Mcs 2022

U.S.
Department of the Interior

U.S. Geological Survey
MINERAL COMMODITY
SUMMARIES 2022
Abrasives Fluorspar Mercury Silicon

Aluminum Gallium Mica Silver
Antimony Garnet Molybdenum Soda Ash
Arsenic Gemstones Nickel Stone
Asbestos Germanium Niobium Strontium
Barite Gold Nitrogen Sulfur
Bauxite Graphite Palladium Talc
Beryllium Gypsum Peat Tantalum
Bismuth Hafnium Perlite Tellurium
Boron Helium Phosphate Rock Thallium
Bromine Indium Platinum Thorium
Cadmium Iodine Potash Tin
Cement Iron and Steel Pumice Titanium
Cesium Iron Ore Quartz Crystal Tungsten
Chromium Iron Oxide Pigments Rare Earths Vanadium
Clays Kyanite Rhenium Vermiculite
Cobalt Lead Rubidium Wollastonite
Copper Lime Salt Yttrium
Diamond Lithium Sand and Gravel Zeolites
Diatomite Magnesium Scandium Zinc
Feldspar Manganese Selenium Zirconium
Cover: A photomicrograph showing the four primary phases of cement: alite, belite, aluminate, and ferrite.
Clinker is the primary component of cement, which in turn is the key ingredient of concrete. Concrete is a
universal construction material, which is used in varying quantities in virtually every construction project in
the world. The use of cement and concrete dates to ancient civilizations, and those materials are used for
bridges, buildings, highways, and numerous other infrastructure projects. Cement production and consump-
tion trends in developed countries can be useful as national economic indicators and often reflect the
transition from emerging economies to industrial economies. (Photograph from fig. 7–15 of the Portland
Cement Association’s “Microscopical Examination and Interpretation of Portland Cement and Clinker,”
second edition, 1999, by Donald H. Campbell; used with permission of the Portland Cement Association.)
U.S. Department of the Interior
U.S. Geological Survey
MINERAL COMMODITY
SUMMARIES 2022
Abrasives Fluorspar Mercury Silicon

Aluminum Gallium Mica Silver
Antimony Garnet Molybdenum Soda Ash
Arsenic Gemstones Nickel Stone
Asbestos Germanium Niobium Strontium
Barite Gold Nitrogen Sulfur
Bauxite Graphite Palladium Talc
Beryllium Gypsum Peat Tantalum
Bismuth Hafnium Perlite Tellurium
Boron Helium Phosphate Rock Thallium
Bromine Indium Platinum Thorium
Cadmium Iodine Potash Tin
Cement Iron and Steel Pumice Titanium
Cesium Iron Ore Quartz Crystal Tungsten
Chromium Iron Oxide Pigments Rare Earths Vanadium
Clays Kyanite Rhenium Vermiculite
Cobalt Lead Rubidium Wollastonite
Copper Lime Salt Yttrium
Diamond Lithium Sand and Gravel Zeolites
Diatomite Magnesium Scandium Zinc
Feldspar Manganese Selenium Zirconium
U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2022
Manuscript approved for publication January 31, 2022.
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Suggested citation:
U.S. Geological Survey, 2022, Mineral commodity summaries 2022: U.S. Geological Survey, 202 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/mcs2022.
Associated data for this publication:

U.S. Geological Survey, 2022, Data release for mineral commodity summaries 2022: U.S. Geological Survey data release,
https://doi.org/10.5066/P9KKMCP4.
ISBN 978-1-4113-4434-1
1
CONTENTS
Page Page
General:
Introduction .................................................................... 3 Figures 4–8—Value of Nonfuel Minerals Produced in

Figure 1—The Role of Nonfuel Minerals in the U.S. 2021 .................................................................... 12–16
Economy ..................................................................... 4 United States Critical Minerals Update......................... 17
Significant Events, Trends, and Issues .......................... 5 Table 4—Salient Critical Minerals Statistics in 2021 .... 18
Figure 2—2021 U.S. Net Import Reliance .................... 7 Figure 9—20-Year Trend of U.S. Net Import Reliance for
Figure 3—Major Import Sources of Nonfuel Mineral Critical Minerals ......................................................... 19
Commodities in 2021 .................................................. 8 Appendix A—Abbreviations and Units of Measure .... 196
Table 1—U.S. Mineral Industry Trends ......................... 9 Appendix B—Definitions of Selected Terms Used in
Table 2—U.S. Mineral-Related Economic Trends ......... 9 This Report .............................................................. 196
Table 3—Value of Nonfuel Mineral Production in the Appendix C—Reserves and Resources ..................... 197
United States in 2021 ............................................... 10 Appendix D—Country Specialists Directory ............... 201
Mineral Commodities:
Abrasives (Manufactured) ............................................ 20 Mercury ....................................................................... 108

Aluminum ..................................................................... 22 Mica (Natural) ............................................................. 110
Antimony ...................................................................... 24 Molybdenum ............................................................... 112
Arsenic ......................................................................... 26 Nickel .......................................................................... 114
Asbestos ...................................................................... 28 Niobium (Columbium) ................................................. 116
Barite ............................................................................ 30 Nitrogen (Fixed)—Ammonia ....................................... 118
Bauxite and Alumina .................................................... 32 Peat ............................................................................ 120
Beryllium ...................................................................... 34 Perlite ......................................................................... 122
Bismuth ........................................................................ 36 Phosphate Rock ......................................................... 124
Boron............................................................................ 38 Platinum-Group Metals ............................................... 126
Bromine ........................................................................ 40 Potash ........................................................................ 128
Cadmium ...................................................................... 42 Pumice and Pumicite .................................................. 130
Cement......................................................................... 44 Quartz Crystal (Industrial) .......................................... 132
Cesium ......................................................................... 46 Rare Earths ................................................................ 134
Chromium..................................................................... 48 Rhenium ..................................................................... 136
Clays ............................................................................ 50 Rubidium .................................................................... 138
Cobalt ........................................................................... 52 Salt ............................................................................. 140
Copper ......................................................................... 54 Sand and Gravel (Construction) ................................. 142
Diamond (Industrial) ..................................................... 56 Sand and Gravel (Industrial) ...................................... 144
Diatomite ...................................................................... 58 Scandium .................................................................... 146
Feldspar and Nepheline Syenite .................................. 60 Selenium ..................................................................... 148
Fluorspar ...................................................................... 62 Silicon ......................................................................... 150
Gallium ......................................................................... 64 Silver ........................................................................... 152
Garnet (Industrial) ........................................................ 66 Soda Ash .................................................................... 154
Gemstones ................................................................... 68 Stone (Crushed) ......................................................... 156
Germanium .................................................................. 70 Stone (Dimension) ...................................................... 158
Gold.............................................................................. 72 Strontium .................................................................... 160
Graphite (Natural) ........................................................ 74 Sulfur .......................................................................... 162
Gypsum ........................................................................ 76 Talc and Pyrophyllite .................................................. 164
Helium .......................................................................... 78 Tantalum ..................................................................... 166
Indium .......................................................................... 80 Tellurium ..................................................................... 168
Iodine ........................................................................... 82 Thallium ...................................................................... 170
Iron and Steel ............................................................... 84 Thorium ...................................................................... 172
Iron and Steel Scrap .................................................... 86 Tin ............................................................................... 174
Iron and Steel Slag ...................................................... 88 Titanium and Titanium Dioxide ................................... 176
Iron Ore ........................................................................ 90 Titanium Mineral Concentrates .................................. 178
Iron Oxide Pigments .................................................... 92 Tungsten ..................................................................... 180
Kyanite and Related Minerals ...................................... 94 Vanadium ................................................................... 182
Lead ............................................................................. 96 Vermiculite .................................................................. 184
Lime ............................................................................. 98 Wollastonite ................................................................ 186
Lithium........................................................................ 100 Yttrium ........................................................................ 188
Magnesium Compounds ............................................ 102 Zeolites (Natural) ........................................................ 190
Magnesium Metal ....................................................... 104 Zinc ............................................................................. 192
Manganese ................................................................ 106 Zirconium and Hafnium .............................................. 194
2
INSTANT INFORMATION
Information about the U.S. Geological Survey, its programs, staff, and products is available from the internet at
https://www.usgs.gov or by calling (888) ASK–USGS [(888) 275–8747].
This publication has been prepared by the National Minerals Information Center. Information about the Center and its
products is available from the internet at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic or by writing to Director, National
Minerals Information Center, 988 National Center, Reston, VA 20192.
KEY PUBLICATIONS
Minerals Yearbook—These annual publications review the mineral industries of the United States and of more than
180 other countries. They contain statistical data on minerals and materials and include information on economic and
technical trends and developments and are available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/publications. The three
volumes that make up the Minerals Yearbook are volume I, Metals and Minerals; volume II, Area Reports—Domestic;
and volume III, Area Reports—International.
Mineral Commodity Summaries—Published on an annual basis, this report is the earliest Government publication to
furnish estimates covering nonfuel mineral industry data and is available at
https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/mineral-commodity-summaries. Data sheets contain information on the domestic
industry structure, Government programs, tariffs, and 5-year salient statistics for more than 90 individual minerals and
materials.
Mineral Industry Surveys—These periodic statistical and economic reports are designed to provide timely statistical
data on production, shipments, stocks, and consumption of significant mineral commodities and are available at
https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/mineral-industry-surveys. The surveys are issued monthly, quarterly, or at other
regular intervals.
Materials Flow Studies—These publications describe the flow of minerals and materials from extraction to ultimate
disposition to help better understand the economy, manage the use of natural resources, and protect the environment
and are available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/materials-flow.
Recycling Reports—These studies illustrate the recycling of metal commodities and identify recycling trends and are
available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/recycling-statistics-and-information.
Historical Statistics for Mineral and Material Commodities in the United States (Data Series 140)—This report
provides a compilation of statistics on production, trade, and use of approximately 90 mineral commodities since as
far back as 1900 and is available at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic/historical-statistics-mineral-and-material-
commodities-united-states.
WHERE TO OBTAIN PUBLICATIONS

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• All current and many past publications are available as downloadable Portable Document Format (PDF) files
through https://www.usgs.gov/centers/nmic.
3
INTRODUCTION
Each mineral commodity chapter of the 2022 edition of the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) Mineral Commodity
Summaries (MCS) includes information on events, trends, and issues for each mineral commodity as well as
discussions and tabular presentations on domestic industry structure, Government programs, tariffs, 5-year salient
statistics, and world production, reserves, and resources. The MCS is the earliest comprehensive source of 2021
mineral production data for the world. More than 90 individual minerals and materials are covered by 2-page
synopses.
For mineral commodities for which there is a Government stockpile, detailed information concerning the stockpile
status is included in the 2-page synopsis.
Abbreviations and units of measure and definitions of selected terms used in the report are in Appendix A and
Appendix B, respectively. Reserves and resources information is in Appendix C, which includes “Part A—Resource
and Reserve Classification for Minerals” and “Part B—Sources of Reserves Data.” A directory of USGS minerals
information country specialists and their responsibilities is in Appendix D.
The USGS continually strives to improve the value of its publications to users. Constructive comments and
suggestions by readers of the MCS 2022 are welcomed.
4
Figure 1.—The Role of Nonfuel Minerals in the U.S. Economy
(Estimated values in 2021)
Net Exports of Mineral
Raw Materials
Gold, Soda Ash, Zinc
concentrates, and so forth
Exports: $10.6 billion

Imports: $5.3 billion
Net exports: $5.3 billion
Mineral Materials
Processed Domestically
Domestic Mineral Raw
Aluminum, Brick, Cement,
Materials From Mining Copper, Fertilizers, Steel, and Value Added to
so forth Gross Domestic
Copper ores, Iron Ore, Sand
and Gravel, Stone, and so forth Product by Major
Value of shipments:
$820 billion Industries That
Value: $90 billion Consume Processed
Mineral Materials1 U.S. Economy
Value: $3,320 billion Gross Domestic Product:

$22,400 billion
Metals and Mineral Net Imports of
Products Recycled Processed Mineral
Domestically Materials
Aluminum, Glass, Steel, and so Metals, Chemicals, and so forth
forth
Imports: $192 billion
Value of old scrap: $43 billion Exports: $102 billion
Net imports: $90 billion
Net Exports of Old

Scrap
Gold, Steel, and so forth
Exports: $28 billion 1Major consuming industries of processed mineral materials are construction, durable goods manufacturers, and some
Imports: $11 billion
nondurable goods manufacturers. The value of shipments for processed mineral materials cannot be directly related to
Net exports: $17 billion
gross domestic product.
Sources: U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of Commerce.

5
SIGNIFICANT EVENTS, TRENDS, AND ISSUES
In 2021, the estimated total value of nonfuel mineral were forced to remain at sea until space was available to
production in the United States was $90.4 billion, an unload them. Additionally, ongoing travel- and work-
increase of 12% from the revised total of $80.7 billion in related restrictions put in place to mitigate the effects of
2020. The estimated value of metals production the global COVID-19 pandemic continued throughout the
increased by 23% to $33.8 billion. The increased price year. Lockdowns took place in various countries as
for copper, which was projected to be about $4.20 per COVID-19 and its variants spread throughout the world.
pound in 2021, an alltime high, contributed to the
increased value of metal production. The total value of U.S. ports continued to experience lengthy delays,
industrial minerals production was $56.6 billion, a 6% especially at the Ports of Long Beach, CA, Los Angeles,
increase from that in 2020. Of this total, $29.2 billion was CA, and Savannah, GA. Despite a Presidential order for
construction aggregates production (construction sand ports to remain open 24 hours per day, worker, truck,
and gravel and crushed stone). Crushed stone was the and rail shortages and other logistic issues restricted
leading nonfuel mineral commodity in 2021 with a easing of congestion.
production value of more than $19.3 billion and
accounted for 21% of the total value of U.S. nonfuel U.S. Production and Consumption
mineral production.
As shown in figure 1, minerals remained fundamental to
Increases in consumption of nonfuel mineral the U.S. economy, contributing to the real gross
commodities in commercial construction, steel domestic product at several levels, including mining,
production, and automotive and transportation industry processing, and manufacturing finished products. The
were attributed to the restarting of the economy after estimated value of nonfuel minerals produced at mines
closure because of the global COVID-19 pandemic. For in the United States in 2021 was $90.4 billion. The value
the metals sector, the copper, iron ore, steel, and zinc of net exports of mineral raw materials increased to
industries were particularly affected by increased $5.3 billion from $4.0 billion in 2020. Domestically
demand from manufacturing. For the industrial minerals recycled products totaled $43 billion, and iron and steel
sector, the largest increases in production were in scrap contributed $18 billion to that total. Domestic raw
cement, crushed stone, sand and gravel, and soda ash, materials and domestically recycled materials were used
commodities that are closely tied to the performance of to produce mineral materials worth $820 billion. These
the construction industry. mineral materials as well as imports of processed
mineral materials, which decreased by 9% in 2021,
Trade Issues were, in turn, consumed by downstream industries
creating an estimated value of $3.32 trillion in 2021, an
On October 31, 2021, it was announced the additional 8% increase from that in 2020.
10% and 25% ad valorem tariffs under section 232 of the
Trade Expansion Act of 1962 (86 FR 64748) on Figure 2 illustrates the reliance of the United States on
aluminum and steel imports, respectively, from the foreign sources for raw and processed mineral materials.
European Union would be replaced with an import quota In 2021, imports made up more than one-half of the U.S.
effective January 1, 2022. An agreement was reached apparent consumption for 47 nonfuel mineral
between the United States and the European Union to commodities, and the United States was 100% net
remove the ad valorem tariff on aluminum and steel import reliant for 17 of those. Of the 35 minerals or
imports that was imposed in 2018 under the authority of mineral material groups identified as “critical minerals”
section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962. published in the Federal Register on May 18, 2018
Effective in January 2022, the tariff would only be (83 FR 23295), the United States was 100% net import
applied on imports from countries in the European Union reliant for 14, and an additional 15 critical mineral
that exceed specified quotas. commodities had a net import reliance greater than 50%
of apparent consumption.
The additional 25% ad valorem duty for products
imported from China (Lists 1, 2, and 3) and the 7.5% ad Additional information regarding critical minerals in the
valorem duty for products imported from China (List 4) United States can be found in the “United States Critical
imposed under section 301(b) of the Trade Act of 1974, Minerals Update” section that begins on page 17.
(19 U.S.C. 2411, as amended) by the United States
Trade Representative continued in 2021. Likewise, Figure 3 shows the countries that were sources of
China imposed additional import duties for certain items nonfuel mineral commodities for which the United States
originating in the United States. was greater than 50% net import reliant in 2021 and the
number of mineral commodities for which each
In 2021, widespread supply chain disruptions were highlighted country was a leading supplier. China,
experienced by most industries, particularly in cargo followed by Canada, supplied the largest number of
transportation. In March, a large container ship blocked these nonfuel mineral commodities. The countries that
the Suez Canal for 6 days, severely delaying global were the leading sources of imported mineral
trade. Delays in offloading ships at docks resulted from commodities with greater than 50% net import reliance
the lack of truck drivers to remove cargo containers, and were: China, 25 mineral commodities; Canada, 16
ports ran out of space to store containers. Cargo ships mineral commodities; Germany, 11 mineral
6
commodities; South Africa, 10 mineral commodities; and were, in descending order of production value, Texas,
Brazil and Mexico, 9 mineral commodities each. Pennsylvania, Florida, North Carolina, Georgia, Virginia,
and Missouri (fig. 7).
The estimated value of U.S. metal mine production in
2021 was $33.8 billion, 23% higher than the revised Construction sand and gravel was produced in every
value in 2020 (table 1). Principal contributors to the total State. California and Texas were the only two States that
value of metal mine production in 2021 were copper, produced more than $1 billion worth of construction sand
35%; gold, 31%; iron ore, 13%; and zinc, 7%. The and gravel in 2021. Arizona, Utah, Washington, Ohio,
estimated value of U.S. industrial minerals production in New York, Colorado, Michigan, and Florida, in
2021, including construction aggregates, was descending order of production value, were the other top
$56.6 billion, about 6% more than the revised value of 10 producing States (fig. 8).
2020 (table 1). The value of industrial minerals
The Defense Logistics Agency Strategic Materials (DLA
production in 2021 was dominated by crushed stone,
Strategic Materials) is responsible for the operational
34%; cement (masonry and portland), 19%; and oversight of the National Defense Stockpile (NDS) of
construction sand and gravel, 17%. strategic and critical materials. Managing the security,
environmentally sound stewardship, and ensuring the
In 2021, U.S. production of 14 mineral commodities was readiness of all NDS stocks is the mission of the DLA
valued at more than $1 billion each. These commodities
Strategic Materials. The NDS currently contains
were, in decreasing order of value, crushed stone,
46 unique commodities stored at 10 locations within the
copper, cement, gold, construction sand and gravel, iron continental United States. In fiscal year 2021,
ore, salt, lime, industrial sand and gravel, zinc, soda ash,
approximately $4.95 million of new stocks were acquired
phosphate rock, palladium, and molybdenum.
and $75.45 million of excess materials were sold.
Revenue from the Stockpile Sales Program fund the
In 2021, 13 States each produced more than $2 billion
operation of the NDS and the acquisition of new stocks.
worth of nonfuel mineral commodities. These States
were, in descending order of production value, Arizona, As of September 30, 2021, the NDS inventory had a fair
market value of $1.28 billion. For reporting purposes,
Nevada, Texas, California, Minnesota, Alaska, Utah,
NDS stocks are categorized as held in reserve or
Florida, Missouri, Michigan, Wyoming, Georgia, and
available for sale. The majority of stocks are held in
Montana (table 3, fig. 4).
reserve. Additional detailed information can be found in
The west region was the leading region in the production the “Government Stockpile” sections in the mineral
of the metals and metallic minerals and other industrial commodity chapters that follow. Under the authority of
minerals production with a value of $28 billion and the Defense Production Act of 1950 (Public Law 81–774),
$10.4 billion, respectively, in 2021 (figs. 5, 6). the USGS advises the DLA Strategic Materials on
acquisitions and disposals of NDS mineral materials.
In 2021, there were seven States that produced more
than $900 million worth of crushed stone. These States
7
1
Figure 2.—2021 U.S. Net Import Reliance
Net import reliance as a percentage of apparent 2
Commodity
consumption Major import sources (2017–20)
ARSENIC, all forms 100 China, Morocco, Belgium
ASBESTOS 100 Brazil, Russia
CESIUM 100 Germany, China
FLUORSPAR 100 Mexico, Vietnam, South Africa, Canada
GALLIUM 100 China, United Kingdom, Germany, Ukraine
GRAPHITE (NATURAL) 100 China, Mexico, Canada, India
INDIUM 100 China, Canada, Republic of Korea, France
MANGANESE 100 Gabon, South Africa, Australia, Georgia
MICA (NATURAL), sheet 100 China, Brazil, Belgium, India
NEPHELINE SYENITE 100 Canada
NIOBIUM (COLUMBIUM) 100 Brazil, Canada
RUBIDIUM 100 Germany
SCANDIUM 100 Europe, China, Japan, Russia
STRONTIUM 100 Mexico, Germany, China
TANTALUM 100 China, Germany, Australia, Indonesia
VANADIUM 100 Canada, China, Brazil, South Africa
YTTRIUM 100 China, Republic of Korea, Japan
GEMSTONES 99 India, Israel, Belgium, South Africa
TELLURIUM >95 Canada, Germany, China, Philippines
POTASH 93 Canada, Russia, Belarus
IRON OXIDE PIGMENTS, natural and synthetic 91 China, Germany, Brazil
RARE EARTHS,3 compounds and metals >90 China, Estonia, Malaysia, Japan
TITANIUM, sponge >90 Japan, Kazakhstan, Ukraine
BISMUTH 90 China, Republic of Korea, Mexico, Belgium
TITANIUM MINERAL CONCENTRATES 90 South Africa, Australia, Madagascar, Mozambique
ANTIMONY, metal and oxide 84 China, Belgium, India
STONE (DIMENSION) 84 China, Brazil, Italy, India
CHROMIUM 80 South Africa, Kazakhstan, Russia, Mexico
PEAT 80 Canada
SILVER 79 Mexico, Canada, Chile, Poland
TIN, refined 78 Indonesia, Peru, Malaysia, Bolivia
COBALT 76 Norway, Canada, Japan, Finland
DIAMOND (INDUSTRIAL), stones 76 South Africa, India, Congo (Kinshasa), Botswana
ZINC, refined 76 Canada, Mexico, Peru, Spain
ABRASIVES, crude fused aluminum oxide >75 China, France, Bahrain, Russia
BARITE >75 China, India, Morocco, Mexico
BAUXITE >75 Jamaica, Brazil, Guyana, Australia
SELENIUM >75 Philippines, China, Mexico, Germany
RHENIUM 72 Chile, Canada, Kazakhstan, Japan
PLATINUM 70 South Africa, Germany, Switzerland, Italy
ALUMINA 58 Brazil, Australia, Jamaica, Canada
GARNET (INDUSTRIAL) 56 South Africa, China, India, Australia
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS 55 China, Brazil, Israel, Canada
ABRASIVES, crude silicon carbide >50 China, Netherlands, South Africa
GERMANIUM >50 China, Belgium, Germany, Russia
IODINE >50 Chile, Japan
TUNGSTEN >50 China, Bolivia, Germany, Canada
CADMIUM <50 Australia, China, Germany, Peru
MAGNESIUM METAL <50 Canada, Israel, Mexico
NICKEL 48 Canada, Norway, Finland, Australia
COPPER, refined 45 Chile, Canada, Mexico
ALUMINUM 44 Canada, United Arab Emirates, Russia, China
DIAMOND (INDUSTRIAL), bort, grit, dust, and powder 41 China, Ireland, Republic of Korea, Russia
LEAD, refined 38 Canada, Mexico, Republic of Korea, India
PALLADIUM 37 Russia, South Africa, Germany
FELDSPAR 32 Turkey
SILICON, metal and ferrosilicon 32 Russia, Brazil, Canada, Norway
SALT 29 Chile, Canada, Mexico, Egypt
MICA (NATURAL), scrap and flake 28 Canada, China, India
LITHIUM >25 Argentina, Chile, China, Russia
BROMINE <25 Israel, Jordan, China
ZIRCONIUM, ores and concentrates <25 South Africa, Senegal, Australia, Russia
PERLITE 23 Greece, China, Mexico, Turkey
VERMICULITE 20 South Africa, Brazil
1
Not all mineral commodities covered in this publication are listed here. Those not shown include mineral commodities for which the United States is a net exporter
(boron; clays; diatomite; gold; helium; iron and steel scrap; iron ore; kyanite; molybdenum; rare earths, mineral concentrates; sand and gravel, industrial; soda ash;
titanium dioxide pigment; wollastonite; zeolites; and zinc concentrates) or less than 20% net import reliant (abrasives, metallic; beryllium; cement; gypsum; iron and
steel; iron and steel slag; lime; nitrogen (fixed)—ammonia; phosphate rock; pumice; sand and gravel, construction; stone, crushed; sulfur; and talc and pyrophyllite). For
some mineral commodities (hafnium; mercury; quartz crystal, industrial; thallium; and thorium), not enough information is available to calculate the exact percentage of
import reliance.
2
Listed in descending order of import share.
3
Data include lanthanides.
8
Figure 3.—Major Import Sources of Nonfuel Mineral Commodities
for Which the United States was Greater Than 50% Net Import Reliant in 2021
-180° -160° -140° -120° -100° -80° -60° -40° -20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180°
80° 80°
FINLAND
NORWAY
60° NETHERLANDS ESTONIA
60°
BELARUS RUSSIA
CANADA UNITED KINGDOM
BELGIUM UKRAINE
GERMANY KAZAKHSTAN
POLAND
40° UNITED 40°
STATES FRANCE GEORGIA JAPAN
ITALY CHINA
ISRAEL
SPAIN REPUBLIC OF KOREA
SWITZERLAND MOROCCO
BAHRAIN
INDIA
20° MEXICO 20°
VIETNAM
JAMAICA
GUYANA PHILIPPINES
MALAYSIA
EXPLANATI ON
0° INDONESIA 0°
GABON
Number of commodities, 2021 BRAZIL MOZAMBIQUE
CONGO (KINSHASA)
0
PERU
-20° 11- to
3 3 BOLIVIA MADAGASCAR
-20°
CHILE BOTSWANA
44- to
6 6 AUSTRALIA
77- to
12 12 SOUTH
AFRICA
-40° 13- to
13 18 18 -40°
19- to
19 24 25
-60° -60°
-80° -80°
-180° -160° -140° -120° -100° -80° -60° -40° -20° 0° 20° 40° 60° 80° 100° 120° 140° 160° 180°
Sour
ce:U.
S.Geol
og i
calSur
vey
9
Table 1.—U.S. Mineral Industry Trends
2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e
Total mine production (million dollars):
Metals 26,800 28,000 26,900 27,500 33,800
Industrial minerals 52,800 56,300 55,800 53,200 56,600
Coal 26,100 27,200 25,500 16,800 18,700
Employment (thousands of workers):
Coal mining, all employees 52 52 51 42 42
Nonfuel mineral mining, all employees 134 140 140 137 140
Chemicals and allied products, production workers 525 546 559 535 530
Stone, clay, and glass products, production workers 305 311 312 294 290
Primary metal industries, production workers 292 295 302 272 270
Average weekly earnings of workers (dollars):
Coal mining, all employees 1,484 1,546 1,617 1,521 1,590
Chemicals and allied products, production workers 1,010 1,072 1,066 1,065 1,110
Stone, clay, and glass products, production workers 873 945 966 982 1,010
Primary metal industries, production workers 996 1,035 1,025 1,008 1,070
e
Estimated.
Sources: U.S. Geological Survey, U.S. Department of Energy, and U.S. Department of Labor.
Table 2.—U.S. Mineral-Related Economic Trends

2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e
Gross domestic product (billion dollars) 19,480 20,527 21,373 20,894 22,400
Industrial production (2017=100):

Total index: 100 103 102 95 100
Manufacturing: 100 101 100 93 99
Nonmetallic mineral products 100 100 98 95 97
Primary metals: 100 103 99 86 97
Iron and steel 100 103 97 81 96
Aluminum 100 106 101 92 106
Nonferrous metals (except aluminum) 100 102 104 92 93
Chemicals 100 99 95 93 98
Mining: 100 113 120 103 105
Coal 100 98 92 69 76
Oil and gas extraction 100 116 129 122 121
Metals 100 99 96 94 91
Nonmetallic minerals 100 104 107 104 109
Capacity utilization (percent):
Total industry: 76 79 77 72 75
Mining: 78 87 86 72 74
Metals 72 71 68 67 64
Nonmetallic minerals 88 89 89 85 88
Housing starts (thousands) 1,205 1,247 1,292 1,397 1,580
Light vehicle sales (thousands) 17,150 17,225 16,961 14,472 15,170
Highway construction, value, put in place (billion dollars) 90 91 100 101 99

e
Estimated.
Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce and Federal Reserve Board.

10
Table 3.—Value of Nonfuel Mineral Production in the United States and
Principal Nonfuel Mineral Commodities Produced in 2021p, 1, 2
Value Percent of
State Rank3 Principal nonfuel mineral commodities5
(millions) U.S. total4
Alabama $1,860 16 2.06 Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand
and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).
Alaska 3,890 6 4.30 Gold, lead, sand and gravel (construction), silver, zinc.
Arizona 9,960 1 11.00 Cement (portland), copper, molybdenum mineral concentrates,
sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed).
Arkansas 1,000 28 1.11 Bromine, cement (portland), sand and gravel (construction),
sand and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).
California 5,270 4 5.83 Boron minerals, cement (portland), rare earths, sand and gravel
(construction), stone (crushed).
Colorado 1,610 19 1.78 Cement (portland), gold, molybdenum mineral concentrates,
sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed).
Connecticut 183 43 0.20 Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed), stone
(dimension).
Delaware6 22 50 0.02 Magnesium compounds, sand and gravel (construction), stone
(crushed).
Florida6, 7 2,400 8 2.65 Cement (masonry and portland), phosphate rock, sand and
gravel (construction), stone (crushed).
Georgia6, 7 2,040 12 2.25 Cement (portland), clay (kaolin and montmorillonite), sand and
gravel (construction), sand and gravel (industrial), stone
(crushed).
Hawaii 134 45 0.15 Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed).
Idaho 722 34 0.80 Lead, phosphate rock, sand and gravel (construction), silver,
stone (crushed).
Illinois6 992 25 1.10 Cement (portland), magnesium compounds, sand and gravel
(construction), sand and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).
Indiana 1,160 26 1.28 Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), stone
(crushed), stone (dimension).
Iowa 959 29 1.06 Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand
Kansas6 1,210 24 1.34 Cement (portland), helium (Grade-A), salt, sand and gravel
Kentucky6 586 30 0.65 Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand
Louisiana 661 35 0.73 Clay (common clay), salt, sand and gravel (construction), sand
Maine6 127 44 0.14 Cement (portland), peat, sand and gravel (construction), stone
Maryland6 461 32 0.51 Cement (masonry and portland), sand and gravel (construction),
stone (crushed), stone (dimension).
Massachusetts6 209 42 0.23 Clay (common clay), lime, sand and gravel (construction), stone
Michigan 3,000 10 3.32 Cement (portland), iron ore, nickel sulfide concentrates, sand
and gravel (construction), stone (crushed).
Minnesota6 4,010 5 4.44 Iron ore, sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel
(industrial), stone (crushed), stone (dimension).
Mississippi6 200 41 0.22 Clay (bentonite and montmorillonite), sand and gravel
Missouri 3,300 9 3.65 Cement (portland), lead, lime, sand and gravel (industrial), stone
(crushed).
Montana 2,010 13 2.23 Copper, molybdenum mineral concentrates, palladium, platinum,
sand and gravel (construction).
See footnotes at end of table.
11
Table 3.—Value of Nonfuel Mineral Production in the United States and
Principal Nonfuel Mineral Commodities Produced in 2021p, 1, 2—Continued
Value Percent of
State Rank3 Principal nonfuel mineral commodities5
(millions) U.S. total4
Nebraska6 $220 39 0.24 Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand
Nevada 9,350 2 10.30 Copper, gold, lime, silver, stone (crushed).
New Hampshire 95 47 0.10 Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed), stone
(dimension).
New Jersey 396 38 0.44 Sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel (industrial),
stone (crushed).
New Mexico 1,290 23 1.43 Cement (portland), copper, potash, sand and gravel
New York6 1,570 18 1.74 Cement (portland), salt, sand and gravel (construction), stone
(crushed), zinc.
North Carolina6 1,460 17 1.62 Clay (common clay), phosphate rock, sand and gravel
North Dakota6 65 48 0.07 Clay (common clay), lime, sand and gravel (construction), stone
(crushed).
Ohio6 1,380 15 1.53 Cement (portland), lime, salt, sand and gravel (construction),
stone (crushed).
Oklahoma 916 31 1.01 Cement (portland), iodine, sand and gravel (construction), sand
Oregon 595 36 0.66 Cement (portland), diatomite, perlite (crude), sand and gravel
Pennsylvania6 1,950 14 2.15 Cement (masonry and portland), lime, sand and gravel
Rhode Island6 66 49 0.07 Sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel (industrial),
stone (crushed).
South Carolina6 953 22 1.05 Cement (masonry and portland), gold, sand and gravel
South Dakota 495 37 0.55 Cement (portland), gold, lime, sand and gravel (construction),
stone (crushed).
Tennessee 1,550 21 1.71 Cement (portland), sand and gravel (construction), sand and
gravel (industrial), stone (crushed), zinc.
Texas 5,760 3 6.37 Cement (portland), lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand
Utah 3,750 7 4.15 Copper, magnesium metal, molybdenum mineral concentrates,
potash, sand and gravel (construction).
Vermont6 112 46 0.12 Sand and gravel (construction), stone (crushed), stone
(dimension), talc (crude).
Virginia 1,550 20 1.72 Cement (portland), kyanite, lime, sand and gravel (construction),
stone (crushed).
Washington 732 33 0.81 Cement (portland), diatomite, sand and gravel (construction),
sand and gravel (industrial), stone (crushed).
West Virginia 360 40 0.40 Cement (masonry and portland), lime, sand and gravel
Wisconsin6 997 27 1.10 Lime, sand and gravel (construction), sand and gravel
(industrial), stone (crushed), stone (dimension).
Wyoming 2,750 11 3.14 Cement (portland), clay (bentonite), helium (Grade-A), sand and
gravel (construction), soda ash.
Undistributed 4,050 XX 4.48
Total 90,400 XX 100.00
p
Preliminary. XX Not applicable.
1
Includes data available through December 9, 2021.
2
Data are rounded to no more than three significant digits; may not add to totals shown.
3
Rank based on total, unadjusted State values.
4
"Percent of U.S. total" calculated to two decimal places.
5
Listed in alphabetical order.
6
Partial total; excludes values that must be withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data, which are included with "Undistributed."
7
Florida and Georgia also produce significant quantities of titanium and zirconium minerals concentrates, but breakdown by State is not available to
avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
Figure 4.—Value of Nonfuel Minerals Produced in 2021, by State
12
O
therindustrial
minerals M etals
$27.4billion $33.8billion
N
aturalaggregates
$29.2billion
U
.S.to
tal:$90.4b
illio
n
10
7
llars
6
o
E
XPL
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ATIO
N
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illio
5 V
alue,inbilliondollars
e,inb
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4 >0.5to1
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*P
artialtotal;excludesvaluesthatm
ustbew
ithheldtoavoiddisclosingcom
panyproprietarydata,w
hichareincludedw
ith"U
ndistributed"intable3.
Figure 5.—Value of Metals and Metallic Minerals Produced in 2021, by Region
P2
P1 Fe Fe
P1 FeFe
Fe
Fe B5
Fe Zn
B1
P4
P4 Northeast
Mo
P2
West
P2AuP2B6
P2
P2 P2AuP2 Au Midwest
P2 AuAuP2
P2P2P2P3 P2 Au Mg
Au P2
P2 P2P2P2 B1
P2 P2 P2 P2 B1 Be
P2 Au
P2 P2 Mo
P2 Cu Mo
P2 B3
B3B3
Au V B3B3
B3
Zn
P2 REE Au Zn Zn
B2 Zn
P2
B1
P2 B2
P2 B1Cu
B2 B1
Cu
B1
Cu B1
Cu South
B1 IRZ REE
IRZ REE
West
EXPLANATION
Value, in billion dollars
0 to 0.4
>0.4 to 4
B4 >4 to 7
WestAu
Au 28
Au
Au Au Gold B6 Lead and zinc Mo Molybdenum V Vanadium
B4 B4 B1 Copper ± molybdenum ± gold and silver ± rhenium Be Beryllium P1 Silver ± base metals ± gold Zn Zinc
B2 Copper ± silver Cu Copper P2 Gold and silver
B3 Lead and zinc ± copper ± silver Fe Iron ore P3 Gold and silver ± base metals
B4 Silver ± zinc ± lead and gold IRZ Ilmenite, rutile, and zircon P4 Platinum and palladium ± gold and silver
B5 Nickel, copper, cobalt, and gold Mg Magnesium REE Rare-earth elements
13
Figure 6.—Value of Other Industrial Minerals Produced in 2021, by Region
14
Peat Peat
DS
IS
DS
No
rth
eas
t DS
Dia Clay Clay
Gar DS
Gar Talc
Clay We s
t Clay Peat
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Zeo
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mi c u l
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ay Gyp Gyp s
u m Kya Kyanite Per Pe rl
ite Zeo Zeoli
te s
Dia Diato mi te He He liu
m Li Lithium Pum Pu mi c e
Figure 7.—Value of Crushed Stone Produced in 2021, by State
2,200
2,000
1,800
1,600
1,400
ndllars
o
1,200
illio
e,inm
1,000
E
XPL
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ATIO
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alue,inm
illiondollars
V
800 W ithheld
<100
100to400
600 >400to900
>900
!
C
rushedstoneoperation
400
200
15
Figure 8.—Value of Construction Sand and Gravel Produced in 2021, by State
16
1,800
1,500
1,200
nd
illio llars
o
900
e,inm
alu
V
E
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ATIO
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<100
100to200
>200to1,000
>1,000
Sandandgraveloperation
300
0
17
UNITED STATES CRITICAL MINERALS UPDATE
Critical Minerals and the U.S. Critical Minerals List In April 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
awarded $19 million for 13 projects to support production
The Energy Act of 2020 (Public Law 116–260, of rare-earth elements and critical minerals vital for the
December 27, 2020, 116th Cong.) defined critical clean energy economy. Many of these awards were
minerals as those which are essential to the economic or made to universities in traditional fossil-fuel-producing
national security of the United States; have a supply communities. In September 2021, the DOE awarded
chain that is vulnerable to disruption; and serve an $30 million in funding for 13 national-lab- and university-
essential function in the manufacturing of a product, the led research projects focused on developing substitutes
absence of which would have significant consequences for, diversifying the supply of, and improving the reuse
for the economic or national security of the United and recycling of rare-earth elements and platinum-group
States. The act further specified that critical minerals do elements to support creating cleaner energy.
not include fuel minerals; water, ice, or snow; or
common varieties of sand, gravel, stone, pumice, In September 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense’s
cinders, and clay. Office of Industrial Policy announced the kickoff of the
“Critical Minerals from Coal Ash” pilot project, which was
On May 7, 2021, Open-File Report 2021–1045, a 30-month project funded for $4 million to develop next-
“Methodology and Technical Input for the 2021 Review generation technologies for recovery of critical minerals,
and Revision of the U.S. Critical Minerals List” was including rare-earth elements from domestic coal ash.
published by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) as
required by section 7002 of title VII of the Energy Act of U.S. Production and Consumption of Critical
2020. The report documented the updated evaluation Minerals in 2021
methodology and the resultant updated draft list of
minerals recommended for inclusion in the U.S. critical The United States was 100% net import reliant for 14 of
minerals list (CML). Uranium was excluded by its the listed critical minerals or mineral groups. Despite not
definition as a fuel mineral in the Mining and Minerals having mine production or refining, the United States did
Policy Act of 1970 [30 U.S.C. 21(a)]. have secondary production for four critical minerals and
thus net import reliance was less than 100%.
On November 9, 2021, a proposed, revised U.S. CML Additionally, there was secondary production for another
was published in the Federal Register (86 FR 62199). nine critical minerals that supplemented primary
This list contains 50 individual mineral commodities. It production (table 4).
differs from the prior 2018 U.S. CML by individually
listing the rare-earth elements and platinum-group China was the leading producing nation for 16 of the 32
elements by specific element forms, adding nickel and listed critical minerals. The other leading producers of
zinc, and removing helium, potash, rhenium, strontium, critical minerals were South Africa with four critical
and uranium. As of the date of this publication, the
minerals; Australia, three critical minerals; Congo
proposed, revised U.S. CML has not yet been finalized.
(Kinshasa), two critical minerals; and the United States,
Following adjudication of public comments, a final,
revised critical minerals list is anticipated to be posted to two critical minerals (table 4).
the Federal Register by the end of February 2022.
Figure 9 shows the trends in net import reliance for
Supply Chain Security and U.S. Government Critical critical minerals over the past 20 years. For most critical
Minerals Initiatives minerals, the United States is heavily reliant on foreign
sources for its consumption requirements; exceptions
In 2021, several U.S. Government efforts were taken to include beryllium, helium, and zirconium.
strengthen U.S. critical mineral supply chains. Some
examples of these are presented here. Additional Trade
information on specific mineral commodity initiatives may
be found in the mineral commodity chapters that follow. In November 2021, the U.S. Department of Commerce
issued a notice of its final investigation into the effect of
In 2020 and 2021, the U.S. Department of Defense imports of vanadium on the national security of the
awarded technology investment agreements to establish United States under section 232 of the Trade Expansion
light-rare-earth-element separation facilities in Texas Act of 1962 (86 FR 64748). The report concluded that
and California pursuant to section 303 of the Defense current quantities of vanadium imports did not impair
Production Act of 1950, as amended (50 U.S.C. 4533). national security and no additional ad valorem duties
were recommended.
18
Table 4.—Salient Critical Minerals Statistics in 20211
(Metric tons, mine production, unless otherwise specified)
United States World

Net import reliance as a World
Critical mineral Primary Secondary Apparent Primary import Leading Production in Percentage of
percentage of apparent production
production production consumption source (2017–20) producing country leading country world total
consumption total
Aluminum (bauxite) W — 2
3,600,000 >75 Jamaica Australia 110,000,000 3
390,000,000 28
Antimony — 4,100 4
28,000 84 China China 60,000 110,000 55
Arsenic — — 5
6,800 100 China Peru 6
27,000
6
59,000 46
Barite W — W >75 China China 2,800,000 3
7,300,000 38
Beryllium 170 NA 200 16 Kazakhstan United States 170 260 65
Bismuth
7
— 80 810 90 China China 16,000 19,000 84
Chromium — 120,000 590,000 80 South Africa South Africa 18,000,000 41,000,000 44
Cobalt 700 1,600 6,700 76 Norway Congo (Kinshasa) 120,000 170,000 71
Fluorspar NA — 450,000 100 Mexico China 5,400,000 8,600,000 63
Gallium — — 2
16 100 China China 420 430 98
Germanium
7
— W 5
30 >50 China China 95 3
140 68
Graphite (natural) — — 45,000 100 China China 820,000 1,000,000 82
8
Helium 71 NA 40 E Qatar United States 71 160 44
Indium
7
— NA 5
170 100 China China 530 920 58
5 3
Lithium W W 2,000 >25 Argentina Australia 55,000 100,000 55
Magnesium7
2 3
W 98,000 50,000 <50 Canada China 800,000 950,000 84
Manganese — — 640,000 100 Gabon South Africa 7,400,000 20,000,000 37
Niobium — NA 7,000 100 Brazil Brazil 66,000 75,000 88
Palladium (platinum-group metal) 14 42 90 37 Russia South Africa 80 200 40
Platinum (platinum-group metal) 4 7 37 70 South Africa South Africa 130 180 72
Potash 480,000 — 7,400,000 93 Canada Canada 14,000,000 46,000,000 30
Rare-earth elements9 43,000 — 10
6,100 >90 China China 168,000 280,000 60
Rhenium 9 NA 32 72 Chile Chile 29 59 49
Scandium — — NA 100 NA China NA NA NA
Strontium — — 4,800 100 Mexico Spain 150,000 360,000 42
Tantalum — NA 710 100 China Congo (Kinshasa) 700 2,100 33
Tellurium7 W — W >95 Canada China 340 3
580 59
Tin — 10,000 45,000 78 Indonesia China 91,000 300,000 30
Titanium7
2 3
W W W >90 Japan China 120,000 210,000 57
Tungsten — W W >50 China China 66,000 79,000 84
Vanadium — NA 3,600 100 Canada China 73,000 110,000 66
Zirconium 11
20,000 — 11
30,000 <25 South Africa Australia 400,000 1,200,000 33
E Net exporter. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.
1
Critical minerals as published in the Federal Register on May 18, 2018 (83 FR 23295). Not all critical minerals are listed here. Those not shown include mineral commodities for which not enough information is available
regarding U.S. or world production. The critical minerals cesium, hafnium, and rubidium are not listed in the table because it is thought there is no U.S. production for these commodities.
2
Reported consumption.
3
Excludes U.S. production.
4
Antimony in oxide and unwrought metal, powder.
5
Estimated consumption.
6
Arsenic trioxide.
7
Refinery production.
8
Million cubic meters.
9
Data include lanthanides and yttrium but exclude most scandium.
10
Compounds and metals. The United States is a net exporter of mineral concentrates.
11
Rounded to one significant digit to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
Figure 9.—20-Year Trend of U.S. Net Import Reliance for Critical Minerals
For elements of the periodic table associated with mineral commodities identified as critical in 2018 (83 FR 23295), the figure displays the U.S.
net import reliance (NIR) as a percent of apparent consumption from 2001 through 2021. Barite is listed under barium (Ba). Bauxite is listed
under aluminum (Al). Fluorspar is listed under fluorine (F). Graphite (natural) is listed under carbon (C). Potash is listed under potassium (K).
Rare earths are listed under lanthanides (La–Lu). Net import reliance data are not available (NA) for hafnium for 2001 through 2021, germanium
prior to 2004, tellurium prior to 2010, and titanium for 2008 and 2009. For certain years, the NIR for barite, bauxite, germanium, lithium,
magnesium, rare earths, tellurium, tungsten, and zirconium are rounded to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
19
20
ABRASIVES (MANUFACTURED)
(Fused aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and metallic abrasives)
(Data in metric tons unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Fused aluminum oxide was produced by two companies at three plants in the
United States and Canada. Production of crude fused aluminum oxide had an estimated value of $3.0 million. Silicon
carbide was produced by two companies at two plants in the United States. Production of crude silicon carbide had
an estimated value of about $30 million. Metallic abrasives were produced by 11 companies in eight States.
Production of metallic abrasives had an estimated value of about $100 million. Bonded and coated abrasive products
accounted for most abrasive uses of fused aluminum oxide and silicon carbide. Metallic abrasives are used primarily
for steel shot and grit and cut wire shot, which are used for sandblasting, peening, and stonecutting applications.
Salient Statistics—United States: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Production:
Fused aluminum oxide, crude1, 2 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000
Silicon carbide2 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000 35,000
Metallic abrasives 179,000 180,000 177,000 176,000 180,000
Shipments, metallic abrasives 197,000 196,000 195,000 194,000 200,000
Imports for consumption:
Fused aluminum oxide 206,000 192,000 184,000 121,000 110,000
Silicon carbide 137,000 146,000 131,000 88,000 90,000
Exports:
Fused aluminum oxide 15,500 20,100 18,400 11,400 11,000
Silicon carbide 6,100 10,100 11,500 8,300 12,000
Consumption, apparent:
Fused aluminum oxide3 191,000 172,000 166,000 110,000 100,000
Silicon carbide4 166,000 171,000 155,000 115,000 110,000
Metallic abrasives5 196,000 192,000 192,000 202,000 200,000
Price, average unit value of imports, dollars per ton:
Fused aluminum oxide, regular 489 681 716 666 630
Fused aluminum oxide, high-purity 1,220 1,290 1,250 1,180 1,300
Silicon carbide, crude 479 670 701 628 530
Net import reliance6 as a percentage of apparent consumption:
Fused aluminum oxide >75 >75 >75 >75 >75
Silicon carbide >75 >75 >75 >50 >50
Metallic abrasives E E E 4 5
Recycling: Up to 30% of fused aluminum oxide may be recycled, and about 5% of silicon carbide is recycled.
Import Sources (2017–20): Fused aluminum oxide, crude: China,7 91%; France, 3%; Bahrain and Russia, 2% each;
and other, 2%. Fused aluminum oxide, grain: Canada, 22%; Brazil, 19%; Austria, 15%; China,7 12%; and other, 32%.
Silicon carbide, crude: China,7 88%; the Netherlands and South Africa, 4% each; and other 4%. Silicon carbide, grain:
China,7 47%; Brazil, 21%; Russia, 9%; Norway, 7%; and other, 16%. Metallic abrasives: Canada, 33%; China,7 15%;
Turkey, 12%; Germany, 10%; and other, 30%.
Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–21
Artificial corundum, crude 2818.10.1000 Free.
White, pink, ruby artificial corundum, greater than
97.5% aluminum oxide, grain 2818.10.2010 1.3% ad valorem.
Artificial corundum, not elsewhere specified or
included, fused aluminum oxide, grain 2818.10.2090 1.3% ad valorem.
Silicon carbide, crude 2849.20.1000 Free.
Silicon carbide, grain 2849.20.2000 0.5% ad valorem.
Iron, pig iron, or steel granules 7205.10.0000 Free.
Prepared by Andrew A. Stewart [(703) 648–7723, astewart@usgs.gov]

21
ABRASIVES (MANUFACTURED)
Depletion Allowance: None.
Government Stockpile: None.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, China was the world’s leading producer of abrasive fused aluminum oxide and
abrasive silicon carbide. Imports, especially from China where operating costs were lower, continued to challenge
abrasives producers in the United States and Canada. In recent years, imports of abrasives from Hong Kong have
also increased. Foreign competition is expected to persist and continue to limit production in North America. The
average unit value of imports had increased every year since 2016 for regular fused aluminum oxide and crude silicon
carbide but have decreased since 2020. The average unit values of imports of regular fused aluminum oxide and
crude silicon carbide during the first 7 months of 2021 were 6% and 14% lower, respectively, than those in 2020 and
13% and 33% lower, respectively, than those in 2019.
Abrasives consumption in the United States is greatly influenced by activity in the manufacturing sectors, particularly
the aerospace, automotive, furniture, housing, and steel industries. Automobile and steel production were greatly
affected by the global COVID-19 pandemic as well as a global semiconductor chip shortage, which in turn reduced
the demand for metallic abrasives.
Domestic production remains consistent, although foreign trade continues to be negatively affected by the COVID-19
pandemic. Imports and exports showed signs of recovery from 2020, but they remained significantly below pre-
pandemic levels. Additionally, a global container shortage arose that greatly delayed shipments and caused container
prices to nearly double compared with prices in 2020.
World Production Capacity:
Fused aluminum oxidee Silicon carbidee

2020 2021 2020 2021
United States 60,000 60,000 40,000 40,000
Australia 50,000 50,000 — —
Austria 60,000 60,000 — —
Brazil 50,000 50,000 40,000 40,000
China 800,000 800,000 450,000 450,000
France 40,000 40,000 20,000 20,000
Germany 80,000 80,000 35,000 35,000
India 40,000 40,000 5,000 5,000
Japan 15,000 15,000 60,000 60,000
Mexico — — 45,000 45,000
Norway — — 80,000 80,000
Venezuela — — 30,000 30,000
Other countries 80,000 80,000 200,000 200,000
World total (rounded) 1,300,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 1,000,000
World Resources:8 Although domestic resources of raw materials for fused aluminum oxide production are limited,
adequate resources are available in the Western Hemisphere. Domestic resources are more than adequate for silicon
carbide production.
Substitutes: Natural and manufactured abrasives, such as garnet, emery, or metallic abrasives, can be substituted
for fused aluminum oxide and silicon carbide in various applications.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. — Zero.
1
Production data for aluminum oxide are combined production data from the United States and Canada to avoid disclosing company proprietary
data.
2
Rounded to the nearest 5,000 tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
3
Defined as imports – exports because production includes data from Canada; actual consumption is higher than that shown.
4
Defined as production + imports – exports.
5
Defined as shipments + imports – exports.
6
Defined as imports – exports.
7
Includes Hong Kong.
8
See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.
U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022

22
ALUMINUM1
(Data in thousand metric tons unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, three companies operated six primary aluminum smelters in five States.
Two smelters operated at full capacity and four smelters operated at reduced capacity throughout the year. Another
smelter remained on standby throughout the year, and one that had been on standby since 2015 was permanently
shut down in December. Domestic smelters were operating at about 55% of capacity of 1.64 million tons per year at
yearend 2021. Estimated primary production decreased by 13% compared with that in 2020 but estimated secondary
production from new and old scrap increased by 5% compared with that in 2021. Based on published prices, the
value of primary aluminum production was about $2.70 billion, 35% more than the value in 2020. The average annual
U.S. market price increased by about 55% from that in 2020. Transportation applications accounted for 35% of
domestic consumption; in descending order of consumption, the remainder was used in packaging, 23%; building,
16%; electrical, 9%; consumer durables, 7%; machinery, 7%; and other, 3%.

Production:
Primary 741 891 1,093 1,012 880
Secondary (from old scrap) 1,590 1,570 1,540 1,420 1,500
Secondary (from new scrap) 2,050 2,140 1,920 1,630 1,700
Crude and semimanufactures 6,220 5,550 5,280 4,320 4,800
Scrap 700 695 596 542 700
Exports:
Crude and semimanufactures 1,330 1,310 1,110 905 820
Scrap 1,570 1,760 1,860 1,850 2,000
Consumption, apparent2 5,680 4,900 4,980 3,980 4,300
Supply, apparent3 7,730 7,040 6,910 5,620 6,000
Price, ingot, average U.S. market (spot), cents per pound 98.3 114.7 99.5 89.7 140
Stocks, yearend:
Aluminum industry 1,470 1,570 1,600 1,490 1,700
London Metal Exchange (LME), U.S. warehouses4 254 186 e120 235 100
Employment, number5 31,700 31,600 32,900 30,100 30,000
Net import reliance6 as a percentage of apparent consumption 59 50 47 39 44
Recycling: In 2021, aluminum recovered from purchased scrap in the United States was about 3.2 million tons, of
which about 53% came from new (manufacturing) scrap and 47% from old scrap (discarded aluminum products).
Aluminum recovered from old scrap was equivalent to about 30% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 50%; the United Arab Emirates, 9%; Russia, 6%; China,7 4%; and other, 31%.

12–31–21
Aluminum, not alloyed:
Unwrought (in coils) 7601.10.3000 2.6% ad valorem.
Unwrought (other than aluminum alloys) 7601.10.6000 Free.
Aluminum alloys, unwrought (billet) 7601.20.9045 Free.
Aluminum scrap:
Used beverage container scrap 7602.00.0030 Free.
Industrial process scrap 7602.00.0091 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.1
Events, Trends, and Issues: In March, a primary aluminum smelter in Mount Holly, SC, signed a new power supply
contract through the end of 2023. The contract would provide enough power for the 230,000-ton-per-year smelter to
restart about 57,000 tons per year of capacity. The smelter had only been producing at a rate of 115,000 tons per
year. The restart of the additional capacity was expected to be completed early in 2022 after maintenance was
completed. In December, the temporary shutdown of a 146,000-ton-per-year smelter in Wenatchee, WA, was made
permanent. The smelter last produced in 2015. Prices for aluminum generally trended upward throughout 2021 in the
United States and in world markets. High power prices attributed to higher coal prices and shutdowns of powerplants
complying with environmental regulations were cited for increased aluminum prices in China, the world’s leading
Prepared by E. Lee Bray [(703) 648–4979, lbray@usgs.gov]
23
ALUMINUM
producer. Additionally, higher prices for alumina amid shutdowns of alumina refineries in Brazil and China in July and
in Jamaica in August added pressure to production costs for smelters.
In June, the U.S. Department of Commerce (DOC) opened the Aluminum Import Monitoring and Analysis (AIM)
system (https://www.trade.gov/aluminum) for submitting applications for required licenses to import covered aluminum
products. The AIM system is intended to aid in enforcement of trade agreements and circumvent evasion of tariffs
and quotas on aluminum and aluminum products. In October, an agreement was reached between the United States
and the European Union to remove the 10% ad valorem tariff on aluminum imports that was imposed in 2018 under
the authority of section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1964. Effective in January 2022, the tariff would only be
applied on imports from countries in the European Union that exceed specified quotas.
In 2021, the DOC issued final determinations of antidumping and countervailing duty investigations for aluminum foil
imports and common alloy aluminum sheet imports. Foil imports from China between August 14, 2017, and
December 31, 2018, had antidumping duty rates assessed that ranged from 23.62% to 47.57% and countervailing
duty rates that ranged from 17.05% to 48.36%. Final countervailing determinations of aluminum foil imports from
Oman and Turkey in 2019 were made by the U.S. International Trade Commission in September with countervailing
duty rates set at 1.93% for imports from Oman and 2.6% for imports from Turkey. In October, the DOC issued final
antidumping duty rates for aluminum foil imported between July 1, 2019, and June 30, 2020, ranging from 29.11% for
Armenia, 13.93% to 63.05% for Brazil, 3.89% for Oman, and 62.18% for Russia. In March, the DOC issued its final
determinations of an antidumping investigation of common alloy aluminum sheet imports from 18 countries and
determined that imports produced in 16 countries were sold below fair market value. The countervailing duty
investigation determined that producers in three countries also benefited from Government subsidy programs.
World Smelter Production and Capacity: Capacity data for Bahrain, China, the United Arab Emirates, and the
United States were revised based on company and Government data.
Smelter production Yearend capacity

2020 2021e 2020 2021e
United States 1,012 880 1,790 1,640
Australia 1,580 1,600 1,720 1,720
Bahrain 1,550 1,500 1,550 1,550
Canada 3,120 3,100 3,270 3,270
China 37,100 39,000 42,300 43,000
Iceland 860 880 890 890
India 3,560 3,900 4,060 4,060
Norway 1,330 1,400 1,430 1,430
Russia 3,640 3,700 4,020 4,020
United Arab Emirates 2,520 2,600 2,700 2,780
Other countries 8,880 9,400 12,300 12,300
World total (rounded) 65,100 68,000 76,000 77,000
World Resources:8 Global resources of bauxite are estimated to be between 55 billion and 75 billion tons and are
sufficient to meet world demand for metal well into the future.
Substitutes: Composites can substitute for aluminum in aircraft fuselages and wings. Glass, paper, plastics, and
steel can substitute for aluminum in packaging. Composites, magnesium, steel, and titanium can substitute for
aluminum in ground transportation uses. Composites, steel, vinyl, and wood can substitute for aluminum in
construction. Copper can replace aluminum in electrical and heat-exchange applications.
e
Estimated.
1
See also Bauxite and Alumina.
2
Defined as primary production + secondary production from old scrap + imports – exports + adjustments for stock changes; excludes imported
scrap.
3
Defined as primary production + secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for stock changes; excludes imported scrap.
4
Includes aluminum alloy. Starting with 2019, also includes off-warrant stocks of primary and alloyed aluminum; estimated for 2019.
5
Alumina and aluminum production workers (North American Industry Classification System—3313). Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of
Labor Statistics.
6
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes; excludes imported scrap.
7
Includes Hong Kong.
8

24
ANTIMONY
(Data in metric tons of contained antimony unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, no marketable antimony was mined in the United States. A mine in Nevada
that had extracted about 800 tons of stibnite ore from 2013 through 2014 was placed on care-and-maintenance status
in 2015 and had no reported production in 2021. Primary antimony metal and oxide were produced by one company
in Montana using imported feedstock. Secondary antimony production was derived mostly from antimonial lead
recovered from spent lead-acid batteries. The estimated value of secondary antimony produced in 2021 was about
$47 million. Recycling supplied about 15% of estimated domestic consumption, and the remainder came mostly from
imports. The value of antimony consumption in 2021 was about $320 million. In the United States, the leading uses of
antimony were as follows: flame retardants, 40%; metal products, including antimonial lead and ammunition, 36%;
and nonmetal products, including ceramics and glass and rubber products, 24%.

Production:
Mine (recoverable antimony) — — — — —
Smelter:
Primary 621 331 377 254 460
Secondary 4,370 4,090 4,140 4,250 4,100
Ore and concentrates 61 96 121 105 29
Oxide 17,800 19,200 17,300 15,000 18,000
Unwrought, powder 6,810 6,320 6,670 5,520 7,700
Waste and scrap1 16 202 17 6 11
Exports:
Ore and concentrates1 46 38 9 10 11
Oxide 1,600 1,750 1,570 1,230 1,600
Unwrought, powder 643 497 370 393 770
Waste and scrap1 11 9 14 11 130
Price, metal, average, dollars per pound3 3.77 3.81 3.04 2.67 5.20
Recycling: The bulk of secondary antimony is recovered at secondary lead smelters as antimonial lead, most of
which was generated by, and then consumed by, the lead-acid battery industry.
Import Sources (2017–20): Ore and concentrates: China, 42%; Italy, 36%; India, 11%; Mexico, 4%; and other, 7%.
Oxide: China,5 71%; Belgium, 10%; Bolivia, 6%; Thailand, 5%; and other, 8%. Unwrought metal and powder: China,5
37%; India, 24%; Vietnam, 11%; Burma, 9%; and other, 19%. Total metal and oxide: China,5 63%; Belgium, 7%;
India, 6%; and other, 24%.

12–31–21
Ore and concentrates 2617.10.0000 Free.
Antimony oxide 2825.80.0000 Free.
Antimony and articles thereof:
Unwrought antimony; powder 8110.10.0000 Free.
Waste and scrap 8110.20.0000 Free.
Other 8110.90.0000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: 22% (domestic), 14% (foreign).
Government Stockpile:6
FY 2021 FY 2022
Inventory Potential Potential Potential Potential
Material as of 9–30–21 acquisitions disposals acquisitions disposals
Antimony 90.12 1,100 — 1,100 —
Prepared by Kateryna Klochko [(703) 648–4977, kklochko@usgs.gov]

25
ANTIMONY
Events, Trends, and Issues: China continued to be the leading global antimony producer in 2021 and accounted for
55% of global mine production, followed by Russia, 23%, and Tajikistan, 12%. The supply of antimony raw materials
and downstream production of antimony products was constrained in 2021 as a result of environmental audits in
China and various temporary mine shutdowns to mitigate the spread of the global COVID-19 pandemic. The raw
material shortage combined with the worldwide shipping delays caused a supply shortage of refined antimony on the
market, and the antimony price reached a high of $6.65 per pound in October 2021 compared with the annual
average price of $2.67 per pound in 2020.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia and Burma were revised based on Government and
industry reports.
Mine production Reserves7

2020 2021e
United States — — 860,000
Australia 3,900 3,400 9100,000
Bolivia 2,600 2,700 310,000

Burma 2,200 2,000 140,000
Canada 2 2 78,000
China 61,000 60,000 480,000
Guatemala 80 80 NA
Iran 400 400 NA
Kazakhstan 100 100 NA
Kyrgyzstan — — 260,000
Mexico 700 700 18,000
Pakistan 17 20 26,000
Russia (recoverable) 25,000 25,000 350,000
Tajikistan 13,000 13,000 50,000
Turkey 1,330 1,300 100,000
Vietnam 390 400 NA
World total (rounded) 111,000 110,000 >2,000,000
World Resources:7 U.S. resources of antimony are mainly in Alaska, Idaho, Montana, and Nevada. Principal
identified world resources are in Australia, Bolivia, Burma, China, Mexico, Russia, South Africa, and Tajikistan.
Additional antimony resources may occur in Mississippi Valley-type lead deposits in the Eastern United States.
Substitutes: Selected organic compounds and hydrated aluminum oxide are substitutes as flame retardants.
Chromium, tin, titanium, zinc, and zirconium compounds substitute for antimony chemicals in enamels, paint, and
pigments. Combinations of calcium, copper, selenium, sulfur, and tin are substitutes for alloys in lead-acid batteries.
e
Estimated. NA Not available. — Zero.
1
Gross weight.
2
Defined as primary production + secondary production from old scrap + imports of antimony in oxide and unwrought metal, powder – exports of
antimony in oxide and unwrought metal, powder + adjustments for Government stock changes.
3
Antimony minimum 99.65%, cost, insurance, and freight. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
4
Defined as imports of antimony in oxide and unwrought metal, powder – exports of antimony in oxide and unwrought metal, powder + adjustments
for Government stock changes.
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6
See Appendix B for definitions.
7
8
Company-reported probable reserves for the Stibnite Gold Project in Idaho.
9
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 18,000 tons.

26
ARSENIC
(Data in metric tons of contained arsenic1 unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Arsenic trioxide and primary arsenic metal have not been produced in the
United States since 1985. The principal use for arsenic trioxide was for the production of arsenic acid used in the
formulation of chromated copper arsenate (CCA) preservatives for the pressure treating of lumber used primarily in
nonresidential applications. Seven companies produced CCA-treated wood in the United States in 2021. The grids in
lead-acid storage batteries were strengthened by the addition of arsenic metal. Arsenic metal also was used as an
antifriction additive for bearings, to harden lead shot, and in clip-on wheel weights. Arsenic compounds were used in
herbicides and insecticides. High-purity (99.9999%) arsenic metal was used to produce gallium-arsenide (GaAs)
semiconductors for solar cells, space research, and telecommunications. Arsenic also was used for germanium-
arsenide-selenide specialty optical materials. Indium-gallium-arsenide (InGaAs) was used for short-wave infrared
technology. The value of arsenic compounds and metal imported domestically in 2021 was estimated to be about
$8 million. Given that arsenic metal has not been produced domestically since 1985, it is likely that only a small
portion of the material reported by the U.S. Census Bureau as arsenic exports was pure arsenic metal, and most of
the material that was reported under this category reflects the gross weight of alloys, compounds, residues, scrap,
and waste containing arsenic. Therefore, the estimated consumption reported under U.S. salient statistics reflects
only imports of arsenic products.

Arsenic metal 942 929 391 522 750
Compounds 5,980 5,540 7,090 7,780 6,000
Exports, all forms of arsenic (gross weight) 698 107 56 29 40
Consumption, estimated, all forms of arsenic2 6,920 6,470 7,480 8,300 6,800
Price, average unit value of imports (free alongside
ship),3 dollars per kilogram:
Arsenic metal (China) 1.56 1.43 1.93 1.51 1.28
Trioxide (China) 0.45 0.44 0.46 0.43 0.43
Trioxide (Morocco) 0.68 0.75 0.78 0.83 0.84
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of estimated
consumption, all forms of arsenic 100 100 100 100 100
Recycling: Arsenic metal was contained in new scrap recycled during GaAs semiconductor manufacturing. Arsenic-
containing process water was internally recycled at wood treatment plants where CCA was used. Although scrap
electronic circuit boards, relays, and switches may contain arsenic, no arsenic was known to have been recovered
during the recycling process to recover other contained metals. No arsenic was recovered domestically from arsenic-
containing residues and dusts generated at nonferrous smelters in the United States.
Import Sources (2017–20): Arsenic metal: China,5 95%; Japan, 4%; and other, 1%. Arsenic trioxide: China, 57%;
Morocco, 38%; Belgium, 4%; and other, 1%. All forms of arsenic: China,5 60%; Morocco, 34%; Belgium, 3%; and
other, 3%.

12–31–21
Arsenic metal 2804.80.0000 Free.
Arsenic acid 2811.19.1000 2.3% ad valorem.
Arsenic trioxide 2811.29.1000 Free.
Arsenic sulfide 2813.90.1000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: 14% (domestic and foreign).
Prepared by Micheal W. George [(703) 648–4962, mgeorge@usgs.gov]

27
ARSENIC
Events, Trends, and Issues: Peru, China, and Morocco, in descending order, were the leading global producers of
arsenic trioxide, accounting for about 98% of estimated world production. China and Morocco continued to supply
about 90% of United States imports of arsenic trioxide in 2021. China was the leading world producer of arsenic metal
and supplied about 94% of United States arsenic metal imports in 2021.
High-purity arsenic metal was used to produce GaAs, indium-arsenide, and InGaAs semiconductors that were used in
biomedical, communications, computer, electronics, and photovoltaic applications. Total revenues from GaAs devices
increased in 2021 because of fifth-generation (5G) technology that became standard for broadband cellular 5G
networks and consumer devices. A variety of GaAs wafer manufacturers ranging from large, multinational
corporations to small, privately owned companies competed in this industry, but the top six producers accounted for
more than 75% of the market. China and Japan each produced about 30% of global GaAs, followed by Europe (20%),
North America (15%), and the rest of the world (5%). See the Gallium chapter for additional details.
World Production and Reserves (gross weight):
Productione, 6 Reserves7
(arsenic trioxide)
2020 2021
United States — — World reserves data are unavailable
Belgium 1,000 1,000 but are thought to be more than
Bolivia 100 160 20 times world production.
China 24,000 24,000
Japan 40 40
Morocco 7,700 7,000
Peru 27,000 27,000
Russia 120 100
World total (rounded) 60,000 59,000
World Resources:7 Arsenic may be obtained from copper, gold, and lead smelter flue dust, as well as from roasting
arsenopyrite, the most abundant ore mineral of arsenic. Arsenic has been recovered from orpiment and realgar in
China, Peru, and the Philippines and from copper-gold ores in Chile, and arsenic was associated with gold
occurrences in Canada. Orpiment and realgar from gold mines in Sichuan Province, China, were stockpiled for later
recovery of arsenic. Arsenic also may be recovered from enargite, a copper mineral. Arsenic trioxide was produced at
the hydrometallurgical complex of Guemassa, near Marrakech, Morocco, from cobalt-arsenide ore from the
Bou Azzer Mine.
Substitutes: Substitutes for CCA in wood treatment include alkaline copper quaternary, ammoniacal copper
quaternary, ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate, alkaline copper quaternary boron-based preservatives, copper azole,
copper citrate, and copper naphthenate. Treated wood substitutes include concrete, plastic composite material,
plasticized wood scrap, or steel. Silicon-based complementary metal-oxide semiconductor power amplifiers compete
with GaAs power amplifiers in midtier third-generation cellular handsets. Indium phosphide components can be
substituted for GaAs-based infrared laser diodes in some specific-wavelength applications, and helium-neon lasers
compete with GaAs in visible laser diode applications. Silicon is the principal competitor with GaAs in solar-cell
applications. In many defense-related applications, GaAs-based integrated circuits are used because of their unique
properties, and no effective substitutes exist for GaAs in these applications. In heterojunction bipolar transistors,
GaAs is being replaced in some applications by silicon-germanium.
e
Estimated. — Zero.
1
Arsenic content of arsenic metal is 100%; arsenic content of arsenic compounds is 77.7% for arsenic acids, 60.7% for arsenic sulfides, and
75.71% for arsenic trioxide.
2
Estimated to be the same as imports.
3
Calculated from U.S. Census Bureau import data.
4
Defined as imports.
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6
Includes calculated arsenic trioxide equivalent of output of elemental arsenic compounds other than arsenic trioxide; inclusion of such materials
would not duplicate reported arsenic trioxide production. Chile and Mexico were thought to be significant producers of commercial-grade arsenic
trioxide but have reported no production in recent years.
7

28
ASBESTOS
Domestic Production and Use: The last U.S. producer of asbestos ceased operations in 2002 as a result of the
decline in domestic and international asbestos markets associated with health and liability issues. The United States
has since been wholly dependent on imports to meet manufacturing needs. All the asbestos fiber currently imported
into and used within the United States consists of chrysotile. In 2021, domestic consumption of chrysotile was
estimated to be 320 tons, and all imports originated from Brazil, based on data available through July. The chloralkali
industry, which uses chrysotile to manufacture nonreactive semipermeable diaphragms that prevent chlorine
generated at the anode of an electrolytic cell from reacting with sodium hydroxide generated at the cathode, has
accounted for 100% of asbestos fiber consumption since at least 2015. In addition to asbestos fiber, a small, but
unknown, quantity of asbestos is imported annually within manufactured products. According to the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the only imported items known to contain asbestos are brake blocks for use
in the oil industry, preformed gaskets used in the exhaust system of a specific type of utility vehicle, rubber sheets for
gasket fabrication (primarily used to create a chemical containment seal in the production of titanium dioxide), and
some vehicle friction products.1
Salient Statistics—United States:2 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Imports for consumption3 332 681 172 305 4100
Exports5 — — — — —
Consumption, estimated6 520 500 450 450 320
Price, average U.S. customs unit value, dollars per ton 1,870 1,670 1,570 2,110 2,000
Net import reliance7 as a percentage of estimated consumption 100 100 100 100 100
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Brazil, 80%; and Russia, 20%.

12–31–21
Crocidolite 2524.10.0000 Free.
Amosite 2524.90.0010 Free.
Chrysotile:
Crudes 2524.90.0030 Free.
Milled fibers, group 3 grades 2524.90.0040 Free.
Milled fibers, group 4 and 5 grades 2524.90.0045 Free.
Other 2524.90.0055 Free.
Other, asbestos 2524.90.0060 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Consumption of asbestos fiber in the United States has decreased during the past
several decades, falling from a record high of 803,000 tons in 1973 to approximately 520 tons or less in each year
since 2017. This decline has taken place as a result of health and liability issues associated with asbestos use,
leading to the displacement of asbestos from traditional domestic markets by substitutes, alternative materials, and
new technology. The chloralkali industry is the only remaining domestic consumer of asbestos in mineral form.
Asbestos diaphragms are used in at least 11 chloralkali plants in the United States and account for about one-third of
domestic chlorine production.
The Frank R. Lautenberg Chemical Safety for the 21st Century Act, which amended the Toxic Substances Control
Act of 1976 (TSCA), was signed into law in 2016. The legislation granted the EPA greater authority to evaluate the
hazards posed by new chemicals as well as those already in the marketplace. The EPA issued the final risk
evaluation report for chrysotile in 2020. The agency determined that the disposal, processing, and (or) use of
chrysotile in the chloralkali industry and in all chrysotile-containing manufactured products that are currently imported
into the United States (oil industry brake blocks, sheet and other gaskets, and some vehicle friction products) present
unreasonable risks to human health. As required by the TSCA, the EPA will propose and finalize actions to address
these risks by yearend 2022. The new regulations could include limitations or prohibitions on the disposal, distribution
in commerce, manufacture, processing, or use of chrysotile.1
Prepared by Daniel M. Flanagan [(703) 648–7726, dflanagan@usgs.gov]

29
ASBESTOS
Estimated worldwide consumption of asbestos fiber decreased from approximately 2 million tons in 2010 to roughly
1.2 million tons per year in the past several years. Asbestos-cement products, such as corrugated roofing tiles, pipes,
and wall panels, are expected to continue to be the leading global market for asbestos.
In Brazil, a comprehensive national ban on asbestos was enacted in November 2017. A judicial injunction allowed the
only asbestos producer in the country to continue operating until February 2019, when production ceased. In July
2019, the government of the State of Goias passed a law that authorized the extraction of asbestos in the State for
export purposes, and ore processing was restarted in February 2020. In August 2021, the Federal Court of Uruacu
ruled that the company must immediately suspend mining, processing, and export of asbestos.
At the former King Mine in Mashava, Zimbabwe, asbestos production from old tailings commenced in 2019. As of
March 2020, the company had completed dewatering of the mining shafts and was in the process of selling real
estate assets to fund the restart of mining operations and dewatering an additional asbestos mine in Zvishavane. At
full capacity, the King Mine was expected to produce 75,000 tons per year of asbestos. Updates on the status of
these projects were not available as of September 2021.
World Mine Production and Reserves:
Mine productione
2020 2021 Reserves8
United States — — Small
Brazil 971,200 110,000 11,000,000
China 120,000 120,000 95,000,000
Kazakhstan 10227,000 250,000 Large
Russia 720,000 700,000 110,000,000
Zimbabwe 8,000 10,000 Large
World total (rounded) 1,100,000 1,200,000 Large
World Resources:8 Reliable evaluations of global asbestos resources have not been published recently, and
available information was insufficient to make accurate estimates for many countries. However, world resources are
large and more than adequate to meet anticipated demand in the foreseeable future. Resources in the United States
are composed mostly of short-fiber asbestos for which use in asbestos-based products is more limited than long-fiber
asbestos.
Substitutes: Numerous materials substitute for asbestos. Substitutes include calcium silicate, carbon fiber, cellulose
fiber, ceramic fiber, glass fiber, steel fiber, wollastonite, and several organic fibers, such as aramid, polyethylene,
polypropylene, and polytetrafluoroethylene. Several nonfibrous minerals or rocks, such as perlite, serpentine, silica,
and talc, are also considered to be possible asbestos substitutes for products in which the reinforcement properties of
fibers are not required. Membrane cells and mercury cells are alternatives to asbestos diaphragms used in the
chloralkali industry.
e
1
Source: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2020, Risk evaluation for asbestos, part I—Chrysotile asbestos: Washington, DC, EPA Document
# EPA-740-R1-8012, December, 352 p.
2
Includes asbestos fiber (chrysotile) only; excludes asbestos contained in manufactured products.
3
Additional chrysotile imports were reported by the U.S. Census Bureau in some years, but existing asbestos bans and bill of lading information
from a commercial trade database suggest that some shipments were misclassified.
4
According to the U.S. Census Bureau, imports of chrysotile totaled 41 tons through July. Final 2021 imports may differ significantly from the
provided estimate because chrysotile imports typically do not follow a predictable pattern throughout the year.
5
Exports of asbestos reported by the U.S. Census Bureau were 143 tons in 2017, 235 tons in 2018, 2 tons in 2019, 1 ton in 2020, and 127 tons
through July in 2021. These shipments likely consisted of materials misclassified as asbestos, reexports, and (or) waste products because the
United States no longer mines asbestos.
6
To account for year-to-year fluctuations in chrysotile imports owing to cycles of companies replenishing and drawing down stockpiles, consumption
is estimated as a 5-year rolling average of imports for consumption. Information regarding the quantity of industry stocks was unavailable.
7
Defined as imports – exports. The United States has been 100% net import reliant since 2002. All consumption of asbestos was from imports and
unreported inventories.
8
9
Asbestos production permitted for export purposes only. Value shown is reported country exports.
10
Reported.

30
BARITE
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, one company in Nevada mined barite from two mines that operated
intermittently, but mine production data were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Another company
in Nevada processed domestically mined barite from material that had been previously stockpiled. A third company’s
mining and processing assets in Nevada were reportedly idled and put up for sale. An estimated 1.5 million tons of
barite (from domestic production and imports) was sold by crushers and grinders operating in eight States. Typically,
more than 90% of the barite sold in the United States is used as a weighting agent in fluids used in the drilling of oil
and natural gas wells. The majority of Nevada crude barite was ground in Nevada and then sold to companies drilling
in the Central and Western United States. Because of the higher cost of rail and truck transportation compared to
ocean freight, offshore drilling operations in the Gulf of Mexico and onshore drilling operations in other regions
primarily used imported barite.
Barite also is used as a filler, extender, or weighting agent in products such as paints, plastics, and rubber. Some
specific applications include use in automobile brake and clutch pads, in automobile paint primer for metal protection
and gloss, as a weighting agent in rubber, and in the cement jacket around underwater petroleum pipelines. In the
metal-casting industry, barite is part of the mold-release compounds. Because barite significantly blocks X-ray and
gamma-ray emissions, it is used as aggregate in high-density concrete for radiation shielding around X-ray units in
hospitals, nuclear powerplants, and university nuclear research facilities. Ultrapure barite is used as a contrast
medium in X-ray and computed tomography examinations of the gastrointestinal tract.

Production:
Sold or used, mine 334 366 414 W W
Ground and crushed1 2,030 2,420 2,350 1,410 1,500
Imports for consumption2 2,470 2,460 2,500 1,480 1,700
Exports3 116 67 38 48 45
Consumption, apparent (crude and ground)4 2,680 2,760 2,880 W W
Price, average value, ground, ex-works, dollars per ton 179 176 179 183 180
Employment, mine and mill, numbere 450 520 480 330 310
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption 88 87 86 >75 >75
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): China,6 41%; India, 28%; Morocco, 14%; Mexico, 13%; and other, 4%.

12–31–21
Ground barite 2511.10.1000 Free.
Crude barite 2511.10.5000 $1.25 per metric ton.
Barium compounds:
Barium oxide, hydroxide, and peroxide 2816.40.2000 2% ad valorem.
Barium chloride 2827.39.4500 4.2% ad valorem.
Barium sulfate, precipitated 2833.27.0000 0.6% ad valorem.
Barium carbonate, precipitated 2836.60.0000 2.3% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic and global drilling rig counts, which have historically been a good barometer
of barite consumption, generally increased throughout 2021. This trend was reflected in domestic sales of ground
barite, which were estimated to have increased by 6% in 2021, attributed primarily to increased sales in Texas. World
mine production was estimated to have increased by 8%. Despite modest increases in 2021, domestic and global
production and consumption of barite were estimated to have remained well below the quantities attained prior to the
global COVID-19 pandemic. Production in most leading barite-producing countries was estimated to have remained
essentially unchanged compared with that in 2020 with the exception of Morocco. According to some domestic
consumers, barite suppliers in Morocco were able to offer smaller shipments and shorter lead times than suppliers in
China and India, which supported increased production. This allowed domestic consumers increased flexibility in
responding to uncertainty in anticipated future consumption levels.
Prepared by Michele E. McRae [(703) 648–7743, mmcrae@usgs.gov]

31
BARITE
Barite trade was negatively affected by ongoing logistics issues. In addition to contributing to reduced consumption of
transport fuels, which directly affected barite consumption, continued travel restrictions were a factor in some areas.
For example, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, production in Laos had begun to emerge as a potentially significant
new source of global supply. In 2020 and 2021, barite exports from Laos, a landlocked country, were reportedly
inhibited by border closures with neighboring countries. Domestic importers also noted cost increases per ton of
barite because of increased land- and ocean-based freight rates. As a bulk commodity used primarily for its weight,
transportation expenses are a substantial component of the final cost of barite used on a per ton basis. However, it is
unclear if these cost increases affected sales prices.
In 2021, researchers at Purdue University filed a patent application for a barium sulfate (barite)-based formulation for
white paint that had a higher reflectivity compared with all other white paints. The new formulation, which used a
higher concentration of barite with a broader range of particle sizes, had an ambient-cooling effect when used on
exterior surfaces.
World Mine Production and Reserves: In response to concerns about dwindling global reserves of 4.2-specific-
gravity barite used by the oil and gas drilling industry, the American Petroleum Institute issued an alternate
specification for 4.1-specific-gravity weighting agents in 2010. Estimated reserves data are included only if developed
since the adoption of the 4.1-specific-gravity standard.

2020 2021e
United States W W NA
China 82,800 82,800 36,000
India 1,600 1,600 51,000
Iran 202 200 100,000
Kazakhstan 445 450 85,000
Laos 180 110 NA
Mexico 323 320 NA
Morocco 410 1,100 NA
Pakistan 86 50 40,000
Russia 287 150 12,000
Turkey 180 180 35,000
Other countries 329 370 30,000
World total (rounded) 96,840 97,300 NA
World Resources:7 In the United States, identified resources of barite are estimated to be 150 million tons, and
undiscovered resources contribute an additional 150 million tons. The world’s barite resources in all categories are
about 2 billion tons, but only about 740 million tons are identified resources
Substitutes: In the oil- and gas-drilling industry, alternatives to barite include celestite, ilmenite, iron ore, and
synthetic hematite that is manufactured in Germany. However, the use of substitutes has been in relatively small
amounts, and barite remains the preferred choice for drilling applications.
e
Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
1
Imported and domestic barite, crushed and ground, sold or used by domestic grinding establishments.
2
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2511.10.1000, 2511.10.5000, and 2833.27.0000.
3
Includes data for the following Schedule B codes: 2511.10.1000 and 2833.27.0000.
4
Defined as sold or used by domestic mines + imports – exports.
5
6
Includes Hong Kong.
7
8
The China Industrial Minerals Yearbook estimated that production was closer to 4 million tons.
9

32
BAUXITE AND ALUMINA1
(Data in thousand metric dry tons unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the reported quantity of bauxite consumed was estimated to be 3.6 million
tons, 8% more than that reported in 2020, with an estimated value of about $115 million. About 70% of the bauxite
was refined by the Bayer process for alumina or aluminum hydroxide, and the remainder went to products such as
abrasives, cement, chemicals, proppants, and refractories, and as a slag adjuster in steel mills. Alumina production
was estimated to be 1 million tons, 25% less than that in 2020. One domestic alumina refinery with production
capacity of 1.2 million tons per year accounted for all the production in 2021. Another alumina refinery with
500,000 tons per year of capacity was on care-and-maintenance status the entire year. About 55% of the alumina
produced went to primary aluminum smelters, and the remainder went to nonmetallurgical products, such as
abrasives, ceramics, chemicals, and refractories.

Bauxite:
Production, mine W W W W W
Exports2 29 16 15 15 12
Stocks, industry, yearende, 2 880 600 300 250 200
Consumption:
Apparent3 W W W W W
Reported 4,330 4,460 3,680 3,330 3,600
Price, average value of imports, free alongside ship (f.a.s.), 31 31 32 26 32
dollars per ton
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of apparent consumption >75 >75 >75 >75 >75
Alumina:
Production, refinery5 1,430 1,570 1,410 1,340 1,000
Exports5 481 288 200 162 190
Stocks, industry, yearend5 264 275 275 234 150
Price, average value of imports, f.a.s., dollars per ton 486 592 480 412 450
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Bauxite:2 Jamaica, 62%; Brazil, 13%; Guyana, 8%; Australia, 6%; and other, 11%.
Alumina:5 Brazil, 54%; Australia, 20%; Jamaica, 12%; Canada, 5%; and other, 9%.

12–31–21
Bauxite, calcined (refractory grade) 2606.00.0030 Free.
Bauxite, calcined (other) 2606.00.0060 Free.
Bauxite, crude dry (metallurgical grade) 2606.00.0090 Free.
Aluminum oxide (alumina) 2818.20.0000 Free.
Aluminum hydroxide 2818.30.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, one domestic alumina refinery produced alumina from imported bauxite. A
1.2-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery in Gramercy, LA, produced alumina for aluminum smelting and specialty-
grade alumina. The Gramercy alumina refinery stopped production for about 1 week at the end of August as a
precaution when Hurricane Ida approached the region, but restarted production soon afterwards. A 500,000-ton-per-
year alumina refinery in Burnside, LA, was temporarily shut down in August 2020, and no plans have been
announced regarding reopening. The average prices, f.a.s., for U.S. imports for consumption of crude dry bauxite and
metallurgical-grade alumina during the first 9 months of 2021 were $32 per ton, 19% more than that in the same
period in 2020, and $450 per ton, 18% more than that in the same period of 2020, respectively.

33
BAUXITE AND ALUMINA1
In April 2021, a 2.8-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery in Shanxi Province, China, restarted production after being
shut down in May 2019 after a spill from its red mud disposal impoundment. Flooding in Henan Province, China, was
cited for several alumina refineries shutting down production for about 2 weeks in July. Environmental and safety
audits were cited for several alumina refineries and bauxite mines shutting down production in several locations in
China throughout the year, and production was not expected to restart at some locations until 2022. In Indonesia, a
new 1-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery started production and shipped its first product in July. In July, a
3.5-million-ton-per-year alumina refinery in Brazil temporarily shut down about one-third of its capacity citing damage
to equipment used to unload bauxite, but production was restarted in early October. In August, a 1.42-million-ton-per-
year alumina refinery in Jamaica temporarily shut down after a fire caused major damage to its powerhouse.
World Alumina Refinery and Bauxite Mine Production and Bauxite Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Saudi
Arabia, Vietnam, and some listed in “Other countries” were revised based on information from Government and other
sources.
Refinery and mine production Bauxite reserves6

Alumina5 Bauxite
2020 2021e 2020 2021e
United States 1,340 1,000 W W 20,000
Australia 20,800 21,000 104,000 110,000 75,300,000
Brazil 10,300 11,000 31,000 32,000 2,700,000

Canada 1,520 1,500 — — —
China 73,100 74,000 92,700 86,000 1,000,000
Germany 1,900 1,900 — — —
Guinea 439 400 86,000 85,000 7,400,000
India 6,560 6,800 20,200 22,000 660,000
Indonesia 1,200 1,500 20,800 18,000 1,200,000
Ireland 1,880 1,900 — — —
Jamaica 1,620 1,200 7,550 5,800 2,000,000
Kazakhstan 1,400 1,500 5,000 5,200 160,000
Russia 2,870 3,100 5,570 6,200 500,000
Saudi Arabia 1,810 1,800 4,310 4,300 180,000
Spain 1,550 1,600 — — —
Ukraine 1,730 1,700 — — —
United Arab Emirates 1,920 2,000 — — —
Vietnam 1,400 1,400 3,500 3,500 5,800,000
Other countries 2,700 3,000 10,500 12,000 5,100,000
World total (rounded) 136,000 140,000 8391,000 8390,000 32,000,000
World Resources:6 Bauxite resources are estimated to be between 55 billion and 75 billion tons, distributed in Africa
(32%), Oceania (23%), South America and the Caribbean (21%), Asia (18%), and elsewhere (6%). Domestic
resources of bauxite are inadequate to meet long-term U.S. demand, but the United States and most other major
aluminum-producing countries have essentially inexhaustible subeconomic resources of aluminum in materials other
than bauxite.
Substitutes: Bauxite is the only raw material used in the production of alumina on a commercial scale in the
United States. Although currently not economically competitive with bauxite, vast resources of clay are technically
feasible sources of alumina. Other raw materials, such as alunite, anorthosite, coal wastes, and oil shales, offer
additional potential alumina sources. Synthetic mullite, produced from kaolin, bauxitic kaolin, kyanite, and sillimanite,
substitutes for bauxite-based refractories. Silicon carbide and alumina zirconia can substitute for alumina and bauxite
in abrasives but cost more.
e
Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.
1
See also Aluminum. As a general rule, 4 tons of dried bauxite is required to produce 2 tons of alumina, which, in turn, produces 1 ton of aluminum.
2
Includes all forms of bauxite, expressed as dry equivalent weights.
3
Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
4
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
5
Calcined equivalent weights.
6
7
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 2.0 billion tons.
8

34
BERYLLIUM
(Data in metric tons of contained beryllium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: One company in Utah mined bertrandite ore and converted it, along with imported
beryl, into beryllium hydroxide. Some of the beryllium hydroxide was shipped to the company’s plant in Ohio, where it
was converted into metal, oxide, and downstream beryllium-copper master alloy, and some was sold. Based on the
estimated unit value for beryllium in imported beryllium-copper master alloy, beryllium apparent consumption of
200 tons was valued at about $120 million. Based on sales revenues, approximately 23% of beryllium products were
used in industrial components; 17% each in aerospace and defense applications and in automotive electronics; 12%
in consumer electronics; 11% in telecommunications infrastructure; 5% in energy applications; 1% in semiconductor
applications; and 14% in other applications. Beryllium alloy strip and bulk products, the most common forms of
processed beryllium, were used in all application areas. Most unalloyed beryllium metal and beryllium composite
products were used in defense and scientific applications.

Production, mine shipments 150 165 160 165 170
Exports2 38 30 37 25 27
Shipments from Government stockpile3 2 — — 3 7
Consumption:
Apparent4 179 202 167 196 200
Reported, ore 160 170 160 170 170
Price, annual average unit value, beryllium-copper master alloy,5
dollars per kilogram of contained beryllium 640 590 620 620 610
Stocks, ore, consumer, yearend 30 30 35 30 30
Recycling: Beryllium was recovered from new scrap generated during the manufacture of beryllium products and
from old scrap. Detailed data on the quantities of beryllium recycled are not available but may account for as much as
20% to 25% of total beryllium consumption. The leading U.S. beryllium producer established a comprehensive
recycling program for all of its beryllium products, recovering approximately 40% of the beryllium content of the new
and old beryllium alloy scrap.
Import Sources (2017–20):1 Kazakhstan, 41%; Japan, 16%; Brazil, 11%; Latvia, 10%; and other, 22%.

12–31–21
Beryllium ores and concentrates 2617.90.0030 Free.
Beryllium oxide and hydroxide 2825.90.1000 3.7% ad valorem.
Beryllium-copper master alloy 7405.00.6030 Free.
Beryllium-copper plates, sheets, and strip:
Thickness of 5 millimeters (mm) or more 7409.90.1030 3.0% ad valorem.
Thickness of less than 5 mm:
Width of 500 mm or more 7409.90.5030 1.7% ad valorem.
Width of less than 500 mm 7409.90.9030 3.0% ad valorem.
Beryllium:
Unwrought, including powders 8112.12.0000 8.5% ad valorem.
Other 8112.19.0000 5.5% ad valorem.
Prepared by Brian W. Jaskula [(703) 648–4908, bjaskula@usgs.gov]

35
BERYLLIUM
Government Stockpile:7 The Defense Logistics Agency Strategic Materials had a goal of retaining 47 tons of
beryllium metal in the National Defense Stockpile.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Beryl ore (gross weight) 1 — — — —
Metal (all types) 57 — 7 — 7
Structured powder 7 — — — —
Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic beryllium consumption in 2021 was estimated to be about the same as that
of 2020. During the first 6 months of 2021, the leading U.S. beryllium producer reported that net sales of its beryllium
alloy strip and bulk products and beryllium metal and composite products were 19% higher than those during the first
6 months of 2020. Net sales of beryllium products increased primarily in the aerospace and defense, automotive, and
industrial components markets. As various COVID-19 restrictions were lifted in 2021, it was reported that customer
demand increased.
Because of the toxic nature of beryllium, various international, national, and State guidelines and regulations have
been established regarding beryllium in air, water, and other media. Industry is required to carefully control the
quantity of beryllium dust, fumes, and mists in the workplace.
Mine production8, 9 Reserves10

2020 2021e
United States 165 170 The United States has very little beryl that
Brazil e3 3 can be economically hand sorted from
China 70 70 pegmatite deposits. The Spor Mountain
Madagascar e1 1 area in Utah, an epithermal deposit,
Mozambique e3 3 contains a large bertrandite resource,
Nigeria e1 1 which is being mined. Proven and probable
Rwanda e1 1 bertrandite reserves in Utah total about
Uganda 7 7 20,000 tons of contained beryllium. World
World total (rounded) 250 260 beryllium reserves are not available.
World Resources:10 The world’s identified resources of beryllium have been estimated to be more than 100,000 tons.
About 60% of these resources are in the United States; by tonnage, the Spor Mountain area in Utah, the McCullough
Butte area in Nevada, the Black Hills area in South Dakota, the Sierra Blanca area in Texas, the Seward Peninsula in
Alaska, and the Gold Hill area in Utah account for most of the total.
Substitutes: Because the cost of beryllium is high compared with that of other materials, it is used in applications in
which its properties are crucial. In some applications, certain metal matrix or organic composites, high-strength
grades of aluminum, pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide, steel, or titanium may be substituted for beryllium metal or
beryllium composites. Copper alloys containing nickel and silicon, tin, titanium, or other alloying elements or phosphor
bronze alloys (copper-tin-phosphorus) may be substituted for beryllium-copper alloys, but these substitutions can
result in substantially reduced performance. Aluminum nitride or boron nitride may be substituted for beryllium oxide.
e
1
Includes estimated beryllium content of imported ores and concentrates, oxide and hydroxide, unwrought metal (including powders), beryllium
articles, waste and scrap, beryllium-copper master alloy, and beryllium-copper plates, sheets, and strip.
2
Includes estimated beryllium content of exported unwrought metal (including powders), beryllium articles, and waste and scrap.
3
Change in total inventory level from prior yearend inventory.
4
Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
5
Calculated from gross weight and customs value of imports; beryllium content estimated to be 4%. Rounded to two significant figures.
6
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
7
8
In addition to the countries listed, Kazakhstan and Portugal may have produced beryl ore, but available information was inadequate to make
reliable estimates of output. Other nations that produced gemstone beryl ore may also have produced some industrial beryl ore.
9
Based on a beryllium content of 4% from bertrandite and beryl sources.
10

36
BISMUTH
(Data in metric tons, gross weight, unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The United States ceased production of primary refined bismuth in 1997 and is
highly import reliant. Bismuth is contained in some lead ores mined domestically. However, the last domestic primary
lead smelter closed at yearend 2013; since then, all lead concentrates have been exported for smelting.
About 60% of domestic bismuth consumption was for chemicals used in cosmetic, industrial, laboratory, and
pharmaceutical applications. Bismuth use in pharmaceuticals included bismuth subsalicylate (the active ingredient in
over-the-counter stomach remedies) and other compounds used to treat burns, intestinal disorders, and stomach
ulcers. Bismuth is also used in industrial applications for the manufacture of ceramic glazes, crystalware, and
pearlescent pigments.
Bismuth has a wide variety of metallurgical applications, including use as an additive to improve metal integrity of
malleable cast iron in the foundry industry and as a nontoxic replacement for lead in brass, free-machining steels, and
solders. The use of bismuth in brass for pipe fittings, fixtures, and water meters increased after 2014 when the
definition of “lead-free” under the Safe Drinking Water Act was modified to reduce the maximum lead content of “lead-
free” pipes and plumbing fixtures to 0.25% from 8%. The melting point of bismuth is relatively low at 271 degrees
Celsius, and it is an important component of various fusible alloys, some of which have melting points below that of
boiling water. These bismuth-containing alloys can be used in holding devices for grinding optical lenses, as plugs for
abandoned oil wells, as a temporary filler to prevent damage to tubes in bending operations, as a triggering
mechanism for fire sprinklers, and in other applications in which a low melting point is ideal. Bismuth-tellurium-oxide
alloy film paste is used in the manufacture of semiconductor devices.

Production:
Refinery — — — — —
Secondary (scrap)e 80 80 80 80 80
Imports for consumption, metal, alloys, and scrap 2,820 2,470 2,340 1,650 1,500
Exports, metal, alloys, and scrap 517 746 667 749 840
Consumption:
Apparent1 2,410 1,950 1,660 1,150 810
Reported 694 570 548 513 500
Price, average,2 dollars per pound 4.94 4.61 3.18 2.72 3.65
Stocks, yearend, consumer 489 346 443 271 200
Recycling: Bismuth-containing alloy scrap was recycled and thought to compose between 5% and 10% of U.S.
bismuth apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): China,4 67%; the Republic of Korea, 16%; Mexico, 6%; Belgium, 5%; and other, 6%.

12–31–21
Bismuth and articles thereof, including waste and
scrap 8106.00.0000 Free.
Prepared by Adam M. Merrill [(703) 648–7715, amerrill@usgs.gov]

37
BISMUTH
Events, Trends, and Issues: The estimated annual average domestic dealer price for bismuth in 2021 was an
estimated $3.65 per pound and increased for the first time since 2017. The price was an estimated 34% higher than
that in 2020 and the highest price since 2018. Globally, excess stocks continued to keep prices low compared with
those in 2007 through 2014 when the average annual dealer price traded above $7.84 per pound. Primary production
tightened in early 2021 as mines continued to feel effects from shutdowns that began during the first of half of 2020
resulting from the global COVID-19 pandemic. Trade data through August 2021 were mixed when compared with the
same period in 2020—whereas bismuth exports increased, imports for consumption decreased. Foreign buyers were
reportedly stockpiling bismuth while prices were relatively low compared with previous higher prices.
World Refinery Production and Reserves: Available information was inadequate to make reliable estimates of
reserves.
Refinery productione Reserves5

2020 2021
United States — — Quantitative estimates of
Bolivia 30 60 reserves were not available.
Bulgaria 50 50
Canada 35 30
China 16,000 16,000
Japan 570 600
Kazakhstan 230 240
Korea, Republic of 970 1,000
Laos 1,000 1,000
Mexico 10 10
World Resources:5 World reserves of bismuth are usually estimated based on the bismuth content of lead resources
because bismuth production is most often a byproduct of processing lead ores. In China and Vietnam, bismuth
production is a byproduct or coproduct of tungsten and other metal ore processing. Bismuth minerals rarely occur in
sufficient quantities to be mined as principal products; the Tasna Mine in Bolivia and a mine in China are the only
mines where bismuth has been the primary product. The Tasna Mine has been inactive since 1996.
Substitutes: Bismuth compounds can be replaced in pharmaceutical applications by alumina, antibiotics, calcium
carbonate, and magnesia. Titanium dioxide-coated mica flakes and fish-scale extracts are substitutes in pigment
uses. Cadmium, indium, lead, and tin can partially replace bismuth in low-temperature solders. Resins can replace
bismuth alloys for holding metal shapes during machining, and glycerine-filled glass bulbs can replace bismuth alloys
in triggering devices for fire sprinklers. Free-machining alloys can contain lead, selenium, or tellurium as a
replacement for bismuth. Bismuth is an environmentally friendly substitute for lead in plumbing and many other
applications, including fishing weights, hunting ammunition, lubricating greases, and soldering alloys.
e
1
Defined as secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
2
Prices are based on 99.99%-purity metal at warehouse (Rotterdam) in minimum lots of 1 ton; source: Fastmarkets AMM.
3
4
Includes Hong Kong.
5

38
BORON
Domestic Production and Use: Two companies in southern California produced borates in 2021, and most of the
boron products consumed in the United States were manufactured domestically. Estimated boron production
decreased slightly in 2021 compared with 2020 production. U.S. boron production and consumption data were
withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. The leading boron producer mined borate ores, which contain
the minerals kernite, tincal, and ulexite, by open pit methods and operated associated compound plants. Kernite was
used to produce boric acid, tincal was used to produce sodium borate, and ulexite was used as a primary ingredient
in the manufacture of a variety of specialty glasses and ceramics. A second company produced borates from brines
extracted through solution-mining techniques. Boron minerals and chemicals were principally consumed in the north-
central and eastern United States. In 2021, the glass and ceramics industries remained the leading domestic users of
boron products, accounting for an estimated 65% of total borates consumption. Boron also was used as a component
in abrasives, cleaning products, insecticides, and insulation and in the production of semiconductors.

Production W W W W W
Refined borax 158 133 161 174 230
Boric acid 40 51 41 39 50
Colemanite (calcium borates) 58 73 42 18 5
Ulexite (sodium borates) 24 34 38 41 55
Exports:
Boric acid 216 251 251 257 290
Refined borax 572 610 598 594 600
Consumption, apparent1 W W W W W
Price, average value of imports, cost, insurance, and freight,
dollars per ton 392 404 373 380 390
Employment, number 1,300 1,350 1,350 1,330 1,330
Net import reliance2 as a percentage of apparent consumption E E E E E
Recycling: Insignificant.
Import Sources (2017–20): All forms: Turkey, 88%; Bolivia, 5%; Chile, 3%; and other, 4%.

12–31–21
Natural borates:
Sodium (ulexite) 2528.00.0005 Free.
Calcium (colemanite) 2528.00.0010 Free.
Boric acids 2810.00.0000 1.5% ad valorem.
Borates, refined borax:
Anhydrous 2840.11.0000 0.3% ad valorem.
Non-anhydrous 2840.19.0000 0.1% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Borax, 14% (domestic and foreign).
Prepared by Amanda S. Brioche [(703) 648–7747, abrioche@usgs.gov]

39
BORON
Events, Trends, and Issues: Elemental boron is a metalloid with limited commercial applications. Although the term
“boron” is commonly referenced, it does not occur in nature in an elemental state. Boron combines with oxygen and
other elements to form boric acid or inorganic salts called borates. Boron compounds, chiefly borates, are
commercially important; therefore, boron products are priced and sold based on their boric oxide (B 2O3) content,
varying by ore and compound and by the absence or presence of calcium and sodium. Four borate minerals—
colemanite, kernite, tincal, and ulexite—account for 90% of the borate minerals used by industry worldwide. Although
borates were used in more than 300 applications, more than three-quarters of world consumption was used in
ceramics, detergents, fertilizers, and glass.
China, India, the Netherlands, Malaysia, and Mexico, in decreasing order of tonnage, are the countries that imported
the largest quantities of refined borates from the United States in 2021. Because China has low-grade boron reserves
and demand for boron is anticipated to rise in that country, imports to China from Chile, Russia, Turkey, and the
United States were expected to remain steady during the next several years.
Continued investment in new borate refineries and the continued rise in demand were expected to fuel growth in
world production for the next few years. Two Australia-based mine developers previously confirmed that production of
high-quality boron products would be possible from their projects in California and Nevada, respectively. These
companies continued to make progress on their respective projects by acquiring some of the permits necessary to
begin and continue construction. The project in California was expected to begin production in 2021. However,
construction was postponed to focus on expanding the company’s boron production and product selection by adding
additional specialty products for industries related to global decarbonization and food security. The Nevada project
was expected to begin production by mid-2023. These companies have the potential to become substantial boron
producers when their projects are fully developed.
World Production and Reserves: Reserves for Turkey were revised based on industry information.
Production—All forms Reserves3

2020 2021e
United States W W 40,000
Argentina, crude ore 71 71 NA
Bolivia, ulexite 200 210 NA
Chile, ulexite 350 300 35,000
China, boric oxide equivalent 380 380 24,000
Germany, compounds 120 120 NA
Peru, crude borates 110 50 4,000
Russia, datolite ore 80 80 40,000
Turkey, refined borates 2,000 1,700 1,200,000
World total4 XX XX XX
World Resources:3 Deposits of borates are associated with volcanic activity and arid climates, with the largest
economically viable deposits in the Mojave Desert of the United States, the Alpide belt along the southern margin of
Eurasia, and the Andean belt of South America. U.S. deposits consist primarily of tincal, kernite, and borates
contained in brines, and to a lesser extent, ulexite and colemanite. About 70% of all deposits in Turkey are
colemanite, primarily used in the production of heat-resistant glass. At current levels of consumption, world resources
are adequate for the foreseeable future.
Substitutes: The substitution of other materials for boron is possible in detergents, enamels, insulation, and soaps.
Sodium percarbonate can replace borates in detergents and requires lower temperatures to undergo hydrolysis,
which is an environmental consideration. Some enamels can use other glass-producing substances, such as
phosphates. Insulation substitutes include cellulose, foams, and mineral wools. In soaps, sodium and potassium salts
of fatty acids can act as cleaning and emulsifying agents.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. XX Not applicable.
1
2
3
4
World totals cannot be calculated because production and reserves are not reported in a consistent manner by all countries.

40
BROMINE
(Data in metric tons of contained bromine unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Bromine was recovered from underground brines by two companies in Arkansas.
Bromine is one of the leading mineral commodities, in terms of value, produced in Arkansas. The two bromine
companies in the United States account for a large percentage of world production capacity.
The leading global applications of bromine are for the production of brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and clear
brine drilling fluids. Bromine compounds are also used in a variety of other applications, including industrial uses, as
intermediates, and for water treatment. U.S. apparent consumption of bromine in 2021 was estimated to be greater
than that in 2020.

Imports for consumption, elemental bromine and compounds1 52,700 56,200 56,300 28,700 32,000
Exports, elemental bromine and compounds2 32,600 21,900 29,300 36,800 25,000
Price, average unit value of imports (cost, insurance, and freight),
dollars per kilogram 2.30 2.21 2.31 2.73 2.66
Employment, numbere 1,050 1,050 1,050 1,050 1,050
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of apparent consumption <25 <25 <25 E <25
Recycling: Some bromide solutions were recycled to obtain elemental bromine and to prevent the solutions from
being disposed of as hazardous waste. For example, hydrogen bromide is emitted as a byproduct in many organic
reactions. This byproduct waste can be recycled with virgin bromine brines and used as a source of bromine
production. Bromine contained in plastics can be incinerated as solid organic waste and the bromine can be recovered.
Import Sources (2017–20):5 Israel, 78%; Jordan, 13%; China, 6%; and other, 3%.

12–31–21
Bromine 2801.30.2000 5.5% ad valorem.
Hydrobromic acid 2811.19.3000 Free.
Potassium or sodium bromide 2827.51.0000 Free.
Ammonium, calcium, or zinc bromide 2827.59.2500 Free.
Potassium bromate 2829.90.0500 Free.
Sodium bromate 2829.90.2500 Free.
Ethylene dibromide 2903.31.0000 5.4% ad valorem.
Methyl bromide 2903.39.1520 Free.
Dibromoneopentylglycol 2905.59.3000 Free.
Tetrabromobisphenol A 2908.19.2500 5.5% ad valorem.
Decabromodiphenyl and octabromodiphenyl oxide 2909.30.0700 5.5% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Brine wells, 5% (domestic and foreign).
Prepared by Emily K. Schnebele [(703) 648–4945, eschnebele@usgs.gov]

41
BROMINE
Events, Trends, and Issues: The United States maintained its position as one of the leading bromine producers in
the world along with China, Israel, and Jordan. In 2021, the leading source of imports of bromine and bromide
compounds (gross weight) was Israel. The average import value of bromine and bromine compounds decreased by
about 3% in 2021 compared with that in 2020. Together, the leading imported bromine products in terms of both
gross weight and bromine content were bromides and bromide oxides of ammonium, calcium, or zinc and bromides of
sodium or potassium (over 90%). Total imports of bromine and bromine compounds (bromine content) increased by
about 10% whereas total exports decreased by about 30% compared with that in 2020.
Global sales of bromine and bromine compounds increased in 2021 compared with those in 2020. Sales volumes
increased for BFRs and clear brine fluids, the leading applications of bromine, compared with the previous year.
Sales were driven, in particular, by strong demand in electronic, automotive, and construction industries, the leading
consumers of BFRs. Although sales of clear brine drilling fluids increased compared with the previous year, demand
had yet to return to pre-pandemic levels. In February 2021, Texas suffered a major power crisis, which resulted from
three severe winter storms sweeping across the United States on February 10–11, 13–17, and 15–20. The storms
caused a massive electricity generation failure in Texas, leading to shortages of water, food, and heat. Additionally,
the winter storms adversely affected drilling production, drew down inventory stocks, and disrupted supply-chain
logistics.
World Production and Reserves:
Production Reserves6
2020 2021e
United States W W 11,000,000
Azerbaijan — — 300,000
China 70,000 75,000 NA
India 3,300 3,000 NA
Israel 170,000 180,000 Large
Japan 20,000 20,000 NA
Jordan 84,000 110,000 Large
Ukraine 4,500 4,500 NA
World total (rounded) 7352,000 7390,000 Large
World Resources:6 Bromine is found principally in seawater, evaporitic (salt) lakes, and underground brines
associated with petroleum deposits. The Dead Sea, in the Middle East, is estimated to contain 1 billion tons of
bromine. Seawater contains about 65 parts per million bromine, or an estimated 100 trillion tons. Bromine is also
recovered from seawater as a coproduct during evaporation to produce salt.
Substitutes: Chlorine and iodine may be substituted for bromine in a few chemical reactions and for sanitation
purposes. There are no comparable substitutes for bromine in various oil- and gas-well-completion and packer
applications. Because plastics have a low ignition temperature, aluminum hydroxide, magnesium hydroxide, organic
chlorine compounds, and phosphorus compounds can be substituted for bromine as fire retardants in some uses.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.
1
Includes data for the Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes shown in the “Tariff” section.
2
Includes data for the following Schedule B numbers: 2801.30.2000, 2827.51.0000, 2827.59.0000, 2903.31.0000, and 2903.39.1520.
3
Defined as production (sold or used) + imports – exports.
4
5
Calculated using the gross weight of imports.
6
7

42
CADMIUM
(Data in metric tons of contained cadmium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Two companies in the United States produced refined cadmium in 2021. One
company, operating in Tennessee, recovered primary refined cadmium as a byproduct of zinc leaching from roasted
sulfide concentrates. The other company, operating in Ohio, recovered secondary cadmium metal from spent nickel
cadmium (NiCd) batteries. A cadmium concentrate was produced by one company in North Carolina that produced
zinc from recycled electric-arc-furnace dust obtained from steel mills. Domestic production and consumption of
cadmium were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Cadmium metal and compounds are mainly
consumed for alloys, coatings, NiCd batteries, pigments, and plastic stabilizers. For the past 5 years, the
United States has been a net importer of unwrought cadmium metal and cadmium metal powders and a net exporter
of wrought cadmium products and of cadmium pigments and preparations based on cadmium compounds.

Production, refined1 W W W W W
Unwrought cadmium and powders 274 273 385 282 140
Wrought cadmium and other articles (gross weight) 2 1 21 3 1
Cadmium waste and scrap (gross weight) 20 20 86 90 150
Cadmium pigments and preparations based on cadmium
compounds (gross weight) 158 310 108 69 90
Exports:
Unwrought cadmium and powders 223 40 32 4 80
Wrought cadmium and other articles (gross weight) 205 99 84 480 210
Cadmium waste and scrap (gross weight) (2) (2) 6 (2) (2)
Cadmium pigments and preparations based on cadmium
compounds (gross weight) 617 565 795 2,120 560
Consumption, reported, refined W W W W W
Price, metal, annual average,3 dollars per kilogram 1.75 2.89 2.67 2.29 2.49
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of apparent consumption <25 <50 <50 <50 <50
Recycling: Secondary cadmium is mainly recovered from spent consumer and industrial NiCd batteries. Other waste
and scrap from which cadmium can be recycled includes copper-cadmium alloy scrap, some complex nonferrous
alloy scrap, cadmium-containing dust from electric arc furnaces, and cadmium telluride (CdTe) solar panels.
Import Sources (2017–20):5 Australia, 29%; China,6 20%; Germany, 19%; Peru, 11%; and other, 21%.

12–31–21
Cadmium oxide 2825.90.7500 Free.
Cadmium sulfide 2830.90.2000 3.1% ad valorem.
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium
compounds 3206.49.6010 3.1% ad valorem.
Unwrought cadmium and powders 8107.20.0000 Free.
Cadmium waste and scrap 8107.30.0000 Free.
Wrought cadmium and other articles 8107.90.0000 4.4% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Most of the world’s primary cadmium metal was produced in Asia, and leading global
producers, in descending order of production, were China and the Republic of Korea, followed by Japan and Canada.
A smaller amount of secondary cadmium metal was recovered from recycling NiCd batteries. Although detailed data
on the global consumption of primary cadmium were not available, NiCd battery production was thought to have
continued to account for most global cadmium consumption. Other end uses for cadmium and cadmium compounds
included alloys, anticorrosive coatings, pigments, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) stabilizers, and semiconductors for solar
cells and for radiation-detecting imaging equipment.
Prepared by Robert M. Callaghan [(703) 648–7709, rcallaghan@usgs.gov]

43
CADMIUM
The average monthly cadmium price began 2021 averaging $2.12 per kilogram in January and trended upward to
about $2.85 per kilogram in April and May before decreasing to $2.13 per kilogram in August. The resurgence of the
delta variant of the COVID-19 virus in April through July in India affected economic activity and was likely a factor in
the decrease in price. As a major consumer of cadmium but without significant production, India was an important
determinant of cadmium prices in the spot market.
In March 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy Solar Energy Technologies Office initiated the Cadmium Telluride
Photovoltaics (PV) Accelerator program, intended to enhance U.S. technology leadership and competitiveness in the
CdTe PV industry. Program goals included achieving cell efficiencies above 26%, decreasing module costs to below
$0.15 per watt before 2030, and increasing domestic CdTe PV material and module production. The National
Renewable Energy Laboratory would provide resources and support for a consortium to bring together academic
institutions, industry, and government to accomplish the program goals.
A major United States-based CdTe thin-film solar-cell producer began building a third manufacturing facility in Ohio.
The new facility, to be completed in 2023, would add 3.3 gigawatts (GW) to the company’s annual production capacity
for a total of 6 GW and make it the largest vertically integrated solar manufacturing complex outside of China.
World Refinery Production and Reserves:

2020 2021
United States1 W W Quantitative estimates of reserves
Australia 348 300 are not available. The cadmium
Canada 1,800 1,800 content of typical zinc ores
China 10,000 10,000 averages about 0.03%. See the
Germany 450 500 Zinc chapter for zinc reserves.
Japan 1,880 1,900
Kazakhstan 1,500 1,500
Korea, Republic of 3,000 3,000
Mexico 978 800
Netherlands 880 900
Norway 400 400
Peru 700 600
Russia 1,000 1,000
Uzbekistan 400 400
Other countries 520 600
World total (rounded)8 24,000 24,000
World Resources:7 Cadmium is generally recovered from zinc ores and concentrates. Sphalerite, the most
economically significant zinc ore mineral, commonly contains minor amounts of cadmium, which shares certain
similar chemical properties with zinc and often substitutes for zinc in the sphalerite crystal lattice. The cadmium
mineral greenockite is frequently associated with weathered sphalerite and wurtzite.
Substitutes: Lithium-ion and nickel-metal hydride batteries can replace NiCd batteries in many applications. Except
where the surface characteristics of a coating are critical (for example, fasteners for aircraft), coatings of zinc, zinc
nickel, aluminum, or tin can be substituted for cadmium in many plating applications. Cerium sulfide is used as a
replacement for cadmium pigments, mostly in plastics. Barium-zinc or calcium-zinc stabilizers can replace barium-
cadmium stabilizers in flexible PVC applications. Amorphous silicon and copper-indium-gallium-selenide photovoltaic
cells compete with CdTe in the thin-film solar-cell market. Research efforts continued to advance new thin-film
technology based on perovskite material as a potential substitute.
e
Estimated. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
1
Cadmium metal produced as a byproduct of zinc refining plus metal from recycling.
2
Less than ½ unit.
3
Average free market price for 99.95% purity in 10-ton lots; cost, insurance, and freight; global ports. Source: Fastmarkets MB.
4
Defined as imports of unwrought metal and metal powders – exports of unwrought metal and metal powders.
5
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States code: 8107.20.0000.
6
Includes Hong Kong.
7
8

44
CEMENT
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, U.S. portland cement production increased slightly to an estimated
90 million tons, and masonry cement production continued to remain steady at 2.4 million tons. Cement was
produced at 96 plants in 34 States, and at 2 plants in Puerto Rico. Texas, Missouri, California, and Florida were, in
descending order of production, the four leading cement-producing States and accounted for nearly 44% of U.S.
production. Overall, the U.S. cement industry’s growth continued to be constrained by closed or idle plants,
underutilized capacity at others, production disruptions from plant upgrades, and relatively inexpensive imports. In
2021, shipments of cement were estimated to have increased slightly from those of 2020 and were valued at
$13.4 billion. In 2021, an estimated 70% to 75% of sales were to ready-mixed concrete producers, 11% to concrete
product manufacturers, 8% to 10% to contractors, and 5% to 12% to other customer types.

Production:
Portland and masonry cement2 86,356 86,368 87,233 e89,000 92,000
Clinker 76,678 77,112 78,858 79,000 79,000
Shipments to final customers, includes exports 97,935 99,419 102,823 105,000 107,000
Hydraulic cement 12,288 13,693 14,674 15,201 19,000
Clinker 1,209 967 1,160 1,534 2,000
Exports of hydraulic cement and clinker 1,035 919 1,024 888 1,000
Consumption, apparent3 97,160 98,400 101,600 e103,000 109,000
Price, average mill value, dollars per ton 117 121 123 e124 125
Stocks, cement, yearend 7,870 8,580 7,890 e7,750 8,000
Employment, mine and mill, numbere 12,500 12,300 12,500 12,200 12,300
Recycling: Cement is not recycled, but significant quantities of concrete are recycled for use as a construction
aggregate. Cement kilns can use waste fuels, recycled cement kiln dust, and recycled raw materials such as slags
and fly ash. Various secondary materials can be incorporated as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in
blended cements and in the cement paste in concrete.
Import Sources (2017–20):5 Canada, 32%; Turkey, 20%; Greece, 13%; China,6 8%; and other, 27%.

12–31–21
Cement clinker 2523.10.0000 Free.
White portland cement 2523.21.0000 Free.
Other portland cement 2523.29.0000 Free.
Aluminous cement 2523.30.0000 Free.
Other hydraulic cement 2523.90.0000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Not applicable. Certain raw materials for cement production have depletion allowances.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The value of total construction put in place in the United States increased by about 7%
during the first 9 months of 2021 compared with that in the same period in 2020. Residential construction spending
increased, but nonresidential construction spending decreased. Despite weather-related declines in the beginning of
the year, cement shipments increased slightly during the first 9 months of 2021 compared with those in the same
period in 2020. The leading cement-consuming States continued to be Texas, California, and Florida, in descending
order by tonnage.
Prepared by Ashley K. Hatfield [(703) 648–7751, ahatfield@usgs.gov]

45
CEMENT
The increase in cement shipments was attributed to economic recovery from the global COVID-19 pandemic.
However, growth continued to be constrained by increased costs for material and service inputs, labor and production
shortages, ongoing logistical and shipping issues, and supply chain disruptions. The November 2021 passage of the
Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act was projected to support increased cement consumption.
Company merger-and-acquisition activity continued in 2021, with the final approval to combine the North American
cement operations of a Brazilian cement company and a Canadian cement company into a joint venture. One
United States cement company completed its purchase of a European cement company’s western United States
operations, and a Swiss cement company acquired a United States building products company. In 2019, one
European cement company entered into an agreement to purchase a Mexican cement company’s plant in
Pennsylvania, but the transaction was abandoned after being challenged by regulatory authorities in 2021.
Cement plant upgrades were well underway at cement plants in Alabama and Indiana, with completion expected in
2022 and 2023, respectively. Several minor upgrades were ongoing at some other domestic plants, and upgrades
also were announced for a few cement terminals. Numerous companies continued to make announcements aligned
with the industry’s commitment to sustainability, such as new blended cement product lines, renewable energy plans,
decarbonization research initiatives, and other innovations. Many plants have installed emissions-reduction
equipment to comply with the 2010 National Emissions Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP). It remains
possible that some kilns could be shut, idled, or used in a reduced capacity to comply with NESHAP, which would
constrain U.S. clinker capacity.
World Production and Capacity:
Cement productione Clinker capacitye

2020 2021 2020 2021
United States (includes Puerto Rico) 89,000 92,000 100,000 100,000
Brazil 61,000 65,000 60,000 60,000
China 2,400,000 2,500,000 2,000,000 2,000,000
Egypt 42,000 40,000 48,000 48,000
India 295,000 330,000 280,000 280,000
Indonesia 65,000 66,000 78,000 79,000
Iran 68,000 62,000 81,000 81,000
Japan 51,000 52,000 53,000 54,000
Korea, Republic of 48,000 48,000 50,000 60,000
Mexico 48,000 50,000 42,000 42,000
Russia 56,000 56,000 80,000 80,000
Saudi Arabia 53,000 55,000 75,000 75,000
Turkey 72,000 76,000 92,000 92,000
Vietnam 98,000 100,000 90,000 90,000
Other countries (rounded) 760,000 810,000 600,000 600,000
World total (rounded) 4,200,000 4,400,000 3,700,000 3,700,000
World Resources: Not applicable. See Crushed Stone for cement raw-material resources.
Substitutes: Most portland cement is used to make concrete, mortars, or stuccos, and competes in the construction
sector with concrete substitutes, such as aluminum, asphalt, clay brick, fiberglass, glass, gypsum (plaster), steel,
stone, and wood. Certain materials, especially fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag, develop good
hydraulic cementitious properties by reacting with lime, such as that released by the hydration of portland cement.
Where readily available (including as imports), these SCMs are increasingly being used as partial substitutes for
portland cement in many concrete applications and are components of finished blended cements.
e
Estimated.
1
Portland cement plus masonry cement unless otherwise noted; excludes Puerto Rico unless otherwise noted.
2
Includes cement made from imported clinker.
3
Defined as production of cement (including from imported clinker) + imports (excluding clinker) – exports + adjustments for stock changes.
4
Defined as imports (cement and clinker) – exports.
5
Hydraulic cement and clinker; includes imports into Puerto Rico.
6
Includes Hong Kong.

46
CESIUM
(Data in metric tons of cesium oxide unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, no cesium was mined domestically, and the United States was 100% net
import reliant for cesium minerals. Pollucite, mainly found in association with lithium-rich, lepidolite-bearing or petalite-
bearing zoned granite pegmatites, is the principal cesium ore mineral. Cesium minerals are used as feedstocks to
produce a variety of cesium compounds and cesium metal. The primary application for cesium, by gross weight, is in
cesium formate brines used for high-pressure, high-temperature well drilling for oil and gas exploration and
production. With the exception of cesium formate, cesium is used in relatively small-scale applications, using only a
few grams for most applications. Owing to the lack of global availability of cesium, many applications have used
mineral substitutes and the use of cesium in any particular application may no longer be viable.
Cesium metal is used in the production of cesium compounds and potentially in photoelectric cells. Cesium bromide is
used in infrared detectors, optics, photoelectric cells, scintillation counters, and spectrophotometers. Cesium
carbonate is used in the alkylation of organic compounds and in energy conversion devices, such as fuel cells,
magneto-hydrodynamic generators, and polymer solar cells. Cesium chloride is used in analytical chemistry
applications as a reagent, in high-temperature solders, as an intermediate in cesium metal production, in isopycnic
centrifugation, as a radioisotope in nuclear medicine, as an insect repellent in agricultural applications, and in
specialty glasses. Cesium hydroxide is used as an electrolyte in alkaline storage batteries. Cesium iodide is used in
fluoroscopy equipment—Fourier-transform infrared spectrometers—as the input phosphor of X-ray image intensifier
tubes, and in scintillators. Cesium nitrate is used as a colorant and oxidizer in the pyrotechnic industry, in petroleum
cracking, in scintillation counters, and in X-ray phosphors. Cesium sulfates are soluble in water and are thought to be
used primarily in water treatment, fuel cells, and to improve optical quality for scientific instruments.
Cesium isotopes, which are obtained as a byproduct in nuclear fission or formed from other isotopes, such as
barium-131, are used in electronic, medical, metallurgical, and research applications. Cesium isotopes are used as an
atomic resonance frequency standard in atomic clocks, playing a vital role in aircraft guidance systems, global
positioning satellites, and internet and cellular telephone transmissions. Cesium clocks monitor the cycles of
microwave radiation emitted by cesium’s electrons and use these cycles as a time reference. Owing to the high
accuracy of the cesium atomic clock, the international definition of 1 second is based on the cesium atom. The U.S.
civilian time and frequency standard is based on a cesium fountain clock at the National Institute of Standards and
Technology in Boulder, CO. The U.S. military frequency standard, the United States Naval Observatory (USNO)
timescale, is based on 48 weighted atomic clocks, including 25 USNO cesium fountain clocks.
A company in Richland, WA, produced a range of cesium-131 medical products for treatment of various cancers.
Cesium-137 may be used in industrial gauges, in mining and geophysical instruments, and for sterilization of food,
sewage, and surgical equipment. Because of the danger posed by the radiological properties of cesium-137, efforts to
find substitutes in its applications continued.
Salient Statistics—United States: Consumption, import, and export data for cesium have not been available since
the late 1980s. Because cesium metal is not traded in commercial quantities, a market price is unavailable. Only a
few thousand kilograms of cesium chemicals are thought to be consumed in the United States every year. The
United States was 100% net import reliant for its cesium needs.
In 2021, one company offered 1-gram ampoules of 99.8% (metal basis) cesium for $69.90, a 7.2% increase from
$65.20 in 2020, and 99.98% (metal basis) cesium for $88.90, a 5.0% increase from $84.70 in 2020. In 2021, the
prices for 50 grams of 99.9% (metal basis) cesium acetate, cesium bromide, cesium carbonate, cesium chloride, and
cesium iodide were $131.20, $75.90, $110.20, $112.00, and $127.60, respectively, with increases ranging from 4.1%
to 9.3% from prices in 2020. The price for a cesium-plasma standard solution (10,000 micrograms per milliliter) was
$78.60 for 50 milliliters and $120.00 for 100 milliliters, and the price for 25 grams of cesium formate, 98% (metal
basis), was $42.60. In 2020, the price for a cesium-plasma standard solution (10,000 micrograms per milliliter) was
$77.80 for 50 milliliters and $119.00 for 100 milliliters, and the price for 25 grams of cesium formate, 98% (metal
basis), was $41.40.
Recycling: Cesium formate brines are typically rented by oil and gas exploration clients. After completion of the well,
the used cesium formate brine is returned and reprocessed for subsequent drilling operations. Cesium formate brines
are recycled, recovering nearly 85% of the brines for recycling to be reprocessed for further use.
Prepared by Cris Candice Tuck [(703) 648–4912, ctuck@usgs.gov]

47
CESIUM
Import Sources (2017–20): No reliable data have been available to determine the source of cesium ore imported by
the United States since 1988. Prior to 2016, Canada was thought to be the primary supplier of cesium ore.

12–31–21
Alkali metals, other 2805.19.9000 5.5% ad valorem.
Chlorides, other 2827.39.9000 3.7% ad valorem.
Bromides, other 2827.59.5100 3.6% ad valorem.
Iodides, other 2827.60.5100 4.2% ad valorem.
Sulfates, other 2833.29.5100 3.7% ad valorem.
Nitrates, other 2834.29.5100 3.5% ad valorem.
Carbonates, other 2836.99.5000 3.7% ad valorem.
Cesium-137, other 2844.40.0021 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic cesium occurrences will likely remain uneconomic unless market conditions
change. No known human health issues are associated with naturally occurring cesium, and its use has minimal
environmental impact. Manufactured radioactive isotopes of cesium have been known to cause adverse health
effects. Certain cesium compounds may be toxic if consumed. Food that has been irradiated using the radioisotope
cesium-137 has been found to be safe by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration.
During 2021, no primary cesium mine production was reported globally but cesium was thought to have been mined
in China. Mine production of cesium from all countries, excluding China, ceased within the past two decades.
Production in Namibia ceased in the early 2000s, followed by the Tanco Mine in Canada shutting down and later
being sold after a mine collapse in 2015. The Bikita Mine in Zimbabwe was depleted of pollucite ore reserves in 2018,
and the Sinclair Mine in Australia completed the mining and shipments of all economically recoverable pollucite ore in
2019. Recent reports indicate that with current processing rates for the only operating intermediate refinery in
Germany, the world’s stockpiles of cesium ore, excluding those in China, will be depleted within a few years.
A company completed an updated mineral resource estimate for the Karibib project in Namibia, reporting 8.9 million
metric tons of measured and indicated resources containing 0.23% rubidium and 303 parts per million cesium. The
company also reported 6.72 million metric tons of proven and probable reserves containing 2.26% rubidium and
320 parts per million cesium. Located in the Karibib Pegmatite Belt, lithium would be the primary product, with
cesium, potassium, and rubidium as potential byproducts. Development of the Karibib project continued in 2021.
World Mine Production and Reserves:1 There were no official sources for cesium production data in 2021. Cesium
reserves are, therefore, estimated based on the occurrence of pollucite, a primary lithium-cesium-rubidium mineral.
Most pollucite contains 5% to 32% cesium oxide. No reliable data are available to determine reserves for specific
countries; however, Australia, Canada, China, and Namibia were thought to have reserves totaling less than
200,000 tons. Existing stockpiles at multiple former mine sites have continued feeding downstream refineries, though
recent reports have indicated stockpiles will be depleted within a few years.
World Resources:1 Cesium is associated with lithium-bearing pegmatites worldwide, and cesium resources have
been identified in Australia, Canada, Namibia, the United States, and Zimbabwe. In the United States, pollucite
occurs in pegmatites in Alaska, Maine, and South Dakota. Lower concentrations occur in brines in Chile and China
and in geothermal systems in Germany, India, and China. China was thought to have cesium-rich deposits of
geyserite, lepidolite, and pollucite, with concentrations highest in Yichun, Jiangxi Province, although no resource,
reserve, or production estimates were available.
Substitutes: Cesium and rubidium can be used interchangeably in many applications because they have similar
physical properties and atomic radii. Cesium, however, is more electropositive than rubidium, making it a preferred
material for some applications. However, rubidium is mined from similar deposits, in relatively smaller quantities, as a
byproduct of cesium production in pegmatites and as a byproduct of lithium production from lepidolite (hard-rock)
mining and processing, making it no more readily available than cesium.
1

48
CHROMIUM
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained chromium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the United States was expected to consume 5% of world chromite ore
production in various forms of imported materials, such as chromite ore, chromium chemicals, chromium ferroalloys,
chromium metal, and stainless steel. Imported chromite ore was consumed by one chemical company to produce
chromium chemicals. Stainless-steel and heat-resisting-steel producers were the leading consumers of
ferrochromium. Stainless steels and superalloys require the addition of chromium via ferrochromium or chromium-
containing scrap. The value of chromium material consumption was expected to be about $850 million in 2021, as
measured by the value of net imports, excluding stainless steel, and was a fourfold increase from $201 million in 2020.

Production:
Mine — — — — —
Recycling1 152 139 135 116 120
Exports 256 212 149 111 120
Shipments from Government stockpile 8 4 4 5 5
Consumption (includes recycling):
Reported 516 459 480 379 360
Apparent3 541 583 520 465 590
Price, average annual unit value of imports, dollars per ton:
Chromite ore (gross weight) 259 279 248 179 210
Ferrochromium (chromium content)4 2,547 2,549 2,094 1,878 2,400
Chromium metal (gross weight) 9,675 11,344 10,393 7,931 7,500
Stocks, consumer, yearend 6 5 5 6 6
Recycling: In 2021, recycled chromium (contained in reported stainless-steel scrap receipts) accounted for 20% of
apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Chromite (ores and concentrates): South Africa, 99%; and Canada, 1%.
Chromium-containing scrap:6 United Kingdom, 53%; Canada, 28%; Japan, 9%; and other, 10%.
Chromium (primary metal):7 Russia, 36%; United Kingdom, 23%; France, 21%; China,8 15%; and other, 5%.
Total imports: South Africa, 38%; Kazakhstan, 9%; Russia, 7%; Mexico, 6%; and other, 40%.
Tariff:9 Item Number Normal Trade Relations

12–31–21
Chromium ores and concentrates:
Cr2O3 not more than 40% 2610.00.0020 Free.
Cr2O3 more than 40% and less than 46% 2610.00.0040 Free.
Cr2O3 more than or equal to 46% 2610.00.0060 Free.
Ferrochromium:
Carbon more than 4% 7202.41.0000 1.9% ad valorem.
Carbon more than 3% 7202.49.1000 1.9% ad valorem.
Carbon more than 0.5% 7202.49.5010 3.1% ad valorem.
Ferrosilicon chromium 7202.50.0000 10% ad valorem.
Chromium metal:
Unwrought, powder 8112.21.0000 3% ad valorem.
Other 8112.29.0000 3% ad valorem.
Prepared by Ruth F. Schulte [(703) 648–4963, rschulte@usgs.gov]

49
CHROMIUM
Government Stockpile:10, 11
FY 2021 FY 2022
Ferrochromium:
High-carbon 25.6 — 1221.8 — 1221.8
Low-carbon 27.4 — — — —
Chromium metal 3.62 — 0.454 — 0.454
Events, Trends, and Issues: Chromium is consumed in the form of ferrochromium to produce stainless steel. South
Africa was the leading chromite ore producer. Ore production was estimated to increase in 2021 owing to recovery of
the market following the COVID-19 pandemic. China was the leading ferrochromium- and stainless-steel-producing
country, and the leading chromium-consuming country. Ferrochromium production is electrical-energy intensive, so
stricter environmental standards could affect ferrochromium production in China.
From October 2020 to October 2021, the monthly average high-carbon ferrochromium price more than doubled. The
price of chromium metal increased by 85% in October 2021 compared with the monthly average price in October 2020.
Mine production13 Reserves14

2020 2021e (shipping grade)15
United States — — 620
Finland 2,290 2,300 13,000
India 2,500 3,000 100,000
Kazakhstan 7,000 7,000 230,000
South Africa 13,200 18,000 200,000
Turkey 8,000 7,000 26,000
Other countries 3,980 4,100 NA
World total (rounded) 37,000 41,000 570,000
World Resources:14 World resources are greater than 12 billion tons of shipping-grade chromite, sufficient to meet
conceivable demand for centuries. World chromium resources are heavily geographically concentrated (95%) in
Kazakhstan and southern Africa; United States chromium resources are mostly in the Stillwater Complex in Montana.
Substitutes: Chromium has no substitute in stainless steel, the leading end use, or in superalloys, the major strategic
end use. Chromium-containing scrap can substitute for ferrochromium in some metallurgical uses.
e
1
Recycling production is based on reported receipts of all types of stainless-steel scrap.
2
Includes chromite ores, ferrochromium, chromium metal, and chromium chemicals.
3
Defined as production (from mines and recycling) + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
4
Excludes ferrochromium silicon.
5
6
Includes chromium metal scrap and stainless-steel scrap.
7
Includes chromium metal, ferrochromium, and stainless steel.
8
Includes Hong Kong.
9
In addition to the tariff items listed, certain imported chromium materials (see 26 U.S.C., sec. 4661, 4662, and 4672) are subject to excise tax.
10
11
Units are thousand metric tons of material by gross weight.
12
High-carbon and low-carbon ferrochromium, combined.
13
Mine production units are thousand metric tons, gross weight, of marketable chromite ore.
14
15
Reserves units are thousand metric tons of shipping-grade chromite ore, which is deposit quantity and grade normalized to 45% Cr2O3, except for
the United States where grade is normalized to 7% Cr2O3 and Finland where grade is normalized to 26% Cr2O3.

50
CLAYS
Domestic Production and Use: Production of clays (sold or used) in the United States was estimated to be 25
million tons valued at $1.5 billion in 2021, with about 120 companies operating clay and shale mines in 38 States. The
leading 20 companies produced approximately 65% of the U.S. tonnage and 84% of the value for all types of clay.
Principal domestic uses for specific clays were estimated to be as follows: ball clay—50% floor and wall tile and 18%
sanitaryware; bentonite—50% pet waste absorbents and 22% drilling mud; common clay—45% brick, 28%
lightweight aggregate, and 22% cement; fire clay—82% heavy clay and lightweight aggregates products (for example,
brick, cement, and concrete) and 14% refractory products and miscellaneous uses; fuller’s earth—81% absorbents
(includes oil and grease absorbents, pet waste absorbents, and miscellaneous absorbents); and kaolin—30% paper
coating and filling, 15% miscellaneous ceramics, and 15% refractory products.
Exports of clay and shale were estimated have increased by 16% in 2021 after decreasing by 13% in 2020. In 2021,
the United States exported an estimated 800,000 tons of bentonite with Canada, Japan, and China, in decreasing
order, being the leading destinations. About 2.3 million tons of kaolin was exported mainly as a paper coating and
filler; a component in ceramic bodies; and fillers and extenders in paint, plastic, and rubber products, with China,
Mexico, and Japan, in decreasing order, being the leading destinations. Lesser quantities of ball clay, fire clay, and
fuller’s earth were exported for ceramic, refractory, and absorbent uses, respectively.

Production (sold or used):
Ball claye 1,270 1,110 1,060 1,080 1,100
Bentonite 4,450 4,570 4,520 4,240 4,300
Common clay 13,600 12,900 12,800 12,600 13,000
Fire clay 575 567 603 635 650
Fuller’s earthe, 1 1,840 1,880 1,990 1,980 2,000
Kaoline 5,450 5,350 5,060 4,570 4,100
Total1, 2 27,200 26,400 26,100 25,100 25,000
Artificially activated clays and earths 28 23 31 31 40
Kaolin 316 330 293 224 190
Other 86 68 66 28 40
Total2 430 421 389 284 270
Exports:
Artificially activated clays and earths 147 149 138 127 140
Ball clay 83 90 85 68 130
Bentonite 961 845 906 728 800
Clays, not elsewhere classified 244 244 204 185 170
Fire clay3 225 250 194 190 190
Fuller’s earth 78 70 73 77 80
Kaolin 2,310 2,390 2,280 1,980 2,300
Total2 4,040 4,030 3,880 3,360 3,900
Price, ex-works, average unit value, dollars per ton:
Ball clay 49 55 56 58 64
Bentonite 99 98 98 96 94
Common clay 15 16 17 16 16
Fire clay 13 12 14 13 13
Fuller’s earth1 93 88 88 89 88
Kaolin 158 160 162 160 160
Employment (excludes office workers), number:e
Mine (may not include contract workers) 1,220 1,110 1,110 1,060 1,060
Mill 4,370 4,310 4,310 4,260 4,240
Import Sources (2017–20): All clay types combined: Brazil, 70%; Mexico, 9%; China, 7%; and other, 14%.
Prepared by Kristi J. Simmons [(703) 648–7962, kjsimmons@usgs.gov]

51
CLAYS
12–31–21
Kaolin and other kaolinic clays, whether or not
calcined 2507.00.0000 Free.
Bentonite 2508.10.0000 Free.
Fire clay 2508.30.0000 Free.
Common blue clay and other ball clays 2508.40.0110 Free.
Decolorizing earths and fuller’s earth 2508.40.0120 Free.
Other clays 2508.40.0150 Free.
Chamotte or dinas earth 2508.70.0000 Free.
Activated clays and activated earths 3802.90.2000 2.5% ad valorem.
Expanded clays and other mixtures 6806.20.0000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Ball clay, bentonite, fire clay, fuller’s earth, and kaolin, 14% (domestic and foreign); clay used
in the manufacture of common brick, lightweight aggregate, and sewer pipe, 7.5% (domestic and foreign); clay used
in the manufacture of drain and roofing tile, flowerpots, and kindred products, 5% (domestic and foreign); clay from
which alumina and aluminum compounds are extracted, 22% (domestic).
Events, Trends, and Issues: In October 2021, a common clay producer headquartered in Tennessee finalized the
acquisition of another common clay company headquartered in Georgia, which operated 20 plants throughout North
America. In July 2021, a Georgia kaolin producer announced an agreement to purchase central Georgia assets that
support the paper and board industry from another kaolin producer with North American headquarters in Georgia.
World Mine Production and Reserves:6 Global reserves are large, but country-specific data were not available.
Mine production
Bentonite Fuller's earth Kaolin
2020 2021e 2020 2021e 2020 2021e
United States 4,240 4,300 11,980 12,000 4,570 4,100
Brazil (beneficiated) 217 200 — — 1,240 1,200
China 2,500 2,500 — — 6,500 6,400
Czechia 226 230 — — 73,070 73,100
Germany 360 350 — — 870 800

Greece 71,300 71,300 34 30 — —
India 3,500 3,500 730 730 77,600 77,600
Iran 425 420 — — 1,800 1,800

Mexico 25 20 110 110 120 120
Senegal — — 117 120 — —
Spain 221 220 590 590 7450 7450
Turkey 1,500 1,700 60 60 1,200 1,200

Ukraine 180 180 — — 1,680 1,600
Uzbekistan 25 20 — — 5,900 5,500
Other countries 3,480 3,500 313 310 11,400 11,000
World total (rounded) 18,200 18,000 13,930 14,000 46,400 45,000
World Resources:6 Resources of all clays are extremely large.
Substitutes: Clays compete with calcium carbonate in filler and extender applications; diatomite, organic pet litters,
polymers, silica gel, and zeolites as absorbents; and various siding and roofing types in building construction.
e
1
Does not include U.S. production of attapulgite.
2
Data may not add to totals shown because of independent rounding.
3
Includes refractory-grade kaolin.
4
5
6
7
Includes production of crude ore.

52
COBALT
(Data in metric tons of contained cobalt unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the nickel-copper Eagle Mine in Michigan produced cobalt-bearing nickel
concentrate, which was exported to Canada or overseas for processing. In Missouri, a company produced nickel-
copper-cobalt concentrate from historic mine tailings and was building a hydrometallurgical processing plant near the
mine site. Most U.S. cobalt supply consisted of imports and secondary (scrap) materials. Approximately six
companies in the United States produced cobalt chemicals. An estimated 42% of the cobalt consumed in the United
States was used in superalloys, mainly in aircraft gas turbine engines; 9% in cemented carbides for cutting and wear-
resistant applications; 16% in various other metallic applications; and 33% in a variety of chemical applications. The
total estimated value of cobalt consumed in 2021 was $340 million.

Production:e
Mine 640 480 500 600 700
Secondary1 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,000 1,600
Imports for consumption 11,900 11,900 13,900 9,740 9,900
Exports 5,690 6,980 4,080 3,440 4,800
Consumption (includes secondary):
Estimated2 9,240 9,290 9,050 7,300 6,600
Apparent3 8,950 7,680 12,500 8,500 6,700
Price, average, dollars per pound:
U.S. spot, cathode4 26.97 37.43 16.95 15.70 23
London Metal Exchange (LME), cash 25.28 32.94 14.88 14.21 22
Stocks, yearend:
Industrye, 2, 5 1,020 1,060 1,090 950 950
LME, U.S. warehouse 160 130 102 82 50
Recycling: In 2021, cobalt contained in purchased scrap represented an estimated 24% of cobalt estimated
consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Cobalt contained in metal, oxide, and salts: Norway, 20%; Canada, 16%; Japan, 13%;
Finland, 11%; and other, 40%.

12–31–21
Cobalt ores and concentrates 2605.00.0000 Free.
Chemical compounds:
Cobalt oxides and hydroxides 2822.00.0000 0.1% ad valorem.
Cobalt chlorides 2827.39.6000 4.2% ad valorem.
Cobalt sulfates 2833.29.1000 1.4% ad valorem.
Cobalt carbonates 2836.99.1000 4.2% ad valorem.
Cobalt acetates 2915.29.3000 4.2% ad valorem.
Unwrought cobalt, alloys 8105.20.3000 4.4% ad valorem.
Unwrought cobalt, other 8105.20.6000 Free.
Cobalt mattes and other intermediate products;
cobalt powders 8105.20.9000 Free.
Cobalt waste and scrap 8105.30.0000 Free.
Wrought cobalt and cobalt articles 8105.90.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Government Stockpile:7 See Lithium for statistics on lithium-cobalt oxide and lithium-nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Cobalt 302 — — — —
Cobalt alloys, gross weight8 11 50 — 50 —
Prepared by Kim B. Shedd [(703) 648–4974, kshedd@usgs.gov]

53
COBALT
Events, Trends, and Issues: Global cobalt mine and refinery production were forecast to increase to record high
levels in 2021. The increase in raw materials feed was mainly from increased production at existing operations,
although new production and restarts at suspended operations also contributed to supply. Congo (Kinshasa)
continued to be the world’s leading source of mined cobalt, supplying more than 70% of world cobalt mine production.
With the exception of production in Morocco and artisanally mined cobalt in Congo (Kinshasa), most cobalt is mined
as a byproduct of copper or nickel. China was the world’s leading producer of refined cobalt, most of which was
produced from partially refined cobalt imported from Congo (Kinshasa). China was the world’s leading consumer of
cobalt, with more than 80% of its consumption being used by the rechargeable battery industry.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for multiple countries were revised based on Government or
industry reports.

2020 2021e
United States 600 700 69,000
Australia 5,630 5,600 101,400,000
Canada 3,690 4,300 220,000

China 2,200 2,200 80,000
Congo (Kinshasa) 98,000 120,000 3,500,000
Cuba 3,800 3,900 500,000
Indonesia 1,100 2,100 600,000
Madagascar 850 2,500 100,000
Morocco 2,300 2,300 13,000
Papua New Guinea 2,940 3,000 47,000
Philippines 4,500 4,500 260,000
Russia 9,000 7,600 250,000
Other countries 7,640 6,600 610,000
World total (rounded) 142,000 170,000 7,600,000
World Resources:9 Identified cobalt resources of the United States are estimated to be about 1 million tons. Most of
these resources are in Minnesota, but other important occurrences are in Alaska, California, Idaho, Michigan,
Missouri, Montana, Oregon, and Pennsylvania. With the exception of resources in Idaho and Missouri, any future
cobalt production from these deposits would be as a byproduct of another metal. Identified world terrestrial cobalt
resources are about 25 million tons. The vast majority of these resources are in sediment-hosted stratiform copper
deposits in Congo (Kinshasa) and Zambia; nickel-bearing laterite deposits in Australia and nearby island countries
and Cuba; and magmatic nickel-copper sulfide deposits hosted in mafic and ultramafic rocks in Australia, Canada,
Russia, and the United States. More than 120 million tons of cobalt resources have been identified in polymetallic
nodules and crusts on the floor of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans.
Substitutes: Depending on the application, substitution for cobalt could result in a loss in product performance or an
increase in cost. The cobalt contents of lithium-ion batteries, the leading global use for cobalt, are being reduced;
potential commercially available cobalt-free substitutes use iron and phosphorus. Potential substitutes in other
applications include barium or strontium ferrites, neodymium-iron-boron alloys, or nickel-iron alloys in magnets;
cerium, iron, lead, manganese, or vanadium in paints; cobalt-iron-copper or iron-copper in diamond tools; copper-
iron-manganese for curing unsaturated polyester resins; iron, iron-cobalt-nickel, nickel, ceramic-metallic composites
(cermets), or ceramics in cutting and wear-resistant materials; nickel-base alloys or ceramics in jet engines; nickel in
petroleum catalysts; rhodium in hydroformylation catalysts; and titanium-base alloys in prosthetics.
e
1
Estimated from consumption of purchased scrap.
2
Includes reported data and U.S. Geological Survey estimates.
3
Defined as secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes for refined cobalt.
4
Source: Platts Metals Week. Cobalt cathode is refined cobalt metal produced by an electrolytic process.
5
Stocks held by consumers and processors; excludes stocks held by trading companies and held for investment purposes.
6
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes for refined cobalt.
7
8
Inventory is cobalt alloys; potential acquisitions are samarium-cobalt alloy; excludes potential disposals of aerospace alloys.
9
10

54
COPPER
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained copper unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the recoverable copper content of U.S. mine production was an estimated
1.2 million tons, unchanged from that in 2020, and was valued at an estimated $12 billion, 58% greater than
$7.61 billion in 2020. Arizona was the leading copper-producing State and accounted for an estimated 71% of
domestic output; copper was also mined in Michigan, Missouri, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, and Utah. Copper
was recovered or processed at 25 mines (19 of which accounted for 99% of mine production), 2 smelters,
2 electrolytic refineries, and 14 electrowinning facilities. An additional smelter and electrolytic refinery have been
temporarily closed since October 2019. Refined copper and scrap were used at about 30 brass mills, 14 rod mills,
and 500 foundries and miscellaneous consumers. Copper and copper alloy products were used in building
construction, 46%; electrical and electronic products, 21%; transportation equipment, 16%; consumer and general
products, 10%; and industrial machinery and equipment, 7%. 1

Production:
Mine, recoverable copper content 1,260 1,220 1,260 1,200 1,200
Refinery:
Primary (from ore) 1,040 1,070 985 874 950
Secondary (from scrap) 40 41 44 43 50
Copper recovered from old (post-consumer) scrap2 146 149 e150 e150 160
Refined 813 778 663 676 920
Exports:
Refined 94 190 125 41 50
Consumption:
Reported, refined metal 1,800 1,820 1,830 1,710 1,800
Apparent, primary refined and old scrap3 1,860 1,830 1,810 1,650 2,000
Price, annual average, cents per pound:
U.S. producer, cathode (COMEX + premium) 285.4 298.7 279.6 286.7 430.0
COMEX, high-grade, first position 280.4 292.6 272.3 279.9 420.0
London Metal Exchange, grade A, cash 279.5 296.0 272.4 279.8 420.0
Stocks, refined, held by U.S. producers, consumers, and metal 265 244 111 118 80
exchanges, yearend
Employment, mine and plant, number 10,500 11,700 12,000 11,000 11,000
Recycling: Old (post-consumer) scrap, converted to refined metal and alloys, provided an estimated 160,000 tons of
copper. Purchased new (manufacturing) scrap, derived from fabricating operations, yielded an estimated
710,000 tons. Of the total copper recovered from scrap (including non-copper-base scrap), brass and wire-rod mills
accounted for about 80%; smelters, refiners, and ingot makers, 15%; and miscellaneous chemical plants, foundries,
and manufacturers, 5%. Copper recovered from scrap contributed about 32% of the U.S. copper supply.5
Import Sources (2017–20): Copper content of blister and anodes: Finland, 81%; Malaysia, 13%; and other, 6%.
Copper content of matte, ash, and precipitates: Canada, 28%; Mexico, 20%; Belgium, 14%; Spain, 11%; and other,
27%. Copper content of ore and concentrates: Mexico, 97%; and other, 3%. Copper content of scrap: Canada, 54%;
Mexico, 34%; and other, 12%. Refined copper: Chile, 62%; Canada, 23%; Mexico, 11%; and other, 4%. Refined
copper accounted for 85% of all unmanufactured copper imports.

12–31–21
Copper ore and concentrates, copper content 2603.00.0010 1.7¢/kg on lead content.
Unrefined copper anodes 7402.00.0000 Free.
Refined copper and alloys, unwrought 7403.00.0000 1.0% ad valorem.
Copper wire rod 7408.11.0000 1.0% or 3.0% ad valorem.
Prepared by Daniel M. Flanagan [(703) 648–7726, dflanagan@usgs.gov]

55
COPPER
Events, Trends, and Issues: In the United States, mined copper production remained unchanged in 2021 from that
in 2020. Production increased significantly at the Safford Mine in Arizona owing to the rampup of the Lone Star
expansion that was completed in the second half of 2020. Operations at the Chino Mine in New Mexico, which had
been suspended since April 2020 after multiple workers tested positive for COVID-19, restarted in the first quarter of
2021. At the Pinto Valley Mine in Arizona, optimization projects completed in 2020 and 2021 resulted in higher copper
recovery and throughput rates. Production also increased at other domestic copper mines because of higher ore
grades, but the increases were offset by significant decreases in output at several major mines in Arizona. The
rampup of the Gunnison Mine in Arizona, which commenced production in late 2020, was delayed because of
technical complications with the injection wells. Production at the Pumpkin Hollow Mine in Nevada, which started in
late 2019 and was halted for several months in 2020 because of the COVID-19 pandemic, was expected to reach
capacity in the third quarter of 2022. Refined copper production in the United States increased by an estimated 9% in
2021 compared with that in 2020, when operations at the smelter in Utah were affected by a rebuild of the flash
converting furnace after an earthquake and a delayed restart following planned maintenance.
Based on data through October, the annual average COMEX copper price was projected to be about $4.20 per pound
in 2021, an increase of 50% from that in 2020 and 5% greater than the previous alltime high of $4.01 per pound in
2011. Strong global manufacturing activity, constrained growth in world copper production, low stockpiles, and supply
constraints owing to shipping delays contributed to the increased copper price.
World Mine and Refinery Production and Reserves: Reserves for multiple countries were revised based on
company and (or) Government information.
Mine production Refinery production Reserves6

2020 2021e 2020 2021e
United States 1,200 1,200 918 1,000 48,000
Australia 885 900 427 450 793,000
Canada 585 590 e290 300 9,800

Chile 5,730 5,600 2,330 2,200 200,000
China 1,720 1,800 10,000 10,000 26,000
Congo (Kinshasa) 1,600 1,800 1,350 1,500 31,000
Germany — — 643 630 —
Indonesia 505 810 269 270 24,000
Japan — — 1,580 1,500 —
Kazakhstan 552 520 515 470 20,000
Korea, Republic of — — 671 650 —
Mexico 733 720 492 470 53,000
Peru 2,150 2,200 324 350 77,000
Poland 393 390 560 590 31,000
Russia e810 820 1,040 920 62,000
Zambia 853 830 378 350 21,000
Other countries 2,840 2,800 3,450 4,300 180,000
World total (rounded) 20,600 21,000 25,300 26,000 880,000
World Resources:6 A U.S. Geological Survey study of global copper deposits indicated that, as of 2015, identified
resources contained 2.1 billion tons of copper, and undiscovered resources contained an estimated 3.5 billion tons.8
Substitutes: Aluminum substitutes for copper in automobile radiators, cooling and refrigeration tube, electrical
equipment, and power cable. Titanium and steel are used in heat exchangers. Optical fiber substitutes for copper in
telecommunications applications, and plastics substitute for copper in drain pipe, plumbing fixtures, and water pipe.
e
1
Distribution reported by the Copper Development Association. Some electrical components are included in each end use.
2
Copper converted to refined metal and alloys by brass and wire-rod mills, foundries, refineries, and other manufacturers.
3
Primary refined production + copper in old scrap converted to refined metal and alloys + refined imports – refined exports ± refined stock changes.
4
Defined as refined imports – refined exports ± adjustments for refined copper stock changes.
5
Primary refined production + copper recovered from old and new scrap + refined imports – refined exports ± refined stock changes.
6
7
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 23 million tons.
8
Hammarstrom, J.M., Zientek, M.L., Parks, H.L., Dicken, C.L., and the U.S. Geological Survey Global Copper Mineral Resource Assessment Team,
2019, Assessment of undiscovered copper resources of the world, 2015 (ver.1.1, May 24, 2019): U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations
Report 2018–5160, 619 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20185160.

56
DIAMOND (INDUSTRIAL)1
(Data in million carats unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, total domestic primary production of manufactured industrial diamond bort,
grit, and dust and powder was estimated to be 140 million carats with a value of $42 million, a 7% increase compared
with that in 2020. No industrial diamond stone was produced domestically. One company with facilities in Florida and
Ohio and a second company in Pennsylvania accounted for all domestic primary production. At least four companies
produced polycrystalline diamond from diamond powder. At least two companies recovered used industrial diamond
material from used diamond drill bits, diamond tools, and other diamond-containing wastes for recycling. The major
consuming sectors of industrial diamond are computer chip production; construction; drilling for minerals, natural gas,
and oil; machinery manufacturing; stone cutting and polishing; and transportation (infrastructure and vehicles).
Highway building, milling, and repair and stone cutting consumed most of the industrial diamond stone. About 94% of
U.S. industrial diamond apparent consumption was synthetic industrial diamond because its quality can be controlled
and its properties can be customized.

Bort, grit, and dust and powder; natural and synthetic:
Production:
Manufactured diamonde 41 184 114 130 140
Secondary 11 32 36 35 34
Imports for consumption 362 574 310 191 220
Exports 161 139 114 91 100
Consumption, apparent2 253 652 346 265 290
Price, unit value of imports, dollars per carat 0.16 0.12 0.14 0.19 0.21
Stones, natural and synthetic:
Production:
Manufactured diamonde 87 — — — —
Secondary 0.39 0.13 0.10 0.10 0.10
Imports for consumption 1.23 2.52 1.07 0.51 0.32
Exports — — ( 4) 0.02 —
Consumption, apparent2 89.0 2.7 1.2 0.6 0.4
Price, unit value of imports, dollars per carat 12.9 2.9 5.8 8.4 12.0
Recycling: In 2021, the amount of diamond bort, grit, and dust and powder recycled was estimated to be 34 million
carats with an estimated value of $5.4 million. It was estimated that 98,000 carats of diamond stone were recycled
with an estimated value of $150,000.
Import Sources (2017–20): Bort, grit, and dust and powder; natural and synthetic: China,5 81%; Ireland, 6%; the
Republic of Korea, 6%; Russia, 4%; and other, 3%. Stones, primarily natural: South Africa, 24%; India, 18%; Congo
(Kinshasa), 17%; Botswana, 10%; and other, 31%.

12–31–21
Industrial Miners’ diamonds, carbonados 7102.21.1010 Free.
Industrial Miners’ diamonds, other 7102.21.1020 Free.
Industrial diamonds, simply sawn, cleaved, or
bruted 7102.21.3000 Free.
Industrial diamonds, not worked 7102.21.4000 Free.
Grit or dust and powder of natural diamonds,
80 mesh or finer 7105.10.0011 Free.
Grit or dust and powder of natural diamonds,
over 80 mesh 7105.10.0015 Free.
Grit or dust and powder of synthetic diamonds,
coated with metal 7105.10.0020 Free.
not coated with metal, 80 mesh or finer 7105.10.0030 Free.
not coated with metal, over 80 mesh 7105.10.0050 Free.
Prepared by Donald W. Olson [(703) 648–7721, dolson@usgs.gov]

57
DIAMOND (INDUSTRIAL)
Events, Trends, and Issues: Most natural industrial diamond is produced as a byproduct of mining gem-quality
diamond. Global natural industrial diamond production increased slightly during 2021. This increase was the result of
mines returning to normal operation after the global COVID-19 pandemic caused reduced production in 2020. The
most significant recoveries in rough diamond production were in Angola, Botswana, and Canada. Recovery from the
effects of the pandemic have been hampered by mine closures and lower output as mines approach the ends of their
lives. The world’s largest diamond mines have matured and are past their peak production levels, and several of the
largest diamond mines are expected to close by the end of 2025. As these mines are depleted, global production is
expected to decline in quantity and the global supply of crude natural diamond (including gem-quality and industrial
diamond) is forecasted to steadily decrease to about 120 million carats in 2030.
In 2021, U.S. synthetic-industrial-diamond producers did not manufacture any diamond stone and the combined
apparent consumption of all types of industrial diamond decreased. Domestic and global demand for synthetic
diamond grit and powder is expected to remain greater than that for natural diamond material. The average unit value
of all types of natural and synthetic industrial diamond imports increased by 6%. In 2021, China was the leading
producing country of synthetic industrial diamond, followed by the United States, Russia, Ireland, and South Africa, in
descending order of quantity. These five countries produced about 99% of the world’s synthetic industrial diamond.
Synthetic diamond accounted for more than 99% of global industrial diamond production and consumption.
Worldwide production of manufactured industrial diamond totaled more than 14.7 billion carats.
The United States is likely to continue to be one of the world’s leading markets for industrial diamond into the next
decade and is expected to remain a significant producer and exporter of synthetic industrial diamond as well. U.S.
demand for industrial diamond is likely to be strong in the construction sector as the United States continues building,
milling, and repairing the Nation’s highway system. Industrial diamond coats the cutting edge of saws used to cut
concrete in highway construction and repair work.
World Natural Industrial Diamond Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Botswana, Russia, and
South Africa were revised based on Government and company information.

2020 2021e
United States — — NA
Australia 11 8 711
Botswana 5 6 300
Congo (Kinshasa) 10 11 150
Russia 14 15 1,100
South Africa 2 2 120
Zimbabwe 2 2 NA
Other countries 1 1 120
World total (rounded) 45 45 1,800
World Resources:6 Natural diamond deposits have been discovered in more than 35 countries. Natural diamond
accounts for about 4% of all industrial diamond used, synthetic diamond accounts for the remainder. At least
15 countries have the technology to produce synthetic diamond.
Substitutes: Materials that can compete with industrial diamond in some applications include manufactured
abrasives, such as cubic boron nitride, fused aluminum oxide, and silicon carbide. Globally, synthetic diamond, rather
than natural diamond, is used for about 99% of industrial applications.
e
1
See Gemstones for information on gem-quality diamond.
2
Defined as manufactured diamond production + secondary diamond production + imports – exports.
3
4
Less than 500 carats.
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6
7
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 10 million carats.

58
DIATOMITE
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, production of diatomite, also known as diatomaceous earth, was estimated
to be 830,000 tons with an estimated processed value of $274 million, free on board (f.o.b.) plant. Six companies
produced diatomite at 12 mining areas and 9 processing facilities in California, Nevada, Oregon, and Washington.
Approximately 55% of diatomite is used in filtration products. The remaining 45% is used in absorbents, fillers,
lightweight aggregates, and other applications. A small amount, less than 1%, is used for specialized pharmaceutical
and biomedical purposes. The unit value of diatomite varied widely in 2021, from approximately $10 per ton when
used as a lightweight aggregate in portland cement concrete to more than $1,000 per ton for limited specialty
markets, including art supplies, cosmetics, and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) extraction.

Production1 768 957 768 822 830
Exports 87 68 68 66 70
Price, average value, f.o.b. plant, dollars per ton 360 330 340 330 330
Employment, mine and plant, numbere 360 370 370 370 370
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 68%; Mexico, 12%; Germany, 10%; Argentina, 4%; and other, 6%.

12–31–21
Siliceous fossil meals, including diatomite 2512.00.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The amount of domestically produced diatomite sold or used by producers in 2021 was
essentially unchanged compared with that in 2020. Apparent domestic consumption in 2021 was the same at an
estimated 770,000 tons; exports were estimated to have increased by 6%. The United States remained the leading
global producer and consumer of diatomite. Filtration (including the purification of beer, liquors, and wine and the
cleansing of greases and oils) continued to be the leading end use for diatomite. An important application for
diatomite is the removal of microbial contaminants, such as bacteria, protozoa, and viruses in public water systems.
Other applications for diatomite include filtration of human blood plasma, pharmaceutical processing, and use as a
nontoxic insecticide. Domestically, diatomite used in the production of cement was the second-ranked use. Despite
disruptions caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic, the production of diatomite through 2021 remained about the
same as that in 2020.
Prepared by Robert D. Crangle, Jr. [(703) 648–6410, rcrangle@usgs.gov]

59
DIATOMITE
In 2021, the United States accounted for an estimated 36% of total world production; followed by Denmark with 17%;
Turkey with 9%; China with 6%; and Argentina, Mexico, and Peru, each with 4%. Smaller quantities of diatomite were
mined in 21 additional countries.

2020 2021e
United States1 822 830 250,000
Argentina 94 90 NA
China 140 140 110,000
Denmark5 (processed) 400 400 NA
France 75 75 NA
Germany 52 50 NA
Japan 40 40 NA
Korea, Republic of 26 50 NA
Mexico 96 100 NA
New Zealand 40 40 NA
Peru 91 90 NA
Russia 51 50 NA
Spain 50 50 NA
Turkey 220 200 44,000
Other countries 120 120 NA
World Resources:4 Diatomite deposits form from an accumulation of amorphous hydrous silica cell walls of dead
diatoms in oceanic and fresh waters. Diatomite is also known as kieselguhr (Germany), tripolite (after an occurrence
near Tripoli, Libya), and moler (an impure Danish form). Because U.S. diatomite occurrences are at or near Earth’s
surface, recovery from most deposits is achieved through low-cost, open pit mining. Outside the United States,
however, underground mining is fairly common owing to deposit location and topographic constraints. World
resources of crude diatomite are adequate for the foreseeable future.
Substitutes: Many materials can be substituted for diatomite. However, the unique properties of diatomite assure its
continued use in many applications. Expanded perlite and silica sand compete for filtration. Filters made from
manufactured materials, notably ceramic, polymeric, or carbon membrane filters and filters made with cellulose fibers,
are becoming competitive as filter media. Alternate filler materials include clay, ground limestone, ground mica,
ground silica sand, perlite, talc, and vermiculite. For thermal insulation, materials such as various clays, exfoliated
vermiculite, expanded perlite, mineral wool, and special brick can be used. Transportation costs will continue to
determine the maximum economic distance that most forms of diatomite may be shipped and still remain competitive
with alternative materials.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available.
1
Processed ore sold or used by producers.
2
3
4
5
Includes sales of moler production.

60
FELDSPAR AND NEPHELINE SYENITE
Domestic Production and Use: U.S. feldspar production in 2021 had an estimated value of $43 million. Two leading
companies mined and processed about 60% of production; five other companies supplied the remainder. The
five leading producing States were California, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Dakota, and Virginia. Feldspar
processors reported joint product recovery of mica and silica sand. Nepheline syenite produced in the United States
was not included in production figures because the material was not considered to be marketable as a flux and was
mostly used in construction applications.
Feldspar is ground to about 20 mesh for glassmaking and to 200 mesh or finer for most ceramic and filler
applications. It was estimated that domestically produced feldspar was transported by ship, rail, or truck to at least
30 States and to foreign destinations, including Canada and Mexico. In pottery and glass, feldspar and nepheline
syenite function as a flux. The estimated 2021 end-use distribution of domestic feldspar and nepheline syenite was
glass, 65%, and ceramic tile, pottery, and other uses, 35%.

Production, feldspar, marketable1 440 550 450 430 400
Feldspar 290 181 64 43 190
Nepheline syenite 1,460 1,070 508 503 520
Exports, feldspar 5 4 4 3 4
Consumption, apparent:1, 2
Feldspar only 730 730 510 470 590
Feldspar and nepheline syenite 2,200 1,800 1,000 980 1,100
Price, average value, dollars per ton:
Feldspar only, marketable production 62 97 107 108 110
Nepheline syenite, average unit value of imports 61 76 156 163 170
Employment, mine, preparation plant, and office, numbere 240 240 240 240 220
Feldspar 39 24 12 8 32
Nepheline syenite 100 100 100 100 100
Recycling: Feldspar and nepheline syenite are not recycled by producers; however, glass container producers use
cullet (recycled container glass), thereby reducing feldspar and nepheline syenite consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Feldspar: Turkey, 98%; and other, 2%. Nepheline syenite: Canada, 100%.

12–31–21
Feldspar 2529.10.0000 Free.
Nepheline syenite 2529.30.0010 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, estimated domestic production and sales of feldspar decreased by about 6%,
and the average unit value of sales slightly increased compared with that in 2020. Estimated imports of feldspar were
more than fourfold those in 2020, and nepheline syenite imports increased by an estimated 3% in 2021. Imports of
nepheline syenite reported by the U.S. Census Bureau in 2017 and 2018 were unusually high.
Prepared by James J. Barry [(703) 648–7752, jbarry@usgs.gov]

61
FELDSPAR AND NEPHELINE SYENITE
Domestic feldspar consumption has been gradually shifting toward glass from ceramics. A growing segment in the
glass industry was solar glass, used in the production of solar panels. Glass—including beverage containers (more
than one-half of the feldspar consumed by the glass industry), plate glass, and fiberglass insulation for housing and
building construction—continued to be the leading end use of feldspar in the United States.
In the United States, residential construction, in which feldspar is a raw material commonly used in the manufacture of
plate glass, ceramic tiles and sanitaryware, and insulation, increased by 17% during the first 10 months of 2021
compared with that in the same period in 2020. Production and sales of feldspar are expected to increase into 2022,
owing in part to low mortgage interest rates, increased demand for single-family homes as the global COVID-19
pandemic made multifamily homes less desirable, and supply shortages of materials needed in new residential
construction.
A company based in Canada continued development of a feldspar-quartz-kaolin project in Idaho that contained high-
grade potassium feldspar. Production was expected to be about 30,000 tons per year of potassium feldspar during a
25-year mine life. For several years, the operation has produced a low-iron and trace-element feldspathic sand
product from old mine tailings, which was sold to ceramic tile producers.
World Mine Production and Reserves:4 Reserves data for Czechia and Thailand were revised based on industry
and Government information.

2020 2021e
United States1 430 400 NA
Brazil (beneficiated, marketable) 300 300 150,000
China 2,500 2,600 NA
Czechia 419 420 22,000
India 6,000 6,200 320,000
Iran 2,400 2,400 630,000
Italy 2,200 2,200 NA
Korea, Republic of 415 420 180,000
Mexico 300 500 NA
Poland 405 350 NA
Russia 300 350 NA
Spain (includes pegmatites) 650 800 NA
Thailand 1,200 1,300 220,000
Turkey 5,000 7,800 240,000
World Resources:5 Identified and undiscovered resources of feldspar are more than adequate to meet anticipated
world demand. Quantitative data on resources of feldspar existing in feldspathic sands, granites, and pegmatites
generally have not been compiled. Ample geologic evidence indicates that resources are large, although not always
conveniently accessible to the principal centers of consumption.
Substitutes: Imported nepheline syenite was the major alternative material for feldspar. Feldspar can be replaced in
some of its end uses by clays, electric furnace slag, feldspar-silica mixtures, pyrophyllite, spodumene, or talc.
e
Estimated. NA Not available.
1
Rounded to two significant digits to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
2
3
4
Feldspar only.
5

62
FLUORSPAR
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, minimal fluorspar (calcium fluoride, CaF2) was produced in the
United States. One company sold fluorspar from stockpiles produced as a byproduct of its limestone quarrying
operation in Cave-in-Rock, IL, and continued development of its fluorspar mine in Kentucky. In May, a second
company, in Utah, began site preparations for the construction of a plant to produce metallurgical-grade fluorspar
briquets. An estimated 22,000 tons of fluorosilicic acid (FSA), equivalent to about 36,000 tons of fluorspar grading
100% CaF2, was recovered from three phosphoric acid plants processing phosphate rock and was primarily used in
water fluoridation. A company in Aurora, NC, continued construction on a plant to produce hydrofluoric acid (HF) from
FSA which was expected to begin operation in 2022. The U.S. Department of Energy continued to produce aqueous
HF as a byproduct of the conversion of depleted uranium hexafluoride to depleted uranium oxide at plants in
Paducah, KY, and Portsmouth, OH.
U.S. fluorspar consumption was satisfied by imports. Domestically, production of HF in Louisiana and Texas was by
far the leading use for acid-grade fluorspar. Hydrofluoric acid is the primary feedstock for the manufacture of virtually
all fluorine-bearing chemicals, particularly refrigerants and fluoropolymers, and is also a key ingredient in the
processing of aluminum and uranium. Fluorspar was also used in cement production, in enamels, as a flux in
steelmaking, in glass manufacture, in iron and steel casting, and in welding rod coatings.

Production:
Finished, metallurgical grade NA NA NA NA NA
Fluorosilicic acid from phosphate rock 40 33 29 22 22
Acid grade 331 381 346 414 430
Metallurgical grade 70 78 59 65 40
Total fluorspar imports 401 459 405 480 470
Hydrofluoric acid 123 122 124 103 110
Aluminum fluoride 21 26 38 21 20
Cryolite 10 17 21 26 46
Exports, fluorspar, all grades1 11 9 8 9 17
Price, average unit value of imports, cost, insurance, and freight,
dollars per ton:
Acid grade 267 276 304 310 330
Metallurgical grade 237 258 292 149 160
Employment, mine, numbere 19 16 14 14 14
Recycling: Synthetic fluorspar may be produced from neutralization of waste in the enrichment of uranium, petroleum
alkylation, and stainless-steel pickling; however, undesirable impurities constrain use. Primary aluminum producers
recycle HF and fluorides from smelting operations.
Import Sources (2017–20):3 Mexico, 66%; Vietnam, 16%; South Africa, 7%; Canada, 4%; and other, 7%.

12–31–21
Metallurgical grade (less than 97% CaF2) 2529.21.0000 Free.
Acid grade (97% or more CaF2) 2529.22.0000 Free.
Natural cryolite 2530.90.1000 Free.
Hydrogen fluoride (hydrofluoric acid) 2811.11.0000 Free.
Aluminum fluoride 2826.12.0000 Free.
Sodium hexafluoroaluminate (synthetic cryolite) 2826.30.0000 Free.

63
FLUORSPAR
Events, Trends, and Issues: Global mine production was estimated to have increased in 2021 primarily owing to the
continued rampup of production at mines in Canada, Mongolia, and South Africa. Globally, several projects to
produce HF from FSA also continued to progress.
Some countries continued to phase down production, consumption, and imports of non-feedstock hydrofluorocarbons
(HFCs) used as aerosols, propellants, and refrigerants owing to HFCs’ high global warming potential. Consumption of
fluorspar in Europe decreased since the European Union’s fluorinated greenhouse gas (also known as F-Gas)
regulation went into effect in 2015 and several producers discontinued production of HFCs. Subsequent price
increases and lack of availability have reportedly led to a resurgence in illegal imports and sales of these materials.
Previous phasedowns of chlorofluorocarbons and hydrochlorofluorocarbons led to similar activity.
In response to the American Innovation and Manufacturing Act, in October, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
established the Allowance Allocation and Trading Program as part of its final rule to phase down the production and
consumption of non-feedstock HFCs by 85% over the next 15 years. The rule set baseline production and
consumption levels from which reductions will be made and established a methodology for allocating and trading HFC
allowances. In a related action, the White House established an interagency task force on illegal HFC trade.
The State Intellectual Property Office of China invalidated a U.S. company’s patent on a manufacturing process used
to produce hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs). HFOs have increasingly been adopted as low-global-warming-potential
alternatives to HFCs.

2020 2021e
United States NA NA 4,000
Canada 100 140 NA
China 55,400 55,400 42,000
Germany 80 80 NA
Iran 56 56 3,400
Kazakhstan 77 77 NA
Mexico 915 990 68,000
Mongolia 685 800 22,000
Morocco 82 80 210
Pakistan 55 70 NA
South Africa 330 420 41,000
Spain 131 130 10,000
Vietnam 220 220 5,000
World Resources:4, 6 Large quantities of fluorine are present in phosphate rock. Current U.S. reserves of phosphate
rock are estimated to be 1 billion tons, containing about 72 million tons of 100% fluorspar equivalent assuming an
average fluorine content of 3.5% in the phosphate rock. World reserves of phosphate rock are estimated to be
71 billion tons, containing about 5 billion tons of 100% fluorspar equivalent.
Substitutes: FSA is used to produce aluminum fluoride (AlF3) and HF. Because of differing physical properties, AlF 3
produced from FSA is not readily substituted for AlF3 produced from fluorspar. Aluminum smelting dross, borax,
calcium chloride, iron oxides, manganese ore, silica sand, and titanium dioxide have been used as substitutes for
fluorspar fluxes.
e
1
Includes data for the following Schedule B codes: 2529.21.0000 and 2529.22.0000.
2
Defined as total fluorspar imports – exports.
3
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2529.21.0000 and 2529.22.0000.
4
5
As reported by China's Ministry of Natural Resources. Likely excludes production from operations that did not meet the Government's minimum mining
and processing requirements. The China Non-Metallic Minerals Industry Association estimated that actual production was closer to 6 million tons.
6
Measured as 100% CaF2.

64
GALLIUM
(Data in kilograms of contained gallium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: No domestic primary (low-purity, unrefined) gallium has been recovered since 1987.
Globally, primary gallium is recovered as a byproduct of processing bauxite and zinc ores. One company in Utah
recovered and refined high-purity gallium from imported primary low-purity gallium metal and new scrap. Imports of
gallium metal and gallium arsenide (GaAs) wafers were valued at about $3 million and $200 million, respectively.
GaAs was used to manufacture compound semiconductor wafers used in integrated circuits (ICs) and optoelectronic
devices, which include laser diodes, light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodetectors, and solar cells. Gallium nitride
(GaN) principally was used to manufacture optoelectronic devices. ICs accounted for 77% of domestic gallium
consumption, optoelectronic devices accounted for 21%, and research and development accounted for 2%. About
81% of the gallium consumed in the United States was contained in GaAs, GaN, and gallium phosphide (GaP)
wafers. Gallium metal, triethyl gallium, and trimethyl gallium, used in the epitaxial layering process to fabricate
epiwafers for the production of ICs and LEDs, accounted for most of the remainder. Optoelectronic devices were used
in aerospace applications, consumer goods, industrial equipment, medical equipment, and telecommunications
equipment. Uses of ICs included defense applications, high-performance computers, and telecommunications
equipment.

Production, primary — — — — —
Metal 20,200 32,000 5,740 4,460 10,600
Gallium arsenide wafers (gross weight) 803,000 444,000 272,000 178,000 270,000
Exports NA NA NA NA NA
Consumption, reported 17,900 15,000 14,900 15,700 16,000
Price, imports, dollars per kilogram:
High-purity, refined1 477 508 573 596 570
Low-purity, primary2 124 185 153 163 200
Stocks, consumer, yearend 2,840 2,920 2,850 2,920 2,800
Net import reliance3 as a percentage of reported consumption 100 100 100 100 100
Recycling: Old scrap, none. Substantial quantities of new scrap generated in the manufacture of GaAs-based
devices were reprocessed to recover high-purity gallium at one facility in Utah.
Import Sources (2017–20): Metal: China,4 53%; the United Kingdom, 11%; Germany, 9%; Ukraine, 7%; and
other, 20%.

12–31–21
Gallium arsenide wafers, doped 3818.00.0010 Free.
Gallium metal 8112.92.1000 3.0% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Imports of gallium metal and GaAs wafers continued to account for all U.S.
consumption of gallium. In 2021, gallium metal imports increased by an estimated 140% from those of 2020 owing to
increased imports from Canada, Japan, and Singapore. Beginning in 2019, U.S. gallium metal imports decreased
substantially from previous years when higher tariffs were placed on China’s gallium exports to the United States.
Primary low-purity (99.99%-pure) gallium prices in China increased by an estimated 25% in 2021, to $345 per
kilogram in October from approximately $275 per kilogram at yearend 2020. This followed a 96% increase in China’s
primary low-purity gallium prices in 2020, to $275 per kilogram in December from $140 per kilogram in January. The
increases in China’s gallium prices resulted from several issues. Environmental restrictions placed on Chinese
bauxite production in 2019 compelled the country’s alumina refineries to import bauxite with lower gallium content
from abroad, which increased gallium extraction costs. When the global COVID-19 pandemic reduced gallium
demand in early to mid-2020, Chinese gallium producers slowed or shut down operations. Chinese gallium supply
was scarce when gallium demand resumed in the second half of 2020, and gallium prices increased significantly in
the last quarter of 2020, continuing through 2021.

65
GALLIUM
China’s primary low-purity gallium production capacity has been approximately 650,000 kilograms per year since
2020, following an expansion from 140,000 kilograms per year in 2010. China accounted for approximately 84% of
worldwide low-purity gallium capacity.
The remaining primary low-purity gallium producers outside of China most likely restricted output owing to a large
surplus of primary gallium that began in 2012. These producers included Japan, the Republic of Korea, and Russia.
Germany and Kazakhstan ceased primary production in 2016 and 2013, respectively. However, owing to the increase
in gallium prices in 2020 and 2021, Germany announced that it would restart primary gallium production by the end of
2021. Hungary and Ukraine were thought to have ceased primary production in 2015 and 2019, respectively. High-
purity refined gallium production in 2021 was estimated to be about 225,000 kilograms, a 5% increase from that in
2020. China, Japan, Slovakia, and the United States were the known principal producers of high-purity refined gallium.
The United Kingdom ceased high-purity refined gallium production in 2018. Gallium was recovered from new scrap in
Canada, China, Germany, Japan, Slovakia, and the United States. World primary low-purity gallium production
capacity in 2021 was estimated to be 774,000 kilograms per year; high-purity refined gallium production capacity,
325,000 kilograms per year; and secondary high-purity gallium production capacity, 273,000 kilograms per year.
Primary production Reserves5

2020 2021e
China 317,000 420,000 reserves are not available.
Japan 3,000 3,000
Russia 5,000 5,000
World Resources:5 Gallium occurs in very small concentrations in ores of other metals. Most gallium is produced as
a byproduct of processing bauxite, and the remainder is produced from zinc-processing residues. The average
gallium content of bauxite is 50 parts per million. U.S. bauxite deposits consist mainly of subeconomic resources that
are not generally suitable for alumina production owing to their high silica content. Some domestic zinc ores contain
up to 50 parts per million gallium and could be a significant resource, although no gallium is currently recovered from
domestic ores. Gallium contained in world resources of bauxite is estimated to exceed 1 million tons, and a
considerable quantity could be contained in world zinc resources. However, less than 10% of the gallium in bauxite
and zinc resources is potentially recoverable.
Substitutes: Liquid crystals made from organic compounds are used in visual displays as substitutes for LEDs.
Silicon-based complementary metal-oxide semiconductor power amplifiers compete with GaAs power amplifiers in
midtier third generation (3G) cellular handsets. Indium phosphide components can be substituted for GaAs-based
infrared laser diodes in some specific-wavelength applications, and helium-neon lasers compete with GaAs in visible
laser diode applications. Silicon is the principal competitor with GaAs in solar-cell applications. In many defense-
related applications, GaAs-based ICs are used because of their unique properties, and no effective substitutes exist
for GaAs in these applications. In heterojunction bipolar transistors, GaAs is being replaced in some applications by
silicon-germanium.
e
1
Estimated based on the average unit values of U.S. imports for 99.999%- and 99.99999%-pure gallium.
2
Estimated based on the average unit values of U.S. imports for 99.99%-pure gallium.
3
Defined as imports – exports. Excludes gallium arsenide wafers.
4
Includes Hong Kong.
5

66
GARNET (INDUSTRIAL)1
(Data in metric tons of garnet unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, garnet for industrial use was mined by four firms—one in Idaho, one in
Montana, and two in New York. One processing facility operated in Oregon and another operated in Pennsylvania.
The estimated value of crude garnet production was about $15 million, and refined material sold or used had an
estimated value of $53 million. The major end uses of garnet were, in descending percentage of consumption, for
abrasive blasting, water-filtration media, water-jet-assisted cutting, and other end uses, such as in abrasive powders,
nonslip coatings, and sandpaper. Domestic industries that consume garnet include aircraft and motor vehicle
manufacturers, ceramics and glass producers, electronic component manufacturers, filtration plants, glass polishing,
the petroleum industry, shipbuilders, textile stonewashing, and wood-furniture-finishing operations.

Production:
Crude 92,900 101,000 104,000 101,000 75,000
Refined, sold or used 84,100 166,000 147,000 146,000 120,000
Exports 17,700 14,200 12,600 13,600 15,000
Price, average import unit value, dollars per ton 306 215 214 250 325
Employment, mine and mill, numbere 140 170 160 130 120
Recycling: Garnet was recycled at a plant in Oregon with a recycling capacity of 16,000 tons per year and at a plant
in Pennsylvania with a recycling capacity of 25,000 tons per year. Garnet can be recycled multiple times without
degradation of its quality. Most recycled garnet is from blast cleaning and water-jet-assisted cutting operations.
Import Sources (2017–20):e South Africa, 43%; China,5 22%; India, 20%; Australia, 12%; and other, 3%.

12–31–21
Emery, natural corundum, natural garnet, and
other natural abrasives, crude 2513.20.1000 Free.
Emery, natural corundum, natural garnet, and
other natural abrasives, other than crude 2513.20.9000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: During 2021, estimated domestic production of crude garnet concentrates decreased
by 26% compared with production in 2020. This decrease was due to lower production levels from a mine in Montana,
although most other U.S. garnet mines also produced less compared with that in 2020. U.S. garnet production was
estimated to be about 7% of total global garnet production. The 2021 estimated domestic sales or use of refined
garnet decreased by about 16% compared with sales in 2020.

67
GARNET (INDUSTRIAL)
Garnet imports in 2021 were estimated to have decreased slightly compared with those in 2020. This decrease was
attributed to lower imports of garnet from Australia, China, and India. In 2021, the average unit value of garnet imports
was $325 per ton, an increase of 30% compared with the average unit value in 2020. In the United States, most
domestically produced crude garnet concentrate was priced at about $206 per ton. U.S. exports in 2021 were
estimated to have increased by 11%.
During 2021, the United States consumed about 170,000 tons of garnet. This was a 16% decrease from that of 2020.
The U.S. natural gas and petroleum industry is one of the leading garnet-consuming industries, using garnet for
cleaning drill pipes and well casings. Natural gas and petroleum producers also use garnet as a reservoir-fracturing
proppant, alone or mixed with other proppants. During 2021, the number of drill rigs operating in the United States
was 339 rigs at the beginning of the year, increasing through the year to 508 rigs at the end of September, likely
indicating that more garnet was consumed in well drilling.
The garnet market is very competitive. To increase profitability and remain competitive with imported material,
production may be restricted to only high-grade garnet ores or as a byproduct of other salable mineral products that
occur with garnet, such as kyanite, marble, metallic ore minerals, mica minerals, sillimanite, staurolite, or wollastonite.

2020 2021e
United States 101,000 75,000 5,000,000
Australia 360,000 360,000 Moderate to large
China 310,000 310,000 Moderate to large
India 130,000 130,000 13,000,000
South Africa 140,000 140,000 NA
Other countries 60,000 60,000 6,500,000
World total (rounded) 1,100,000 1,100,000 Moderate to large
World Resources:6 World resources of garnet are large and occur in a wide variety of rocks, particularly gneisses
and schists. Garnet also occurs in contact-metamorphic deposits in crystalline limestones, pegmatites, and
serpentinites and in vein deposits. In addition, alluvial garnet is present in many heavy-mineral sand and gravel
deposits throughout the world. Large domestic resources of garnet also are concentrated in coarsely crystalline
gneiss near North Creek, NY; other significant domestic resources of garnet occur in Idaho, Maine, Montana, New
Hampshire, North Carolina, and Oregon. In addition to those in the United States, major garnet deposits exist in
Australia, Canada, China, India, and South Africa, where they are mined for foreign and domestic markets; deposits
in Russia and Turkey also have been mined in recent years, primarily for internal markets. Additional garnet
resources are in Chile, Czechia, Pakistan, Spain, Thailand, and Ukraine; small mining operations have been reported
in most of these countries.
Substitutes: Other natural and manufactured abrasives can substitute to some extent for all major end uses of
garnet. In many cases, however, using the substitutes would entail sacrifices in quality or cost. Fused aluminum oxide
and staurolite compete with garnet as a sandblasting material. Ilmenite, magnetite, and plastics compete as filtration
media. Corundum, diamond, and fused aluminum oxide compete for lens grinding and for many lapping operations.
Emery is a substitute in nonskid surfaces. Fused aluminum oxide, quartz sand, and silicon carbide compete for the
finishing of plastics, wood furniture, and other products.
e
1
Excludes gem and synthetic garnet.
2
Sources: U.S. Census Bureau and Trade Mining, LLC; data adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey.
3
Defined as crude production + imports – exports.
4
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6

68
GEMSTONES1
(Data in million dollars unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The combined value of U.S. natural and synthetic gemstone output in 2021 was an
estimated $95 million, a 25% increase compared with that in 2020. Domestic gemstone production included agate,
beryl, coral, diamond, garnet, jade, jasper, opal, pearl, quartz, sapphire, shell, topaz, tourmaline, turquoise, and many
other gem materials. In descending order of production value, Arizona led the Nation in natural gemstone production
and Oregon was second. The other top producing States were Arkansas, California, Colorado, Idaho, Maine,
Montana, Nevada, New York, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Utah. These 13 States produced 96% of U.S. natural
gemstones. Synthetic gemstones were manufactured by five companies in California, North Carolina, New York,
Maryland, and Arizona, in decreasing order of production value. U.S. synthetic gemstone production increased by
29% compared with that in 2020. Major gemstone end uses were carvings, gem and mineral collections, and jewelry.

Production:2
Natural3 9.2 9.5 9.2 9.8 10
Laboratory-created (synthetic) 55 65 94 66 85
Exports, excluding reexports 2,440 1,850 1,020 1,320 900
Price Variable, depending on size, type, and quality
Employment, mine, numbere 1,120 1,120 1,120 1,100 1,100
Recycling: Gemstones are often recycled by being resold as estate jewelry, reset, or recut, but this report does not
account for those stones.
Import Sources (2017–20, by value): Diamond: India, 41%; Israel, 31%; Belgium, 12%; South Africa, 4%; and other,
12%. Diamond imports accounted for an average of 90% of the total value of gem imports.

12–31–21
Coral and similar materials, unworked 0508.00.0000 Free.
Imitation gemstones 3926.90.4000 2.8% ad valorem.
Pearls, imitation, pearl beads, not strung 7018.10.1000 4.0% ad valorem.
Imitation gemstones, glass beads 7018.10.2000 Free.
Pearls, natural, graded and temporarily strung 7101.10.3000 Free.
Pearls, natural, other 7101.10.6000 Free.
Pearls, cultured 7101.21.0000 Free.
Diamonds, unworked or sawn 7102.31.0000 Free.
Diamonds, ½ carat or less 7102.39.0010 Free.
Diamonds, cut, more than ½ carat 7102.39.0050 Free.
Other nondiamond gemstones, unworked 7103.10.2000 Free.
Other nondiamond gemstones, uncut 7103.10.4000 10.5% ad valorem.
Rubies, cut 7103.91.0010 Free.
Sapphires, cut 7103.91.0020 Free.
Emeralds, cut 7103.91.0030 Free.
Other nondiamond gemstones, cut 7103.99.1000 Free.
Other nondiamond gemstones, worked 7103.99.5000 10.5% ad valorem.
Synthetic gemstones, cut but not set 7104.90.1000 Free.
Synthetic gemstones, other 7104.90.5000 6.4% ad valorem.

69
GEMSTONES
Events, Trends, and Issues: During 2021, the U.S. and global gemstone and jewelry industries began recovering
from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, lockdowns, and temporary mine and store closings. The
largest production decreases in 2020 were from Australia, Botswana, Canada, and Russia. Total world diamond
production during 2021 increased slightly from 2020 levels and was driven by the reopening of profitable mines that
were suspended in 2020. Production would need to increase by up to 2% per year during the next 3 to 5 years to
allow the market to fully rebalance.
New sales platforms were established during 2020 and remained in place during 2021 in the rough diamond market
to overcome travel constraints and streamline the journey from the mine to the jeweler. Online auctions gained a
higher share of rough diamond sales and offset deficits in traditional sales channels. Many jewelry stores successfully
shifted sales to their websites. Global gemstone sales are expected to increase at a steady rate over the next 5 years.
In 2021, U.S. imports for consumption of gemstones were about $24 billion, which was a 49% increase compared
with $16.3 billion in 2020. These imports consisted of about $21 billion in gem-quality diamonds, which was a 49%
increase compared with $14.3 billion in 2020, and about $2.9 billion in nondiamond gemstones, which was a 51%
increase compared with $1.9 billion in 2020. The increase in U.S. gem production combined with the growth in U.S.
gem imports and the decrease in gem exports produced a 52% increase in apparent consumption to a value of
$23 billion. The United States was the leading global market in terms of sales. The United States is expected to
continue to dominate global gemstone demand.
World Gem Diamond Mine Production and Reserves:

2020 2021e
United States — — World reserves of diamond-
Angola 6,960 7,100 bearing deposits are substantial.
Australia 219 220 No reserves data are available
Botswana 11,900 12,000 for other gemstones.
Brazil 125 130
Canada 13,100 13,000
Congo (Kinshasa) 2,550 2,600
Guinea 103 100
Lesotho 481 490
Namibia 1,550 1,600
Russia 17,500 18,000
Sierra Leone 513 520
South Africa 6,780 6,900
Tanzania 110 110
Zimbabwe 267 270
World Resources:7 Most diamond ore bodies have a diamond content that ranges from less than 1 carat per ton to
about 6 carats per ton of ore. The major diamond reserves are in southern Africa, Australia, Canada, and Russia.
Substitutes: Glass, plastics, and other materials are substituted for natural gemstones. Synthetic gemstones
(manufactured materials that have the same chemical and physical properties as natural gemstones) are common
substitutes. Simulants (materials that appear to be gems but differ in chemical and physical characteristics) also are
frequently substituted for natural gemstones.
e
Estimated.
1
Excludes industrial diamond and industrial garnet. See Diamond (Industrial) and Garnet (Industrial).
2
Estimated minimum production.
3
Includes production of freshwater shell.
4
Defined as production (natural and synthetic) + imports – exports (excluding reexports).
5
Defined as imports – exports (excluding reexports).
6
Data in thousands of carats of gem diamond.
7

70
GERMANIUM
(Data in kilograms of contained germanium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, zinc concentrates containing germanium were produced at mines in Alaska
and Tennessee. Germanium-containing concentrates in Alaska were exported to a refinery in Canada for processing
and germanium recovery. A zinc smelter in Clarksville, TN, produced and exported germanium leach concentrates
recovered from processing zinc concentrates from the Middle Tennessee mine complex. Germanium in the form of
compounds and metal was imported into the United States for further processing by industry. A company in Utah
produced germanium wafers for solar cells used in satellites from imported and recycled germanium. A refinery in
Oklahoma recovered germanium from industry-generated scrap and produced germanium tetrachloride for the
production of fiber optics. The estimated value of germanium consumed in 2021, based on the annual average
germanium metal price, was $36 million, 15% more than that in 2020.

Production, refinery:
Primary — — — — —
Secondary W W W W W
Germanium metal 11,100 11,900 14,000 18,300 13,000
Germanium dioxidee, 1 12,000 12,200 21,000 12,000 17,000
Exportse, 2 3,670 4,880 4,600 7,100 6,600
Shipments from Government stockpile — — — — —
Consumption, estimated3 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000
Price, annual average, dollars per kilogram:4
Germanium metal 1,082 1,543 1,236 1,046 1,200
Germanium dioxide 731 1,084 913 724 770
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of estimated consumption >50% >50% >50% >50% >50%
Recycling: Worldwide, it has been estimated that about 30% of the total germanium consumed is produced from
recycled materials. During the manufacture of most optical devices, more than 60% of the germanium metal used is
routinely recycled as new scrap. Germanium scrap is also recovered from the windows in decommissioned tanks and
other military vehicles. The United States has the capability to recycle new and old scrap.
Import Sources (2017–20):6 Germanium metal: China, 53%; Belgium, 22%; Germany, 11%; Russia, 9%; and
other, 5%.

12–31–21
Germanium oxides and zirconium dioxide 2825.60.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Metal, unwrought 8112.92.6000 2.6% ad valorem.
Metal, powder 8112.92.6500 4.4% ad valorem.
Metal, wrought 8112.99.1000 4.4% ad valorem.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Germanium metal 14,000 — — — 5,000
Germanium scrap (gross weight) 6,170 — 3,000 — —
Germanium wafers (each) 68,700 — — — —
Prepared by Amy C. Tolcin [(703) 648–4940, atolcin@usgs.gov]

71
GERMANIUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: The major global end uses for germanium were electronics and solar applications,
fiber-optic systems, infrared optics, polymerization catalysts, and other uses (such as chemotherapy, metallurgy, and
phosphors).
Prices for germanium dioxide and metal trended upward during 2021. During the first 10 months of the year, the price
for germanium metal (minimum 99.999% purity) increased by 21% to $1,315 per kilogram from $1,090 per kilogram,
and the price for germanium dioxide (minimum 99.999% purity) increased by 15% to $825 per kilogram from $720 per
kilogram.
In 2021, a high-purity metals and compounds producer with a germanium wafer production facility in Utah acquired a
Germany-based manufacturer of multijunction germanium solar cells for space and terrestrial applications. An
advanced materials producer with a germanium production facility in Oklahoma announced that a new generation of
solar arrays using germanium substrates were produced for the International Space Station to replace the existing
silicon-based solar arrays. Similar germanium solar cell technology would also be used to power the National
Aeronautics and Space Administration’s Gateway space station currently under development.
China was a leading global exporter of germanium in 2021. Exports of unwrought germanium, germanium powders,
and germanium waste and scrap (China’s export code 8112.99.10) for the year through September were
27,800 kilograms, 24% more than exports in the same period in 2020. Nearly all exports were sent to Russia,
Germany, Hong Kong, Belgium, Japan, and the United States, in descending order of quantity.
Refinery productione, 8 Reserves9

2020 2021
United States W W Data on the recoverable
China 95,000 95,000 germanium content of zinc
Russia 5,000 5,000 ores are not available.
Other countries10 40,000 40,000
World Resources:9 The available resources of germanium are associated with certain zinc and lead-zinc-copper
sulfide ores. Substantial U.S. reserves of recoverable germanium are contained in zinc deposits in Alaska,
Tennessee, and Washington. Based on an analysis of zinc concentrates, U.S. reserves of zinc may contain as much
as 2,500 tons of germanium. Because zinc concentrates are shipped globally and blended at smelters, however, the
recoverable germanium in zinc reserves cannot be determined. On a global scale, as little as 3% of the germanium
contained in zinc concentrates is recovered. Significant amounts of germanium are contained in ash and flue dust
generated in the combustion of certain coals for power generation.
Substitutes: Silicon can be a less-expensive substitute for germanium in certain electronic applications. Some
metallic compounds can be substituted in high-frequency electronics applications and in some light-emitting-diode
applications. Zinc selenide and germanium glass substitute for germanium metal in infrared applications systems, but
often at the expense of performance. Antimony and titanium are substitutes for use as polymerization catalysts.
e
1
Data have been adjusted to exclude low-value shipments, then multiplied by 69% to account for germanium content.
2
Includes Schedule B numbers: 8112.92.6100, 8112.99.1000, and 2825.60.0000. Data have been adjusted to exclude low-value shipments. Oxide
data have been multiplied by 69% to account for germanium content.
3
Estimated consumption of germanium contained in metal and germanium dioxide.
4
Average European price for minimum 99.999% purity. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
5
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government stock changes.
6
Import sources are based on gross weight of wrought and unwrought germanium metal and germanium metal powders.
7
8
Includes primary and secondary production.
9
10
Includes Belgium, Canada, Germany, Japan, and Ukraine.
11

72
GOLD
(Data in metric tons1 of contained gold unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, domestic gold mine production was estimated to be 180 tons, 7% less than
that in 2020, and the value was estimated to be about $10 billion. Gold was produced at more than 40 lode mines in
11 States, at several large placer mines in Alaska, and at numerous smaller placer mines (mostly in Alaska and in the
Western States). Nevada was the leading gold-producing State, accounting for about 74% of total domestic
production. About 6% of domestic gold was recovered as a byproduct of processing domestic base-metal ores, chiefly
copper ores. The top 26 operations yielded about 98% of the mined gold produced in the United States. Commercial-
grade gold was produced at about 15 refineries. A few dozen companies, out of several thousand companies and
artisans, dominated the fabrication of gold into commercial products. U.S. jewelry manufacturing was heavily
concentrated in the New York, NY, and Providence, RI, areas, with lesser concentrations in California, Florida, and
Texas. Estimated global gold consumption was jewelry, 47%; physical bar, 21%; central banks and other institutions,
14%; official coins and medals and imitation coins, 10%; electrical and electronics, 7%; and other, 1%.

Production:
Mine 237 226 200 193 180
Refinery:
Primary 207 205 205 181 180
Secondary (new and old scrap) 119 117 116 92 90
Exports2 461 474 360 297 400
Consumption, reported3 159 154 151 185 250
Stocks, Treasury, yearend4 8,130 8,130 8,130 8,130 8,130
Price, dollars per troy ounce5 1,261 1,272 1,395 1,774 1,800
Employment, mine and mill, number6 11,900 12,200 12,400 12,500 12,400
Net import reliance7 as a percentage of apparent consumption8 E E E 47 E
Recycling: In 2021, an estimated 90 tons of new and old scrap was recycled, equivalent to about 36% of reported
consumption. The domestic supply of gold from recycling decreased slightly compared with that of 2020.
Import Sources (2017–20): Ores and concentrates: Greece, 48%; Ireland, 37%; Canada, 11%; and Germany, 4%.
Dore: Mexico, 45%; Colombia and Peru, 11% each; Canada, 7%; and other, 26%. Bullion: Switzerland, 34%;
Canada, 24%; Singapore, 7%; and other, 35%. Combined total: Mexico, 22%; Switzerland, 21%; Canada, 17%; Peru,
8%; and other, 32%.

12–31–21
Precious metal ore and concentrates:
Gold content of silver ores 2616.10.0080 0.8 ¢/kg on lead content.
Gold content of other ores 2616.90.0040 1.7 ¢/kg on lead content.
Gold bullion 7108.12.1013 Free.
Gold dore 7108.12.1020 Free.
Gold scrap 7112.91.0000 Free.
Government Stockpile: The U.S. Department of the Treasury maintains stocks of gold (see salient statistics above),
and the U.S. Department of Defense administers a Governmentwide secondary precious-metals recovery program.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The estimated gold price in 2021 was slightly higher than the previous record-high
annual price in 2020.The Engelhard daily price of gold in 2021 fluctuated in the first and second quarters. Early in the
year, the gold price was about $1,840 per troy ounce before decreasing in March and increasing through May.
Several factors were reported to have caused the increase in price: gold demand for safe-haven buying increased
owing to the continued global COVID-19 pandemic, global investor uncertainty, and the U.S. Federal Reserve Board
low interest rates. The price decreased slightly from June through October and then increased in November.
In 2021, worldwide gold mine production was estimated to be slightly less than that in 2020. Decreased gold mine
production in Papua New Guinea, Russia, and the United States more than offset production increases in China,
Ghana, Indonesia, South Africa, and Tanzania.
Prepared by Kristin N. Sheaffer [(703) 648–4954, ksheaffer@usgs.gov]

73
GOLD
In the first 9 months of 2021, global consumption of gold in physical bars increased by about 58%, in jewelry by 49%,
in industrial applications by 16%, in electronics by about 13%, and in official coins and medals and imitation coins by
about 6% compared with that in the first 9 months of 2020. Global investments in gold-based exchange-traded funds
decreased by almost 116%, while gold holdings in central banks doubled during the same period.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Papua New Guinea, Peru, Russia, and South Africa
were revised based on Government and (or) industry reports

2020 2021e
Argentina 59 60 1,600
Australia 328 330 1011,000
Brazil 78 80 2,400
Burkina Faso 58 60 NA
Canada 170 170 2,200
China 365 370 2,000
Colombia 48 50 NA
Ghana 125 130 1,000
Indonesia 86 90 2,600
Mexico 102 100 1,400
Papua New Guinea 54 50 1,100
Peru 87 90 2,000
Russia 305 300 6,800
Sudan 90 90 NA
Tanzania 47 50 NA
Uzbekistan 101 100 1,800
World Resources:9 An assessment of U.S. gold resources indicated 33,000 tons of gold in identified (15,000 tons)
and undiscovered (18,000 tons) resources.11 Nearly one-quarter of the gold in undiscovered resources was estimated
to be contained in porphyry copper deposits. The gold resources in the United States, however, are only a small
portion of global gold resources.
Substitutes: Base metals clad with gold alloys are widely used to economize on gold in electrical and electronic
products and in jewelry; many of these products are continually redesigned to maintain high-utility standards with
lower gold content. Generally, palladium, platinum, and silver may substitute for gold.
e
1
One metric ton (1,000 kilograms) = 32,150.7 troy ounces.
2
Includes refined bullion, dore, ores, concentrates, and precipitates. Excludes waste and scrap, official monetary gold, gold in fabricated items, gold
in coins, and net bullion flow (in tons) to market from foreign stocks at the New York Federal Reserve Bank.
3
Includes gold used in the production of consumer purchased bar, coins, and jewelry. Excludes gold as an investment (except consumer purchased
bar and coins). Source: World Gold Council.
4
Includes gold in Exchange Stabilization Fund. Stocks were valued at the official price of $42.22 per troy ounce.
5
Engelhard’s average gold price quotation for the year. In 2021, the price was estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey based on data from
January through November.
6
Data from the Mine Safety and Health Administration.
7
8
Defined as mine production + secondary production + imports – exports.
9
10
11
U.S. Geological Survey National Mineral Resource Assessment Team, 2000, 1998 assessment of undiscovered deposits of gold, silver, copper,
lead, and zinc in the United States: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1178, 21 p.

74
GRAPHITE (NATURAL)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, natural graphite was not produced in the United States; however,
approximately 95 U.S. companies, primarily in the Great Lakes and Northeastern regions and Alabama and
Tennessee, consumed 45,000 tons valued at an estimated $41 million. The major uses of natural graphite were
batteries, brake linings, lubricants, powdered metals, refractory applications, and steelmaking. During 2021, U.S.
natural graphite imports were an estimated 53,000 tons, which were about 57% flake and high-purity, 42%
amorphous, and 1% lump and chip graphite.

Production, mine — — — — —
Exports 13,900 9,950 5,890 5,930 8,400
Price, average value of imports, dollars per ton at foreign ports:
Flake 1,390 1,520 1,350 1,540 1,600
Lump and chip (Sri Lanka) 1,900 1,890 2,380 2,940 2,700
Amorphous 451 319 498 687 630
Recycling: Refractory brick and linings, alumina-graphite refractories for continuous metal castings, magnesia-
graphite refractory brick for basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces, and insulation brick led the way in the recycling of
graphite products. Recycling of refractory graphite material is increasing, with material being recycled into products
such as brake linings and thermal insulation. Recovering high-quality flake graphite from steelmaking kish is
technically feasible, but currently not practiced. The abundance of graphite in the world market inhibits increased
recycling efforts. Information on the quantity and value of recycled graphite is not available.
Import Sources (2017–20): China, 33%; Mexico, 21%; Canada, 17%; India, 9%; and other, 20%.

12–31–21
Crystalline flake (not including flake dust) 2504.10.1000 Free.
Powder 2504.10.5000 Free.
Other 2504.90.0000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Lump and amorphous, 22% (domestic) and flake, 14% (domestic); 14% (foreign).
FY 2021 FY 2022
Graphite — — — 900 —
Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. natural graphite exports decreased each year from 2017 to 2019, remained
essentially unchanged in 2020, and then increased by 41% in 2021. This was still an overall 40% decline for the
5-year period of 2017 to 2021. U.S. imports for consumption and apparent consumption peaked in 2018, and imports
and apparent consumption declined during 2019 and 2020. During 2021, U.S. imports for consumption and apparent
consumption increased by 48% and 50%, respectively, as recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic began.
During 2021, China was the world’s leading graphite producer, producing an estimated 79% of total world output.
Approximately 24% of production in China was amorphous graphite and about 76% was flake. China produced some
large flake graphite, but much of its flake graphite production was very small, in the +200-mesh range. China also
processed most of the world’s spherical graphite. Globally, during 2021, graphite supplies began recovering from the
effects that the global COVID-19 pandemic had during 2020. In 2021, global graphite production was estimated to
have increased by 7.6% from 2020 production. In China, the recovery was quick, which was demonstrated by China’s
pattern of exports. Chinese producers quickly increased production after a few months of closures in 2020. This
allowed China to gain a more dominant position in the market for 2021 and slowed down the diversification of the
supply chain.

75
GRAPHITE (NATURAL)
North America produced only 1.2% of the world’s graphite supply with production in Canada and Mexico. Two
companies were developing graphite mining projects in the United States—one in Alabama and one in Alaska.
Large graphite deposits were being developed in Madagascar, northern Mozambique, Namibia, and south-central
Tanzania. A graphite mine in Mozambique in a high-grade graphite deposit was reportedly the largest natural graphite
mine globally. The mine was expected to operate for about 50 years.
A U.S. automaker continued building a large plant to manufacture lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries. The completed
portion of the plant was operational, and it produced battery cells, battery packs, drive units, and energy storage
products. At full capacity, the plant was expected to require 35,200 tons per year of spherical graphite for use as
anode material for lithium-ion batteries.
An Australian company was producing purified coated spherical graphite for use as lithium-ion battery anode material
from its plant in Vidalia, LA, challenging China’s hold on global production of purified coated spherical graphite.
New thermal technology and acid-leaching techniques have enabled the production of higher purity graphite powders
that are likely to lead to development of new applications for graphite in high-technology fields. Innovative refining
techniques have made the use of graphite possible in carbon-graphite composites, electronics, foils, friction materials,
and specialty lubricant applications. Flexible graphite product lines are likely to be the fastest growing market. Large-
scale fuel-cell applications are being developed that could consume as much graphite as all other uses combined.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Tanzania were revised based on information reported by
graphite-producing companies and Government reports.

2020 2021e
United States — — (4)
Austria 500 500 (4)
Brazil 63,600 68,000 70,000,000
Canada 8,000 8,600 (4)
China 762,000 820,000 73,000,000
Germany 300 300 (4)
India 6,000 6,500 8,000,000
Korea, North 8,100 8,700 2,000,000
Madagascar 20,900 22,000 26,000,000
Mexico 3,300 3,500 3,100,000
Mozambique 28,000 30,000 25,000,000
Norway 12,000 13,000 600,000
Russia 25,000 27,000 (4)
Sri Lanka 4,000 4,300 1,500,000
Tanzania — 150 18,000,000
Turkey 2,500 2,700 90,000,000
Ukraine 16,000 17,000 (4)
Uzbekistan 100 110 7,600,000
Vietnam 5,000 5,400 (4)
World total (rounded) 966,000 1,000,000 320,000,000
World Resources:3 Domestic resources of graphite are relatively small, but the rest of the world’s identified
resources exceed 800 million tons of recoverable graphite.
Substitutes: Synthetic graphite powder, scrap from discarded machined shapes, and calcined petroleum coke
compete for use in iron and steel production. Synthetic graphite powder and secondary synthetic graphite from
machining graphite shapes compete for use in battery applications. Finely ground coke with olivine is a potential
competitor in foundry-facing applications. Molybdenum disulfide competes as a dry lubricant but is more sensitive to
oxidizing conditions.
e
1
2
3
4
Included with “World total.”

76
GYPSUM
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, domestic production of crude gypsum was estimated to be 23 million tons
with a value of about $210 million. The leading crude gypsum-producing States were estimated to be California, Iowa,
Kansas, Nevada, Oklahoma, Texas, and Utah. Overall, 47 companies produced or processed gypsum in the
United States at 52 mines in 16 States. The majority of domestic consumption, which totaled approximately 43 million
tons, was used by agriculture, cement production, and manufacturers of wallboard and plaster products. Small
quantities of high-purity gypsum, used in a wide range of industrial processes, accounted for the remaining tonnage.
At the beginning of 2021, the production capacity of 63 operating gypsum panel manufacturing plants in the
United States was about 34.1 billion square feet1 per year. Total wallboard sales in 2021 were estimated to be
28.0 billion square feet.

Production:
Crude 20,700 21,100 21,700 21,200 23,000
Synthetic2 20,700 16,600 14,400 13,000 13,000
Calcined3 17,800 17,500 17,900 17,900 19,000
Wallboard products sold, million square feet1 25,000 23,700 25,900 26,200 28,000
Imports, crude, including anhydrite 4,800 5,210 6,140 6,030 6,900
Exports, crude, not ground or calcined 36 36 37 32 35
Price, average, dollars per metric ton:
Crude, free on board (f.o.b.) mine 7.5 8.3 8.6 8.6 9
Calcined, f.o.b. plant 30 32 34 5 37
Employment, mine and calcining plant, numbere 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500 4,500
Recycling: Approximately 700,000 tons of gypsum scrap that was generated by wallboard manufacturing was
recycled onsite. The recycling of wallboard from new construction and demolition sources also took place, although
those amounts are unknown. Recycled gypsum was used primarily for agricultural purposes and feedstock for the
manufacture of new wallboard. Other potential markets for recycled gypsum include athletic-field marking, cement
production (as a stucco additive), grease absorption, sludge drying, and water treatment.
Import Sources (2017–20): Mexico, 36%; Spain, 32%; Canada, 29%; and other, 3%.

12–31–21
Gypsum; anhydrite 2520.10.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. crude gypsum production increased by an estimated 8%, and apparent
consumption increased by 7% compared with that in 2020. U.S. gypsum imports increased by an estimated 14%
compared with those in 2020. Exports, although very low compared with imports and often subject to wide
fluctuations, increased by an estimated 9%.

77
GYPSUM
Demand for gypsum depends principally on construction industry activity, particularly in the United States, where the
majority of gypsum consumed is used for agriculture, building plasters, the manufacture of portland cement, and
wallboard products. Despite disruptions caused by the global COVID-19 pandemic, the production of gypsum was not
affected.
The United States, the world’s leading crude gypsum producer, produced an estimated 23 million tons. Iran was the
second-leading producer with an estimated 16 million tons of crude production, followed by China with 13 million tons.
Increased use of wallboard in Asia, coupled with new gypsum product plants, spurred increased production in the
region. As wallboard becomes more widely used, worldwide gypsum production is expected to increase.

2020 2021e
United States 21,200 23,000 700,000
Algeria 2,500 2,500 NA
Brazil 2,000 2,000 450,000
Canada 2,400 2,900 450,000
China 12,600 13,000 NA
France 1,890 1,900 350,000
Germany 4,500 4,500 NA
India 1,500 1,500 37,000
Iran 16,000 16,000 NA
Japan 4,300 4,300 NA
Mexico 5,400 5,400 NA
Oman 10,200 10,000 NA
Pakistan 2,210 2,200 6,000
Russia 4,200 4,200 NA
Saudi Arabia 3,300 3,300 NA
Spain 11,000 11,000 NA
Thailand 9,800 9,800 1,700
Turkey 7,500 9,300 200,000
World Resources:6 Reserves are large in major producing countries, but data for most are not available. Domestic
gypsum resources are adequate but unevenly distributed. Large imports from Canada augment domestic supplies for
wallboard manufacturing in the United States, particularly in the eastern and southern coastal regions. Imports from
Mexico supplement domestic supplies for wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western
seaboard. Large gypsum deposits occur in the Great Lakes region, the midcontinent region, and several Western
States. Foreign resources are large and widely distributed; 78 countries were thought to produce gypsum in 2021.
Substitutes: In such applications as stucco and plaster, cement and lime may be substituted for gypsum; brick,
glass, metallic or plastic panels, and wood may be substituted for wallboard. Gypsum has no practical substitute in
the manufacturing of portland cement. Synthetic gypsum generated by various industrial processes, including flue gas
desulfurization of smokestack emissions, is very important as a substitute for mined gypsum in wallboard
manufacturing, cement production, and agricultural applications (in descending order by tonnage). In 2021, synthetic
gypsum was estimated to account for about 30% of the total domestic gypsum supply.
e
1
The standard unit used in the U.S. wallboard industry is square feet; multiply square feet by 9.29 × 10−2 to convert to square meters. Source: The
Gypsum Association.
2
Synthetic gypsum used; the majority of these data were obtained from the American Coal Ash Association.
3
From domestic crude and synthetic gypsum.
4
Defined as domestic crude production + synthetic used + imports – exports.
5
6

78
HELIUM
(Data in million cubic meters of contained helium gas1 unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The estimated value of Grade-A helium (99.997% or greater) extracted during 2021
by private industry was about $540 million. Fifteen plants (one in Arizona, two in Colorado, five in Kansas, one in New
Mexico, one in Oklahoma, four in Texas, and one in Utah) extracted helium from natural gas and produced crude
helium that ranged from 50% to 99% helium. One plant in Colorado and another in Wyoming extracted helium from
natural gas and produced Grade-A helium. Three plants in Kansas and one in Oklahoma accepted crude helium from
other producers and the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) pipeline and purified it to Grade-A helium. In 2021,
estimated domestic apparent consumption of Grade-A helium was 40 million cubic meters (1.4 billion cubic feet), and
it was used for, in descending order by estimated quantity, magnetic resonance imaging, lifting gas, analytical and
laboratory applications, electronics and semiconductor manufacturing, welding, engineering and scientific
applications, and various other minor applications.

Helium extracted from natural gas2 81 76 72 76 71
Withdrawn from storage3 22 22 17 7 6
Grade-A helium sales 103 98 89 83 77
Exportse, 4 74 66 56 50 46
In fiscal year (FY) 2021, the price for crude helium to Government users was $3.61 per cubic meter ($100.00 per
thousand cubic feet). The BLM does not post a conservation helium price; conservation helium prices were last
posted by the Federal Government in 2018. The estimated price for private industry’s Grade-A helium was about
$7.57 per cubic meter ($210 per thousand cubic feet), with some producers posting surcharges to this price.
Recycling: In the United States, helium used in large-volume applications is seldom recycled. Some low-volume or
liquid boil-off recovery systems are used. In the rest of the world, helium recycling is more common.
Import Sources (2017–20): Qatar, 65%; Algeria, 12%; Canada, 11%; Portugal, 7%; and other, 5%.

12–31–21
Helium 2804.29.0010 3.7% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Allowances are applicable to natural gas from which helium is extracted, but no allowance is
granted directly to helium.
Government Stockpile:7 Under the Helium Stewardship Act of 2013, the BLM manages the Federal Helium
Program, which includes all operations of the Cliffside Field helium storage reservoir, in Potter County, TX, and the
Government’s crude helium pipeline system. Private firms that sell Grade-A helium to Federal agencies are required
to purchase a like amount of (in-kind) crude helium from the BLM. The law mandated that the BLM sell at auction
Federal Conservation helium stored in Bush Dome at the Cliffside Field. The last auction was completed in summer
2018. The remaining conservation helium is about 85.7 million cubic meters (3.09 billion cubic feet). The Helium
Stewardship Act requires that the BLM dispose of all helium assets including the Cliffside Field helium storage
reservoir and pipeline system. The BLM will continue to make in-kind helium available to Federal customers until
summer 2022. In FY 2021, privately owned companies purchased about 5.88 million cubic meters (0.212 billion cubic
feet) of in-kind crude helium. During FY 2021, the BLM’s Amarillo Field Office, Helium Operations, accepted about
8.0 million cubic meters (0.288 billion cubic feet) of private helium for storage and redelivered nearly 18.7 million cubic
meters (0.674 billion cubic feet). As of September 30, 2021, about 82.1 million cubic meters (2.96 billion cubic feet) of
privately owned helium remained in storage at Cliffside Field.
Inventory Authorized Disposal plan

Material as of 9–30–21 for disposal FY 2022 FY 2023
Helium 85.7 85.7 5.88 79.2
Events, Trends, and Issues: Helium production in 2021 decreased in the United States owing to several unplanned
shutdowns taking place, including the BLM Crude Helium Enrichment Unit. As of September 2021, the BLM
completed sales of the remaining Federal helium inventory and transferred responsibility for the sale of the remaining
assets to the General Services Administration. Federal in-kind users were to have access to helium until
Prepared by Joseph B. Peterson8 [(806) 356–1030, jbpeters@blm.gov]
79
HELIUM
September 30, 2022. In Russia, a 60-million-cubic-meter-per-year helium-processing plant was commissioned. The
first of three 20-million-cubic-meter-per-year trains started production in fall 2021; the next train was scheduled to be
completed in February 2022.
On November 9, 2021, a proposed revised U.S. critical minerals list was published in the Federal Register (86 FR
62199). The new list contained 50 individual mineral commodities; proposed changes were the addition of nickel and
zinc and the removal of helium, potash, rhenium, strontium, and uranium, which were included in the 2018 critical
minerals list.
World Mine Production and Reserves:9 Reserves for the United States and Poland were revised based on
Government information.

2020 2021e
United States (extracted from natural gas) 76 71 8,500
United States (from Cliffside Field) 7 6 86
Algeria 14 14 1,800
Australia 4 4 NA
Canada <1 <1 NA
China 1 1 NA
Poland 1 1 24
Qatar 51 51 Large
Russia 5 9 1,700
World total (rounded) 160 160 NA
World Resources:10 Section 16 of Public Law 113–40 required the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to complete a
national helium gas assessment. The USGS and the BLM coordinated efforts to complete this assessment, which
was published by the USGS in fall 2021.11 The mean volume of recoverable helium within the known geologic natural
gas reservoirs in the United States was estimated to be 8,490 million cubic meters (306 billion cubic feet). This does
not include the remaining 85.7 million cubic meters (3 billion cubic feet) in the Federal helium inventory. The
estimated mean for the Alaska region was 1.11 million cubic meters (0.04 billion cubic feet); the Gulf Coast region,
12.5 million cubic meters (0.45 billion cubic feet); the Midcontinent region, 4,330 million cubic meters (156 billion cubic
feet); the North Central region, 52.7 million cubic meters (1.9 billion cubic feet); and the Rocky Mountain region
4,110 million cubic meters (148 billion cubic feet).
Helium resources of the world, exclusive of the United States, were estimated to be about 31.3 billion cubic meters
(1.13 trillion cubic feet). The locations and volumes of the major deposits, in billion cubic meters, are Qatar, 10.1;
Algeria, 8.2; Russia, 6.8; Canada, 2.0; and China, 1.1. As of December 31, 2021, the BLM had analyzed about
22,720 gas samples from the United States and 26 other countries in a program to identify world helium resources.
Substitutes: Nothing substitutes for helium in cryogenic applications if temperatures below −429 degrees Fahrenheit
are required. Argon can be substituted for helium in welding, and hydrogen can be substituted for helium in some
lighter-than-air applications in which the flammable nature of hydrogen is not objectionable. Hydrogen is also being
investigated as a substitute for helium in deep-sea diving applications below 305 meters (1,000 feet).
e
1
Measured at 101.325 kilopascals absolute (14.696 psia) and 15 degrees Celsius (°C) [59 degrees Fahrenheit (°F)]; 27.737 cubic meters of helium
= 1,000 cubic feet of helium at 101.325 kilopascals absolute (14.696 psia) and 21.1 °C (70 °F).
2
Both Grade-A and crude helium.
3
Extracted from natural gas in prior years.
4
Substantial increases in exports reported in recent years suggested that the data may be incorrect. The Census Bureau was reviewing the export
data. Exports were estimated to result in an apparent consumption of 40 million cubic meters for 2018–2021.
5
Grade-A helium. Defined as sales + imports – exports.
6
7
8
Supervisory General Engineer, Helium Resources Division, Bureau of Land Management, Amarillo Field Office, Helium Operations, Amarillo, TX.
9
Production and reserves outside of the United States were estimated.
10
11
Brennan, S.T., Rivera, J.L., Varela, B.A., and Park, A.J., 2021, National assessment of helium resource within known natural gas reservoirs: U.S.
Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2021–5085, 5 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20215085.

80
INDIUM
Domestic Production and Use: Indium was not recovered from ores in the United States in 2021. Several
companies produced indium products—including alloys, compounds, high-purity metal, and solders—from imported
indium metal. Production of indium tin oxide (ITO) continued to account for most global indium consumption. ITO thin-
film coatings were primarily used for electrically conductive purposes in a variety of flat-panel displays—most
commonly liquid crystal displays (LCDs). Other indium end uses included alloys and solders, compounds, electrical
components and semiconductors, and research. Estimated domestic consumption of refined indium was 170 tons in
2021. The estimated value of refined indium consumed domestically in 2021, based on the average free on board
U.S. warehouse price, was about $37 million.

Production, refinery — — — — —
Consumption, estimated1 127 125 95 115 170
Price, annual average, dollars per kilogram:
New York dealer2 363 375 390 395 NA
Free on board U.S. warehouse3 206 285 182 161 220
Duties unpaid in warehouse, Rotterdam4 205 281 177 158 210
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of estimated consumption 100 100 100 100 100
Recycling: Indium is most commonly recovered from ITO scrap in Japan and the Republic of Korea. A significant
quantity of scrap was recycled domestically; however, data on the quantity of secondary indium recovered from scrap
were not available.
Import Sources (2017–20): China,6 31%; Canada, 23%; Republic of Korea, 20%; France, 9%; and other, 17%.

12–31–21
Unwrought indium, including powders, waste,
and scrap 8112.92.3000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The New York dealer price of indium from the listed source was discontinued in 2021.
In 2021, the average annual free on board U.S. warehouse price was an estimated $220 per kilogram, 37% greater
than in 2020. The average monthly price was $187 per kilogram in January and increased throughout most of the
year to a weekly average price of $270 per kilogram at the beginning of October. The 2021 estimated annual average
Rotterdam price of indium (duties unpaid in the warehouse) was $210 per kilogram, 33% greater than that in 2020.
The average monthly Rotterdam price of indium (duties unpaid in the warehouse) price began the year at $184 per
kilogram in January then generally increased throughout the remainder of the year to a daily average of $235 per
kilogram at the beginning of October.
Prepared by C. Schuyler Anderson [(703) 648–4985, csanderson@usgs.gov]

81
INDIUM
Demand for indium in Europe has been reduced during the global COVID-19 pandemic restrictions, but demand
began to increase in May, when China’s exports of indium to Europe increased sharply. Several European buyers
started to build up indium stocks to ensure they had enough supply, owing to the prevalence of shipping delays in
2021.
The leading producer of tin in China announced that it produced 34.88 tons of indium in the first 6 months of 2021,
with a reported capacity of 60 tons per year of indium. Other producers in China also announced the resumption of
production of indium, accounting for an additional 50 to 60 tons per year of capacity, after shutting down to perform
maintenance in the beginning of July.

2020 2021
Belgium 20 20 reserves are not available.
Canada 66 60
China 540 530
France 38 35
Japan 66 60
Korea, Republic of 210 200
Peru 12 10
Russia 5 5
World total (rounded) 960 920
World Resources:7 Indium is most commonly recovered from the zinc-sulfide ore mineral sphalerite. The indium
content of zinc deposits from which it is recovered ranges from less than 1 part per million to 100 parts per million.
Although the geochemical properties of indium are such that it occurs in trace amounts in other base-metal sulfides—
particularly chalcopyrite and stannite—most deposits of these minerals are subeconomic for indium recovery.
Substitutes: Antimony tin oxide coatings have been developed as an alternative to ITO coatings in LCDs and have
been successfully annealed to LCD glass; carbon nanotube coatings have been developed as an alternative to ITO
coatings in flexible displays, solar cells, and touch screens; poly(3,4-ethylene dioxythiophene) (PEDOT) has also
been developed as a substitute for ITO in flexible displays and organic light-emitting diodes; and copper or silver
nanowires have been explored as a substitute for ITO in touch screens. Graphene has been developed to replace
ITO electrodes in solar cells and also has been explored as a replacement for ITO in flexible touch screens.
Researchers have developed a more adhesive zinc oxide nanopowder to replace ITO in LCDs. Hafnium can replace
indium in nuclear reactor control rod alloys.
e
1
Estimated to equal imports.
2
Price is based on 99.99%-minimum-purity indium; delivered duty paid U.S. buyers; in minimum lots of 50 kilograms. Source: S&P Global Platts
Metals Week; price was discontinued as of September 11, 2020.
3
Price is based on 99.99%-minimum-purity indium, free on board U.S. warehouse. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
4
Price is based on 99.99%-minimum-purity indium, duties unpaid in warehouse (Rotterdam). Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals
International.
5
6
Includes Hong Kong.
7

82
IODINE
(Data in metric tons of elemental iodine unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Iodine was produced from brines in 2021 by three companies operating in
Oklahoma. U.S. iodine production in 2021 was withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data but was
estimated to have been less than that in 2020. The average annual cost, insurance, and freight unit value of iodine
imports in 2021 was estimated to be $32 per kilogram, a slight increase from that of 2020.
Because domestic and imported iodine was used by downstream manufacturers to produce many intermediate iodine
compounds, it was difficult to establish an accurate end-use pattern. Crude iodine and inorganic iodine compounds
were thought to account for more than 50% of domestic iodine consumption in 2021. Worldwide, the leading uses of
iodine and its compounds were X-ray contrast media, pharmaceuticals, liquid crystal displays (LCDs), and iodophors,
in descending order of quantity consumed. Other applications of iodine included animal feed, biocides, fluoride
derivatives, food supplements, and nylon.

Exports 1,230 1,190 1,230 1,130 1,200
Consumption:
Apparent1 W W W W W
Reported 4,500 4,620 4,000 3,750 4,000
Price, crude iodine, average unit value of imports (cost, insurance,
and freight), dollars per kilogram 19.55 22.46 26.38 31.57 32
Employment, numbere 60 60 60 60 60
Net import reliance2 as a percentage of reported consumption >50 >50 >50 >50 >50
Recycling: Small amounts of iodine were recycled.
Import Sources (2017–20): Chile, 89%; Japan, 10%; and other, 1%.

12–31–21
Iodine, crude 2801.20.0000 Free.

83
IODINE
Events, Trends, and Issues: According to trade publications, spot prices for iodine crystal averaged about $36 per
kilogram during the first 9 months of 2021. This was slightly less than the 2020 annual average of $36.49 per
kilogram. Prices were still considerably less than the historically high levels of $65 to $85 per kilogram in late 2012
and early 2013.
As in recent years, Chile was the world’s leading producer of iodine, followed by Japan and the United States.
Excluding production in the United States, Chile accounted for about two-thirds of world production in 2021. Most of
the world’s iodine supply comes from three areas: the Chilean desert nitrate mines, the gasfields and oilfields in
Japan, and the iodine-rich brine wells in northwestern Oklahoma.
Following the global COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, global demand for iodine applications increased throughout 2021.
One U.S. company was in negotiations with partners to build a new iodine plant with construction expected to begin
by the end of 2021.
World Mine Production and Reserves: China and Iran also produce crude iodine, but output is not officially
reported, and available information was inadequate to make reliable estimates of output.

2020 2021e
Azerbaijan 180 200 170,000
Chile 20,200 22,000 610,000
Indonesia 31 30 100,000
Japan 8,880 9,000 4,900,000
Russia 3 3 120,000
Turkmenistan 600 600 70,000
World Resources:3 Seawater contains 0.06 part per million iodine, and the oceans are estimated to contain
approximately 90 billion tons of iodine. Seaweeds of the Laminaria family are able to extract and accumulate up to
0.45% iodine on a dry basis. Although not as economical as the production of iodine as a byproduct of gas, nitrates,
and oil, the seaweed industry represented a major source of iodine prior to 1959 and remains a large resource.
Substitutes: No comparable substitutes exist for iodine in many of its principal applications, such as in animal feed,
catalytic, nutritional, pharmaceutical, and photographic uses. Bromine and chlorine could be substituted for iodine in
biocide, colorant, and ink, although they are usually considered less desirable than iodine. Antibiotics can be used as
a substitute for iodine biocides.
e
1
2
3
4

84
IRON ORE1
(Data in thousand metric tons of usable ore unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, mines in Michigan and Minnesota shipped 98% of the domestic usable iron
ore products, which were consumed in the steel industry in the United States, with an estimated value of $4.3 billion,
a 23% increase from $3.5 billion in 2020. The remaining 2% of domestic iron ore was produced for nonsteel end
uses. Seven open pit iron ore mines (each with associated concentration and pelletizing plants) and four iron metallic
plants—one direct-reduced iron (DRI) plant in Louisiana and three hot-briquetted iron (HBI) plants in Indiana, Ohio,
and Texas—operated during the year to supply steelmaking raw materials. The United States was estimated to have
produced 1.8% and consumed 1.4% of the world’s iron ore output.

Production:
Iron ore 47,900 49,500 46,900 38,100 46,000
Iron metallics 3,250 3,560 3,660 3,500 3,800
Shipments 46,900 50,400 47,000 38,000 44,000
Exports 10,600 12,700 11,400 10,400 13,000
Consumption:
Reported 34,400 36,600 34,800 NA NA
Apparent3 40,100 41,400 39,100 31,100 36,000
Price, average value reported by mines, dollars per ton 78.54 93.00 92.94 91.27 94.00
Stocks, mine, dock, and consuming plant, yearend 3,930 3,100 3,470 3,290 4,000
Employment, mine, concentrating and pelletizing plant, number 4,630 4,860 4,960 4,300 4,200
Recycling: None. See Iron and Steel Scrap.
Import Sources (2017–20): Brazil, 55%; Canada, 22%; Sweden, 8%; Russia, 4%; and other, 11%.

12–31–21
Iron ores and concentrates:
Concentrates 2601.11.0030 Free.
Coarse ores 2601.11.0060 Free.
Other ores 2601.11.0090 Free.
Pellets 2601.12.0030 Free.
Briquettes 2601.12.0060 Free.
Sinter 2601.12.0090 Free.
Roasted iron pyrites 2601.20.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Significant increases in production, shipments, and trade in 2021 were due to recovery
from the effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic, which lowered steel production and consumption globally in 2020.
Domestic iron ore production was estimated to be 46 million tons in 2021, a 21% increase from 38.1 million tons in
2020. Total raw steel production was estimated to have increased to 87 million tons in 2021 from 72.7 million tons in
2020. The share of steel produced by basic oxygen furnaces, the process that uses iron ore, continued to decline
from 37.3% in 2015 to an estimated 28% in 2021 owing to increased use of electric arc furnaces because of their
energy efficiency, reduced environmental impacts, and the ready supply of scrap.
Overall, global prices trended upward to an average unit value of $178.27 per ton in the first 9 months of 2021, a 64%
increase from the 2020 annual average of $108.92 per ton and a 90% increase from the 2019 annual average of
$93.85 per ton. Based on reported prices for iron ore fines (62% iron content) imported into China (cost, insurance,
and freight into Tianjin Port), the highest monthly average price during the first 9 months of 2021 was $214.43 per ton
in June compared with the high of $155.43 per ton in December 2020. The lowest monthly average price during the
same period in 2021 was $124.52 per ton in September compared with the low of $84.73 per ton in April 2020. The
prices trended upward owing to a reduced supply of higher grade iron ore products and demand for higher grade ore
to reduce greenhouse gas emissions in steel production.

85
IRON ORE
One company commenced production at a HBI plant in Ohio in late 2020, making it the fourth iron metallics facility
operating in the United States. From 2009 to 2013, no iron metallics plants operated domestically. In December 2020,
one iron ore mining company acquired all the domestic iron and steel operations from another company,
consolidating all domestic iron ore mines, blast furnaces, and basic oxygen furnace steelmaking mills under the
control of two companies. Globally, estimated iron ore production in 2021 increased by 4% from that of 2020. Global
finished steel consumption was forecast by the World Steel Association5 to increase by 4.5% in 2021 and increase by
2.2% in 2022.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Peru, and Turkey were revised based on
Government and public sources.

Usable ore Iron content (million metric tons)
2020 2021e 2020 2021 e Crude ore Iron content
United States 38,100 46,000 24,100 29,000 3,000 1,000
Australia 912,000 900,000 565,000 560,000 751,000 725,000
Brazil 388,000 380,000 247,000 240,000 34,000 15,000

Canada 60,100 68,000 36,100 41,000 6,000 2,300
Chile 15,600 19,000 9,890 12,000 NA NA
China 360,000 360,000 225,000 220,000 20,000 6,900
India 204,000 240,000 127,000 150,000 5,500 3,400
Iran 49,500 50,000 32,500 33,000 2,700 1,500
Kazakhstan 62,900 64,000 12,700 13,000 2,500 900
Mexico 14,900 17,000 9,380 11,000 NA NA
Peru 13,300 16,000 8,890 11,000 2,600 1,500
Russia 100,000 100,000 69,500 71,000 25,000 14,000
South Africa 55,600 61,000 35,400 39,000 1,000 670
Sweden 35,800 40,000 25,400 28,000 1,300 600
Turkey 15,400 16,000 8,570 8,900 130 38
Ukraine 78,800 81,000 49,300 51,000 86,500 82,300
Other countries 69,500 90,000 40,000 58,000 18,000 9,500

World total (rounded) 2,470,000 2,600,000 1,520,000 1,600,000 180,000 85,000
World Resources:6 U.S. resources are estimated to be 110 billion tons of iron ore containing about 27 billion tons of
iron. U.S. resources are mainly low-grade taconite-type ores from the Lake Superior district that require beneficiation
and agglomeration prior to commercial use. World resources are estimated to be greater than 800 billion tons of
crude ore containing more than 230 billion tons of iron.
Substitutes: The only source of primary iron is iron ore, used directly as direct-shipping ore or converted to
briquettes, concentrates, DRI, iron nuggets, pellets, or sinter. DRI, iron nuggets, and scrap are extensively used for
steelmaking in electric arc furnaces and in iron and steel foundries. Technological advancements have been made
that allow hematite to be recovered from tailings basins and pelletized.
e
1
Data are for iron ore used as a raw material in steelmaking unless otherwise noted. See also Iron and Steel and Iron and Steel Scrap.
2
Except where noted, salient statistics are for all forms of iron ore used in steelmaking and do not include iron metallics, which include DRI, HBI,
and iron nuggets.
3
4
5
World Steel Association, 2021, Short range outlook October 2021: Brussels, Belgium, World Steel Association press release, October 14, 8 p.
6
7
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 24 billion tons of crude ore and 11 billion tons of contained
iron.
8
For Ukraine, reserves consist of the A and B categories of the Soviet reserves classification system.

86
IRON OXIDE PIGMENTS
Domestic Production and Use: Iron oxide pigments (IOPs) were mined domestically by two companies in Alabama
and Georgia. Mine production, which was withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data, remained about the
same in 2021 as that in 2020. Five companies, including the two producers of natural IOPs, processed and sold about
18,000 tons of finished natural and synthetic IOPs with an estimated value of $13 million. About 48% of natural and
synthetic finished IOPs were used in concrete and other construction materials; 17% in industrial chemicals; 14% in
foundry sands and other foundry uses; 5% each in animal feed and paint and coatings; 3% each in plastics and glass
and ceramics; and the remaining 5% in other uses.

Mine production, crude W W W W W
Sold or used, finished natural and synthetic IOPs 47,300 48,200 19,200 18,300 18,000
Exports, pigment grade 13,500 11,100 11,200 9,300 9,400
Price, average value, dollars per kilogram2 1.46 1.58 0.69 0.72 0.70
Employment, mine and mill, number 60 60 55 47 47
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Natural: Cyprus, 40%; Spain, 31%; France, 14%; Austria, 13%; and other, 2%.
Synthetic: China, 46%; Germany, 33%; Brazil, 7%; and other, 14%. Total: China, 45%; Germany, 32%; Brazil, 7%;
and other, 16%.

12–31–21
Natural:
Micaceous iron oxides 2530.90.2000 2.9% ad valorem.
Earth colors 2530.90.8015 Free.
Iron oxides and hydroxides containing 70% or
more by weight Fe2O3:
Synthetic:
Black 2821.10.0010 3.7% ad valorem.
Red 2821.10.0020 3.7% ad valorem.
Yellow 2821.10.0030 3.7% ad valorem.
Earth colors 2821.20.0000 5.5% ad valorem.

87
IRON OXIDE PIGMENTS
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, domestic mine production of crude and finished natural IOPs remained
approximately the same as 2020 production. Imports of natural and synthetic pigments were estimated to have
increased by 10% in 2021, owing in part to low mortgage interest rates and increased demand for single-family
homes as the global COVID-19 pandemic made multifamily homes less desirable. In the United States, residential
construction, in which IOPs are commonly used to color concrete block and brick, ready-mixed concrete, and roofing
tiles, increased during the first 9 months of 2021 compared with that in the same period in 2020. Housing starts
increased by about 20% in 2021 compared with those in 2020.
Exports of pigment-grade IOPs increased by 3% during the first 9 months of 2021 compared with those during the
same period in 2020, mostly owing to an increase in exports to Argentina, Poland, and South Africa. Approximately
80% of pigment-grade IOPs exports went to Mexico, China, Germany, Thailand, Belgium, and Brazil, in descending
order of quantity. Exports of other grades of iron oxides and hydroxides decreased by 25% during the first 9 months
of 2021 compared with those in the same period in 2020. About 89% of exports of other grades of iron oxides and
hydroxides went to Mexico, Canada, Ireland, Belgium, and the Republic of Korea, in descending order of quantity.

2020 2021e
United States W W Moderate
Cyprus (umber) 3,500 3,500 Moderate
France 6,000 6,000 NA
Germany5 400,000 400,000 Moderate
India (ocher) 2,500,000 2,500,000 37,000,000
Italy 30,000 30,000 NA
Pakistan (ocher) 120,000 120,000 100,000
Spain (ocher and red iron oxide) 9,000 9,000 Large
World total (rounded) 6NA 6NA Large
World Resources:4 Domestic and world resources for production of IOPs are adequate. Adequate resources are
available worldwide for the manufacture of synthetic IOPs.
Substitutes: Milled IOPs are thought to be the most commonly used natural minerals for pigments. Because IOPs
are color stable, low cost, and nontoxic, they can be economically used for imparting black, brown, red, and yellow
coloring in large and relatively low-value applications. Other minerals may be used as colorants, but they generally
cannot compete with IOPs because of their higher costs and more limited availability. Synthetic IOPs are widely used
as colorants and compete with natural IOPs in many color applications. Organic colorants are used for some colorant
applications, but many of the organic compounds fade over time from exposure to sunlight.
e
Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
1
Defined as sold or used finished natural and synthetic iron oxide pigments + imports – exports.
2
Average unit value for finished iron oxide pigments sold or used by U.S. producers.
3
4
5
Includes natural and synthetic iron oxide pigments.
6
A significant number of other countries, including Austria, Azerbaijan, Brazil, China, Honduras, Iran, Kazakhstan, Lithuania, Paraguay, Russia,
South Africa, Turkey, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom, are thought to produce iron oxide pigments, but output was not reported, and no basis was
available to make reliable estimates of production.

88
IRON AND STEEL1
(Data in million metric tons of metal unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The U.S. iron and steel industry produced raw steel in 2021 with an estimated value
of about $110 billion, a 21% increase from $91 billion in 2020. Pig iron and raw steel was produced by three
companies operating integrated steel mills in 11 locations. Raw steel was produced by 50 companies at 101 minimills.
Combined production capacity was about 106 million tons. Indiana accounted for an estimated 27% of total raw steel
production, followed by Ohio, 11%; Pennsylvania, 5%; Illinois and Texas, 4% each; and Michigan, 3%; with no other
State having more than 3% of total domestic raw steel production. Construction accounted for an estimated 47% of
total domestic shipments by market classification, followed by transportation (predominantly automotive), 25%;
machinery and equipment, 9%; appliances and energy, 5% each; and other applications, 9%.

Pig iron production2 22.4 24.1 22.3 18.3 22
Raw steel production 81.6 86.6 87.8 72.7 87
Distribution of raw steel production, percent:
Basic oxygen furnaces 32 32 30 29 29
Electric arc furnaces 68 68 70 71 71
Continuously cast steel, percent 99.6 98.2 99.8 99.8 99.8
Shipments, steel mill products 82.5 86.4 87.3 73.5 88
Imports, steel mill products:
Finished 26.8 23.3 19.1 14.6 18
Semifinished 7.8 7.3 6.2 5.3 6.7
Total 34.6 30.6 25.3 20.0 25
Exports, steel mill products:
Finished 9.4 7.9 6.6 6.7 8.1
Semifinished 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
Total 9.5 8.0 6.7 6.8 8.3
Stocks, service centers, yearend3 7.0 7.3 7.4 5.8 5.8
Consumption, apparent (steel)4 99.4 101 99.6 82.9 98
Producer price index for steel mill products (1982=100) 5 187.4 211.1 204.0 184.4 348.5
Employment, average, number:
Iron and steel mills5 80,600 82,100 85,700 83,200 86,000
Steel product manufacturing6 54,300 56,700 57,800 54,900 57,000
Recycling: See Iron and Steel Scrap and Iron and Steel Slag.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 19%; Brazil, 15%; Mexico, 12%; the Republic of Korea, 9%; and other, 45%.

12–31–21
Carbon steel:
Semifinished 7207.00.0000 Free.
Flat, hot-rolled 7208.00.0000 Free.
Flat, cold-rolled 7209.00.0000 Free.
Galvanized 7210.00.0000 Free.
Bars and rods, hot-rolled 7213.00.0000 Free.
Structural shapes 7216.00.0000 Free.
Stainless steel:
Semifinished 7218.00.0000 Free.
Flat-rolled sheets 7219.00.0000 Free.
Bars and rods 7222.00.0000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.

89
IRON AND STEEL
Events, Trends, and Issues: The World Steel Association8 forecast global finished steel consumption to increase by
4.5% in 2021 and by 2.2% in 2022 owing to rebounding demand from the effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Global recovery started in late 2020, as manufacturing ramped up in developed countries, through the second half of
2021, when supply chain disruptions affected delivery and demand. In 2021, U.S. apparent consumption of iron and
steel increased by 22% from that in 2020. The automotive sector drove domestic increases in steel consumption and
there were increases in demand in the construction sector. The potential for infrastructure stimulus programs could
speed economic recovery and increase steel demand; however, the effects would take months to years before they
become fully realized.
China’s steel demand decreased in June 2021 owing to a variety of factors including pandemic closures and other
effects, weak real estate activity, poor weather conditions, reduced investment infrastructure, and reduced exports.
Steel consumption in the European Union continued to increase throughout the year owing to increased exports from
Germany and increasing construction activity in Italy. Despite worsening pandemic conditions in Asia, steel demand
remained unchanged owing to increases in Japan’s automotive and machinery sectors and an increase in
construction activity in the Republic of Korea. Generally, South America experienced a significant decrease in steel
demand owing to pandemic conditions in 2020; however, the increased activity in the construction and automotive
sectors led to a recovery in steel consumption to pre-pandemic levels.
World Production:
Pig iron Raw steel

2020 2021e 2020 2021e
United States1 18 22 73 87
Brazil 25 30 31 39
China 888 880 1,060 1,100
Germany 22 25 40 44
India 68 79 100 120
Iran 3 3 29 30
Italy 3 4 20 23
Japan 62 68 83 92
Korea, Republic of 45 50 67 73
Mexico 2 3 17 19
Russia 52 53 72 73
Taiwan 13 14 21 21
Turkey 10 12 36 42
Ukraine 20 21 21 21
Vietnam 10 10 17 17
Other countries 71 99 108 120
World total (rounded) 1,310 1,400 1,790 1,900
World Resources: Not applicable. See Iron Ore and Iron and Steel Scrap for steelmaking raw-material resources.
Substitutes: Iron is the least expensive and most widely used metal. In most applications, iron and steel compete
either with less expensive nonmetallic materials or with more expensive materials that have a performance
advantage. Iron and steel compete with lighter materials, such as aluminum and plastics in the automotive industry;
aluminum, concrete, and wood in construction; and aluminum, glass, paper, and plastics in containers.
e
Estimated.
1
Production and shipments data source is the American Iron and Steel Institute; see also Iron and Steel Scrap and Iron Ore.
2
More than 95% of pig iron production is transported in molten form to steelmaking furnaces at the same site.
3
Steel mill products. Source: Metals Service Center Institute.
4
Defined as steel shipments + imports of finished steel mill products – exports of steel mill products + adjustments for industry stock changes.
5
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, North American Industry Classification System Code 331200.
6
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, North American Industry Classification System Code 331100.
7
Defined as imports of finished steel mill products – total exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
8

90
IRON AND STEEL SCRAP1
(Data in million metric tons of metal unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the total value of domestic purchases of iron and steel scrap (receipts of
ferrous scrap by all domestic consumers from brokers, dealers, and other outside sources) and exports was
estimated to be $27 billion, nearly double the $14.0 billion in 2020 and 68% more than the $15.8 billion in 2019. U.S.
apparent consumption of steel, the leading end use for iron and steel scrap, was estimated to have increased by 18%
to 98 million tons in 2021 from 82.9 million tons in 2020. Manufacturers of pig iron, raw steel, and steel castings
accounted for almost all scrap consumption by the domestic steel industry, using scrap together with pig iron and
direct-reduced iron to produce steel products for the appliance, construction, container, machinery, oil and gas,
transportation, and various other consumer industries. The ferrous castings industry consumed most of the remaining
scrap to produce cast iron and steel products. Relatively small quantities of steel scrap were used for producing
ferroalloys, for the precipitation of copper, and by the chemical industry; these uses collectively totaled less than
1 million tons.
During 2021, estimated raw steel production increased by 19% to 87 million tons, from 72.7 million tons in 2020, and
net shipments of steel mill products were an estimated 88 million tons, up by 20% from 73.5 million tons in 2020.

Production:
Home scrap 5.6 5.8 5.3 4.8 4.2
Purchased scrap2 55 59 55 53 55
Imports for consumption3 4.6 5.0 4.3 4.5 6.2
Exports3 15 17 18 17 19
Consumption:
Reported 50 52 48 45 46
Apparent4 50 52 49 45 46
Price, average, delivered, No. 1 heavy melting composite price, 265 326 249 228 435
dollars per ton5
Stocks, consumer, yearend 4.5 5.1 4.0 4.0 4.4
Employment, dealers, brokers, processors, numbere 27,000 27,000 26,000 24,000 25,000
Net import reliance6 as a percentage of reported consumption E E E E E
Recycling: Recycled iron and steel scrap is a vital raw material for the production of new steel and cast iron
products. The steel and foundry industries in the United States have been structured to recycle scrap and, as a result,
are highly dependent upon scrap. Recycling 1 ton of steel conserves 1.1 tons of iron ore, 0.6 ton of coking coal, and
0.05 ton of limestone. Recycling of scrap also conserves energy because the remelting of scrap requires much less
energy than the production of iron or steel products from iron ore.
Overall, the scrap recycling rate in the United States has averaged between 80% and 90% during the past decade,
with automobiles making up the primary source of old steel scrap. Recycling of automobiles is nearly 100% each
year, with rates fluctuating slightly owing to the rate of new vehicle production and general economic trends. More
than 15 million tons of steel is recycled from automobiles annually, the equivalent of approximately 12 million cars,
from more than 7,000 vehicle dismantlers and 350 car shredders in North America. The recycling of steel from
automobiles is estimated to save the equivalent energy necessary to power 18 million homes every year.
Recycling rates, which fluctuate annually, were estimated to be 98% for structural steel from construction, 88% for
appliances, 71% for rebar and reinforcement steel, and 70% for steel packaging. The recycling rates for appliance,
can, and construction steel are expected to increase in the United States and in emerging industrial countries at an
even greater rate. Public interest in recycling continues, and recycling is becoming more profitable and convenient as
environmental regulations for primary production increase. Also, consumption of iron and steel scrap by remelting
reduces the burden on landfill disposal facilities and prevents the accumulation of abandoned steel products in the
environment
Recycled scrap consists of approximately 58% post-consumer (old, obsolete) scrap, 24% new scrap (produced in
steel-product manufacturing plants), and 18% home scrap (recirculating scrap from current operations).
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 70%; Mexico, 11%; the United Kingdom, 6%; Sweden, 5%; and other, 8%.

91
IRON AND STEEL SCRAP
12–31–21
Ferrous waste and scrap:
Stainless steel 7204.21.0000 Free.
Turnings, shavings, chips, milling waste,
sawdust, filings, trimmings, and stampings:
No. 1 bundles 7204.41.0020 Free.
No. 2 bundles 7204.41.0040 Free.
Borings, shovelings, and turnings 7204.41.0060 Free.
Other 7204.41.0080 Free.
Other:
No. 1 heavy melting 7204.49.0020 Free.
No. 2 heavy melting 7204.49.0040 Free.
Cut plate and structural 7204.49.0060 Free.
Shredded 7204.49.0070 Free.
Remelting scrap ingots 7204.50.0000 Free.
Powders, of pig iron, spiegeleisen, iron, or steel:
Alloy steel 7205.21.0000 Free.
Other 7205.29.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, steel mill production capacity utilization rebounded from the lowest monthly
rate since July 2009, reaching 54.6% in May 2020, into the normal historical range for operating rates reaching 76.6%
in January and continuing to increase to 84.8% in the second half of 2021. Composite prices published for No. 1
heavy melting steel scrap increased significantly in 2021, rising from $194.01 per ton in July 2020 to a peak of
$454.38 per ton in July 2021. The annual average price delivered in the first 8 months of 2021 increased to
$408.54 per ton compared with the full-year annual average of $227.62 per ton in 2020, contributing to the significant
increase in the total estimated value of domestic purchases and exports of iron and steel scrap in 2021.
In the first 8 months of 2021, Mexico and Turkey were the primary destinations for exports of ferrous scrap, by
tonnage, accounting for 18% of total exports each, followed by Malaysia, 10%; Vietnam, 9%; and Bangladesh and
Taiwan, 8% each. The value of exported scrap increased to an estimated $8.1 billion in 2021 from $4.8 billion in
2020. In the first 8 months of 2021, Canada was the leading source of imports of ferrous scrap, by tonnage,
accounting for 67% of total imports, following by Mexico, 10%; the United Kingdom, 7%; the Netherlands, 6%; and
Sweden, 3%.
The World Steel Association7 forecast global finished steel consumption to increase by 4.5% in 2021 and by 2.2% in
2022 owing to rebounding demand from the effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic. Global recovery started in late
2020, as manufacturing ramped up in developed countries, through the second half of 2021, when supply chain
disruptions affected delivery and demand. These factors are expected to be relieved in 2022 and increase recovery
momentum. The automotive sector was the leading cause of domestic increases in steel consumption.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Not applicable. See Iron and Steel and Iron Ore.
World Resources: Not applicable. See Iron and Steel and Iron Ore.
Substitutes: An estimated 3.5 million tons of direct-reduced iron was consumed in the United States in 2021 as a
substitute for iron and steel scrap, up from 3.3 million tons in 2020.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter.
1
See also Iron and Steel and Iron Ore.
2
Defined as net receipts + exports – imports.
3
Excludes used rails for rerolling and other uses, and ships, boats, and other vessels for scrapping.
4
Defined as home scrap + purchased scrap + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
5
Source: Fastmarkets AMM
6
7

92
IRON AND STEEL SLAG
(Data in million metric tons unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Iron and steel (ferrous) slags are formed by the combination of slagging agents and
impurities during the production of crude (or pig) iron and crude steel. The slags are tapped separately from the
metals, then cooled and processed, and are primarily used in the construction industry. Data are unavailable on
actual U.S. ferrous slag production, but domestic slag sales 1 in 2021 were estimated to be 17 million tons valued at
about $460 million. Blast furnace slag was about 49% of the tonnage sold and accounted for 87% of the total value of
slag, most of which was granulated. Steel slag produced from basic oxygen and electric arc furnaces accounted for
the remainder of sales. Slag was processed by 28 companies servicing active iron and steel facilities or reprocessing
old slag piles at about 124 processing plants (including some iron and steel plants with more than one slag-
processing facility) in 33 States, including facilities that import and grind unground slag to sell as ground granulated
blast furnace slag (GGBFS).
Air-cooled iron slag and steel slag are used primarily as aggregates in concrete (air-cooled iron slag only); asphaltic
paving, fill, and road bases; both slag types also can be used as a feed for cement kilns. Almost all GGBFS is used
as a partial substitute for portland cement in concrete mixes or in blended cements. Pelletized slag is generally used
for lightweight aggregate but can be ground into material similar to GGBFS. Actual prices per ton ranged from a few
cents for some steel slags at a few locations to about $120 or more for some GGBFS in 2021. Owing to low unit
values, most slag types can be shipped only short distances by truck, but rail and waterborne transportation allow for
greater travel distances. Because much higher unit values make it economical to ship GGBFS longer distances, much
of the GGBFS consumed in the United States is imported.

Production (sales)1, 2 16.2 16.8 e16 e13 17
Imports for consumption3 2.1 2.2 1.8 2.3 2.2
Exports (4) (4) (4) (4) (4)
Consumption, apparent5 16.2 16.8 e16 e13 17
Price, average value, free on board plant, dollars per ton6 24.50 26.50 27.50 25.50 27.00
Recycling: Following removal of entrained metal, slag can be returned to the blast and steel furnaces as ferrous and
flux feed, but data on these returns are incomplete. Entrained metal, particularly in steel slag, is routinely recovered
during slag processing for return to the furnaces and is an important revenue source for slag processors; data on
metal returns are unavailable.
Import Sources (2017–20): Japan, 42%; Brazil, 18%; China, 11%; Italy, 10%; and other, 19%.

12–31–21
Granulated slag 2618.00.0000 Free.
Slag, dross, scalings, and other waste from
manufacture of iron and steel:
Ferrous scale 2619.00.3000 Free.
Other 2619.00.9000 Free.

93
IRON AND STEEL SLAG
Events, Trends, and Issues: The availability of steel slag is tied closely to the rates of raw steel production and the
cost consideration of recovering slag for use in low-value downstream applications. The majority of U.S. steel slag
production is from electric arc furnaces, which accounted for approximately 71% of U.S. steel production in 2021
owing to the overall cost benefits of environmental factors, such as feedstock and power consumption, and the price
and availability of ferrous scrap feedstock. In recent years, the percentage of basic oxygen furnace steel production
has continued to decline as capacity has idled or closed; however, slag stockpiling at furnaces allow for processing of
slag for years after closures. The World Steel Association8 forecast global finished steel consumption to increase by
4.5% in 2021 and by 2.2% in 2022 owing to rebounding demand from the effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic.
During 2021, domestic GGBFS remained in limited supply because granulation cooling was known to be available at
only two active U.S. blast furnaces while, elsewhere, only one domestic plant produced pelletized slag in limited
supply. Grinding of granulated blast furnace slag was only done domestically by cement companies. Supply
constraints appear to have limited domestic consumption of GGBFS in recent years. Following declines in value and
production in 2020, owing to the effects and availability caused by closures related to the COVID-19 pandemic, steel
production rates increased through 2021 leading to increased availability of steel slag.
The domestic supply of fly ash, which is used as an additive in concrete production, continues to decrease, owing to
restrictions of mercury and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions at coal-fired powerplants, powerplant closures, and
conversion of powerplants to natural gas. Mercury emission restrictions on cement plants, enacted in 2015, may
reduce the demand for fly ash as a raw material in clinker manufacture, and air-cooled and steel slags are used as
substitute raw materials. Demand for GGBFS is likely to increase because its use in cement yields a beneficial
product in many applications and reduces the unit CO2 emissions in the production of the cement.
World Production and Reserves: Because slag is not mined, the concept of reserves does not apply. World
production data for slag were unavailable, but iron slag from blast furnaces may be estimated to be 25% to 30% of
crude (pig) iron production and steel furnace slag may be estimated to be 10% to 15% of raw steel production. In
2021, world iron slag production was estimated to be between 340 million and 410 million tons, and steel slag
production was estimated to be between 190 million and 280 million tons.
World Resources: Not applicable.
Substitutes: In the construction sector, ferrous slags compete with natural aggregates (crushed stone and
construction sand and gravel) but are far less widely available than the natural materials. As a cementitious additive in
blended cements and concrete, GGBFS mainly competes with fly ash, metakaolin, and volcanic ash pozzolans. In this
respect, GGBFS reduces the amount of portland cement per ton of concrete, thus allowing more concrete to be made
per ton of portland cement. Slags (especially steel slag) can be used as a partial substitute for limestone and some
other natural raw materials for clinker (cement) manufacture and compete in this use with fly ash and bottom ash.
Some other metallurgical slags, such as copper slag, can compete with ferrous slags in some specialty markets, such
as a ferrous feed in clinker manufacture, but are generally in much more restricted supply than ferrous slags.
e
Estimated.
1
Processed slag sold during the year, excluding entrained metal.
2
Data include sales of domestic and imported granulated blast furnace slag and exclude sales of pelletized slag.
3
U.S. Census Bureau data adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey to remove nonslag materials (such as cenospheres, fly ash, and silica fume)
and slags or other residues of other metallurgical industries (especially copper slag), whose unit values are outside the range expected for
granulated slag. In some years, tonnages may be underreported.
4
Less than 50,000 tons.
5
Defined as sales – exports.
6
Rounded to the nearest $0.50 per ton.
7
Defined as imports ‒ exports.
8

94
KYANITE AND RELATED MINERALS
Domestic Production and Use: In Virginia, one firm with integrated mining and processing operations produced an
estimated 81,000 tons of kyanite worth $30 million from two hard-rock open pit mines and synthetic mullite by
calcining kyanite. Two other companies, one in Alabama and another in Georgia, produced synthetic mullite from
materials mined from four sites; each company sourced materials from one site in Alabama and one site in Georgia.
Synthetic mullite production data are withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Commercially produced
synthetic mullite is made by sintering or fusing such feedstock materials as kyanite, kaolin, bauxite, or bauxitic kaolin.
Natural mullite occurrences typically are rare and not economical to mine.
Of the kyanite-mullite output, 90% was estimated to have been used in refractories and 10% in other uses, including
abrasive products, such as motor vehicle brake shoes and pads and grinding and cutting wheels; ceramic products,
such as electrical insulating porcelains, sanitaryware, and whiteware; foundry products and precision casting molds;
and other products. An estimated 60% to 70% of the refractory use was by the iron and steel industries, and the
remainder was by industries that manufacture cement, chemicals, glass, nonferrous metals, and other materials.
Andalusite was commercially mined from an andalusite-pyrophyllite-sericite deposit in North Carolina and processed
as a blend of primarily andalusite for use by producers of refractories in making firebrick. Another company mined
mineral sands within the southeastern United States; product blends that included kyanite and (or) sillimanite were
marketed to the abrasive, foundry, and refractory industries.

Production:
Kyanite, mine 191,300 189,200 191,300 167,100 81,000
Synthetic mullite W W W W W
Imports for consumption (andalusite) 7,420 8,590 6,960 710 1,000
Exports (kyanite) 42,400 43,000 40,100 37,400 45,000
Price, average value of exports (free alongside ship),3, 4 dollars
per metric ton 350 347 358 369 369
Employment, number:e
Kyanite, mine, office, and plant 140 150 150 140 140
Synthetic mullite, office and plant 200 200 200 200 200
Import Sources (2017–20):4 South Africa, 77%; Peru, 12%; France, 7%; United Kingdom, 3%; and other, 1%.

12–31–21
Andalusite, kyanite, and sillimanite 2508.50.0000 Free.
Mullite 2508.60.0000 Free.
Prepared by Ashley K. Hatfield [(703) 648–7751, ahatfield@usgs.gov]

95
KYANITE AND RELATED MINERALS
Events, Trends, and Issues: Crude steel production in the United States, which ranked fourth in the world,
increased by about 20% in the first 8 months of 2021 compared with that of the same period in 2020, indicating a
similar change in consumption of kyanite-mullite refractories. Total world steel production increased by about 11%
during the first 8 months of 2021 compared with that of the same period in 2020. The increase in world steel
production during the first 8 months of 2021 was the result of economic recovery from the global COVID-19
pandemic. The steel industry continued to be the largest market for refractories.
In January 2021, a company in South Africa that accounted for nearly one-third of global andalusite output announced
that a new investor and owner had been approved. In mid-2019, the company entered into business rescue
proceedings attributed to financial problems but was expected to emerge from business rescue status and be
transferred to the new owner.
Despite strong demand, andalusite output was hindered by several challenges that contributed to a prolonged and
uneven recovery period from the pandemic. Although many countries declared mining essential, production efforts
were constrained by ongoing logistical and shipping issues, renewed COVID-19 outbreaks, and supply chain
disruptions. If andalusite producers are unable to meet demand, market participants may consider alternatives such
as bauxite and mullite, although these materials experienced similarly problematic market conditions in 2021.

2020 2021e
United States (kyanite) 167,100 81,000 Large
India (kyanite and sillimanite) 61,000 70,000 7,200,000
Peru (andalusite) e40,000 40,000 NA
South Africa (andalusite) 180,000 190,000 NA
World total (rounded) 7NA 7NA NA
World Resources:6 Large resources of kyanite and related minerals are known to exist in the United States. The
chief resources are in deposits of micaceous schist and gneiss, mostly in the Appalachian Mountains and in Idaho.
Other resources are in aluminous gneiss in southern California. These resources are not economical to mine at
present. The characteristics of kyanite resources in the rest of the world are thought to be similar to those in the
United States. Significant resources of andalusite are known to exist in China, France, Peru, and South Africa; kyanite
resources have been identified in Brazil, India, and Russia; and sillimanite has been identified in India.
Substitutes: Two types of synthetic mullite (fused and sintered), superduty fire clays, and high-alumina materials are
substitutes for kyanite in refractories. Principal raw materials for synthetic mullite are bauxite, kaolin and other clays,
and silica sand.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
1
Source: Virginia Department of Mines, Minerals and Energy.
2
3
Calculated from U.S. Census Bureau export data.
4
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States code: 2508.50.0000.
5
6
7
In addition to the countries listed, France continued production of andalusite, and Cameroon and China produced kyanite and related minerals.
Output was not reported quantitatively, and no reliable basis was available for estimation of output levels.

96
LEAD
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained lead unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Lead was produced domestically by five lead mines in Missouri plus as a byproduct
at two zinc mines in Alaska and two silver mines in Idaho. The value of the lead in concentrates of ore mined in 2021
was an estimated $750 million, 21% more than that in 2020. Nearly all lead concentrate production has been
exported since the last primary lead refinery closed in 2013. The value of the secondary lead produced in 2021 was
$2.4 billion, 17% more than that in 2020. The lead-acid battery industry accounted for an estimated 92% of reported
U.S. lead consumption during 2021. Lead-acid batteries were primarily used as starting-lighting-ignition (SLI) batteries
for automobiles, as industrial-type batteries for standby power for computer and telecommunications networks, and
for motive power. During the first 9 months of 2021, 107 million lead-acid automotive batteries were shipped by North
American producers, 8% more than those shipped in the same period of 2020.

Production:
Mine, lead in concentrates 310 280 274 306 300
Primary refinery — — — — —
Secondary refinery, old scrap 1,140 1,140 1,070 1,030 990
Lead in concentrates (1) — (1) (1) —
Refined metal, unwrought (gross weight) 658 563 501 382 620
Exports:
Lead in concentrates 269 251 259 265 250
Refined metal, unwrought (gross weight) 24 70 25 17 22
Price, average, cents per pound:3
North American market 114.5 110.9 99.9 91.3 110
Employment, mine and mill (average), number4 1,890 1,860 1,690 1,810 1,900
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption,
refined metal 36 30 31 26 38
Recycling: In 2021, about 990,000 tons of secondary lead was produced, an amount equivalent to 62% of apparent
domestic consumption. Nearly all secondary lead was recovered from old scrap, mostly lead-acid batteries.
Import Sources (2017–20): Refined metal: Canada, 43%; Mexico, 19%; the Republic of Korea, 17%; India, 4%; and
other, 17%.

12–31–21
Lead ores and concentrates, lead content 2607.00.0020 1.1¢/kg on lead content.
Refined lead 7801.10.0000 2.5% on the value of the lead content.
Antimonial lead 7801.91.0000 2.5% on the value of the lead content.
Alloys of lead 7801.99.9030 2.5% on the value of the lead content.
Other unwrought lead 7801.99.9050 2.5% on the value of the lead content.
Prepared by Kateryna Klochko [(703) 648–4977, kklochko@usgs.gov]

97
LEAD
Events, Trends, and Issues: During the first 10 months of 2021, the average LME cash price for lead was
98.9 cents per pound, 20% more than the average price in 2020, owing to the worldwide shipping delays and
decreased supply of the refined lead available on the market. The average monthly LME cash price peaked in August
at 110.2 cents per pound and declined through November. Global stocks of lead in LME-approved warehouses were
57,800 tons in November 2021, which was 57% less than those at yearend 2020.
In 2021, domestic mine production was estimated to have decreased slightly from that in the previous year. Domestic
production of secondary lead decreased by 4% from that in the previous year owing to a reduction in production of
several secondary lead smelters and a closure of one secondary lead smelter in South Carolina in 2021. U.S.
apparent consumption of refined lead increased by 14% from that in the previous year, and the net import reliance
increased from 26% to 38%, owing to the forementioned domestic secondary plants’ closures and subsequent 62%
increase in the imports of the refined lead. In the first 9 months of 2021, 25.5 million spent SLI lead-acid batteries
were exported, 29% more than that in the same time period in 2020.
According to the International Lead and Zinc Study Group,6 global refined lead production in 2021 was forecast to
increase by 4.4% to 12.4 million tons and metal consumption to increase by 5.5% to 12.4 million tons.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves estimates for Australia and Peru were revised based on new
information from Government reports.

2020 2021e
Australia 494 500 837,000
Bolivia 65 90 1,600
China 1,900 2,000 18,000
India 204 210 2,500
Mexico 260 270 5,600
Peru 242 280 6,400
Russia 210 210 4,000
Sweden 70 70 1,100
Tajikistan 46 46 NA
Turkey 63 60 860
World Resources:7 Identified world lead resources total more than 2 billion tons. In recent years, significant lead
resources have been identified in association with zinc and (or) silver or copper deposits in Australia, China, Ireland,
Mexico, Peru, Portugal, Russia, and the United States (Alaska).
Substitutes: Substitution by plastics has reduced the use of lead in cable covering and cans. Tin has replaced lead
in solder for potable water systems. The electronics industry has moved toward lead-free solders and flat-panel
displays that do not require lead shielding. Steel and zinc are common substitutes for lead in wheel weights.
e
1
Less than ½ unit.
2
Defined as primary refined production + secondary refined production from old scrap + refined imports – refined exports.
3
Source: S&P Global Platts Metals Week.
4
Includes lead and zinc-lead mines for which lead was either a principal product or significant byproduct. Data from the Mine Safety and Health
Administration.
5
6
International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 2021, ILZSG session/forecasts: Lisbon, Portugal, International Lead and Zinc Study Group press
release, October 12, [5] p.
7
8

98
LIME1
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, an estimated 17 million tons of quicklime and hydrated was produced
(excluding independent commercial hydrators 2), valued at about $2.3 billion. Twenty-eight companies produced lime,
which included 18 companies with commercial sales and 10 companies that produced lime strictly for internal use (for
example, sugar companies). These companies had 73 primary lime plants (plants operating quicklime kilns) in 28
States and Puerto Rico. One primary lime plant was idle in 2021. Five of the 28 companies operated only hydrating
plants in nine States. In 2021, the five leading U.S. lime companies produced quicklime or hydrated in 22 States and
accounted for about 78% of U.S. lime production. Principal producing States were, in alphabetical order, Alabama,
Kentucky, Missouri, Ohio, and Texas. Major markets for lime were, in descending order of consumption, steelmaking,
chemical and industrial applications (such as the manufacture of fertilizer, glass, paper and pulp, and precipitated
calcium carbonate, and in sugar refining), flue gas treatment, construction, water treatment, and nonferrous-metal
mining.

Production2, 3 17,600 18,000 16,900 15,800 17,000
Exports 391 424 347 266 310
Price, average value, dollars per ton at plant:
Quicklime 120.8 125.2 128.3 132.1 140
Hydrated 147.1 151.6 154.6 156.4 160
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption E E E <1 <1
Recycling: Large quantities of lime are regenerated by paper mills. Some municipal water-treatment plants
regenerate lime from softening sludge. Quicklime is regenerated from waste hydrated lime in the carbide industry.
Data for these sources were not included as production in order to avoid duplication.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 90%; Mexico, 7%; and other, 3%.

12–31–21
Calcined dolomite 2518.20.0000 3% ad valorem.
Quicklime 2522.10.0000 Free.
Slaked lime 2522.20.0000 Free.
Hydraulic lime 2522.30.0000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Limestone produced and used for lime production, 14% (domestic and foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, domestic lime production was estimated to have increased by 8% from that in
2020. In 2020, a decline in lime production was a result of plants temporarily closing as a result of the global COVID-
19 pandemic. As the economy continues to rebound from the effects of the pandemic, so does the lime industry. In
Michigan, one sugar company announced plans to construct a desugarization facility to produce an additional 40,000
tons of refined sugar annually. The San Bernardino County, CA, government approved plans to build a lime plant
near a limestone quarry at Trona, CA. In 2021, a total of 73 quicklime plants were in operation along with 10 hydrating
plants. Hydrated lime is a dry calcium hydroxide powder made from reacting quicklime with a controlled amount of
water in a hydrator. It is used in chemical and industrial, construction, and environmental applications.
Prepared by Lori E. Apodaca [(703) 648–7724, lapodaca@usgs.gov]

99
LIME
World Lime Production and Limestone Reserves:
Production6 Reserves7
2020 2021e
United States 15,800 17,000 Adequate for all countries listed.
Australia 1,980 2,000
Belgium8 1,500 1,500
Brazil 8,000 8,100
Bulgaria 1,280 1,400
Canada (shipments) 2,060 2,000
China 310,000 310,000
France 2,600 2,600
Germany 7,100 7,100
India 15,000 16,000
Iran 3,600 3,600
Italy8 3,400 3,500
Japan (quicklime only) 5,820 7,000
Malaysia 1,480 1,500
Poland (hydrated and quicklime) 1,680 1,700
Romania 1,280 1,500
Russia (industrial and construction) 11,400 11,000
Slovenia 1,200 1,200
Spain 1,700 1,800
Turkey 4,700 4,700
Ukraine 2,340 2,300
United Kingdom 1,500 1,500
Other countries 15,000 15,000
World Resources:7 Domestic and world resources of limestone and dolomite suitable for lime manufacture are very
large.
Substitutes: Limestone is a substitute for lime in many applications, such as agriculture, fluxing, and sulfur removal.
Limestone, which contains less reactive material, is slower to react and may have other disadvantages compared with
lime, depending on the application; however, limestone is considerably less expensive than lime. Calcined gypsum is
an alternative material in industrial plasters and mortars. Cement, cement kiln dust, fly ash, and lime kiln dust are
potential substitutes for some construction uses of lime. Magnesium hydroxide is a substitute for lime in pH control,
and magnesium oxide is a substitute for dolomitic lime as a flux in steelmaking.
e
1
Data are for quicklime, hydrated lime, and refractory dead-burned dolomite. Includes Puerto Rico.
2
To avoid double counting quicklime production, excludes independent commercial hydrators that purchase quicklime for hydration.
3
Sold or used by producers.
4
Defined as production + imports – exports. Includes some double counting based on nominal, undifferentiated reporting of company export sales
as U.S. production.
5
6
Only countries that produced 1 million tons of lime or more are listed separately.
7
8
Includes hydraulic lime.

100
LITHIUM
(Data in metric tons of contained lithium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The only lithium production in the United States was from one brine operation in
Nevada. Two companies produced a wide range of downstream lithium compounds in the United States from
domestic or imported lithium carbonate, lithium chloride, and lithium hydroxide. Domestic production data were
withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
Although lithium markets vary by location, global end-use markets are estimated as follows: batteries, 74%; ceramics
and glass, 14%; lubricating greases, 3%; continuous casting mold flux powders, 2%; polymer production, 2%; air
treatment, 1%; and other uses, 4%. Lithium consumption for batteries has increased significantly in recent years
because rechargeable lithium batteries are used extensively in the growing market for electric vehicles and portable
electronic devices, and increasingly are used in electric tools, and grid storage applications. Lithium minerals were
used directly as ore concentrates in ceramics and glass applications.

Exports 1,960 1,660 1,660 1,170 1,900
Consumption, estimated1 3,000 3,000 2,000 2,000 2,000
Price, annual average, battery-grade lithium carbonate, dollars
per metric ton2 15,000 17,000 12,700 8,000 17,000
Net import reliance3 as a percentage of estimated consumption >50 >50 >25 >50 >25
Recycling: One domestic company has recycled lithium metal and lithium-ion batteries since 1992 at its facility in
British Columbia, Canada. In 2015, the company began operating the first U.S. recycling facility for lithium-ion vehicle
batteries in Lancaster, OH. About 25 companies in North America and Europe recycle lithium batteries or plan to do
so. Partnerships between automobile companies and battery recyclers have been made to supply the automobile
industry with a source of battery materials.
Import Sources (2017–20): Argentina, 54%; Chile, 37%; China, 5%; Russia, 3%; and other, 1%.

12–31–21
Lithium oxide and hydroxide 2825.20.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Lithium carbonate:
U.S. pharmaceutical grade 2836.91.0010 3.7% ad valorem.
Government Stockpile:4, 5
FY 2021 FY 2022
Lithium-cobalt oxide 752 — — — —
Lithium-nickel-cobalt-aluminum oxide 2,698 — — — —
Events, Trends, and Issues: Excluding U.S. production, worldwide lithium production in 2021 increased by 21% to
approximately 100,000 tons from 82,500 tons in 2020 in response to strong demand from the lithium-ion battery
market and increased prices of lithium. Global consumption of lithium in 2021 was estimated to be 93,000 tons, a
33% increase from 70,000 tons in 2020.
Spot lithium carbonate prices in China (cost, insurance, and freight [c.i.f.] North Asia) increased from approximately
$7,000 per ton in January to about $26,200 per ton in November. For fixed contracts, the annual average U.S. lithium
carbonate price was $17,000 per ton in 2021, more than double that in 2020. Spot lithium hydroxide prices in China
(c.i.f. North Asia) increased from approximately $9,000 per ton in January to about $27,400 per ton in November.
Spot spodumene (6% lithium oxide) prices in China (c.i.f. China) increased from approximately $450 per ton in
January to about $2,300 per ton in November. Spot lithium metal (99.9% lithium) prices in China increased from
approximately $77,000 per ton in January to about $97,000 per ton in July.

101
LITHIUM
Four mineral operations in Australia, two brine operations each in Argentina and Chile, and two brine and one mineral
operation in China accounted for the majority of world lithium production. Additionally, smaller operations in Brazil,
China, Portugal, the United States, and Zimbabwe also contributed to world lithium production. Owing to the
resurgence in demand and increased prices of lithium in 2021, established lithium operations worldwide resumed
capacity expansion plans which were postponed in 2020 in response to the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Lithium supply security has become a top priority for technology companies in Asia, Europe, and the United States.
Strategic alliances and joint ventures among technology companies and exploration companies continued to be
established to ensure a reliable, diversified supply of lithium for battery suppliers and vehicle manufacturers. Brine-
based lithium sources were in various stages of development in Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, China, and the
United States; mineral-based lithium sources were in various stages of development in Australia, Austria, Brazil,
Canada, China, Congo (Kinshasa), Czechia, Finland, Germany, Mali, Namibia, Peru, Portugal, Serbia, Spain, the
United States, and Zimbabwe; lithium-clay sources were in various stages of development in Mexico and the
United States; and a searlesite source was in development in the United States.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Argentina, Australia, and “Other countries” were revised based
on new information from Government and industry sources.

2020 2021e
Argentina 5,900 6,200 2,200,000
Australia 39,700 55,000 75,700,000
Brazil 1,420 1,500 95,000

Chile 21,500 26,000 9,200,000
China 13,300 14,000 1,500,000
Portugal 348 900 60,000
Zimbabwe 417 1,200 220,000
Other countries8 — — 2,700,000
World Resources:6 Owing to continuing exploration, identified lithium resources have increased substantially
worldwide and total about 89 million tons. Identified lithium resources in the United States—from continental brines,
geothermal brines, hectorite, oilfield brines, pegmatites, and searlesite—are 9.1 million tons. Identified lithium
resources in other countries have been revised to 80 million tons. Identified lithium resources are distributed as
follows: Bolivia, 21 million tons; Argentina, 19 million tons; Chile, 9.8 million tons; Australia, 7.3 million tons; China,
5.1 million tons; Congo (Kinshasa), 3 million tons; Canada, 2.9 million tons; Germany, 2.7 million tons; Mexico,
1.7 million tons; Czechia, 1.3 million tons; Serbia, 1.2 million tons; Russia, 1 million tons; Peru, 880,000 tons; Mali,
700,000 tons; Zimbabwe, 500,000 tons; Brazil, 470,000 tons; Spain, 300,000 tons; Portugal, 270,000 tons; Ghana,
130,000 tons; Austria, 60,000 tons; and Finland, Kazakhstan, and Namibia, 50,000 tons each.
Substitutes: Substitution for lithium compounds is possible in batteries, ceramics, greases, and manufactured glass.
Examples are calcium, magnesium, mercury, and zinc as anode material in primary batteries; calcium and aluminum
soaps as substitutes for stearates in greases; and sodic and potassic fluxes in ceramics and glass manufacture.
e
1
Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes. Rounded to one significant digit to avoid
disclosing company proprietary data.
2
Lithium carbonate, contract price, delivered Europe and United States. Source: Fastmarkets IM.
3
4
5
Units are kilograms, gross weight.
6
7
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee or equivalent reserves were 3.8 million tons.
8
Other countries with reported reserves include Austria, Canada, Congo (Kinshasa), Czechia, Finland, Germany, Mali, Mexico, and Serbia.
9

102
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS1
[Data in thousand metric tons of contained magnesium oxide (MgO) unless otherwise noted] 2
Domestic Production and Use: Seawater and natural brines accounted for about 64% of U.S. magnesium
compound production in 2021. The value of shipments of all types of magnesium compounds was estimated to be
$390 million, a 7% increase from the revised value in 2020. Magnesium oxide and other compounds were recovered
from seawater by one company in California and another company in Delaware, from well brines by one company in
Michigan, and from lake brines by two companies in Utah. Magnesite was mined by one company in Nevada.
In the United States, about 78% of magnesium compounds were consumed in the form of caustic-calcined magnesia,
magnesium chloride, magnesium hydroxide, and magnesium sulfates across the following industries and uses, in
descending order, environmental, agricultural, chemical, and deicing. The remaining magnesium compounds were
consumed for refractories in the form of dead-burned magnesia, fused magnesia, and olivine. Across all industries,
the leading magnesium compounds consumed, in descending order, were magnesium oxide (caustic-calcined
magnesia, dead burned magnesia, and fused magnesia), magnesium hydroxide, and magnesium chloride.

Production 438 405 376 363 390
Shipments (gross weight) 616 610 563 547 590
Exports 103 116 88 66 90
Employment, plant, numbere 260 270 270 260 270
Recycling: Some magnesia-based refractories are recycled, either for reuse as refractory material or for use as
construction aggregate.
Import Sources (2017–20): Caustic-calcined magnesia: China,5 71%; Canada, 20%; Israel, 4%; Australia, 3%; and
other, 2%. Crude magnesite: China,5 86%; Singapore, 11%; Pakistan, 2%; and other, 1%. Dead-burned and fused
magnesia: China,5 69%; Brazil, 13%; Turkey, 5%; Mexico, 4%; and other, 9%. Magnesium chloride: Israel, 63%; the
Netherlands, 23%; China,5 5%; India, 3%; and other, 6%. Magnesium hydroxide: Mexico, 54%; the Netherlands, 15%;
Israel, 11%; Austria, 9%; and other, 11%. Magnesium sulfates: China,5 58%; India, 14%; Germany, 10%; Canada,
5%; and other, 13%. Total imports: China,5 56%; Brazil, 10%; Israel, 10%; Canada, 7%; and other, 17%.

12–31–21
Crude magnesite 2519.10.0000 Free.
Dead-burned and fused magnesia 2519.90.1000 Free.
Caustic-calcined magnesia 2519.90.2000 Free.
Kieserite 2530.20.1000 Free.
Epsom salts 2530.20.2000 Free.
Magnesium hydroxide and peroxide 2816.10.0000 3.1% ad valorem.
Magnesium chloride 2827.31.0000 1.5% ad valorem.
Magnesium sulfate (synthetic) 2833.21.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Brucite, 10% (domestic and foreign); dolomite, magnesite, and magnesium carbonate, 14%
(domestic and foreign); magnesium chloride (from brine wells), 5% (domestic and foreign); and olivine, 22%
(domestic) and 14% (foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, consumption of dead-burned and fused magnesia increased in the
United States and globally by an estimated 20% and 8%, respectively, compared with that in 2020, as the demand for
steel recovers from disruptions caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. Demand, and subsequent consumption, for all
magnesium compounds has increased following the general trend of the manufacturing industry.
Prepared by Adam M. Merrill [(703) 648–7715, amerrill@usgs.gov]

103
MAGNESIUM COMPOUNDS
An Austria-based magnesia and refractories producer sold two of its magnesia product subsidiaries to a private equity
firm. The subsidiaries, located in Ireland and Norway, produced magnesia-based products used in the agricultural,
environmental, hydrometallurgical, pulp and paper, and refractory industries.
A Turkish steelmaker purchased one of Turkey’s largest magnesite producers that was a major regional and
international source of magnesite. The magnesite producer holds more than 40% of Turkey’s magnesite reserves and
operates three plants with an annual capacity of 1.2 million tons. The purchase of the magnesite producer will provide
refractory materials vital to its steelmaking process.
China remains the leading producer of magnesia and magnesite and was the principal exporter of magnesia to the
United States and much of the world. As demand was beginning to recover, supply and shipping constraints were
adversely affecting the availability of imported sources of magnesia. In China, power-intensive activities such as
mineral processing were adversely affected by power outages resulting from a resurging demand for power, coal
shortages, and newly enforced emission standards. The resulting decreased magnesia supply in China affected
prices and availability of all grades of magnesia in the world market.
World Magnesite Mine Production and Reserves:6 In addition to magnesite, vast reserves exist in well and lake
brines and seawater from which magnesium compounds can be recovered. Reserves for Australia and Turkey were
revised based on information from Government and industry sources.
Mine productione Reserves7

2020 2021
Australia 700 770 8290,000
Austria 790 870 49,000

Brazil 1,800 2,000 200,000
China 19,000 21,000 1,000,000
Greece 500 550 280,000
Russia 1,000 1,100 2,300,000
Slovakia 480 530 370,000
Spain 650 720 35,000
Turkey 1,470 1,600 110,000
Other countries 920 1000 2,600,000
World Resources:7 Resources from which magnesium compounds can be recovered range from large to virtually
unlimited and are globally widespread. Identified world magnesite and brucite resources total 13 billion tons and
several million tons, respectively. Resources of dolomite, forsterite, magnesium-bearing evaporite minerals, and
magnesia-bearing brines are estimated to constitute a resource of billions of tons. Magnesium hydroxide can be
recovered from seawater. Serpentine could be used as a source of magnesia but global resources, including in
tailings of asbestos mines, have not been quantified but are thought to be very large.
Substitutes: Alumina, chromite, and silica substitute for magnesia in some refractory applications.
e
1
See also Magnesium Metal.
2
Reported as magnesium content through Mineral Commodity Summaries 2016. Based on input from consumers, producers, and others involved in
the industry, reporting magnesium compound data in terms of contained magnesium oxide was determined to be more useful than reporting in
terms of magnesium content. Calculations were made using the following magnesium oxide (MgO) contents: magnesite, 47.8%; magnesium
chloride, 42.3%; magnesium hydroxide, 69.1%; and magnesium sulfate, 33.5%.
3
4
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6
Gross weight of magnesite (magnesium carbonate) in thousand tons.
7
8
9

104
MAGNESIUM METAL1
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, primary magnesium was produced by one company in Utah at an
electrolytic process smelter that recovered magnesium from brines from the Great Salt Lake. Secondary magnesium
was recovered from scrap at smelters that produced magnesium ingot and castings and from aluminum alloy scrap at
secondary aluminum smelters. Primary magnesium production in 2021 was estimated to have decreased significantly
from that in 2020. Information regarding U.S. primary magnesium production was withheld to avoid disclosing
company proprietary data. The leading use for primary magnesium metal, which accounted for 45% of reported
consumption, was in castings, principally used for the automotive industry. Aluminum-base alloys that were used for
packaging, transportation, and other applications accounted for 35% of primary magnesium metal consumption;
desulfurization of iron and steel, 16%; and all other uses, 4%. About 31% of the secondary magnesium was
consumed for structural uses, and about 69% was used in aluminum alloys.

Production:
Primary W W W W W
Exports 14 12 10 15 8
Consumption:
Reported, primary 65 51 52 50 50
Apparent2 W W W W W
Price, annual average:3
U.S. spot Western, dollars per pound 2.15 2.17 2.45 2.49 3.90
European free market, dollars per metric ton 2,265 2,550 2,425 2,149 5,500
Stocks, producer, yearend W W W W W
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of apparent consumption <25 <50 <50 <50 <50
Recycling: In 2021, about 29,000 tons of secondary magnesium was recovered from old scrap and 69,000 tons was
recovered from new scrap. Aluminum-base alloys accounted for about 57% of the secondary magnesium recovered,
and magnesium-based castings, ingot, and other materials accounted for about 43%.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 20%; Israel, 15%; Mexico, 11%; and other, 54%.

12–31–21
Unwrought metal 8104.11.0000 8.0% ad valorem.
Unwrought alloys 8104.19.0000 6.5% ad valorem.
Scrap 8104.20.0000 Free.
Powders and granules 8104.30.0000 4.4% ad valorem.
Wrought metal 8104.90.0000 14.8¢/kg on Mg content + 3.5% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Dolomite, 14% (domestic and foreign); magnesium chloride (from brine wells), 5% (domestic
and foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: On September 29, the producer of primary magnesium in Utah declared force majeure,
citing equipment failures. Details on the amount of capacity affected and an expected restart date were not reported
by the company. A decrease in spot prices in the United States for magnesium imports in the second quarter was
attributed to abundant supplies of secondary magnesium favored by secondary aluminum producers. But the average
spot price for imported magnesium in the United States increased from $2.06 per pound at the end of June to
$2.18 per pound at the end of August, attributed to contracted deliveries being exhausted with strong demand from
aluminum smelters and diecasters. The shutdown of capacity in Utah was cited as the reason for the average price of
imports into the United States increasing to $5.13 per pound at the end of September and $7.63 per pound at the end
of October.
Environmental regulations and power shortages were cited as the reason for raw material shortages, increased power
prices, and decreased magnesium production in China, leading to increased magnesium prices in China and Europe.
Decreased coal production and increased prices for raw materials such as ferrosilicon starting in April, and strong
105
MAGNESIUM METAL
demand for coal by powerplants in the summer months caused prices to continue to rise. Strong demand for
magnesium by aluminum smelters and diecasters was also cited for tight supplies, contributing to price increases in
the early part of the second quarter of the year. Constrained shipping, high freight rates, and stockpiling by
speculators were also cited as reasons for increasing magnesium prices and supply shortages. In August and
September, many smelters in China closed capacity to comply with energy consumption targets, leading to further
shortages and increased prices. Spot magnesium prices generally trended upward in China and Europe starting in
March. The price range in Europe for the first 3 months was $2,600 to $2,700 per metric ton. At the end of June, the
price range in Europe increased to between $3,500 and $3,700 per metric ton and, by the end of August, the price
ranged between $4,100 and $4,500 per metric ton. At the end of September, the price range in Europe increased to
between $10,000 and $11,500 per metric ton and, by mid-October, the price ranged from $12,000 to $15,000 per
metric ton. In late October, the price range started to decrease and was $7,700 to $9,500 per metric ton by mid-
November.
On March 1, the Government of China removed a 15% tax on magnesium produced in six jurisdictions in the western
part of the country. The tax exemption was part of a policy to encourage development of the magnesium industry in
the western part of China and increase consumption.
One company obtained a location in Ohio to build a pilot plant to test magnesium production from dolomite. A
company in Australia planned to construct a 3,000-ton-per-year smelter to recover magnesium from coal fly ash. A
company in Quebec, Canada, planned to construct a primary magnesium smelter to produce magnesium from
serpentine-bearing asbestos tailings. The same company in Canada completed construction of an 18,000-ton-per-
year secondary magnesium smelter at the same location and started production during the year.
The use of magnesium in automobile parts continued to increase as automobile manufacturers sought to decrease
vehicle weight for increased fuel efficiency. Magnesium castings have substituted for aluminum, iron, and steel in
some automobiles. The substitution of aluminum for steel in automobile sheet continued to increase consumption of
magnesium in aluminum alloy sheet. A shortage of computer chips was cited for some automobile manufacturers
decreasing production despite strong demand, resulting in some diecasters decreasing magnesium consumption.
World Primary Production and Reserves:
Smelter production Reserves5

2020 2021e
United States W W Magnesium metal can be derived from
Brazil 18 20 seawater, natural brines, dolomite,
China 886 800 serpentine, and other minerals. The
Israel 19 22 reserves for this metal are sufficient to
Kazakhstan 16 20 supply current and future requirements.
Russia 48 60
Turkey 12 15
Ukraine 6 10
World total (rounded)6 1,000 950
World Resources:5 Resources from which magnesium may be recovered range from large to virtually unlimited and
are globally widespread. Resources of dolomite, serpentine, and magnesium-bearing evaporite minerals are
enormous. Magnesium-bearing brines are estimated to constitute a resource in the billions of tons, and magnesium
could be recovered from seawater along world coastlines.
Substitutes: Aluminum and zinc may substitute for magnesium in castings and wrought products. The relatively light
weight of magnesium is an advantage over aluminum and zinc in castings and wrought products in most applications;
however, its high cost is a disadvantage relative to these substitutes. For iron and steel desulfurization, calcium
carbide may be used instead of magnesium. Magnesium is preferred to calcium carbide for desulfurization of iron and
steel because calcium carbide produces acetylene in the presence of water.
e
1
See also Magnesium Compounds.
2
Defined as primary production + secondary production from old scrap + imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
3
4
5
6

106
MANGANESE
(Data in thousand metric tons, gross weight, unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Manganese ore containing 20% or more manganese has not been produced
domestically since 1970. Manganese ore was consumed mainly by six companies with plants principally in the East
and Midwest. Most ore consumption was related to steel production, either directly in pig iron manufacture or
indirectly through upgrading the ore to ferroalloys. Manganese ferroalloys were produced at two plants. Additional
quantities of ore were used for nonmetallurgical purposes such as in the production of animal feed, brick colorant, dry
cell batteries, and fertilizers.

Manganese ores and concentrates 297 440 434 367 460
Ferromanganese 331 427 332 223 320
Silicomanganese 351 412 351 269 270
Exports:
Manganese ores and concentrates 1 3 1 1 1
Shipments from Government stockpile:2
Manganese ore — — — — 2
Ferromanganese and manganese metal, electrolytic 12 13 10 54 17
Consumption, reported:
Manganese ore3 378 369 442 378 390
Consumption, apparent, manganese content5 715 796 748 620 640
Price, average, manganese content, cost, insurance, and freight,
China, dollars per metric ton unit6 5.97 7.16 5.63 4.59 5.20
Stocks, producer and consumer, yearend:
Manganese ore3 148 191 175 143 170
manganese content 100 100 100 100 100
Recycling: Manganese was recycled incidentally as a constituent of ferrous and nonferrous scrap; however, scrap
recovery specifically for manganese was negligible. Manganese is recovered along with iron from steel slag.
Import Sources (2017–20): Manganese ore: Gabon, 67%; South Africa, 18%; Mexico, 11%; and other, 4%.
Ferromanganese: Australia, 20%; South Africa, 20%; Norway, 16%; Malaysia, 14%; and other, 30%.
Silicomanganese: Georgia, 27%; Australia, 21%; South Africa, 21%; and other, 31%. Manganese contained in
principal manganese imports:8 Gabon, 23%; South Africa, 19%; Australia, 13%; Georgia, 9%; and other, 36%.

12–31–21
Ores and concentrates:
Containing less than 47% manganese 2602.00.0040 Free.
Containing 47% or more of manganese 2602.00.0060 Free.
Manganese dioxide 2820.10.0000 4.7% ad valorem.
High-carbon ferromanganese 7202.11.5000 1.5% ad valorem.
Ferrosilicon manganese (silicomanganese) 7202.30.0000 3.9% ad valorem.
Metal, unwrought:
Flake containing at least 99.5% manganese 8111.00.4700 14% ad valorem.

107
MANGANESE
FY 2021 FY 2022
Manganese ore, metallurgical grade 291 — 292 — 292
Ferromanganese, high-carbon 119 — 45 — 45
Manganese metal, electrolytic — 5 — 5 —
Events, Trends, and Issues: Global production of steel, the leading use of manganese, increased in 2021 compared
with production in 2020 owing to increased demand following the negative effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Global production of manganese ore was estimated to be about 6% more than that in 2020. The leading countries for
manganese ore production were, in descending order on a contained-weight basis, South Africa, Gabon, and
Australia. On a contained-weight basis, total U.S. manganese imports were estimated to have increased by
approximately 20% in 2021 compared with those in 2020. By October 2021, average spot market prices for
manganese ore from China had increased by 13% compared with the annual average spot price in 2020.
World Mine Production (manganese content) and Reserves: Reserves for Australia and South Africa were revised
based on Government and industry sources.

2020 2021e
United States — — —
Australia 3,330 3,300 11270,000
Brazil 494 400 270,000

Burma 254 250 NA
China 1,340 1,300 54,000
Côte d’Ivoire 525 500 NA
Gabon 3,310 3,600 61,000
Georgia 186 190 NA
Ghana 637 640 13,000
India 632 600 34,000
Kazakhstan, concentrate 158 160 5,000
Malaysia 347 360 NA
Mexico 198 200 5,000
South Africa 6,500 7,400 640,000
Ukraine, concentrate 578 670 140,000
Vietnam 121 120 NA
Other countries 260 260 Small
World Resources:10 Land-based manganese resources are large but irregularly distributed; those in the
United States are very low grade and have potentially high extraction costs. South Africa accounts for about 30% of
the world’s manganese reserves.
Substitutes: Manganese has no satisfactory substitute in its major applications.
e
1
Manganese content typically ranges from 35% to 54% for manganese ore and from 74% to 95% for ferromanganese.
2
Defined as stockpile shipments – receipts.
3
Exclusive of ore consumed directly at iron and steel plants and associated yearend stocks.
4
Imports more nearly represent amount consumed than does reported consumption.
5
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes. Manganese content based on estimates of average
content for all significant components—including ore, manganese dioxide, ferromanganese, silicomanganese, and manganese metal—except
imports, for which content is reported.
6
For average metallurgical-grade ore containing 44% manganese. Source: CRU Group.
7
8
Includes imports of ferromanganese, manganese ore, silicomanganese, synthetic manganese dioxide, and unwrought manganese metal.
9
10
11
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 91 million tons, gross weight.

108
MERCURY
(Data in metric tons of contained mercury unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Mercury has not been produced as a principal mineral commodity in the
United States since 1992. In 2021, mercury was recovered as a byproduct from processing gold-silver ore at several
mines in Nevada; however, production data were not reported. Secondary, or recycled, mercury was recovered from
batteries, compact and traditional fluorescent lamps, dental amalgam, medical devices, and thermostats, as well as
mercury-contaminated soils. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) reported a revised domestic
production of 45 tons in 2018 (the last year for which data were available), and about 82 tons of mercury was stored
by manufacturers or producers. The reported domestic consumption of mercury and mercury in compounds in
products was 16 tons. The leading domestic end uses of mercury and mercury compounds were dental amalgam
(43%); relays, sensors, switches, and valves (41%); bulbs, lamps, and lighting (8%); formulated products (buffers,
catalysts, fixatives, and vaccination uses) (7%); and batteries and other end uses (1%). A large quantity of mercury
(about 245 tons) is used in manufacturing processes such as catalysts or as a cathode in the chlorine-caustic soda
(chloralkali) process. Almost all the mercury is reused in the process. The leading manufacturing processes that use
mercury are mercury-cell chloralkali plants. In 2021, only one mercury-cell chloralkali plant operated in the
United States. Until December 31, 2012, domestic- and foreign-sourced mercury was refined and then exported for
global use, primarily for small-scale gold mining in many parts of the world. Beginning January 1, 2013, export of
elemental mercury from the United States was banned, with some exceptions, under the Mercury Export Ban Act of
2008. Effective January 1, 2020, exports of five mercury compounds were added to that ban.

Production:
Mine (byproduct) NA NA NA NA NA
Secondary NA NA NA NA NA
Imports for consumption, metal (gross weight) 20 6 9 3 2
Exports, metal (gross weight) — — — — —
Price, average value, dollars per flask, 99.99%:1
European Union2 1,041 1,100 NA NA NA
Global locations3 1,273 2,709 2,550 NA NA
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of apparent consumption NA NA NA NA NA
Recycling: In 2021, eight facilities operated by six companies in the United States accounted for most of the
secondary mercury produced and were authorized by the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) to temporarily store
mercury until the DOE’s long-term facility opens. Mercury-containing automobile convenience switches, barometers,
compact and traditional fluorescent bulbs, computers, dental amalgam, medical devices, and thermostats were
collected by smaller companies and shipped to the refining companies for retorting to reclaim the mercury. In addition,
many collection companies recovered mercury when retorting was not required. With the rapid phasing out of
compact and traditional fluorescent lighting for light-emitting-diode (LED) lighting, an increased quantity of mercury
was being recycled.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 51%; France, 26%; China, 16%; Switzerland, 5%; and other, 2%.

12–31–21
Mercury 2805.40.0000 1.7% ad valorem.
Amalgams 2843.90.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Government Stockpile:5 The Defense Logistics Agency Strategic Materials held and managed an inventory of
4,437 tons of mercury in storage at the Hawthorne Army Depot in Hawthorne, NV. On December 3, 2019, the DOE
selected a site near Andrews, TX, to store up to 6,800 tons of mercury. Sales of mercury from the stockpiles
remained suspended.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Mercury 4,437 — — — —
Prepared by Kristin N. Sheaffer [(703) 648–4954, ksheaffer@usgs.gov]

109
MERCURY
Events, Trends, and Issues: Owing to mercury toxicity and concerns for the environment and human health, overall
mercury use has declined in the United States and worldwide. Mercury continues to be released to the environment
from numerous sources, including mercury-containing car switches when automobiles (those produced prior to 2003)
are scrapped without recovering the switches for recycling, coal-fired powerplant emissions, incineration of mercury-
containing medical devices, and naturally occurring sources. Mercury is no longer used in most batteries and paints
manufactured in the United States. Some button-type batteries, cleansers, fireworks, folk medicines, grandfather
clocks, pesticides, and skin-lightening creams and soaps may still contain mercury. Mercury compounds were used
as catalysts in the coal-based manufacture of vinyl chloride monomer in China. In some parts of the world, mercury
was used in the recovery of gold in artisanal and small-scale mining operations. Conversion to nonmercury
technology for chloralkali production and the ultimate closure of the world’s mercury-cell chloralkali plants may
release a large quantity of mercury to the global market for recycling, sale, or, owing to export bans in Europe and the
United States, long-term storage.
Byproduct mercury production is expected to continue from large-scale domestic and foreign gold-silver mining and
processing, as is secondary production of mercury from an ever-diminishing supply of mercury-containing products.
Domestic mercury consumption will continue to decline owing to increased use of LED lighting and consequent
reduced use of conventional fluorescent tubes and compact fluorescent bulbs and continued substitution of
non-mercury-containing products in control, dental, and measuring applications.

2020 2021e
United States NA NA Quantitative estimates of
China 2,200 2,000 reserves are not available.
Kyrgyzstan 15 15 China, Kyrgyzstan, and Peru are
Mexico (net exports) 40 40 thought to have the largest
Norway 20 20 reserves.
Peru (exports) 30 30
Tajikistan 178 170
World Resources:6 China, Kyrgyzstan, Mexico, Peru, Russia, Slovenia, Spain, and Ukraine have most of the world’s
estimated 600,000 tons of mercury resources. Mexico reclaims mercury from Spanish colonial silver-mining waste. In
Spain, once a leading producer of mercury, mining at its centuries-old Almaden Mine stopped in 2003. In the
United States, mercury occurrences are in Alaska, Arkansas, California, Nevada, and Texas. The declining consumption
of mercury, except for small-scale gold mining, indicates that these resources are sufficient for centuries of use.
Substitutes: Ceramic composites substitute for the dark-gray mercury-containing dental amalgam. “Galinstan,” an
alloy of gallium, indium, and tin, replaces the mercury used in traditional mercury thermometers, and digital
thermometers have replaced traditional thermometers. At chloralkali plants around the world, mercury-cell technology
is being replaced by newer diaphragm and membrane-cell technology. LEDs that contain indium substitute for
mercury-containing fluorescent lamps. Lithium, nickel-cadmium, and zinc-air batteries replace mercury-zinc batteries
in the United States; indium compounds substitute for mercury in alkaline batteries; and organic compounds are being
used instead of mercury fungicides in latex paint.
e
1
Some international data and dealer prices are reported in flasks. One metric ton (1,000 kilograms) = 29.0082 flasks, and 1 flask = 76 pounds, or
34.47 kilograms, or 0.03447 metric ton.
2
Average annual price of minimum 99.99% mercury. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International. Price discontinued on May 1, 2018.
3
Average midpoint of free market 99.99% mercury in warehouse, global locations. Source: Metal Bulletin. Price discontinued on December 1, 2019.
4
5
6
See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data source.
7

110
MICA (NATURAL)
Domestic Production and Use: Scrap and flake mica production, excluding low-quality sericite, was estimated to be
43,000 tons valued at $4.8 million. Mica was mined in Georgia, North Carolina, and South Dakota. Scrap mica was
recovered principally from mica and sericite schist and as a byproduct from the production of feldspar and kaolin and
the beneficiation of industrial sand. Eight companies produced an estimated 64,000 tons of ground mica valued at
about $20 million from domestic and imported scrap and flake mica. Most of the domestic production was processed
into small-particle-size mica by either wet or dry grinding. Primary uses were joint compound, oil-well-drilling
additives, paint, roofing, and rubber products.
A minor amount of sheet mica has been produced as incidental production from feldspar mining in North Carolina in
the past several years. Data on sheet mica production were not available in 2021. The domestic consuming industry
was dependent on imports to meet demand for sheet mica. Most sheet mica was fabricated into parts for electrical
and electronic equipment.

Scrap and flake:
Production:e, 1
Sold and used 40,000 42,000 40,100 34,600 43,000
Ground 69,700 68,400 61,300 59,800 64,000
Imports2 29,700 28,100 27,300 19,400 22,000
Exports3 6,790 6,030 5,500 4,000 5,000
Consumption, apparente, 4 62,900 64,100 61,900 50,000 60,000
Price, average, dollars per metric ton:e
Scrap and flake 165 125 118 111 110
Ground:
Dry 292 308 316 300 300
Wet 424 422 394 338 350
Sheet:
Sold and used W W W W NA
Imports6 1,850 1,890 3,150 2,850 3,800
Exports7 704 686 779 527 670
Consumption, apparente, 4 1,150 1,200 2,370 2,320 3,100
Price, average value, muscovite and phlogopite mica,
dollars per kilogram:e
Block W W W W W
Splittings 1.66 1.65 1.66 1.57 1.60
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Scrap and flake: Canada, 43%; China, 34%; India, 8%; and other, 15%. Sheet: China,
63%; Brazil, 14%; Belgium, 5%; India, 4%; and other, 14%.

12–31–21
Split block mica 2525.10.0010 Free.
Mica splittings 2525.10.0020 Free.
Unworked, other 2525.10.0050 Free.
Mica powder 2525.20.0000 Free.
Mica waste 2525.30.0000 Free.
Plates, sheets, and strips of agglomerated or
reconstituted mica 6814.10.0000 2.7% ad valorem.
Worked mica and articles of mica, other 6814.90.0000 2.6% ad valorem.
Prepared by Stephen M. Jasinski [(703) 648–7711, sjasinsk@usgs.gov]

111
MICA (NATURAL)
Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic production of scrap and flake mica was estimated to have increased by 24%
in 2021, compared with that in 2020, and apparent consumption of scrap and flake mica increased by 20%. Apparent
consumption of sheet mica was estimated to have increased by 34% in 2021. Increased production and consumption
of scrap and flake mica reflected the recovery from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic of some of industries that
use mica, primarily for use in oil-well-drilling fluid and joint compound. No environmental concerns are associated with
the manufacture and use of mica products. Supplies of sheet mica for United States consumption were expected to
continue to be from imports, primarily from Belgium, Brazil, China, and India.
World Mine Production and Reserves: World production of sheet mica has remained steady; however, reliable
production data for some countries that were thought to be major contributors to the world total were unavailable.
Scrap and flake Sheet

Mine production Reserves8 Mine productione Reserves8
e
2020 2021 2020 2021
United States 34,600 43,000 Large W NA Very small
Canada 15,000 15,000 Large NA NA NA
China 95,000 95,000 Large NA NA NA
Finland 64,900 65,000 Large NA NA NA
France 19,000 19,000 Large NA NA NA
India 15,000 15,000 Large 1,000 1,000 110,000
Korea, Republic of 21,000 22,000 11,000,000 — — NA
Madagascar 33,000 35,000 Large — — NA
Turkey 4,140 4,000 620,000 — — NA
Other countries 51,000 50,000 Large 200 200 Moderate
World total (rounded) 353,000 360,000 Large NA NA NA
World Resources:8 Resources of scrap and flake mica are available in clay deposits, granite, pegmatite, and schist,
and are considered more than adequate to meet anticipated world demand in the foreseeable future. World resources
of sheet mica have not been formally evaluated because of the sporadic occurrence of this material. Large deposits of
mica-bearing rock are known to exist in countries such as Brazil, India, and Madagascar. Limited resources of sheet
mica are available in the United States. Domestic resources were subeconomic because of the high cost of the hand
labor required to mine and process sheet mica from pegmatites.
Substitutes: Some lightweight aggregates, such as diatomite, perlite, and vermiculite, may be substituted for ground
mica when used as filler. Ground synthetic fluorophlogopite, a fluorine-rich mica, may replace natural ground mica for
uses that require the thermal and electrical properties of mica. Many materials can be substituted for mica in
numerous electrical, electronic, and insulation uses. Substitutes include acrylic, cellulose acetate, fiberglass,
fishpaper, nylatron, nylon, phenolics, polycarbonate, polyester, styrene, polyvinyl chloride, and vulcanized fiber. Mica
paper made from scrap mica can be substituted for sheet mica in electrical and insulation applications.
e
Estimated. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.
1
Excludes low-quality sericite used primarily for brick manufacturing.
2
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2525.10.0050, <$6.00 per kilogram; 2525.20.0000; and
2525.30.0000.
3
Includes data for the following Schedule B codes: 2525.10.0000, <$6.00 per kilogram; 2525.20.0000; and 2525.30.0000.
4
Defined as sold or used by producing companies + imports – exports.
5
6
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2525.10.0010; 2525.10.0020; 2525.10.0050, >$6.00 per
kilogram; 6814.10.0000; and 6814.90.0000.
7
Includes data for the following Schedule B codes: 2525.10.0000, >$6.00 per kilogram; 6814.10.0000; and 6814.90.0000.
8

112
MOLYBDENUM
(Data in metric tons of contained molybdenum unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: U.S. mine production of molybdenum in 2021 decreased by 6% to an estimated
48,000 tons compared with that in the previous year. Molybdenum ore was produced as a primary product at two
mines—both in Colorado—whereas seven copper mines (four in Arizona and one each in Montana, Nevada, and
Utah) recovered molybdenite concentrate as a byproduct. Three roasting plants converted molybdenite concentrate to
molybdic oxide, from which intermediate products, such as ferromolybdenum, metal powder, and various chemicals,
were produced. Metallurgical applications accounted for more than 88% of the total molybdenum consumed.

Production, mine 40,700 41,400 43,600 51,100 48,000
Exports 43,200 48,400 67,200 62,400 66,000
Consumption:
Reported1 17,400 16,700 16,400 15,800 16,000
Apparent2 34,200 31,400 10,500 13,300 13,000
Price, average value, dollars per kilogram3 18.06 27.04 26.50 19.90 36
Stocks, consumer materials 2,010 1,940 1,980 1,980 1,700
Employment, mine and plant, number 940 940 950 950 950
Recycling: Molybdenum is recycled as a component of catalysts, ferrous scrap, and superalloy scrap. Ferrous scrap
consists of revert, new, and old scrap. Revert scrap refers to remnants manufactured in the steelmaking process.
New scrap is generated by steel mill customers and recycled by scrap collectors and processors. Old scrap is largely
molybdenum-bearing alloys recycled after serving their useful life. The amount of molybdenum recycled as part of
new and old steel and other scrap may be as much as 30% of the apparent supply of molybdenum. There are no
processes for the separate recovery and refining of secondary molybdenum from its alloys. Molybdenum is not
recovered separately from recycled steel and superalloys, but the molybdenum content of the recycled alloys is
significant, and the molybdenum content is reused. Recycling of molybdenum-bearing scrap will continue to be
dependent on the markets for the principal alloy metals in which molybdenum is contained, such as iron, nickel, and
chromium.
Import Sources (2017–20): Ferromolybdenum: Chile, 58%; the Republic of Korea, 35%; Canada, 3%; and other, 4%.
Molybdenum ores and concentrates: Peru, 58%; Chile, 17%; Canada, 12%; Mexico, 12%; and other, 1%. Total: Peru,
42%; Chile, 26%; Canada, 10%; Mexico, 8%; and other, 14%.

12–31–21
Molybdenum ore and concentrates, roasted 2613.10.0000 12.8¢/kg + 1.8% ad valorem.
Molybdenum ore and concentrates, other 2613.90.0000 17.8¢/kg.
Molybdenum chemicals:
Molybdenum oxides and hydroxides 2825.70.0000 3.2% ad valorem.
Molybdates of ammonium 2841.70.1000 4.3% ad valorem.
Molybdates, all others 2841.70.5000 3.7% ad valorem.
Molybdenum pigments, molybdenum orange 3206.20.0020 3.7% ad valorem.
Ferroalloys, ferromolybdenum 7202.70.0000 4.5% ad valorem.
Molybdenum metals:
Powders 8102.10.0000 9.1¢/kg + 1.2% ad valorem.
Unwrought 8102.94.0000 13.9¢/kg + 1.9% ad valorem.
Wrought bars and rods 8102.95.3000 6.6% ad valorem.
Wrought plates, sheets, strips, etc. 8102.95.6000 6.6% ad valorem.
Wire 8102.96.0000 4.4% ad valorem.
Prepared by Désirée E. Polyak [(703) 648–4909, dpolyak@usgs.gov]

113
MOLYBDENUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, the estimated average molybdic oxide price increased by 81% compared with
that in 2020, and U.S. estimated mine production of molybdenum decreased by 6% from that in 2020. The decrease
in production was mainly the result of one byproduct mine in Utah decreasing its production by almost more than
70%. This decrease in production in Utah was offset by production increases at other molybdenum producers.
Estimated U.S. imports for consumption increased by 18% compared with those in 2020. U.S. exports increased by
5% from those in 2020. Apparent consumption in 2021 was essentially unchanged compared with that in 2020.
Global molybdenum production in 2021 increased slightly compared with that in 2020. In descending order of
production, China, Chile, the United States, Peru, and Mexico provided 93% of total global production. Chinese
molybdenum imports continued to be at historically high levels as China continued to focus on infrastructure growth to
support its COVID-19 recovery. A major producer in China increased its molybdenum concentrate production in 2021
after having suspended its production for 6 months in 2020 following a tailings leakage accident. Many Chinese
producers also continued to limit their molybdenum exports citing higher freight costs owing to container shortages
and shipping delays. These factors all continued to contribute to decade-high molybdenum prices.
World Mine Production and Reserves: The reserves data for Mongolia, Peru, Russia, and Turkey were revised on
the basis of new information from company and Government reports.

2020 2021e (thousand metric tons)
United States 51,100 48,000 2,700
Argentina — — 100
Armenia e8,700 8,200 150
Canada 2,530 1,700 96
Chile 59,400 51,000 1,400
China e120,000 130,000 8,300
Iran e1,400 1,400 43
Korea, Republic of 411 400 NA
Mexico 16,600 18,000 130
Mongolia 2,890 2,900 NA
Peru 32,200 32,000 2,300
Russia e2,700 2,800 430
Turkey — — 360
Uzbekistan e200 200 60
World Resources:5 Identified resources of molybdenum in the United States are about 5.4 million tons, and in the
rest of the world, about 20 million tons. Molybdenum occurs as the principal metal sulfide in large low-grade porphyry
molybdenum deposits and as an associated metal sulfide in low-grade porphyry copper deposits. Resources of
molybdenum are adequate to supply world needs for the foreseeable future.
Substitutes: There is little substitution for molybdenum in its major application in steels and cast irons. In fact,
because of the availability and versatility of molybdenum, industry has sought to develop new materials that benefit
from its alloying properties. Potential substitutes include boron, chromium, niobium (columbium), and vanadium in
alloy steels; tungsten in tool steels; graphite, tantalum, and tungsten for refractory materials in high-temperature
electric furnaces; and cadmium-red, chrome-orange, and organic-orange pigments for molybdenum orange.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. — Zero.
1
Reported consumption of primary molybdenum products.
2
Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for concentrate, consumer, and product producer stock changes.
3
Time-weighted average price per kilogram of molybdenum contained in technical-grade molybdic oxide, as reported by CRU Group.
4
5

114
NICKEL
(Data in metric tons of contained nickel unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the underground Eagle Mine in Michigan produced approximately
18,000 tons of nickel in concentrate, which was exported to smelters in Canada and overseas. A company in Missouri
recovered metals, including nickel, from mine tailings as part of the Superfund Redevelopment Initiative. Nickel in
crystalline sulfate was produced as a byproduct of smelting and refining platinum-group-metal ores mined in Montana.
In the United States, the leading uses for primary nickel are alloys and steels, electroplating, and other uses including
catalysts and chemicals. Stainless and alloy steel and nickel-containing alloys typically account for more than 85% of
domestic consumption.

Production:
Mine 22,100 17,600 13,500 16,700 18,000
Refinery, byproduct W W W W W
Imports:
Ores and concentrates 64 3 4 95 24
Primary 150,000 144,000 119,000 105,000 110,000
Secondary 38,100 45,100 37,700 31,800 35,000
Exports:
Ores and concentrates 20,000 18,000 14,300 13,400 15,000
Primary 11,000 9,780 12,800 11,300 10,000
Secondary 51,500 59,400 47,800 34,100 29,000
Consumption:
Reported, primary 105,000 107,000 105,000 e84,000 82,000
Reported, secondary, purchased scrap 133,000 123,000 111,000 e99,000 110,000
Apparent, primary1 140,000 136,000 106,000 94,100 100,000
Apparent, total2 273,000 259,000 217,000 e190,000 210,000
Price, average annual, London Metal Exchange (LME), cash:

Dollars per metric ton 10,403 13,114 13,903 13,772 18,000
Dollars per pound 4.719 5.948 6.306 6.25 8.3
Stocks, yearend:
Consumer 14,600 16,300 13,400 13,000 13,000
LME U.S. warehouses 3,780 2,268 1,974 1,734 1,500
Net import reliance3 as a percentage of total apparent consumption 51 52 49 49 48
Recycling: Nickel in alloyed form was recovered from the processing of nickel-containing waste, including flue dust,
grinding swarf, mill scale, and shot blast generated during the manufacturing of stainless steel; filter cakes, plating
solutions, spent catalysts, spent pickle liquor, sludges, and all types of spent nickel-containing batteries. Nickel-
containing alloys and stainless-steel scrap were also melted and used to produce new alloys and stainless steel. The
U.S. Department of Energy’s ReCell Center continued to investigate methods to more effectively recover raw
materials, including nickel, from recycled batteries. In 2021, recycled nickel in all forms accounted for approximately
52% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Nickel contained in ferronickel, metal, oxides, and salt: Canada, 43%; Norway, 10%;
Finland, 9%; Australia, 8%; and other, 30%. Nickel-containing scrap, including nickel content of stainless-steel scrap:
Canada, 37%; Mexico, 26%; United Kingdom, 9%; and other, 28%.

12–31–21
Nickel ores and concentrates, nickel content 2604.00.0040 Free.
Ferronickel 7202.60.0000 Free.
Unwrought nickel, not alloyed 7502.10.0000 Free.
Nickel waste and scrap 7503.00.0000 Free.
Nickel powders 7504.00.0010 Free.
Nickel flakes 7504.00.0050 Free.

115
NICKEL
Government Stockpile:4 The U.S. Department of Energy is holding nickel ingot contaminated by low-level
radioactivity at Paducah, KY, and shredded nickel scrap at Oak Ridge, TN. See Lithium for statistics on lithium-nickel-
cobalt-aluminum oxide.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Nickel alloys, gross weight 790 — — — —
Events, Trends, and Issues: On November 9, 2021, a proposed revised U.S. critical minerals list was published in
the Federal Register (86 FR 62199). The new list contained 50 individual mineral commodities; proposed changes
were the addition of nickel and zinc and the removal of helium, potash, rhenium, strontium, and uranium, which were
included in the 2018 critical minerals list.
In 2021, the annual average LME cash price was estimated to have increased by 30% compared with that in 2020,
which was attributed to expectations of increased use of nickel in electric vehicle batteries and continued strong
demand for stainless steel.
Mine production in Indonesia increased by an estimated 30%, which was facilitated by the ongoing commissioning of
integrated nickel pig iron and stainless-steel projects. The country’s first hydrometallurgical plant began operation in
May on Obi Island. It was among several similar projects in the country that were designed to produce intermediate
nickel products to be used as feed material at battery-grade nickel sulfate plants.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Canada, Russia, and the United States were revised
based on new information from company and (or) Government reports.

2020 2021e
United States 16,700 18,000 6340,000
Australia 169,000 160,000 721,000,000
Brazil 77,100 100,000 16,000,000

Canada 167,000 130,000 2,000,000
China 120,000 120,000 2,800,000
Indonesia 771,000 1,000,000 21,000,000
New Caledonia8 200,000 190,000 NA
Philippines 334,000 370,000 4,800,000
Russia 283,000 250,000 7,500,000
Other countries 373,000 410,000 20,000,000
World total (rounded) 2,510,000 2,700,000 >95,000,000
World Resources:5 Identified land-based resources averaging approximately 0.5% nickel or greater contain at least
300 million tons of nickel, with about 60% in laterites and 40% in sulfide deposits. Extensive nickel resources also are
found in manganese crusts and nodules on the ocean floor.
Substitutes: Low-nickel, duplex, or ultrahigh-chromium stainless steels have been substituted for austenitic grades in
construction. Nickel-free specialty steels are sometimes used in place of stainless steel in the power-generating and
petrochemical industries. Titanium alloys can substitute for nickel metal or nickel-base alloys in corrosive chemical
environments.
e
1
Defined as primary imports – primary exports + adjustments for industry stock changes, excluding secondary consumer stocks.
2
Defined as apparent primary consumption + reported secondary consumption.
3
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for consumer stock changes.
4
5
6
Includes reserve data for three projects. An additional three domestic projects have defined resources but have not yet defined reserves.
7
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 8.3 million tons.
8
Overseas Territory of France.

116
NIOBIUM (COLUMBIUM)
(Data in metric tons of contained niobium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Significant U.S. niobium mine production has not been reported since 1959.
Companies in the United States produced niobium-containing materials from imported niobium concentrates, oxides,
and ferroniobium. Niobium was consumed mostly in the form of ferroniobium by the steel industry and as niobium
alloys and metal by the aerospace industry. In 2021, there was an increase in apparent consumption of niobium for
high-strength low-alloy steel and superalloy applications. Major end-use distribution of domestic niobium consumption
was estimated as follows: steels, about 80%, and superalloys, about 20%. The estimated value of niobium
consumption was $340 million, as measured by the value of imports.

Exports1 1,490 955 668 785 1,000
Shipments from Government stockpile2 −66 −76 −84 −88 −1
Consumption:e
Apparent3 7,780 10,100 9,370 6,330 7,000
Reported4 7,640 6,850 6,680 5,120 5,700
Price, unit value, ferroniobium, dollars per kilogram5 20 21 23 21 20
Recycling: Niobium was recycled when niobium-bearing steels and superalloys were recycled; scrap recovery,
specifically for niobium content, was negligible. The amount of niobium recycled is not available, but it may be as
much as 20% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Niobium and tantalum ores and concentrates: Austria, 36%; Rwanda, 34%; Congo
(Kinshasa), 7%; Mozambique, 6%; and other, 17%. Niobium oxide: Brazil, 60%; Thailand, 15%; Russia, 11%;
Estonia, 6%; and other, 8%. Ferroniobium and niobium metal: Brazil, 67%; Canada, 31%; Germany, 1%, and
other, 1%. Total imports: Brazil, 65%; Canada, 27%; and other, 8%. Of the U.S. niobium material imports (by
contained weight), 89% was ferroniobium, 10% was niobium oxide, 1% was niobium ores and concentrates, and
<1% was niobium metal.

12–31–21
Synthetic tantalum-niobium concentrates 2615.90.3000 Free.
Niobium ores and concentrates 2615.90.6030 Free.
Niobium oxide 2825.90.1500 3.7% ad valorem.
Ferroniobium:
Less than 0.02% P or S, or less than 0.4% Si 7202.93.4000 5% ad valorem.
Niobium:
Waste and scrap6 8112.92.0600 Free.
Powders and unwrought metal 8112.92.4000 4.9% ad valorem.
Niobium, other6 8112.99.9000 4% ad valorem.
Prepared by Chad A. Friedline [(703) 648–7713, cfriedline@usgs.gov]

117
NIOBIUM (COLUMBIUM)
FY 2021 FY 2022
Ferroniobium (gross weight) 544 — — — —
Niobium metal (gross weight) 10 — — — —
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, U.S. niobium apparent consumption (measured in niobium content) was
estimated to be 7,000 tons, an 11% decrease from that in 2020. One domestic company developing its Elk Creek
project in Nebraska announced that it acquired a key land parcel in April, affording ownership of 90% of the project’s
mineral reserves and resources. The project would be the only niobium mine and primary niobium-processing facility
in the United States, with construction to begin after financing was obtained.
Brazil continued to be the world's leading niobium producer with approximately 88% of global production, followed by
Canada with about 10%. Global niobium production and consumption were thought to have increased in 2021 as
steel production in most countries began to recover from the global COVID-19 pandemic. According to international
trade statistics under the Harmonized Tariff Code 7202.93 (ferroniobium), Brazil’s total exports were 69,400 tons from
January through September 2021, 31% greater than through the same period in 2020. Most of Brazil’s exports were
sent to China, followed by the Netherlands and the Republic of Korea.
A leading niobium producer in Brazil completed its most recent capacity upgrades which increased the original
capacity by 50% to 150,000 tons per year of niobium products (approximately 98,000 tons per year of niobium
content). Further, two additional producers in Brazil entered the funding stages for new capacity upgrades. The
completion of those projects could provide a potential significant increase in production in Brazil over the next decade.

2020 2021e
United States — — 170,000
Brazil 59,800 66,000 16,000,000
Canada 6,500 7,400 1,600,000
World total (rounded) 67,700 75,000 >17,000,000
World Resources:8 World resources of niobium are more than adequate to supply projected needs. Most of the
world’s identified resources of niobium occur as pyrochlore in carbonatite (igneous rocks that contain more than
50%-by-volume carbonate minerals) deposits and are outside the United States.
Substitutes: The following materials can be substituted for niobium, but a performance loss or higher cost may
ensue: ceramic matrix composites, molybdenum, tantalum, and tungsten in high-temperature (superalloy)
applications; molybdenum, tantalum, and titanium as alloying elements in stainless and high-strength steels; and
molybdenum and vanadium as alloying elements in high-strength low-alloy steels.
e
1
Imports and exports include the estimated niobium content of ferroniobium, niobium and tantalum ores and concentrates, niobium oxide, and
niobium powders and unwrought metal.
2
Change in total inventory from prior yearend inventory. If negative, net increase in inventory.
3
4
Only includes ferroniobium and nickel niobium.
5
Unit value is weighted average unit value of gross weight of U.S. ferroniobium trade (imports plus exports.)
6
This category includes niobium-containing material and other material.
7
8

118
NITROGEN (FIXED)—AMMONIA
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained nitrogen unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Ammonia was produced by 16 companies at 35 plants in 16 States in the United
States during 2021; 2 additional plants were idle for the entire year. About 60% of total U.S. ammonia production
capacity was in Louisiana, Oklahoma, and Texas because of their large reserves of natural gas, the dominant
domestic feedstock for ammonia. In 2021, U.S. producers operated at about 84% of rated capacity. The United States
was one of the world’s leading producers and consumers of ammonia. Urea, ammonium nitrate, nitric acid,
ammonium phosphates, and ammonium sulfate were, in descending order of quantity produced, the major derivatives
of ammonia produced in the United States.
Approximately 88% of apparent domestic ammonia consumption was for fertilizer use, including anhydrous ammonia
for direct application, urea, ammonium nitrates, ammonium phosphates, and other nitrogen compounds. Ammonia
also was used to produce explosives, plastics, synthetic fibers and resins, and numerous other chemical compounds.

Production1 11,600 13,100 13,500 14,000 14,000
Exports 612 224 338 369 260
Stocks, producer, yearend 320 490 420 310 360
Price, average, free on board gulf coast,3 dollars per short ton 247 281 232 223 510
Employment, plant, numbere 1,500 1,600 1,600 1,600 1,600
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Trinidad and Tobago, 63%; Canada 34%; Venezuela, 2%; and other, 1%.

12–31–21
Ammonia, anhydrous 2814.10.0000 Free.
Urea 3102.10.0000 Free.
Ammonium sulfate 3102.21.0000 Free.
Ammonium nitrate 3102.30.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The Henry Hub spot natural gas price ranged between $2.36 and $6.23 per million
British thermal units for most of the year, with an average of about $4.12 per million British thermal units. Natural gas
prices in 2021 were higher than those in 2020—a result of below average storage levels of natural gas and strong
demand for U.S. liquified natural gas. The U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration, projected
that Henry Hub natural gas spot prices would average around $4.00 per million British thermal units in 2022.
The weekly average gulf coast ammonia price was $245 per short ton at the beginning of 2021 and increased to $603
per short ton in late October. The average ammonia price for 2021 was estimated to be $510 per short ton. In 2021,
high natural gas prices resulted in higher ammonia prices.

119
NITROGEN (FIXED)—AMMONIA
A long period of stable and low natural gas prices in the United States made it economical for companies to upgrade
existing ammonia plants and construct new nitrogen facilities. The additional capacity has reduced ammonia imports.
Expansion in the ammonia industry took place throughout the past 5 years; however, no additional U.S. ammonia
capacity increases have been announced.
Global ammonia capacity is expected to increase by a total of 4% during the next 4 years. Capacity additions are
expected in Africa, eastern Europe, and south Asia. As part of the capacity increase several decarbonized ammonia
projects are being proposed. Demand for ammonia is expected to increase by 1% per year with the largest increases
expected in Latin America and south Asia.
Large corn plantings maintain the continued demand for nitrogen fertilizers. According to the U.S. Department of
Agriculture, U.S. corn growers planted 37.4 million hectares of corn in crop-year 2021 (July 1, 2020, through June 30,
2021), which was 3% greater than the area planted in crop-year 2020. Corn acreage in crop-year 2022 is expected to
increase because of anticipated higher returns for corn compared with those of other crops.
World Ammonia Production and Reserves:
Plant production Reserves5

2020 2021e
United States 14,000 14,000 Available atmospheric nitrogen and
Algeria 2,200 2,200 sources of natural gas for production
Australia 1,600 1,600 of ammonia are considered adequate
Canada 3,900 3,900 for all listed countries.
China 39,000 39,000
Egypt 4,200 4,200
Germany 2,330 2,200
India 12,200 12,000
Indonesia 5,900 5,900
Iran 3,600 3,600
Netherlands 2,100 2,000
Oman 1,730 1,700
Pakistan 3,300 3,300
Poland 2,260 2,200
Qatar 3,300 3,300
Russia 16,100 16,000
Saudi Arabia 4,300 4,300
Trinidad and Tobago 4,170 4,200
Ukraine 2,300 2,300
Uzbekistan 1,100 1,100
Vietnam 1,150 1,200
World Resources:5 The availability of nitrogen from the atmosphere for fixed nitrogen production is unlimited.
Mineralized occurrences of sodium and potassium nitrates, such as those found in the Atacama Desert of Chile,
contribute minimally to the global nitrogen supply.
Substitutes: Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient that has no substitute. No practical substitutes for nitrogen
explosives and blasting agents are known.
e
Estimated.
1
Source: The Fertilizer Institute; data adjusted by the U.S. Geological Survey.
2
3
Source: Green Markets.
4
5

120
PEAT
Domestic Production and Use: The estimated free on board (f.o.b.) mine value of marketable peat sold by
producers in the conterminous United States was $14 million in 2021. Peat was harvested and processed by
29 companies in 11 conterminous States. Florida, Illinois, Maine, Michigan, and Minnesota were the leading
producing States and accounted for 98% of peat sold. Reed-sedge peat accounted for approximately 87% of the total
volume produced, followed by sphagnum moss with 10%. Domestic peat applications included earthworm culture
medium, golf course construction, mixed fertilizers, mushroom culture, nurseries, packing for flowers and plants, seed
inoculants, and vegetable cultivation. In the industrial sector, peat was used as an oil absorbent and as an efficient
filtration medium for the removal of waterborne contaminants in mine waste streams, municipal storm drainage, and
septic systems.

Production 498 479 456 444 420
Sales by producers 515 545 556 524 540
Exports 30 37 46 46 38
Price, average value, f.o.b. mine, dollars per ton 27.55 25.88 24.59 24.74 25.00
Employment, mine and plant, numbere 540 540 540 530 530
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 96%; and other, 4%.

12–31–21
Peat 2703.00.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Peat is an important component of plant-growing media, and the demand for peat
generally follows that of horticultural applications. In the United States, the short-term outlook is for production to
average about 420,000 tons per year and imported peat from Canada is expected to continue to account for more
than 80% of domestic consumption. Imports for 2021 were estimated to have increased to 1.7 million tons from
1.4 million tons in 2020, and exports were estimated to have decreased to about 38,000 tons from 46,000 tons in
2020. In 2021, peat stocks were estimated to have remained about the same as those in the previous year. Based on
estimated world production for 2021, the world’s leading peat producers were, in descending order of production,
Finland, Sweden, Germany, Latvia, Belarus, and Canada.

121
PEAT
In many parts of the world, concerns about climate change prompted several countries to plan to decrease or
eliminate the use of peat, owing to peatland’s ability to act as a carbon sink. Most of Ireland’s peat production ended
in 2021, as the country transitioned to alternative fuel sources. Ireland continued to produce peat briquettes but was
expected to stop by 2024. The country’s goal was to have at least 80% of its fossil-fuel sector employment
transitioned to the renewable energy sector by 2025. In 2021, Finland continued to work toward its goal of becoming
carbon neutral by 2035. To achieve this, peat production was to be phased out in favor of other forms of noncarbon
energy. In 2021, about 35% of Finland’s energy consumption was supplied by peat and other fossil fuels. Several
European countries, including Belarus, Ireland, and Sweden, were planning or implementing peatland restoration
projects to help combat greenhouse-gas emissions and restore wildlife habitats. These initiatives were expected to
decrease peat production across Europe in the future.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for countries that reported by volume only and had insufficient
data for conversion to tons were combined and included with “Other countries.” Reserves for Estonia and Latvia were
revised based on information from company reports.

2020 2021e
Belarus 2,590 1,900 2,600,000
Canada 1,400 1,300 720,000
Estonia 1,060 1,100 570,000
Finland 12,000 12,000 6,000,000
Germany 2,300 2,300 (4)
Ireland 1,300 — (4)
Latvia 2,000 2,100 150,000
Lithuania 460 460 210,000
Poland 900 900 (4)
Russia 1,000 1,000 1,000,000
Sweden 2,400 2,400 (4)
Ukraine 680 330 (4)
Other countriese 350 350 1,400,000
World Resources:3 Peat is a renewable resource, continuing to accumulate on 60% of global peatlands. However,
the volume of global peatlands has been decreasing at a rate of 0.05% annually owing to harvesting and land
development. Many countries evaluate peat resources based on volume or area because the variations in densities
and thickness of peat deposits make it difficult to estimate tonnage. Volume data have been converted using the
average bulk density of peat produced in each of those countries. More than 50% of the U.S. peat resources are
located in undisturbed areas of Alaska.
Substitutes: Natural organic materials, such as composted yard waste and coir (coconut fiber), compete with peat in
horticultural applications. Shredded paper and straw are used to hold moisture for some grass-seeding applications.
The superior water-holding capacity and physiochemical properties of peat limit substitution alternatives in most
applications.
e
1
2
3
4
Included with “Other countries.”

122
PERLITE
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the quantity of domestic processed crude perlite sold and used was
estimated to be 500,000 tons with a value of $31 million. Crude ore production was from eight mines operated by five
companies in six Western States. One other mine was idle throughout the year. New Mexico and Oregon continued to
be the leading producing States. Domestic apparent consumption of crude perlite was estimated to be 650,000 tons.
Processed crude perlite was expanded at 55 plants in 28 States. The applications for expanded perlite were building
construction products, 44%; horticultural aggregate, 21%; fillers, 14%; filter aid, 12%; and other, 9%. Other
applications included specialty insulation and miscellaneous uses.

Mine production, crude ore 587 504 629 845 860
Sold and used, processed crude perlite 479 444 397 493 500
Exports1 18 16 19 25 32
Price, average value, free on board mine, dollars per ton 71 69 64 61 63
Recycling: Not available.
Import Sources (2017–20): Greece, 90%; China, 7%; Mexico, 2%; and Turkey, 1%.

12–31–21
Vermiculite, perlite, and chlorites, unexpanded 2530.10.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Perlite is a siliceous volcanic glass that expands up to 20 times its original volume
when rapidly heated. In horticultural uses, expanded perlite is used to provide moisture retention and aeration without
compaction when added to soil. Horticultural perlite is useful to both commercial growers and hobby gardeners.
Owing primarily to cost, some commercial greenhouse growers in the United States have recently switched to a wood
fiber material over perlite. Perlite, however, remained a preferred soil amendment for segments of greenhouse
growers because it does not degrade or compact over lengthy growing times and is inert. Construction applications
for expanded perlite are numerous because it is fire resistant, an excellent insulator, and lightweight. Novel and small
markets for perlite have increased during the past 10 years; cosmetics, environmental remediation, and personal care
products have become increasing markets for perlite.
Prepared by Kristi J. Simmons, [(703) 648–7962, kjsimmons@usgs.gov]

123
PERLITE
A California company opened a second expanding plant in southern California and began shipping in April 2021.
Project planning progressed at a perlite deposit in Nevada that could be developed as a potential supplier of crude
perlite ore for household and industrial applications.
The value of total construction put in place in the United States increased by about 6% during the first 6 months of
2021 compared with that of the same period in 2020, indicating a similar change in consumption of perlite.
Construction products remained the largest domestic market for perlite. Increased interest in commercial greenhouse
and hobby gardening may also correspond to increased consumption of horticultural-grade perlite.
Based on estimated world production for 2021, the world’s leading producers were, in descending order of production,
China, Turkey, Greece, and the United States, with about 36%, 29%, 17%, and 12%, respectively, of world
production. Although China was the leading producer, most of its perlite production was thought to be consumed
internally. Greece and Turkey remained the leading exporters of perlite.
Production Reserves4
2020 2021e
Argentinae 18 20 NA
Armeniae 50 50 NA
Chinae 1,500 1,500 NA
Greece 710 710 120,000
Hungarye 80 80 49,000
Irane 72 70 73,000
Mexicoe 20 20 NA
New Zealande 18 20 NA
Slovakiae 32 30 NA
Turkeye 1,200 1,200 57,000
Other countriese 30 30 NA
World Resources:4 Perlite occurrences in Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, and Oregon are thought
to contain large resources. Significant deposits have been reported in China, Greece, Hungary, and Turkey, and a
few other countries. Insufficient information was available to make reliable estimates of resources in many perlite-
producing countries.
Substitutes: In construction applications, diatomite, expanded clay and shale, pumice, and slag can be substituted
for perlite. For horticultural uses, coco coir, pumice, vermiculite, and wood pulp are alternative soil additives and are
sometimes used in conjunction with perlite.
e
1
Exports and imports were estimated by the U.S. Geological Survey from U.S. Census Bureau combined data for vermiculite, perlite, and chlorites,
unexpanded.
2
Defined as sold or used processed perlite + imports – exports.
3
Defined as imports − exports.
4
5
Processed ore sold and used by producers.

124
PHOSPHATE ROCK
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, phosphate rock ore was mined by five companies at 10 mines in
four States and processed into an estimated 22 million tons of marketable product, valued at $1.7 billion, free on
board (f.o.b.) mine. Florida and North Carolina accounted for more than 75% of total domestic output; the remainder
was produced in Idaho and Utah. Marketable product refers to beneficiated phosphate rock with phosphorus
pentoxide (P2O5) content suitable for phosphoric acid or elemental phosphorus production. More than 95% of the
phosphate rock mined in the United States was used to manufacture wet-process phosphoric acid and
superphosphoric acid, which were used as intermediate feedstocks in the manufacture of granular and liquid
ammonium phosphate fertilizers and animal feed supplements. About 25% of the wet-process phosphoric acid
produced was exported in the form of upgraded granular diammonium phosphate (DAP) and monoammonium
phosphate (MAP) fertilizer and merchant-grade phosphoric acid. The balance of the phosphate rock mined was for
the manufacture of elemental phosphorus, which was used to produce phosphorus compounds for industrial
applications, primarily glyphosate herbicide.

Production, marketable 27,900 25,800 23,300 23,500 22,000
Sold or used by producers 26,300 23,300 23,400 22,600 23,000
Price, average value, f.o.b. mine,2 dollars per ton 73.67 70.77 67.98 75.86 75.00
Stocks, producer, yearend 8,440 10,600 9,830 11,000 10,000
Employment, mine and beneficiation plant, number e 1,800 1,900 1,900 1,800 1,900
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Peru, 87%; Morocco, 13%.

12–31–21
Natural calcium phosphates:
Unground 2510.10.0000 Free.
Ground 2510.20.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, domestic consumption of phosphate rock was estimated to be about the same
as that in 2020. DAP and MAP production decreased as a result, in part, of technical problems at a phosphate plant in
Florida and owing to the effects of Hurricane Ida in August, which damaged phosphate facilities in Louisiana. The
affected facilities reopened in the fourth quarter.
World production was estimated to be about the same as that in 2020, with China, Morocco, and the United States
remaining the leading producers. Production in Jordan, Morocco, and Saudi Arabia increased as expansions to
capacity were being ramped up in 2021. Capacity expansion projects were ongoing in Brazil, Kazakhstan, Mexico,
Russia, and South Africa; however, none of the projects were expected to be completed until after 2024.

125
PHOSPHATE ROCK
One producer in Idaho submitted plans to shift production to a new phosphate rock mine when its existing mine is
exhausted in about 5 years. The new mine would be located close to the current mine in Caribou County, and annual
production capacity was expected to remain the same.
World consumption of P2O5 contained in fertilizer products was estimated to have increased by 7% in crop-year 2021
(July 1, 2020, to June 30, 2021) compared with that in crop-year 2020. The increases in world consumption and trade
were driven by high crop prices, increased planted crop area, and increased crop exports. This was a continuation of
the trend that began late in 2020, as markets rebounded from poor weather conditions in the growing season. South
America and Asia were leading regions of growth in consumption of phosphate fertilizer, in terms of percentage
increase over that in 2020.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Israel, Jordan, and South Africa were updated with information
from the producing companies in the respective countries. Turkey was listed separately from “Other countries.”

2020 2021e
United States 23,500 22,000 1,000,000
Algeria 1,200 1,200 2,200,000
Australia 2,000 2,200 51,100,000
Brazil 6,000 5,500 1,600,000

China6 88,000 85,000 3,200,000
Egypt 4,800 5,000 2,800,000
Finland 995 1,000 1,000,000
India 1,400 1,400 46,000
Israel 3,090 3,000 53,000
Jordan 8,940 9,200 1,000,000
Kazakhstan 1,300 1,500 260,000
Mexico 577 530 30,000
Morocco 37,400 38,000 50,000,000
Peru 3,300 3,800 210,000
Russia 14,000 14,000 600,000
Saudi Arabia 8,000 8,500 1,400,000
Senegal 1,600 2,200 50,000
South Africa 1,800 2,000 1,600,000
Togo 942 1,200 30,000
Tunisia 3,190 3,200 100,000
Turkey 600 600 50,000
Uzbekistan 900 900 100,000
Vietnam 4,500 4,700 30,000
Other countries 870 1,000 2,600,000
World Resources:4 Some world reserves were reported only in terms of ore tonnage and grade. Phosphate rock
resources occur principally as sedimentary marine phosphorites. The largest sedimentary deposits are found in
northern Africa, the Middle East, China, and the United States. Significant igneous occurrences are found in Brazil,
Canada, Finland, Russia, and South Africa. Large phosphate resources have been identified on the continental
shelves and on seamounts in the Atlantic Ocean and the Pacific Ocean. World resources of phosphate rock are more
than 300 billion tons. There are no imminent shortages of phosphate rock.
Substitutes: There are no substitutes for phosphorus in agriculture.
e
Estimated.
1
Defined as phosphate rock sold or used by producers + imports. U.S. producers stopped exporting phosphate rock in 2003.
2
Marketable phosphate rock, weighted value, all grades.
3
Defined as imports + adjustments for industry stock changes.
4
5
6
Production data for large mines only, as reported by the National Bureau of Statistics of China.

126
PLATINUM-GROUP METALS
(Palladium, platinum, iridium, osmium, rhodium, and ruthenium)
[Data in kilograms of contained platinum-group metals (PGMs) unless otherwise noted]
Domestic Production and Use: One company in Montana produced approximately 18,000 kilograms of PGMs with
an estimated value of about $1.4 billion. Small quantities of primary PGMs also were recovered as byproducts of
copper-nickel mining in Michigan; however, this material was sold to foreign companies for refining. The leading
domestic use for PGMs was in catalytic converters to decrease harmful emissions from automobiles. PGMs are also
used in catalysts for bulk-chemical production and petroleum refining; dental and medical devices; electronic
applications, such as in computer hard disks, hybridized integrated circuits, and multilayer ceramic capacitors; glass
manufacturing; investment; jewelry; and laboratory equipment.

Mine production:1
Palladium 14,000 14,300 14,300 14,600 14,000
Platinum 4,000 4,160 4,150 4,200 4,200
Imports for consumption:2
Palladium 86,000 92,900 84,300 76,400 76,000
Platinum 53,200 58,500 42,300 64,800 56,000
PGM waste and scrap 354,000 40,700 35,200 188,000 210,000
Iridium 1,420 1,020 875 1,620 2,500
Osmium 856 25 (3) 1 1
Rhodium 11,600 14,500 15,000 20,700 17,000
Ruthenium 14,600 17,900 11,200 13,900 23,000
Exports:4
Palladium 52,300 52,900 55,500 48,600 43,000
Platinum 16,700 18,900 17,400 28,900 30,000
PGM waste and scrap 37,200 31,700 20,800 33,200 42,000
Rhodium 844 2,010 1,210 1,470 1,300
Other PGMs 939 2,500 1,330 1,440 2,800
Consumption, apparent:5, 6
Palladium 89,700 96,300 85,100 80,400 90,000
Platinum 51,600 53,700 37,000 47,200 37,000
Price, dollars per troy ounce:7
Palladium 874.30 1,036.43 1,544.31 2,205.27 2,600.00
Platinum 951.23 882.66 866.94 886.02 1,200.00
Iridium 908.35 1,293.27 1,485.80 1,633.51 5,400.00
Rhodium 1,112.59 2,225.30 3,918.78 11,205.06 24,000.00
Ruthenium 76.86 244.41 262.59 271.83 510.00
Employment, mine, number 1,513 1,628 1,789 1,881 1,700
Net import reliance6, 8 as a percentage of apparent
consumption:
Palladium 38 42 34 35 37
Platinum 71 74 67 77 70
Recycling: About 115,000 kilograms of palladium and platinum was recovered globally from new and old scrap in
2021, including about 53,000 kilograms recovered from automobile catalytic converters in the United States.
Import Sources (2017–20): Palladium: Russia, 35%; South Africa, 31%; Germany, 9%; and other, 25%.
Platinum: South Africa, 38%; Germany, 20%; Switzerland, 12%; Italy, 6%; and other, 24%.
Tariff: All unwrought and semimanufactured forms of PGMs are imported duty free. See footnotes for specific
Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes.
Prepared by Ruth F. Schulte [(703) 648–4963, rschulte@usgs.gov]

127
PLATINUM-GROUP METALS
FY 2021 FY 2022
Iridium 15 — 15 — 15
Platinum 261 — 261 — 261
Events, Trends, and Issues: Progress continued at a domestic mine expansion project, but full production was
delayed to 2024 owing to disruptions from the COVID-19 pandemic and operational challenges associated with
ventilation and ground conditions. Production of PGMs in South Africa, the world’s leading supplier of mined material,
increased by 13% compared with that in 2020 owing to increased mining in the UG2 orebody of the Bushveld Complex.
The estimated annual average prices of palladium, platinum, and ruthenium increased by 18%, 35%, and 88%,
respectively, compared with those in 2020, and the estimated prices for rhodium doubled and iridium more than
tripled. In addition, the prices of iridium, rhodium, and ruthenium all reached record highs in 2021.
Constrained automobile production owing to semiconductor chip shortages and a decline in diesel passenger vehicle
production are expected to result in decreased demand for palladium, platinum, and rhodium used in catalytic
converters.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Russia were revised based on Government reports.
Mine production PGM reserves10

Palladium Platinum
2020 2021e 2020 2021e
United States 14,600 14,000 4,200 4,200 900,000
Canada 20,000 17,000 7,000 6,000 310,000
Russia 93,000 74,000 23,000 19,000 4,500,000
South Africa 73,500 80,000 112,000 130,000 63,000,000
Zimbabwe 12,900 13,000 15,000 15,000 1,200,000
Other countries 2,670 2,800 4,320 4,300 NA
World total (rounded) 217,000 200,000 166,000 180,000 70,000,000
World Resources:10 World resources of PGMs are estimated to total more than 100 million kilograms. The largest
reserves are in the Bushveld Complex in South Africa.
Substitutes: Palladium has been substituted for platinum in most gasoline-engine catalytic converters because of the
historically lower price for palladium relative to that of platinum. About 25% of palladium can routinely be substituted
for platinum in diesel catalytic converters; the proportion can be as much as 50% in some applications. For some
industrial end uses, one PGM can substitute for another, but with losses in efficiency.
e
1
Estimated from published sources.
2
Includes data for the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 7110.11.0010, 7110.11.0020, 7110.11.0050,
7110.19.0000, 7110.21.0000, 7110.29.0000, 7110.31.0000, 7110.39.0000, 7110.41.0010, 7110.41.0020, 7110.41.0030, 7110.49.0010,
7112.92.0000, and 7118.90.0020.
3
Less than ½ unit.
4
Includes data for the following Schedule B codes: 7110.11.0000, 7110.19.0000, 7110.21.0000, 7110.29.0000, 7110.31.0000, 7110.39.0000,
7110.41.0000, 7110.49.0000, and 7112.92.0000.
5
Defined as primary production + secondary production + imports – exports.
6
Excludes imports and (or) exports of waste and scrap.
7
Engelhard Corp. unfabricated metal.
8
9
10

128
POTASH
[Data in thousand metric tons of potassium oxide (K2O) equivalent unless otherwise noted]
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the estimated sales value of marketable potash, free on board (f.o.b.) mine,
was $520 million, which was 24% higher than that in 2020. Potash denotes a variety of mined and manufactured salts
that contain the element potassium in water-soluble form. In agriculture, the term potash refers to potassic fertilizers,
which are potassium chloride (KCl), potassium sulfate or sulfate of potash (SOP), and potassium magnesium sulfate
(SOPM) or langbeinite. Muriate of potash (MOP) is an agriculturally acceptable mix of KCl (95% pure or greater) and
sodium chloride for fertilizer use. The majority of U.S. production was from southeastern New Mexico, where two
companies operated two underground mines and one deep-well solution mine. Sylvinite and langbeinite ores in New
Mexico were beneficiated by flotation, dissolution-recrystallization, heavy-media separation, solar evaporation, and
(or) combinations of these processes. In Utah, two companies operated three facilities. One company extracted
underground sylvinite ore by deep-well solution mining. Solar evaporation crystallized the sylvinite ore from the brine
solution, and a flotation process separated the MOP from byproduct sodium chloride. The firm also processed
subsurface brines by solar evaporation and flotation to produce MOP at its other facility. Another company processed
brine from the Great Salt Lake by solar evaporation to produce SOP and other byproducts.
The fertilizer industry used about 85% of U.S. potash sales, and the remainder was used for chemical and industrial
applications. About 60% of the potash produced was SOPM and SOP, which are required to fertilize certain chloride-
sensitive crops. The remainder of production was MOP and was used for agricultural and chemical applications.

Production, marketable1 480 520 510 460 480
Sales by producers, marketable1 490 520 480 500 530
Exports 128 105 145 147 100
Consumption, apparent1, 2 6,200 6,100 5,500 5,700 7,400
Price, average, all products,3 f.o.b. mine, dollars per ton of K2O 770 750 820 850 980
Price, average, muriate, f.o.b. mine, dollars per ton of K2O 410 440 480 450 550
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 75%; Russia, 10%; Belarus, 8%; and other, 7%.

12–31–21
Potassium nitrate 2834.21.0000 Free.
Potassium chloride 3104.20.0000 Free.
Potassium sulfate 3104.30.0000 Free.
Potassic fertilizers, other 3104.90.0100 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, U.S. potash consumption and trade reached record levels driven by high crop
prices, increased planted crop area, and increased crop exports. This was a continuation of the trend that began late
in 2020, as markets rebounded from poor weather conditions in the growing season and high potash stocks. The
North American price of potash also increased substantially owing to increased consumption and tighter supplies.
Industrial potash consumption continued to be lower, primarily for oil- and gas-well-drilling additives. The number of
active oil- and gas-well-drilling rigs gradually increased throughout the year but was still well below the level before
the COVID-19 pandemic.
minerals list.

129
POTASH
World potash consumption in 2021 for fertilizers was estimated to have increased to 45 million tons from 44 million
tons in 2020, as demand peaked in the first half of the year in major consuming regions. Asia and South America
continued to be the leading consuming regions. North America and South America and southeast Asia had the largest
increases in consumption over that of 2020. World potash production increased, owing primarily to increased output
in the major exporting countries of Belarus, Canada, and Russia to meet high demand in the first half of the year.
In August 2021, the United States imposed economic sanctions on Belarus for violations of international law, which
included the state-run potash producer. The sanctions did not include the state-run exporting company for Belarus,
and potash imports from Belarus continued, but at a lower volume because many buyers used other sources owing to
uncertainty of future sanctions.
A new potash mine was in the development stage and pending operating permits in Osceola County, MI. The
proposed solution mine would have an initial production capacity of 650,000 tons per year of MOP and was planned
to increase to 1 million tons per year.
World annual potash capacity was projected to increase to near 69 million tons in 2025 from 62.3 million tons in 2021.
Most of the increase would be MOP from new mines and expansion projects in Belarus, Canada, and Russia. New
SOP mines were planned in Australia and Eritrea, and a polyhalite mine in the United Kingdom would also contribute
to the capacity growth. New MOP mines in Brazil, Canada, Ethiopia, Morocco, Spain, and the United States were
planned to begin operation past 2025 but could be delayed because of future unfavorable economic conditions or lack
of funding.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Russia were updated with the Australasian Joint Ore Reserves
Committee (JORC)-compliant reserves reported by the producing companies.

2020 2021e Recoverable ore K2O equivalent
United States1 460 480 970,000 220,000
Belarus 7,400 8,000 3,300,000 750,000
Brazil 254 210 10,000 2,300
Canada 13,800 14,000 4,500,000 1,100,000
Chile 900 900 NA 100,000
China 6,000 6,000 NA 350,000
Germany 2,200 2,300 NA 150,000
Israel 2,280 2,300 NA 6Large
Jordan 1,590 1,600 NA 6Large
Laos 270 300 500,000 75,000

Russia 8,110 9,000 NA 400,000
Spain 420 400 NA 68,000
Other countries 360 370 1,500,000 300,000
World total (rounded) 44,000 46,000 >11,000,000 >3,500,000
World Resources:5 Estimated domestic potash resources total about 7 billion tons. Most of these lie at depths
between 1,800 and 3,100 meters in a 3,110-square-kilometer area of Montana and North Dakota as an extension of
the Williston Basin deposits in Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Canada. The Paradox Basin in Utah contains resources
of about 2 billion tons, mostly at depths of more than 1,200 meters. The Holbrook Basin of Arizona contains resources
of about 0.7 to 2.5 billion tons. A large potash resource lies about 2,100 meters under central Michigan and contains
more than 75 million tons. Estimated world resources total about 250 billion tons.
Substitutes: No substitutes exist for potassium as an essential plant nutrient and as an essential nutritional requirement
for animals and humans. Manure and glauconite (greensand) are low-potassium-content materials that can be
profitably transported only short distances to crop fields. Glauconite is used as a potassium source for organic farming.
e
1
Data are rounded to no more than two significant digits to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
2
Defined as sales + imports – exports.
3
Includes MOP, SOP, and SOPM. Does not include other chemical compounds that contain potassium.
4
5
6
Israel and Jordan recover potash from the Dead Sea, which contains nearly 2 billion tons of potassium chloride.

130
PUMICE AND PUMICITE
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, 10 operations in five States produced pumice and pumicite. Estimated
production1 was 580,000 tons with an estimated processed value of about $18.6 million, free on board (f.o.b.) plant.
That represented a slight increase in quantity and a 4% increase in value from the 2020 reported production of
578,000 tons valued at $17.9 million. Pumice and pumicite were mined in California, Idaho, Kansas, New Mexico, and
Oregon. The porous, lightweight properties of pumice are well suited for its main uses. Mined pumice was used in the
production of abrasives, concrete admixtures and aggregates, lightweight building blocks, horticultural purposes, and
other uses, including absorbent, filtration, laundry stone washing, and road use.

Production, mine1 383 496 565 578 580
Exportse 12 11 11 8 11
Price, average value, f.o.b. mine or mill, dollars per ton 39 32 28 31 32
Recycling: Little to no known recycling.
Import Sources (2017–20): Greece, 92%; Iceland, 6%; and Mexico, 2%.

12–31–21
Pumice, crude or in irregular pieces, including 2513.10.0010 Free.
crushed
Pumice, other 2513.10.0080 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The amount of domestically produced pumice and pumicite sold or used in 2021 was
estimated to be slightly more than that in 2020. Imports and exports were estimated to have increased compared with
those of 2020. Almost all imported pumice originated from Greece in 2021 and primarily supplied markets in the
eastern and gulf coast regions of the United States.
Pumice and pumicite are plentiful in the Western United States, but legal challenges and public land designations
could limit access to known deposits. Pumice and pumicite production are sensitive to mining and transportation
costs. Although unlikely in the short term, an increase in fuel prices would likely lead to increases in production costs,
making imports and competing materials attractive substitutes for domestic products.
All known domestic pumice and pumicite mining in 2021 was accomplished through open pit methods, generally in
remote areas away from major population centers. Although the generation and disposal of reject fines in mining and
milling may result in local dust issues at some operations, such environmental impacts are thought to be restricted to
relatively small geographic areas.

131
PUMICE AND PUMICITE
World production of pumice and related material was estimated to be 17 million tons in 2021, which was 10% more
than that of 2020. Turkey, followed by Uganda, was the leading global producer of pumice and pumicite. Pumice is
used more extensively as a building material outside the United States, which explained the large global production of
pumice relative to that of the United States. In Europe, basic home construction uses stone and concrete as the
preferred building materials. Prefabricated lightweight concrete walls, which may contain pumice as lightweight
aggregate, are often produced and shipped to construction locations. Because of their cementitious properties, light
weight, and strength, pumice and pumicite perform well in European-style construction.

2020 2021e
United States1 578 580 Large in the United States.
Algeria5 900 900 Quantitative estimates of reserves
Cameroon5 300 110 for most countries are not available.
Chile5 680 700
Ecuador5 800 800
Ethiopia 510 500
France5 280 300
Greece5 1,020 1,000
Guadeloupe 200 200
Guatemala 570 600
Indonesia 200 200
Jordan 900 900
New Zealand 220 220
Saudi Arabia5 560 560
Spain 290 300
Syria5 200 200
Tanzania 260 160
Turkey 5,400 7,000
Uganda 960 1,100
Other countries5 570 570
World Resources:4 The identified U.S. resources of pumice and pumicite, estimated to be more than 25 million tons,
are concentrated in the Western States. The estimated total resources (identified and undiscovered) in the Western
and Great Plains States are at least 250 million tons and may total more than 1 billion tons. Large resources of
pumice and pumicite have been identified on all continents.
Substitutes: The costs of transportation determine the maximum economic distance pumice and pumicite can be
shipped and still remain competitive with alternative materials. Competitive materials that may be substituted for
pumice and pumicite include crushed aggregates, diatomite, expanded shale and clay, and vermiculite.
e
Estimated.
1
Quantity sold and used by producers.
2
3
4
5
Includes pozzolan and (or) volcanic tuff.

132
QUARTZ CRYSTAL (INDUSTRIAL)
(Data in kilograms unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Industrial cultured quartz crystal is electronic-grade quartz crystal that is
manufactured, not mined. In the past, cultured quartz crystal was primarily produced using lascas 1 as raw quartz feed
material. Lascas mining and processing in Arkansas ended in 1997. In 2021, two companies produced cultured
quartz crystal in the United States. However, production data were withheld in order to avoid disclosing company
proprietary data. In addition to lascas, these companies may use cultured quartz crystal that has been rejected during
the manufacturing process, owing to crystallographic imperfections, as feed material. The companies likely use a mix
of cultured quartz and imported lascas as feed material. In the past several years, cultured quartz crystal has been
increasingly produced overseas, primarily in Asia. Electronic applications accounted for most industrial uses of quartz
crystal; other uses included special optical applications.
Virtually all quartz crystal used for electronics was cultured, rather than natural, crystal. Electronic-grade quartz
crystal is used to make frequency filters, frequency controls, and timers in electronic circuits employed for a wide
range of products, such as communications equipment, computers, and many consumer goods, such as electronic
games and television receivers.

Production:
Mine (lascas) — — — — —
Cultured quartz crystal W W W W W
Quartz (lascas) NA NA NA NA NA
Piezoelectric quartz, unmounted 6,760 16,100 54,800 114,000 84,000
Exports:
Quartz (lascas) NA NA NA NA NA
Piezoelectric quartz, unmounted 55,300 43,400 40,900 37,100 37,000
Price, dollars per kilogram:
As-grown cultured quartz 280 300 200 200 200
Lumbered quartz2 300 500 500 400 400
Recycling: An unspecified amount of rejected cultured quartz crystal was used as feed material for the production of
cultured quartz crystal.
Import Sources (2017–20): Import statistics specific to lascas are not available because they are combined with
other types of quartz. Cultured quartz crystal (piezoelectric quartz, unmounted): China,4 88%; Japan, 4%; Russia, 2%;
and other, 6%.
Prepared by Robert C. Goodin [(703) 648–7710, rgoodin@usgs.gov]

133
QUARTZ CRYSTAL (INDUSTRIAL)
12–31–21
Quartz (including lascas) 2506.10.0050 Free.
Piezoelectric quartz, unmounted 7104.10.0000 3% ad valorem.
Government Stockpile:5 The National Defense Stockpile contains 11 weight classes for natural quartz crystal that
range from 0.2 kilogram to more than 10 kilograms. The stockpiled crystals, however, are primarily in the larger
weight classes. The larger pieces are suitable as seed crystals, which are very thin crystals cut to exact dimensions,
to produce cultured quartz crystal. In addition, many of the stockpiled crystals could be of interest to the specimen
and gemstone industry. Little, if any, of the stockpiled material is likely to be used in the same applications as cultured
quartz crystal.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Quartz crystal 7,140 — 7,148 — 7,148
Events, Trends, and Issues: Increased imports of piezoelectric quartz in the past several years are likely the result
of increased demand for vibration sensors and frequency-control oscillators for aerospace, automotive, and
telecommunication applications. Growth of the consumer electronics market (for example, personal computers,
electronic games, and tablet computers) is also likely to remain a factor in sustaining global production of cultured
quartz crystal.
World Mine Production and Reserves:6 This information is unavailable, but the global reserves for lascas are
thought to be large.
World Resources:6 Limited resources of natural quartz crystal suitable for direct electronic or optical use are
available throughout the world. World dependence on these resources will continue to decline because of the
increased acceptance of cultured quartz crystal as an alternative material. Additionally, techniques using rejected
cultured quartz crystal as feed material may result in decreased dependence on lascas for growing cultured quartz.
Substitutes: Silicon is increasingly being used as a substitute for quartz crystal for frequency-control oscillators in
electronic circuits. Other materials, such as aluminum orthophosphate (the very rare mineral berlinite), langasite,
lithium niobate, and lithium tantalate, which have larger piezoelectric coupling constants, have been studied and
used. The cost competitiveness of these materials, as opposed to cultured quartz crystal, is dependent on the type of
application that the material is used for and the processing required.
e
1
Lascas is a nonelectronic-grade quartz used as a feedstock for growing cultured quartz crystal and for production of fused quartz.
2
As-grown cultured quartz that has been processed by sawing and grinding.
3
4
Includes Hong Kong.
5
6

134
RARE EARTHS1
[Data in metric tons of rare-earth-oxide (REO) equivalent unless otherwise noted]
Domestic Production and Use: Rare earths were mined domestically in 2021. Bastnaesite (or bastnäsite), a rare-
earth fluorocarbonate mineral, was mined as a primary product at a mine in Mountain Pass, CA. Monazite, a
phosphate mineral, was produced as a separated concentrate or included as an accessory mineral in heavy-mineral
concentrates in the southeastern United States. The estimated value of rare-earth compounds and metals imported
by the United States in 2021 was $160 million, a significant increase from $109 million in 2020. The estimated end-
use distribution of rare earths was as follows: catalysts, 74%; ceramics and glass, 10%; metallurgical applications and
alloys, 6%; polishing, 4%; and other, 6%.

Production:e
Mineral concentrates — 14,000 28,000 39,000 43,000
Compounds and metals — — — — 230
Imports:e, 2
Compounds 11,000 10,800 12,200 6,510 7,700
Metals:
Ferrocerium, alloys 309 298 330 274 320
Rare-earth metals, scandium, and yttrium 524 526 627 362 540
Exports:e, 2
Ores and compounds 1,740 17,900 28,300 40,000 45,000
Metals:
Ferrocerium, alloys 982 1,250 1,290 625 740
Rare-earth metals, scandium, and yttrium 55 28 83 25 29
Consumption, apparent, compounds and metals3 9,300 9,600 11,200 5,400 6,100
Price, average, dollars per kilogram:4
Cerium oxide, 99.5% minimum 2 2 2 2 2
Dysprosium oxide, 99.5% minimum 187 179 239 261 400
Europium oxide, 99.99% minimum 77 53 35 31 31
Lanthanum oxide, 99.5% minimum 2 2 2 2 2
Mischmetal, 65% cerium, 35% lanthanum 6 6 6 5 6
Neodymium oxide, 99.5% minimum 50 50 45 49 49
Terbium oxide, 99.99% minimum 501 455 507 670 1,300
Employment, mine and mill, annual average, number 24 190 202 185 290
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption:6
Compounds and metals 100 100 100 100 >90
Mineral concentrates XX E E E E
Recycling: Limited quantities of rare earths are recovered from batteries, permanent magnets, and fluorescent lamps.
Import Sources (2017–20): Rare-earth compounds and metals: China, 78%; Estonia, 6%; Malaysia, 5%; Japan, 4%;
and other, 7%. Compounds and metals imported from Estonia, Japan, and Malaysia were derived from mineral
concentrates and chemical intermediates produced in Australia, China, and elsewhere.

12–31–21
Rare-earth metals 2805.30.0000 5.0% ad valorem.
Cerium compounds 2846.10.0000 5.5% ad valorem.
Other rare-earth compounds:
Oxides or chlorides 2846.90.2000 Free.
Carbonates 2846.90.8000 3.7% ad valorem.
Ferrocerium and other pyrophoric alloys 3606.90.3000 5.9% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Monazite, 22% on thorium content and 14% on rare-earth content (domestic), 14% (foreign);
bastnäsite and xenotime, 14% (domestic and foreign).
Prepared by Daniel J. Cordier [(703) 648–7707, dcordier@usgs.gov]

135
RARE EARTHS
Government Stockpile:7 In the addition to the materials listed below, the FY 2021 and FY 2022 potential acquisitions
include neodymium, 600 tons; praseodymium, 70 tons; and samarium-cobalt alloy, 50 tons.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Cerium — 500 — 550 —
Dysprosium 0.2 20 — 20 —
Europium 27.7 — — — —
Ferrodysprosium 0.5 — — — —
Lanthanum — 1,300 — 1,300 —
Rare-earth-magnet block — 100 — 100 —
Yttrium 25 600 — 25 —
Events, Trends, and Issues: Global mine production was estimated to have increased to 280,000 tons of REO
equivalent. According to China’s Ministry of Industry and Information Technology, the mine production quota for 2021
was 168,000 tons with 148,850 tons allocated to light rare earths and 19,150 tons to ion-adsorption clays.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Russia, the United States, and “Other countries”
were revised based on information from Government and industry reports.

2020 2021e
United States 39,000 43,000 1,800,000
Australia 21,000 22,000 94,000,000
Brazil 600 500 21,000,000

Burma 31,000 26,000 NA
Burundi 300 100 NA
Canada — — 830,000
China 10140,000 10168,000 44,000,000
Greenland — — 1,500,000
India 2,900 2,900 6,900,000
Madagascar 2,800 3,200 NA
Russia 2,700 2,700 21,000,000
South Africa — — 790,000
Tanzania — — 890,000
Thailand 3,600 8,000 NA
Vietnam 700 400 22,000,000
World Resources:8 Rare earths are relatively abundant in the Earth’s crust, but minable concentrations are less
common than for most other mineral commodities. In North America, measured and indicated resources of rare
earths were estimated to include 2.4 million tons in the United States and more than 15 million tons in Canada.
Substitutes: Substitutes are available for many applications but generally are less effective.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. XX Not applicable. — Zero.
1
Data include lanthanides and yttrium but exclude most scandium. See also Scandium and Yttrium.
2
REO equivalent or content of various materials were estimated. Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
3
4
Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
5
6
In 2018–2020, all domestic production of mineral concentrates was exported or held in inventory, and all compounds and metals consumed were
assumed to be imported material.
7
Gross weight. See Appendix B for definitions.
8
9
10
Production quota; does not include undocumented production.

136
RHENIUM
(Data in kilograms of contained rhenium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: During 2021, rhenium-containing products including ammonium perrhenate (APR),
metal powder, and perrhenic acid were produced as byproducts from roasting molybdenum concentrates from
porphyry copper-molybdenum deposits in Arizona and Montana. U.S. primary production was approximately
9,100 kilograms in 2021, a 4% increase from the previous year. The United States continued to be a leading producer
of secondary rhenium, recovering rhenium from nickel-base superalloy scrap, spent oil-refining catalysts, and foundry
revert. The major uses of rhenium were in superalloys used in high-temperature turbine engine components and in
petroleum-reforming catalysts, representing an estimated 80% and 15%, respectively, of end uses. Bimetallic
platinum-rhenium catalysts were used in petroleum reforming for the production of high-octane hydrocarbons, which
are used in the production of lead-free gasoline. Rhenium improves the high-temperature (>1,000 degrees Celsius)
strength properties of some nickel-base superalloys. Rhenium alloys were used in crucibles, electrical contacts,
electromagnets, electron tubes and targets, heating elements, ionization gauges, mass spectrographs, metallic
coatings, semiconductors, temperature controls, thermocouples, vacuum tubes, and other applications. The value of
rhenium consumed in 2021 was about $35 million as measured by the value of imports of rhenium metal and APR.

Production1 8,200 8,220 8,360 8,830 9,100
Price, average value, gross weight, dollars per kilogram:4
Metal pellets, 99.99% pure 1,550 1,470 1,300 1,030 980
Ammonium perrhenate 1,530 1,410 1,280 1,130 1,000
Employment, number Small Small Small Small Small
Recycling: Nickel-base superalloy scrap and scrapped turbine blades and vanes continued to be recycled
hydrometallurgically to produce rhenium metal for use in new superalloy melts. The scrapped parts were also
processed to generate engine revert—a high-quality, lower cost superalloy meltstock—by an increasing number of
companies, mainly in the United States, Canada, Estonia, France, Germany, Japan, Poland, and Russia. Rhenium-
containing catalysts were also recycled.
Import Sources (2017–20): Ammonium perrhenate: Kazakhstan, 21%; Canada, 18%; Germany, 16%; Poland, 16%;
and other, 29%. Rhenium metal powder: Chile, 84%; Germany, 7%; Canada, 6%; and other, 3%. Total imports: Chile,
51%; Canada, 13%; Kazakhstan, 11%; Japan, 7%; and other, 18%.

12–31–21
Salts of peroxometallic acids, other, ammonium perrhenate 2841.90.2000 3.1% ad valorem.
Rhenium (and other metals), waste and scrap 8112.92.0600 Free.
Rhenium, unwrought and powders 8112.92.5000 3% ad valorem.
Rhenium (and other metals), wrought 8112.99.9000 4% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: For the 10th year in a row, rhenium metal and catalytic-grade APR prices decreased.
In 2021, the price of catalytic-grade APR averaged $1,000 per kilogram, a 12% decrease from the annual average
price in 2020. The rhenium metal pellet price averaged $980 per kilogram in 2021, a 5% decrease from the annual
average price in 2020.
In 2021, apparent consumption in the United States decreased by 6% compared with that in 2020. During 2021, the
United States continued to rely on imports for much of its supply of rhenium. Canada, Chile, Japan, and Kazakhstan
supplied most of the imported rhenium. Imports of APR decreased by 32% in 2021 compared with those in the
previous year. Imports of rhenium metal decreased by 6% in 2021 compared with those in the previous year. World
rhenium production in 2021 was estimated to be essentially the same as that in 2020.

137
RHENIUM
The United States and Germany continued to be the leading secondary rhenium producers. Secondary rhenium
production also took place in Canada, Estonia, France, Japan, Poland, and Russia. Available information was
insufficient to make U.S. secondary production estimates; however, industry sources estimated annual U.S. capacity
between 18 and 20 tons of rhenium. Industry sources estimated approximately 25 tons of secondary rhenium was
produced worldwide in 2021.
There were no primary rhenium projects in 2021 that were expected to significantly contribute to rhenium availability
in the near future. Continued low prices of rhenium as well as the global COVID-19 pandemic continued to cause
many rhenium recyclers as well as primary-rhenium production facilities to stop recycling or producing rhenium to
focus on a more profitable market. The major aerospace companies were expected to continue testing superalloys
that contain one-half the quantity of rhenium used in engine blades as currently designed, as well as testing rhenium-
free alloys for other engine components.
minerals list.

2020 2021e
United States 8,830 9,100 400,000
Armenia 260 260 95,000
Chile8 30,000 29,000 1,300,000
China 2,500 2,500 NA
Kazakhstan 500 1,000 190,000
Korea, Republic of 2,800 2,800 NA
Poland 9,510 9,500 NA
Russia NA NA 310,000
Uzbekistan 4,900 4,900 NA
World Resources:7 Most rhenium occurs with molybdenum in porphyry copper deposits. Identified U.S. resources
are estimated to be about 7 million kilograms. Rhenium also is associated with copper minerals in sedimentary
deposits in Armenia, Kazakhstan, Poland, Russia, and Uzbekistan, where ore is processed for copper recovery and
the rhenium-bearing residues are recovered at copper smelters.
Substitutes: Substitutes for rhenium in platinum-rhenium catalysts are continually being evaluated. Iridium and tin
have achieved commercial success in one such application. Other metals being evaluated for catalytic use include
gallium, germanium, indium, selenium, silicon, tungsten, and vanadium. The use of these and other metals in
bimetallic catalysts might decrease rhenium’s share of the existing catalyst market; however, this would likely be
offset by rhenium-bearing catalysts being considered for use in several proposed gas-to-liquid projects. Materials that
can substitute for rhenium in various end uses are as follows: cobalt and tungsten for coatings on copper x-ray
targets, rhodium and rhodium-iridium for high-temperature thermocouples, tungsten and platinum-ruthenium for
coatings on electrical contacts, and tungsten and tantalum for electron emitters.
e
1
Based on 80% recovery of estimated rhenium contained in molybdenum disulfide concentrates. Secondary rhenium production is not included.
2
Does not include wrought forms or waste and scrap. The rhenium content of ammonium perrhenate is 69.42%.
3
4
Average price per kilogram of rhenium in pellets or catalytic-grade ammonium perrhenate. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals
International.
5
6
Estimated amount of rhenium recovered in association with copper and molybdenum production. Secondary rhenium production not included.
7
8
Estimated rhenium recovered from roaster residues from Belgium, Chile, Mexico, and Peru.

138
RUBIDIUM
(Data in metric tons of rubidium oxide unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, no rubidium was mined in the United States; however, occurrences of
rubidium-bearing minerals are known in Alaska, Arizona, Idaho, Maine, South Dakota, and Utah. Rubidium is also
associated with some evaporate mineral occurrences in other States. Rubidium is not a major constituent of any
mineral. Rubidium concentrate is produced as a byproduct of pollucite (cesium) and lepidolite (lithium) mining and is
imported from other countries for processing in the United States.
Applications for rubidium and its compounds include biomedical research, electronics, specialty glass, and
pyrotechnics. Specialty glasses are the leading market for rubidium; rubidium carbonate is used to reduce electrical
conductivity, which improves stability and durability in fiber-optic telecommunications networks. Biomedical
applications include rubidium salts used in antishock agents and the treatment of epilepsy and thyroid disorder;
rubidium-82, a radioactive isotope used as a blood-flow tracer in positron emission tomographic imaging; and
rubidium chloride, used as an antidepressant. Rubidium atoms are used in academic research, including the
development of quantum-mechanics-based computing devices, a future application with potential for relatively high
consumption of rubidium. Quantum computing research uses ultracold rubidium atoms in a variety of applications.
Quantum computers, which have the ability to perform more complex computational tasks than traditional computers
by calculating in two quantum states simultaneously, were expected to be in prototype phase within 10 years.
Rubidium’s photoemissive properties make it useful for electrical-signal generators in motion-sensor devices, night-
vision devices, photoelectric cells (solar panels), and photomultiplier tubes. Rubidium is used as an atomic
resonance-frequency-reference oscillator for telecommunications network synchronization, playing a vital role in
global positioning systems. Rubidium-rich feldspars are used in ceramic applications for spark plugs and electrical
insulators because of their high dielectric constant. Rubidium hydroxide is used in fireworks to oxidize mixtures of
other elements and produce violet hues. The U.S. military frequency standard, the United States Naval Observatory
(USNO) timescale, is based on 48 weighted atomic clocks, including 4 USNO rubidium fountain clocks.
Salient Statistics—United States: Consumption, export, and import data are not available. Some concentrate was
imported to the United States for further processing. Industry information during the past decade suggests a domestic
consumption rate of approximately 2,000 kilograms per year. The United States was 100% import reliant for rubidium
minerals.
In 2021, one company offered 1-gram ampoules of 99.75%-grade rubidium (metal basis) for $93.40, a 5% increase
from $89.00 in 2020, and 100-gram ampoules of the same material for $1,673.00, a 4% increase from $1,608.00 in
2020. The price for 10-gram ampoules of 99.8% rubidium formate hydrate (metal basis) was $262.00.
In 2021, the prices for 10 grams of 99.8% (metal basis) rubidium acetate, rubidium bromide, rubidium carbonate,
rubidium chloride, and rubidium nitrate were $51.40, $71.20, $54.80, $62.70, and $48.50, respectively. The price for a
rubidium-plasma standard solution (10,000 micrograms per milliliter) was $57.70 for 50 milliliters and $93.70 for
100 milliliters, a 17% and 16% increase, respectively, from those of 2020.
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): No reliable data have been available to determine the source of rubidium ore imported
by the United States since 1988. Prior to 2016, Canada was thought to be the primary supplier of rubidium ore.

139
RUBIDIUM
12–31–21
Alkali metals, other 2805.19.9000 5.5% ad valorem.
Chlorides, other 2827.39.9000 3.7% ad valorem.
Bromides, other 2827.59.5100 3.6% ad valorem.
Iodides, other 2827.60.5100 4.2% ad valorem.
Sulfates, other 2833.29.5100 3.7% ad valorem.
Nitrates, other 2834.29.5100 3.5% ad valorem.
Carbonates, other 2836.99.5000 3.7% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic rubidium occurrences will remain uneconomic unless market conditions
change, such as the development of new end uses or increased consumption for existing end uses, which in turn
could lead to increased prices. No known human health issues are associated with exposure to naturally occurring
rubidium, and its use has minimal environmental impact.
During 2021, no rubidium production was reported globally but rubidium was thought to have been produced in China.
Production of rubidium from all countries, excluding China, ceased within the past two decades. Production in
Namibia ceased in the early 2000s, followed by the Tanco Mine in Canada shutting down and later being sold after a
mine collapse in 2015. The Bikita Mine in Zimbabwe was depleted of pollucite ore reserves in 2018, and the Sinclair
Mine in Australia completed the mining and shipments of all economically recoverable pollucite ore in 2019. Recent
reports indicate that with current processing rates, the world’s stockpiles of rubidium ore, excluding those in China,
will be depleted by 2022.
The primary processing plant of rubidium compounds globally, located in Germany, has reportedly operated far below
capacity for the past few years. A company completed an updated mineral resource estimate for the Karibib project in
Namibia, reporting 8.9 million metric tons of measured and indicated resources containing 0.23% rubidium and
303 parts per million cesium. The company also reported 6.72 million metric tons of proven and probable reserves
containing 2.26% rubidium and 320 parts per million cesium. Located in the Karibib Pegmatite Belt, lithium would be
the primary product, with cesium, potassium, and rubidium as potential byproducts.
World Mine Production and Reserves:1 There were no official sources for rubidium production data in 2021.
Lepidolite and pollucite, the principal rubidium-containing minerals in global rubidium reserves, can contain up to
3.5% and 1.5% rubidium oxide, respectively. Rubidium-bearing mineral resources are found in zoned pegmatites.
Mineral resources exist globally, but extraction and concentration are mostly cost prohibitive. No reliable data are
available to determine reserves for specific countries; however, Australia, Canada, China, and Namibia were thought
to have reserves totaling less than 200,000 tons. Existing stockpiles at multiple former mine sites have continued
feeding downstream refineries.
World Resources:1 Significant rubidium-bearing pegmatite occurrences have been identified in Afghanistan,
Australia, Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, Japan, Kazakhstan, Namibia, Peru, Russia, the United Kingdom, the
United States, and Zambia. Minor quantities of rubidium are reported in brines in northern Chile and China and in
evaporites in the United States (New Mexico and Utah), France, and Germany.
Substitutes: Rubidium and cesium can be used interchangeably in many applications because they have similar
physical properties and atomic radii. Cesium, however, is more electropositive than rubidium, making it a preferred
material for some applications.
1See Appendix C for resource and reserve definitions and information concerning data sources.

140
SALT
Domestic Production and Use: Domestic production of salt was estimated to have decreased slightly in 2021
compared with that in 2020 to 40 million tons. The total value of salt sold or used was estimated to be about $2.5
billion. Twenty-six companies operated 63 plants in 16 States. The top producing States were Kansas, Louisiana,
Michigan, New York, Ohio, Texas, and Utah. These seven States produced about 95% of the salt in the United States
in 2021. The estimated percentage of salt sold or used was, by type, rock salt, 44%; salt in brine, 40%; vacuum pan
salt, 10%; and solar salt, 6%.
Highway deicing accounted for about 42% of total salt consumed. The chemical industry accounted for about 39% of
total salt sales, with salt in brine accounting for 90% of the salt used for chemical feedstock. Chlorine and caustic
soda manufacturers were the main consumers within the chemical industry. The remaining markets for salt were
distributors, 9%; food processing, 4%; agricultural, 2%; and general industrial and primary water treatment, 1% each.
The remaining 2% was other uses combined with exports.

Production 39,900 43,900 e42,000 e41,000 40,000
Sold or used by producers 38,700 44,200 e41,000 e40,000 39,000
Exports 1,130 986 1,020 1,250 1,000
Consumption:
Apparent2 50,200 61,100 e58,000 e54,000 54,000
Reported 45,500 53,000 e50,000 e46,000 47,000
Price, average value of bulk, pellets and packaged salt, free on
board (f.o.b.) mine and plant, dollars per ton:
Vacuum and open pan salt 208.04 214.12 e215.00 e215.00 220.00
Solar salt 115.88 120.56 e125.00 e120.00 120.00
Rock salt 60.41 60.78 e59.00 e57.00 56.00
Salt in brine 9.49 8.30 e9.00 e9.00 9.00
Employment, mine and plant, numbere 4,100 4,100 4,100 4,000 4,100
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Chile, 30%; Canada, 27%; Mexico, 12%; Egypt, 11%; and other, 20%.

12–31–21
Salt (sodium chloride) 2501.00.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The global COVID-19 pandemic affected production and consumption of salt
throughout the world in 2020 and 2021. The chloralkali industry was most affected because international trade
declined, but the entire salt sector was negatively affected to varying degrees.
For much of the 2020–21 winter, temperatures were near or above average with lower or average precipitation
throughout most of the traditional U.S. snowbelt. The number of winter weather events including freezing rain, sleet,
and snow is a better predictor of demand for rock salt than total snowfall. Several low snowfall or icing events usually
require more salt for highway deicing than a single large snowfall event. Rock salt production and imports in 2021
were expected to be near or slightly less than those in 2020 because demand from many local and State
transportation departments decreased. Most local and State governments in regions that experienced a less intense
winter season reportedly had remaining stockpiles and therefore less need to replenish supplies of rock salt for the
2021–22 winter.
Prepared by Wallace P. Bolen [(703) 648–7727, wbolen@usgs.gov]

141
SALT
For the 2021–22 winter, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration predicted a La Niña weather pattern
for the second consecutive year. A strong La Niña historically favors an average to warmer temperature pattern, but a
moderate La Niña favors a colder winter. Based on several factors, the forecasts slightly favor higher precipitation
than a normal winter for the Midwest, interior Northeast, and Northwest areas of the United States. All these areas
were predicted to be warmer than average except for the Northwest, which is expected to receive more precipitation
than average. A warmer and drier pattern than average was predicted for the southern areas of the United States.
These forecasts would indicate that demand for rock salt could decrease in the Midwest and northeastern United
States.
Demand for salt brine used in the chloralkali industry was expected to increase in 2022 as demand for caustic soda
and polyvinyl chloride increases globally, especially in Asia. Salt exports from Australia and especially India have
increased in recent years to meet the increasing demand in China, but tensions between China and both countries
could affect trade.

2020 2021e
United States1 e41,000 40,000 Large. Economic and subeconomic
Australia e11,000 12,000 deposits of salt are substantial in
Brazil e7,400 7,400 principal salt-producing countries.
Canada e10,000 10,000 The oceans contain a virtually
Chile 9,570 10,000 inexhaustible supply of salt.
China e63,000 64,000
Djibouti 3,100 3,200
France e5,400 5,400
Germany 15,300 15,000
India e29,000 29,000
Iran e2,600 2,600
Italy 1,540 2,000
Mexico e9,000 9,000
Netherlands e6,000 6,200
Pakistan 3,750 4,000
Poland 3,780 4,000
Russia e8,100 8,000
Spain e4,200 4,200
Turkey e6,900 6,900
Ukraine e2,000 2,000
United Kingdom e4,700 4,700
Other countries e30,000 33,000
World Resources:4 World continental resources of salt are vast, and the salt content in the oceans is nearly
unlimited. Domestic resources of rock salt and salt from brine are primarily in Kansas, Louisiana, Michigan, New York,
Ohio, and Texas. Saline lakes and solar evaporation salt facilities are in Arizona, California, Nevada, New Mexico,
Oklahoma, and Utah. Almost every country in the world has salt deposits or solar evaporation operations of various
sizes.
Substitutes: No economic substitutes or alternatives for salt exist in most applications. Calcium chloride and calcium
magnesium acetate, hydrochloric acid, and potassium chloride can be substituted for salt in deicing, certain chemical
processes, and food flavoring, but at a higher cost.
e
Estimated.
1
Excludes production from Puerto Rico.
2
Defined as sold or used by producers + imports – exports.
3
4

142
SAND AND GRAVEL (CONSTRUCTION)1
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, 1.0 billion tons of construction sand and gravel valued at $9.9 billion was
produced by an estimated 3,870 companies operating 6,800 pits and 340 sales and (or) distribution yards in
50 States. Leading producing States were, in order of decreasing tonnage, California, Texas, Arizona, Minnesota,
Utah, Michigan, Washington, Ohio, Colorado, and New York, which together accounted for about 53% of total output.
It is estimated that about 46% of construction sand and gravel was used as portland cement concrete aggregates,
21% for road base and coverings and road stabilization, 13% for construction fill, 12% for asphaltic concrete
aggregate and for other bituminous mixtures, and 4% for other miscellaneous uses. The remaining 4% was used for
concrete products, filtration, golf course maintenance, plaster and gunite sands, railroad ballast, road stabilization,
roofing granules, and snow and ice control.
The estimated output of construction sand and gravel in the United States shipped for consumption in the first
9 months of 2021 was 753 million tons, an increase of 7% compared with that in the same period of 2020. Third
quarter shipments for consumption increased by 4% compared with those in the same period of 2020. Additional
production information, by quarter, for each State, geographic division, and the United States is reported by the U.S.
Geological Survey in its quarterly Mineral Industry Surveys for crushed stone and sand and gravel.

Production 888 912 935 942 1,000
Exports (2) (2) (2) (2) (2)
Consumption, apparent3 895 918 940 947 1,000
Price, average value, dollars per metric ton 8.84 9.09 9.31 9.58 9.90
Employment, mine and mill, number4 36,500 38,600 39,600 37,900 36,000
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption 1 1 1 1 (2)
Recycling: Road surfaces made of asphalt concrete and portland cement concrete surface layers, which contain
sand and gravel aggregate, were recycled on a limited but increasing basis in most States. In 2021, asphalt and
portland cement concrete road surfaces were recycled in all 50 States.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 95%; Mexico, 3%; and other, 2%.

12–31–21
Sand, other 2505.90.0000 Free.
Pebbles and gravel 2517.10.0015 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Common varieties, 5% (domestic and foreign).
Prepared by Jason Christopher Willett [(703) 648–6473, jwillett@usgs.gov]

143
SAND AND GRAVEL (CONSTRUCTION)
Events, Trends, and Issues: Construction sand and gravel production was about 1.0 billion tons in 2021, an
increase of 6% compared with that in 2020. Apparent consumption also increased by 6% to 1.0 billion tons.
Consumption of construction sand and gravel increased in 2021 because of growth in the private and public
construction markets. Usually, commercial and heavy-industrial construction activity, infrastructure funding, labor
availability, new single-family housing unit starts, and weather affect growth in construction sand and gravel
production and consumption. Long-term increases in construction aggregates demand are influenced by activity in the
public and private construction sectors, as well as by construction work related to infrastructure improvements around
the Nation. The underlying factors that would support a rise in prices of construction sand and gravel are expected to
be present in 2022, especially in and near metropolitan areas.
The construction sand and gravel industry continued to be concerned with environmental, health, permitting, safety,
and zoning regulations. On November 15, 2021, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act was signed into law. The
legislation will reauthorize surface transportation programs for 5 years and invest $110 billion in additional funding to
repair roads and bridges and support major, transformational projects. Movement of sand and gravel operations away
from densely populated regions was expected to continue where zoning regulations and local sentiment discouraged
them. Resultant regional shortages of construction sand and gravel and higher fuel costs could result in higher-than-
average price increases in industrialized and urban areas.

2020 2021e
United States 942 1,000 Reserves are controlled largely by land
Other countries7 NA NA use and (or) environmental concerns.
World total NA NA
World Resources:6 Sand and gravel resources are plentiful throughout the world. However, because of
environmental regulations, geographic distribution, and quality requirements for some uses, sand and gravel
extraction is uneconomical in some cases. The most important commercial sources of sand and gravel have been
glacial deposits, river channels, and river flood plains. Use of offshore deposits in the United States is mostly
restricted to beach erosion control and replenishment. Other countries routinely mine offshore deposits of aggregates
for onshore construction projects.
Substitutes: Crushed stone, the other major construction aggregate, is often substituted for natural sand and gravel,
especially in more densely populated areas of the Eastern United States. Crushed stone remains the dominant choice
for construction aggregate use. Increasingly, recycled asphalt and portland cement concretes are being substituted for
virgin aggregate, although the percentage of total aggregate supplied by recycled materials remained very small in 2021.
e
1
See also Sand and Gravel (Industrial) and Stone (Crushed).
2
Less than ½ unit.
3
4
Including office staff. Source: Mine Safety and Health Administration.
5
6
7
No reliable production information is available for most countries owing to the wide variety of ways in which countries report their sand and gravel
production. Some countries do not report production for this mineral commodity. Production information for some countries is available in the
U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, volume III, Area Reports—International.

144
SAND AND GRAVEL (INDUSTRIAL)1
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, industrial sand and gravel valued at an estimated $2.3 billion was produced
by 167 companies from 248 operations in 33 States. The value of production of industrial sand and gravel in 2021
increased slightly compared with that in the previous year. The leading producing States were, in descending order of
production, Texas, Wisconsin, Illinois, Missouri, Oklahoma, Louisiana, North Carolina, Alabama, California,
Tennessee, New Jersey, and Minnesota. Combined production from these States accounted for about 86% of total
domestic sales and use. Approximately 64% of the U.S. tonnage was used as hydraulic-fracturing sand and well-
packing and cementing sand; 11% as other whole-grain silica; and 10% as glassmaking sand. Other uses were, in
decreasing quantity of use, foundry sand, whole-grain fillers for building products, recreational sand, other ground
silica sand, and silica gravel, which accounted for 12%, combined. Other minor uses were, in decreasing quantity of
use, chemicals, abrasives, filtration sand, ceramics, roofing granules, fillers, traction, and metallurgic flux, combined,
accounted for the remaining 3% of industrial sand and gravel end uses.

Sold or used 104,000 126,000 108,000 70,000 72,000
Exports 4,600 6,440 5,540 4,030 5,600
Price, average value, dollars per ton 52.10 56.10 46.10 30.70 33.00
Employment, quarry and mill, numbere 4,000 4,000 3,500 2,000 2,500
Recycling: Some foundry sand is recycled, and recycled cullet (pieces of glass) represents a significant proportion of
reused silica. About 33% of glass containers are recycled.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 85%; Vietnam, 5%; Brazil and Taiwan, 2% each; and other, 6%.

12–31–21
Sand containing 95% or more silica
and not more than 0.6% iron oxide 2505.10.1000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Industrial sand or pebbles, 14% (domestic and foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. apparent consumption of industrial sand and gravel was estimated to be 67 million
tons in 2021, a slight increase from that of the previous year. The most important driving force in the industrial sand
and gravel industry remained the production and sale of hydraulic-fracturing sand (frac sand). For several years, the
consumption of frac sand increased as hydrocarbon exploration in the United States transitioned to natural gas and
petroleum extracted from shale deposits. However, industrial sand and gravel consumption decreased in recent
years, primarily as a result of decreased natural-gas- and petroleum-well drilling in North America and oil well
completion activity. These decreases were exacerbated by restrictions imposed as the result of the global COVID-19
pandemic, which resulted in a significant decline in consumption of petroleum products, which in turn prompted a
decrease in demand for hydraulic-fracturing sand. Imports of industrial sand and gravel in 2021 were an estimated
360,000 tons, a 14% decrease from those of the previous year. Imports of silica are generally of two types—small
shipments of very high-purity silica or a few large shipments of lower grade silica shipped only under special
circumstances (for example, very low freight rates). The United States remained a net exporter of industrial sand and
gravel; U.S. exports of industrial sand and gravel increased by 39% in 2021 compared with those of the previous
year.
The United States was the world’s leading producer and consumer of industrial sand and gravel based on estimated
world production figures. Collecting definitive data on industrial sand and gravel production in most nations is difficult
because of the wide range of terminology and specifications used by different countries. The United States remained
a major exporter of industrial sand and gravel, shipping it to almost every region of the world. High global demand for
U.S. industrial sand and gravel can be attributed to the high quality and advanced processing techniques used in the
United States for many grades of industrial sand and gravel, meeting specifications for virtually any use.
Prepared by Robert C. Goodin [(703) 648–7710, rgoodin@usgs.gov]

145
SAND AND GRAVEL (INDUSTRIAL)
The duration and outcome of the global COVID-19 pandemic remains uncertain; however, measures previously
instituted to mitigate the spread of the global COVID-19 pandemic are expected to continue to be eased or lifted in
the United States and around the world. The pandemic is likely to have less of a negative effect on the economies of
the United States and the world going forward, which could result in increased production and consumption of
industrial sand and gravel.
Additionally, the industrial sand and gravel industry continued to be concerned with safety and health regulations and
environmental restrictions in 2021, especially those concerning crystalline silica exposure. In 2016, the Occupational
Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) finalized regulations to further restrict exposure to crystalline silica at quarry
sites and in other industries that use materials containing it. Phased implementation of the new regulations took effect
through 2021, affecting various industries that use materials containing silica. Local shortages of industrial sand and
gravel were expected to continue to increase owing to land development priorities, local zoning regulations, and
logistical issues, including ongoing development and permitting of operations producing hydraulic-fracturing sand.
These factors may result in future sand and gravel operations being located farther from high-population centers.

2020 2021e
United States 70,000 72,000 Large. Industrial sand and gravel
Argentina 2,500 3,500 deposits are widespread.
Australia 3,000 3,500
Austria 1,570 1,600
Bulgaria 8,350 8,400
Canada 4,700 5,000
France 11,000 11,000
Guatemala 1,900 1,900
India 11,900 12,000
Indonesia 2,640 2,600
Italy 10,000 10,000
Japan 1,920 1,900
Mexico 2,700 3,000
Netherlands 54,000 54,000
Poland 5,490 5,500
Spain 5,700 5,700
Turkey 10,300 12,000
United Kingdom 4,400 4,400
World Resources:4 Sand and gravel resources of the world are large. However, because of their geographic
distribution, environmental restrictions, and quality requirements for some uses, extraction of these resources is
sometimes uneconomical. Quartz-rich sand and sandstone, the main sources of industrial silica sand, occur
throughout the world.
Substitutes: Alternative materials that can be used for glassmaking and for foundry and molding sands are chromite,
olivine, staurolite, and zircon sands. Although costlier and mostly used in deeper wells, alternative materials that can
be used as proppants are sintered bauxite and kaolin-based ceramic proppants.
e
1
See also Sand and Gravel (Construction).
2
3
4

146
SCANDIUM1
(Data in metric tons of scandium oxide equivalent unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Domestically, scandium was neither mined nor recovered from process streams or
mine tailings in 2021. Previously, scandium was produced domestically primarily from the scandium-yttrium silicate
mineral thortveitite and from byproduct leach solutions from uranium operations. Limited capacity to produce ingot
and distilled scandium metal existed at facilities in Ames, IA; Tolleson, AZ; and Urbana, IL. The principal uses for
scandium in 2021 were in aluminum-scandium alloys and solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs). Other uses for scandium
included ceramics, electronics, lasers, lighting, and radioactive isotopes.

Price, yearend:
Compounds, dollars per gram:
Acetate, 99.9% purity, 5-gram lot size2 44 44 45 45 43
Chloride, 99.9% purity, 5-gram lot size2 124 125 129 133 137
Fluoride, 99.9% purity, 1- to 5-gram lot size3 277 206 209 214 216
Iodide, 99.999% purity, 5-gram lot size2 183 165 157 161 161
Oxide, 99.99% purity, 5-kilogram lot size4 4.6 4.6 3.9 3.8 2.2
Metal:
Scandium, distilled dendritic, 2-gram lot size,2 dollars per gram 226 226 233 233 238
Scandium, ingot, 5-gram lot size,2 dollars per gram 132 132 134 134 137
Scandium-aluminum alloy, 1-kilogram lot size,4 dollars per
kilogram 350 360 300 340 350
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Although no definitive data exist listing import sources, imported material was thought to
be mostly from Europe, China, Japan, and Russia.

12–31–21
Rare-earth metals, unspecified 2805.30.0000 5.0% ad valorem.
Compounds of rare-earth metals:
Mixtures of oxides of yttrium or scandium as
the predominant metal 2846.90.2015 Free.
Mixtures of chlorides of yttrium or scandium as
the predominant metal 2846.90.2082 Free.
Mixtures of other rare-earth carbonates,
including scandium 2846.90.8075 3.7% ad valorem.
Mixtures of other rare-earth compounds,
including scandium 2846.90.8090 3.7% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The global supply and consumption of scandium oxide was estimated to be about 15 to
25 tons per year. Scandium was recovered from titanium, zirconium, cobalt, and nickel process streams. China, the
Philippines, and Russia were the leading producers. Prices quoted for scandium oxide in the United States in 2021
decreased significantly compared with those in 2020. Owing in part to low capacity utilization, China’s ex-works prices
for scandium oxide were significantly less than United States quoted prices.
In the United States, a new metallurgical testing program for production of scandium recently achieved success at the
bench scale for the Nebraska polymetallic Elk Creek project where additional financing for construction was being
sought. Probable reserves were estimated to be 36 million tons containing 65.7 parts per million (2,400 tons)
scandium. Plans for the project included downstream production of ferroniobium, titanium dioxide, and scandium
oxide. At the La Paz Scandium and Rare Earths project in Arizona, necessary permits and approvals were in place for
the core drilling campaign to determine if a primary scandium mine could be established.

147
SCANDIUM
The Bokan project in Alaska and the Round Top project in Texas also included scandium recovery in their process
plans. In addition, research continued to develop methods for separating scandium from coal and coal byproducts.
SOFC sourcing of scandium is expanding beyond China to include Japan and the Philippines.
A global mining and polymetallic metal producer announced the commissioning of a new scandium plant in Sorel-
Tracy, Quebec, Canada, with a capacity of 3 tons per year of 99.99% scandium oxide. The company announced
completion of the first sale of high-performance aluminum-scandium alloy for metal additive manufacturing. In
Australia, several polymetallic projects were under development and seeking permitting, financing, and offtake
agreements. Projects and prospects included the Nyngan, Owendale, and Sunrise projects in New South Wales
along with others. The SCONI project commissioned the construction phase of its pilot P-CAM production plant in
North Queensland.
In the Philippines, a 7.5-ton-per-year scandium oxide equivalent commercial plant designed to recover scandium at
the Taganito high-pressure acid-leach nickel operation produced an estimated gross output of about 13 dry tons of
scandium oxalate in 2020 with 2021 first quarter production of 3.6 tons. In Russia, feasibility studies for making
scandium oxide as a byproduct of alumina refining at a smelter in the Ural Mountains were ongoing. The pilot plant
was reported to have produced scandium oxide with purity greater than 99%. Based on pilot-plant test results, plans
were in place for a 3-ton-per-year scandium oxide plant. In the Kurgan region of Russia, two mobile sorption plants
were put into operation and two additional sorption columns were mounted directly at the plant site with extractive
purification technology to obtain scandium oxide with a purity of 99.9%. Another technology made it possible for
production aluminum-scandium alloys as byproduct of uranium production. In 2019 (the most recent year for which
there were published data), commercial production at the scandium project was 230 kilograms of metal produced and
shipped to customers. At Agios Nikolaos, Greece, a pilot plant successfully demonstrated recovery of scandium from
bauxite residue in industrial waste at a vertically integrated aluminum and alumina plant through a patented selective
ion recovery technology as part of the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and development program.
The Kiviniemi scandium project in eastern Finland features a resource of 13.4 million tons at a grade of 163 parts per
million scandium where scandium is mainly incorporated into the lattice of clinopyroxene and amphibole.
In China, a large state-owned enterprise in Shanghai was producing 50 tons per year of scandium oxide raw material
with a long-term expected capacity of 100 tons per year. Another company in Henan Province had a 10-ton-per-year
scandium oxide capacity with plans to increase annual output to 20 tons.
World Mine Production and Reserves:6 No scandium was recovered from mining operations in the United States.
As a result of its low concentration, scandium is produced exclusively as a byproduct during processing of various
ores or recovered from previously processed tailings or residues. Historically, scandium was produced as byproduct
material in China (iron ore, rare earths, titanium, and zirconium), Kazakhstan (uranium), the Philippines (nickel),
Russia (apatite and uranium), and Ukraine (uranium). Foreign mine production data for 2020 and 2021 were not
available.
World Resources:6 Resources of scandium are abundant. Scandium’s crustal abundance is greater than that of
lead. Scandium lacks affinity for the common ore-forming anions; therefore, it is widely dispersed in the lithosphere
and forms solid solutions with low concentrations in more than 100 minerals. Scandium resources have been
identified in Australia, Canada, China, Finland, Guinea, Kazakhstan, Madagascar, Norway, South Africa, the
Philippines, Russia, Ukraine, and the United States.
Substitutes: Titanium and aluminum high-strength alloys as well as carbon-fiber materials may substitute in high-
performance scandium-alloy applications. Under certain conditions, light-emitting diodes may displace mercury-vapor
high-intensity lamps that contain scandium iodide. In some applications that rely on scandium’s unique properties,
substitution is not possible.
e
Estimated.
1
See also Rare Earths. Scandium is one of the 17 rare-earth elements.
2
Source: Alfa Aesar, a part of Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.
3
Source: Sigma-Aldrich, a part of MilliporeSigma.
4
Source: Stanford Materials Corp.
5
Defined as imports – exports. Quantitative data are not available.
6

148
SELENIUM
(Data in metric tons of contained selenium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, the only domestic selenium-producing copper refinery halted production of
refined selenium but produced selenium-bearing anode slime. The two other electrolytic copper refineries, operating
in Arizona and Utah, did not recover selenium domestically, but did produce selenium-bearing anode slimes. U.S.
selenium production in prior years and consumption and stock data were withheld to avoid disclosing company
proprietary data. Estimates for end uses in global consumption were, in descending order, metallurgy (including
manganese production), glass manufacturing, agriculture, chemicals and pigments, electronics, and other uses.
Selenium is used in blasting caps to control delays; in catalysts to enhance selective oxidation; in copper, lead, and
steel alloys to improve machinability; in the electrolytic production of manganese to increase yields; in glass
manufacturing to decolorize the green tint caused by iron impurities in container glass and other soda-lime silica
glass; in gun bluing to improve cosmetic appearance and provide corrosion resistance; in plating solutions to improve
appearance and durability; in rubber compounding chemicals to act as a vulcanizing agent; and in thin-film
photovoltaic copper-indium-gallium-diselenide (CIGS) solar cells.
Selenium is an essential micronutrient and is used as a human dietary supplement, a dietary supplement for
livestock, and as a fertilizer additive to enrich selenium-poor soils. Selenium is also used as an active ingredient in
antidandruff shampoos.

Production, refinery W W W W —
Selenium metal 450 445 496 366 360
Selenium dioxide 19 12 5 18 77
Exports,1 metal 242 158 361 147 240
Consumption, apparent,2 metal W W W W W
Price, average,3 dollars per pound 15.55 16.85 9.15 6.61 8.00
Stocks, producer, refined, yearend W W W W W
metal E <25 <25 <50 >75
Recycling: Domestic production of secondary selenium was estimated to be very small because most scrap from
older plain paper photocopiers and electronic materials was exported for recovery of the contained selenium.
Import Sources (2017–20): Selenium metal: Philippines, 18%; China,5 16%; Mexico, 14%; Germany, 13%; and
other, 39%. Selenium dioxide: Republic of Korea, 29%; China, 24%; Germany, 18%; Canada, 14%; and other, 15%.

12–31–21
Selenium metal 2804.90.0000 Free.
Selenium dioxide 2811.29.2000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: The supply of selenium is directly affected by the supply of the materials from which it
is a byproduct—copper and, to a lesser extent, nickel—and it is directly affected by the number of facilities that
recover selenium. The estimated annual average price for selenium was $8.00 per pound in 2021, a 21% increase
from that in 2020. Average weekly prices have risen steadily from the beginning of 2021. Copper producers in China
had opted to stop sales from their inventories, reducing availability of selenium. Selenium prices increased owing to a
rise in crude selenium feedstock costs.

149
SELENIUM
In China, selenium suppliers and consumers both experienced difficulties acquiring adequate materials. Electrolytic
manganese production was the main metallurgical end use for selenium in China, where selenium dioxide was used
in the electrolytic process to increase current efficiency and the metal deposition rate. Manganese production
decreased in 2021, owing to output reductions by major manganese producers in China. The reductions were put in
place to reduce spot availability and raise prices. The manganese industry alliance had a commitment to shut down
operations for 30 days every 4 months, with a total of 90 days in 2021.
Refinery production6 Reserves7

2020 2021e
United States W — 10,000
Belgium 200 200 —
Canada 60 60 6,000
China 1,200 1,100 26,000
Finland 84 100 —
Germany 300 300 —
India 14 10 —
Japan 740 750 —
Peru 35 40 13,000
Poland 74 65 3,000
Russia 340 300 20,000
Sweden 10 20 —
Turkey 50 50 —
Other countries8 14 25 22,000
World Resources:7 Reserves for selenium are based on identified copper deposits and average selenium content.
Coal generally contains between 0.5 and 12 parts per million selenium, or about 80 to 90 times the average for
copper deposits. The recovery of selenium from coal fly ash, although technically feasible, does not appear likely to
be economical in the foreseeable future.
Substitutes: Silicon is the major substitute for selenium in low- and medium-voltage rectifiers. Organic pigments
have been developed as substitutes for cadmium sulfoselenide pigments. Other substitutes include cerium oxide as
either a colorant or decolorant in glass; tellurium in pigments and rubber; bismuth, lead, and tellurium in free-
machining alloys; and bismuth and tellurium in lead-free brasses. Sulfur dioxide can be used as a replacement for
selenium dioxide in the production of electrolytic manganese metal, but it is not as energy efficient.
The selenium-tellurium photoreceptors used in some plain paper copiers and laser printers have been replaced by
organic photoreceptors in newer machines. Amorphous silicon and cadmium telluride are the two principal
competitors with CIGS in thin-film photovoltaic solar cells.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.
1
There was no exclusive Schedule B number for selenium dioxide exports.
2
3
Selenium metal powder, free on board, U.S. warehouse, minimum 99.5% purity. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
4
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes; export data are incomplete for common forms of selenium, which may be
exported under unexpected or misidentified forms, such as copper slimes, copper selenide, or zinc selenide.
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6
Insofar as possible, data relate to refinery output only; thus, countries that produced selenium contained in blister copper, copper concentrates,
copper ores, and (or) refinery residues but did not recover refined selenium from these materials indigenously were excluded to avoid double
counting.
7
8
Australia, Iran, Kazakhstan, Mexico, the Philippines, and Uzbekistan are known to produce refined selenium, but output was not reported, and
information was inadequate to make reliable production estimates.
9

150
SILICON
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained silicon unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Six companies produced silicon materials in 2021, all east of the Mississippi River.
Most ferrosilicon was consumed in the ferrous foundry and steel industries, predominantly in the Eastern United
States, and was sourced primarily from domestic quartzite (silica). The main consumers of silicon metal were
producers of aluminum alloys and the chemical industry, in particular for the manufacture of silicones. The
semiconductor and solar energy industries, which manufacture chips for computers and photovoltaic cells from high-
purity silicon, respectively, also consumed silicon metal.

Production, ferrosilicon1 and silicon metal2 415 430 310 277 310
Ferrosilicon, all grades 147 140 127 140 120
Silicon metal 136 116 124 97 93
Exports:
Ferrosilicon, all grades 11 12 8 4 7
Silicon metal 71 45 40 31 57
Consumption, apparent,3 ferrosilicon1 and silicon metal2 616 637 517 481 459
Price, average, cents per pound of silicon:
Ferrosilicon, 50% Si4 94.47 104.24 102.35 103.38 110.00
Ferrosilicon, 75% Si5 86.88 107.58 89.15 87.40 140.00
Silicon metal2, 5 116.56 134.15 105.70 96.84 140.00
Stocks, producer, ferrosilicon1 and silicon metal,2 yearend 26 19 15 12 11
Ferrosilicon, all grades <50 <50 <50 >50 <50
Silicon metal2 <50 <50 <50 <50 <50
Total 33 32 40 42 32
Import Sources (2017–20): Ferrosilicon: Russia, 40%; Canada, 14%; Brazil, 10%; Iceland, 8%; and other, 28%.
Silicon metal: Brazil, 30%; Canada, 21%; Norway, 13%; Australia, 8%; and other, 28%. Total: Russia, 21%; Brazil,
20%; Canada, 17%; Norway, 7%; and other, 35%.

12–31–21
Silicon, more than 99.99% Si 2804.61.0000 Free.
Silicon, 99.00%–99.99% Si 2804.69.1000 5.3% ad valorem.
Silicon, other 2804.69.5000 5.5% ad valorem.
Ferrosilicon, 55%–80% Si:
More than 3% Ca 7202.21.1000 1.1% ad valorem.
Ferrosilicon, 80%–90% Si 7202.21.7500 1.9% ad valorem.
Ferrosilicon, more than 90% Si 7202.21.9000 5.8% ad valorem.
Ferrosilicon, other:
More than 2% Mg 7202.29.0010 Free.
Other 7202.29.0050 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Quartzite, 14% (domestic and foreign); gravel, 5% (domestic and foreign).

151
SILICON
Events, Trends, and Issues: Combined domestic ferrosilicon and silicon metal production in 2021, expressed in
terms of contained silicon, increased from that in 2020. One producer reopened its ferrosilicon production facility in
March 2021 owing to increased demand for ferrosilicon products and improved domestic pricing. The facility had
closed in July 2020 owing to decreased demand and lower prices—in part because of the global COVID-19
pandemic, as well as competition from lower priced imported ferrosilicon. Domestic production during the first
8 months of 2021 was about 5% more, on a silicon-content basis, than that during the same period in 2020. By
August 2021, average U.S. spot market prices increased by almost 9% for 50%-grade ferrosilicon and by almost 60%
for 75%-grade ferrosilicon compared with the annual averages in 2020; the average silicon metal spot market price
increased by almost 50% compared with the annual average spot price in 2020.
Excluding the United States, ferrosilicon accounted for almost 70% of world silicon production on a silicon-content
basis in 2021. The leading countries for ferrosilicon production were, in descending order and on a silicon-content
basis, China, Russia, and Norway. For silicon metal, the leading producers were China, Brazil, and Norway. China
accounted for approximately 70% of total global estimated production of silicon materials in 2021. Global production
of silicon materials, on a silicon-content basis, was estimated to be about 5% more than that in 2020. Global
production of steel, the leading use of ferrosilicon, increased in 2021 compared with production in 2020 owing to
increased demand following the negative effects of the global COVID-19 pandemic.
Production7 Reserves8
2020 2021e
United States 277 310 The reserves in most major
Australia 42 42 producing countries are ample in
Bhutan9 67 70 relation to demand. Quantitative
Brazil 404 390 estimates are not available.
Canada 47 50
China 5,600 6,000
France 112 120
Iceland 103 110
India9 59 60
Kazakhstan 67 67
Malaysia9 109 80
Norway 345 350
Poland 42 42
Russia 576 580
Spain 55 58
Ukraine9 40 49
World Resources:8 World and domestic resources for making silicon metal and alloys are abundant and, in most
producing countries, adequate to supply world requirements for many decades. The source of the silicon is silica in
various natural forms, such as quartzite.
Substitutes: Aluminum, silicon carbide, and silicomanganese can be substituted for ferrosilicon in some applications.
Gallium arsenide and germanium are the principal substitutes for silicon in semiconductor and infrared applications.
e
Estimated.
1
Ferrosilicon grades include the two standard grades of ferrosilicon—50% silicon and 75% silicon—plus miscellaneous silicon alloys.
2
Metallurgical-grade silicon metal.
3
4
Source: CRU Group, transaction prices based on weekly averages.
5
Source: S&P Global Platts Metals Week, mean import prices based on monthly averages.
6
7
Production quantities are the silicon content of combined totals for ferrosilicon and silicon metal, except as noted.
8
9
Silicon content of ferrosilicon only.

152
SILVER
(Data in metric tons1 of contained silver unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, U.S. mines produced approximately 1,000 tons of silver with an estimated
value of $830 million. Silver was produced at 4 silver mines and as a byproduct or coproduct from 33 domestic base-
and precious-metal operations. Alaska continued as the country’s leading silver-producing State, followed by Nevada.
There were 24 U.S. refiners that reported production of commercial-grade silver with an estimated total output of
2,000 tons from domestic and foreign ores and concentrates and from new and old scrap. The physical properties of
silver include high ductility, electrical conductivity, malleability, and reflectivity. In 2021, the estimated domestic uses
for silver were physical investment, 26%; electrical and electronics, 21%; coins and medals, 11%; jewelry and
silverware, 4%; and other, 38%. Other applications for silver include use in antimicrobial bandages, clothing,
pharmaceuticals, and plastics; batteries; bearings; brazing and soldering; catalytic converters in automobiles;
electroplating; inks; mirrors; photography; photovoltaic solar cells; water purification; and wood treatment. Mercury
and silver, the main components of dental amalgam, are biocides, and their use in amalgam inhibits recurrent decay.

Production:
Mine 1,030 934 981 1,030 1,000
Refinery:
Primary 1,420 1,420 1,420 1,420 1,400
Exports2 157 603 220 140 160
Price, bullion, average, dollars per troy ounce4 17.08 15.73 16.24 20.58 25.00
Stocks, yearend:
Industry 150 170 52 60 60
Treasury5 498 498 498 498 498
New York Commodities Exchange—COMEX 7,570 9,150 9,860 12,330 11,000
Employment, mine and mill, number6 1,050 982 1,000 1,180 1,500
Recycling: In 2021, approximately 650 tons of silver was recovered from new and old scrap, about 8% of apparent
consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20):2 Mexico, 47%; Canada, 23%; Chile, 4%; Poland, 4%; and other, 22%.

12–31–21
Silver ores and concentrates 2616.10.0040 0.8 ¢/kg on lead content.
Bullion 7106.91.1010 Free.
Dore 7106.91.1020 Free.
Government Stockpile: The U.S. Department of the Treasury maintains stocks of silver (see salient statistics above).
Events, Trends, and Issues: The estimated average silver price in 2021 was $25.00 per troy ounce, 22% higher
than the average price in 2020. The price began the year at $27.51 per troy ounce, increased to a high of $29.45 per
troy ounce on February 1, then decreased to a low of $21.75 per troy ounce on September 30. The price of silver
generally decreased throughout the year. The February 1 daily price was the highest since December 11, 2020. U.S.
investment was a major contributing factor to the rise in silver prices. Increased investment was driven by novice
buyers from nontraditional sources in late January and early February.

153
SILVER
In 2021, global consumption of silver was estimated to have increased slightly from that in 2020. Coin and bar
consumption increased in 2021 for the fifth year in a row, led by U.S. investments. In 2021, physical investment in the
United States in silver reached an estimated 7,900 tons (250 million troy ounces) compared with 6,240 tons
(201 million troy ounces) in 2020. This was partially offset by an 85% decrease in investments in India. Consumption
for industrial uses was estimated to have increased in the first 6 months of 2021 owing to the reopening of
economies. Consumption of silver in jewelry and silverware was estimated to have increased by 24% and 32%,
respectively. Despite decreased investment in India, global physical holdings of silver reached a reported 36,600 tons
(1.18 billion troy ounces) compared with 33,200 tons (1.07 billion troy ounces) in 2020.8
World silver mine production increased slightly in 2021 to an estimated 24,000 tons, principally as a result of
increased production from mines in Argentina, India, Mexico, and Peru following shutdowns in 2020 in response to
the global COVID-19 pandemic. Domestic silver mine production was estimated to have decreased by 3% in 2021 to
1,000 tons compared with the 1,030 tons produced in 2020.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Peru, and Poland were revised based on information
from Government sources.

2020 2021e
United States 1,030 1,000 26,000
Argentina 710 800 NA
Australia 1,340 1,300 1090,000
Bolivia 930 1,000 22,000

Chile 1,580 1,600 26,000
China 3,380 3,400 41,000
Kazakhstan 435 450 NA
Mexico 5,540 5,600 37,000
Peru 2,770 3,000 120,000
Poland 1,250 1,300 67,000
Russia 1,320 1,300 45,000
World Resources:9 Although silver was a principal product at several mines, silver was primarily obtained as a
byproduct from lead-zinc, copper, and gold mines, in descending order of production. The polymetallic ore deposits
from which silver was recovered account for more than two-thirds of U.S. and world resources of silver. Most recent
silver discoveries have been associated with gold occurrences; however, copper and lead-zinc occurrences that
contain byproduct silver will continue to account for a significant share of reserves and resources in the future.
Substitutes: Digital imaging, film with reduced silver content, silverless black-and-white film, and xerography
substitute for traditional photographic applications for silver. Surgical pins and plates may be made with stainless
steel, tantalum, and titanium in place of silver. Stainless steel may be substituted for silver flatware. Nonsilver
batteries may replace silver batteries in some applications. Aluminum and rhodium may be used to replace silver that
was traditionally used in mirrors and other reflecting surfaces. Silver may be used to replace more costly metals in
catalytic converters for off-road vehicles.
e
1
One metric ton (1,000 kilograms) = 32,150.7 troy ounces.
2
Silver content of base metal ores and concentrates, ash and residues, refined bullion, and dore; excludes coinage, and waste and scrap material.
3
Defined as mine production + secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
4
Engelhard’s industrial bullion quotations. Source: S&P Global Platts Metals Week.
5
Source: U.S. Mint. Balance in U.S. Mint only; includes deep storage and working stocks.
6
Source: U.S. Department of Labor, Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA). Only includes mines where silver is the primary product. In
2021, MSHA changed the Mine Employment values in their publicly available database.
7
8
DiRienzo, Michael, and Newman, Philip, 2020, Key components of silver market affected by pandemic in 2020—Global demand and mine supply
impacted, while physical silver investment expected to surge to a 5-year high: Silver Institute and Metal Focus, November 19, 2 p.
9
10

154
SODA ASH
Domestic Production and Use: The total value of domestic natural soda ash (sodium carbonate) produced in 2021
was estimated to be about $1.8 billion1, and the quantity produced was 12 million tons, about 20% more than that of
the previous year. The U.S. soda ash industry comprised four companies in Wyoming operating five plants and one
company in California operating one plant. The five producing companies have a combined annual nameplate
capacity of 13.9 million tons (15.3 million short tons). Borax, salt, and sodium sulfate were produced as coproducts of
sodium carbonate production in California. Chemical caustic soda, sodium bicarbonate, and sodium sulfite were
manufactured as coproducts at several of the Wyoming soda ash plants. Sodium bicarbonate was produced at an
operation in Colorado using soda ash feedstock shipped from the company’s Wyoming facility.
Based on 2021 quarterly reports, the estimated distribution of soda ash by end use was glass, 49%; chemicals, 28%;
miscellaneous uses, 8%; distributors, 5%; soap and detergents, 5%; flue gas desulfurization, 3%; pulp and paper,
1%; and water treatment, 1%.

Production2 12,000 11,900 11,700 9,990 12,000
Exports 6,990 6,960 7,020 5,590 6,500
Consumption:
Apparent3 5,040 4,980 4,830 4,480 5,400
Reported 4,910 4,850 4,720 4,440 5,300
Price, average sales value (natural source), free on board (f.o.b.)
mine or plant:
Dollars per metric ton 146.26 148.69 153.24 145.67 155
Dollars per short ton 132.68 134.89 139.02 132.15 141
Employment, mine and plant, numbere 2,600 2,600 2,600 2,400 2,400
Recycling: No soda ash was recycled by producers; however, glass container producers use cullet glass, thereby
reducing soda ash consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Turkey, 81%; Bulgaria and Mexico, 4% each; and other, 11%.

12–31–21
Disodium carbonate 2836.20.0000 1.2% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Natural, 14% (domestic and foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: Production, exports, and consumption in 2021 nearly returned to levels seen before the
global COVID-19 pandemic. More than one-half of U.S. production of soda ash was exported, and exports were
estimated to have increased by 16% compared with those in 2020. Domestic consumption reported by producers
increased by about 19% in 2021 compared with that in 2020, and apparent consumption in 2021 increased by about
21% compared with that in 2020.

155
SODA ASH
Relatively low production costs and lower environmental impacts provide natural soda ash producers some
advantage over producers of synthetic soda ash. The production of synthetic soda ash normally consumes more
energy and releases more carbon dioxide than that of natural soda ash. In recent years, U.S. producers of natural
soda ash were able to expand their markets when several synthetic soda ash plants were closed or idled in other
parts of the world.
After increasing capacity during the past 4 years, total production capacity in Turkey was estimated to be between 4
million and 5 million tons per year, and soda ash shipments in Turkey, especially for export, were expected to
increase during the next few years. Total United States imports, mostly from Turkey, have recently been about
100,000 tons per year, which was more than double the average quantity of annual imports during the past decade.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Turkey were revised based on Government and industry
reports.
Mine production Reserves5, 6

2020 2021e
Natural:
United States 9,990 12,000 723,000,000
Botswana 250 260 400,000

Ethiopia 18 20 400,000
Kenya 220 250 7,000
Turkey 4,200 4,400 880,000
Other countries NA NA 280,000
World total, natural (rounded) 14,700 17,000 25,000,000
World total, synthetic (rounded) 40,400 42,000 XX
World total (rounded) 55,100 59,000 XX
World Resources:6 Natural soda ash is obtained from trona and sodium carbonate-rich brines. The world’s largest
deposit of trona is in the Green River Basin of Wyoming. About 47 billion tons of identified soda ash resources could
be recovered from the 56 billion tons of bedded trona and the 47 billion tons of interbedded or intermixed trona and
halite, which are in beds more than 1.2 meters thick. Underground room-and-pillar mining, using conventional and
continuous mining, is the primary method of mining Wyoming trona ore. This method has an average 45% mining
recovery, whereas average recovery from solution mining is 30%. Improved solution-mining techniques, such as
horizontal drilling to establish communication between well pairs, could increase this extraction rate and enable
companies to develop some of the deeper trona beds. Wyoming trona resources are being depleted at the rate of
about 15 million tons per year (8.3 million tons of soda ash). Searles Lake and Owens Lake in California contain an
estimated 815 million tons of soda ash reserves. At least 95 natural sodium carbonate deposits have been identified
in the world, the resources of only some of which have been quantified. Although soda ash can be manufactured from
salt and limestone, both of which are practically inexhaustible, synthetic soda ash is costlier to produce and generates
environmental wastes.
Substitutes: Caustic soda can be substituted for soda ash in certain uses, particularly in the pulp and paper, water
treatment, and certain chemical sectors. Soda ash, soda liquors, or trona can be used as feedstock to manufacture
chemical caustic soda, which is an alternative to electrolytic caustic soda.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. XX Not applicable.
1
Does not include values for soda liquors and mine waters.
2
Natural only.
3
4
5
The reported quantities are sodium carbonate only. About 1.8 tons of trona yield 1 ton of sodium carbonate.
6
7
From trona, nahcolite, and dawsonite deposits.

156
STONE (CRUSHED)1
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, 1.5 billion tons of crushed stone valued at more than $19 billion was
produced by an estimated 1,410 companies operating 3,440 quarries and 180 sales and (or) distribution yards in
50 States. Leading States were, in descending order of production, Texas, Missouri, Florida, Pennsylvania, Ohio,
Georgia, North Carolina, Virginia, California, and Tennessee, which together accounted for about 54% of total
crushed stone output. Of the total domestic crushed stone produced in 2021, about 70% was limestone and dolomite;
15%, granite; 6%, traprock; 5%, miscellaneous stone; 3%, sandstone and quartzite; and the remaining 1% was
divided, in descending order of tonnage, among marble, volcanic cinder and scoria, calcareous marl, slate, and shell.
It is estimated that about 72% of crushed stone was used as a construction aggregate, mostly for road construction
and maintenance; 16% for cement manufacturing; 8% for lime manufacturing; 2% for agricultural uses; and the
remaining 2% for other chemical, special, and miscellaneous uses and products.
The estimated output of crushed stone in the United States shipped for consumption in the first 9 months of 2021 was
1.14 billion tons, an increase of 3% compared with that in the same period of 2020. Third quarter shipments for
consumption increased by 4% compared with those in the same period of 2020. Additional production information, by
quarter, for each State, geographic division, and the United States is reported by the U.S. Geological Survey in its
quarterly Mineral Industry Surveys for crushed stone and sand and gravel.

Production 1,370 1,390 1,490 1,470 1,500
Recycled material 43 38 38 38 38
Exports 1 (2) (2) (2) (2)
Price, average value, dollars per metric ton 11.36 11.64 11.96 12.22 13.00
Employment, quarry and mill, number4 68,600 68,500 69,000 67,000 67,000
Recycling: Road surfaces made of asphalt concrete and portland cement concrete surface layers, which contain
crushed stone aggregate, were recycled on a limited but increasing basis in most States. In 2021, asphalt and
portland cement concrete road surfaces were recycled in all 50 States.
Import Sources (2017–20): Mexico, 54%; Canada, 28%; The Bahamas, 12%; Honduras, 5%; and other, 1%.

12–31–21
Chalk:
Crude 2509.00.1000 Free.
Other 2509.00.2000 Free.
Limestone, except pebbles and gravel 2517.10.0020 Free.
Crushed or broken stone 2517.10.0055 Free.
Marble granules, chippings and powder 2517.41.0000 Free.
Stone granules, chippings and powders 2517.49.0000 Free.
Limestone flux; limestone and other calcareous stone 2521.00.0000 Free.
Prepared by Jason Christopher Willett [(703) 648–6473, jwillett@usgs.gov]

157
STONE (CRUSHED)
Depletion Allowance: For some special uses, 14% (domestic and foreign); if used as ballast, concrete aggregate,
riprap, road material, and similar purposes, 5% (domestic and foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: Crushed stone production was about 1.5 billion tons in 2021, an increase of 3%
compared with 1.47 billion tons in 2020. Apparent consumption also increased to 1.6 billion tons. Consumption of
crushed stone increased in 2021 because of growth in the private and public construction markets. Usually,
commercial and heavy-industrial construction activity, infrastructure funding, labor availability, new single-family
housing unit starts, and weather affect growth in crushed stone production and consumption. Long-term increases in
construction aggregates demand are influenced by activity in the public and private construction sectors, as well as by
construction work related to infrastructure improvements around the Nation. The underlying factors that would support
a rise in prices of crushed stone are expected to be present in 2022, especially in and near metropolitan areas.
The crushed stone industry continued to be concerned with environmental, health, safety, and zoning regulations. On
November 15, 2021, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act was signed into law. The legislation will reauthorize
surface transportation programs for 5 years and invest $110 billion in additional funding to repair roads and bridges
and support major, transformational projects. Shortages in some urban and industrialized areas are expected to
continue to increase owing to local zoning regulations and land-development alternatives. These issues are expected
to continue and to cause new crushed stone quarries to be located away from large population centers. Resultant
regional shortages of crushed stone and higher fuel costs could result in higher-than-average price increases in
industrialized and urban areas.

2020 2021e
United States 1,470 1,500 Adequate, except where special
Other countries7 NA NA types are needed or where local
World total NA NA shortages exist.
World Resources:6 Stone resources are plentiful throughout the world. The supply of high-purity limestone and
dolomite suitable for specialty uses is limited in many geographic areas. The largest resources of high-purity
limestone and dolomite in the United States are in the central and eastern parts of the country.
Substitutes: Crushed stone substitutes for roadbuilding include sand and gravel, and iron and steel slag. Substitutes
for crushed stone used as construction aggregates include construction sand and gravel, iron and steel slag, sintered
or expanded clay or shale, perlite, or vermiculite. Increasingly, recycled asphalt and portland cement concretes are
being substituted for virgin aggregate, although the percentage of total aggregate supplied by recycled materials
remained very small in 2021.
e
1
See also Sand and Gravel (Construction) and Stone (Dimension).
2
Less than ½ unit.
3
Defined as production + recycled material + imports – exports.
4
Including office staff. Source: Mine Safety and Health Administration.
5
6
7
No reliable production information is available for most countries owing to the wide variety of ways in which countries report their crushed stone
production. Some countries do not report production for this mineral commodity. Production information for some countries is available in the
U.S. Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook, volume III, Area Reports—International.

158
STONE (DIMENSION)1
Domestic Production and Use: Approximately 2.3 million tons of dimension stone, valued at $430 million, was sold
or used by U.S. producers in 2021. Dimension stone was produced by approximately 200 companies operating 236
quarries in 34 States. Leading producing States were, in descending order by tonnage, Texas, Wisconsin, Indiana,
Georgia, and Vermont. These five States accounted for about 67% of the production quantity and contributed about
56% of the value of domestic production. Approximately 47%, by tonnage, of dimension stone sold or used was
limestone, followed by sandstone (20%), granite (18%), dolomite and slate (4% each), and the remaining 7% was
divided, in descending order of tonnage, among quartzite, miscellaneous stone, marble, and traprock. By value, the
leading sales or uses were for limestone (43%), followed by granite (28%), sandstone (11%), slate (7%), dolomite
(4%), and the remaining 7% was divided, in descending order of total value, among marble, quartzite, traprock and
miscellaneous stone. Rough stone represented 59% of the tonnage and 54% of the value of all the dimension stone
sold or used by domestic producers, including exports. The leading uses and distribution of rough stone, by tonnage,
were in building and construction (52%) and in irregular-shaped stone (34%). The leading uses and distribution of
dressed stone, by tonnage, were in ashlars and partially squared pieces (45%), flagging (11%), slabs and blocks for
building and construction (10%), and curbing (9%).

Sold or used by producers:2
Quantity 2,880 2,660 2,520 2,350 2,300
Value, million dollars 453 437 415 424 430
Imports for consumption, value, million dollars 2,120 2,090 1,900 1,750 2,300
Exports, value, million dollars 69 70 59 47 48
Consumption, apparent, value, million dollars3 2,510 2,460 2,250 2,130 2,700
Price Variable, depending on type of product
Employment, quarry and mill, number4 3,900 3,900 3,900 3,800 3,700
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption
(based on value) 82 82 82 80 84
Granite only, sold or used by producers:
Quantity 526 484 430 436 420
Value, million dollars 115 108 105 110 120
Imports, value, million dollars 1,020 915 863 794 890
Exports, value, million dollars 22 19 17 13 11
Consumption, apparent, value, million dollars3 1,110 1,000 950 892 1,000
Price Variable, depending on type of product
Employment, quarry and mill, number4 800 800 800 800 800
(based on value) 90 89 89 88 88
Recycling: Small amounts of dimension stone were recycled, principally by restorers of old stone work.
Import Sources (2017–20, by value): All dimension stone: China,6 24%; Brazil, 23%; Italy, 19%; India, 13%; and
other, 21%. Granite only: Brazil, 44%; China,6 22%; India, 19%; Italy, 6%; and other, 9%.
Tariff: Dimension stone tariffs ranged from free to 6.5% ad valorem, according to type, degree of preparation, shape,
and size, for countries with normal trade relations in 2021. Most crude or roughly trimmed stone was imported at 3.7%
ad valorem or less.
Prepared by Andrew A. Stewart [(703) 648–7723, astewart@usgs.gov]

159
STONE (DIMENSION)
Depletion Allowance: All dimension stone, 14% (domestic and foreign); slate used or sold as sintered or burned
lightweight aggregate, 7.5% (domestic and foreign); dimension stone used for rubble and other nonbuilding purposes,
5% (domestic and foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: The United States remained one of the world’s leading markets for dimension stone. In
2021, total imports of dimension stone increased in value by about 33% compared with the value in 2020. In 2021,
increased demand for dimension stone for construction and refurbishment used in residential markets helped offset
decreased demand in commercial markets. Both markets were affected by the measures instituted to mitigate the
spread of the global COVID-19 pandemic. These measures also affected the home remodeling sector, which
increased by 7.6% in the third quarter of 2021 compared with that in 2020, according to the Joint Center for Housing
Studies of Harvard University. Dimension stone exports increased slightly to about $48 million. Apparent
consumption, by value, was estimated to be $2.7 billion in 2021—a 28% increase compared with that in 2020.
In November 2021, a $1.2 trillion infrastructure bill, the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act, was signed into law,
which included $110 billion for construction and repair of bridges and roads and transportation research and other
projects. Additional funding included $17 billion and $25 billion to upgrade and repair ports and airports, respectively.
The leading uses of rough blocks of stone are in building and construction. Dressed stone, such as slabs, ashlars,
and flagging are often used in airport interiors and exteriors.
The dimension stone industry continued to be concerned with safety and health regulations and environmental
restrictions in 2021, especially those concerning crystalline silica exposure. In 2016, the Occupational Safety and
Health Administration finalized new regulations to further restrict exposure to crystalline silica at quarry sites and other
industrial operations that use materials containing it. Final implementation of the new regulations took effect in 2021,
affecting various industries that use materials containing silica. Most provisions of the new regulations became
enforceable on June 23, 2018, for general industry and maritime operations.

2020 2021e
United States 2,350 2,300 Adequate, except for certain special
Other countries NA NA types and local shortages.
World total NA NA
World Resources:7 Dimension stone resources of the world are sufficient. Resources can be limited on a local level
or occasionally on a regional level by the lack of a particular kind of stone that is suitable for dimension purposes.
Substitutes: Substitutes for dimension stone include aluminum, brick, ceramic tile, concrete, glass, plastics, resin-
agglomerated stone, and steel.
e
1
See also Stone (Crushed).
2
Includes granite, limestone, and other types of dimension stone.
3
Defined as sold or used + imports – exports.
4
Excludes office staff.
5
6
Includes Hong Kong.
7

160
STRONTIUM
(Data in metric tons of contained strontium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Although deposits of strontium minerals occur widely throughout the United States,
none have been mined in the United States since 1959. Domestic production of strontium carbonate, the principal
strontium compound, ceased in 2006. Virtually all the strontium mineral celestite consumed in the United States since
2006 is thought to have been used as an additive in drilling fluids for oil and natural gas wells. A few domestic
companies produced small quantities of downstream strontium chemicals from imported strontium carbonate.
Based on import data, the estimated end-use distribution in the United States for strontium, including celestite and
strontium compounds, was ceramic ferrite magnets and pyrotechnics and signals, 40% each; and other uses,
including drilling fluids, electrolytic production of zinc, master alloys, pigments and fillers, and other applications,
including glass accounted for the remaining 20%.

Production — — — — —
Celestite1 11,300 16,900 7,960 1,060 —
Strontium compounds2 6,660 6,350 5,560 4,440 4,800
Exports, strontium compounds 36 32 20 32 12
Consumption, apparent:3
Celestite 11,300 16,900 7,960 1,060 —
Strontium compounds 6,620 6,320 5,540 4,410 4,800
Total 17,900 23,200 13,500 5,470 4,800
Price, average value of celestite imports at port of exportation,
dollars per ton 74 78 82 90 XX
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Celestite: Mexico, 100%. Strontium compounds: Mexico, 47%; Germany, 43%; China,
5%; and other, 5%. Total imports: Mexico, 80%; Germany, 16%; China, 2%; and other, 2%.

12–31–21
Celestite 2530.90.8010 Free.
Strontium compounds:
Strontium metal 2805.19.1000 3.7% ad valorem.
Strontium oxide, hydroxide, peroxide 2816.40.1000 4.2% ad valorem.
Strontium nitrate 2834.29.2000 4.2% ad valorem.
Strontium carbonate 2836.92.0000 4.2% ad valorem.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Apparent consumption of total strontium declined by 12% in 2021. Apparent
consumption of strontium compounds increased by 9%, but apparent consumption of celestite decreased by 100% to
zero. Following a 59% decrease of apparent consumption of all forms of strontium in 2020 because of the economic
downturn caused by restrictions imposed worldwide as the result of the global COVID-19 pandemic, consumption of
strontium compounds increased as the economy began to recover in 2021. World celestite production was estimated
to have increased slightly from that of 2020.
minerals list.
Prepared by Joyce A. Ober [Contact Elizabeth S. Sangine, (703) 648–7720, escottsangine@usgs.gov]

161
STRONTIUM
No imports of celestite, the most commonly used strontium mineral, were reported in 2021, likely the result of
decreased use of celestite in natural-gas- and oil-well-drilling fluids. Although drilling activity increased in 2021, it
remained very low compared with that seen in the few years before the pandemic. In recent years, nearly all celestite
imports were from Mexico and were thought to be used as additives in drilling fluids for oil and natural gas exploration
and production. For these applications, celestite is ground but undergoes no chemical processing. A small quantity of
high-value celestite imports were reported; these were most likely mineral specimens. Although no strontium
carbonate was produced in the United States, celestite is the raw material from which strontium carbonate and other
strontium compounds are produced.
Strontium carbonate is the most commonly traded strontium compound and is used as the raw material from which
other strontium compounds are derived. Strontium carbonate is sintered with iron oxide to produce permanent
ceramic ferrite magnets, and strontium nitrate contributes a brilliant red color to fireworks and signal flares. Smaller
quantities of these and other strontium compounds were consumed in several other applications, including electrolytic
production of zinc, glass production, master alloys, and pigments and fillers. Imports of strontium compounds were
estimated to have increased by 8% in 2021.
World Mine Production and Reserves:4

2020 2021e
Argentina e700 700 reserves for most countries
China e80,000 80,000 were not available.
Iran e90,000 90,000
Mexico 33,500 35,000
Spain e150,000 150,000
World total (rounded) e350,000 360,000
World Resources:5 World resources of strontium are thought to exceed 1 billion tons.
Substitutes: Barium can be substituted for strontium in ferrite ceramic magnets; however, the resulting barium
composite will have a reduced maximum operating temperature when compared with that of strontium composites.
Substituting for strontium in pyrotechnics is hindered by difficulty in obtaining the desired brilliance and visibility
imparted by strontium and its compounds. In drilling mud, barite is the preferred material, but celestite may substitute
for some barite, especially when barite prices are high.
e
Estimated. XX Not applicable. — Zero.
1
The strontium content of celestite is 43.88%, assuming an ore grade of 92%, which was used to convert units of celestite to strontium content.
2
Strontium compounds, with their respective strontium contents, in descending order, include metal (100.00%); oxide, hydroxide, and peroxide
(70.00%); carbonate (59.35%); and nitrate (41.40%). These factors were used to convert gross weight of strontium compounds to strontium content.
3
Defined as imports − exports.
4
Gross weight of celestite in tons.
5

162
SULFUR
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained sulfur unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, recovered elemental sulfur and byproduct sulfuric acid were produced at 95
operations in 27 States. Total shipments were valued at about $740 million. Elemental sulfur production was
estimated to be 7.5 million tons; Louisiana and Texas accounted for about 55% of domestic production. Elemental
sulfur was recovered, in descending order of tonnage, at petroleum refineries, natural-gas-processing plants, and
coking plants by 35 companies at 90 plants in 26 States. Byproduct sulfuric acid, representing about 7% of production
of sulfur in all forms, was recovered at five nonferrous-metal smelters in four States by four companies. Domestic
elemental sulfur provided 59% of domestic consumption, and byproduct sulfuric acid accounted for about 5%. The
remaining 36% of sulfur consumed was provided by imported sulfur and sulfuric acid. About 90% of sulfur consumed
was in the form of sulfuric acid.

Production:
Recovered elemental 9,070 9,000 8,110 7,310 7,500
Other forms 560 672 596 581 600
Total (rounded) 9,630 9,670 8,710 7,890 8,100
Shipments, all forms 9,680 9,690 8,700 7,900 8,200
Recovered elementale 1,850 2,230 1,850 2,230 2,500
Sulfuric acid 954 997 971 1,200 1,100
Exports:
Recovered elemental 2,340 2,390 2,200 1,310 1,700
Sulfuric acid 80 112 72 64 140
Consumption, apparent, all forms1 10,100 10,400 9,250 9,960 10,000
Price, reported average value, free on board, mine and (or) plant,
dollars per ton of elemental sulfur 46.40 81.20 51.10 24.40 90
Employment, mine and (or) plant, number 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400 2,400
Recycling: Typically, between 2.5 million and 5 million tons of spent sulfuric acid is reclaimed from petroleum refining
and chemical processes during any given year.
Import Sources (2017–20): Elemental: Canada, 73%; Russia, 17%; Kazakhstan, 5%; and other, 5%. Sulfuric acid:
Canada, 61%; Mexico, 18%; Spain, 7%; Germany, 5%; and other, 9%. Total sulfur imports: Canada, 69%; Russia,
11%; Mexico, 6%; Kazakhstan, 4%; and other, 10%.

12–31–21
Sulfur, crude or unrefined 2503.00.0010 Free.
Sulfur, all kinds, other 2503.00.0090 Free.
Sulfur, sublimed or precipitated 2802.00.0000 Free.
Sulfuric acid 2807.00.0000 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: Total U.S. sulfur production in 2021 was estimated to have increased by 3% from that
of 2020, and shipments also increased by 4% from those of 2020. Domestic production of elemental sulfur from
petroleum refineries and recovery from natural gas operations increased by 3%. However, in the first 6 months of
2021, U.S. sulfur production was lower than 2020 because of the cold weather that affected the central United States
in mid-February, leading to the largest reduction in Gulf Coast refining operations over the past several years. In
addition, Hurricanes Ida and Nicholas brought Gulf Coast refining to a standstill. Domestically, refinery sulfur
production is expected to increase as refining utilization increases. Domestic byproduct sulfuric acid is expected to
remain relatively constant, unless one or more of the remaining nonferrous-metal smelters close.

163
SULFUR
Domestic phosphate rock consumption in 2021 was estimated to have remained the same as that in 2020, which
resulted in the same consumption of sulfur to process the phosphate rock into phosphate fertilizers.
World sulfur production was slightly more than it was in 2020 as a result of increased demand and is likely to steadily
increase for the foreseeable future. New sulfur demand associated with phosphate fertilizer projects is expected
mostly in Africa, and sulfur demand likely will also increase in Asia and Eastern Europe.
Contract sulfur prices in Tampa, FL, began 2021 at around $69 per long ton. The sulfur price decreased to $195 per
long ton in mid-July, and then decreased to $183 per long ton by the end of September. Fourth-quarter 2021 prices
remained at $183 per long ton. In the past few years, sulfur prices have been variable, a result of the volatility in the
demand for sulfur. High sulfur prices in 2021 were a result of supply issues.
Production, all forms Reserves3

2020 2021e
United States 7,890 8,100 Reserves of sulfur in crude oil, natural gas,
Australia 900 900 and sulfide ores are large. Because most
Brazil 500 500 sulfur production is a result of the
Canada 4,900 4,900 processing of fossil fuels, supplies are
Chile 1,300 1,300 expected to be adequate for the foreseeable
China4 17,300 17,000 future. Because petroleum and sulfide ores
Finland 717 720 can be processed long distances from
Germany 633 630 where they are produced, sulfur production
Greece 500 500 may not be in the country to which the
India 3,460 3,500 reserves were attributed. For instance,
Iran 2,200 2,200 sulfur from Saudi Arabian oil may be
Japan 3,040 3,000 recovered at refineries in the United States.
Kazakhstan 4,480 4,500
Kuwait 620 600
Poland 992 1,000
Qatar 2,000 2,000
Russia 7,530 7,500
South Africa 900 900
Turkmenistan 700 700
United Arab Emirates 6,000 6,000
World Resources:3 Resources of elemental sulfur in evaporite and volcanic deposits, and sulfur associated with
natural gas, petroleum, tar sands, and metal sulfides, total about 5 billion tons. The sulfur in gypsum and anhydrite is
almost limitless, and 600 billion tons of sulfur is contained in coal, oil shale, and shale that is rich in organic matter.
Production from these sources would require development of low-cost methods of extraction. The domestic sulfur
resource is about one-fifth of the world total.
Substitutes: Substitutes for sulfur at present or anticipated price levels are not satisfactory; some acids, in certain
applications, may be substituted for sulfuric acid, but usually at a higher cost.
e
Estimated.
1
Defined as shipments + imports – exports.
2
3
4
Sulfur production in China includes byproduct elemental sulfur recovered from natural gas and petroleum, the estimated sulfur content of
byproduct sulfuric acid from metallurgy, and the sulfur content of sulfuric acid from pyrite.

164
TALC AND PYROPHYLLITE1
Domestic Production and Use: Three companies operated five talc producing mines in three States during 2021,
and domestic production of crude talc was estimated to be nearly unchanged at 490,000 tons valued at $22 million.
Talc was mined in Montana, Texas, and Vermont. Total sales (domestic and export) of talc by U.S. producers were
estimated to be 490,000 tons valued at about $130 million, a 9% increase from the value in 2020. Talc produced and
sold in the United States was used in ceramics (including automotive catalytic converters) (23%), paper (18%), paint
(17%), plastics (11%), rubber (6%), roofing (4%), and cosmetics (1%). The remaining 20% was for agriculture, export,
insecticides, and other miscellaneous uses.
One company in North Carolina mined and processed pyrophyllite in 2020. Domestic production was withheld to
avoid disclosing company proprietary data and was estimated to have increased from that in 2020. Pyrophyllite was
sold for refractory, paint, and ceramic products.

e490
Production, mine 610 648 578 490
e460
Sold by producers 528 537 515 490
Exports 220 273 234 188 240
Consumption, apparent2 644 577 562 e460 530
Price, average, milled, dollars per metric ton3 214 227 240 265 270
Employment, mine and mill, number:4
Talc 206 208 202 187 190
Pyrophyllite 31 30 31 31 30
Net import reliance5 as a percentage of apparent consumption 18 7 8 <1 8
Import Sources (2017–20): Pakistan, 46%; Canada, 28%; China,6 11%; and other, 15%. Large quantities of crude
talc were thought to have been mined in Afghanistan before being milled in and exported from Pakistan.

12–31–21
Natural steatite and talc:
Not crushed, not powdered 2526.10.0000 Free.
Crushed or powdered 2520.26.0000 Free.
Talc, steatite, and soapstone; cut or sawed 6815.99.2000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Block steatite talc: 22% (domestic), 14% (foreign). other talc and pyrophyllite: 14% (domestic
and foreign).

165
TALC AND PYROPHYLLITE
Events, Trends, and Issues: Canada, China, and Pakistan were the principal sources for United States talc imports
in recent years. Imports from Pakistan have increased in recent years and accounted for nearly one-half of total
imports. Imports from Canada have supplied nearly one-third of the total, whereas imports from China have
decreased recently to about 10% of total imports. Canada and Mexico continued to be the primary destinations for
United States talc exports, collectively receiving about one-half of exports. Imports and exports of talc and related
materials were estimated to have increased by at least 35% in 2021 compared with those of 2020. Primarily owing to
the global COVID-19 pandemic, U.S. talc consumption, exports, imports, production, and sales were unusually low in
2020. Production and sales of domestically sourced talc remained at near 2020 levels in 2021, but apparent
consumption increased as trade rebounded in 2021, returning to near 2019 levels.
The amount of talc used in rubber production increased in 2020 and 2021 in response to greater demand for rubber
stoppers as the medical industry shipped large quantities of COVID-19 vaccines. Ceramic tile and sanitaryware
formulations and the technology for firing ceramic tile changed over recent decades, reducing the amount of talc
required for the manufacture of some ceramic products. For paint, the industry shifted its focus to production of water-
based paint (a product for which talc is not well suited because it is hydrophobic) from oil-based paint in order to
reduce volatile emissions. The amount of talc used for paper manufacturing began to decrease beginning in the
1990s, and some talc used for pitch control was replaced by chemical agents. For cosmetics, manufacturers of body
dusting powders shifted some of their production from talc-based to corn-starch-based products.

2020 2021e
United States (crude) e, 8490 8490 140,000
Brazil (crude and beneficiated)9 650 650 45,000
Canada (unspecified minerals) 230 240 NA
China (unspecified minerals) 1,300 1,400 82,000
Finland 278 300 Large
France (crude) 450 450 Large
India9 1,670 1,700 110,000
Italy (includes steatite) 165 170 NA
Japan9 160 160 100,000
Korea, Republic of9 476 450 81,000
Pakistan 126 120 NA
South Africa9 126 130 NA
Other countries (includes crude)9 600 700 Large
World Resources:7 The United States is self-sufficient in most grades of talc and related minerals, but lower priced
imports have replaced domestic minerals for some uses. Talc occurs in the United States from New England to
Alabama in the Appalachian Mountains and the Piedmont region, as well as in California, Montana, Nevada, Texas,
and Washington. Domestic and world identified resources are estimated to be approximately five times the quantity of
reserves.
Substitutes: Substitutes for talc include bentonite, chlorite, feldspar, kaolin, and pyrophyllite in ceramics; chlorite,
kaolin, and mica in paint; calcium carbonate and kaolin in paper; bentonite, kaolin, mica, and wollastonite in plastics;
and kaolin and mica in rubber.
e
1
All statistics exclude pyrophyllite unless otherwise noted.
2
Defined as sold by producers + imports – exports.
3
Average ex-works unit value of milled talc sold by U.S. producers, based on data reported by companies.
4
Includes only companies that mine talc or pyrophyllite. Excludes office workers and mills that process imported or domestically purchased
material.
5
6
Includes Hong Kong.
7
8
Excludes U.S. production of pyrophyllite.
9
Includes pyrophyllite.

166
TANTALUM
(Data in metric tons of contained tantalum unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Significant U.S. tantalum mine production has not been reported since 1959.
Domestic tantalum resources are of low grade, some are mineralogically complex, and most are not commercially
recoverable. Companies in the United States produced tantalum alloys, capacitors, carbides, compounds, and
tantalum metal from imported tantalum ores and concentrates and tantalum-containing materials. Tantalum metal and
alloys were recovered from foreign and domestic scrap. Domestic tantalum consumption was not reported by
consumers. Major end uses for tantalum included alloys for gas turbines used in the aerospace and oil and gas
industries; tantalum capacitors for automotive electronics, mobile phones, and personal computers; tantalum carbides
for cutting and boring tools; and tantalum oxide (Ta2O5) was used in glass lenses to make lighter weight camera
lenses that produce a brighter image. The value of tantalum consumed in 2021 was estimated to exceed $220 million
as measured by the value of imports.

Production:
Mine — — — — —
Secondary NA NA NA NA NA
Exports1 549 681 423 417 580
Shipments from Government stockpile2 — — — −16 −10
Price, tantalite, dollars per kilogram of Ta2O5 content4 193 214 161 158 158
Recycling: Tantalum was recycled mostly from new scrap that was generated during the manufacture of tantalum-
containing electronic components and from tantalum-containing cemented carbide and superalloy scrap. The amount
of tantalum recycled was not available, but it may be as much as 30% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Tantalum ores and concentrates: Australia, 36%; Rwanda, 34%; Congo (Kinshasa), 7%;
Mozambique, 6%; and other, 17%. Tantalum metal and powder: China,6 39%; Germany, 22%; Kazakhstan, 12%;
Thailand, 12%; and other, 15%. Tantalum waste and scrap: Indonesia, 20%; China,6 17%; Japan, 16%; and other,
47%. Total: China,6 23%; Germany, 11%; Australia, 8%; Indonesia, 8%; and other, 50%.

12–31–21
Synthetic tantalum-niobium concentrates 2615.90.3000 Free.
Niobium ores and concentrates 2615.90.6030 Free.
Tantalum ores and concentrates 2615.90.6060 Free.
Tantalum oxide7 2825.90.9000 3.7% ad valorem.
Potassium fluorotantalate7 2826.90.9000 3.1% ad valorem.
Tantalum, unwrought:
Powders 8103.20.0030 2.5% ad valorem.
Alloys and metal 8103.20.0090 2.5% ad valorem.
Tantalum, waste and scrap 8103.30.0000 Free.
Tantalum, other 8103.90.0000 4.4% ad valorem.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Tantalum carbide powder — — 1.71 — 1.71
Tantalum niobium concentrate
(gross weight) 92 — — — —
Tantalum metal9 (gross weight) 0.085 15.4 0.09 — 0.09
Tantalum alloy (gross weight) 0.0015 — — — —
Prepared by Chad A. Friedline [(703) 648–7713, cfriedline@usgs.gov]

167
TANTALUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. tantalum apparent consumption (measured in contained tantalum) was estimated
to have decreased by 11% from that in 2020. In 2021, estimated U.S. imports for consumption increased by 6%. Most
of the tantalum imported was in the form of metal and powder (45%), followed by ores and concentrates (30%), and
waste and scrap (24%). Waste and scrap imports saw the most significant variation by declining 37% from that in
2020. Estimated U.S. exports increased by 39% in 2021. In 2021, the average monthly price of tantalum ore
remained constant at about $158 per kilogram of Ta2O5 content between both years.
Global tantalum production and consumption were thought to have increased in 2021 as steel production in most
countries began to recover from the global COVID-19 pandemic. Production in Rwanda was estimated to have
increased based on reported ore production through August 2021. China remained the leading export destination
through the same period, accounting for approximately 30% of tantalum ores and concentrates, waste and scrap, and
metals consumption. Brazil, Congo (Kinshasa), Nigeria, and Rwanda accounted for about 80% of estimated global
tantalum production in 2021.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia were revised based on Government information.

2020 2021e
Australia 34 62 1194,000
Bolivia 7 7 NA
Brazil 470 470 40,000
Burundi 24 32 NA
China 74 76 NA
Congo (Kinshasa) 780 700 NA
Ethiopia 69 52 NA
Mozambique 43 43 NA
Nigeria 260 260 NA
Russia 49 39 NA
Rwanda 254 270 NA
Uganda 38 40 NA
World Resources:10 Identified world resources of tantalum, most of which are in Australia, Brazil, and Canada, are
considered adequate to supply projected needs. The United States has about 55,000 tons of tantalum resources in
identified deposits, most of which were considered uneconomical at 2021 prices for tantalum.
Substitutes: The following materials can be substituted for tantalum, but a performance loss or higher costs may
ensue: niobium and tungsten in carbides; aluminum, ceramics, and niobium in electronic capacitors; glass,
molybdenum, nickel, niobium, platinum, stainless steel, titanium, and zirconium in corrosion-resistant applications;
and hafnium, iridium, molybdenum, niobium, rhenium, and tungsten in high-temperature applications.
e
1
Imports and exports include the estimated tantalum content of synthetic tantalum-niobium concentrates, niobium and tantalum ores and
concentrates, tantalum waste and scrap, unwrought tantalum alloys and powder, and other tantalum articles. Synthetic concentrates and niobium
ores and concentrates were assumed to contain 32% Ta2O5. Tantalum ores and concentrates were assumed to contain 37% Ta2O5. Ta2O5 is
81.897% tantalum.
2
Change in total inventory from prior yearend inventory. If negative, increase in inventory.
3
Defined as production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government stock changes.
4
Price is annual average price reported by CRU Group. The estimate for 2021 includes data available through October 2021.
5
6
Includes Hong Kong.
7
This category includes tantalum-containing material and other material.
8
9
Potential acquisitions are for unspecified tantalum materials; potential disposals are for tantalum scrap in the Government stockpile.
10
11

168
TELLURIUM
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, tellurium was recovered in copper slimes in the United States. One
company in Texas was thought to export copper anode slimes to Mexico for recovery of commercial-grade tellurium.
One company in Utah announced the development of a tellurium plant with a capacity of 20 tons per year which was
expected to begin production in the fourth quarter of 2021. Downstream companies further refined imported
commercial-grade metal to produce tellurium dioxide, high-purity tellurium, and tellurium compounds for specialty
applications.
Tellurium was predominantly used in the production of cadmium telluride (CdTe) for thin-film solar cells. Another
important end use was for the production of bismuth telluride (BiTe), which is used in thermoelectric devices for both
cooling and energy generation. Other uses were as an alloying additive in steel to improve machining characteristics,
as a minor additive in copper alloys to improve machinability without reducing conductivity, in lead alloys to improve
resistance to vibration and fatigue, in cast iron to help control the depth of chill, and in malleable iron as a carbide
stabilizer. It was used in the chemical industry as a vulcanizing agent and accelerator in the processing of rubber and
as a component of catalysts for synthetic fiber production. Other uses included those in photoreceptor and
thermoelectric devices, blasting caps, and as a pigment to produce various colors in glass and ceramics.
Global consumption estimates of tellurium by end use are solar, 40%; thermoelectric production, 30%; metallurgy,
15%; rubber applications, 5%; and other, 10%.

Production, refinery W W W W W
Exports 2 4 1 (1) 2
Price,3 dollars per kilogram 38 74 60 56 68
Stocks, producer, refined, yearend W W W W W
Recycling: For traditional metallurgical and chemical uses, there was little or no old scrap from which to extract
secondary tellurium because these uses of tellurium are highly dispersive or dissipative. A very small amount of
tellurium was recovered from scrapped selenium-tellurium photoreceptors employed in older plain-paper copiers in
Europe. A plant in the United States recycled tellurium from CdTe solar cells; however, the amount recycled was
limited because most CdTe solar cells were relatively new and had not reached the end of their useful life.
Import Sources (2017–20): Canada, 57%; Germany, 19%; China,5 17%; the Philippines, 4%; and other, 3%.

12–31–21
Tellurium 2804.50.0020 Free.
Events, Trends, and Issues: In 2021, domestic tellurium content in anode slimes was estimated to have remained
essentially unchanged from that in 2020. One domestic producer of anode slimes shipped at least a portion of its
anode slimes to Mexico for treatment and refining. In 2021, the domestic average monthly price of tellurium generally
increased throughout the year, continuing a trend from December 2020. The price increased from around $60 per
kilogram in January to $71 per kilogram in October.

169
TELLURIUM
Domestic imports of tellurium were estimated to have increased by about 83% in 2021 from those of 2020, mostly as
a result of a significant increase in imports from the Philippines. During the first 8 months of 2021, the United States
imported 9.5 tons of tellurium from the Philippines, an increase of 82% with respect to the total imports from the
Philippines in 2020, and an increase of 325% with respect to the same time period in 2020. Imports from Japan also
increased in the first 8 months of 2021, by 161% compared with the same time period in 2020.
World production of tellurium was estimated to be about 580 tons in 2021. China was the leading producer of refined
tellurium, recovering tellurium from copper anode slimes and from residues generated during the lead, nickel,
precious metals, and zinc smelting processes. In early 2021, a Chinese producer of tellurium metal announced an
increase of tellurium production following the Lunar New Year holiday, rising from 3 to 4 tons per month to 6 tons per
month, or 72 tons per year. In Canada, one producer announced further investment in their new ultrahigh-purity
tellurium line. The line is expected to produce up to 7N purity (99.99999%) tellurium for digital and solid-state
radiation detectors, as well as other applications. Solid-state radiation detectors produce highly accurate images, and
are used in healthcare, security, and military systems.
World Refinery Production and Reserves: The values shown for reserves include only tellurium contained in
copper reserves. These estimates assume that more than one-half of the tellurium contained in unrefined copper
anodes is recoverable.
Refinery production Reserves6

2020 2021e
Bulgaria e3 5 NA
Canada e44 45 800
China e330 340 6,600
Japan e70 75 —
Russia 71 70 NA
South Africa e2 3 —
Sweden 42 40 670
Other countries7 NA NA 19,000
World total (rounded) 8562 8580 31,000
World Resources:6 Data on tellurium resources were not available. More than 90% of tellurium has been produced
from anode slimes collected from electrolytic copper refining, and the remainder was derived from skimmings at lead
refineries and from flue dusts and gases generated during the smelting of bismuth, copper, and lead-zinc ores.
Potential sources of tellurium include bismuth telluride and gold telluride ores.
Substitutes: Several materials can replace tellurium in most of its uses, but usually with losses in efficiency or
product characteristics. Bismuth, calcium, lead, phosphorus, selenium, and sulfur can be used in place of tellurium in
many free-machining steels. Several of the chemical process reactions catalyzed by tellurium can be carried out with
other catalysts or by means of noncatalyzed processes. In rubber compounding, sulfur and (or) selenium can act as
vulcanization agents in place of tellurium. The selenides and sulfides of niobium and tantalum can serve as electrical-
conducting solid lubricants in place of tellurides of those metals.
The selenium-tellurium photoreceptors used in some plain paper photocopiers and laser printers have been replaced
by organic photoreceptors in newer devices. Amorphous silicon and copper-indium-gallium selenide were the two
principal competitors of CdTe in thin-film photovoltaic solar cells. Bismuth selenide and organic polymers can be used
to substitute for some BiTe thermal devices.
e
1
Less than ½ unit. U.S. Census Bureau export data were adjusted by U.S. Geological Survey.
2
3
Average annual price for 99.95% tellurium, in warehouse, Rotterdam. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
4
Defined as imports – exports + adjustments for industry stock changes. For 2020, exports were not included in the calculation.
5
Includes Hong Kong.
6
7
In addition to the countries listed, Australia, Belgium, Chile, Colombia, Germany, Kazakhstan, Mexico, the Philippines, and Poland produced
refined tellurium, but output was not reported and available information was inadequate to make reliable production estimates.
8

170
THALLIUM
(Data in kilograms unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Small quantities of thallium are consumed annually, but variations in pricing and
value data make it difficult to estimate the value of consumption. The primary end uses included the following:
radioisotope thallium-201 used for medical purposes in cardiovascular imaging; thallium used as an activator (sodium
iodide crystal doped with thallium) in gamma radiation detection equipment; thallium-barium-calcium-copper-oxide
high-temperature superconductors used in filters for wireless communications; thallium used in lenses, prisms, and
windows for infrared detection and transmission equipment; thallium-arsenic-selenium crystal filters used for light
diffraction in acousto-optical measuring devices; and thallium used in mercury alloys for low-temperature
measurements. Other uses include as an additive in glass to increase its refractive index and density, a catalyst for
organic compound synthesis, and a component in high-density liquids for gravity separation of minerals.

Production, refinery — — — — —
Unwrought metal and metal powders — — — 57 —
Waste and scrap — 23 27 — —
Other articles — 41 38 — 10
Exports:
Unwrought metal and powders 34 100 290 300 300
Waste and scrap 364 853 133 359 100
Other articles 1,560 131,400 179,100 580 600
Consumption, estimated2 — 64 65 57 10
Price, metal,e, 3 dollars per kilogram NA NA 7,600 8,200 8,400
Net import reliance4 as a percentage of estimated consumption NA NA NA NA NA
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–2020): China, 41%; Russia 31%, Norway, 15%; and the United Kingdom, 13%.

12–31–21
Unwrought and powders 8112.51.0000 4.0% ad valorem.
Prepared by Madan M. Singh [Contact Robert M. Callaghan, (703) 648–7709, rcallaghan@usgs.gov]

171
THALLIUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: As of August 2021, no imports of unwrought thallium metal and powder or thallium
waste and scrap were reported. All exports of unwrought thallium and powders left the New Orleans, LA, customs
district and went to Taiwan. No exports of thallium waste and scrap were reported through August 2021, but
100 kilograms was estimated for the year based on prior year data. Most exports of other thallium articles (Schedule
B number 8112.59.0000) were exported from Washington, DC, to Hungary, and a small quantity was sent to Hungary
from Buffalo, NY. In 2018 and 2019, reported exports of thallium articles were unusually high in quantity; these
exports likely were misclassified material.
Demand for thallium for use in cardiovascular-imaging applications has declined owing to superior performance and
availability of alternatives, such as the medical isotope technetium-99. A global shortage of technetium-99 from 2009
to 2011 had contributed to an increase in thallium consumption during that period. Since 2011, consumption of
thallium has declined significantly. Small quantities of thallium are used for research.
The leading global uses for thallium were gamma radiation detection equipment, high-temperature superconductors,
infrared optical materials, low-melting glasses, photoelectric cells, and radioisotopes. Producers of these products
were in China, Japan, the Republic of Korea, and the United States.
Thallium metal and its compounds are highly toxic materials and are strictly controlled to prevent harm to humans and
the environment. Thallium and its compounds can be absorbed into the human body by skin contact, ingestion, or
inhalation of dust or fumes. Under its national primary drinking water regulations for public water supplies, the U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency has set an enforceable Maximum Contaminant Level of 2 parts per billion thallium
in drinking water.
World Refinery Production and Reserves:5 Thallium is produced commercially in only a few countries as a
byproduct in the roasting of copper, lead, and zinc ores and is recovered from flue dust. Because most producers
withhold thallium production data, global production data are limited. In 2021, global production of thallium was
estimated to be about 10,000 kilograms. China, Kazakhstan, and Russia were thought to be leading producers of
primary thallium. Since 2005, substantial thallium-rich deposits have been identified in Brazil, China, North
Macedonia, and Russia. Quantitative estimates of reserves are not available, owing to the difficulty in identifying
deposits where thallium can be extracted economically. Previous estimates of reserves were based on the thallium
content of zinc ores.
World Resources:5 Although thallium is reasonably abundant in the Earth's crust, estimated at about 0.7 part per
million, it exists mostly in association with potassium minerals in clays, granites, and soils, and it is not generally
considered to be commercially recoverable from those materials. The major source of recoverable thallium is trace
amounts found in sulfide ores of copper, lead, zinc, and other metallic elements. World resources of thallium
contained in identified zinc resources could be as much as 17,000,000 kilograms; most are in Canada, Europe, and
the United States. World identified resources of coal contain an estimated 630,000,000 kilograms of thallium.
Substitutes: Although other materials and formulations can substitute for thallium in gamma radiation detection
equipment and optics used for infrared detection and transmission, thallium materials are presently superior and more
cost effective for these very specialized uses. The medical isotope technetium-99 can be used in cardiovascular-
imaging applications instead of thallium. Nonpoisonous substitutes, such as tungsten compounds, are being
marketed as substitutes for thallium in high-density liquids for gravity separation of minerals.
e
1
Includes material that may have been misclassified.
2
Estimated to be equal to imports.
3
Estimated price of 99.99%-pure granules in 100-gram lots.
4
Defined as imports – exports. Consumption and exports of unwrought thallium were from imported material or from a drawdown in unreported
inventories.
5

172
THORIUM
(Data in kilograms, gross weight, unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The world’s primary source of thorium is the rare-earth and thorium phosphate
mineral monazite. In 2021, monazite may have been produced as a separated concentrate or included as an
accessory mineral in heavy-mineral concentrates. Essentially, all thorium compounds and alloys consumed by the
domestic industry were derived from imports. The number of companies that processed or fabricated various forms of
thorium for commercial use was not available. Thorium’s use in most products was generally limited because of
concerns over its naturally occurring radioactivity. Imports of thorium compounds are sporadic owing to changes in
consumption and fluctuations in consumer inventory levels. The estimated value of thorium compounds imported for
consumption by the domestic industry in 2021 was $427,000 (through August 2021), compared with $55,400 in 2020.

Production, mine1 — 2500,000 21,700,000 2960,000 W
Ore and concentrates (monazite) — 1,000 — 3,000 —
Compounds (oxide, nitrate, and so forth) 8,510 9,000 3,970 1,920 8,000
Exports:
Ore and concentrates (monazite) — 520,000 1,700,000 960,000 —
Compounds (oxide, nitrate, and so forth)3 2,060 3,260 1,660 213 2,500
Consumption, apparent:4
Ore and concentrates (monazite) — 1,000 — 3,000 —
Compounds (oxide, nitrate, and so forth) 6,450 5,740 2,310 1,710 5,500
Price, average value, compounds, India,5 dollars per kilogram 73 72 72 NA NA
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Monazite: United Kingdom, 75%; and Canada, 25%. Thorium compounds: India, 74%;
and France, 26%.

12–31–21
Thorium ore and concentrates (monazite) 2612.20.0000 Free.
Thorium compounds 2844.30.1000 5.5% ad valorem.
Depletion Allowance: Monazite, 22% on thorium content, and 14% on rare-earth and yttrium content (domestic);
14% (foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: Domestic demand for thorium alloys, compounds, and metals was limited. In addition
to research purposes, various commercial uses of thorium included catalysts, high-temperature ceramics,
magnetrons in microwave ovens, metal-halide lamps, nuclear medicine, optical coatings, tungsten filaments, and
welding electrodes.
Prepared by Madan M. Singh [Contact Daniel J. Cordier, (703) 648–7707, jcordier@usgs.gov]

173
THORIUM
Exports of unspecified thorium compounds were estimated to be 2,500 kilograms in 2021. More than 90% of the
exports have a unit value of less than $50 per kilogram, so it is likely that they were misclassified. Only the quantity of
compounds with unit values more than $50 per kilogram were included in the total export estimate. Owing to
potentially misclassified material and variations in the type and purity of thorium compounds, the unit value of exports
varied widely by month and by exporting customs district.
Globally, monazite was produced primarily for its rare-earth-element content, and only a small fraction of the
byproduct thorium produced was consumed. Madagascar was the leading producer of monazite. Thorium
consumption worldwide is relatively small compared with that of most other mineral commodities. In international
trade, China was the leading importer of monazite; Brazil, Madagascar, Thailand, and Vietnam were China’s leading
import sources. The United States exported monazite to China, including Hong Kong. China’s exports became more
regulated and were optimized to add value.
The Eneabba mineral sands project (Australia) was exporting monazite but had upgraded its processing facilities and
was studying the feasibility of an integrated rare-earths refinery. Monazite from the Moma Mine (Mozambique) was
being exported. The status of the Kvanefjeld project (Greenland) was in flux because of environmental concerns. The
Steenkrampskraal Mine (South Africa) made several improvements to its plant and was working with an energy
company in Norway to develop fuel pellets for use in nuclear powerplants.
Several companies and countries were active in the pursuit of commercializing thorium as a fuel material for a new
generation of nuclear reactors. Thorium-based nuclear research and development programs have been or were
underway in Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Czechia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, India, Israel,
Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, the Netherlands, Norway, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
World Mine Production and Reserves:7 Production and reserves are associated with the recovery of monazite in
heavy-mineral-sand deposits. Without demand for the rare earths, monazite likely would not be recovered for its
thorium content under current market conditions.
World Resources:7 The world’s leading thorium resources are found in placer, carbonatite, and vein-type deposits.
Thorium is found in several minerals, including monazite, thorite, and thorianite. According to the World Nuclear
Association,8 worldwide identified thorium resources were estimated to total 6.4 million tons of thorium. Thorium
resources are found throughout the world, most notably in Australia, Brazil, India, and the United States. India has the
largest resources (850,000 tons), followed by Brazil (630,000 tons) and Australia and the United States (600,000 tons
each).
Substitutes: Nonradioactive substitutes have been developed for many applications of thorium. Yttrium compounds
have replaced thorium compounds in incandescent lamp mantles. A magnesium alloy containing lanthanides, yttrium,
and zirconium can substitute for magnesium-thorium alloys in aerospace applications. Cerium, lanthanum, yttrium,
and zirconium oxides can substitute for thorium in welding electrodes. Several replacement materials (such as yttrium
fluoride and proprietary materials) are in use as optical coatings instead of thorium fluoride.
e
1
Monazite may have been produced as a separate concentrate or included as an accessory mineral in heavy-mineral concentrates.
2
Estimates based on exports.
3
Excludes estimates of material that may have been misclassified.
4
Defined as production + imports – exports. Shown separately for ore and concentrates and for compounds. Production is only for ore and
concentrates.
5
Calculated from U.S. Census Bureau import data.
6
Defined as imports – exports; however, a meaningful net import reliance could not be calculated owing to uncertainties in the classification of
material being imported and exported.
7
8
World Nuclear Association, 2017, Thorium: London, United Kingdom, World Nuclear Association, February.

174
TIN
(Data in metric tons of contained tin unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Tin has not been mined or smelted in the United States since 1993 and 1989,
respectively. Twenty-five firms accounted for over 90% of the primary tin consumed domestically in 2021. The major
uses for tin in the United States were chemicals, 25%; tinplate, 22%; alloys, 12%; solder, 9%; babbitt, brass and
bronze, and tinning, 8%; bar tin, 2%; and other, 22%. Based on the average S&P Global Platts Metals Week New
York dealer price for tin, the estimated value of imported refined tin in 2021 was $1.2 billion, and the estimated value
of tin recovered from old scrap domestically in 2021 was $342 million.

Production, secondary:e
Old scrap 10,000 9,890 10,500 9,550 10,000
New scrap 8,100 8,100 8,100 8,000 8,100
Refined 34,300 36,800 34,100 31,600 35,000
Tin alloys, gross weight 1,550 1,430 1,020 843 1,300
Tin waste and scrap, gross weight 52,100 47,700 30,400 20,700 17,000
Exports:
Refined 1,560 941 1,300 519 1,600
Tin alloys, gross weight 966 885 1,200 1,130 680
Tin waste and scrap, gross weight 3,460 5,980 2,470 1,200 2,500
Shipments from Government stockpile, gross weight 2 13 1 — 410
Consumption, apparent, refined1 42,500 42,300 43,100 41,300 45,000
Price, average, cents per pound:2
New York dealer 937 936 868 799 1,600
London Metal Exchange (LME), cash 911 914 846 777 1,500
Stocks, consumer and dealer, yearend 6,660 10,100 10,300 9,590 8,400
refined 76 77 76 77 78
Recycling: About 18,000 tons of tin from old and new scrap was estimated to have been recycled in 2021. Of this,
about 10,000 tons was recovered from old scrap at 1 detinning plant and about 75 secondary nonferrous metal-
processing plants, accounting for 23% of apparent consumption.
Import Sources (2017–20): Refined tin: Indonesia, 25%; Peru, 22%; Malaysia, 19%; Bolivia, 17%; and other, 17%.
Waste and scrap: Canada, 99%; and other, 1%.

12–31–21
Unwrought tin:
Tin, not alloyed 8001.10.0000 Free.
Tin alloys, containing, by weight:
5% or less lead 8001.20.0010 Free.
More than 5% but not more than 25% lead 8001.20.0050 Free.
More than 25% lead 8001.20.0090 Free.
Tin waste and scrap 8002.00.0000 Free.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Tin (gross weight) 3,617 — 4,034 — 4,000
Prepared by Adam Merrill [(703) 648–7715, amerrill@usgs.gov]

175
TIN
Events, Trends, and Issues: The estimated amount of tin recycled domestically in 2021 increased by 3% compared
with that in 2020. The estimated annual average New York dealer price for refined tin in 2021 was 1,600 cents per
pound, double that in 2020. The estimated annual average LME cash price for refined tin in 2021 was 1,500 cents per
pound, a 93% increase from that in 2020. In 2021, the monthly average New York dealer tin price increased for
8 consecutive months from January through August. Supply constraints owing to shipping bottlenecks, reimposed
COVID-19 pandemic shutdowns, and an increased demand for electronic and consumer goods, were largely
responsible for the almost doubling of refined tin prices during 2021. In March, the United States Defense Logistics
Agency began offering stockpiled tin for sale.
Throughout the year, global production struggled to maintain an adequate supply of refined tin to meet rebounding
consumer demand. Pandemic-related measures, including shutdowns and border restrictions, affected refined tin
production in Burma, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Rwanda. Smelters were temporarily closed for repair and annual
maintenance in China and Malaysia. Shipping container shortages and bottlenecks at shipping terminals exacerbated
supply constraints. Globally, consumption increased in 2021 for alloys, chemicals, solder, and tinplate while demand
for lead-acid batteries remained steady.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Burma, Congo (Kinshasa), Malaysia, Peru, Russia,
and “Other countries” were revised based on information from company and Government reports.

2020 2021e
Australia 8,120 8,300 6560,000
Bolivia 14,700 18,000 400,000

Brazil 16,900 22,000 420,000
Burmae 29,000 28,000 700,000
Chinae 84,000 91,000 1,100,000
Congo (Kinshasa)e 17,300 16,000 130,000
Indonesiae 53,000 71,000 800,000
Laose 1,400 1,600 NA
Malaysia 2,960 3,100 81,000
Nigeriae 5,000 1,200 NA
Peru 20,600 30,000 150,000
Russia 2,500 3,500 200,000
Rwandae 1,800 2,200 NA
Vietname 5,400 6,100 11,000
World Resources:5 Identified resources of tin in the United States, primarily in Alaska, were insignificant compared
with those of the rest of the world. World resources, principally in western Africa, southeastern Asia, Australia, Bolivia,
Brazil, Indonesia, and Russia, are extensive and, if developed, could sustain recent annual production rates well into
the future.
Substitutes: Aluminum, glass, paper, plastic, or tin-free steel substitute for tin in cans and containers. Other materials
that substitute for tin are epoxy resins for solder; aluminum alloys, alternative copper-base alloys, and plastics for
bronze; plastics for bearing metals that contain tin; and compounds of lead and sodium for some tin chemicals.
e
1
Defined as production from old scrap + refined tin imports – refined tin exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
2
3
Defined as refined imports – refined exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
4
5
6

176
TITANIUM AND TITANIUM DIOXIDE1
Domestic Production and Use: Titanium sponge metal was produced by one operation in Utah. Production data
were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. The facility in Salt Lake City, UT, with an estimated
capacity of 500 tons per year, produced titanium that was further refined for use in electronics. A second sponge
facility in Henderson, NV, with an estimated capacity of 12,600 tons per year, was idled since 2020 owing to market
conditions. A third facility, in Rowley, UT, with an estimated capacity of 10,900 tons per year, has remained on care-
and-maintenance status since 2016.
Although detailed 2021 consumption data were withheld to avoid disclosing proprietary data, the majority of titanium
metal was used in aerospace applications, and the remainder was used in armor, chemical processing, marine
hardware, medical implants, power generation, consumer, and other applications. The value of imported sponge was
about $140 million, a significant decrease compared with $173 million in 2020.
In 2021, titanium dioxide (TiO2) pigment production, by four companies operating five facilities in four States, was
valued at about $3.2 billion. The estimated end-use distribution of TiO2 pigment consumption was paints (including
lacquers and varnishes), 60%; plastics, 20%; paper, 5%; and other, 15%. Other uses of TiO2 included catalysts,
ceramics, coated fabrics and textiles, floor coverings, printing ink, and roofing granules.

Titanium sponge metal:
Imports for consumptione 23,300 23,700 30,000 19,200 14,000
Exports 3,090 533 869 711 120
Consumption, reported 37,400 35,200 W W W
Price, dollars per kilogram2 10.40 10.70 11.80 11.70 11.70
Stocks, industry, yearende 13,200 10,700 W W W
Net import reliance3 as a percentage of reported
consumption 88 73 >50 >50 >90
Titanium dioxide pigment:
Production 1,260,000 1,150,000 1,100,000 e890,000 1,100,000
Exports 634,000 528,000 401,000 386,000 520,000
Price, dollars per metric ton2 2,570 2,730 2,750 2,710 2,900
Producer price index (1982=100), yearend5 205 205 NA NA NA
Net import reliance3 as a percentage of apparent
consumption E E E E E
Recycling: Owing to limited responses from voluntary surveys, consumption of titanium scrap metal was withheld for
the titanium metal industry. Consumption data for the steel, superalloy, other industries were not available.
Import Sources (2017–20): Sponge metal: Japan, 88%; Kazakhstan, 8%; Ukraine, 3%; and other, 1%. Titanium
dioxide pigment: Canada, 40%; China, 19%; Germany, 9%; Belgium, 5%; and other, 27%.

12–31–21
Titanium oxides (unfinished TiO2 pigments) 2823.00.0000 5.5% ad valorem.
TiO2 pigments, 80% or more TiO2 3206.11.0000 6.0% ad valorem.
TiO2 pigments, other 3206.19.0000 6.0% ad valorem.
Ferrotitanium and ferrosilicon titanium 7202.91.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Unwrought titanium metal 8108.20.0010 15.0% ad valorem.
Titanium waste and scrap metal 8108.30.0000 Free.
Other titanium metal articles 8108.90.3000 5.5% ad valorem.
Wrought titanium metal 8108.90.6000 15.0% ad valorem.

Prepared by Joseph Gambogi [(703) 648–7718, jgambogi@usgs.gov]
177
TITANIUM AND TITANIUM DIOXIDE
Events, Trends, and Issues: The 500-ton-per-year Salt Lake City, UT, plant was the only active domestic producer
of titanium sponge, and the Salt Lake City operations primarily supported the production of electronic-grade materials.
Consequently, U.S. producers of titanium ingot and downstream products were reliant on imports of titanium sponge
and scrap. Reduced demand from the aerospace and other industries resulted in a 27% decrease in imports of
titanium sponge compared with those in 2020. Japan (92%) and Kazakhstan (6%) were the leading import sources for
titanium sponge in 2021. U.S. imports of titanium waste and scrap were about 11,000 tons. Germany (20%), the
United Kingdom (15%), Canada (13%), France (10%), and Japan (8%) were the leading import sources for titanium
waste and scrap in 2021. The duty-paid unit value of scrap imports was about $4.70 per kilogram. The U.S.
Department of Commerce (DOC) led investigations under section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act of 1962 that
determined titanium sponge imports into the United States threatened to impair national security. The investigation
concluded that the United States was at risk of losing the remaining industrial capacity and technical knowledge
related to titanium sponge production that is essential to meet national defense and critical infrastructure
requirements. In October, the DOC published its findings and recommendations from the investigation in the Federal
Register (86 FR 59115). Changes to existing tariff rates for titanium sponge were not recommended.
Domestic production of TiO2 pigment in 2021 was estimated to be about 1.1 million tons. Although heavily reliant on
imports of titanium mineral concentrates, the United States was a net exporter of TiO2 pigments. After a multiyear low
in 2020, exports of titanium pigments increased significantly in 2021. China’s TiO2 pigment production was estimated
to be 3.7 million tons.
World Sponge Metal Production and Sponge and Pigment Capacity:
Sponge productione Capacity, 20216

2020 2021 Sponge Pigment
United States W W 500 1,370,000
Australia — — — 260,000
Canada — — — 104,000
China 123,000 120,000 177,000 4,000,000
Germany — — — 472,000
India 250 250 500 108,000
Japan 49,200 35,000 68,800 314,000
Kazakhstan 15,000 16,000 26,000 1,000
Mexico — — — 300,000
Russia 31,000 27,000 46,500 55,000
Saudi Arabia 2,800 3,700 15,600 210,000
Ukraine 5,000 5,400 12,000 120,000
United Kingdom — — — 315,000
Other countries — — — 784,000
World total (rounded) 7230,000 7210,000 350,000 8,400,000
World Resources:8 Reserves and resources of titanium minerals are discussed in the Titanium Mineral Concentrates
chapter.
Substitutes: Few materials possess titanium metal’s strength-to-weight ratio and corrosion resistance. In high-
strength applications, titanium competes with aluminum, composites, intermetallics, steel, and superalloys. Aluminum,
nickel, specialty steels, and zirconium alloys may be substituted for titanium for applications that require corrosion
resistance. Ground calcium carbonate, precipitated calcium carbonate, kaolin, and talc compete with titanium dioxide
as a white pigment.
e
Estimated. E Net exporter. NA Not available. W Withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. — Zero.
1
See also Titanium Mineral Concentrates.
2
Landed duty-paid value based on U.S. imports for consumption.
3
4
5
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
6
Yearend operating capacity.
7
8

178
TITANIUM MINERAL CONCENTRATES1
[Data in thousand metric tons of contained titanium dioxide (TiO2) unless otherwise noted]
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, one company recovered ilmenite and rutile concentrates from its surface-
mining operations near Nahunta, GA, and Starke, FL. A second company processed existing mine tailings to recover
a mixed heavy-mineral concentrate in South Carolina. Based on reported data through September, the estimated
value of titanium mineral and synthetic concentrates imported into the United States in 2021 was $690 million.
Abrasive sands, monazite, and zircon were coproducts of domestic titanium minerals mining operations. An estimated
95% of titanium mineral concentrates were consumed by domestic TiO 2 pigment producers. The remaining 5% was
used in welding-rod coatings and for manufacturing carbides, chemicals, and titanium metal.

Production2 100 100 100 e100 100
Imports for consumption 1,170 1,100 1,160 807 1,000
Exports, all formse 6 32 8 18 6
Consumption, apparent3 1,300 1,200 1,300 e900 1,100
Price, dollars per metric ton:
Rutile, bulk, minimum 95% TiO2, free on board (f.o.b.) Australia4 740 1,025 1,125 1,175 1,500
Ilmenite and leucoxene, bulk, f.o.b. Australia5 393 420 504 460 640
Ilmenite, average value of imports6 173 219 186 215 240
Slag, 80%–95% TiO2, average value of imports6 664 738 792 757 750
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): South Africa, 41%; Australia, 17%; Madagascar, 12%; Mozambique, 8%; and other, 22%.

12–31–21
Synthetic rutile 2614.00.3000 Free.
Ilmenite and ilmenite sand 2614.00.6020 Free.
Rutile concentrate 2614.00.6040 Free.
Titanium slag 2620.99.5000 Free.
Depletion Allowance: Ilmenite and rutile, 22% (domestic), 14% (foreign).
Events, Trends, and Issues: Consumption of titanium mineral concentrates is tied to production of TiO 2 pigments
that are primarily used in paint, paper, and plastics. Demand for these primary uses is related to changes in the gross
domestic product. Domestic apparent consumption of titanium mineral concentrates in 2021 was estimated to have
increased significantly from that in 2020 when apparent consumption was affected by a downturn in economic activity
owing to the global COVID-19 pandemic. Inventory changes were not included in the apparent consumption
calculation. Exports of titanium mineral concentrates were small compared with apparent consumption. As of
September, South Africa (27%), Madagascar (18%), Australia (15%), and Mozambique (15%) were the leading
sources of titanium mineral concentrates imports to the United States. Mining and heavy-mineral-processing
operations were expanded near Starke, FL, and prefeasibility studies were underway at the Titan heavy-mineral-
sands project near Camden, TN.
In 2021, China continued to be the leading producer and consumer of titanium mineral concentrates, accounting for
37% of global production of ilmenite. Mozambique and South Africa also were leading producers of titanium mineral
concentrates. China’s imports of titanium mineral concentrates were about 3.6 million tons in gross weight, an
increase of 21% compared with those in 2020. As of October, Mozambique (32%), Australia (14%), Vietnam (13%),
and Kenya (9%) were the leading sources of titanium mineral concentrates to China. In Saudi Arabia, commissioning
of a project to produce up to 500,000 tons per year of titanium slag was delayed by technical problems and supply
constraints resulting from COVID-19 restrictions. Other projects were being developed in Australia, China, Malawi,
Mozambique, Norway, Senegal, and Tanzania.

179
TITANIUM MINERAL CONCENTRATES
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Kenya, Madagascar, and South Africa were revised
based on Government or industry reports.

2020 2021e
Ilmenite:
United States2, 9 100 100 2,000
Australia 480 480 10160,000
Brazil 34 66 43,000
Canada11 595 600 31,000
China 2,800 3,000 230,000
India 174 180 85,000
Kenya 201 190 390
Madagascar11 254 310 22,000
Mozambique 965 970 26,000
Norway 444 440 37,000
Senegal 300 360 NA
South Africa11 1,020 1,000 30,000
Ukraine 464 430 5,900
Vietnam 138 220 1,600
World total (ilmenite, rounded)9 8,000 8,400 700,000
Rutile:
United States (9) (9) (9)
Australia 190 200 1031,000
India 11 11 7,400
Kenya 73 71 170
Madagascar 8 10 400
Mozambique 6 9 890
Senegal 9 10 NA
Sierra Leone 114 120 490
Ukraine 95 95 2,500
Other countries 13 13 NA
World total (rutile, rounded) 9 605 630 49,000
World total (ilmenite and rutile, rounded) 8,600 9,000 750,000
World Resources:8 Ilmenite accounts for about 90% of the world’s consumption of titanium minerals. World
resources of anatase, ilmenite, and rutile total more than 2 billion tons.
Substitutes: Ilmenite, leucoxene, rutile, slag, and synthetic rutile compete as feedstock sources for producing
TiO2 pigment, titanium metal, and welding-rod coatings.
e
1
See also Titanium and Titanium Dioxide.
2
Rounded to the nearest 100,000 tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
3
Defined as production + imports – exports. Rounded to the nearest 100,000 tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
4
Source: Fast Markets IM; average of yearend price.
5
Zen Innovations AG, Global Trade Tracker.
6
Landed duty-paid unit value based on U.S. imports for consumption. Source: U.S. Census Bureau.
7
8
9
U.S. rutile production and reserves data are included with ilmenite.
10
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves for ilmenite and rutile were estimated to be 38 million and
9.4 million tons, respectively.
11
Mine production is primarily used to produce titaniferous slag.

180
TUNGSTEN
(Data in metric tons of contained tungsten unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: No domestic production of commercial tungsten concentrates has been reported
since 2015. Approximately six U.S. companies had the capability to convert tungsten concentrates, ammonium
paratungstate (APT), tungsten oxide, and (or) scrap to tungsten metal powder, tungsten carbide powder, and (or)
tungsten chemicals. Nearly 60% of the tungsten consumed in the United States was used in cemented carbide parts
for cutting and wear-resistant applications, primarily in the construction, metalworking, mining, and oil and gas drilling
industries. The remainder was used to make various alloys and specialty steels; electrodes, filaments, wires, and
other components for electrical, electronic, heating, lighting, and welding applications; and chemicals for various
applications. The estimated value of apparent consumption in 2021 was approximately $600 million.

Production:
Mine — — — — —
Secondary W W W W W
Concentrate 3,920 4,050 2,760 2,020 1,400
Other forms1 9,780 10,400 11,100 8,650 10,000
Exports:
Concentrate 531 284 583 480 390
Other forms2 3,010 3,210 2,780 2,460 2,500
Shipments from Government stockpile:
Concentrate 1,460 1,180 663 728 800
Other forms — — — 34 93
Consumption:
Reported, concentrate W W W W W
Apparent,3 all forms W W W W W
Price,4 concentrate, average U.S. spot market, dollars per metric ton
unit of tungsten trioxide5 245 326 270 270 270
Stocks, industry, concentrate and other forms, yearend W W W W W
Recycling: The estimated quantity of secondary tungsten produced and the amount consumed from secondary
sources by processors and end users in 2021 were withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
Import Sources (2017–20): Tungsten contained in ores and concentrates, intermediate and primary products,
wrought and unwrought tungsten, and waste and scrap: China, 32%; Bolivia, 9%; Germany, 9%; Canada, 5%; and
other, 45%.

12–31–21
Ores 2611.00.3000 Free.
Concentrates 2611.00.6000 37.5¢/kg tungsten content.
Tungsten oxides 2825.90.3000 5.5% ad valorem.
Ammonium tungstates 2841.80.0010 5.5% ad valorem.
Tungsten carbides 2849.90.3000 5.5% ad valorem.
Ferrotungsten 7202.80.0000 5.6% ad valorem.
Tungsten powders 8101.10.0000 7.0% ad valorem.
Tungsten waste and scrap 8101.97.0000 2.8% ad valorem.
FY 2021 FY 2022
Metal powder — — 125 — 125
Ores and concentrates 6,850 — 1,360 — 1,360
Tungsten alloys, gross weight8 5 5 — — —
Prepared by Kim B. Shedd [(703) 648–4974, kshedd@usgs.gov]

181
TUNGSTEN
Events, Trends, and Issues: World tungsten supply was dominated by production in China and exports from China.
China’s Government regulated its tungsten industry by limiting the number of mining and export licenses, imposing
quotas on concentrate production, and placing constraints on mining and processing. In 2021, reduced production
during or after environmental and safety inspections at Chinese mining operations contributed to periods when
supplies of tungsten concentrates were constrained in China. Production of tungsten concentrate outside China was
expected to increase in 2021 but to remain at less than 20% of world production. Scrap continued to be an important
source of raw material for the tungsten industry worldwide. Beginning in 2020 and into 2021, the tungsten scrap
supply was constrained because less scrap is generated during periods of low industrial activity.
China was the world’s leading tungsten consumer. Analysts forecast global tungsten consumption in 2021 will be
higher than that in 2020 as the global economy and industrial production continued to improve following declines in
2020 resulting from the global COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, most prices of tungsten concentrates, scrap, and
downstream tungsten materials trended upward in response to strong demand, constrained spot supplies of
ammonium paratungstate and concentrates, reduced scrap availability, and low inventory levels. Transportation
delays and increased freight costs contributed to supply constraints and price increases.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Portugal, Spain, Vietnam, and “Other countries” were revised
based on updated company data and (or) information from the Governments of those countries.

2020 2021e
United States — — NA
Austria 890 900 10,000
Bolivia 1,350 1,400 NA
China 66,000 66,000 1,900,000
Korea, North 410 400 29,000
Portugal 550 620 5,100
Russia 2,400 2,400 400,000
Rwanda 860 950 NA
Spain 500 900 52,000
Vietnam 4,500 4,500 100,000
Other countries 960 1,200 1,200,000
World Resources:9 World tungsten resources are geographically widespread. China ranks first in the world in terms
of tungsten resources and reserves and has some of the largest deposits. Canada, Kazakhstan, Russia, and the
United States also have significant tungsten resources.
Substitutes: Potential substitutes for cemented tungsten carbides include cemented carbides based on molybdenum
carbide, niobium carbide, or titanium carbide; ceramics; ceramic-metallic composites (cermets); and tool steels. Most
of these options reduce, rather than replace, the amount of tungsten used. Potential substitutes for other applications
are as follows: molybdenum for certain tungsten mill products; molybdenum steels for tungsten steels, although most
molybdenum steels still contain tungsten; lighting based on carbon nanotube filaments, induction technology, and
light-emitting diodes for lighting based on tungsten electrodes or filaments; depleted uranium or lead for tungsten or
tungsten alloys in applications requiring high density or the ability to shield radiation; and depleted uranium alloys or
hardened steel for cemented tungsten carbides or tungsten alloys in armor-piercing projectiles. In some applications,
substitution would result in increased cost or a loss in product performance.
e
1
Includes ammonium and other tungstates; ferrotungsten; tungsten carbides; tungsten metal powders; tungsten oxides, chlorides, and other
tungsten compounds; unwrought tungsten; wrought tungsten forms; and tungsten waste and scrap.
2
Includes ammonium and other tungstates, ferrotungsten, tungsten carbides, tungsten metal powders, unwrought tungsten, wrought tungsten
forms, and tungsten waste and scrap.
3
Defined as mine production + secondary production + imports – exports + adjustments for Government and industry stock changes.
4
Source: Platts Metals Week.
5
A metric ton unit of tungsten trioxide contains 7.93 kilograms of tungsten.
6
7
8
Tungsten-rhenium metal.
9

182
VANADIUM
(Data in metric tons of contained vanadium unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: Byproduct vanadium production in Utah from the mining of uraniferous sandstones
on the Colorado Plateau ceased in early 2020 and was not restarted in 2021. Secondary vanadium production
continued in Arkansas and Ohio where processed waste materials (petroleum residues, spent catalysts, and utility
ash) were used to produce ferrovanadium, vanadium-bearing chemicals or specialty alloys, and vanadium pentoxide.
Two additional secondary producers in Pennsylvania and Texas remained idle. Metallurgical use, primarily as an
alloying agent for iron and steel, accounted for about 94% of domestic reported vanadium consumption in 2021. Of
the other uses for vanadium, the major nonmetallurgical use was in catalysts to produce maleic anhydride and sulfuric
acid.

Production, mine, mill — — 460 17 —
Aluminum-vanadium master alloy 288 281 222 101 40
Ash and residues 4,530 5,020 3,780 60 100
Ferrovanadium 2,810 2,970 2,280 1,350 2,000
Oxides and hydroxides, other 148 98 105 67 25
Vanadium chemicals1 607 515 201 211 360
Vanadium metal2 54 28 45 (3) 1
Vanadium ores and concentrates 2 590 192 4 4
Vanadium pentoxide 3,400 4,600 3,620 1,670 2,000
Exports:
Aluminum-vanadium master alloy 132 90 29 13 100
Ash and residues 322 287 354 159 260
Ferrovanadium 229 575 295 165 120
Oxides and hydroxides, other 148 53 750 51 270
Vanadium metal2 59 39 27 1 2
Vanadium ores and concentrates 37 29 170 164 200
Vanadium pentoxide 126 563 423 50 14
Consumption:
Apparent4 10,800 12,400 8,850 2,860 3,600
Reported 4,670 5,640 4,840 5,010 4,500
Price, average, vanadium pentoxide,5 dollars per pound 7.61 16.4 12.2 6.7 8.2
Stocks, yearend6 227 250 257 269 260
consumption 100 100 95 99 100
Recycling: The quantity of vanadium recycled from spent chemical process catalysts was significant and may
compose as much as 40% of total vanadium catalysts.
Import Sources (2017–20): Ferrovanadium: Austria, 44%; Canada, 33%; Russia, 12%; Japan, 4%; and other, 7%.
Vanadium pentoxide: Brazil, 47%; South Africa, 35%; China, 8%; Taiwan, 5%; and other, 5%. Total: Canada, 26%;
China, 14%; Brazil, 10%; South Africa, 9%; and other, 41%.

12–31–21
Vanadium ores and concentrates 2615.90.6090 Free.
Vanadium bearing ash and residues 2620.40.0030 Free.
Vanadium bearing ash and residues, other 2620.99.1000 Free.
Chemical compounds:
Vanadium pentoxide, anhydride 2825.30.0010 5.5% ad valorem.
Vanadium oxides and hydroxides, other 2825.30.0050 5.5% ad valorem.
Vanadium sulfates 2833.29.3000 5.5% ad valorem.
Vanadates 2841.90.1000 5.5% ad valorem.
Hydrides and nitrides of vanadium 2850.00.2000 5.5% ad valorem.
Ferrovanadium 7202.92.0000 4.2% ad valorem.
Vanadium metal 8112.92.7000 2.0% ad valorem.
Vanadium and articles thereof8 8112.99.2000 2.0% ad valorem.

183
VANADIUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. apparent consumption of vanadium in 2021 increased by 25% from that in 2020.
The estimated average Chinese vanadium pentoxide price in 2021 increased by 22% compared with the 2020 price,
and the estimated United States ferrovanadium price increased by 51% to $16.30 per pound in 2021 compared with
that in 2020. Governments globally announced different measures to revive their economies after they were
negatively affected by the global COVID-19 pandemic.
China continued to be the world’s top vanadium producer, producing the majority of its vanadium from vanadiferous
iron ore processed for steel production. In response to the global pandemic, China’s Government implemented
stimulus measures which led to record steel production in China. As a result, Chinese steel mills used more domestic
titaniferous magnetite ore and resulted in Chinese producers operating at near capacity. Despite the significant
increase in vanadium slag production in China, several environmental restrictions by China’s Government to cut
pollution may impose further constraints on vanadium slag production at steel plants. The limited capacity of
vanadium-producing steel plants was expected to continue to cause vanadium prices to fluctuate.
In the third quarter of 2021, a producer in Brazil announced the commissioning of a vanadium trioxide processing
plant at its Maracas Menchen Mine. The company emphasized that its decision to include production of high purity
vanadium would be key to supporting its vanadium redox flow battery technology business. A vanadium producer in
South Africa announced that it was completing an expanded prefeasibility study of its facility to determine the most-
capital-efficient manner to increase vanadium production. It aimed to increase its facility’s capacity by approximately
50% by yearend 2022 and more than double capacity in the long term if market conditions continued to improve.

2020 2021e (thousand metric tons)
United States 17 — 45
Australia — — 106,000
Brazil 6,620 6,700 120

China 70,000 73,000 9,500
Russia 19,500 19,000 5,000
South Africa 8,580 9,100 3,500
World Resources:9 World resources of vanadium exceed 63 million tons. Vanadium occurs in deposits of phosphate
rock, titaniferous magnetite, and uraniferous sandstone and siltstone, in which it constitutes less than 2% of the host
rock. Significant quantities are also present in bauxite and carboniferous materials, such as coal, crude oil, oil shale,
and tar sands. Because vanadium is typically recovered as a byproduct or coproduct, demonstrated world resources
of the element are not fully indicative of available supplies. Although domestic resources and secondary recovery are
adequate to supply a large portion of domestic needs, almost all of U.S. demand is currently met by foreign sources.
Substitutes: Steels containing various combinations of other alloying elements can be substituted for steels
containing vanadium. Certain metals, such as manganese, molybdenum, niobium (columbium), titanium, and
tungsten, are to some degree interchangeable with vanadium as alloying elements in steel. Platinum and nickel can
replace vanadium compounds as catalysts in some chemical processes. Currently, no acceptable substitute for
vanadium is available for use in aerospace titanium alloys.
e
1
Includes vanadium chlorides, hydrides, nitrides, and sulfates, as well as vanadates of vanadium.
2
Includes waste and scrap.
3
Less than ½ unit.
4
5
The 2017 annual average vanadium pentoxide price includes U.S. monthly averages for January to June 2017 and China monthly average prices
for July to December 2017. The prices for 2018–2021 are the China annual average vanadium pentoxide prices. Source: CRU Group.
6
Includes chlorides, ferrovanadium, vanadates, vanadium-aluminum alloy, other vanadium alloys, vanadium metal, vanadium pentoxide, and other
specialty chemicals.
7
8
Aluminum-vanadium master alloy consisting of 35% aluminum and 64.5% vanadium.
9
10

184
VERMICULITE
Domestic Production and Use: Two companies with mining and processing facilities in South Carolina and Virginia
produced approximately 100,000 tons of vermiculite concentrate; data have been rounded to the nearest hundred
thousand tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data. Flakes of raw vermiculite concentrate are micaceous in
appearance and contain interlayer water in their structure. When the flakes are heated rapidly to a temperature above
870 degrees Celsius, the water flashes into steam, and the flakes expand into accordionlike particles. This process is
called exfoliation or expansion, and the resulting ultralightweight material is chemically inert, fire resistant, and
odorless. Most vermiculite concentrate produced in the United States was shipped to 15 exfoliating plants in nine
States. The end uses for exfoliated vermiculite were estimated to be agriculture and horticulture, 32%; lightweight
concrete aggregates (including cement premixes, concrete, and plaster), 24%; insulation, 9%; and other, 35%.

Production1, 2 100 100 100 100 100
Imports for consumptione 28 37 39 40 38
Exportse 15 13 8 8 12
Consumption:
Apparent, concentratee, 3 110 120 130 130 130
Reported, exfoliated 77 79 79 81 78
Price, range of value, concentrate, ex-plant, dollars per ton 140–575 140–575 NA NA NA
consumptione, 5 10 20 20 20 20
Import Sources (2017–20): South Africa, 70%; Brazil, 28%; and other, 2%.

12–31–21
Vermiculite, perlite, and chlorites, unexpanded 2530.10.0000 Free.
Exfoliated vermiculite, expanded clays, foamed
slag, and similar expanded materials 6806.20.0000 Free.
Prepared by Kristi J. Simmons [(703) 648–7962, kjsimmons@usgs.gov]

185
VERMICULITE
Events, Trends, and Issues: U.S. exports and imports of vermiculite are not collected as a separate category by the
U.S. Census Bureau. U.S. imports were estimated to be about 38,000 tons in 2021, a decrease which could be
related to disruptions in the global supply chain. Most imports came from South Africa and Brazil in 2021. One U.S.
company announced a packaging surcharge in 2021 owing to the rising costs it was incurring from its suppliers. In
2020, a U.S. exfoliating plant in Florida closed, while another in New Mexico ceased producing exfoliated vermiculite.
Exploration and development of vermiculite deposits containing medium, large, and premium (coarser) grades
(greater than 5-millimeter particle size) are likely to continue (mostly in China and South Africa) because of the higher
demand for those grades. Finer grade production has exceeded consumption for several years, with Brazil and the
United States continuing to be the leading producers. Producers will continue to investigate ways to increase the use
of the finer grades in existing products and as a substitute for coarser vermiculite while continuing to develop new and
innovative applications.

2020 2021e
United States 1, 2100 1, 2100 25,000
Brazil 50 60 6,600
Bulgaria 10 10 NA
China NA NA NA
India 2 2 1,600
Mexico (7) (7) NA
Russia 29 30 NA
Turkey 1 1 NA
Uganda 9 10 NA
Uzbekistan 2 2 NA
Zimbabwe 29 30 NA
World total (rounded)8 380 390 NA
World Resources:6 In addition to the producing mines in South Carolina and Virginia, there are vermiculite
occurrences in Colorado, Nevada, North Carolina, Texas, and Wyoming that contain estimated resources of 2 million
to 3 million tons. Significant deposits have been reported in Australia, China, Russia, Uganda, and some other
countries, but reserve and resource information comes from many sources and, in most cases, it is not clear whether
the numbers refer to vermiculite alone or vermiculite plus other minerals and host rock and overburden.
Substitutes: Expanded perlite is a substitute for exfoliated vermiculite in lightweight concrete and plaster. Other
denser but less costly alternatives in these applications include expanded clay, shale, slag, and slate. Alternate
materials for loose-fill fireproofing insulation include fiberglass, perlite, and slag wool. In agriculture, substitutes
include bark and other plant materials, peat, perlite, sawdust, and synthetic soil conditioners.
e
1
Concentrate sold or used by producers.
2
Data are rounded to the nearest hundred thousand tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
3
Defined as concentrate sold or used by producers + imports – exports.
4
5
Data are rounded to one significant digit to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
6
7
Less than ½ unit.
8
Does not include China’s production.

186
WOLLASTONITE
Domestic Production and Use: Wollastonite was mined by two companies in New York during 2021. U.S.
production of wollastonite (sold or used by producers) was withheld to avoid disclosing company proprietary data but
was estimated to have increased from that of 2020. Economic resources of wollastonite typically form as a result of
thermal metamorphism of siliceous limestone during regional deformation or chemical alteration of limestone by
siliceous hydrothermal fluids along faults or contacts with magmatic intrusions. Deposits of wollastonite have been
identified in Arizona, California, Idaho, Nevada, New Mexico, New York, and Utah; however, New York is the only
State where long-term continuous mining has taken place.
The U.S. Geological Survey does not collect consumption statistics for wollastonite, but consumption was estimated
to have increased in 2021 compared with that of 2020. Ceramics (frits, sanitaryware, and tile), friction products
(primarily brake linings), metallurgical applications (flux and conditioner), paint (architectural and industrial paints),
plastics and rubber markets (thermoplastic and thermoset resins and elastomer compounds), and miscellaneous uses
(including adhesives, concrete, glass, and sealants) accounted for wollastonite sales in the United States.
In ceramics, wollastonite decreases shrinkage and gas evolution during firing; increases green and fired strength;
maintains brightness during firing; permits fast firing; and reduces crazing, cracking, and glaze defects. In
metallurgical applications, wollastonite serves as a flux for welding, a source for calcium oxide, a slag conditioner, and
protects the surface of molten metal during the continuous casting of steel. As an additive in paint, it improves the
durability of the paint film, acts as a pH buffer, improves resistance to weathering, reduces gloss and pigment
consumption, and acts as a flatting and suspending agent. In plastics, wollastonite improves tensile and flexural
strength, reduces resin consumption, and improves thermal and dimensional stability at elevated temperatures.
Surface treatments are used to improve the adhesion between wollastonite and the polymers to which it is added. As
a substitute for asbestos in floor tiles, friction products, insulating board and panels, paint, plastics, and roofing products,
wollastonite is resistant to chemical attack, stable at high temperatures, and improves flexural and tensile strength.
Salient Statistics—United States: The United States was thought to be a net exporter of wollastonite in 2021.
Comprehensive trade data were not available for wollastonite because it is imported and exported under generic
Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States and Schedule B codes, respectively, that include multiple mineral
commodities. Prices for domestically produced wollastonite were estimated to be between $330 to $360 per metric
ton. Price data for globally produced wollastonite were unavailable. Products with finer grain sizes and acicular (highly
elongated) particles sold for higher prices. Surface treatment, when necessary, also increased the selling price.
Approximately 55 people were employed at wollastonite mines and mills in 2021 (excluding office workers) in the
United States.
Recycling: None.
Import Sources (2017–20): Comprehensive trade data were not available, but wollastonite was primarily imported
from Canada and Mexico.

12–31–21
Mineral substances not elsewhere specified or
included 2530.90.8050 Free.
Prepared by Elizabeth S. Sangine [(703) 648–7720, escottsangine@usgs.gov]

187
WOLLASTONITE
Events, Trends, and Issues: Construction starts of new housing units through July 2021 increased by 21.8%
compared with those during the same period in 2020 with the largest increase in starts being in single unit, privately
owned houses. Sales of wollastonite to domestic construction-related markets, such as adhesives, caulks, cement
board, ceramic tile, paints, stucco, and wallboard, were thought to have increased as well as sales of wollastonite for
primary iron and steel production, which increased by 18% compared with those during the same period of 2020.
Supply-chain issues as well as the continuing impact of the global COVID-19 pandemic limited consumption in
two major markets. The production of motor vehicles and parts, which contain wollastonite in friction products and
plastic and rubber components, decreased slightly in the first 7 months of 2021 and was 35% lower than production in
2019. Plastics production was expected to be 3% lower in 2021 than that in 2020.
Globally, ceramics, paint, and polymers (such as plastics and rubber) accounted for most wollastonite sales. Lesser
global uses for wollastonite included miscellaneous construction products, friction materials, metallurgical
applications, and paper. Several research projects continued in Canada, India, and the United States to evaluate the
efficacy of wollastonite in carbon dioxide sequestration. Studies were being conducted to evaluate wollastonite’s
ability to capture atmospheric carbon dioxide when added to crop fields and its ability to enhance crop productivity.
Wollastonite’s ability to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in cement production by lowering kiln temperatures needed
to produce cement and absorbing carbon dioxide in the process was being evaluated. Global sales of wollastonite
were estimated to be in the range of 850,000 to 950,000 tons, higher than those in 2020.
World Mine Production and Reserves: More countries than those listed may produce wollastonite; however, many
countries do not publish wollastonite production data.
Mine productione Reserves1

2020 2021
United States W W World resources of wollastonite are
Canada 20,000 20,000 thought to exceed 100 million tons.
China 890,000 900,000 Many deposits have been identified
India 170,000 180,000 but have not been surveyed
Mexico 77,700 100,000 sufficiently to quantify their reserves.
World total (rounded)2 1,200,000 1,200,000
World Resources:1 Reliable estimates of wollastonite resources do not exist for most countries. Large deposits of
wollastonite have been identified in China, Finland, India, Mexico, and the United States. Smaller, but significant,
deposits have been identified in Canada, Chile, Kenya, Namibia, South Africa, Spain, Sudan, Tajikistan, Turkey, and
Uzbekistan.
Substitutes: The acicular nature of many wollastonite products allows wollastonite to compete with other acicular
materials, such as ceramic fiber, glass fiber, steel fiber, and several organic fibers, such as aramid, polyethylene,
polypropylene, and polytetrafluoroethylene, in products where improvements in dimensional stability, flexural
modulus, and heat deflection are sought. Wollastonite also competes with several nonfibrous minerals or rocks, such
as kaolin, mica, and talc, which are added to plastics to increase flexural strength, and such minerals as barite,
calcium carbonate, gypsum, and talc, which impart dimensional stability to plastics. In ceramics, wollastonite
competes with carbonates, feldspar, lime, and silica as a source of calcium and silica. Its use in ceramics depends on
the formulation of the ceramic body and the firing method.
e
1
2

188
YTTRIUM1
[Data in metric tons of yttrium oxide (Y2O3) equivalent unless otherwise noted]
Domestic Production and Use: Yttrium is one of the rare-earth elements. Bastnaesite (or bastnäsite), a rare-earth
fluorocarbonate mineral, was mined in 2020 as a primary product at the Mountain Pass Mine in California, which was
restarted in the first quarter of 2018 after being put on care-and-maintenance status in the fourth quarter of 2015.
Yttrium was estimated to represent about 0.12% of the rare-earth elements in the Mountain Pass bastnaesite ore.
Insufficient information was available to determine the yttrium content of mine production. Monazite, a rare-earth
phosphate mineral, was produced as a separated concentrate that includes yttrium-rich xenotime. Both are accessory
minerals in heavy-mineral-sand concentrates.
The leading end uses of yttrium were in catalysts, ceramics, electronics, lasers, metallurgy, and phosphors. In
ceramic applications, yttrium compounds were used in abrasives, bearings and seals, high-temperature refractories
for continuous-casting nozzles, jet-engine coatings, oxygen sensors in automobile engines, and wear-resistant and
corrosion-resistant cutting tools. In electronics, yttrium-iron garnets were components in microwave radar to control
high-frequency signals. Yttrium was an important component in yttrium-aluminum-garnet laser crystals used in dental
and medical surgical procedures, digital communications, distance and temperature sensing, industrial cutting and
welding, nonlinear optics, photochemistry, and photoluminescence. In metallurgical applications, yttrium was used as
a grain-refining additive and as a deoxidizer. Yttrium was used in heating-element alloys, high-temperature
superconductors, and superalloys. Yttrium was used in phosphor compounds for flat-panel displays and various
lighting applications.

Production, mine — NA NA NA NA
Imports for consumption, yttrium, alloys, compounds, and metale, 2 380 450 360 650 670
Exports, compoundse, 3 2 14 6 1 9
Consumption, apparente, 4 400 400 400 600 700
Price, average, dollars per kilogram:5
Y2O3, minimum 99.999% purity 3 3 3 3 5
Yttrium metal, minimum 99.9% purity 35 36 34 34 38
Net import reliance6, 7 as a percentage of apparent consumption 100 100 100 100 100
Import Sources (2017–20):8 Yttrium compounds: China,9 97%; the Republic of Korea, 1%; Japan, 1%; and other,
1%. Nearly all imports of yttrium metal and compounds are derived from mineral concentrates processed in China.
Import sources do not include yttrium contained in value-added intermediates and finished products.

12–31–21
Rare-earth metals, unspecified, whether or not
intermixed or interalloyed 2805.30.0090 5.0% ad valorem.
Mixtures of rare-earth oxides containing yttrium
or scandium as the predominant metal 2846.90.2015 Free.
Mixtures of rare-earth chlorides containing
yttrium or scandium as the predominant metal 2846.90.2082 Free.
Yttrium-bearing materials and compounds
containing by weight >19% to <85% Y2O3 2846.90.4000 Free.
Other rare-earth compounds, including yttrium
and other compounds 2846.90.8000 3.7% ad valorem.

189
YTTRIUM
Depletion Allowance: Monazite, thorium content, 22% (domestic), 14% (foreign); yttrium, rare-earth content, 14%
(domestic and foreign); and xenotime, 14% (domestic and foreign).
FY 2021 FY 2022
Yttrium 25 600 — 25 —
Events, Trends, and Issues: China produced most of the world’s supply of yttrium from its weathered clay ion-
adsorption ore deposits in the southern Provinces—primarily Fujian, Guangdong, and Jiangxi—and from a lesser
number of deposits in Guangxi and Hunan. Yttrium also was produced from similar clay deposits in Burma.
Globally, yttrium was mainly consumed in the form of oxide compounds for ceramics and phosphors. Lesser amounts
were consumed in electronic devices, lasers, optical glass, and metallurgical applications. The average prices for
yttrium metal and Y2O3 both increased compared with those in 2020. China’s Ministry of Industry and Information
Technology raised quotas for rare-earth mining and separation to 168,000 tons and 162,000 tons of rare-earth-oxide
equivalent, respectively. The yttrium content of the production quota was not specified. Mine production was allocated
to 148,850 tons of light rare earths and 19,150 tons of ion-adsorption clays.
In 2020, China’s exports of yttrium compounds and metal were estimated to be 3,300 tons of Y2O3 equivalent, and the
leading export destinations were, in descending order, Japan, the United States, the Republic of Korea, Germany,
and France.
World Mine Production and Reserves:11 World mine production of yttrium contained in rare-earth mineral
concentrates was estimated to be 8,000 to 12,000 tons. Most of this production took place in China and Burma.
Global reserves of Y2O3 equivalent were estimated to be more than 500,000 tons. The leading countries for these
reserves included Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, and India. Although mine production in Burma was significant,
information on reserves in Burma was not available. Global reserves may be adequate to satisfy near-term demand at
current rates of production; however, recent high demand of ion-adsorption clay rare earths in Burma and China as
well as changes in economic conditions, environmental issues, or permitting and trade restrictions could affect the
availability and pricing of many of the rare-earth elements, including yttrium.
World Resources:11 Large resources of yttrium in monazite and xenotime are available worldwide in placer deposits,
carbonatites, uranium ores, and weathered clay deposits (ion-adsorption ore). Additional resources of yttrium occur in
apatite-magnetite-bearing rocks, deposits of niobium-tantalum minerals, non-placer monazite-bearing deposits,
sedimentary phosphate deposits, and uranium ores.
Substitutes: Substitutes for yttrium are available for some applications but generally are much less effective. In most
uses, especially in electronics, lasers, and phosphors, yttrium is generally not subject to direct substitution by other
elements. As a stabilizer in zirconia ceramics, Y2O3 may be substituted with calcium oxide or magnesium oxide, but
the substitutes generally impart lower toughness.
e
1
See also Rare Earths; trade data for yttrium are included in the data shown for rare earths.
2
Estimated from Trade Mining LLC and IHS Markit Ltd. shipping records.
3
Includes data for the following Schedule B code: 2846.90.2015.
4
Defined as imports – exports. Rounded to one significant digit. Yttrium consumed domestically was imported or refined from imported materials.
5
Free on board China. Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International.
6
7
In 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021, domestic production of mineral concentrates was stockpiled or exported. Consumers of compounds and metals
were reliant on imports and stockpiled inventory of compounds and metals.
8
Includes estimated Y2O3 equivalent from the following Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States codes: 2846.90.2015, 2846.90.2082,
2846.90.4000, 2846.90.8050, and 2846.90.8060.
9
Includes Hong Kong.
10
11

190
ZEOLITES (NATURAL)
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, six companies in the United States operated nine zeolite mines and
produced an estimated 87,000 tons of natural zeolites, slightly more than that of 2020. Chabazite was mined in
Arizona, and clinoptilolite was mined in California, Idaho, New Mexico, Oregon, and Texas. Minor quantities of
erionite, ferrierite, mordenite, and (or) phillipsite also likely were produced. New Mexico was estimated to be the
leading natural zeolite-producing State in 2021. The top three companies accounted for approximately 75% of total
domestic production.
An estimated 76,000 tons of natural zeolites was sold in the United States during 2021, slightly more compared with
that of 2020. Domestic uses were, in descending order of estimated quantity, animal feed, odor control, unspecified
end uses (such as ice melt, soil amendment, and synthetic turf), water purification, pet litter, wastewater treatment,
fungicide or pesticide carrier, oil and grease absorbent, air filtration and gas absorbent, fertilizer carrier, desiccant,
and aquaculture. Animal feed, odor control, and water purification applications likely accounted for about 60% of the
domestic sales tonnage.

Production, mine 82,400 86,100 87,800 86,700 87,000
Sales, mill 81,300 80,500 77,100 75,300 76,000
Imports for consumptione <1,000 <1,000 <1,000 <1,000 <1,000
Exportse <1,000 <1,000 <1,000 <1,000 <1,000
Price, range of value, dollars per ton2 100–300 e50–300 e50–300 e50–300 50–300
Employment, mine and mill, numbere, 3 110 110 120 120 120
Recycling: Zeolites used for desiccation, gas absorbance, wastewater cleanup, and water purification may be reused
after reprocessing of the spent zeolites. Information about the quantity of recycled natural zeolites was unavailable.
Import Sources (2017–20): Comprehensive trade data were not available for natural zeolite minerals because they
were imported and exported under generic Harmonized Tariff Schedule of the United States and Schedule B codes,
respectively, that include multiple mineral commodities or under codes for finished products. Nearly all imports and
exports were thought to be synthetic zeolites.

12–31–21
Mineral substances not elsewhere specified or
included 2530.90.8050 Free.

191
ZEOLITES (NATURAL)
Events, Trends, and Issues: Prior to the 1990s, annual output of natural zeolites in the United States was less than
15,000 tons. Production rose more than sixfold from 1990 through 2021 owing predominantly to increases in sales for
animal feed applications, although sales for odor control and water purification also increased significantly. In
contrast, sales for pet litter declined substantially during this period as a result of competition from other products.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Many countries either do not report production of natural zeolites or
production is reported with a 2- to 3-year lag time. End uses for natural zeolites in countries that mine large tonnages
of zeolite minerals typically include low-value, high-volume construction applications, such as dimension stone,
lightweight aggregate, and pozzolanic cement. As a result, production data for some countries may not accurately
indicate the quantities of natural zeolites used in the high-value applications that are reflected in the U.S. data.
World reserves of natural zeolites have not been estimated. Deposits occur in many countries, but companies rarely
publish reserves data. Further complicating estimates of reserves is the fact that much of the reported world
production includes altered volcanic tuffs with low to moderate concentrations of zeolites that are typically used in
high-volume construction applications. Some deposits should, therefore, be excluded from reserves estimates
because it is the rock itself and not its zeolite content that makes the deposit valuable.

2020 2021e
United States 86,700 87,000 Two of the leading companies in the
China e52,000 52,000 United States reported combined
Cuba e53,000 53,000 reserves of 80 million tons in 2021;
Georgia 135,000 140,000 total U.S. reserves likely are
Hungary e29,000 29,000 substantially larger. World data are
Indonesia e130,000 130,000 unavailable, but reserves are
Jordan 711,000 710,000 estimated to be large.
New Zealand e100,000 100,000
Russia e35,000 35,000
Slovakia e117,000 120,000
Turkey e73,000 50,000
World total (rounded) 1,660,000 1,600,000
World Resources:5 Recent estimates for domestic and global resources of natural zeolites are not available.
Resources of chabazite and clinoptilolite in the United States are sufficient to satisfy foreseeable domestic demand.
Substitutes: For pet litter, zeolites compete with other mineral-based litters, such as those manufactured using
bentonite, diatomite, fuller’s earth, and sepiolite; organic litters made from shredded corn stalks and paper, straw, and
wood shavings; and litters made using silica gel. Diatomite, perlite, pumice, vermiculite, and volcanic tuff compete
with natural zeolites as lightweight aggregate. Zeolite desiccants compete against such products as magnesium
perchlorate and silica gel. Zeolites compete with bentonite, gypsum, montmorillonite, peat, perlite, silica sand, and
vermiculite in various soil amendment applications. Activated carbon, diatomite, or silica sand may substitute for
zeolites in water-purification applications. As an oil absorbent, zeolites compete mainly with bentonite, diatomite,
fuller’s earth, sepiolite, and a variety of polymer and natural organic products. In animal feed, zeolites compete with
bentonite, diatomite, fuller’s earth, kaolin, silica, and talc as anticaking and flow-control agents.
e
1
Defined as mill sales + imports – exports. Information about industry stocks was unavailable.
2
Range of ex-works mine and mill unit values for individual natural zeolite operations, based on data reported by U.S. producers and U.S.
Geological Survey estimates. Average unit values per ton for the past 5 years were $140 in 2017, and an estimated $125 in 2018, 2019, 2020, and
2021. Prices vary with the percentage of zeolite present in the product, the chemical and physical properties of the zeolite mineral(s), particle size,
surface modification and (or) activation, and end use.
3
Excludes administration and office staff. Estimates based on data from the Mine Safety and Health Administration.
4
5

192
ZINC
(Data in thousand metric tons of contained zinc unless otherwise noted)
Domestic Production and Use: The value of zinc mined in 2021, based on zinc contained in concentrate, was about
$2.4 billion. Zinc was mined in five States at seven mining operations by five companies. Three smelter facilities, one
primary and two secondary, operated by three companies, produced commercial-grade zinc metal. Of the total
reported zinc consumed, most was used in galvanizing, followed by brass and bronze, zinc-based alloys, and other
uses.

Production:
Zinc in ores and concentrates 774 824 753 718 740
Refined zinc1 132 116 115 180 220
Zinc in ores and concentrates 7 (2) (2) 3 8
Refined zinc 729 775 830 700 700
Exports:
Zinc in ores and concentrates 682 806 792 546 580
Refined zinc 33 23 5 2 5
Shipments from Government stockpile — — — — —
Consumption, apparent, refined zinc3 829 868 939 878 920
Price, average, cents per pound:
North American4 139.3 141.0 124.1 110.8 145
Stocks, reported producer and consumer, refined zinc, yearend 114 119 116 120 110
Employment, number:
Mine and mill5 2,420 2,630 2,470 2,360 2,400
Smelter, primary 240 250 250 220 220
Ores and concentrates E E E E E
Refined zinc 84 87 88 79 76
Recycling: In 2021, an estimated 60% of the refined zinc produced in the United States was recovered from
secondary materials at both primary and secondary smelters. Secondary materials included galvanizing residues and
crude zinc oxide recovered from electric arc furnace dust.
Import Sources (2017–20): Ores and concentrates: Peru, 89%; China, 11%; other, <1%. Refined metal: Canada,
63%; Mexico, 15%; Peru, 7%; Spain, 7%; and other, 8%. Waste and scrap (gross weight): Canada, 64%; Mexico,
34%; and other, 2%. Combined total (includes gross weight of waste and scrap): Canada, 63%; Mexico, 15%; Peru,
7%; Spain, 7%; and other, 8%.

12–31–21
Zinc ores and concentrates, zinc content 2608.00.0030 Free.
Zinc oxide; zinc peroxide 2817.00.0000 Free.
Unwrought zinc, not alloyed:
Containing 99.99% or more zinc 7901.11.0000 1.5% ad valorem.
Containing less than 99.99% zinc:
Casting-grade 7901.12.1000 3% ad valorem.
Zinc alloys 7901.20.0000 3% ad valorem.
Zinc waste and scrap 7902.00.0000 Free.
Prepared by Amy C. Tolcin [(703) 648–4940, atolcin@usgs.gov]

193
ZINC
FY 2021 FY 2022
Zinc 7.25 — 7.25 — 7.25
Events, Trends, and Issues: Estimated global zinc mine production in 2021 increased from that in 2020, when mine
production was constrained in some countries because of Government-mandated lockdowns and a decrease in zinc
prices following the onset of the global COVID-19 pandemic. According to the International Lead and Zinc Study
Group,8 estimated global refined zinc production in 2021 was forecast to increase slightly to 14.13 million tons and
estimated metal consumption to increase by 6% to 14.09 million tons, resulting in a production-to-consumption surplus.
minerals list.
World Mine Production and Reserves: Reserves for Australia, Canada, India, Mexico, Peru, Sweden, and the
United States were revised based on Government or company reports.

2020 2021e
Australia 1,310 1,300 1169,000
Bolivia 360 490 4,800

Canada 211 260 5,400
China 4,060 4,200 44,000
India 720 810 9,100
Mexico 638 720 19,000
Peru 1,330 1,600 19,000
Russia 280 280 22,000
Sweden 232 230 3,700
World Resources:10 Identified zinc resources of the world are about 1.9 billion tons.
Substitutes: Aluminum and plastics substitute for galvanized sheet in automobiles; aluminum alloys, cadmium, paint,
and plastic coatings replace zinc coatings in other applications. Aluminum- and magnesium-base alloys are major
competitors for zinc-base diecasting alloys. Many elements are substitutes for zinc in chemical, electronic, and
pigment uses.
e
1
Includes primary and secondary zinc metal production.
2
Less than ½ unit.
3
Defined as refined production + refined imports – refined exports + adjustments for Government stock changes.
4
Source: S&P Global Platts Metals Week, North American Special High Grade (SHG) zinc; based on the LME cash price plus premium.
5
Includes mine and mill employment at all zinc-producing mines. Excludes office workers. Source: Mine Safety and Health Administration.
6
7
8
International Lead and Zinc Study Group, 2021, ILZSG session/forecasts: Lisbon, Portugal, International Lead and Zinc Study Group press
release, October 12, [5] p.
9
Zinc content of concentrates and direct shipping ores.
10
11

194
ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM
Domestic Production and Use: In 2021, one company recovered zircon (zirconium silicate) from surface-mining
operations in Florida and Georgia as a coproduct from the mining of heavy-mineral sands and the processing of
titanium and zirconium mineral concentrates, and a second company processed existing mineral sands tailings in
Florida. Zirconium metal and hafnium metal were produced from zirconium chemical intermediates by one producer in
Oregon and one in Utah. Zirconium and hafnium are typically contained in zircon at a ratio of about 36 to 1. Zirconium
chemicals were produced by the metal producer in Oregon and by at least 10 other companies. Ceramics, foundry
sand, opacifiers, and refractories are the leading end uses for zircon. Other end uses of zircon include abrasives,
chemicals (predominantly, zirconium basic sulfate and zirconium oxychloride octohydrate as intermediate chemicals),
metal alloys, and welding rod coatings. The leading consumers of zirconium metal are the chemical process and
nuclear energy industries. The leading use of hafnium metal is in superalloys.

Production, zirconium ores and concentrates (ZrO 2
content)1 250,000 3100,000 220,000 220,000 220,000
Imports:
Zirconium ores and concentrates (ZrO 2 content)1 24,300 26,400 22,600 15,600 18,000
Zirconium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 899 1,880 1,820 2,030 560
Zirconium, wrought 282 282 289 302 250
Hafnium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 113 42 32 16 16
Exports:
Zirconium ores and concentrates (ZrO2 content)1 31,500 77,500 40,500 12,200 12,000
Zirconium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 627 556 897 664 550
Zirconium, wrought 972 1,150 816 830 770
Consumption, apparent,4 zirconium ores and
concentrates (ZrO2 content)1 250,000 3100,000 210,000 230,000 230,000
Price:
Zircon, dollars per metric ton (gross weight):
Australia, free on board5 975 NA NA NA NA
China, cost, insurance, and freight6 1,295 1,625 1,585 1,415 1,780
Imported7 916 1,290 1,490 1,380 1,340
Zirconium, unwrought, imports, China,8 dollars per
kilogram 12 13 14 6 8
Hafnium, unwrought,6 dollars per kilogram 900 840 780 750 830
consumption:
Zirconium ores and concentrates E E E <25 <25
Hafnium NA NA NA NA NA
Recycling: Companies in Oregon and Utah recycled zirconium from new scrap generated during metal production
and fabrication and (or) from post-commercial old scrap. Zircon foundry mold cores and spent or rejected zirconia
refractories are often recycled. Hafnium metal recycling was insignificant.
Import Sources (2017–20): Zirconium ores and concentrates: South Africa, 54%; Senegal, 25%; Australia, 19%;
Russia, 2%; and other, <1%. Zirconium, unwrought, including powder: China, 89%; Germany, 8%; and other, 3%.
Zirconium, wrought: France, 64%; Germany, 18%; Belgium, 5%; and other, 13%. Hafnium, unwrought: Germany, 42%;
France, 29%; China, 24%; the United Kingdom, 2%; and other, 3%.

12–31–21
Zirconium ores and concentrates 2615.10.0000 Free.
Ferrozirconium 7202.99.1000 4.2% ad valorem.
Zirconium, unwrought and powder 8109.20.0000 4.2% ad valorem.
Zirconium waste and scrap 8109.30.0000 Free.
Other zirconium articles 8109.90.0000 3.7% ad valorem.
Hafnium, unwrought, powder, and waste and scrap 8112.92.2000 Free.

195
ZIRCONIUM AND HAFNIUM
Events, Trends, and Issues: Global production of zirconium mineral concentrates was essentially unchanged in
2021 compared with that in 2020. Advanced exploration and development projects with planned production of zircon
concentrates were ongoing in Australia, Madagascar, Mozambique, Senegal, Tanzania, and elsewhere. In the
United States, mining and heavy-mineral-processing operations were expanded near Starke, FL, and prefeasibility
studies were underway at the Titan heavy-mineral-sands project near Camden, TN. U.S. exports of zirconium ores
and concentrates were essentially unchanged, whereas imports increased by 15% from those in 2020 but remained
lower than those in previous years. Australia, Senegal, and South Africa continued to be the leading import sources of
zirconium ores and concentrates. The leading global exporters of zirconium mineral concentrates were Australia,
Senegal, and South Africa. The leading global importers were China, India, and Spain.
Global producers of zirconium sponge included China, France, India, Russia, and the United States. The leading
global exporters of unwrought zirconium metal under Harmonized System Code 8109.20 were China, Germany, and
the United States. France and Russia led the global importers of unwrought zirconium.
World Mine Production and Reserves: World primary hafnium production data were not available, and quantitative
estimates of hafnium reserves are not available. Zirconium reserves for Australia were revised on the basis of
Government reports. Zirconium reserves for Kenya and South Africa were revised on the basis of company reports.
Zirconium ores and zircon Zirconium reserves10

concentrates, mine production (thousand metric tons,
(thousand metric tons, gross weight) ZrO2 content)1
2020 2021e
United States 230 230 500
Australia 400 400 1150,000
China 140 140 500

Indonesia 64 55 NA
Kenya 29 30 50
Mozambique 110 110 1,800
Senegal 60 70 NA
World Resources:10 Resources of zircon in the United States included about 14 million tons associated with titanium
resources in heavy-mineral-sand deposits. Phosphate rock and sand and gravel deposits could potentially yield
substantial amounts of zircon as a byproduct. World resources of hafnium are associated with those of zircon and
baddeleyite. Quantitative estimates of hafnium resources were not available.
Substitutes: Chromite and olivine can be used instead of zircon for some foundry applications. Dolomite and spinel
refractories can also substitute for zircon in certain high-temperature applications. Niobium (columbium), stainless
steel, and tantalum provide limited substitution in nuclear applications, and titanium and synthetic materials may
substitute in some chemical processing plant applications. Silver-cadmium-indium control rods are used in lieu of
hafnium at numerous nuclear powerplants. Zirconium can be used interchangeably with hafnium in certain superalloys.
e
1
Calculated ZrO2 content as 65% of gross production.
2
Data are rounded to one significant digit to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
3
Data are rounded to the nearest hundred thousand tons to avoid disclosing company proprietary data.
4
5
Source: Industrial Minerals, average of yearend price. Prices of zircon from Australia were discontinued at yearend 2017.
6
Source: Argus Media group—Argus Metals International, average of yearend price.
7
Unit value based on annual United States imports for consumption from Australia, Senegal, and South Africa.
8
Unit value based on annual United States imports for consumption from China.
9
10
11
For Australia, Joint Ore Reserves Committee-compliant or equivalent reserves were 22.1 million tons, gross weight.

196
APPENDIX A
Abbreviations and Units of Measure
1 carat (metric) (diamond) = 200 milligrams
1 flask (fl) = 76 pounds, avoirdupois, or 33.47 kilograms
1 karat (gold) = one twenty-fourth part
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.2046 pounds, avoirdupois
1 long ton (lt) = 2,240 pounds, avoirdupois
1 long ton unit (ltu) = 1% of 1 long ton, or 22.4 pounds, avoirdupois
long calcined ton (lct) = excludes water of hydration
long dry ton (ldt) = excludes excess free moisture
Mcf = 1,000 cubic feet
1 metric ton (t) = 2,204.6 pounds, avoirdupois, or 1,000 kilograms
1 metric ton (t) = 1.1023 short ton
1 metric ton unit (mtu) = 1% of 1 metric ton, or 10 kilograms
metric dry ton (mdt) = excludes excess free moisture
1 pound (lb) = 453.6 grams
psia = pounds per square inch absolute
1 short ton (st) = 2,000 pounds, avoirdupois
1 short ton unit (stu) = 1% of 1 short ton, or 20 pounds, avoirdupois
short dry ton (sdt) = excludes excess free moisture
1 troy ounce (tr oz) = 1.09714 avoirdupois ounces, or 31.103 grams
1 troy pound = 12 troy ounces
APPENDIX B
Definitions of Selected Terms Used in This Report
Terms Used for Materials in the National Defense Stockpile and Federal Helium Reserve
Fiscal year for the U.S. Government is the period from October 1 through September 30. Fiscal year (FY) 2021 is
from October 1, 2020, through September 30, 2021. FY 2022 is from October 1, 2021, through September 30, 2022.
Inventory refers to the quantity of mineral materials held in the National Defense Stockpile or in the Federal Helium
Reserve. Nonstockpile-grade materials may be included in the table; where significant, the quantities of these
stockpiled materials are specified in the text accompanying the table.
Potential disposals indicate the total amount of a material in the National Defense Stockpile that the U.S.
Department of Defense is permitted to dispose of under the Annual Materials Plan approved by Congress for the
fiscal year. Congress has authorized disposal over the long term at rates designed to maximize revenue but avoid
undue disruption to the usual markets and financial loss to the United States. Disposals are defined as any disposal
or sale of National Defense Stockpile stock. For mineral commodities that have a disposal plan greater than the
inventory, the actual quantity will be limited to the remaining disposal authority or inventory. Note that, unlike the
National Defense Stockpile, helium stockpile sales by the Bureau of Land Management under the Helium
Privatization Act of 1996 are permitted to exceed disposal plans.
Potential acquisitions indicate the maximum amount of a material that may be acquired by the U.S. Department of
Defense for the National Defense Stockpile under the Annual Materials Plan approved by Congress for the fiscal year.
Depletion Allowance
The depletion allowance is a business tax deduction analogous to depreciation, but which applies to an ore reserve
rather than equipment or production facilities. Federal tax law allows this deduction from taxable corporate income,
recognizing that an ore deposit is a depletable asset that must eventually be replaced.
197
APPENDIX C
Reserves and Resources
Reserves data are dynamic. They may be reduced as with reserves of about 280 million tons of copper. Since
ore is mined and (or) the feasibility of extraction then, about 600 million tons of copper have been
diminishes, or more commonly, they may continue to produced worldwide, but world copper reserves in 2021
increase as additional deposits (known or recently were estimated to be 880 million tons of copper, more
discovered) are developed, or currently exploited than triple those in 1970, despite the depletion by
deposits are more thoroughly explored and (or) new mining of much more than the 1970 estimated reserves.
technology or economic variables improve their
economic feasibility. Reserves may be considered a Future supplies of minerals will come from reserves and
working inventory of mining companies’ supplies of an other identified resources, currently undiscovered
economically extractable mineral commodity. As such, resources in deposits that will be discovered in the
the magnitude of that inventory is necessarily limited by future, and material that will be recycled from current
many considerations, including cost of drilling, taxes, in-use stocks of minerals or from minerals in waste
price of the mineral commodity being mined, and the disposal sites. Undiscovered deposits of minerals
demand for it. Reserves will be developed to the point of constitute an important consideration in assessing future
business needs and geologic limitations of economic supplies. Mineral-resource assessments have been
ore grade and tonnage. For example, in 1970, identified carried out for small parcels of land being evaluated for
and undiscovered world copper resources were land reclassification, for the Nation, and for the world.
estimated to contain 1.6 billion metric tons of copper,
Part A—Resource and Reserve Classification for Minerals1

Introduction in place; and (2) profitability analyses based on costs of
extracting and marketing the material in a given
Through the years, geologists, mining engineers, and economy at a given time. The former constitutes
others operating in the minerals field have used various important objective scientific information of the resource
terms to describe and classify mineral resources, which and a relatively unchanging foundation upon which the
as defined herein include energy materials. Some of latter more valuable economic delineation can be based.
these terms have gained wide use and acceptance,
although they are not always used with precisely the The revised classification system, designed generally for
same meaning. all mineral materials, is shown graphically in
figures C1and C2; its components and their usage are
The U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) collects information described in the text. The classification of mineral and
about the quantity and quality of all mineral resources. energy resources is necessarily arbitrary because
In 1976, the USGS and the U.S. Bureau of Mines definitional criteria do not always coincide with natural
developed a common classification and nomenclature, boundaries. The system can be used to report the status
which was published as USGS Bulletin 1450–A— of mineral and energy-fuel resources for the Nation or
“Principles of the Mineral Resource Classification for specific areas.1
System of the U.S. Bureau of Mines and U.S.
Geological Survey.” Experience with this resource Resource and Reserve Definitions
classification system showed that some changes were
necessary in order to make it more workable in practice A dictionary definition of resource, “something in reserve
and more useful in long-term planning. Therefore, or ready if needed,” has been adapted for mineral and
representatives of the USGS and the U.S. Bureau of energy resources to comprise all materials, including
Mines collaborated to revise Bulletin 1450–A. Their work those only surmised to exist, that have present or
was published in 1980 as USGS Circular 831— anticipated future value.
“Principles of a Resource/Reserve Classification for
Minerals.” Resource.—A concentration of naturally occurring solid,
liquid, or gaseous material in or on the Earth’s crust
Long-term public and commercial planning must be in such form and amount that economic extraction of
based on the probability of discovering new deposits, on a commodity from the concentration is currently or
developing economic extraction processes for currently potentially feasible.
unworkable deposits, and on knowing which resources Original Resource.—The amount of a resource before
are immediately available. Thus, resources must be production.
continuously reassessed in the light of new geologic Identified Resources.—Resources for which location,
knowledge, of progress in science and technology, and grade, quality, and quantity are known or estimated
of shifts in economic and political conditions. To best from specific geologic evidence. Identified resources
serve these planning needs, known resources should be include economic, marginally economic, and
classified from two standpoints: (1) purely geologic or subeconomic components. To reflect varying degrees
physical and chemical characteristics—such as grade, of geologic certainty, these economic divisions can
quality, tonnage, thickness, and depth—of the material be subdivided into measured, indicated, and inferred.
1
Based on U.S. Geological Survey Circular 831, 1980.
198
Demonstrated.—A term for the sum of measured Economic.—This term implies that profitable extraction
plus indicated resources. or production under defined investment assumptions
Measured.—Quantity is computed from has been established, analytically demonstrated, or
dimensions revealed in outcrops, trenches, assumed with reasonable certainty.
workings, or drill holes; grade and (or) quality Subeconomic Resources.—The part of identified
are computed from the results of detailed resources that does not meet the economic criteria of
sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, reserves and marginal reserves.
and measurements are spaced so closely and Undiscovered Resources.—Resources, the existence
the geologic character is so well defined that of which are only postulated, comprising deposits that
size, shape, depth, and mineral content of the are separate from identified resources. Undiscovered
resource are well established. resources may be postulated in deposits of such
Indicated.—Quantity and grade and (or) quality grade and physical location as to render them
are computed from information similar to that economic, marginally economic, or subeconomic. To
used for measured resources, but the sites for reflect varying degrees of geologic certainty,
inspection, sampling, and measurements are undiscovered resources may be divided into two
farther apart or are otherwise less adequately parts, as follows:
spaced. The degree of assurance, although Hypothetical Resources.—Undiscovered resources
lower than that for measured resources, is high that are similar to known mineral bodies and that
enough to assume continuity between points of may be reasonably expected to exist in the same
observation. producing district or region under analogous
Inferred.—Estimates are based on an assumed geologic conditions. If exploration confirms their
continuity beyond measured and (or) indicated existence and reveals enough information about
resources, for which there is geologic evidence. their quality, grade, and quantity, they will be
Inferred resources may or may not be supported reclassified as identified resources.
by samples or measurements. Speculative Resources.—Undiscovered resources
Reserve Base.—That part of an identified resource that that may occur either in known types of deposits in
meets specified minimum physical and chemical favorable geologic settings where mineral
criteria related to current mining and production discoveries have not been made, or in types of
practices, including those for grade, quality, deposits as yet unrecognized for their economic
thickness, and depth. The reserve base is the potential. If exploration confirms their existence
in-place demonstrated (measured plus indicated) and reveals enough information about their
resource from which reserves are estimated. It may quantity, grade, and quality, they will be
encompass those parts of the resources that have a reclassified as identified resources.
reasonable potential for becoming economically Restricted Resources or Reserves.—That part of any
available within planning horizons beyond those that resource or reserve category that is restricted from
assume proven technology and current economics. extraction by laws or regulations. For example,
The reserve base includes those resources that are restricted reserves meet all the requirements of
currently economic (reserves), marginally economic reserves except that they are restricted from
(marginal reserves), and some of those that are extraction by laws or regulations.
currently subeconomic (subeconomic resources). The Other Occurrences.—Materials that are too low grade
term “geologic reserve” has been applied by others or for other reasons are not considered potentially
generally to the reserve-base category, but it also economic, in the same sense as the defined
may include the inferred-reserve-base category; it is resource, may be recognized and their magnitude
not a part of this classification system. estimated, but they are not classified as resources. A
Inferred Reserve Base.—The in-place part of an separate category, labeled “other occurrences,” is
identified resource from which inferred reserves are included in figures C1 and C2. In figure C1, the
estimated. Quantitative estimates are based largely boundary between subeconomic and other
on knowledge of the geologic character of a deposit occurrences is limited by the concept of current or
and for which there may be no samples or potential feasibility of economic production, which is
measurements. The estimates are based on an required by the definition of a resource. The boundary
assumed continuity beyond the reserve base, for is obviously uncertain, but limits may be specified in
which there is geologic evidence. terms of grade, quality, thickness, depth, extractable
Reserves.—That part of the reserve base that could be percentage, or other economic-feasibility variables.
economically extracted or produced at the time of Cumulative Production.—The amount of past
determination. The term “reserves” need not signify cumulative production is not, by definition, a part of
that extraction facilities are in place and operative. the resource. Nevertheless, a knowledge of what has
Reserves include only recoverable materials; thus, been produced is important in order to understand
terms such as “extractable reserves” and current resources, in terms of both the amount of past
“recoverable reserves” are redundant and are not a production and the amount of residual or remaining
part of this classification system. in-place resource. A separate space for cumulative
Marginal Reserves.—That part of the reserve base production is shown in figures C1 and C2. Residual
which, at the time of determination, borders on being material left in the ground during current or future
economically producible. Its essential characteristic is extraction should be recorded in the resource
economic uncertainty. Included are resources that category appropriate to its economic-recovery
would be producible, given postulated changes in potential.
economic or technological factors.
199
Figure C1.—Major Elements of Mineral-Resource Classification,
Excluding Reserve Base and Inferred Reserve Base
Figure C2.—Reserve Base and Inferred Reserve Base Classification Categories

200
Part B—Sources of Reserves Data
National information on reserves for most mineral “proved reserves” and “probable reserves,” plus
commodities found in this report, including those for the measured resources and indicated resources. This is
United States, is derived from a variety of sources. The considered to provide a reasonable and objective
ideal source of such information would be comprehensive estimate of what is likely to be available for mining in the
evaluations that apply the same criteria to deposits in long term. Accessible Economic Demonstrated
different geographic areas and report the results by Resources represent the resources within the EDR
country. In the absence of such evaluations, national category that are accessible for mining. Reserves for
reserves estimates compiled by countries for selected Australia in the Mineral Commodity Summaries 2022
mineral commodities are a primary source of national are Accessible EDR. For more information, see table 3
reserves information. Lacking national assessment in “Australia’s Identified Mineral Resources 2020”
information by governments, sources such as academic (https://doi.org/10.11636/1327-1466.2020).
articles, company reports, presentations by company
representatives, and trade journal articles, or a In Canada, the Canadian Institute of Mining, Metallurgy
combination of these, serve as the basis for national and Petroleum (CIM) provides definition standards for
information on reserves reported in the mineral the classification of mineral resources and mineral
commodity sections of this publication. reserves estimates into various categories. The
category to which a resource or reserves estimate is
A national estimate may be assembled from the assigned depends on the level of confidence in the
following: historically reported reserves information geologic information available on the mineral deposit,
carried for years without alteration because no new the quality and quantity of data available on the deposit,
information is available, historically reported reserves the level of detail of the technical and economic
reduced by the amount of historical production, and information that has been generated about the deposit,
company-reported reserves. International minerals and the interpretation of the data and information. For
availability studies conducted by the U.S. Bureau of more information on the CIM definition standards, see
Mines before 1996 and estimates of identified resources https://mrmr.cim.org/en/standards/canadian-mineral-
by an international collaborative effort (the International resource-and-mineral-reserve-definitions/.
Strategic Minerals Inventory) are the bases for some
reserves estimates. The USGS collects some qualitative In Russia, reserves for most minerals can appear in a
information about the quantity and quality of mineral number of sources, although no comprehensive list of
resources but does not directly measure reserves or reserves is published. Reserves data for a limited set of
resources, and companies or governments do not mineral commodities are available in the annual report
directly report information about reserves or resources "Gosudarstvennyi Doklad o Sostoyanii i Ispol'zovanii
to the USGS. Reassessment of reserves is a continuing Mineral'no-Syryevyh Resursov Rossiyskoy Federatsii"
process, and the intensity of this process differs by (State Report on the State and Use of Mineral and Raw
mineral commodity, country, and time period. Materials Resources of the Russian Federation), which
is published by Russia’s Ministry of Natural Resources
Some countries have specific definitions for reserves and Environment. Reserves data for various minerals
data, and reserves for each country are assessed appear at times in journal articles, such as those in the
separately, based on reported data and definitions. An journal "Mineral’nyye Resursy Rossii. Ekonomika i
attempt is made to make reserves consistent among Upravleniye" (Mineral Resources of Russia. Economics
countries for a mineral commodity and its byproducts. and Management), which is published by the "OOO RG-
For example, the Australasian Joint Ore Reserves Inform," a subsidiary of Rosgeologiya Holding. It is
Committee (JORC) established the Australasian Code sometimes not clear if the reserves are being reported
for Reporting of Exploration Results, Mineral Resources in ore or mineral content. It is also in many cases not
and Ore Reserves (JORC Code) that sets out minimum clear which definition of reserves is being used,
standards, recommendations, and guidelines for public because the system inherited from the former Soviet
reporting in Australasia of exploration results, mineral Union has a number of ways in which the term
resources, and ore reserves. Companies listed on the “reserves” is defined, and these definitions qualify the
Australian Securities Exchange and the New Zealand percentage of resources that are included in a specific
Stock Exchange are required to report publicly on ore category. For example, the Soviet reserves
reserves and mineral resources under their control, classification system, besides the categories A, B, C1,
using the JORC Code. and C2, which represent progressively detailed
knowledge of a mineral deposit based on exploration
Data reported for individual deposits by mining data, has other subcategories cross imposed upon the
companies are compiled in Geoscience Australia’s system. Under the broad category reserves (zapasy),
national mineral resources database and used in the there are subcategories that include balance reserves
preparation of the annual national assessments of (balansovyye zapasy, or economic reserves) and
Australia’s mineral resources. Because of its specific outside-the-balance reserves (zabalansovye zapasy, or
use in the JORC Code, the term “reserves” is not used subeconomic reserves), as well as categories that
in the national inventory, where the highest category is include explored, industrial, and proven reserves, and
“Economic Demonstrated Resources” (EDR). In the reserves totals can vary significantly, depending on
essence, EDR combines the JORC Code categories the specific definition of reserves being reported.
201
APPENDIX D
Country Specialists Directory
Minerals information country specialists at the U.S. Geological Survey collect and analyze information on the mineral
industries of more than 170 nations throughout the world. The specialists are available to answer minerals-related
questions concerning individual countries.
Africa and the Middle East Africa and the Middle East—Continued
Algeria Mowafa Taib Saudi Arabia Mowafa Taib

Angola Meralis Plaza-Toledo Senegal Alberto A. Perez
Bahrain Philip A. Szczesniak Seychelles Philip A. Szczesniak
Benin Meralis Plaza-Toledo Sierra Leone Alberto A. Perez
Botswana Thomas R. Yager Somalia Philip A. Szczesniak
Burkina Faso Alberto A. Perez South Africa Thomas R. Yager
Burundi Thomas R. Yager South Sudan Alberto A. Perez
Cabo Verde Meralis Plaza-Toledo Sudan Mowafa Taib
Cameroon Philip A. Szczesniak Syria Mowafa Taib
Central African Republic Philip A. Szczesniak Tanzania Thomas R. Yager
Chad Philip A. Szczesniak Togo Alberto A. Perez
Comoros Philip A. Szczesniak Tunisia Mowafa Taib
Congo (Brazzaville) Philip A. Szczesniak Uganda Thomas R. Yager
Congo (Kinshasa) Thomas R. Yager United Arab Emirates Philip A. Szczesniak
Côte d’Ivoire Alberto A. Perez Yemen Mowafa Taib
Djibouti Thomas R. Yager Zambia Philip A. Szczesniak
Egypt Mowafa Taib Zimbabwe Philip A. Szczesniak
Equatorial Guinea Meralis Plaza-Toledo
Eritrea Thomas R. Yager Asia and the Pacific
Eswatini Philip A. Szczesniak
Ethiopia Meralis Plaza-Toledo Afghanistan Karine M. Renaud
Gabon Alberto A. Perez Australia Spencer D. Buteyn
The Gambia Meralis Plaza-Toledo Bangladesh Keita F. DeCarlo
Ghana Meralis Plaza-Toledo Bhutan Keita F. DeCarlo
Guinea Alberto A. Perez Brunei Spencer D. Buteyn
Guinea-Bissau Meralis Plaza-Toledo Burma (Myanmar) Ji Won Moon
Iran Philip A. Szczesniak Cambodia Ji Won Moon
Iraq Philip A. Szczesniak China Ji Won Moon
Israel Philip A. Szczesniak Fiji Spencer D. Buteyn
Jordan Mowafa Taib India Karine M. Renaud
Kenya Thomas R. Yager Indonesia Jaewon Chung
Kuwait Philip A. Szczesniak Japan Keita F. DeCarlo
Lebanon Mowafa Taib Korea, North Jaewon Chung
Lesotho Philip A. Szczesniak Korea, Republic of Jaewon Chung
Liberia Meralis Plaza-Toledo Laos Ji Won Moon
Libya Mowafa Taib Malaysia Spencer D. Buteyn
Madagascar Thomas R. Yager Mongolia Jaewon Chung
Malawi Thomas R. Yager Nauru Spencer D. Buteyn
Mali Alberto A. Perez Nepal Keita F. DeCarlo
Mauritania Mowafa Taib New Caledonia Spencer D. Buteyn
Mauritius Philip A. Szczesniak New Zealand Spencer D. Buteyn
Morocco and Pakistan Keita F. DeCarlo
Western Sahara Mowafa Taib Papua New Guinea Spencer D. Buteyn
Mozambique Meralis Plaza-Toledo Philippines Ji Won Moon
Namibia Philip A. Szczesniak Singapore Spencer D. Buteyn
Niger Alberto A. Perez Solomon Islands Jaewon Chung
Nigeria Thomas R. Yager Sri Lanka Keita F. DeCarlo
Oman Philip A. Szczesniak Taiwan Jaewon Chung
Qatar Philip A. Szczesniak Thailand Ji Won Moon
Reunion Philip A. Szczesniak Timor-Leste Jaewon Chung
Rwanda Thomas R. Yager Vietnam Ji Won Moon
São Tomé & Principe Meralis Plaza-Toledo
202
Europe and Central Eurasia Europe and Central Eurasia—Continued
Albania Jaewon Chung Sweden Joanna Goclawska

Armenia Elena Safirova Switzerland Keita F. DeCarlo
Austria Sinan Hastorun Tajikistan Karine M. Renaud
Azerbaijan Elena Safirova Turkey Sinan Hastorun
Belarus Elena Safirova Turkmenistan Karine M. Renaud
Belgium Loyd M. Trimmer III Ukraine Elena Safirova
Bosnia and Herzegovina Karine M. Renaud United Kingdom Jaewon Chung
Bulgaria Karine M. Renaud Uzbekistan Elena Safirova
Croatia Karine M. Renaud
Cyprus Sinan Hastorun North America, Central America, and the Caribbean
Czechia Loyd M. Trimmer III
Denmark, Faroe Islands, Aruba Yadira Soto-Viruet
and Greenland Joanna Goclawska The Bahamas Yadira Soto-Viruet
Estonia Sinan Hastorun Belize Jesse J. Inestroza
Finland Joanna Goclawska Canada Jesse J. Inestroza
France Keita F. DeCarlo Costa Rica Jesse J. Inestroza
Georgia Elena Safirova Cuba Yadira Soto-Viruet
Germany Elena Safirova Dominican Republic Yadira Soto-Viruet
Greece Sinan Hastorun El Salvador Jesse J. Inestroza
Hungary Loyd M. Trimmer III Guatemala Jesse J. Inestroza
Iceland Joanna Goclawska Haiti Yadira Soto-Viruet
Ireland Joanna Goclawska Honduras Jesse J. Inestroza
Italy Loyd M. Trimmer III Jamaica Yadira Soto-Viruet
Kazakhstan Elena Safirova Mexico Alberto A. Perez
Kosovo Sinan Hastorun Nicaragua Jesse J. Inestroza
Kyrgyzstan Karine M. Renaud Panama Jesse J. Inestroza
Latvia Sinan Hastorun Trinidad and Tobago Yadira Soto-Viruet
Lithuania Sinan Hastorun
Luxembourg Keita F. DeCarlo South America
Malta Jaewon Chung
Moldova Elena Safirova Argentina Jesse J. Inestroza
Montenegro Jaewon Chung Bolivia Yolanda Fong-Sam
Netherlands Loyd M. Trimmer III Brazil Yolanda Fong-Sam
North Macedonia Karine M. Renaud Chile Yadira Soto-Viruet
Norway Joanna Goclawska Colombia Jesse J. Inestroza
Poland Joanna Goclawska Ecuador Jesse J. Inestroza
Portugal Joanna Goclawska French Guiana Yolanda Fong-Sam
Romania Keita F. DeCarlo Guyana Yolanda Fong-Sam
Russia Elena Safirova Paraguay Yadira Soto-Viruet
Serbia Karine M. Renaud Peru Yadira Soto-Viruet
Slovakia Keita F. DeCarlo Suriname Yolanda Fong-Sam
Slovenia Loyd M. Trimmer III Uruguay Yadira Soto-Viruet
Spain Loyd M. Trimmer III Venezuela Yolanda Fong-Sam
Country specialist Telephone Email
Spencer D. Buteyn (703) 648–7738 sbuteyn@usgs.gov

Jaewon Chung (703) 648–4793 jchung@usgs.gov
Keita F. DeCarlo (703) 648–7716 kdecarlo@usgs.gov
Yolanda Fong-Sam (703) 648–7756 yfong-sam@usgs.gov
Joanna Goclawska (703) 648–7973 jgoclawska@usgs.gov
Sinan Hastorun (703) 648–7744 shastorun@usgs.gov
Jesse J. Inestroza (703) 648–7779 jinestroza@usgs.gov
Ji Won Moon (703) 648–7791 jmoon@usgs.gov
Alberto A. Perez (703) 648–7749 aperez@usgs.gov
Meralis Plaza-Toledo (703) 648–7759 mplaza-toledo@usgs.gov
Karine M. Renaud (703) 648–7748 krenaud@usgs.gov
Elena Safirova (703) 648–7731 esafirova@usgs.gov
Yadira Soto-Viruet (703) 648–4957 ysoto-viruet@usgs.gov
Philip A. Szczesniak (703) 648–7728 pszczesniak@usgs.gov
Mowafa Taib (703) 648–4986 mtaib@usgs.gov
Loyd M. Trimmer III (703) 648–4983 ltrimmer@usgs.gov
Thomas R. Yager (703) 648–7739 tyager@usgs.gov

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U.S.

Department of the Interior

Abrasives Fluorspar Mercury Silicon

Abrasives Fluorspar Mercury Silicon

Manuscript approved for publication January 31, 2022.

Associated data for this publication:

Introduction .................................................................... 3 Figures 4–8—Value of Nonfuel Minerals Produced in

Abrasives (Manufactured) ............................................ 20 Mercury ....................................................................... 108

WHERE TO OBTAIN PUBLICATIONS

Exports: $10.6 billion

Value: $3,320 billion Gross Domestic Product:

Net Exports of Old

Sources: U.S. Geological Survey and U.S. Department of Commerce.

Table 2.—U.S. Mineral-Related Economic Trends

Industrial production (2017=100):

Housing starts (thousands) 1,205 1,247 1,292 1,397 1,580

Light vehicle sales (thousands) 17,150 17,225 16,961 14,472 15,170

Highway construction, value, put in place (billion dollars) 90 91 100 101 99

Sources: U.S. Department of Commerce and Federal Reserve Board.

United States World

Salient Statistics—United States: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

Prepared by Andrew A. Stewart [(703) 648–7723, astewart@usgs.gov]

Government Stockpile: None.

World Production Capacity:

Fused aluminum oxidee Silicon carbidee

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022

Salient Statistics—United States: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

Depletion Allowance: Not applicable.1

Government Stockpile: None.

Smelter production Yearend capacity

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022

Salient Statistics—United States: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

Depletion Allowance: 22% (domestic), 14% (foreign).

Prepared by Kateryna Klochko [(703) 648–4977, kklochko@usgs.gov]

Mine production Reserves7

Australia 3,900 3,400 9100,000

Bolivia 2,600 2,700 310,000

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022

Salient Statistics—United States: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

Depletion Allowance: 14% (domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Micheal W. George [(703) 648–4962, mgeorge@usgs.gov]

World Production and Reserves (gross weight):

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022

Salient Statistics—United States:2 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Import Sources (2017–20): Brazil, 80%; and Russia, 20%.

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

Depletion Allowance: 22% (domestic), 10% (foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.

Prepared by Daniel M. Flanagan [(703) 648–7726, dflanagan@usgs.gov]

World Mine Production and Reserves:

U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries, January 2022

Salient Statistics—United States: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021e

Tariff: Item Number Normal Trade Relations

Depletion Allowance: 14% (domestic and foreign).

Government Stockpile: None.