ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND MICROWAVE

LAB MANUAL
V SEMESTER B.E (ECE)
(For Private Circulation)

Name :
Reg No :
Lab : ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS AND
MICROWAVE LAB
Lab Code : BECF185P60

SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA

MAHAVIDYALAYA UNIVERSITY
(Accredited ‘B’ Grade by NAAC)
Enathur, Kanchipuram – 631561
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Syllabus

2. Experiments offered by the Departments

3. INDEX

4. ECE Laboratory Safety Rules

5. Mapping of Program Outcomes with Instructional Objectives

6. Mapping of Program Educational Objectives with Program Outcomes

7. Session plan

8. Laboratory Policies and Report Format

9. Laboratory Experiments

Microwave Engineering Based Experiments

10. Evaluation sheet

 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS & MICROWAVELABORATORY
OBJECTIVES:
T P C
L
0 0 3 2
 To understand the principle of Electric field and Magnetic field on variousconductors.
 To understand the working Principle of various type of Microwave Oscillators.
 To know the behaviour of microwave components and parameters.
 To practice microwave measurement procedures

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS:
1. Determination of Electric Field Pattern Between Two Circular Electrodes
2. Determination of Electric Field between Parallel Conductors
3. Measurement of Electric Field and Potential Inside the Parallel Plate Capacitor
4. Measurement of Capacitance and Inductance of Transmission Lines
5. Determination of Magnetic Field Outside A Straight Conductor
6. Determination of Magnetic Field of Coils
7. Verification of Faraday's law of Magnetic Induction.
8. Determination of Velocity of electromagnetic waves for the given Co-axial Cable.
9. Reflex klystron or Gunn diode characteristics and basic microwave parameter measurement
such as VSWR, frequency, wavelength.
10. Directional Coupler Characteristics.
11. Radiation Pattern of Horn Antenna.
12. S-parameter Measurement of the following microwave components (Isolator, Circulator, E
Plane Tee, H Plane Tee, Magic Tee)
13. Attenuation and Power Measurement
OUTCOMES:
At the end of the course, the students should be able to:
 Understand the working principle of microwave components
 Know about the behaviour of microwave components
 Learn about the characteristics and measurements of E and H Field
 2. Experiments Offered by the Department

Microwave Engineering

1. Determine the Frequency, Guided Wavelength and Propagation Constant for a Rectangular Wave-
guide operating in TE10 mode.

2. Determine the Standing wave ratio(S) and Reflection coefficient (K) for the given Matched load,
Movable Short & Horn Antenna.

3. Determine the Unknown Impedance of the given Matched load, Movable Short & Horn Antenna
using Smith Chart and Slotted Line method.

4. Draw the Radiation pattern for Horn Antenna and Find the Half Power Beam-Width, Power Gain
and Directivity.

5. Determine the Insertion Loss (I), Coupling Factor(C), Directivity (D) and S-matrix for a multi-
hole Directional Coupler.

6. Determine the Mode Characteristics of a Reflex Klystron and Determine its Electronic Tuning
Range and Electronic Tuning Sensitivity (ETS).

7. Determine the V-I Characteristics, Threshold Voltage and Modulation Depth for the given
Gun Diode.

8.Determine the Velocity of EM waves for the given Co-axial Cable.

9. Determine the Insertion Loss, Isolation Loss and VSWR for the Microwave Isolator and
Circulator.

10. Determine the Isolation Loss, coupling Co-efficient and VSWR for the four different ports in
Magic Tee.

Additional Experiments

11. Simulate Broadside array, End-Fired array and Dipole Antenna using MATLAB 7.0 and plot the
Radiation pattern.
 INDEX

S.No Date of Name of the experiment Page no Mark/Gra Staff

completion de Sign

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.
 ECE LABORATORY SAFETY RULES

1. No horseplay or running is allowed in the labs.

2. No bare feet or open sandals are permitted.

3. Before energizing any equipment, check whether anyone is in a position to be injured by your actions.

4. When working on equipment where more than 120 volts exist between circuit points and/or ground,
get your lab instructor's approval before energizing the circuit.

5. Read the appropriate equipment instruction manual sections or consult with your instructor before
applying power or connecting unfamiliar equipment or instruments into any circuits.

6. Position all equipment on benches in a safe and stable manner.

7. Do not make circuit connections by hand while circuits are energized. This is especially dangerous
with high voltage and current circuits.

8. Do not work alone in the lab if equipment is energized; at least one other person is to be present. You
must not work alone after normal business hours.

9. The use of 110 volts, 60 Hz. plug-in cords with open wire or alligator clip ends is hazardous; use them
only with the permission and direction of your instructor.

10. For safety reasons, metal cases of instruments and appliances are usually grounded through the third
wire ground. Do not consider any departure from the use of the third wire ground. e.g., "cheater plugs",
without the instruction and supervision of your instructor. Failure to know whether or not an instrument
case is grounded can lead to hazardous circuit conditions.

11. Tag instruments with badly frayed or broken power leads and deliver them to the shop (189E) for
repair. Notify your instructor.

12. Do not bring food or beverages near the work areas in the labs.

13. Do not attempt chemical or electro-chemical experiments or activities, e.g., printed circuit board
etching, without proper supervision, or in areas other than those designated for that purpose.

14. When using equipment utilizing more than 10,000 volts, e.g., color television circuits; take
precautions to guard against radiation, primarily x-rays.

15. Remove metal rings and metal watchbands when working around energized, especially high voltage
and current, circuits.

16. Treat high voltages with care to avoid endangering your life or the lives of your lab
 LABORATORY POLICIES AND REPORT FORMAT:

1. Lab reports should be submitted on A4 paper. Your report is a professional presentation of your
Work in the lab. Neatness, organization, and completeness will be rewarded. Points will be deducted
for any part that is not clear.

2. The lab reports will be written individually. Please use the following format for your lab reports.
a. Cover Page: Include your name, Subject Code, Subject title, Name of the university.
b. Evaluation Sheet: Gives your internal mark split –up.
c. Index Sheet: Includes the name of all the experiments.
d. Experiment documentation: It includes experiment name, date, objective, circuit diagram,
simulated circuit and verified outputs.
e. Prelab and Postlab question should be retyped in the end of every cycle.

3. Your work must be original and prepared independently. However, if you need any guidance
or have any questions or problems, please do not hesitate to approach your staff in charge during
working hours. The students should follow the dress code in the Lab session.

4. Reports Due Dates: Reports should be submitted at the end of each cycle. A late lab report will
have 20% of the points deducted for being one day late. If a report is 3 days late, a grade of 0 will
be assigned.

5. Systems of Tests: Regular laboratory class work over the full semester will carry a weightage
of 40%. The remaining 60% weightage will be given by conducting an end semester practical
Examination for every individual student. Prelab test is conducted at the beginning of each cycle as a
viva-voce and the post lab test is conducted as written test during the permission of report.
 Experiments in
Microwave Engineering
 The Microwave Spectrum

Frequency Band Designations

 STUDY OF MICROWAVE COMPONENTS

AIM
To study the microwave components in detail.

RECTANGULAR WAVE GUIDE

Wave guides are manufactured to the highest mechanical and electrical standards and mechanical
tolerances.
L and S band wave guides are fabricated by precision brazing of brass-plates and all other wave guides are
in extrusion quality.
W.G. sections of specified length can be supplied with flanges, painted outside and silver or gold plated in
side.

SPECIFICATIONS X Band
EIA No. : WR - 90
Frequency : 8.2 - 12.4 GHZ
Width : 2.286cm Height : 1.1016cm Width : 2.54 cm
Height : 1.27cm ± Tol. (μm) : 7.6 Material : Brass/Copper.
FIXED ATTENUATORS
Series 5000 fixed Attenuators are meant for inserting a known attenuation in a wave guide system. These
consist of a lossy vane inserted in a section of wave guide, flanged on both ends. These are useful for
isolation of wave guide circuits, padding and extending the range of measuring equipments.

Fixed Attenuators are available for 3,6 or 10 dB attenuation values, but any attenuation valve

between 0 and 30dB can be provided.

SPECIFICATIONS
Model No: X-5000 /Frequency : 8.12 - 12.4 GHZ /Attenuation (dB) : 3,6,10/Callibration Accuracy : ±
0.2dB/Avg Power : 2W/Max VSWR : 1.10/Max Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.2/W.G. Type: WG – 90/Flange
Type (UG/U) : 39.
A precision built probe carriage has a centimeter scale with a vernier reading of 0.1mm least count and a
dial gauge can be mounted easily if precise readings are required.
Model No. : X - 6051
Freq (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Max Residual VSWR : 1.01
WG type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39
TUNABLE PROBE
Model 6055 Tunable probe is designed for use with model 6051 slotted sections. These are meant for
exploring the energy of the EF in a suitably fabricated section of wave guide.
The depth of penetration into a wave guide - section is adjustable by the knob of the probe. The tip pick up
the RF power from the line and this power is rectified by crystal detector, which is then fed to the VSWR
meter or indicating instrument.
/Model No. : X6055 /Freq (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4 /output Connector : BNC(F) /Detector : IN23.
 WAVE GUIDE DETECTOR MOUNT (TUNABLE)

Model 4051 Tunable Detector Mount is simple and easy to use instrument for detecting microwave power
thro’a suitable detector. It consists of a detector crystal mounted in a section of a Wave guide and shorting
plunger for matching purpose. The output from the crystal may be fed to an indicating instrument. In K and
R bands detector mounts the plunger is driven by a micrometer.
Model No. : X - 4051
Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
O/P Connector : BNC (F)
Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG/U) : 39

Detector : IN23
KLYSTRON MOUNT
Model 2051 Klystron mounts are meant for mounting corresponding Klystrons such as 2K25, 723A/B,
726A or RK - 5976 etc.
These consists of a section of wave guide flanged on one end and terminated with a movable short on the
other end. An octal base with cable is provided for Klystron.
Model No. : X – 2051/ Freq. Range (GHz) 8.2 - 12.4/ WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U): 39
 CIRCULATORS

Model 6021 and 6022 are T and Y types of three port circulators respectively. These are precisely
machined and assembled to get the desired specifications. Circulators are matched three port devices and
these are meant for allowing Microwave energy to flow in clockwise direction with negligible loss but
almost no transmission in the anti-clockwise direction.
Model No. : X - 6021
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.6 - 10.6 or 10.2 - 12.2
Min. Isolation (dB) : 20
Max. Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4
Max. VSWR : 1.20

SLIDE SCREW TUNERS

Model 4041 slide screw tuners are used for matching purposes by changing the penetration and position of
a screw in the slot provided in the centre of the wave guide.
These consists of a section of wave guide flanged on both ends and a thin slot is provided in the broad wall
of the Wave guide. A carriage carrying the screw, is provided over the slot. A VSWR upto 20 can be tuned
to a value less than 1.02 at certain frequency.
Model No. : X – 4041/ Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4/WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange type (UG/U) : 39
 MULTIHOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLERS
Model 6000 series Multihole directional couplers are useful for sampling a part of Microwave energy for
monitoring purposes and for measuring reflections and impedance. These consists of a section of Wave
guide with addition of a second parallel section of wave guide thus making it a four port network. However
the fourth port is terminated with a matched load. These two parallel sections are coupled to each other
through many holes, almost to give uniform coupling; minimum frequency sensitivity and high directivity.
These are available in 3,6,10,20 and 40dB coupling.
Model No. : X - 6003
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Coupling (dB) : 3,10,20,40
Directivity (dB) : 35
Wave guide type (WR-) : 90
Flange type (UG/U) : 39

E PLANE TEE

Model 3061 E - plane tee are series type T - junction and consists of three section of wave guide joined
together in order to divide or compare power levels. The signal entering the first port of this T - junction
will be equally dividing at second and third ports of the same magnitude but in opp. phase
Model No. : X - 3061
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG/U) : 39
 E PLANE TEE

H - PLANT TEE

Model 3065 H - Plane Tee are shunt type T - junction for use in conjunction with VSWR meters,
frequency - meters and other detector devices. Like in E-plane tee, the signal fed through first port of H -
plane Tee will be equally divided in magnitude at second and third ports but in same phase.
Model No. : X - 3065
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39
MAGIC TEE

Model 3045 E - H Tee consists of a section of wave guide in both series and shunt wave guide arms,
mounted at the exact midpoint of main arm. Both ends of the section of wave guide and both arms are
flanged on their ends. These Tees are employed in balanced mixers, AFC circuits and impedance
measurement circuits etc. This becomes a four terminal device where one terminal is isolated from the
input terminal.
Model No. : X - 3045
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UR-/U) : 39

MOVABLE SHORT
Model 4081 movable shorts consists of a section of waveguide, flanged on one end and terminated with a
movable shorting plunger on the other end. By means of this noncontacting type plunger, a reflection co-
efficient of almost unity may be obtained.
Model No. : X - 4081
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.2 - 12.4
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39
MATCHED TERMINATION
Model 4000 are low power and non-reflective type of terminations. It consists of a small and highly
dissapative taper flap mounted inside the centre of a section of wave guide. Matched Terminations are
useful for USWR measurement of various waveguide components. These are also employed as dummy
and as a precise reference loads with Tee junctions, directional couplers and other similar dividing devices.
Model No. : X - 4000, Freq. Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4 Max VSWR : 1.04
AV Power : 2W, WG Type (WR-) 90, Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

PYRAMIDAL WAVEGUIDE HORN ANTENNA

Model 5041 pyramidal Wave guide Horn antenna consists of waveguide joined to pyramidal section
fabricated from brass sheet. The pyramidal section shapes the energy to concentrate in a specified beam.
Wave guide horns are used as feed horns as radiators for reflectors and lenses and as a pickup antenna for
receiving microwave power.
Model No. : X - 5041
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.2 - 12.4
Max VSWR : 1.20
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39
GUNN OSCILLATORS
Model 2151 Gunn Oscillators are solid state microwave energy generators. These consists of waveguide
cavity flanged on one end and micrometer driven plunger fitted on the other end. A gunn-diode is mounted
inside the Wave guide with BNC (F) connector for DC bias. Each Gunn osciallator is supplied with
calibration certificate giving frequency vs micrometer reading.
Model No. : X - 2152, Freq : 8.2 - 12.4 Ghz, Min output power : 10 MW
WG Type (WR-) : 90 Flange Type (UG-/U) : 39

PIN MODULATORS

Model 451 pin modulators are designed to modulate the cw output of Gunn Oscillators. It is operated by
the square pulses derived from the UHF(F) connector of the Gunn power supply. These consists of a pin
diode mounted inside a section of Wave guide flanged on it’s both end. A fixed attenuation vane is
mounted inside at the input to protect the oscillator.
Model No. : X - 451
Frequency Range (Ghz) : 8.3 - 12.4
Max RF Power : 1W
WG Type (WR-) : 90
Flange Type (GHz) : 39
GUNN POWER SUPPLY
Model X-110 Gunn Power supply comprises of an regulated DC power supply and a square wave
generator, designed to operate Gunn-Oscillator model 2151 or 2152, and pin modulators model 451
respectively. The DC voltage is variable from 0 - 10V. The front panel meter monitors the gunn voltage
and the current drawn by the Gunn diode. The square wave of generator is variable from 0 - 10V. in
amplitude and 900 - 1100 Hz in frequency. The power supply has been so designed to protect Gunn diode
from reverse voltage application over transient and low frequency oscillations by the negative resistance of
the Gunn-diode.

SPECIFICATIONS
Amplifier Type : High gain tuned at one frequency
Frequency : 1000 Hz ± 2%
Sensitivity : 0.1 microvolt at 200 for full scale
Band width : 25 - 30 cps
Range : 70dB min in 10 dB steps
Scale selector : Normal Expand Mains power : 230V, 50Hz
ISOLATORS
The three port circulators Model 6021 may be converted into isolators by terminating one of its port into
matched load. these will work over the frequency range of circulators. These are well matched devices
offering low forward insertion loss and high reverse isolation.
Model No. : X - 6022
Frequency Range (GHz) : 8.6 - 10.6 or 10.2 - 12.2
Min Isolation (dB) : 20
Max Insertion Loss (dB) : 0.4
Max VSWR : 1.20

RESULT

Thus all the microwave components were studied in detail.

 BLOCK DIAGRAM

CRO

KLYSTRON SLOTTED MOVABLE

POWER SECTION WITH SHORT
SUPPLY (0- TUNABLE
500) V PROBE

KLYSTYRON FREQUENCY VARIABLE MATCHED

MOUNT WITH METER ATTENUAT TERMINATION
OSCILLATOR ISOLATOR OR

OBSERVATION

LEAST COUNT = .01cm (Slotted line)

LEAST COUNT = .01mm (freq micrometer & attenuator)

CALCULATIONS

λ g is calculated from slotted section line λ g/2 = (d1 ̰ d2)

a = dimension of the waveguide = 22.86mm

λ 0 = 1/[( 1/ λ g) 2 + /(( 1/ λ o)2]1/2

c = 3 x 108 m/s

c=f/ λ 0
 MESUREMENT OF FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH

Ex.No.1

Date:

AIM

To determine the frequency and wavelength in a rectangular waveguide working on TE10

model

APPARATUS REQUIRED

Klystron power supply, Reflex klystron isolator, frequency meter, variable attenuator, slotted
section, VSWR meter, detector mount & CRO.

THEORY

For dominant TE10 mode in rectangular waveguide λ 0, λ g , λ C are related as below.

λ 0 = 1/[( 1/ λ g) 2 + /(( 1/ λ o)2]1/2

λ 0 = Free space wavelength

λ g = guide wavelength

λ c = cut off wavelength

For TE10 mode c = 2xa where a is the broad dimension of waveguide. The

following relationship can be proved.

c=f/ λ 0

c = velocity of light f = frequency

 23

FINAL OBSERVATION

Micrometer
Reading λ g/2 1/ λ 0 f = c/λ 0

PROCEDURE

1. Set up the variable components and requirements

2. Setup variable attenuation at minimum attenuation
3 Keep the control knobs of VSWR meter as shown in figure
Input switch - crystal load impedance
Meter switch – normal position
Gain – mid position
4. Keep the control knob of a klystron power supply
Beam voltage - off
Mode switch - AM
Beam voltage knob – fully anti clockwise
Reflector voltage knob – fully clock wise AM
amplitude knob – fully clock wise AM frequency knob – mid position
5. Switch on the klystron power supply, VSWR meter and cooling fan switch.
6. Switch on the beam voltage switch and set beam voltage at 300v with the help of beam voltage
knob.
7. Adjust the reflector voltage to get some reflector in VSWR meter
8. Maximize the deflection with an amplitude and frequency control knobs in power supply
 24

9. Tune the reflector voltage knob for maximum deflection

10. Tune the probe for maximum deflection in VSWR
11. Tune the frequency meter knob to get dip on the VSWR scale and down the frequency directly
from the frequency meter.
12. Replace the termination with movable short and return the frequency
13. Move the probe along the slotted line the deflection in VSWR meter will vary the probe to a
maximum deflection position to get accurate reading
14. Calculate the guide wavelength on twice the distance between two successive minimum position
obtained as above.
15. Measure the waveguide on twice inner broadband dimensions “a” which will be around 22.86mm
for x band.
16. Calculate the guide wavelength on twice the distance between two successive minimum position
obtained as above
17. Verify the frequency obtained by frequency meter and above experiment can be verified at
Different frequencies f is calculated and the result is verified from the given table with the
Corresponding micrometer reading taken from frequency meter.

RESULT

Thus waveguide wavelength and frequency was determined for the given microwave setup and
values obtained are
a) Frequency from the meter fm(in GHz):
b) Observed frequency fO(in GHz)::
c) Wavelength λg(in cm):
d) Wavelength λo(in cm):
 25

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR STANDING WAVE RATIO AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

CRO

VSWR
METER

KLYSTRON SLOTTED MOVABLE

POWER SECTION WITH SHORT
SUPPLY (0- TUNABLE
500) V PROBE

KLYSTYRON FREQUENCY VARIABLE MATCHED

MOUNT WITH METER ATTENUAT TERMINATION
OSCILLATOR ISOLATOR OR
 26

MEASUREMENT OF STANDING WAVE RATIO AND REFLECTION COEFFICIENT

Ex.No.2

Date:

AIM:
To Determine the Standing wave ratio(S) and Reflection coefficient (K) for the given Matched
load, Movable Short & Horn Antenna.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Klystron Power Supply, Klystron Tube , Klystron Mount, Isolator , Frequency Meter , Variable
Attenuator , Slotted line , Tunable probe , Detector Mount, Wave Guide Stand , VSWR Meter , Movable
short/ Termination . Slotted line with probe , Wave guide stand, Cables & Accessories.

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the equipment as shown in the figure.

2. Keep the variable attenuator in the minimum attenuation position.

3. Keep the control knobs of VSWR as below:

Range db - 40db/50 db Input Switch - Low Impedance Meter Switch - Normal Gain (Coarse- Fine) -
Mid position approx.
4. Keep the control knobs of the Klystron power supply as below:
Beam voltage - OFF Mod-switch - AM Beam voltage knob - Fully anticlockwise direction
Reflector Voltage knob - Fully clockwise direction AM-amplitude knob - Around fully clockwise
AM-frequency & amplitude knob - Mid position
5. Switch „ON‟ the Klystron Power Supply, VSWR Meter and cooling fan.

6. Switch „ON‟ the Beam voltage switch position and set beam voltage at 300V.

7. Rotate the reflector voltage knob to get deflection in VSWR Meter.

8. Tune the output by tuning the reflector voltage, amplitude and frequency of AM Modulation.

9. Tune the plunger of Klystron Mount and probe for maximum deflection in VSWR meter.

10. If required, change the range db-switch variable attenuator position and gain control knob to
get deflection in the scale of VSWR meter.

11. As you move probe along the slotted line, the deflection will change
27
 28

MEASUREMENT OF LOW AND MEDIUM VSWR:

1. Move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum deflection in VSWR Meter.
2. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob or variable attenuator until the meter indicates 1.0‟ on
normal VSWR scale.
3. Keep all the control knobs as it is, move the probe to next minimum position. Read the VSWR on
scale.
4. Repeat the above step for change of S.S. tuner probe depth and record the corresponding SWR.
5. If the VSWR is between 3.2 and 10, change the range db switch to next higher position and read the
VSWR on second scale of 3 to 10.

MEASUREMENT OF HIGH VSWR:

1. Set the depth of S.S.Tuner slightly more for maximum VSWR.

2. Move the probe along with slotted line until a minimum is indicated.
3. Adjust the VSWR meter gain control knob and variable attenuator to obtain a reading og 3 db in the
normal db scale (0 to 10 db) of VSWR Meter.
4. Move the probe to left on slotted line until full scale deflection is obtained on 0-10 db scale. Note and
record the probe position on slotted line let it be d1.
5. Repeat the step 3 and then move the probe right along the slotted line until full scale deflection is
obtained on 0-10 db normal db scale. Let it be d2.
6. Replace the S>S. tuner and termination by movable short.
7. Measure the distance between two successive minima positions of the probe. Twice this distance is
guide wavelength λg.
8. Compute SWR from the following equation:

SWR=λg/π(d1-d2)
 29

TABULATION

S.N Type of load Using C.R.O

o
: S= S K=
(Vmax/Vmin)1/2 (using meter) S-1/S+1
Vmax Vmin
1. Movable Short
(High VSWR)

2. Matched
Termination
(Low VSWR)

3. Horn antenna
(Low VSWR)
 30

RESULT:

Thus the Standing wave ratio(S) and Reflection coefficient (K) for the given Matched load,
Movable Short & Horn Antenna was found to be as
a) High VSWR:
b) Low VSWR:
c) Reflection coefficient (for High VSWR):
d) Reflection coefficient (for Low VSWR):
 31

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

CRO

MOVABLE
KLYSTRON SLOTTED
SECTION WITH SHORT
POWER SUPPLY
(0-500) V TUNABLE
PROBE

KLYSTYRON VARIABLE
ISOLATOR FREQUENCY
MOUNT WITH ATTENUAT
METER
OSCILLATOR OR LOAD
 32

IMPEDANCE MEASUREMENT

Ex.No.3

Date

AIM:
Determine the Unknown Impedance of the given Matched load, Movable Short & Horn Antenna using
Smith Chart and Slotted Line method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Klystron Power Supply. Klystron Oscillator with mount. CRO .Frequency Meter. Isolator.
Variable Attenuator. Wave guide detector with probe , Load S.S. tuner, matched load ,movable short,
Hom Antenna , Slotted line with probe ,Wave guide stand, Cables & Accessories.

THEORY:
Since Impedance is a complex quantity, both amplitude and phase of the test signals are
required to be measured.

Slotted line method:

The complex impedance ZL of a load can be measured by measuring the phase angle фL of the complex
reflection coefficient KL from the distance of first voltage standing wave minimum dmin and the
magnitude of the same from the VSWR(S).

Load impedance ZL= Z0 X [ (1+KL)/(1-KL)]

Normalized impedance ZL ‘=ZL /Z0 = (1- jSL tan (βΔl))/ (SL- jtan (βΔl))

Reflection co-efficient KL= I KL I e(jфL)

Where I KL I = (SL- 1) / (SL+1)

фL = 2βd minshift-π

β=2 π/λg

λg =2d= 2(dmzsc1-dmzsc2)

Δl = dminshift / λg
33
 34

The method using slotted line to determine unknown impedance is summarized below:

1. Measure the load VSWR (SL) to find I KL I

2. Measure the distance d between the two successive voltage minimas to find λg =2d
and β= 2π/ λg
3. Measure the distance dminshift of the first voltage minimum from the load plane towards generator.
4. Phase angle фL of the load is calculated using and K L.
5.The unknown impedance Z'L is then calculated using slotted line method (VSWR SL.]
NOTE:-
Since it may not be possible to reach the first dminshift by the probe dose to the load directly using slotted
line an equivalent load reference plane on the slotted line is established by means of a short circuit at
load reference plane where a voltage minimum now occurs. Since a series of minima are produced on
the slotted line at intervals λg I 2, the load reference plane can be shifted to a convenient minimum
position near the center of the slotted line. The dmin can then be measured by observing the first
minimum from this shifted reference plane when the load replaces the reference short.

Smith Chart:

To ease the calculation, Smith Chart can be used to determine Z from the
measurements of SI.and dminshift as follows, where load VSWR SL= 2 and
dminshift λg = 0.2 say.
I. Draw the VSWR circle centered at 0 (r =1) with radius cutting r <axis at SI.
2. Move anti clockwise from the short circuit load point A on the chart along the wavelengths towards
load scale by distance (ΔL =dminshift/ Δg) to Band joint points 0& B as line OB.:
3. The point of intersection between the line DB and the SL circle gives the normalized load Z'L= ZL/ Zo
and hence the complex load ZL = Zo X Z'L Using Smith Chart.

Thus we can measure unknown load impedance ZL and knowing the shift of minima
with respect to short (or open) circuit identifies the nature of load.
 35

Calculations:

WITH LOAD:
Vmax: Vmin: dmz1:

WITH MOVABLE SHORT:

dmzsc1: dmzsc2:

load SWR (SL): Vmax/Vmin=

λg =2d= 2(dmzsc1-dmzsc2):

dminshift = (dmz1~ dmzsc1):

Calculation of Zo:

Zo= Zo (in free space)/ ((1-λ0/λc)2)1/2

where

Zo=120Xπ=377Ω

λ0= 1/{((1/ λg)2+1/ λc)2)1/2}:

Now Zo :

USING SMITH CHART:

Δl = dminshift / λg:

From Chart (Point B Is):

Normalized impedance ZL ‘=ZL /Z0 = R+jX:

I ZL /Z0 I =( R2+(jx)2)1/2 :

ZL =_____X Zo

USING SLOTTED LINE METHOD:

β= 2π/ λg:

Δl = dminshift / λg:

ZL ‘=ZL /Z0 = (1- jSL tan (βΔl))/ (SL- jtan (βΔl)):

I ZL ‘I= I ZL /Z0 I =( R2+(jx)2)1/2 :

Therefore I ZL I is
 36

PROCEDURE:

1. Setup the equipment as shown in figure.

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position.
3. Keep the control knob of Klystron power supply as below.
Meter switch - OFF
Mod switch - AM
Beam voltage knob - Fully Anti clockwise
Reflector voltage knob - Fully clockwise
AM Amplitude - Around Fully clockwise
AM frequency knob-around mid position"
4. ON the Klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan.
s. Turn the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and set beam voltage at 300V with
the help of beam voltage knob.
6. Adjust the repeller voltage to get the output in CRO.
7. Maximize the output with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power supply.
8. Tune the plunger of Klystron mount for maximum output.
9.Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum output.
IO.Tune the probe for maximum output in CRO. connect load (s.s.tuner with matched load/horn antenna
or open or short
11.Tune the frequency meter knob to get a DIP in CRO and note down the frequency
directly from frequency meter.
12. Connect the load (SS tuner, matched load, movable short & Hom antenna. Or matched load) and
move the probe along the slotted line to get maximum output and note Vmax.
13. Move the probe to adjacent minima point and note down Vmin and calculate the load VSWR (SL)
Also note down the probe position, let it be dMZL
14. Make dmzsc1 reference under load condition and replace the load by movable short to the slotted line
(plunger of short should be at zero). Move the probe towards the movable short until you obtain the
minima position again. Record the position dmzsc:
15. The distance between these two readings will be the value of dmshift. Note these two minimas are in
front of the load; therefore the distance measured is towards the load.
16. Measure the position a/two successive minima for movable short load. Let it be dMZSCI and d MZS2.
Hence λg: =2X (dMZSCI~ d MZS2) = 2d.
17. Calculate ΔL = dMSHIFT/λg
18.Find out the normalized impedance Z'L using Smith Chart as described in theory section.
λg
 37

RESULT:
Thus the unknown impedance was measured.
Impedance of load (ZL) using slotted line method:
Impedance of load (ZL) using Smith Chart :
38
 39

HORN ANTENNA MEASUREMENT

Ex.No.4

Date

AIM:
To Draw the Radiation pattern for Horn Antenna and Find the Half Power Beam-Width, Power Gain
and Directivity.

Apparatus required:
Klystron Power Supply. Klystron Oscillator with mount. CRO .Frequency Meter. Isolator.
Variable Attenuator. Wave guide detector with probe , Two Hom Antenna (Txr & Rxr) ,
Slotted line with probe ,Wave guide stand, Cables & Accessories , Tum Table.

Theory:
A Horn Antenna may be regarded as flared out ( or opened out) wave guide. The function of the
Horn is to produce a uniform phase front with a larger aperture than that of the wave-guide and hence
greater directivity. The transition region of Horn between the wave-guide at the throat and free space
and the aperture could be given a gradual exponential taper to minimize reflections of the guided wave.
Assuming that the rectangular wave guide is energized with a TEIO mode wave electric field (E in the y
direction), the horn is flare out in a plane perpendicular to E. This is the plane of the magnetic field H.
Therefore, this type of horn is called sectoral horn flared in the Hplane or simply an H plane sectoral
Horn. A rectangular horn with flare in both plane, is called Pyramidal Horn .. Horn Antennas are
extensively used at microwave frequencies when the power gain needed is moderate.

RADIATION PATTERN -of an antenna is a graphical representation of the radiated fields or

power along different directions in space. When the radiation is expressed as field strength E V/mj it is
called field strength pattern: lf power per unit solid angle is plotted in 3- D space, it is called power
pattern. A power pattern will be the product of electric and magnetic field pattern or proportional to the
square of the field strength pattern.
 40

Radiation Pattern
 41

HALE-POWER BEAM BANDWIDTH:

The Half power points are the points in the radiated field pattern, where the field reduces to 1/..J2
times its maximum value (i.e., power becomes 1h). The angular separation between two half-power field
point is called the Half Power Bandwidth. An Antenna pattern consists of several lobes, the main lobe,
side lobes and the back lobe. The major power is concentrated in the main lobe and it is normally to
keep the power in the side lobes as low as possible. The Power intensity achieved from an imaginary
omni directional antenna (radiating equally in all directions) with the same power fed to the antenna is
defined as a gin of the antenna.
The Directivity of the antenna: D(e,ɸ) is defined as the ratio of maximum radiation
intensity along this particular direction to the average radiation intensity. The Power Gain:
G(e, ɸ } is defined as the product of the Directivity and Efficiency of the antenna.
G(Φ, ɸ) = D(e, ɸ)" 11

For accuracy of the measurements care must be taken so that,

1. All Antennas meet the far-field criteria: S2: 2(02) / AO where, D- size of horn aperture; '~O-free
space wavelength.
2. The Antennas are aligned for bore sight radiation face-to-face.
3. Impedance mismatched in the system components is minimum.
4. Polarization mismatch is minimum.
S. Reflection from various background and support structure is minimum.

A method uses two identical antennas, one as transmitter and other as receiver to calculate
Power Gain.
Pr = Pt [λ02] GIG2}/ I(4π S) 2} where
Pr - Received power; Pt - Transmitted Power; GI, G2- Gain of Transmitting and receiving
antennas S is to the radial distance between two antennas and AO -free space wavelength; If both
transmitting and receiving antenna are identical having a gain G then,

Pr= {Pt[λ02]G2}/{(4π S) 2}

G= (4π S)x((Pr/Pt)/ λ02)1/2

= (4π S)x((Vr/Vt)2/ λ02)1/2

G= (4π S)x((Vr/Vt)/ λ0)

 42

The Directivity of an antenna -can-be determined from the measurements of-its radiation pattern
in two principal planes, E and H planes and finding the half power beam widths SE and SH degree in
these planes, respectively.

Do = 41,253 I (SE . 9H) or 72,815/(e2E + 92H)

This method is accurate for the antennas having negligible side lobes.
Tabular column

Angle Output Received Voltage (Vr) Relative Power

(degree)
(mv) [20 log (VR/VR@()deg)]

Clockwise Anti- Clockwise Anti-

Clockwise Clockwise

Antenna Polarization pattern

H-Plane (X-direction)

Input voltage(Vt)=
 43

PROCEDURE:

1. Set up the equipments as shown in the schematic diag.,

2. Set the variable attenuator at minimum position for the maximum output.
3. Keep the control knob of Klystron power supply as below.
Meter switch - OFF
Mod switch - AM
Beam voltage knob . - Fully Anti clockwise
Reflector voltage knob - Fully clockwise
AM Amplitude -around Fully clockwise
AM frequency knob-around mid position
4. ON the klystron power supply, CRO and cooling fan.
S. Turn the meter switch of power supply to beam voltage position and set beam
voltage at 300Vwith the help of beam voltage knob.
6. Adjust the Repelier voltage to get maximum output in CRO.
7. Maximize the output with AM amplitude and frequency control knob of power
8. Tune the plunger of klystron mount for maximum output.
9. Tune the repeller voltage knob for maximum output.

GAIN MEASUREMENT:

10. Move the probe along with slotted line to minimum ( output) position .Note and record the .position
(d1).Similarly move the probe to next minima position. and record the probe position (d2)
11. Calculate the guide wavelength λg =2(d1-d2)

12. Measure the waveguide inner broader dimension. 'a' find λc= k-2a.

Calculate. 1/ λc =((1/ λg2)+1/ λc2)}1/2

13. Remove the slotted line and movable short and connect wave guide detector directly to variable
attenuator (without horns), note the output voltage on CRO and this voltage is fixed to some reference
(say 10mV) using variable attenuator .Let it be input voltage VT.
14. Now connect transmitter and receiver horns as per setup. with same axis (angle is 0oand note down
the voltage an CRO. Let it beVR0 .

15. Calculate the gain G= 20 log {4715 (VR I VT) / to} in dB.
 44

RADIATION PATTERN MEASUREMENT:-

16. The distance between the two horn antennas should be greater than (Smin=2D2/ λc } and choose

D= 8cm. [don't change any knob in the setup. Turn the receiving horn to the left in terms of 20 or 50steps
up to 400- 900 "until output reaches zero and note the corresponding reading [VR ]on CRO.
11. Repeat the above step but this time turn the receiving horn to the right side and note down the
readings.
18. Repeat the above steps for E-Plane up and down and note down the readings.
19. Calculate the relative power (P) = 2010g (VR/VRo) for the above readings and tabulate the values.
20 Draw a radiative power (polar) pattern i.e. Relative power versus angle on polar pattern graph sheets.
DIRECTIVITY MEASUREMENT:

21. From the polar-pattern, determine 3dB-width (hal/power beam- width er_ & Ott) of the horn
antenna.
22. Calculate directivity DƟ = 41,2531 (ƟEX Ɵ H)
 45

Tabular column

Antenna Polarization pattern

H-Plane (X-direction)

Input voltage (Vt)=

Angle Output Received Voltage (Vr) Relative Power

(degree)
[20 log (VR/VR@()deg)]
(mv)

Clockwise Anti- Clockwise Anti-

Clockwise Clockwise
 46

CALCULATIONS:

POLAR PATTERN & DIRECTIVITY:

Half power Beam bandwidth ƟE:

ƟH:

Directivity ( DƟ) = 41,2531 (Ɵ EX Ɵ H)

or
Directivity ( DƟ) = 72815 /((Ɵ E)2X (ƟH)2)

Power Gain (G ):20 log (4πs)/(λoXVR@0/VT)):

Where:

d1=

d2=

λg =2X(d2~d1)

λc =2Xa

λ0= 1/{((1/ λg)2+1/ λc)2)1/2}:

Smin = 2D2/ λ0:

D is size of horn antenna

 47

RESULT:
Thus the radiative power polar pattern was drawn: Also the directivity and gain of.
a wave-guide horn antenna were determined.

Half power Beam bandwidth ƟE:

ƟH:
Power Gain (G ):
Directivity (D):
 STEP 1 : MEASURMENT OF MAIN LINE SWR
CHARACTERISTICS OF DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

KLYSTRON
CRO
MATCHED
POWER
PROBE 4 3 LOAD
MOUNT SLOTED 1 OR 2 2 MATCHED
FREQUENCY VARABLE LINE LOAD
KLYSTRON ISOLATOR
OSCILLATOR METER ATTENUATOR

STEP 2 : MEASURMENT OF AUX LINE SWR

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER WITH A BUILTIN MATCHED TERMINATION
MATCHED LOAD 2 1 MATCHED
3 4
LOAD

4 3
BUILT IN MATCHED LOAD
1 2 STEP 3 : MEASURMENT OF INPUT VOLTAGE V1
WG. DETECTOR +PROBE
CRO

STEP 6 : MEASURMENT OF VOLTAGE V32 & DIRECTIVITY

STEP4 : MEASURMENT OF VOLTAGE V31 & COUPLING
MATECHED LOAD
FACTOR
4 3
1 WG. DETECTOR +PROBE
CRO
1 2
3 WG. DETECTOR +PROBE
CRO MATCHED LOAD

STEP 5 : MEASURMENT
3 OF VOLTAGE V21 & INSERTIONLOSS
MATCHED LOAD
1 2
WG. DETECTOR +PROBE CRO
48
 49

DIRECTIONAL COUPLER
Ex.No:5

Date

AIM:
To Determine the Insertion Loss (I), Coupling Factor(C), Directivity (D) and S-matrix for a multi-hole
Directional Coupler.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Klystron Power Supply. Klystron Oscillator with mount. CRO .Frequency Meter. Isolator.
Variable Attenuator. Wave guide detector with probe , ,matched terminations, directional coupler , Slotted
line with probe ,Wave guide stand, Cables & Accessories.

THEORY:
A directional coupler is a device with which it is possible to measure the incident and reflected wave
separately. It consists of two transmission line, the main arm and auxiliary arm, electro magnetically
coupled to each other. The directional coupler is a microwave passive device that provides a method of
sampling energy from waveguide for measurement. It is constructed from an enclosed waveguide section
of the same dimensions as the waveguide in which the energy is to be sampled. The broader wall of this
enclosed section is mounted to be the broader wall of the waveguide from which the sample is taken. They
are N (or 2) holes in the broader wall between the sections of the coupler. The n holes are λ/4 apart. The
upper section of the directional coupler has wedge of energy-absorbing material at one end and a pickup
probe connected t.oan output jack at the other end. The absorbent material absorbs the .energy not directed
at the probe and a portion of the overall energy that enters the section .
COUPLlNG FACTOR:. .
The power entering the port 1 in the main-arm divides between port 2 and port 3
and almost no power comes out of port 4. Power entering port2 is divided between port1
and 4 with built-in termination (P4) and power is entering at port1 The coupling factor is
defined as . -

C=10IogP1/P3 =20IogV1/ V3 dB where port 4 is terminated

MULTI HOLE DIRECTIONAL COUPLER

 50

Tabular Column

S.NO DIRECTIONAL SWR REFLECTION

COUPLER COEFFICIENT
Ki= (Si-1)/Si+1)
CONNECTION
Vmax Vmin Si=
PORT (i) PORTS
(mv) (mv) ( Vmax/
(j,k)
AS INPUT Vmin)1/2
TO BE

MATCHED

1 1 2,3 Main line

SWR (S1)
:

2 2 1,3 Main line

SWR (S2)
:

3 3 1,2 Auxiliary
line SWR
(S3) :
 51

DIRECTIVITY (D):

The directivity of the directional coupler is a measure of separation between incidents wave and
reflected wave. It is measured as the ratio of the two power outputs of the auxiliary line when a given
amount of power is successively applied to each terminal of the main-lines with other port terminated by
matched load.

Hence, directivity (0) = 10 log P31/P32 = 20 log V31/V32 dB

where V31 and V32 are the voltage measured at port 3 with equal amount of voltage fed to port 1
and port 2 respectively.

MAIN LINE AND AUXILIARY LINE SWR:

Main line SWR is SWR measured, looking into the main line input terminal when the
matched loads are placed at all other parts. Auxiliary line VSWR is SWR measured in the
auxiliary line looking into the output terminal when the matched loads are placed on three
terminals. It is the ratio of maximum voltage and minimum voltage of the standing wave existing
on the line.
Main line insertion loss is the attenuation introduced in transmission line by insertion of
directional coupler. It is defined as insertion loss.
I =10 log 10 P1 / P2=20 log VI/ V2 where the power is entering at port 1.

The S matrix of a directional coupler is

0 P jq 0
S= P 0 0 jq
jq 0 0 P
0 jq P 0
2 2
Where p + q = 1 for conversion of energy. Here p is called transmission factor (VI/ V21)& q
is the coupling factor (VI/V31)

PROCEDURE:

A. MAIN LINE SWR MEASUREMENT:

1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure-stepl .

2. Connect port 1 to slotted line and matched terminations to other ports.
3. Energize the microwave source for a particular frequency of operation as described in operation of
klystron oscillator and tune the microwave bench for maximum output on CRO. .
4. The tunable probe carriage' is moved along the radiator slot from the load end until maximum reading
is obtained on the CRO and this is called as Vmax. Then the probe is moved to an adjacent position 6f
voltage minimum and this is called' as Vmin.
5 Calculate the standing wave ratio S =Vmax I Vmin on CRO and this is called as main line SWR
6 Repeat the above steps for the port 2 (i.e., port 2 is connected to slotted line while the other
ports are connected with matched terminations and this is caned as mainline SWR S2 for port 2.-
 52

Tabular Column 2

MEASUREMENT OF ISOLATION LOSS, COUPLING COEFFICIENT AND DIRECTIVITY

S.No: DIRECTIONAL COUPLER Input Output voltage

voltage (vi) (vi) (mv)
CONNECTION
(mv)

PORT (i) PORT (j) PORTS (k)

AS INPUT AS TO BE
OUTPUT
MATCHED

1 1 2 3 V21

2 1 3 2 V31

3 2 3 1 V32

CALCULATIONS:

S.No: Parameter Value

1 COUPLING FACTOR (C) = 20 log

Vl/V31 dB

2 INSERTION LOSS (I) =20 log V / V21

dB

3 DIRECTIVITY (D)= 20 IOgV31!V32 dB

4 ISOLATION (IS) .=20·log VI! V41 . dB ∞

 53

AUXILARY LINE SWR MEASUREMENT:

l. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure-step2

2. Connect port 3 to slotted line and matched terminations to other ports.
3. Energize the microwave source for a particular frequency of operation as described in Operation of
klystron oscillator and get maximum-output on CRO.
4. The tunable probe carriage is moved along the radiator slot from the load end until maximum reading
is obtained on the CRO and this is called as Vmax Then the probe is moved to an Adjacent position of
voltage minimum and this is called as Vmin:
5. Calculate the standing wave ratio S== Vmax / Vmin and this is called as auxiliary line SWR 53 for port s.

MEASUREMENT OF COUPLING FACTOR .INSERTION LOSS AND DIRECTIVITY:

1. Remove the slotted line Matched terminations and directional coupler and connect the waveguide
detector directly to the variable attenuator as shown in figure-step3. The output of waveguide detector
should be connected to CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for a particular frequency of operation as described in operation of
klystron oscillator and get maximum output on CRO.
3. Set any reference level of voltage on CRO with the help of variable attenuator. Let it be VIJ
4. Carefully remove the waveguide detector from variable attenuator without disturbing the settings of
the microwave bench and insert the directional coupler between variable attenuator and waveguide
detector as shown in figure-steps. Keeping port 1 of directional coupler to variable attenuator, waveguide
detector at its port 3 and a matched termination should be placed at port 2.
5. Note down the readings on CRO. Let it be V31.
6. Calculate the coupling factor(C) as 20 log (V1/V31) dB.
7. For measurement of insertion loss, connect the port 1 of directional coupler to the variable attenuator,
port 2 to waveguide detector and a matched termination should be placed at port 3 as shown-in figure
step 5 after setting same reference level. without directional coupler in the setup as described in
procedure step 3. Let same VI level is set.
8. Record the reading on CRO while inserting the directional coupler as given in step 7.
Let it be V21.
 54

CALCULATIONS :

S-MA TRIX PARAMETERS TO DIRECTIONAL COUPLER:

Since port 4 is matched internally, theoretically K4 =0.

Since there is no coupling between port 1 and 4, theoretically S14= S 41= O.
The transmission loss from port 1 to 2 is S21.let it be p;
From zero and unitary property of 5 matrix, We have S12=S21=S34=S43=p.
The coupling factor form port 1and 3 is S31. let it be q where q is
positive and real;
From zero and unitary property of S matrix, We have
S13=S31=S24=S42=q
The transmission loss from port 2 to port 3 is S32,let it be r;
From reciprocal property of S matrix, We have S23=S32=r

k1 p jq 0
P k2 r jq
S matrix = jq r k3 p
0 jq P 0

Practical S matrix is

where
p= v1/v21:

q= v1/v31:

r = v2/v32:
 55

9. Compute insertion loss as I=20log VI/V21 dB.

10. For measurement of directivity, connect the directional coupler in opposite direction i.e.,
port 2 of directional coupler to the variable attenuator, port 3 to wave guide detector and a
matched termination should be placed at port 1 as shown in figure step 6 without disturbing
the position of the setup.
11. Measure and note down the reading on CRO; let it be V32 which is equal to Vu
12. Compute the directivity as 0= 20 log V31/ V32 dB

RESULT:
Thus the characteristics of multihole directional coupler was studied and the following -
Parameters were measured.
Insertion loss (I) :
Coupling factor(C) :
Directivity (D) :

Therefore S =
 56

BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON

KLYSTRON
POWER SUPPLY
(0-500) V CRO

KLYSTYRON FREQUENCY VARIABLE DETECTOR

MOUNT WITH METER ATTENUAT MOUNT
OSCILLATOR ISOLATOR OR
 57

MODE CHARACTERISTICS OF REFLEX KLYSTRON

Ex.No.6

Date:

AIM:

To Determine the Mode Characteristics of a Reflex Klystron and Determine its Electronic Tuning
Range and Electronic Tuning Sensitivity (ETS).

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Klystron power supply, Reflex klystron isolator, frequency meter, variable attenuator, slotted
section, VSWR meter, detector mount & CRO.

THEORY

Klystron is a microwave vacuum tube employing velocity modulation. These electrons move
towards the repeller (ie) the electrons leaving the cavity during the positive half cycle are accelerated
while those during negative half cycle are decelerated. The faster ones penetrate further while slower ones
penetrate lesser in the field of repeller voltage. But, faster electrons leaving the cavity take longer time to
return and hence catch up with slower ones. In the cavity the electrons bunch and intract with the voltage
between the cavity grids.

It consists of an electron gun producing a collimated electron beam.

It bunches pass through grids at time the grid potentials is such that electrons are decelerated they give by
energy. The electrons are then collected by positive cavity wall near cathode. To protect repeller from
damage, repeller voltage is applied before accelerating voltage.

PROCEDURE

 Assemble the components as shown in fig.

 After following the necessary precautions, the Klystron Power Supply is switched ON.
 To obtain peak voltage, the attenuator is positioned at it’s minimum attenuation.
 Vary the repeller voltage from it’s maximum negative value and increase it in steps on N and
record output power and frequency.
 The frequency is measured by tuning the basic frequency meter to have a dip in the output
voltage each time.
 The frequency meter is detuned before measuring the output power each time.
 The mode characteristics of Reflex Klystron is plotted. (i.e. Output Voltage Vs
Repeller voltage and Frequency Vs Repeller voltage)
 58

CALCULATIONS

(i) Knowing mode top voltages of two adjacent modes, mode numbers of the modes is computed
from the equation,

N 2 V1 (n+1) +3 / 4
= =
N1 V2 n +3 / 4

where

V1 and V2 are the values of repeller voltages required to operate the klystron in
mode numbers N1 and N2.

(ii) Knowing mode number, transit time of each mode is calculated from

n +( 3 / 4) N1
t = = seconds
1 f 01 f 01

f01 → frequency of microwave operation in one mode.

(iii) ETR – Electronic tuning range i.e, the frequency band from one end of the mode to
another is calculated by

ETR = f1max – f1min for N1 mode (GHz)

f1max – f1min → half power frequencies

(iv) ETS – Electronic tuning sensitivity

 59

PRECAUTIONS

1. During operation of Klystron, repeller does not carry any current and as such it may severely
be damaged by electron bombardment. To protect repeller from such damage, the repeller negative
voltage is always applied before anode voltage.
2. The repeller voltage should be varied in one direction to avoid hysteric is in klystrons

3. The heater voltage should be applied first and cooling should be provided
simultaneously after some time other voltages should be applied taking precaution(i).

4. While measuring power, the frequency meter should be detained each time because there
is a dip in the output power when the frequency is tuned.

5. To avoid loading of the klystron an isolator/attenuation should invariably be used between

klystron and the rest of the set-up.

MODEL GRAPH
 60

TABULAR COLUMN

Mode Frequency GHz Repeller voltage Output Voltage

V (mV)
1

3
 61

RESULT

Thus the Mode characteristics of reflex klystron were studied and the electronic tuning range
and sensitivity were obtained from Mode characteristics of reflex klystron
a) Mode I ETR:
b) Mode II ETR:
c) Mode I ETS:
d) Mode II ETS:
62
 63

GUN DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

Ex.No.7

Date:

AIM:

To Determine the V-I Characteristics, Threshold Voltage and Modulation Depth for the given Gun
Diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Gunn Power Supply-GS-610,Gunn Oscillator XG-11, Isolator XI -621, Frequency Meter XF- 710, PIN
Modulator XM-55, BNC Cable.

THEORY:
Principle:
The device, where transfer of electrons takes 'place from high mobility, low energy state to low
mobility, high-energy state is known as transfer electron devices(TED). It is observed that when the
field between the two end surfaces is low then the thin piece of Ga-As substance behaves like a resistor
and current increases with the voltage but when the applied field exceed a certain value( E ≡ 3000 V/cm
), the current decreases and this become a fluctuating function of time for the further increase of field:
When the electric field is applied to this Ga-As substance the electrons from the valence band jumps to
this lower conduction band valley so the current increases. But as the field becomes very high and
reaches the critical field then the electron from the lower conduction band valley jumps to the low
mobility, high-energy upper satellite valley of the conduction band. This device is a negative resistance
device and the power will also be negative and it implies that is a source of energy. That's why Gunn
diode is used for microwave oscillator. The TEDs are bulk devices having no junctions or gates and it is
fabricated from compound semiconductors, such as Ga-As, Cd -Te or In- p. Thus the Gunn oscillator is
based on negative differential conductivity effect' in bulk semiconductors, which has two conduction
bands separated by an energy gap (greater than thermal agitation energies .The energy difference
between those two satellite valleys in the conduction. Band should be less than the band gap (Eg) of the
semiconductor.
ΔE<Eg &ΔE>.026ev.
 64

MODEL GRAPH

F-V CHARACTERISTICS V-I CHARACTERISTICS

Tabular
Column SI.No Gunn Bias Voltage Gunn Bias Current 1:
(volts)
(mA)
 65

A disturbance at the cathode gives rise to high field region, which travels towards the anode. When this
high field domain reaches the anode, it disappears and other domain formed at the cathode and starts
moving towards anode and so on. The time required for domain to travel from cathode to anode (transit
time) gives oscillation frequency. The frequency of oscillation was mainly determined by the specimen.
The period of oscillation is inversely proportional to the specimen length and closely equals to the
transfer time of electrons between the electrodes. Although Gunn oscillator can be amplitude modulated
with the bias voltage. We have used separate PIN modulator through PIN diode for square wave
modulation; A measure of the square wave modulation capability is the modulation depth i.e. the output
ratio between ON and OFF state. Modes:Depending on the material parameters and operating
conditions various operation models of Gunn devices has been developed.

1.Transmit time or Oscillation mode: By enclosing the Gunn devices in a resonant cavity,
there are two possible variations in the gunn oscillation mode. These are quenched-domain mode and
delayed domain mode. In quenched -domain do not travel fully across the width of the
domain mode, the formation of new domain is delayed, as r-f swing is not large enough to
extinguish a domain once it is formed.
2.Stable Amplification mode:
3.LSA Oscillation .mode: In this mode, a voltage swing is used in conjunction with a
frequency, whose period is short compared with a frequency and whose period is short
compound with the dielectric growth time so that it limits the amount of space charge that
can grow during the negative conductivity part of the R.F.cycle here a large pulse can be achieved from
a single large chip.

Construction:

GUN diode oscillator circuits comprise of a resonant cavity, an arrangement for coupling the device to
the cavity, a circuit for biasing the diode and a mechanism to couple the RF power from the cavity to
external circuits or load. Since the Gunn diode consists basically of negative resistance, that is required
to make it as an oscillator is an inductance to tune out the capacitance and a. shunt load resistance not
greater than the negative resistance. Two commonly used circuit's are co-axial cavity and rectangular
wave-guide cavity. The diode is mounted at one end of the cavity and in continuation with central
conductor of co-axial line. The output can be taken out through an inductively or capacitive coupled
probe the frequency of oscillation is determined mainly by length of the cavity. The location of coupling
loop determines the load impedance presented to the diode. Heat sinks are included to conduct away the
heat generated due to power dissipation in the device. An advantage of this coma cavity circuit is that it
can be abreacted easily and coupling can be adjusted. for individual diodes. As a coaxial cavity is. also
resonant· at .harmonics of fundamental frequency, the diode may oscillate harmonics of desired
frequency. Its noise performance is also acceptable. The Gunn device has low noise as compared to the
IMPAIT device.
 66

TABULAR COLUMN 2:
Characteristics of Output voltage & frequency Vs Gunn Bias Voltage

S.NO Gunn bias voltage Output Voltage Frequency

(V) (mY) (GHz)

 67

The Gunn devices are used for. radar local oscillator and' communication systems transmitter in the
range of ·5-20 Ghz. Gunn diodes have been used successively as oscillators, amplifiers, frequency-
modulated oscillators, and signal generators. A typical commercial diode uses a'10 v supply andhas a
typical power dissipation of 1w Ie and a dc current of 140 rnA. Its power output is 25mWwith an
efficiency of 2%and frequency oscillation is in the X-band.

PROCEDURE:
* Set the components and equipments as shown.
* Inititally set the variable attenuator for minimum position.
* Keep the control knob of Gunn power supply as below.

Meter switch - OFF

Gunn bias knob - Fully anticlockwise
PIN bias knob- Fully anticlockwise
PIN Mod frequency - Any position

Set the micrometer of Gunn oscillator for required frequency of operation.

ON the Gunn power supply, CRO and cooling fan.

Gunn BIAS -Voltage -Current characteristics.

1. Turn the meter switch of Gunn power supply to voltage position.

2. Measure the Gunn diode current corresponding to the various voltages controlled by
Gunn bias knob through the panelmeter and meter switch.
(Do not exceed the bias voltage above 10V)
3. Plot the voltage and current readings on the graph as shown in figure.
4. Measure the threshold voltage, which corresponds to maximum current.

Note:
 Do not keep the Gunn bias knob position at threshold position for more than 10 to15
Seconds. Reading should be taken as fast as possible. Otherwise due to excessive heating GUNN diode
will bum.
 Here the ~ bias current is noted from Gunn power supply panel meter and meter switch.-Hence there is
no need of separate ammeter.
 68

TABULAR COLUMN 3:

Micrometer Frequency Initial Final Power Power Modulation

Attenuation Attenuation Depth
Reading(cm) (GHz) at Ai atAf
Pi- Pf(dB)
Pi= 20 Pf= 20
logVT(dB) logVT(dB)
 69

CHARACTERISTICS OF OUTPUT VOLTTAGE & FREQUENCY AS A FUNCTION OF

GUNN BIAS_VOLTAGE:

1. Turn the meter switch of gunn power supply to voltage position.

2. Increase the gunn bias control knob.
3. Rotate PIN bias knob to around maximum position.
4. Tune the output on CRO through frequency control knob of modulation.
S. Any level of output voltage can be get through variable attenuator.
6. Measure the frequency by frequency meter and detune it.
7. Reduce the Gunn bias voltage in steps of O.5V or 1.0V and note down the corresponding reading of
output on CRO and frequency from the frequency meter.
S. Use the reading, to draw the output voltage Vs Gunn bias voltage curve and also to draw frequency
Vs gunn bias voltage curve and plot the graphs.
9. Measure the pushing factor (in MHz/volt) which is frequency sensitivity against variation in bias
voltage for an oscillator. The pushing factor should be measured around S-volt bias.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SQUARE WAVE MODULATION:

1. Keep meter switch of Cunn power supply to volt position and rotate gunn bias voltage
slowly so that panel meter of gunn power supply reads lOY.
2 Tune the PIN modulator bias voltage and frequency knob for maximum output on the
CRO.
3. Vary vernier micrometer of gunn diode; note down the micrometer reading and
proportional frequency change by noting the DIP frequency.
4 Set the input channel of CRO in DC mode/position Coincide the bottom of square wave in
CRO some reference level using Y-shift knob of CRO (or attenuaior) Note down the micrometer reading
of Variable attenuator ) and the corresponding output voltage (V,) ori CRO.
5. Now with the help of variable attenuator r coincide the top of square wave to same reference level
.Note down the micrometer reading (AF ) and the corresponding output voltage( VF) on CRO.
6. Calculate the powers Pi & PF for the above micrometer readings(A, ) and (AF )
ie PI = 2010g (VI) db ; PF= 2010g (VF) db
7: The difference of the powers Pi &PF gives the modulation depth of PIN modulator.

RESULT:
The following characteristics of the Cunn diode were studied.
1. Gunn bias V·I characteristic
2. Characteristics of output voltage and frequency as a function of gunn bias voltage
3. Characteristic of square wave modulation through PIN diode and modulation depth
was determined.
Threshold Voltage (VTH) :
Pushing Factor (frequency sensitivity) :
Modulation depth :
 70

CALCULA TIONS:-

Δl = (12-11) m=

Δt = (tt-t2) sec=
Velocity (c) = distance I time
 71

VELOCITY OF EM WAVES

Ex.No.8

Date:

AIM:

To Determine the Velocity of EM waves for the given Co-axial Cable.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Pulse Generator, C.R.O, Co-axial cable

THEORY:

The pulses from the signal generators pass through the two cables (short Cable and the long cable)
simultaneously. The signal takes some time to travel along the cable. So there will be time delay between
the -two signals to reach the CRO inputs due to difference in Distance- traveled: Since distance traveled,
per unit time is velocity, the velocity of electromagnetic wave is calculated as c == 61/ M.,J

PROCEDURE:
1. The connections are given as per the diagram.
2. Set the frequency of pulse generator (say 1 MHz) and trace the signal waveforms(pulses) from
the two coaxial cable on CRO.
3. Observe the difference (tl-t2) (say 1 division on X axis) in leading edges of two pulses on
CRO.
4. Determine velocity of electromagnetic wave in co-axial cable using velocity. =distance / time.

Δl = (12-11) m=
Δt = (tt-t2) sec=
Velocity (c) = distance / time

RESULT:·
.Thus, the velocity of electromagnetic wave in coaxial cable is found:

Velocity (c) :
 MEASURMENT
CRO
OF INSERTION & ISOLATION LOSSES OF ISOLATOR & CIRCULATOR

PROBE
STEP 2 : MEASURMENT OF INPUT VOLTAGE (VI)
i
CIRCULATOR MATCHED
SLOTED LINE
ISOLATOR LOAD
WAVEGUIDE CRO

PROBE
DETECTOR
K
MATCHED
LOAD

STEP 3 : ,EASURMENT OFINSERTION LOSS

::
CIRCULATOR WAVEGUIDE
ISOLATOR DETECTOR
STEP 1 : MEASURMENT OF INPUT V.S.W.R i j
PROBE
KLYSTRON K
POWER SUPPLY MATCHED
LOAD CRO

MOUNT

KLYSTRON FREQUENCY VARIABLE

ISOLATOR
OSCILLATOR METER ATTENUATOR STEP 4 :MEASURMENT OF ISOLATION
WAVEGUIDE
LOSS DETECTOR
CIRCULATOR
/ISOLATOR
i K
PROB
j
MATCHED
LOAD
CRO
72
 73

MICROWAVE ISOLATOR AND CIRCULATOR.

Ex.No.9

Date:

AIM:

To Determine the Insertion Loss, Isolation Loss and VSWR for the Microwave Isolator and Circulator.

.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Klystron Power Supply. Klystron Oscillator with mount. CRO .Frequency Meter. Isolator.
Variable Attenuator. Wave guide detector with probe , ,matched terminations, Test Circulator/Isolator
, Slotted line with probe ,Wave guide stand, Cables & Accessories.

THEORY:
Both microwave circulators and microwave isolators are non-reciprocal transmission devices
that use the property of Faraday rotation. The ferrite exhibit Faraday rotation when a piece of ferrite is
affected by a magnetic field because the ferrite is non linear material and its permeability is an
asymmetric tensor. Unpaired electrons in the ferrite material tend to line up with the de magnetic field
due to their magnetic dipole moment when the de magnetic field is applied to a ferrite. However, the
non -reciprocal procession of unpaired electrons in the ferrite causes their relative permeability {μr)to
be non. equal and the wave in the ferrite is then circularly
Polarized.This phenomenon is called the gyro magnetic resonance of the ferrite:

MICROWAVE CIRCULATORS: . . . .
A multiport waveguide junction in which the wave can flow only from the nthport to (n+1)th port in one
direction is called microwave circulator. However, there is no limitation on the number of port. A . three
port circulator is formed by 120° H-plane waveguide symmetrical Y junction with a central ferrite post
 74

TABULATION 1 :

INPUT VSWR MEASUREMENT:

S.NO DIRECTIONAL COUPLER Vmax Vmin SWR REFLECTION

CONNECTION Si= COEFFICIENT
Ki= (Si-1)/Si+1)
PORT (i) PORTS (mv) (mv) ( Vmax/
AS INPUT (j,k) Vmin)1/2
TO BE
MATCHED
1 1 2,3

2 2 1,3

3 3 1,2

CALCULATION OF S - MATRIX FOR ISOLATOR AND CIRCULATOR:

ISOLATOR:

K1 S12

The practical S· matrix is S21 K2

CIRCULATOR:

K1 S12 S13

The practical S matrix is S21 K2 S23

S31 S23 K3

From Tabulation Column1 & Tabulation Column2 we get

S· matrix (isolator) as S· matrix(circulator) as

 75

S.NO CONNECTION OF PORTS I/P FORWARD REVERSE Insertion Isolation S=

VOLTAGE O/P O/P loss (Iij) Loss
VOLTAGE VOLTAGE =20 Log (Iik) =20
Log vi /

MICROWAVE ISOLATORS:
A non reciprocal transmission device that is used to isolate one component from
reflections of other components in the transmission line is called as isolator. An ideal isolator provides
lossless transmission for propagation in one direction and completely absorbs the power in the
opposite direction. Therefore the isolator is usually called uniline. To improve the frequency stability
of the microwave generator such as klystrons and magnetrons in which the reflection from load affects
the generating frequency, the isolators are used. In such cases, the isolators placed between the
generator and load prevents the reflected power from the unmatched load from returning to the
generator. Therefore, the isolator maintains the frequency stability of the generator.

INSERTION LOSS:

The ratio of power supplied by the source to the input port (i) to the power detected by a waveguide
detector in the coupling arm i.e., output arm (j ) with other port (k) terminated in the matched load is
defined as the insertion loss or forward loss or coupling loss.
Insertion loss = 10 log P;/ P,= 20 log Vi / Vi dB. for coupled port.

ISOLATION LOSS:
It is the ratio of power fed to input arm (i) to the power detected at uncoupled port (k)
with other port (j) terminated in the matched load. Isolation loss = 10 log Pi/ Pk = 20 log Vi/ Vk dB
for uncoupled port.

INPUTVSWR:
The input standing wave ratio (5) of an circulator or isolator is the ratio of voltage
maximum to voltage minimum of the standing wave existing on the line when one port of it
terminates the line and others have matched termination.

Note: when a port which is. not coupled to input port is terminated by matched
termination. It makes an isolator (two port device)

For an ideal loss less , matched isolator . S=

For a perfect matched, loss less, non reciprocal, three port circulator

0 0 1
S = 0 0 1
0 1 0
 76

INPUT FORWARD REVERSE Vi Vj Vk vi / (vj) (vk) Db (vj)or

Db (vk)/
(mv) (mv) (mv)
(vi)

PORT PORT (j) PORT (K) PORT PORT (j)

(i) (K)
AS TO BE
AS OUTPUT MATCHED
INPUT TO BE
AS MATCHED
OUTPUT

1 2 3 X X X X
1.

1 X X 3 2 X X
2.

2 3 1 X X X X
3.

2 X X 1 3 X X
4.

3 1 2 X X X X
5.

3 X X 2 1 X X
6.
 77

INPUT VSWR MEASUREMENT:

1. Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure-step l.

2. Connect the port 1 to slotted line and matched terminations to other ports.
3. Energize the microwave source for a particular frequency of operation as described in operation of
klystron oscillator and tune the microwave bench for maximum output on CRO.

ISOLATORS_ AND CIRCULATORS

4. The tunable probe carriage is moved along the radiator slot from the load end until maximum reading
is obtained on the CRO and this is called as Vmax.Then the probe is moved to an adjacent position of
voltage minimum and this is called as Vmin. 5. Calculate the standing wave ratio (S) = Vmax I Vmin and
this is called as S1 for port I.
6. Repeat the above steps for the ports 2 and 3 one by one while the other ports are connected
with matched terminations. Find S2 and S3 respectively. Also calculate the reflection
coefficients kI, k2, k3 for different inputs.

B. MEASUREMENT OF INSERTION LOSS AND ISOLATION LOSS:

1.Remove the circulator or isolator, matched load and slotted line and connect the waveguide detector
directly to the variable attenuator as shown in figure –step-2. The output of wave guide detector should
be connected to CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation. Tune the
microwave bench for maximum output on the CRO.
3. Set any reference level of voltage on CRO with the help of variable attenuator. Let it be V i. 4.
Carefully remove the detector mount from variable attenuator without disturbing the settings of the
microwave bench. Insert the circulator or isolator between variable attenuator and. waveguide detector
and keeping input port ( i) to variable attenuator and waveguide detector at
its output port 0). (A matched termination should be placed at third port( k) in case of circulator.)
5. Record the readings on the CRO. Let it be Vj.
6. Compute insertion loss In= 20 log Vi/Vj dB for coupled port.
7. For measurement of isolation, the circulator or isolator has to be connected reverse i.e., connect the
port (i) to the variable attenuator and port (k) to wave guide detector (A matched termination should be
placed at third port G) in. case of circulator) after setting a reference level without isolator or circulator
in the setup as described in the insertion loss measurement. Let -same Vi level is set.
8..Record the reading on the CRO while inserting the circulator or .isolator as given in
step 7. Let it be Vk.
9. Compute isolation loss as Is= 20 log Vi /VK dB for uncoupled port.
10. The same experiment can be done for other ports of circulator.
11. Calculate the S - parameter values (Soi) from the above readings.

RESULT:
Thus the function of Circulator and isolator was studied and insertion loss,isolation loss and input
SWR of circulator and .isolator were determined.
 CHARACTEISTICS OF MAGIC -TEE STEP2:MEASUREMENT OF INPUT
VOLTAGE
CRO

WAVE GUIDE

e
MATCHED LOAD

probe
CRO
DETECTOR
PROBE

SLOTTED LINE MAGIC TEE MATCHED LOAD

STEP3:MEASUREMENT OF ISOLATION LOSS

AND
MATCHED LOAD COUPLING CO-EFFICIENT

KRYSTON POWER STEP1:MEASUREMENT OF INPUT V.S.W.R

CRO
SUPPLY

MATCHED LOAD

MOUNT PROBE

FREQUENCY VARIABLE WAVE GUIDE

KLYSTON MAGIC TEE
ISOLATOR METER ATTENUATOR DETECTOR
OSCILLATOR

MATCHED LOAD
78
 79

MAGIC TEE.
Ex.No 10

Date:

AIM:

To Determine the Isolation Loss, coupling Co-efficient and VSWR for the four different ports in Magic
Tee.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Klystron Power Supply. Klystron Oscillator with mount. CRO .Frequency Meter. Isolator.
Variable Attenuator. Wave guide detector with probe , ,matched terminations, Magic Tee, Slotted line
with probe ,Wave guide stand, Cables & Accessories.

THEORY:
The T junction is the most simple of the commonly used wave guide junctions. The T
junctions are divided into two basic types, the E type and the H-type. The hybrid junctions are more
complicated developments of the basic T junctions, The Magic Tee and the Hybrid Ring are the two most
commonly used hybrid junctions.

E TYPE T JUNCTION:
An E type T junction is the wave guide junction arm which extends from the main wave
guide in the same direction as E field in the wave guide. In diagram (a), the input is fed into arm 3 and the
output s are taken from the 1 and 2 arms: When the E field arrives between points A and B, point A
becomes positive and point B becomes negative. The positive charge at paint A then induces a 'negative
charge on the wall at point C. The negative charge at point B induces a positive charge at point D. These
charges cause the fields to form 180 degree out of phase in the main wave guide; therefore, the outputs
will be 180 degree out of phase with each other. The two in phase inputs of equal amplitude are fed into
'the 1 and 2 arms, the signals at points A and B have the same phase and amplitude. No difference of
potentials exists across the entrance to the 3 arm, and no energy will be coupled out. However, when two
signals fed into the 1 . and 2 arms' are. 180 degrees out of phase, points A and B haye _a difference in
potential. This difference of potential induces an E field from point A to point 13in the 3rd arm and
energy-is coupled out of this arm (3). Due to this, 3rd arm or port is called as differential arm. By analogy
with voltage relationship in series circuit, E plane is called as voltage junction or series junction.
 80

MAGIC –TEE
 81

H-TYPE T JUNCTION:

An H- type T junction has the long axis of the 3rd arm in parallel to the plane of the
magnetic lines of force in the wave guide. If two input waves are fed into port 1 and port 2 of the collinear
arm, the output wave at port 3 will be in phase and additive. Also if the input is fed into port 3, the wave
will split equally into port 1 and port 2in phase and in the same magnitude. Due to this 3rd port is called
as sum arm. The arm delivers magnetic lines similar to current branches, so this junction is called current
junction or shunt junction. If a signal is fed into the 1 arm, outputs will be obtained from the arms 3 and 2.
The reverse is also true. If a signal is fed into the 2 arm, output will be obtained from the arms 1 and 3.

MAGIC T HYBRID JUNCTION:

The magic T is a combination of the H- type and E-type T junctions. In summary, when
an input is applied to arm 4(E) of the magic-T hybrid junction, the output signals from arms 1 and 2 . are
180 degrees out of phase with each other and no output occurs at arm 3 (H) of the magic -T. The signal
entering the arm 3 (H) divides and moves down the arms 1 and 2 outputs which are in phase with each
other and with the input. Since the potentials on both sides of the arm 4 (E) are
equal, no potential difference exist at the entrance of the arm 4, resulting in no output. When an input
signal is fed into the arm 1 shown in diagram(c), a portion of energy is coupled into the arm4 (E) as it
would be in all E - type T junction. An equal portion of the signal is coupled through. the arm 3 (H)
because of the action of the H- type T junction. The aim 2 has two fields across it that are out of phase
with each other. Therefore the fields cancel, resulting in no output at the arm 2. The reverse of this action
takes place if a signal is fed into the ann 2, resulting in outputs at the arms 4 and 3 and no output at the
arm l.

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGIC TEE:

1. If two waves of equal magnitude and the same phase are fed into port 1and 2, the output will be zero at
port 4 and additive at port 3.
2. If a wave is fed into port 3 (arm H), it will be divided equally between port 1 and 2, of the collinear
arms and will not appear at port 4 (arm E).
3. If the wave is fed into the port 4 (arm E), it will produce an output of equal magnitude and opposite
phase at port 1 and 2.and the output at the port 3 is zero. i.e., S34= S43= O.Therefore the ports 3 and 4 are
called uncoupled or isolated ports .
4. If a wave is fed into one of the collinear anus at either port I or port 2, it will not appear in the other
collinear arm at port 2 or port 1 respectively because the arm E causes a phase delay while the and H
causes a phase advance i.e., SI2 =S21 =0. Therefore the ports I and 2 are called uncoupled or isolated ports.

PARAMETERS OF MAGIC TEE:

A. INPUT VSWR:

It is the value of SWR corresponding to each port, which act as a load to the line while other
ports are terminated in matched load. It is the ratio of maximum voltage and minimum voltage of the
standing wave existing on the line
 82

TABULAR COLUMN:

S.NO DIRECTIONAL COUPLER Input Output Isolation COUPLING

CONNECTION voltage voltage Loss (Iij) Coefficient
PORT (i) PORT PORT (k) (vi) (mv) (vj) (mv) =20 Log Cij=10 (- Sji=
lij/20)=
AS (j) TO BE vi / (vj) 10 (-a /20) (vj)/ (vi)
INPUT As MATCHED Db for j≠i
output

1. 2 3,4

2. 1 3 2,4

3. 4 2,3

4. 1 3,4

5. 2 3 1,4

6. 4 1,3

7. 1 4,2

8. 3 2 1,4

9. 4 1,2

10. 1 2,3

11. 4 2 1,3

12. 3 1,2
 83

ISOLATION:

The isolation between E (4) and H (3) arms is defined as the ratio of the power supplied by the generator
connected to the E arm(port 4) to the power detected at H arm(port 3) when side arms 1 and 2 are
terminated in matched load. Hence, isolation (I43) = 10 log P4/P3 = 20 log V4/V3 .Also, isolation between
the arms 1 and 2 is 112
=10 log Pl/P2= 20 log VI/N2. Similarly, isolation between other ports may also be found.

COUPLING COEFICIENT:

lt is defined as Cij = 10 (-lij/20)= 10 (-a /20) where a is 'attenuation or isolation (Iij).in dB

where i is input arm and j is output arm: Thus a = 10 log Pi/ Pj = 20 log Vi I Vj dB where Vi is
the voltage supplied to arm i and Vj is the voltage detected at the j arm

COMPUTATION OF $ - MATRIX:

 Because of uncoupled ports 3 and 4, $34= $43=O.Also there is no coupling between 1 & 2
even though they are collinear ports(This Is The Magic Of Waveguide Junction) _
Therefore 1&2 are also uncoupled ports and hence $12=$21=0.
 If any of the two ports 3 and 4 are matched, then the remaining two ports are automatically
matched to the four port junction. Hence, S11= S22= S33= S44= O.
 Because of the H plane Tee, 523=513.Becausoef the E plane Tee, $24=-S14. From the
symmetric property,
1) S13= S31 and also S23= S32= S13
2) S14= S41 and also S24= S42=- S14

Therefore the S· matrix Magic Tee can be expressed as

0 0 S13 -S14

S Matrix is 0 0 S13 -S14

S13 S13 0 0

S14 - S14 0 0

Using the unitary property, S=1/ (2)1/2

0 0 1/ (2)1/2 1/ (2)1/2

0 0 1/ (2)1/2 -1/ (2)1/2

S Matrix is 1/ (2)1/2 1/ (2)1/2 0 0

1/ (2)1/2 - 1/ (2)1/2 0 0
 84

TABULAR COLUMN:

INPUT VSWR MEASUREMENT:

S.no DIRECTIONAL COUPLER Vmax Vmin(mv) SWR REFLECTION

CONNECTION (mv) COEFFICIENT
Si=
Ki= (Si-1)/Si+1)
PORT (i) PORTS (j,k) ( Vmax/
AS INPUT TO BE
MATCHED
Vmin)1/2

1 1 2,3,4

2 2 1,3,4

3 3 1,2,4

4 4 1,2,3

CALCULATION OF S - MATRIX FOR MAGIC TEE:

K1 S12 S13 S14

The practical S matrix is S21 K2 S23 S24

S31 S23 K3 S34

S41 S42 S43 K4

From Tabulation Column

S· matrix is
 85

In the-above matrix 3rd column (S13=1/(2)1/2=S23) specifies equal power division to port 1 and 2 from
port.d.The (513=1/'12=523) specifies that equal amount of power to ports 1 and 2 and net result Sum
at port 3.Similarly the 4th column(S14=1/(2)1/2=S24)) specifies that equal powerdistribution to . portl
and2 from ports but with 1800 phase shift. The fourth row ((S41=1/(2)1/2=S42) specifies equal and
opposite phase of power are applied to ports} and2 and net-difference at port4.

PROCEDURE:

INPUT VSWR MEASUREMENT:

1.Set up the components and equipments as shown in figure step1.

2. Connect port 1 to slotted line and matched terminations to other ports.
3. Energize the microwave source for a particular frequency of operation as described in operation of
klystron oscillator and tune the microwave bench for maximum output on CRO.
4. The tunable probe carnage is moved along the radiator slot from the load end until maximum
reading is obtained on the CRO and this is called as Vmax Then the probe is moved to an adjacent
position of voltage minimum and i:his is called as Vmin.
5. Calculate the standing wave ratio S= (Vmax/Vmin)1/2 and this is called as S1 for port 1.
6.Repeat the above steps for the ports 2, 3 and 4 one by one while the other ports at connected with
matched terminations. Find S2, S3, S4 respectively. Also find the reflection coefficients KI, K2, K3 and
K4 for different inputs.
ISOLATION & COUPLING MEASUREMENT:
1.Remove the magic tee, matched terminations and slotted line and connect the waveguide
_detector to the variable attenuator as shown in figure-step 2. The output of waveguide
detector should be connected to CRO.
2. Energize the microwave source for maximum output for a particular frequency of operation.
Tune the microwave bench for maximum output on the CRO.
3. With the help of variable attenuator, set any reference voltage on the CRO. Let it be Vi
4. Without disturbing the position of variable attenuator, carefully place the magic tee after the
variable attenuator keeping port (i=1) to variable attenuator, detector to port 0=2) and matched -
terminations to ports 3 and 4 as shown in figure step 3. Note down the reading on the CRO. Let it be
Vji=V2I.
5.Repeat the above step for port(i=1) to variable attenuator and wave guide detector to port 0= 3 and
4) one at a time while matched terminations are connected to other ports . Note down the
corresponding readings Vji on CRO.
6. Repeat the steps 4 and 5 for the ports (i =2, 3 and 4) one at a time and note down the reading Vii on
CRO
7. Calculate the isolation lij= 10 log Pi/Pi= 20 log Vi/ Vj and coupling coefficients
Cij=10 (-lij/20)=10 (-a /20) where a =10 log Pi/ P j= 20 Iog Vi / Vj dB
8. Calculate the S parameter values (Sji) for magic tee from the above readings.

RESULT:
Thus the function of MAGIC TEE was studied and the isolation loss, coupling coefficient and input
VSWR of Magic Tee junctions were determined.
 86

Additional Experiments
 87

INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB

INTRODUCTION
The tutorials are independent of the rest of the document. The primarily objective is to help you
learn quickly the first steps. The emphasis here is \learning by doing". Therefore, the best way to
learn is by trying it yourself. Working through the examples will give you a feel for the way that
MATLAB operates. In this introduction we will describe how MATLAB handles simple numerical
expressions and mathematical formulas. The name MATLAB stands for MATrix LABoratory.
MATLAB was written originally to provide easy access to matrix software developed by the
LINPACK (linear system package) and EISPACK (Eigen system package) projects. MATLAB [1] is
a high-performance language for technical computing. It integrates computation, visualization, and
programming environment. Furthermore, MATLAB is a modern programming language
environment: it has sophisticated data structures, contains built-in editing and debugging tools, and
supports object-oriented programming. These factors make MATLAB an excellent tool for teaching
and research.
MATLAB has many advantages compared to conventional computer languages (e.g., C,
FORTRAN) for solving technical problems. MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data
element is an array that does not require dimensioning. The software package has been commercially
available since 1984 and is now considered as a standard tool at most universities and industries
worldwide. It has powerful built-in routines that enable a very wide variety of computations. It also
has easy to use graphics commands that make the visualization of results immediately available.
Specific applications are collected in packages referred to as toolbox.
 88

There are toolboxes for signal processing, symbolic computation, control theory, simulation,
optimization, and several other fields of applied science and engineering. Later and with the addition
of several toolboxes the capabilities of MATLAB were expanded and today it is a very powerful tool
at the hands of an engineer.
TYPICAL USES INCLUDE:
 Math and Computation
 Algorithm development
 Modelling, simulation and prototyping
 Data analysis, exploration and visualisation
 Scientific and engineering graphics
 Application development, including graphical user interface building.

MATLAB is an interactive system whose basic data element is an ARRAY. Perhaps the easiest way
to visualise MATLAB is to think it as a full-featured calculator. Like a basic calculator, it does simple
math like addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Like a scientific calculator it handles
square roots, complex numbers, logarithms and trigonometric operations such as sine, cosine and
tangent. Like a programmable calculator, it can be used to store and retrieve data; you can create,
execute and save sequence of commands, also you can make comparisons and control the order in
which the commands are executed. And finally as a powerful calculator it allows you to
performmatrix algebra, to manipulate polynomials and to plot data
89
 90

BASIC FEATURES
The following tutorial lessons are designed to get you started quickly in MATLAB. The lessons
are intended to make you familiar with the basics of MATLAB.
A minimum MATLAB session
The goal of this minimum session (also called starting and exiting sessions) is to learn the
rst steps:
 How to log on
 Invoke MATLAB
 Do a few simple calculations
 How to quit MATLAB
Starting MATLAB
After logging into your account, you can enter MATLAB by double-clicking on the MATLAB
shortcut icon (MATLAB 7.0) on your Windows desktop. When you start MATLAB, a special
window called the MATLAB desktop appears. The desktop is a window that contains other windows.
The major tools within or accessible from the desktop are:

 The Command Window

 The Command History
 The Workspace
 The Current Directory
 The Help Browser
 The Start button

When MATLAB is started for the first time, the screen looks like the one .This illustration also shows
the default configuration of the MATLAB desktop. You can customize the arrangement of tools and
documents to suit your needs. Now, we are interested in doing some simple calculations. We will
assume that you have sufficient understanding of your computer under which MATLAB is being run.
You are now faced with the MATLAB desktop on your computer, which contains the prompt.

(>>) in the Command Window. Usually, there are 2 types of prompt:

>> for full version
EDU> for educational version

Note: To simplify the notation, we will use this prompt, >>, as a standard prompt sign,
though our MATLAB version is for educational purpose
91
 92

USING MATLAB AS A CALCULATOR

As an example of a simple interactive calculation, just type the expression you want to
evaluate. Let's start at the very beginning. For example, let's suppose you want to calculate
the expression, 1 + 2 £ 3. You type it at the prompt command (>>) as follows,
>> 1+2*3
ans = 7
You will have noticed that if you do not specify an output variable, MATLAB uses a
default variable ans, short for answer, to store the results of the current calculation. Note
that the variable ans is created (or overwritten, if it is already existed). To avoid this, you
may assign a value to a variable or output argument name.
For example,
>> x = 1+2*3
x=7
will result in x being given the value 1 + 2 £ 3 = 7. This variable name can always
be used to refer to the results of the previous computations. Therefore, computing 4x will
result in
>> 4*x
ans = 28.0000
Before we conclude this minimum session, Table 1.1 gives the partial list of arithmetic
operators..

Mathematical functions
MATLAB offers many predefined mathematical functions for technical computing which
contains a large set of mathematical functions. Typing help elfun and help specfun calls up full lists
of elementary and special functions respectively. There is a long list of mathematical functions that
are built into MATLAB. These functions are called built-ins. Many standard mathematical functions,
such as sin(x), cos(x), tan(x), ex, ln(x), are evaluated by the functions sin, cos, tan, exp, and log
respectively in MATLAB.
Basic plotting
Overview
MATLAB has an excellent set of graphic tools. Plotting a given data set or the results of
computation is possible with very few commands. You are highly encouraged to plot mathematical
functions and results of analysis as often as possible. Trying to understand mathematical equations
with graphics is an enjoyable and very efficient way of learning mathematics. Being able to plot
mathematical functions and data freely is the most important step, and this section is written to assist
you to do just that.
 93

Plot for the vectors x and y

>> x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;
>> y = sin(x);
>> plot(x,y)
 94

Creating simple plots

The basic MATLAB graphing procedure, for example in 2D, is to take a vector of x-
coordinates, x = (x1; : : : ; xN), and a vector of y-coordinates, y = (y1; : : : ; yN), locate the
points (xi; yi), with i = 1; 2; : : : ; n and then join them by straight lines. You need to prepare
x and y in an identical array form; namely, x and y are both row arrays or column arrays of
the same length.
The MATLAB command to plot a graph is plot(x,y). The vectors x = (1; 2; 3; 4; 5; 6)
and y = (3;¡1; 2; 4; 5; 1) produce the picture shown in Figure 2.1.
>> x = [1 2 3 4 5 6];
>> y = [3 -1 2 4 5 1];
>> plot(x,y)

Note: The plot functions has different forms depending on the input arguments. If y is a
vector plot(y)produces a piecewise linear graph of the elements of y versus the index of the
elements of y. If we specify two vectors, as mentioned above, plot(x,y) produces a graph
of y versus x.
For example, to plot the function sin (x) on the interval [0; 2¼], we first create a vector of
x values ranging from 0 to 2¼, then compute the sine of these values, and finally plot the
result:

Notes:
0:pi/100:2*pi yields a vector that
 starts at 0,
 takes steps (or increments) of ¼=100,
 stops when 2¼ is reached.
If you omit the increment, MATLAB automatically increments by
 95

PROGRAM:
clc;
clear all;
n=1:1:360;
r=n*pi/180;
figure(1);
t=sin(r);
polar(r,abs(t));
title('source pattern(broadside array)');
figure(2);
m=4;
for i=1:360;
l(i)=1/m*(sin(m*pi/2*cos(r(i)))/sin(pi*cos(r(i))/2));
end
polar(r,abs(l));
title('(array pattern(broad side array)');
x=t.*1;
figure(3);
polar(r,abs(x));
title('radiation pattern(broadside array)');
n=1:1:360;
r=n*pi/180;
figure(4);
t=cos(r);
polar(r,abs(t));
title('sourcepattern(endfire array)');
figure(5);
m=4;
for i=1:360;
l(i)=1/m*(sin(m*pi/2*sin(r(i)))/sin(pi*sin(r(i))/2));
end
polar(r,abs(l));
title('(array pattern(endfire array)');
x=t.*1;
figure(6);
polar(r,abs(x));
title('radiation pattern(endfire array)');
 96

RADIATION PATTERN OF DIPOLE ANTENNA

Ex.No.11

Date:

AIM:
To simulate Broadside array, End-Fired array of Dipole Antenna and to plot the Radiation
pattern using MATLAB7.0.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
P.C with MATLAB7.0. software

THEORY:

In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or double is the simplest and most widely
used class of antenna. It consists of two identical conductive elements such as metal wires or rods,
which are usually bilaterally symmetrical. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for
receiving antennas the output signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the antenna.
Each side of the feed line to the transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors. This
contrasts with a monopole antenna, which consists of a single rod or conductor with one side of
the feed line connected to it, and the other side connected to some type of ground. A common
example of a dipole is the "rabbit ears" television antenna found on broadcast television sets.
The most common form of dipole is two straight rods or wires oriented end to end on the same
axis, with the feed line connected to the two adjacent ends. This is the simplest type of antenna from a
theoretical point of view. Dipoles are resonant antennas, meaning that the elements serve
as resonators, with standing waves of radio current flowing back and forth between their ends. So the
length of the dipole elements is determined by the wavelength of the radio waves used. The most
common form is the half-wave dipole, in which each of the two rod elements is approximately 1/4
wavelength long, so the whole antenna is a half-wavelength long. The radiation pattern of a vertical
dipole is unidirectional it radiates equal power in all azimuthal directions perpendicular to the axis of
the antenna. For a half-wave dipole the radiation is maximum, 2.15 dB perpendicular to the antenna
axis, falling monotonically with elevation angle to zero on the axis, off the end of the antenna.
Several different variations of the dipole are also used, such as the folded dipole, short
dipole, cage dipole, bow-tie, and batwing antenna. Dipoles may be used as standalone antennas
themselves, but they are also employed as feed antennas (driven elements) in many more complex
antenna types, such as the Yagi antenna, parabolic antenna, reflective array, turnstile antenna, log
periodic antenna, and phased array.
97
 98

EXAMPLE OF DIPOLE ANTENNA

PROCEDURE:

1. Open the installed Matlab 7.0 version.

2. Open a new m-file.
3. Write the program for simulation of dipole antenna
4. Save the file as m-file(.m)
5. Run the progam using command window.
6. Plot the graphs accordingly.
 99

7.
100
 101

RESULT:

Thus, the simulation of Broadside array, End-Fired array and the Radiation pattern of Dipole Antenna
using MATLAB7.0 was executed successfully.