as cellulose substances, on decomposition release sticky materials

resembling mucus or mucilage. The humic and fulvic acids produced during decomposition of
organic matter are also sticky in nature and help in aggregate formation. Colloidal organic
matter is more effective in forming aggregates than clay. Clay is adsorbed on humus forming
clay-humus complex and it helps in forming stable aggregates. Fungi and actinomycetes
produce sticky materials, which are helpful in forming aggregates. Prominent among the many
microbial products capable of bounding soil aggregates are polysaccharides, hemicelluloses and
several other natural polymers. Such materials are attached to clay surfaces by means of cation
bridges, hydrogen bonding forces and anion adsorption mechanism.

2.2.3 Manipulation of soil organic matter

The level of soil organic matter can be restored or maintained through the application of manures
(green manure, farmyard manure and compost) and other organic residues like crop residues, etc.
Moreover, the need for organic matter maintenance can also be met through agronomic
conservation measures; especially through the incorporation of legume based pastures in ley
farming practices. The organic fertilizers/residues have the advantage of maintaining both the
chemical and physical properties of a soil as they provide organic carbon and plant nutrients to the
soil. Organic residues/fertilizers vary greatly in influencing fertility and organic matter of the soil.
Organic materials with high nitrogen content improve fertility of the soil, but their influence on the
organic matter content is rather low.

Most of the green materials, farmyard manure and compost can release nutrients earlier than other
organic materials, which are resistant to decomposition. Some of the green manure materials and
most of the organic residues like crop residues are very resistant to decomposition and the nutrients
in such materials are not readily available to plants. Such materials, which decompose and release
nutrients slowly, do not provide the current crops with readily available nutrients. They may also
entail the problem of lock up of the nutrients. Soil nutrients, which otherwise could be used by the
crops, may be sucked up by the microorganisms effecting the decomposition. The immobilization of
nutrients by the microorganisms implies that there is a need for extra fertilizer in the short-run, to
offset the effects of nutrients lock up in the microorganisms.

The time of organic fertilizer application in crop production is determined by various factors
affecting rate of decomposition. Organic materials decomposing at faster rate are applied near
the critical stage of nutrient requirement. Those materials decomposing at slower rate (resistant
to decomposition) are applied far ahead to allow enough time for decomposition.

Both of the organic materials (resistant and non-resistant to decomposition) have their own
advantages and disadvantages. The advantage of the materials resistant to decomposition is their
long lasting effect on the organic matter content of the soil. The disadvantage is the suck up of
soil nutrients necessitating additional dose of fertilizers to offset the effect. Easily decomposable

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materials release substantial amount of nutrients for the immediate need of plant growth and crop
yield. However, such materials have little effect on the maintenance of soil organic matter.
Therefore, there is a need to combine easily decomposing materials with resistant materials to
optimize the benefits of both soil fertility improvement and soil organic matter content.
2.2.4 Mineralization of Organic Matter
A variety of bacteria are involved in breaking down complex organic matter to mineral form of
nutrients. During this process, N, P, K, S and several micronutrients are made available to
plants.
Nitrogen Transformations. The ultimate source of nitrogen is atmosphere and immediate and
important source of nitrogen is soil organic matter. Plant materials and microorganisms are the
source of soil organic matter. Plant materials contain nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous
compounds. The nitrogenous compounds are amino acids, amino sugars, nucleoproteins, nucleic
acids, amides, purins, pyrimedines, alkaloids etc. The non-nitrogenous compounds are cellulose,
hemicelluloses, starch, sugar, gum, lignins, tanins, fats, oils, waxes, resins and pigments. Among
them, cellulose and hemicellulose are more abundant and constitute 30 to 60 per cent of dry
mater.
They are decomposed by cellulose decomposing bacteria viz. Cytophaga, Sporocytophaga,
Angiococus, Polyangium. These bacteria secrete cellulose, which convert cellulose into mono
and disaccharides. Anaerobic bacteria belonging to the genus Clostridium decompose cellulose.
The heterotrophic organisms feed on organic carbon for their energy. While mineralizing the
proteins, part of mineral nitrogen is utilized by these microorganisms for their tissue build up.
Materials such as cereal straw, stubbles of sorghum and other millets contain high C:N ratio. As
sufficient quantity of carbon material is available, bacteria multiply using the mineralized
nitrogen. The nitrogen mineralized from the plant residues ends up, as protein in
microorganisms and available form of nitrogen is not released into the soil. Thus, there is a
temporary lock up of nitrogen, which is made available after decomposition of dead
microorganisms.
Aeration is very important for nitrification, as these bacteria are acrobic. Nitrification ceases
below pH 5.0, the optimum being 6.5 to 7.5. The optimum temperature for nitrification is 30 o to
35oC. Nitrates are further attacked by denitrifying bacteria and reduced to elemental nitrogen. It
is a wasteful practice from the agricultural point of view, but it is an essential step in nitrogen
cycle to maintain constant level of atmospheric nitrogen.

2.2.5 Modification of Biological Environment

Soil biological environment can be modified by cultural practices to provide suitable

environment for crop growth. Tillage loosens the soils and incorporates plant residues thus
increasing aeration and organic matter. As a result, microbial population proliferates and
nutrients are released due to faster mineralization. Toxic chemicals like herbicides and
allelophathic chemicals are also broken down faster due to better aeration. Irrigation provides
sufficient soil moisture and increases the microbial population. Application of amendments
brings soil pH to near neutral. The favorable pH increases microbial population. Application of
organic manures increases heterotrophic micro flora. Oil cakes of neem, karanjia and groundnut
increase the population of nematode trapping fungi. Neem cake is also toxic to nematodes.
Thus, these materials reduce nematode attack on the crop. Application of nitrogenous fertilizer
decreases the population of bacteria and increases actinomycetes and fungi. Phosphatic fertilizer

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increases the population of nitrogen fixing bacteria, while nitrogenous fertilizer reduces their
population.

2.2.7 Conservation tillage

Conservation tillage is a tillage practice aimed at creating favourable soil environment for
germination, establishment and plant growth. Tillage operations can loosen, granulate or crush or
compact soil structure, changing soil properties such as bulk density and pore size and its
distribution. Conservation tillage is, therefore, designed to avoid the tillage operations that destroy
soil structure entailing problems of surface sealing and soil compaction with ultimate effect of
ecological and economic shortfalls.

There are several objectives of tillage of which the most important are suitable seedbed
preparation, weed control and soil and water conservation. The other objectives are
improvement of soil structure, soil permeability, soil aeration, root penetration, destruction of
pests, soil inversion etc. Good seedbed is necessary for early seed germination and initial good
stand of the crop. The seedbed should be fine for small seeded crops and moderate for bold
seeded crops. Intimate contacts between the soil particles are necessary to facilitate movement
of water for quicker germination.

Weed control is an important object of tillage. Proper tillage results in soil and moisture
conservation through higher infiltration reduced runoff and increased depth of soil for moisture
storage. When the compact soil is ploughed, it becomes fluffy and can hold more amount of
water. Removal of hard pans increases the soil depth for water absorption. Surface roughness
and furrow dikes slow down the velocity of runoff and proved more opportune time for
infiltration of water.

Influence of tillage on soil physical properties

Tillage has considerable influence on soil physical properties like pore space, structure, bulk
density and water content. Tillage practices have, therefore, greatest effect on seed germination,
seedling emergence and stand establishment.

Soils with crumbly and granular clods are considered as soils with good structure. When the soil
is subjected to tillage at optimum moisture, crumb structure is developed so that loss of soil by
erosion is greatly reduced. Rainwater is held in the large pores, between the aggregates and also
in the micropore pores of the aggregates. It is considered that soil aggregates of 1 to 5mm in size
are favourable for growth of plants. Smaller aggregates may clog the soil pores and larger ones
may have large pore space between them and affect the development of rootlets of the young
seedlings. Soil structure is destroyed when tillage is carried out at inappropriate soil moisture.

Modern concepts of tillage

In conventional tillage, the soil is opened with mould board plough for primary tillage. The soil
mass is broken into a loose system of clods of mixed sizes. Subsequently, a fine seedbed is
prepared by secondary tillage in which crushing of clods, repacking, incorporation of plant
residues, a fertilizer, smoothing of soil surface etc, is done. In this process, energy is often
wasted and sometimes, soil structure is destroyed. Tillage affects the soil fauna due to the soil

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disturbance caused by the agricultural implements. Minimum tillage and Zero tillage systems
safeguard the soil fauna and the pore structure created by them. Because these systems tend to
maintain more stable soil temperature and moisture regimes, they also protect the microbial
population during the period of high temperature and prolonged drought. Recently, considerable
change has taken place in tillage practices and several new concepts have been introduced,
namely, minimum tillage, zero tillage, stubble mulch farming etc.

The concept of minimum tillage was started in U.S.A. The immediate cause for introducing
minimum tillage was high cost of tillage due to steep rise in oil prices in 1974. In addition there
are problems associated with clean cultivation. Repeated use of heavy machinery, destroys
structure, causes soil pans and leads to erosion.

The important object of tillage is weed control, which can be done by herbicides. Crop residues
can and in many cases should be left over the surface as stubble mulch to protect against
evaporation and erosion losses. Research has shown that frequent tillage is rarely beneficial and
often detrimental. All these reasons led to the development and practice of conservation tillage.
Conservation tillage includes zero tillage, reduced/minimum tillage, mulch tillage, and strip or zonal
tillage. All conservation tillage operations are targeted at halting soil degradation and/or restoring &
improving soil productivity. They often involve crop residue management; according to some
information, conservation tillage is defined as tillage system in which at least 30% of soil surface is
covered with crop residue. Some of the conservation tillage practices are described below.

Zero Tillage

Zero tillage: - is a tillage practice in which land remains untilled before planting, but planting
furrow or hole is opened at planting. Zero tillage is an extreme form of minimum tillage. Zero
tilled soils are homogenous in structure with more number of earthworms. The organic matter
content increases due to less mineralisation. Surface runoff is reduced due to the presence of
mulch. The favourable effects of zero tillage on soil physical properties are apparent after two
years of its practice. Higher dose of nitrogen has to be applied, as miniralisation of organic
matter is slow in zero tillage. Large population of perennial weeds appears in zero tilled plots.
Higher number of volunteer plants and build up of pests are the other problems.

Minimum Tillage
Minimum /Reduce tillage: -is a tillage practice in which the least possible tillage operation is
performed to bread up hard pans/compacted layers and hence to increase infiltration/water
storage capacity of the soil and to minimize resistance to root development.

Minimum tillage is aimed at reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good
seedbed, rapid germination, a satisfactory stand and favourable growing conditions. Minimum
tillage has certain advantages improved soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues in
situ, higher infiltration caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels formed by the
decomposition of dead roots; less resistance to root growth due to improved structure; less soil
compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles and less soil erosion compared to
conventional tillage.

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There are certain disadvantages of minimum tillage, which are not insurmountable. Seed
germination is lower with minimum tillage. In minimum tillage more nitrogen has to be added,
as rate of decomposition of organic matter is slow. Nodulation is affected in some leguminous
crops like peas and broad beans.

Mulch tillage
Mulch tillage: - is a tillage operation consistent with the principles of least soil disturbance and
maximum crop residue application/maintenance. The crop Residue is often shredded and
incorporated. The practice also includes in-situ mulch management system where residue of dead
or chemically killed cover is left in place.

Stubble mulch tillage, however, presents practical problems. The residues left on the surface
interfere with seedbed preparation and sowing operations.

Strip/Zonal tillage: - is a tillage practice in which the seedbed is divided into two, that is
seedling zone and soil management zone.

2.2.8 Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF)

Biological nitrogen fixation is a biological activity where microorganisms fix atmospheric

nitrogen. Nitrogen fixation has greater significance in agriculture and plant ecology. Nitrogen
fixation by microorganisms is estimated as 190mt per annum while industrial fixation is around
50mt. Some of them fix nitrogen in association with higher plants and are called symbiotic
nitrogen fixers. Some free-living organisms fix nitrogen and are called nonsymbiotic nitrogen
fixers. But, its contribution is small in relation to the greater nitrogen demands of agricultural
systems.

Symbiotic Bacteria

Bacteria belonging to the genus Rhizobium are capable of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in
association with leguminous crops. Different species of Rhizobium are used for treating the
leguminous crops. Rhizobium species enter the roots of host plants and form nodules on the root
surface. The bacteria depend on the host plant for carbohydrates and water while Rhizobium
supplies nitrogen to the host.

Symbiotic Nitrogen Fixation: - Bacteria belonging to the genus Rhizobium infect roots of
leguminous crops. The bacteria obtain water and carbohydrates from leguminous plants, fix
atmospheric nitrogen and supply to the host plant. Thus, their association benefits both
leguminous plants and bacteria. Rhizobium is a heterotrophic, aerobic bacteria occurring in soil.
The rhizosphere of legumes stimulates the growth of Rhizobium, which infects the roots and
forms nodules.

Nitrogen fixation by Rhizobium is influenced by soil chemical environment. Nitrogen fixation is

less or negligible if the soil pH is less than five. High nitrogen content and low phosphorus
content reduce nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium is an aerobic bacteria and water logging makes the
nodules ineffective. Leaves of legumes become yellow after temporary water logging as
nitrogen supply is reduced due to death of Rhizobium. However, recent reports indicate that
soybean when continuously grown at saturation can overcome the initial set back and adapt to

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anaerobic conditions. Fixation is normal subsequently. There are some actinomycetes, which
fix nitrogen on non-leguminous plants. Causurina alder lives in association with Causurina and
fixes atmospheric nitrogen.
Nonsymbiotic Nitrogen Fixation. Some free-living bacteria are capable of fixing atmospheric
nitrogen. Some of them are Azotobacter chroccum. A vinefandi, and Clostridium pastourianum.
Azotobacter is a heterotrphic bacteria and sensitive to acidity. The optimum pH range for
Azotobacter is 6.5 to 8.0. Clostridium is anaerobic bacteria and can survive in wide range of soil
pH (5.0 to 9.0). It fixes less nitrogen than Azotobacter. Azospirillum present in the Rhizosphere
of grasses fixes atmospheric nitrogen. The genus Rhodospirillum is photosynthetic anaerobic
bacteria capable of nitrogen fixation.
Symbiotic fixation occurs through the association of plant roots with nitrogen fixing bacteria.
Among the known plant-bacteria associations, the legume symbiosis is the best known and deserves
first place among present opportunities for potentially increasing protein yield. Nitrogen fixation by
legumes provides a cheap form of readily available nitrogen rich plant residues.
Biological nitrogen fixation reduces many of the problems of economic capacity faced by the
subsistent farmers for purchasing the nitrogen fertilizers and ecological problems of nitrate leaching
in the field. The rhizobium-legume symbiosis is seen as giving mutual benefit to both partners; the
legume supplying sugars to the Rhizobium in the nodules, while the Rhizobium in turn supplying
fixed nitrogen to the host.

Legume root nodule bacteria are widely distributed as a result of the natural distribution of legumes
and cultivation of the leguminous crops. Despite this fact, it was found that many soils may lack
particular strains of Rhizobium able to nodulate effectively crop or pasture legumes introduced to
other continents, regions or virgin soils. Consistently, it is advisable to inoculate legumes with the
right rhizobium bacteria in the absence of reliable information on the availability of the particular
strain in the soil for effective nodulation. However, some studies indicate that certain newly
introduced species like Macroptilium atropurpureum (Siratro) may nodulate effectively with native
strains of Rhizobium. Similarly, cowpea, mungbean and pigeon peas generally do not appear to
require inoculation. But, soybean and chickpeas are more specific in their Rhizobium requirements.
Response to inoculation is expected in soils in which the specific Rhizobium are absent or sparse,
and where indigenous Rhizobia are ineffective and host legume has been absent from the area for
some time.

A number of studies show that different legumes have the capacity of fixing substantial amount of
nitrogen every year. For example, some studies indicate that alfalfa (lucerne) can fix on average
120 kg N ha-1., and Lupins 80 kg N ha-1 in wheat rotation. It is also demonstrated elsewhere that
peanut could fix 123, cowpea 269, Townsville stylo 220 and Leucaena leucocephala unto 575 kg N
per ha per year.

Mycorrhizal association

Phosphorus availability and fertilizer phosphorous use efficiency can be increased with
mycorrhiza, phosphate solubilizing bacteria and fungi. Some microorganisms are capable of
solubilising phosphates. The inoculums of these microorganisms are applied to increase the
availability of phosphorus.
In plantation in which a high concentration of organic matter is maintained, the soil contains many
micro- fungi and their hyphae or mycelia. In such situations many shrubs, trees and plantation crops

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have been shown to form mycorrhizal association. These are symbiotic associations between the
plant root and the soil fungi, which contribute, to the health and nutrition of the crop. The fungal
hyphae contain significant levels of nitrogen in the form of proteins, which is digested by the plant
roots. Mycorrhizal association has been found in banana, cocoa, coconut, coffee, cotton, rubber, and
sugarcane and tea plantations.

2.3 Vegetative Soil Conservation Measures

Vegetative conservation measures are those measures applied to potential lands to maintain or
increase their productivity, or to degraded lands to restore productivity of such lands. They are
considered curative when applied to degraded lands and preventive when applied to potential lands.
The vegetative measures are intended to: obstruct the force of runoff; stabilize structures;
rehabilitate forest and grazing lands; and stabilize degraded/fragile lands. Vegetative conservation
measures are made of various vegetation; predominantly trees, shrubs, grasses and herbaceous
legumes applied in combination or pure in various forms for different purposes. Vegetation is of
vital importance as a protection against soil erosion.
It protects the soil against the action of falling raindrops and absorbs their kinetic energy, increases
degree of infiltration, maintains the roughness of the soil surface, reduces speed of surface runoff,
binds the soil mechanically, diminishes microclimate fluctuations in the upper most layers of the
soil and improves the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil.
2.3.1 Vegetative barriers
Vegetative barriers refer to the barriers made of live vegetation (trees, shrubs & grasses) and are
often put across a slope in the form of grass strip, grass hedge or shrub/tree hedge to prevent the
force of runoff and soil loss.

Applicability of the technology

The technology is more appropriate for areas receiving sufficient moisture for reliable establishment
and survival of the vegetation. Moreover, sufficient moisture is also required for vigorous
vegetation growth to effectively control the runoff. Therefore, the technology could be applicable
only to parts of the region receiving fairly good amount of rainfall where the amount of
evapotranspiration is relatively low, especially in Dega and Weine Dega agro ecological zones.
Likewise, the technology could also be applicable to dry areas where supplementary irrigation and
systematic in-situ moisture conservation is practiced.
Grass strips
Grass strips are narrow strips of naturally growing or planted grasses, laid out on the contour level
or graded.

Design and layout

The width of the grass strip mainly depends on the density of the grass (vegetation) in the strip.
When the line of grass is continuous and close it does not allow much soil to pass through, thus, the
soil is filtered out and deposited behind/in the upper slope of the strip. In this case, the width of the
strip can be narrow. But if the plants in the strip are sparse and do not allow major deposition above
the strips, the process of filtration and deposition of the soil particles would be gradual and take
place through out the width of the strips. In this case, wider strips allow more deposition of soil
particles and more effective in controlling soil loss by runoff.

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It is always preferable to use narrow strips to economize the land and other resources provided the
narrow strips are effective enough to control soil loss. However, the establishment of effective
dense grass strips can be affected by a number of edaphic (soil) and climatic factors that can
influence the growth and density of the plants in the strip. In the high potential perennial (HPP) and
high potential cereal (HPC) zones where the soil and climatic factors are favourable for plant
growth, the narrower strips could be effective; however, in the low potential cereal (LPC) zones
where the growing conditions are less favourable, the wider strips could be appropriate.

In the high potential perennial cropping (HPP) zones, the condition is favourable for fast and
vigorous vegetation growth and hence for the formation of dense and effective grass strips. In this
type of climate, narrow grass strips (not wider than 50 cm) could be effective for erosion control.
However, while only a limited portion of the area in the Southwestern part of the region experiences
this type of climatic conditions, most of the farming areas in Tigray region are located in low
potential cereal (LPC) zone. Therefore, the narrow grass strips (e.g. 50 cm wide) may not be
applicable to many parts of the region to effectively control soil erosion. Thus, it is advisable to use
the wider (1m wide) grass strip in many parts of the region where the technology is applicable. A
one-meter vertical interval is followed to layout and establish the grass strips. Since most of the
region is located in dry agro ecological zone, level grass strip is appropriate, except in pocket high
rainfall areas where waterlogging problem is compounded by heavy clay soils. In the high rainfall
areas where excessive water causes waterlogging, it is advisable to use graded grass strips.

Grass strips versus terraces

Grass strips may be less effective in reducing runoff than the soil loss, as they provide little storage
capacity. However, they do reduce the movement/velocity of runoff and encourage infiltration and
deposition of soil particles. Especially densely established grass strips can effectively filter out the
soil particles allowing substantial deposition and gradual terrace formation/ development.

In an experiment on Nitosol on a 10% slope in Kenya it was reported that soil loss was only 40% of
the control. This indicates that grass strips could at least be effective in controlling soil erosion unto
10% slope in drier areas similar to that of Kenya where the result was obtained. Consistently,
effectiveness of grass strips could be limited to slopes not more than 10% in many parts of Tigray
region due to moisture limitation. However, in areas receiving better rainfall and where the
establishment of dense grass strips is possible, the technique could be effective in controlling soil
erosion on slopes steeper than 10%.

A study by soil conservation research project in Ethiopia indicates that grass strips will not be as
effective as level retention bunds in preventing sediment movement out of field, but can be
compared with graded terraces, which by discharging runoff also discharge a certain amount of the
sediment (Fig. 11).
Fig.11 Effectiveness of grass strip in soil conservation as compared to level bund, level fanya juu,
graded bund and graded fanya juu.
Suitable species
Grass species should be perennial and persistent, compete with and suppress weeds, provide good
ground cover, provide physical impediment to flow and hence conserve the soil and moisture. They
should have multiple values like fodder, in addition to soil and moisture conservation. The grass
species suitable for grass strips are as follows:

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Dega: - Phalaris aquatica and local grasses (e.g. Pennisetum spp.)

Weine Dega: - Phalaris aquatica, Setaria spp., Panicum maximum and local grasses

Kolla: Cenchrus cilliaris & local grasses

Time of planting
Planting should be carried out at the onset of rainfall, when the soil is not too wet or too dry. Early
planting gives the vegetation an opportunity of getting more rain and better establishment and
survival. In areas receiving good belg rains, it is advisable to undertake planting with these rains.
Forms of planting materials
There are various forms of planting materials used for the establishment of vegetative barriers. The
planting materials can be seed or vegetative forms (e.g. seedlings, root splits, stem cuttings, etc).
Because the vegetative forms like seedlings, root splits and stem cuttings are in growing process,
they have more energy reserves and/or growing organs for better establishment and survival when
planted out in the field. Therefore, when the vegetative forms are available and the transportation
facilities and establishment costs are not discouraging, it is preferable to use the vegetative forms.
However, it could be difficult to always use the vegetative forms of planting materials because of
the difficulties in transportation and high labour requirement. This is especially a problem when the
transportation distance is far and a large area of land is to be covered in a short period of time. Thus,
under this condition it would be advisable to use seeds.

Planting techniques
Planting techniques slightly vary with the different forms of planting materials. While the use of
seed allows flexibility of broadcasting and line/row planting, the use of vegetative forms of planting
materials limits the technique to line/row planting. The planting technique should always ensure
good soil-seed/seedling contact.
Seedbed preparation:- a one-meter wide strip of land is marked out along the contour using the
line level and a rope fixed on two poles the same way done for other terraces. A one-meter vertical
interval is used to layout the consecutive contour strips and the distance between the consecutive
contour strips is determined by the slope of the land. After the strip is marked out along the
contour, seedbed preparation is properly carried out to get fine and firm seed bed. The seedbed
should be firm and fine because most of the grass seeds are very small (tiny) and can be easily
buried in unstable and/or rough seedbeds.

Broadcasting:- following a firm and fine seedbed preparation, the seed is broadcast on the seedbed
at a given seed rate. Then the seed is covered with soil by pulling branches of a tree/shrub over the
field. It is preferable to use a mixture of grass and legume seed rather than using pure grass seed.
The grass/legume ratio in the mixture depends on the type of grass/legume seeds to be mixed. Using
a grass/legume mixture has two advantages. The first is improvement of fertility of the soil out of
which the grass species benefit and give higher and sustainable production. The second is the
increase of the nutritive value of the feed from the strip as a result of inclusion of the legume.

Line/row planting/sowing of seeds: - the layout of a one-meter wide contour strip and the seedbed
preparation is done the same way for broadcasting. Three lines/rows are marked out with a small
stick along the strip after the seedbed is properly prepared. The lines/rows to be marked are shallow
(just at the surface) and are needed only to indicate the lines/spots in which the seeds are

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dropped/sown. If the lines/rows are deep, the seeds could be easily buried during planting. The two
border lines/rows are marked about 5 cm from the border of the strip and the third line/row just at
the middle of the two.

Because most of the grass seeds are very small, it is difficult to accurately measure the distance
between the falling seeds to fix the spacing between each seed. But the seeds are continuously
dropped by hand (in manual planting) into the line/row, bearing in mind that the spacing between
the seeds should not exceed 10cm. While the two border lines/rows are planted to grass species, the
middle line/row is planted to legume. The middle row is planted to legumes for the same reason
legumes are mixed with grasses in broadcasting. After the seeds are dropped/sown into the
lines/rows they are slightly covered with soil by using fingers to avoid burying of the seeds.

Planting the vegetative forms of planting materials- these materials include grass seedlings, root
splits and shoot cuttings of grasses. The herbaceous legumes are often planted with seeds rather than
vegetative materials. The specification given for seedbed preparation, marking out of the
lines/rows, etc is the same with that given for the seeds. When the vegetative form of planting
material is used, planting is mainly done in lines/rows. While the border lines/rows are planted to
grasses, the middle is planted to legumes. The spacing between the vegetative materials (seedlings,
root splits, stem cuttings, etc) in most of the grasses is about 10-15 cm.
The middle line/row is sown to legume seed and the specification is the same with sowing of seeds
in the above section. In this case, attention should be given to the spacing between the plants.
Discontinuity between the splits/seedlings will result in serious reduction in the filtering out and
deposition of soil particles in the upper slope of the grass strip i.e. reduction in the effectiveness of
controlling soil erosion.

Preparation of root splits

Source of the root splits is old pasture crop. The old pasture grasses are cut at about 12 cm above the
ground, then the clumps are carefully uprooted and transported to the planting site. The clumps
should be transported and kept under damp condition to avoid desiccation before planting, and this
can be done by covering the clumps with mulches or by storing them under shade. At planting, each
clump is split into pieces containing 2 to 3 tillers to ensure establishment (fig. 8). The higher the
number of tillers in each piece, the better the establishment of grass strips. Splitting of the clumps
and handling of the root splits should be carefully done to prevent damage to the roots and growing
points.

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Fig.8 A clump containing splits and steps in obtaining and planting root splits:
A) Clump of grass, (B) Splitting the clump,
C) Grass splits, (D) Planting the splits and
E) Planted grass splits of two lines with one line of legume in the
middle

Preparation of grass seedlings

Grass seedlings are raised in a nursery the same way as bare rooted tree seedlings are raised. This
has been successfully carried out in one of the project areas, North Shewa, Amhara region with
Phalaris grass. The seedlings are produced in raised seedbeds of 10m x1m. The beds should be fine
and firm to prevent burial/loss of seeds due to big clods and soil movement. In order to make fine
seedbed, the clods should be thoroughly eliminated during seedbed preparation. The seedbeds
prepared in dry weather conditions could easily be destabilized and the seeds could be buried
because of the movement of dry soil. To avoid the possibility of burying the seeds, the seedbeds
prepared in dry weather should be watered one day before planting. This activity stabilizes the
seedbeds and avoids the burying of seeds due to soil movement. The seed is then broadcast on the
seedbed the same way described for the establishment of grass strips by broadcasting. The seedlings
should be properly watered and weeded while in the nursery. It nearly takes three months before
the seedlings are ready for field planting. The seedlings should be carefully uprooted and handled
during planting. Only those seedlings that can be planted on the same day should be uprooted in one
day. The uprooted seedlings should be covered with mulches or stored under shade before planting.

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Advantages of grass strips
Grass strips cause less interference to farm operations than other structural measures. They can
easily be crossed by oxen and do not pose difficulties in turning around. Moreover, grass strips also
take up less land and hence economize the land for crop production. Cost of construction and
maintenance is much lower than the physical measures. Farmers can harvest substantial amount of
fodder grass from grass strips to supplement feed supply from other sources.

Management and utilization

Discontinuity in the seedlings/splits should be avoided by replanting the gaps created due to failure
of some seedlings. Pasture species could be sensitive to weed infestation at the beginning. This
could seriously affect the effectiveness of the grass strips in controlling soil erosion. Therefore,
attention should be given to the control of weed infestation during the initial phase of establishment.
Moreover, the interference of livestock should be strictly controlled. After the grass strip is well
established, the vegetation in the strip can be harvested and used for livestock. However, it is
advisable to allow the grass to grow for the first two main growing seasons without any interference
(cutting) to enable the grass to accumulate enough energy reserves. After this period, the grass can
be harvested and made into hay or directly fed to livestock at any time when there is enough
biomass to be harvested. However, the appropriate time of cutting (esp. for grasses) is just at
heading, when the combined benefit of herbage yield and nutritive value is optimum. Cutting of the
grass should be at about 10 cm height above the ground. Too frequent or too low cutting may affect
persistence of the grass, as it may cause die back.
Hedgerows
Hedgerows can be defined as narrow rows of dense vegetation with sufficient height above the
ground. Hedgerow can be formed from grasses or shrubs. Therefore, hedgerows can be called:
hedgerows of grasses, hedgerows of shrubs/trees, or specifically, hedgerows of Leucaena,
hedgerows of Sesbania, hedgerows of Vetiver grass, etc.

When tall grasses are planted in close spacing in line/row, they form hedges that can be barrier to
animals, wind, runoff or other forces the hedge is intended to prevent. This hedge can, therefore, be
termed as hedgerows of grass.
Vegetative hedges were found to be effective in filtering out the soil and build up natural terraces. If
hedges are placed along the contour at correct vertical interval and dense enough to filter out the soil
particles, far more land on steep slopes can be safely brought under cultivation. Elephant grass and
Vetiver grass are suitable species for the establishment of hedgerows of grasses where the amount
of rainfall is sufficient for the establishment and growth of these species. However, the
establishment and normal growth of the species in Tigray region is possible only in pocket areas
receiving adequate amount of rainfall (more than 800mm). The pocket areas where these species
could grow well are found in the Central and Northern plateau of the mid altitudes and South
western mid and lowlands of the Region. Trimming the hedges to a height of 30-50cm prevents
them from seeding, makes them thicken up, and thereby increases their effectiveness in filtering out
soil particles. Technical specification and management of the hedgerows of shrubs/trees are well
described in alley cropping section and can be referred to.
2.3.2 Stabilization of Physical Structures
All physical structures including farmland terraces, hillside terraces, check dams, ponds and cut-off
drains need to be stabilized with vegetative measures to ensure their sustainability and productivity.

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The vegetation cover prevents the often-happening destruction of the structures by cattle and other
animals. Likewise, rainfall and runoff together with other mechanical actions can destroy these
structures when they are not protected by vegetation.
Structural stabilization also saves labour and time required for the maintenance of broken structures,
thereby increasing the efficiency of rehabilitation programme. Further, it can intensify/maximize
productivity of the land. The introduction of productive species on these structures, in addition to
stabilizing and hence protecting the structures against erosion, will provide harvestable material for
fuel, livestock feed or manuring.
Bund stabilization
Bund stabilization may be the most important and priority area among the activities of structural
stabilization. The importance and priority of bund stabilization is associated with the hugeness of
farmland terraces being constructed every year. Moreover, it is estimated that farmland terraces take
10-20 percent of the farmlands. In view of shortage of farmlands, farmers cannot afford losing this
much of their land. Therefore, in order to reduce the effect of farmland terraces on shortage of land,
the structures should be vegetated with productive multipurpose species.

Sub-standard soil bunds, should be reconstructed to acceptable standard before launching the
stabilization activities. Similarly, those bunds, which are consistent with established standards, but
broken at intervals due to external forces or interferences, should be aligned to attain their original
shape before stabilization. Then seedbed preparation should be properly carried out; and the
procedures and activities needed in seedbed preparation is the same with that of grass strips. Weeds
should be eliminated and the top of the soil bunds should be thoroughly prepared to suit easy
germination and establishment of the planting materials.

The planting techniques for grass/legume seeds and vegetative forms (seedlings, root splits and stem
cuttings, etc ) are the same with that of grass strips. At planting, the top of the soil bund is slightly
made flat, then two rows about 40 cm. apart are set at the top of the soil bund, the third line is set at
the middle for legume seeds, finally the seeds are drilled/sown into the lines/rows and lightly
covered with soil.
Management and utilization
The management and utilization practices for grasses are the same with that described in grass
strips. The management practices described for grasses hold true for the shrubs/trees. The
shrubs/trees could be harvested several times a year; however, the number and frequency of cutting
is much lower than that experienced in other regions with higher rainfall. While the frequency of
cutting in pocket high rainfall areas could be as high as 4-5 times a year, in many parts of the drier
areas of the region it may not exceed 2-3 times. However, there is no formula of frequency of
cutting as different species have different growth rate and biomass production under different
conditions. Species with higher growth rate and biomass production allow frequent cutting and vice
versa. As a general rule, when there is enough biomass, it can be harvested and used for the
purpose intended. However, too low or too frequent cutting causes dieback.
Harvested grasses, legumes and shrubs can be conserved and used for various purposes. Grasses
and grass/legume mixture can be harvested at the right time of cutting and conserved in the form of
hay or silage. The biomass harvested from hedgerows of shrubs can also be conserved. There are
times when biomass is not needed either for green manuring or livestock feed; other times this
product may be needed very badly. This implies that there is a need to conserve harvested biomass
during the season it is little needed. The foliage harvested from hedgerows of shrubs at certain

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intervals can be dried in the sun and stored carefully to prevent it against damage by molds.
Products conserved in this manner can be utilized as livestock feed or organic fertilizer.
2.3.4 Conservation of Grazing lands
Grazing lands are lands delineated by individual households or by the community for livestock
grazing. Most of the grazing lands are excessively overgrazed; the stocking rates are too high
compared to the carrying capacity of these lands. Productivity of these lands is very low because of
the replacement of productive species and due to the reduction in the percentage of ground cover.
Erosion damage is serious as the impact of raindrops and overland flow is very high. Generally,
grasslands should be allowed to regenerate sufficiently, to provide 70 percent ground cover at times
of erosion risk. The first and most essential approach in grazing land management is the
establishment of balance between the stocking rates and carrying capacity of the grazing lands.
Appropriate packages
One of the development options to restore a balance between the stocking rates and carrying
capacity is the improvement of productivity of grazing lands. However, there is a maximum limit
beyond which productivity of grazing lands cannot be increased. After increasing the productivity
of grazing lands to the optimum possible, if their carrying capacity is still bellow the stocking rates,
there is a need to consider other options like increasing forage supply from other sources and
income generating activities that encourage destocking.
Improvement of pasture productivity
This package is applicable to all agro climatic zones. Improvement of the productivity of pasture
and rangelands can also help in erosion control by providing adequate vegetative cover. There are a
number of techniques available to increase productivity of grazing lands. Practices such as contour
furrowing to increase moisture conservation and reduce runoff, introduction of productive species
and the application of manure or commercial fertilizers, where economics permit, can be beneficial
in many areas. The two available techniques for introducing productive forage species are over
sowing and strip planting.

Over sowing grazing lands- are techniques by which forage seeds are broadcast on grazing lands.
Before broadcasting the seed, light seedbed preparation is required to allow proper soil-seed contact.
To this effect, the vegetation cover of the range or grazing land is removed by overgrazing or
controlled fire. Light cultivation with plough gives much better results in the establishment of
introduced species after the area is cleared from any vegetation cover. However, this practice could
be justifiable only if the grazing land to be improved is small and the practice does not demand too
much labour and time. After the vegetation cover is sufficiently removed, the seed is broadcast on
the field before the onset of rain. Then animals are allowed for few days to mix the seed with the
soil with their hooves. Animals are not allowed to enter the field after the commencement of rain to
prevent damage to germinating seeds.

Strip sowing- strip sowing is a method of sowing forage seeds in 50 cm wide strips, formed at
about 5m intervals in the field. In this method of introduction, better seedbed preparation is needed
than in over sowing method. Hence, the vegetation in the strips is removed and the strips are
cultivated to create favourable conditions for seed germination and establishment. The assumption
of strip method is that plants established in the strips can gradually spread out to the adjacent wider
strips through seed shattering or dispersion as well as through vegetative growth from species
having creeping habits, eventually colonizing the whole area.

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Construction of contour furrows- is another method of improving pasture productivity on gentle
slopes, especially in dry areas. In this regard, contour furrows are constructed at 3m intervals to
collect water, thereby increasing the amount of water percolating into the soil. The accumulation of
water in the soil profile dramatically increases the growth and overall biomass production. Pitting
can also be done at every one meter spacing through out the field to make intermittent grooves in
the soil to effect similar role the contour furrows play.
Destocking: - is another strategy for restoring a balance between stocking rates and carrying
capacity of grazing lands. Destocking strategy could be the last option for the stabilization and
sustainable conservation of grazing lands. Destocking should be systematically enforced through the
introduction of appropriate technologies that can attract farmers for adoption as an alternative to
keeping too many animals. Farmers may be attracted by technologies that give them better
economic returns with the same or lower efforts. Therefore, improved livestock development
packages like improved dairy or beef production need to be considered. Also there could be other
income generating activities, which could financially be more attractive to farmers because of better
financial returns. These income-generating activities include horticultural development and petty
trade. However, the potentials and limitations of all the options should be carefully studied before
the investment.
Complementary options- in addition to the above development options, different grazing land
management techniques also help to maintain sustainable productivity of grazing lands. These
management practices include proper farm planning, grazing strategies, early stock reduction in
droughts and fodder conservation. Degradation of grazing lands is intensified by poor
(inappropriate) farm planning in large grazing lands like pastoral areas. Proper farm planning such
as siting of fences, water points, and gates to avoid stock concentration in erodible areas, can greatly
reduce the risk of erosion.
Resting grazing lands: - is to free grazing lands from livestock interference at certain period of the
year. Resting is a very important management strategy to prevent grazing lands against degradation
and to maintain their productivity. Plants have three growth stages: early period of slow growth;
middle period of rapid growth; and final period of slow growth (Fig.9). The early period of slow
growth is often a period when plants start to grow with the onset of rains after long dry season in
which the plants are overgrazed and lost vigour. The plants start growing slowly until they form
enough ground cover mainly because of the limited energy reserve in the plant parts and limited
amount of ground cover intercepting the solar energy for photosynthesis.

Grazing early in the growing season, or after fire, will deplete the pasture energy reserves. After
seven or eight weeks of growth, grazing would have little effect. During dry season the plants
remain dormant and the ungrazed plant parts maintain their energy (food reserves), which helps
them for regeneration at the onset of rains. Thus, grazing during the dormant period does not affect
the survival of plants as it does at the onset of rains. Therefore, the onset of rain is a critical period
for plants survival and it is a period when most plants disappear as a result of over grazing. Plants
disappear during this period because of two major reasons. Firstly, plants have lost vigor because of
excessive grazing in the previous season and the remaining energy reserve is limited. Secondly, if
animals are allowed to graze, they may remove the shoots before they start the normal function of
photosynthesis. Therefore, the chance of disappearance is very high during this period because of
the possibility of losing both the energy reserves and newly emerging shoots. Photosynthesis
supplies energy for continued regrowth of the plant and storage of more food reserves. If plants are
cut or grazed before enough energy reserves are stored, regrowth will be retarded or will not occur
at all.

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The second growth stage is the middle rapid growth period when the rate of photosynthesis and
biomass production is very high. Allowing animals to graze during this period is thought to affect
the amount of food reserves to be accumulated and the overall production rather than the survival of
plants. Thus, while letting animals to graze during the first growth period affects the immediate
Survival of plants, allowing animals to graze during the second period affects, the intensity of
ground cover, individual plants vigor, persistence of plants, overall production and carrying capacity
of the grazing lands. Therefore, the first two growing periods are the critical periods when grazing
lands should be allowed to rest. Growing periods naturally coincide with rainy seasons when the
soil is wet. Wetness of the soil subjects plants in grazing lands to physical damage by trampling.
Therefore, wet seasons also appear critical period when pasture plants should be free from livestock
interference.

Fig.9 Plant growth curve depicting early period of slow growth (1) middle period of rapid growth
(2) and final period of slow growth (3)

Rotational grazing versus continuous grazing

Rotational grazing- is a grazing system in which livestock rotationally graze in different paddocks.
In this regard, the whole grazing land can be divided into four, equal size, paddocks and the
livestock graze for three months in each paddock every year. Since, rotational grazing concentrates
all the animals in a single paddock at a time, the stocking rate is higher than in the continuous and
open grazing system. Consequently, competition for pasture among the animals grazing in the
paddocks is high and selection for desirable species is low. Thus, the system is useful for
maintaining pasture composition and desirable species in the sward. In order to prevent overgrazing,
the level of pasture in the paddock is regularly monitored and animals are taken out of the paddock
when the pasture is grazed to the required height for optimum protection against soil erosion. The
other advantage of rotational grazing is the higher total production from the field because of the
minimal wastage of feed resource. However, the productivity per animal could be lower in
rotational grazing system due to the strong competition among the grazing animals and hence low
chance of selecting more productive species.

Continuous grazing-is a grazing system in which livestock graze continuously in an open field all
the year round. This grazing system is recommended when the grazing land is abundant and

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overgrazing is practically nonexistent. However, if the pasture is heavily stocked all the year round
better plants may be grazed out and eventually die out/disappear; and poor species dominate, soil is
exposed and erosion increased. So it is advisable to use light stocking rates to maintain better
pasture species in the sward when continuous grazing is used.
Suitable species
Dega : Phalaris aquatica, Tree lucerne, Vicia dasycarpa and Trifolium tembense
Weine Dega: Pennisetum purpureum, Setaria anceps, Sesbania sesban and Desmodium uncinatum.
from the plants have been described in the vegetative measures sections of the manual.

Controlled livestock management system

Poor livestock management practices, particularly overstocking and hence overgrazing have often
been identified as one of the major causes of land degradation. However, this detrimental trend
can be reversed by introducing stall-feeding system (zero grazing). Part of the substantial biomass
produced from forage trees & shrubs, herbaceous legumes and grasses from different land uses
(closed areas, grazing lands, croplands, stabilized gullies and homesteads) are harvested and fed
to livestock under controlled feeding system. In line with the improved livestock management
practices, improved breeds (if possible) need to be introduced to guarantee higher economic
returns.

2.3.5 Rehabilitation of degraded lands and closed area management

Area closure in Ethiopian context can be defined as a degraded land (land not suitable for
agricultural purposes such as cultivation and grazing) that has been excluded from human and
livestock interference for rehabilitation. The inception of area closure and the experience of its
management date back to the early eighties, which is very much in line with the beginning of
large-scale land rehabilitation and soil and water conservation program in Ethiopia. Hence, it is
difficult to draw clear demarcation between the history of large-scale land rehabilitation and area
closure management in our country. Nowadays, the practice of area closure has become very
common and important tool for the rehabilitation of degraded lands in MERET project. While
the size of area closure varies from region to region, the total area is estimated to be over one
million hectares in the Regions of Tigray, Amhara, Oromya and Southern Nations, Nationalities
and Peoples Region (SNNPR).
Area closure has been one of the strategies for restoring productivity of degraded catchments.
The experience of area closure management by MERET project for nearly the last three decades
proved that the strategy is one of the most effective ways of rehabilitating and restoring
productivity of degraded lands. However, the rate of recovery and improvement in the
productivity and the carrying capacity of the area closures very much depend on the
appropriateness of the technical interventions and management practices. Particularly the quality
and intensity of the water harvesting and soil and water conservation structures and the
enrichment plantations as well as the management aspects are critically important for the
optimization of the economic and ecological benefits of area closures.

The Initiation and expansion of Area Closure Management

The beginning of area closure management is strongly linked to the beginning of MERET (the
then Food For Work) Project and dates back to the early 1980s. The fast and outstanding

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achievements in the rehabilitation of degraded lands by enforcing the strategy of area closure
management attracted the attention of major stakeholders and became the cause for its adoption
and expansion in all watershed management program of the project since then. The main activity
components of the land rehabilitation program in MERET Project include afforestation,
farmlands and hillsides terracing, area closure management, gully treatment and a range of land
husbandry and income generation interventions that have been planned and implemented within
the watershed development principles. Therefore, area closure management is part and parcel of
land rehabilitation program in MERET project and has been one of the most successful and
important strategies for the rehabilitation of degraded lands.

Objectives of rehabilitating degraded lands

The main objective of rehabilitating degraded lands is to restore productivity, hydrological

balance and stabilize the ecosystem in order to make it suitable to human beings, other creatures
and agricultural system as a whole. Indeed, the rehabilitation of degraded lands minimizes
shortage of land, reduces pressure on adjacent productive lands, prevents siltation of water
bodies (reservoirs), prevents flood damages to the down stream farm lands, villages, other
properties, lives, etc. It also helps in restoring balance between carrying capacity and stocking
rates by increasing productivity of the land and hence increasing its carrying capacity.

Criteria for closing degraded lands and means of enforcement

In order to protect the right of land users and to make the process and procedures of closing
degraded lands fair and judicious, certain criteria have been developed and used in deciding the
lands meeting the requirements. Accordingly, lands that have lost their productivity for
cultivation or grazing have been closed from livestock and human interference. These lands are
characterized by loss of fertility, depletion of vegetation cover to less than ten percent, reduction
of the soil depths to less than 25 percent and excessive exposure of rocks and advanced stages of
gully development. Such lands first deny supporting the major crops, compelling the land users
to shift to minor crops and eventually fail to produce any crop at all. As a result, farmers used to
face a frequent crop failure during bad years and the amount of harvest is very little even during
good years. These conditions often led to the abandonment of such lands.

Stepwise actions in the rehabilitation of degraded lands

Before the delineation of degraded lands, it is critically important to closely work with and
empower the community for decision making. The community should be given the right
orientation and sensitized about the danger of land degradation and erosion hazards based on the
concrete facts on the ground and the actual problems they are facing as a result of the
degradation. Despite the fact that these lands lost potential for agriculture, the community may
still want the area as a free roaming ground for the livestock. Thus, the idea of area closure may
not often be appreciated by the community at the beginning especially in areas where the
strategy is new and the benefits were not known to the community. This requires a strong
community orientation and awareness creation to convince them and develop sense of ownership
before closing the area. The community should be the major actor in problem identification,
selection of technical (development options), in reviewing and designing strategies for
improvement, in developing management and administration strategies and utilization of the
products. In order to minimize the problem of feed shortage for stall feeding after the closure of

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the land to free grazing; it is necessary to optimize forage production from other sources. This
can be achieved by integrating improved forage production into farming system through the
establishment of fodder banks on selected plots, intensification of forage production on
conservation structures, farm boundaries, in gullies, adopting backyard forage development
strategies, ley farming, increasing the productivity of grazing lands by introducing improved
forage species and management practices.

Technical interventions and management options

As soon as the degraded land is closed from livestock and human interference, the nature starts
healing its wound. Gullies begin to stabilize and the vegetation starts to regenerate. However, the
process and the rate of recovery is very slow to meet the urgent needs of the community such as
livestock feed, fuel wood and construction material. Similarly the reduction in the level of flood
damages and accelerated run off is very slow to justify the safety of down stream properties and
overall productivity of the agro ecosystem. The productivity of the land remains low because of
the deterioration of the physical, chemical and biological properties of the soil and also due the
depletion of effective soil depth for vegetation. Over and above all, most of the rain fall of the
area is converted into flood and accelerated run off and irreversibly lost; and as a result the
hydrology would be totally disrupted leading to the depletion of water yield in the catchment
where the springs and streams may dry up or the discharge rate would be so scanty.
Consequently, the level of natural regeneration, survival rate and establishment of the planted
species would be very low. This seriously affects the expected faster rate of productivity
restoration and creation of the necessary assets for the community.

Therefore, the first and foremost focus of the intervention would be controlling the flood and
accelerated run off through the construction of intensive water harvesting and soil and water
conservation structures including hillside terraces, cutoff drains, percolation ponds, contour
trenches, various micro basins on the hill sides. Similarly, massive farmland terraces, cut off
drains and sediment storage dams (SS-dams) and check dams in gullies and various water
harvesting and moisture conservation structures should be constructed through out the
catchments. The massive water harvesting and moisture conservation structures restore the
hydrological balance and increase the overall water yields of the catchments which trigger the
natural regeneration and high survival rates and establishment of the planted species.
Species selection: the type and quality of species is determined by their merits for stabilizing and
rehabilitating the degraded ecosystem, meeting the multiple needs of the community and quality
for increasing the carrying capacity of the land.
Species composition: mono plantation is no more preferred for sustainable production and
protection of the environment. That is, mono tree plantation will not guarantee effective ground
cover, does not allow under story/multi-story growth, cannot exploit the physical resources
(water, nutrients, etc of the soil); cannot meet community multiple needs (fuel wood, timber,
livestock feed, etc) and may entail total loss due to unpredictable natural hazards). Therefore, we
should go for diverse species and mixed plantation. The suitable species for meeting such
requirements are given bellow for the various agro climatic zones.

Dega agroclimatic zone: Acacia melanoxilon (Omedla), A. decurrence, Eucalyptus globules,

Grevillea robusta and Croton macrostachyus and Tree Lucerne, etc from tree/shrub species; and
Setaria, elephant grass in the lower part of the ACZ and Desho grass, etc.
Weinedega agroclimatic zone: Acacia saligna, Eucalyptus cameldulensis, Croton
macrostachyus, Grevillea robusta and Leucaena leucocephala, Sesbania species, Pigeaon peas,

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etc from the tree/shrub species and Rhodes grass, Guinea grass, elephant grass, Desho grass,
Lablab, Siratro, etc from grasses and legumes.
Kolla agroclimatic zone: A. saligna, Azadiracta indica, Cassia Siamea, E.cameldulensis,
Parkinsonia aculata and Shinus mole, Leucaena leucocephala, Pigeon peas, etc from tree/shrub
species and Buffel grass, Rhodes grass, Siratro, Stylos, etc from grasses and legumes.

Site preparation and planting techniques

This particular aspect is crucial for successful establishment and high survival rates of planted
species. In this degraded ecosystem, the poor conditions of the soil should be modified by
constructing intensive water harvesting structures including the hillside terraces, percolation
ponds, contour trenches, high quality micro basins, etc. This improves the overall moisture
conditions in the catchments and the soil moisture regime. The other important aspects that
should be given special attention are the time of pit preparation, the pit size and its position. In
general, it is much better to prepare the pit long before the planting time; the longer the period
before planting, the more favorable conditions would be created for the seedlings in the pits.
Therefore, the pit should be prepared at least six months or one year ahead of planting for
optimizing the success of establishment in planting tree seedlings. During pit preparation the top
soil and the sub soil should be put separately and the top soil should be mixed with various
organic materials such as crop residues and filled first in the soil and the subsoil on the top. This
allows the organic matter to decompose and mix up with the soil creating conducive environment
for the seedlings at the time of planting. The other factor seriously affecting the survival rate and
establishment of the seedlings is the position of the pit and the level of the pit depth in relation to
the level of harvested water in the basins (any structures constructed for water harvesting or
moisture conservation). Quite often the seedlings are planted high (close to the surface of the
land) where as the harvested water (conserved moisture) in the structures is accumulated at much
lower level from the surface and the roots of the seedlings cannot access and make use of the
harvested water (conserved moisture). This is a big mistake and waste of resources; i.e. the
purpose of the intensive water harvesting is to avail adequate moisture to the growing plants and
if the planted seedlings cannot easily access the conserved moisture then the efforts of water
harvesting and moisture conservation are not relevant. Therefore, it is critically important to
make sure that the root level of planted seedlings is in such away the harvested water
(conserved moisture) gradually moves towards the root zone of the seedlings, i.e the
seedling planting zone should either be lower than the harvested water (conserved
moisture) level or at least in the same level. Therefore, the positioning of the pit and its depth
in relation to the water harvesting structures should be correctly arranged from this perspective.

Planting patterns in closed areas:- the planting patterns could be dispersed or strip planting
depending on the simplicity of the application of the methods and their suitability for achieving
the objectives of plantation. Dispersed planting is a planting system where the whole area is
planted with the seedlings in dispersed manner through out the closed area. Strip planting is a
system where the planting of seedlings is made in alternate strips prepared in certain intervals.
The size of each strip and the distance between the consecutive strips varies depending on
various factors such as community needs for grass, etc. When the need for grass is high, then the
size of strips would be smaller and the distance between the consecutive strips would be longer.

Management practices and utilization

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The common management practices used include weeding, mulching (3-4 years) and cultivation
of the seedlings after planting and protecting the area against human and livestock encroachment.
A replanting activity to replace the failed seedlings takes place on yearly basis until the gaps are
filled up. Absolute control of livestock interference is compulsory to get the maximum impact of
closed area management. The human and livestock interference is protected either by guards or
the beneficiary households take turn to safeguard the area against encroachment. There is no well
defined management plan for: deciding the proportion between grass and trees, thinning or
pruning to minimize the suppression of dominant tree species and for removing weedy
vegetation that suppresses the productivity of desirable species, etc. But this particular
management aspect is critically important to maintain (build) the interest of the community and
to optimize the level of benefits. For the first few years the vegetation (especially the grass) is
often allowed to freely grow and disperse seeds and expand from the vegetative parts. When the
area is fairly covered with vegetation and the risk of erosion minimized, cut and carry
management and utilization system is employed to ensure sustainability of the assets created. In
order to maintain optimal production of the livestock feed it is essential to eliminate (replace) the
unproductive species. Also it is necessary to control the competing vegetation with planted
species in a 50cm radius. It is also necessary to leave unplanted strips (grass strips) perpendicular
to the direction of wind at certain intervals to control fire hazards. In general, continuous soil and
plant manipulation is needed to optimize the benefits.

Harvesting of the products: harvesting of the trees and greases should be done at optimal time
to avoid over exploitation and under utilization of the resources. Grasses can be harvested at any
time before heading or flowering, but two to three years of rest should be allowed the seeds to
disperse and colonize the field. The optimal time of tree harvesting should be decided by experts
and conservation oriented harvesting system should be employed to avoid any erosion damage to
the land.

Rate of rehabilitation and the limiting factors

The capacity of degraded lands to produce vegetation cover greatly varies from place to
place depending on the variability of environmental factors such as amount and
distribution of annual rainfall, soil conditions, the level of degradation and the type and
quality of the development intervention, etc. In areas where the land completely lost its
productivity and turned to barren/rock outcrops, the rate of recovery has been very
slow and the biomass production either from planted or naturally regenerating species
is very poor. The situation is entirely different in areas with better environmental
conditions indicated above. The effectiveness of area closures in erosion and flood
control at the beginning is directly proportional to the type, quality and intensity of the
structures and to the improvement of soil conditions and percentage of ground cover
afterwards. When the level of flood and erosion control is high, the amount of moisture
conservation and hence the level of ground water recharge is very high and so the
influence on the ecology and microclimate.

Ecological & economic benefits

The initiatives of area closure management revitalized the productivity of degraded lands that
once turned barren (devoid of any vegetation). These lands were able to produce huge amount of
biomass such as grass, shrubs, trees, etc. The generated biomass had immense ecological impacts

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as they protect the erosive forces of raindrops and accelerated runoff as a result of the improved
ground cover. The vegetation also availed a great opportunity of generating income from the
sales of grass, fuel wood and construction material. The increase in the density of vegetation
attracted the return of wild animals in most places, which together with the diversity of natural
vegetation became central to tourist attraction.

Even though there is lack of complete data on the actual amount of biomass production and
income generation from area closure, the amount is highly considerable. The biomass has
provided substantial amount of livestock feed, fuel wood and construction material. In many
cases the community has generated considerable amount of income from the sales of grass and
the money is either used for the construction of public infrastructures such as primary schools or
health posts. In fact to know the accurate level of achievements and impacts it requires more
investigation and data collection to generate quantitative and reliable information.

Moreover, the effect of hillside closure on the productivity of down stream farmlands and
protection against flood damages has been so enormous. It has effectively reduced the flood
damage caused to reservoirs, villages, lives, etc. The productivity of croplands increased many
folds as a result of erosion control, improved soil depths and soil moisture regime. The area
closure management did not revitalize only dried springs and streams but also boosted volume of
their discharge which brought about the initiation and promotion of small scale irrigation
practices that in turn improved the livelihoods of a large number of families contributing to the
food security attainment efforts in the country. In general, the strategy has boosted the yield of
ground water, which drastically increased the level of ground water in many catchments availing
the community a great opportunity of accessing water for promoting income generation
technologies and for domestic uses.

Therefore, the contribution of area closure management to the creation of conducive micro-
climate for wild and domestic animals and human beings, agricultural productivity, food
security and improvement of the livelihoods of the beneficiaries is much more than it can be
expressed in words particularly when all the technical, social and management aspects are
perfectly done.

Sustainability of area closures and the threats

As a result of the clear observations and understanding of the economic and ecological benefits
by the community, there is substantial improvement in areas to use the forage grasses from the
closures.However, in spite of the positive trends in realization of the benefits and hence
sustainability of these closures, there are still many factors posing challenges towards sustainable
management of the area closures. A free grazing practice and the encroachment of livestock is
one of the major factors threatening the productivity and sustainability of these assets.
Another factor affecting sustainability of area closures is the ownership right and access to
resources in the area closures. The beneficiaries prefer to develop and manage such lands
communally but own & use privately the assets created, as this approach allows them maximum
access to the resources. Ownership and access to forest resources/tree species is an area of
ambiguity which requires improvement. The community does not know whether the trees can be
used or reserved forever, esp. the natural forest species.

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