Recent Advances in Glyphosate Biodegradation
Recent Advances in Glyphosate Biodegradation
Recent Advances in Glyphosate Biodegradation
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-018-9035-0
MINI-REVIEW
Abstract
Glyphosate has emerged as the most widespread herbicide to control annual and perennial weeds. Massive use of glyphosate for
decades has resulted in its ubiquitous presence in the environment, and poses a threat to humans and ecosystem. Different
approaches such as adsorption, photocatalytic degradation, and microbial degradation have been studied to break down glyph-
osate in the environment. Among these, microbial degradation is the most effective and eco-friendly method. During its degra-
dation, various microorganisms can use glyphosate as a sole source of phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen. Major glyphosate
degradation pathways and its metabolites have been frequently investigated, but the related enzymes and genes have been rarely
studied. There are many reviews about the toxicity and fate of glyphosate and its major metabolite, aminomethylphosphonic acid.
However, there is lack of reviews on biodegradation and bioremediation of glyphosate. The aims of this review are to summarize
the microbial degradation of glyphosate and discuss the potential of glyphosate-degrading microorganisms to bioremediate
glyphosate-contaminated environments. This review will provide an instructive direction to apply glyphosate-degrading micro-
organisms in the environment for bioremediation.
DAHP Synthase
OH OH O
OH
O O-
P
OH
O OH O
3-deoxy-D-arainoheptulosonate-7-phosphate (DAHP)
DHQ Synthase
O O O- O O- O O-
OH O-
HO
O OH O OH HO OH O OH
P
OH OH OH HO OH
O
3-Dehydroquinate (DHQ) 3-Dehydroshikimate Shikimate Shikimate-3-phosphate
O O-
EPSPS
O-
inhibit
HO
O O
P
HO
O
OH O Glyphosate
5-Enolpyruvyl-shikimate-3-phosphate
O O-
Tyrosine
O- Phenylalanine
O
OH O
Chorismate Tryptophan
strain GL, Arthrobacter sp. strain GLP-1, Geobacillus most pivotal role (Bujacz et al. 1995; Hadi et al. 2013;
caldoxylosilyticus strain T20 and Pseudomonas sp. PG2982 Obojska et al. 1999). To assess the potential of glyphosate-
can utilize glyphosate as growth nutrient (Lerbs et al. 1990; degrading microorganisms for bioremediation, it is neces-
Moore et al. 1983; Obojska et al. 2002; Pipke and Amrhein sary to optimize their degradation conditions including
1988a; Pipke et al. 1987a). Among various glyphosate- initial pH, incubation temperature, glyphosate concentra-
degrading microorganisms (bacteria (Table 1), fungi tion, inoculation biomass and incubation time. Response
(Table 2), micromyces, and actinomycetes), bacteria play the surface methodology reveals that bacteria exhibit efficient
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
Achromobacter Activated sludge from – AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate McAuliffe et al.
sp. LW9 glyphosate process as a sole carbon source in (1990)
waste stream presence of phosphate
Achromobacter Glyphosate-contaminated – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate Ermakova et al.
sp. MPK 7A soil as sole phosphorus source (2017)
Achromobacter Methylphosphonic acid – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate Sviridov et al.
sp. MPS 12A contaminated soil 2) Glycine as sole phosphorus source (2012)
3) Formaldehyde
Agrobacterium Sludge from water – Sarcosine pathway No data 1. Utilization of glyphosate Wackett et al. (1987)
radiobacter reatment (putative) as sole phosphorus source
plant in America
Agrobacterium Activated sludge from a – AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate McAuliffe et al.
radiobacter waste stream as a sole carbon source in (1990)
SW9 presence of phosphate
2. Capability of degrading
small amount of AMPA
Alcaligenes sp. Non-axenic cultures of the – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate Lerbs et al. (1990)
GL cyanobacterium 2) Glycine as sole phosphorus source
Anacystisnidulans
Arthrobacter German collection of + AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate Pipke and Amrhein
atrocyaneus microorganisms and 2) CO2 as sole phosphorus source (1988a)
ATCC 13752 cell cultures 2. Capable of degrading glyphosate
per se without previous selection
culture
Arthrobacter sp. Accidental contaminant of + Sarcosine pathway 1) Phosphate 1. Utilization of glyphosate Pipke et al. (1987a)
GLP-1 Klebsiella pneumoniae 2) Glycine as sole phosphorus source
2. Capable of degrading glyphosate
per se without previous selection
culture
Arthrobacter sp. Mutant of Arthrobacter + Sarcosine pathway 1) Phosphate 1. Utilization of glyphosate Pipke and Amrhein
GLP-1/Nit-1 sp. GLP-1 as sole phosphorus source (1988b)
as well as sole nitrogen
source
Bacillus cereus Glyphosate-polluted soil + Both AMPA and 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate Fan et al. (2012)
CB4 in sarcosine 2) Glyoxylate as sole phosphorus source
the herbicide plant, pathways 3) Sarcosine 2. 94.47% degradation in
China 4) Glycine 5 days under the optimal
5) Formaldehyde capacity
Comamonas Glyphosate-contaminated – Both AMPA and No data 1. Utilization of glyphosate as sole Firdous et al.
odontotermitis soil in Australia sarcosine carbon and phosphorus source (2017a)
P2 pathways 2. Complete degradation of
(putative) glyphosate (1.5 g/L) within
104 h
Enterobacter Rhizoplane of various – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate Kryuchkova et al.
cloacae K7 plants 2) Glycine as sole phosphorus source (2014)
in Russia 2. 40% degradation of glyphosate
with initial 5 mM content
Enterobacter sp. Sandy soil from Algeria – No data No data No data Benslama and
Bisph2 Boulahrouf
(2016)
Flavobacterium Monsanto activated – AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate Balthazor and Hallas
sp. GD1 sludges 2) Phosphate as sole phosphorus source (1986)
Geobacillus Central heating system + AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate Obojska et al. (2002)
caldoxylosilyti- water 2) Glyoxylate as sole phosphorus source
cus T20
Ochrobactrum Glyphosate-contaminated – Both AMPA and 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate Sviridov et al.
anthropi GPK3 soil sarcosine 2) Glyoxylate as sole phosphorus source (2012)
pathways 3) Sarcosine
4) Glycine
5) Formaldehyde
Ochrobactrum Glyphosate-contaminated – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Firdous et al.
intermedium indigenous soil 2) Glycine sole carbon source (2017b)
Sq20
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
Table 1 (continued)
2. Complete degradation of
glyphosate (500 mg/L) within
4 days
Ochrobactrum sp. Soil – AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Hadi et al. (2013)
GDOS sole phosphate source
2. Complete degradation (3 mM)
within 60 h
Pseudomonas Soil – AMPA pathway No data 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Peñaloza-Vazquez
pseudomallei (putative) sole phosphorus source et al. (1995)
22 2. 50% degradation in 40 h
Pseudomonas sp. Glyphosate-contaminated – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Dick and Quinn
4ASW soil sole phosphorus source (1995)
Pseudomonas sp. Mutant of Pseudomonas – Sarcosine pathway No data 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Selvapandiyan and
GLC11 sp. PAO1 on selective sole phosphorus source Bhatnagar (1994)
medium
Pseudomonas sp. Activated sludge from – Both AMPA 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Jacob et al. (1988)
LBr glyphosate process (95%) and 2) Glycine sole phosphorus source
waste stream sarcosine (5%) 2. Capable of removing
pathway 20 mM glyphosate from
growth medium
Pseudomonas sp. Pseudomonas aeruginosa – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate Moore et al. (1983);
PG2982 ATCC 9027 2) Phosphate as sole phosphorus source Shinabarger and
3) Glycine Braymer (1986);
4) Formaldehyde Kishore and Jacob
(1987)
Pseudomonas sp. Aerobic digester liquid – AMPA pathway 1) AMPA 1. Utilization of glyphosate Talbot et al. (1984)
SG-1 as sole phosphorus source
2. Within 18 h, 2 g
(wet weight) of cells
degraded 0.9 mg of
glyphosate from a 30-ml reac-
tion mixture
Rhizobiaceae Mutant of Rhizobiaceae – Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate as Liu et al. (1991)
meliloti 1021 meliloti induced by 2) Glycine sole phosphorus source
transposon Tn5
mutagenesis which is
resistant to
streptomycin
Streptomycete sp. Raw sludge from a + Sarcosine pathway 1) Sarcosine 1. Utilization of glyphosate as sole Obojska et al. (1999)
StC municipal sewage 2) Glycine phosphorus, nitrogen or nitrogen
treatment plant and phosphorus source
glyphosate degradation ability under the optimum condi- glyphosate as their sole phosphorus source (Bujacz et al.
tions (Fan et al. 2012; Firdous et al. 2017a). 1995; Fu et al. 2017; Klimek et al. 2001;
As illustrated in Tables 1 and 2, Alcaligenes sp. strain GL, Krzyśko-Łupicka and Orlik 1997; Krzyśko-Lupicka
Arthrobacter sp. strain GLP-1, Flavobacterium sp. strain GD1 et al. 1997). However, several strains can use glyphosate
and Pseudomonas pseudomallei strain 22 utilize glyphosate as a s o t h e r ty p e s o f e n e rg y s o u r c e . F o r e x a m p l e ,
sole phosphorus source (Balthazor and Hallas 1986; Lerbs et al. Arthrobacter sp. GLP-1/Nit-1 (mutant of Arthrobacter
1990; Peñaloza-Vazquez et al. 1995; Pipke et al. 1987a). sp. GLP-1) can utilize glyphosate both as sole phosphorus
Similarly, Achromobacter sp. strain LW9, Agrobacterium source and sole nitrogen source (Pipke and Amrhein
radiobacter strain SW9, and Ochrobactrum intermedium strain 1988b); Comamonas odontotermitis P2 uses glyphosate
Sq20 utilize glyphosate as sole carbon or nitrogen source as sole carbon and phosphorus source (Firdous et al.
(Firdous et al. 2017b; McAuliffe et al. 1990). Most of the bac- 2017a); Streptomycete sp. StC utilizes glyphosate as sole
teria and fungi (Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus oryzae A-F02, phosphorus source, sole nitrogen source or sole nitrogen
Mucor IIIR, Penicillium IIR, Penicillium notatum, and sole phosphorus source (Obojska et al. 1999).
Scopulariopsis sp., Trichoderma harzianum) decompose Arthrobacter atrocyaneus ATCC 13752 spontaneously
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
degraded glyphosate and AMPA without enrichment cul- (Jacob et al. 1988; Quinn et al. 1989) are known to utilize
tivation (Pipke and Amrhein 1988a). Flavobacterium sp. AMPA as Pi source. Unlike the AMPA pathway, isolates
GD1 can utilize both glyphosate and AMPA as a sole which metabolize glyphosate to sarcosine, completely de-
phosphorus source. Inorganic phosphorus (Pi) concentra- toxify glyphosate by utilizing sarcosine as their growth nutri-
tion had no effect on glyphosate metabolism but sup- ent. Some reports indicate that isolates such as Bacillus cereus
presses AMPA degradation process (Balthazor and Hallas CB4, Ochrobactrum anthropi GPK 3 and Pseudomonas sp.
1986). Pi inhibits several isolates such as Pseudomonas sp. LBr simultaneously convert glyphosate to AMPA and
PG2982 and Pseudomonas sp. GLC11 from utilizing glypho- sarcosine (Fan et al. 2012; Jacob et al. 1988; Sviridov et al.
sate as a sole phosphorus source (Kishore and Jacob 1987; 2012). Bacterial strains exhibiting significant degradation
Moore et al. 1983; Selvapandiyan and Bhatnagar 1994; ability provide a potential tool to bioremediate glyphosate-
Shinabarger and Braymer 1986). contaminated environments. Sequencing of glyphosate oxido-
To date, three main intermediate metabolites of glyph- reductase and carbon-phosphorus lyase (C-P lyase) genes, re-
osate metabolism AMPA, sarcosine, and acetylglyphosate veal that both pathways are concurrent in Comamonas
(Fig. 1) have been found which are further metabolized odontotermitis P2 (Firdous et al. 2017a). Another glyphosate
through different metabolism pathways. The most fre- metabolic process converts it to acetylglyphosate but isolates
quently detected metabolite of glyphosate degradation is cannot further utilize acetylglyphosate as a phosphorus
AMPA. Intracellular metabolism of AMPA is impossible source. Achromobacter sp. Kg 16 utilizes glyphosate as a sole
and is released to the environment resulting in secondary phosphorus source and transforms it into acetylglyphosate,
contamination (Balthazor and Hallas 1986; Jacob et al. but is unable to further utilize acetylglyphosate, thus leading
1988; Lerbs et al. 1990). Several bacterial strains such to its poor growth. Surprisingly, Achromobacter sp. Kg 16 can
as Bacillus megaterium 2BLW, Pseudomonas sp. metabolize glyphosate to AMPA in the absence of carbon
4ASW, Pseudomonas sp. 7B and Pseudomonas sp. LBr source in culture medium (Ermakova et al. 2017).
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
Mechanism of glyphosate bacterial ATCC 13752, Arthrobacter sp. GLP-1, and Pseudomonas sp.
degradation LBr (Jacob et al. 1988; Pipke and Amrhein 1988a; Pipke et al.
1987a). Recently, another totally different AMPA degradation
Degradation pathways of glyphosate in bacteria pathway has been found in Ochrobactrum anthropi GPK3,
where it was metabolized to phosphonoformaldehyde by trans-
As mentioned above, conversions of glyphosate to AMPA aminase and then catabolized to formaldehyde by
and sarcosine are two major degradation pathways in phosphonatase (Sviridov et al. 2014).
glyphosate-degrading microorganisms. Bacterial biodeg- Second glyphosate degradation pathway catalyzed by
radation mechanism of glyphosate includes (i) cleavage C-P lyase produces sarcosine and Pi. Pseudomonas sp.
of carboxymethylene-nitrogen (C-N) bond, catalyzed by PG2982 decomposes glyphosate via C-P lyase pathway
an oxidase yielding AMPA and glyoxylate; and (ii) direct with the formation of sarcosine which is further metabo-
cleavage of carbon-phosphorus (C-P) bond, catalyzed by lized by sarcosine oxidase to glycine and formaldehyde
C-P lyase yielding sarcosine. Both of the degradation (Kishore and Jacob 1987; Shinabarger and Braymer
pathways may involve C-P lyase to break C-P bond in 1986). Arthrobacter sp. GLP-1 utilizes glycine for protein
AMPA molecule. biosynthesis by inducing the formation of peptide back-
First major step in the degradation pathway of glypho- bone and amino acids (serine and threonine). According
sate, catalyzed by glyphosate oxidoreductase, is the for- to Pipke et al. (1987a), one-carbon compound combined
mation of AMPA and glyoxylate. Pseudomonas sp. LBr with tetrahydrofolic, biosynthesis nucleic acids (purine
metabolizes glyphosate via AMPA and glycine pathway and thymine), and proteins (serine, cysteine, methionine,
with 5% conversion of glyphosate to glycine and formal- and histidine). The fate of glyphosate biodegradation me-
dehyde. Solid-state 13C NMR revealed that isolate utilized tabolites has been clearly traced by isotope labeling.
glyoxylate and formaldehyde for its growth (Jacob et al. Degradation pathways of glyphosate in bacteria are sum-
1988). Arthrobacter atrocyaneus ATCC 13752 catabo- marized in Fig. 3.
lized glyphosate to AMPA and CO2, whereas CO2 was
not the product of AMPA (Pipke and Amrhein 1988a). Enzymes of glyphosate metabolism in bacteria
Intermediate metabolite AMPA can be either excreted to
the environment because of its bacterial toxicity or further Glyphosate oxidoreductase (GOX) is the key enzyme of
metabolized by different enzymes (Jacob et al. 1988; glyphosate degradation to AMPA via C-N bond cleavage.
Pipke and Amrhein 1988a; Sviridov et al. 2012). AMPA most- GOX-encoding genes have been identified in Ochrobactrum
ly serves as a substrate of C-P lyase, producing methylamine sp. G1 (GU214711.1), Ochrobactrum anthropi GPK 3 and
and Pi as a phosphorus source for Arthrobacter atrocyaneus Comamonas odontotermitis P2 (KX980206.1) with 99%
O
O O
O
P O
Environment HO
Phosphonatase P
P +
HO HO OH H H
HO OH
+ H2N CH3 HO
HO H
Phosphate Methylamine Phosphonoformaldehyde Phosphate Formaldehyde
Excretion
C-P lyase Transaminase
O
O
Tetrahydrofolate cycle
H Tricarboxylic acid cycle
P NH2 OH CO2
HO +
Glyphosate HO O
oxidoreductase AMPA Glyoxylate
O
O O Microbial biosynthesis
O O
and metabolism
P NH
HO OH P N
HO HO OH
Glyphosate HO
Acetylglyphosate
Tetrahydrofolate cycle
O
C-P lyase O O
O
P Sarcosine
HO OH + NH oxidase
OH H2N +
HO H H
OH
Phosphate Sarcosine Glycine Formaldehyde
similarity, and partial GOX gene in Comamonas Generally, glyphosate biodegradation to AMPA is not sub-
odontotermitis P2 product enzyme (ATE50174.1). There is a jected to Pi concentration, except in Arthrobacter atrocyaneus
synthetic construct between GOX (ADV58259.1) and GOX ATCC 13752 where glyphosate degradation was repressed by
gene (HQ110097.1) that has been used as a transgene in Pi (Pipke and Amrhein 1988a). However, glyphosate metabolic
glyphosate-tolerant canola (Duke 2010; Hadi et al. 2012). conversion to sarcosine seems to be regulated by the Pi concen-
However, purified GOX enzymes, either from a microorgan- tration. For example, glyphosate degradation was suppressed in
ism or the product enzyme from cloned gox gene, exhibit low the presence of Pi in Arthtobacter sp. (Pipke et al. 1987b) and
affinity to glyphosate (Hove-Jensen et al. 2014; Sviridov et al. Pseudomonas sp. 4ASW (Dick and Quinn 1995a). The trans-
2014). GOX purified from Ochrobactrum anthropi GPK 3, port system in glyphosate-degrading microorganisms for
containing flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), belongs to bac- glyphosate uptake is likely to depend on Pi level (Hove-
terial flavin monooxygenase superfamily (Sviridov 2012). Jensen et al. 2014). In addition, C-P lyase activity is controlled
Two open reading frames glpA and glpB related to glyphosate by phn genes which are upregulated in Pi absence (Metcalf and
utilization have been found in Pseudomonas pseudomallei 22. Wanner 1993b). Therefore, it can be assumed that Pi level
Specifically, glpA is related to the glyphosate tolerance, and affects the sarcosine pathway of glyphosate degradation.
glpB is associated with the conversion of glyphosate to Besides, PhoR-PhoB-based two-component system responds
AMPA which is a substrate of Escherichia coli C-P lyase to the exogenous and endogenous Pi concentrations in E.coli
(Peñaloza-Vazquez et al. 1995). (Santos-beneit 2015).
Till now, four C-P bond catabolic enzymes including C-P
lyase, phosphonoacetaldehyde hydrolase, phosphonoacetate Bioremediation potential of glyphosate-degrading
hydrolase and phosphoenolpyruvate hydrolase have been microorganisms
characterized in bacteria (Villarreal-Chiu et al. 2012).
However, only C-P lyase can split C-P bond of glyphosate Bioremediation refers to the transformation of pollutants into
whereas the other three enzymes are highly specific to their less toxic compounds by using microorganisms and their deg-
own substrate (Bujacz et al. 1995). Glyphosate C-P bond is radation enzymes (Chen et al. 2012; Liu et al. 2015; Sharma
hydrolytically stable and resistant to chemolysis and photoly- et al. 2018; Zhan et al. 2018). Bioremediation is supposed to
sis. Consequently, C-P lyase complex with high specificity to be more promising for the removal of chemical pollutants in
glyphosate is essential for glyphosate degradation via cleav- water and soil environment. Microorganisms and their
age of inactivated C-P bond and formation of sarcosine. C-P enzymes-based bioremediation of contaminated environments
lyase complex, which can metabolize a wide variety of differ- are efficient, safe and cost-effective (Chen et al. 2011a, b;
ent phosphonates, has been adequately studied in E.coli Karigar and Rao 2011; Xiao et al. 2015). Under natural con-
(Kamat and Raushel 2013). E.coli C-P lyase complex is the ditions, degradation of glyphosate in the soil depends on mi-
product of 14 genes operon (phnCDEFGHIJKLMNOP), crobial degradation. Hence, it is necessary to identify
which is a part of Pho regulon (Chen et al. 1990; Metcalf glyphosate-degrading microorganisms and confirm their po-
and Wanner 1993a, 1993b). According to previous genetic tential for the bioremediation of glyphosate-contaminated en-
and biochemical studies, phnCDE encode an ATP-binding vironments. Though plentiful glyphosate-degrading microor-
cassette transporter and the gene product PhnF is a repressor ganisms have been isolated, their ability to remediate
protein (Hove-Jensen et al. 2010; Hovejensen et al. 2011; glyphosate-contaminated environments still remains a conun-
Metcalf and Wanner 1993b). Seven proteins (PhnG, PhnH, drum because of low efficiency in situ and in vitro. Potent
PhnI, PhnJ, PhnK, PhnL, and PhnM) are supposed to consti- glyphosate-degrading microorganisms should be available
tute the core components of the membrane-bound C-P lyase, both in liquid media and soil. Potential of glyphosate-
metabolizing phosphonates to phosphate by PhnJ catalyst degrading microorganisms for glyphosate-contaminated soils
(Hovejensen et al. 2011; Metcalf and Wanner 1993b). remediation has only been studied in only a few bacteria.
Furthermore, PhnNOP is considered to perform regulatory Strain Bacillus subtilis Bs-15 degraded 66.97% of 5000 mg/L
and accessory functions in C-P lyase catabolic metabolism glyphosate in sterile soil and 71.57% of glyphosate in the un-
reaction (Hovejensen et al. 2011; Metcalf and Wanner sterilized soil that shows its bioremediation potential for
1993b). However, purified and characterized C-P lyase could glyphosate-contaminated soils and microbial diversity in the
not split the glyphosate C-P bond. To date, the C-P lyase with soil (Yu et al. 2015). Introduction of Achromobacter sp. Kg16
high-specificity to glyphosate has not been clearly character- and Ochrobactrum anthropi GPK3 strains to the soil
ized at genetic and biochemistry level (Sviridov et al. 2014). remediated glyphosate-treated soil within 1 to 2 weeks, show-
There is another non-specific glyphosate C-P lyase which can ing 2–3 folds higher degradation rate as compared to endoge-
split C-P bond of AMPA for further degradation. Hence, prob- nous microorganisms (Ermakova et al. 2010).
ably two different C-P lyases with different substrate specific- Additionally, many glyphosate-degrading bacterial
ity co-exist in one bacterium. strains via sarcosine pathway effectively degraded
Appl Microbiol Biotechnol
glyphosate only under laboratory conditions, because of Funding This study was partially funded by grants from the National
Natural Science Foundation of China (31401763), the National Key
C-P lyase catalysis inhibition by Pi concentrations in the
Project for Basic Research (2015CB150600), Guangdong Natural
natural environment. Persistence of inter-metabolite Science Funds for Distinguished Young Scholar (2015A030306038),
AMPA in the soil also contaminates the environment, the Science and Technology Planning Project of Guangdong Province
and thus microbes that are either unable to utilize (2016A020210106, 2017A010105008) and Pearl River S&T Nova
Program of Guangzhou (201506010006).
AMPA or excrete it cannot be used for bioremediation
of glyphosate-contaminated environment.
Compliance with ethical standards
Excessive use of glyphosate also plays a vital role to Ethical approval This article does not contain any studies with human
achieve maximum crop yield and rapid agricultural devel- participants or animals performed by any of the authors.
opment. However, due to its intensive use, glyphosate
contamination has emerged as an urgent issue. The invet-
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