MODULE 1

Exploring
Mathematics in
Our World

20
 MODULE 1
The Nature of Mathematics in the Modern World

The emergence of digital technology has sparked a monumental rise in

the rate at which we consume and produce data. Before the Internet, it could
take hours to get several volumes of resources from the library for a research
paper. Today a few minutes (or seconds, depending on the speed of your
connection) using your mobile device’s browser could get you the same
information, or even more. A few decades ago, it took hours for photographs to
be printed and shared. Now, it only takes a matter of seconds for your perfect
selfie to be uploaded and viewed by your relatives and friends on the other side
of the world.

In this fast-paced society, how often have you stopped to appreciate the
beauty of things around you? Have you ever paused and pondered about the
underlying principles that govern the universe? How about contemplating about
the processes and mechanisms that make our lives easier, if not more
comfortable? Most people do the same routine task every day and the
fundamental concepts that make these activities possible are often overlooked.

As rational creatures, we tend to identify and follow patterns, whether

consciously subconsciously. Recognizing pattern feels natural, like our brain is
hardwired to recognized them. Early humans recognized the repeating interval
of day and knight, the cycle of the moon, the rising and falling tides, and the
changing of the seasons. Awareness of these patterns allowed humans to
survive. In a similar fashion, many flora and fauna also follow patterns such as
the arrangement of leaves and stems in a plant, the shape of a snowflake, the
flower’s petals or even the shape of a snail’s shell.

Do you also notice patterns around you? What other examples can you
think of?

In this chapter, we will be looking at patterns and regularities in the world,

and how mathematician comes into play, both in nature and human endeavors.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

In this module, you will learn about the nature of mathematics and its
importance and application in real life. After completing this module, you should
be able to:

1. identify patterns in nature and regularities in the world;

2. articulate importance of mathematics in one’s life;
3. argue about the nature of mathematics, what it is, how it is expressed,
represented and used; and

21
 4. express appreciation for mathematics as a human endeavor.

LEARNING CONTENT

Patterns are regular, repeated, or recurring forms or designs. We see

patterns every day from the lay out of the floor tiles, designs of skyscrapers, to
the way we tie our shoelaces. Studying patterns help students in identifying
relationships and finding logical connections to form generalizations and make
predictions.

Let’s take a look at this pattern:

What do you think will be the next face in the sequence? It should be
easy enough to note that the pattern is made up of two emoticons, one with
smiling face and one with sad face. Beginning with smiling face, the two faces
then alternate. Logically, that face should follow is:

Example:

1. What comes next?

2. What numbers comes next in 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, _____

3. What number comes next in 1, 4, 9, 16, 25, _____
Patterns indicate a sense of structure and organization that it seems only
humans are capable of producing these intricate, creative and amazing
formations.

Snowflakes and Honey Combs

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 Symmetry indicates that you can draw an imaginary line across an
object and the resulting parts are mirror images of each other. When left and
right portions of an object are exactly the same, it is called bilateral symmetry.

Types of Symmetry

Rotational Symmetry – if you rotate by several degrees, you can still

achieve the same appearance as the original position

Bilateral Symmetry – is the “mirror” effect, or when one object is

reflected across a plane to create another instance of itself.

Tigers and Hyena’s Spot

Patterns are also exhibited in the external appearance of animals. We

are familiar with how tiger looks—distinctive reddish-orange fur and dark

23
stripes. Hyenas, another4 predator from Africa, are also covered in patterns of
spots. These seemingly random designs are believed to be governed by
mathematical equations.

The Sunflower

There is a definite pattern of clockwise and counterclockwise arcs or

spiral extending outward from the center of the flower. This arrangement allows
the sunflower seeds to occupy the flower head in a way that maximizes their
access to light and necessary nutrients.

The Snails Shell

We are also familiar with spiral patterns. The most common spiral
patterns can be seen in whirlpools and in the shells of snails and other similar
mollusks. Snails are born with their shells, called protoconch, which start out as
fragile and colorless. Eventually, this original shell hardens as the snails
consume calcium. As the snails grow, the shells also expand proportionately so
that they can continue to live inside their shell. This process results in a refined
spiral structure that is even more visible when the shell is sliced.

The Fibonacci sequence

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 As we have seen in the previous section, the human mind is hardwired
to recognize pattern. In mathematics, we can generate patterns by performing
one or several mathematical operations repeatedly. Suppose we choose the
number 3 as the firs number in our pattern. We then choose to add 5 to our first
number, resulting in 8, which is our second number. Repeating this process,
we obtain 13, 18, 23, 28,… as the succeeding numbers that form our pattern.
In mathematics, we call these ordered lists of numbers a sequence.

Sequence

A sequence an ordered list of numbers, called terms, that may have

repeated values. The arrangement of these terms is set by a definite rule.

Terms of Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a
sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the
terms of the sequence. In the above sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the
second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fifth term.
The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is
the last written term. It is customary to use the subscript notation 𝒂𝒏 to
designate the nth term of a sequence. That is,

𝒂𝟏 represents the first term of a sequence.

𝒂𝟐 represents the second term of a sequence.
𝒂𝟑 represents the third term of a sequence.
⋮
𝒂𝒏 represents the nth term of a sequence.

In the sequence 2, 6, 12, 20, 30, … , 𝑛2 + 𝑛, …

𝒂𝟏 = 𝟐, 𝒂𝟐 = 𝟔, 𝒂𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐, 𝒂𝟒 = 𝟐𝟎, 𝒂𝟓 = 𝟑𝟎, and 𝒂𝒏 = 𝑛2 + 𝑛.

When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

▪ What is the next term?
▪ What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which

shows the differences between successive terms of the sequence. The
following table is a difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …

25
 Each of the numbers in row (1) of the table is the difference between the
two closest numbers just above it (upper right number minus upper left
number). The differences in row (1) are called the first differences of the
sequence. In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we use
the above difference table to predict the next number in the sequence, we
predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next term of the sequence. This prediction
might be wrong; however, the pattern shown by the first differences seems to
indicate that each successive term is 3 larger than the preceding term.

The following table is a difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, . ..

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation
it is often helpful to compute the successive differences of the first differences.
These are shown in row (2). These differences of the first differences are called
the second differences. The differences of the second differences are called
the third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a

row of differences. For instance, in the following table, the second differences
shown in blue are all the same constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues,
then a 4 would also be the next second difference, and we can extend the table
to the right as shown.

26
 Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to
produce the next first difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth
term, 65, to predict that 90 is the next term in the sequence. This process can
be repeated to predict additional terms of the sequence.

Example:
1. Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, . ..

Solution:
Construct a difference table as shown below.

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 The third differences, shown in blue in row (3), are all the same constant,
6. Extending row (3) so that it includes an additional 6 enables us to predict that
the next second difference will be 36. Adding 36 to the first difference 89 gives
us the next first difference, 125. Adding 125 to the sixth term 207 yields 332.
Using the method of extending the difference table, we predict that 332 is
the next term in the sequence.

Try!
Example: Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence.
1, 14, 51, 124, 245, 426, ..

𝒏th-Term Formula for a Sequence

In Example 1 we used a difference table to predict the next term of a

sequence. In some cases we can use patterns to predict a formula, called an
𝒏th-term formula, that generates the terms of a sequence. As an example,
consider the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛. This formula defines a sequence and
provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. For instance, if we
replace n with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, then the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛 generates
the sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the 40th term, replace each 𝑛 with
40.
𝑎40 = 3(40)2 + 40 = 4840

In Example 2 we make use of patterns to determine an nth-term

formula for a sequence given by geometric figures.

Example:
2. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures
continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure
of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?
Solution:
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles
on each of the horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal
sections. The third figure has three tiles on each horizontal section and two
tiles between the horizontal sections. The fourth figure has four tiles on each
horizontal section and three tiles between the horizontal sections.

28
 Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n
plus a group of n less one. That is,

𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛 + (𝑛 − 1)
𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 − 1

b. The number of tiles in the eighth figure of the sequence is 𝑎8 =

3(8) – 1 = 23.
c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the
equation 3𝑛 − 1 = 320.
3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321  Add 1 each side.
𝑛 = 107  Divide each side by 3.
th
The 107 figure is composed of 320 tiles.

The Fibonacci Sequence

Leonardo of Pisa, also known as Fibonacci is one of the best-known

mathematicians of medieval Europe. In 1202, after a trip that took him to several
Arab and Eastern countries, Fibonacci wrote the book Liber Abaci. In this book
Fibonacci explained why the Hindu-Arabic numeration system that he had
learned about during his travels was a more sophisticated and efficient system
than the Roman numeration system. This book also contains a problem created
by Fibonacci that concerns the birth rate of rabbits. Here is a statement of
Fibonacci’s rabbit problem.

‘At the beginning of a month, you are given a pair of newborn rabbits.
After a month the rabbits have produced no offspring; however, every month
thereafter, the pair of rabbits produces another pair of rabbits. The offspring
reproduce in exactly the same manner. If none of the rabbits dies, how many
pairs of rabbits will there be at the start of each succeeding month?’

29
 The solution of this problem is a sequence of numbers that we now call
the Fibonacci sequence. The following figure shows the numbers of pairs of
rabbits on the first day of each of the first six months. The larger rabbits
represent mature rabbits that produce another pair of rabbits each month. The
numbers in the blue region—1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8—are the first six terms of the
Fibonacci sequence.

Fibonacci discovered that the number of pairs of rabbits for any month
after the first two months can be determined by adding the numbers of pairs of
rabbits in each of the two previous months. For instance, the number of pairs
of rabbits at the start of the sixth month is 3 + 5 = 8.

A recursive definition for a sequence is one in which each successive

term of the sequence is defined by using some of the preceding terms. If we
use the mathematical notation Fn to represent the nth Fibonacci number, then
the numbers in the Fibonacci sequence are given by the following recursive
definition.

The Fibonacci Numbers

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 𝐹1 = 1, 𝐹2 = 1, and 𝐹𝑛 = 𝐹𝑛 − 1 + 𝐹𝑛 − 2 for 𝑛 > 3.

Example:
3. Find a Fibonacci number. Use the definition of Fibonacci numbers to find
the seventh and eighth Fibonacci numbers.

Solution:
The first six Fibonacci numbers are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, and 8. The seventh
Fibonacci number is the sum of the two previous Fibonacci numbers. Thus,
𝐹7 = 𝐹6 + 𝐹5 = 8 + 5 = 13
The eighth Fibonacci number is 𝐹8 = 𝐹7 + 𝐹6 = 13 + 8 = 21.

We can find any term after the second term of the Fibonacci sequence
by computing the sum of the previous two terms. However, this procedure
of adding the previous two terms can be tedious. For instance, what is the
100th term or the 1000th term of the Fibonacci sequence? To find the 100th
term, we need to know the 98th and 99th terms. To find the 1000th term, we
need to know the 998th and 999th terms. Many mathematicians tried to find
a nonrecursive nth-term formula for the Fibonacci sequence without
success, until a formula was discovered by Jacques Binet in 1843.

Example:
4. Determine Properties of Fibonacci Numbers Determine whether each of the
following statements about Fibonacci numbers is true or false. Note: The
first 10 terms of the Fibonacci sequence are 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, and
55.
a. If n is even, then 𝐹𝑛 is an odd number.
b. 2𝐹𝑛 – 𝐹𝑛 − 2 = 𝐹𝑛 + 1 for 𝑛 ≥ 3

Solution:
a. An examination of Fibonacci numbers shows that the second Fibonacci
number, 1, is odd and the fourth Fibonacci number, 3, is odd, but the sixth
Fibonacci number, 8, is even. Thus the statement “If n is even, then 𝑭𝒏
is an odd number” is false.
b. Experiment to see whether 2𝐹𝑛 – 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 for several values of n. For
instance, for 𝑛 = 7, we get
2𝐹𝑛 – 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1
2𝐹7 – 𝐹7−2 = 𝐹7+1
2𝐹7 – 𝐹5 = 𝐹8
2(13) – 5 = 21
26 – 5 = 21
21 = 21

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which is true. Evaluating 2𝐹𝑛 – 𝐹𝑛−2 for several additional values of n, 𝑛 ≥ 3,
we fi nd that in each case 2𝐹𝑛 – 𝐹𝑛−2 = 𝐹𝑛+1 . Thus, by inductive reasoning,
we conjecture 𝟐𝑭𝒏 – 𝑭𝒏−𝟐 = 𝑭𝒏+𝟏 for 𝒏 ≥ 𝟑 is a true statement. Note:
This property of Fibonacci numbers can also be established using deductive
reasoning.

Lesson 2

Mathematics and the Patterns of Life

Wouldn't it be great if you could predict the future? Well, some people
believe that predicting the future is impossible but it would be more accurate to
say that making outlandish predictions not based in logic leads to low accuracy.
However, looking at the relationship of a series of patterns over time can lead
to making accurate predictions of particular results. This is a common method
of mathematical pattern analysis and such an analysis is important for the
following reasons:

(1) Understanding mathematical patterns allows someone to identify such

patterns when they first appear. After all, you cannot gain the benefit of
patterns if you can't see them and you can only see them if you understand
them.
(2) Patterns provide a sense of order in what might otherwise appear chaotic.
When you notice that things happen in a certain pattern - even something
as mundane as a bus always stopping at a certain corner at 5pm - order
is provided.
(3) Patterns allow someone to make educated guesses. Much science is
based on making a hypothesis and hypothesis are often based on
understanding patterns. Similarly, we make many common assumptions
based on recurring patterns.
(4) Understanding patterns aid in developing mental skills. In order to
recognize patterns one need to have an understanding of critical thinking
and logic and these are clearly important skills to develop.
(5) Patterns can provide a clear understanding of mathematical relationships.
This can be seen in a very evident manner in the form of multiplication
tables. 2x2, 2x4, 2x6 are clearly examples of the relationship pattern found
in multiplication.
(6) Understanding patterns can provide the basis for understanding algebra.
This is because a major component of solving algebra problems involves
data analysis which is deeply related to the understanding of patterns.
Without being able to recognize the appearance of patterns the ability to
be proficient in algebra will be limited.

(7) Understanding patterns provide a clear basis for problem solving skills. In
a way, this is related to critical thinking but more directed towards
mathematics specifically. Patterns essentially provide a means of

32
 recognizing the broader aspects that can be shored down in order to arrive
at the specific answer to a particular problem.
(8) Knowledge of patterns is transferred into science fields where they prove
very helpful. Understanding animal patterns has been used to help
endangered species. Understanding weather patterns not only allows one
to predict the weather but also predict the common impact of weather
which can aid in devising the appropriate response in an emergency
situation.
(9) One of the lesser known aspects of patterns is the fact that they often form
the basis of music. For example, there are various patterns of notes that
provide the basis for proper harmony on a piano. If you don't believe
patterns are important when playing a piano simply walk up to the nearest
piano and start banging away randomly at the keys. You probably won't
hear any songs that you recognize!
(10) Patterns provide clear insight into the natural world. While animals and
certainly plants are far from thinking beings they do have certain habits
that exist in patterns and understanding these behavioral patterns
provides a clearer understanding of all living things.

It is safe to say that the benefits of understanding patterns open many

doors where this knowledge can be applied. Of course, that is a commonality
with all forms of learning mathematical logic: there is a deep application that
can be provided that we often do not realize when we first study the material.
With understanding patterns - and other forms of math - sometimes you really
need to stick with it for the long term, but with that practice comes skill.
Researchers have found that pattern skills can be learned relatively quickly.

SELF – ASSESSMENT
For you to practice your skills in identifying patterns, answer the following
questions:
a. What figure can be used to continue the series below?

b. Bryan generates the pattern below. What is the length of each side of
square H?

33
RECOMMENDED LEARNING MATERIALS AND RESOURCES FOR
SUPPLEMENTARY READING

1. Video Presentation: Decoding the secret patterns of nature

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lXyCRP871VI&t=8s

2. Read “Seeing Math Patterns in Nature”

file:///D:/ISU/Mathe%20in%20modern%20world/prelim/fibonaci/seeing
mathpatter nsinnature2014-141001142843-phpapp02.pdf

REFERENCES

Aufmann R. et.al 2013. Mathematical Excursion Third Edition, 2008

Brooks/Cole,Cengage Learning

Aufmann R. et.al 2018, Mathematics in the Modern World, Philippine Edition,

2018 Rex Bookstore Inc.

10 Reasons Why It is Important To Understand Mathematical Patterns? (n.d.).

Mathworksheetscenter.Com. Retrieved September 1, 2021, from
https://www.mathworksheetscenter.com/mathtips/mathpatterns.html?fb
clid=IwAR3Hjnzec9flrHhb0aYDxAperUR0hhrd8yQg9v6Dciu60VREGtI
OmuMrPo4

Microsoft Word - Written Communication Rubric.doc. (n.d.). Microsoft Word -

Written Communication Rubric.Doc. Retrieved September 2, 2021,
from
http://home.snu.edu/~hculbert/criteria.pdf?fbclid=IwAR3rBVYsMObWq
1mAWuMmez4PUJB0d11ohhFAeZ4hMHHmqHv-J8tW8GtsxN8

34
 MODULE 2
Utilizing Mathematical Language and Symbols

Mathematics is written in a symbolic language that is designed to

express mathematical thoughts. English language is a source of knowledge,
but it is not designed for doing mathematics. This module describes how
mathematical thoughts, methods, and facts are expressed in symbolism. That
is, it emphasizes how to read and write mathematics.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
After completing this module, you should be able to:
1. discuss the language, symbols, and conventions of mathematics;
2. explain the nature of mathematics as a language;
3. perform operation on mathematical expressions correctly; and
4. acknowledge that mathematics is a useful language.

LEARNING CONTENT

Characteristics of the Language of Mathematics

The language of mathematics makes it easy to express the kinds of
thoughts that mathematicians like to express. It is:
▪ Precise – able to make very fine distinctions
▪ Concise – able to say things briefly
▪ Powerful – able to express complex thoughts with relative ease.

ENGLISH: Nouns vs. Sentences

In English, nouns are used to name things we want to talk about (like
people, places and things); whereas sentences are used to state complete
thought.

A typical English sentence has at least one noun, and at least one
verb. For example, consider the sentence: Anne hates mathematics.

Anne and Mathematics = nouns

Hates = verb

MATHEMATICS: Expressions vs. Sentences

▪ The mathematical analogue of a noun will be called an expression
▪ Thus, an expression is a name given to a mathematical object of
interest. Whereas in English we need to talk about people, places, and
things, we’ll see that mathematics has much different “objects of
interest”.
▪ The mathematical analogue of a “sentence” will also be called a
sentence

35
 ▪ A Mathematical sentence, just as an English sentence, must state a
complete thought.

ENGLISH MATHEMATICS
Name Noun Expression
given to an (person, place, things) Ex: 5, 2 + 3, 1/2
object of Ex: Carol, Philippines, Book
interest
Sentence Sentence
Ex: Ex:
A complete The capital of the Philippines is 3+4=7
thought Manila. 3+4=8
The capital of the Philippines is
Quezon City.

Numbers have lots of different names. For example, the expressions

▪ 5
▪ 2+3
▪ 10 ÷ 2
▪ (6 – 2) + 1
▪ 1+1+1+1+1
All look different, but are all just different names for the same number.

Mathematical Symbols

Symbol Name Meaning/Definition Example

= Equal sign Equality 5=2+3
 Not equal sign Inequality 54
Approximately
 Approximation XY
equal
> Strict inequality Greater than 5>4
< Strict inequality Less than 4<5
Greater than or
≥ Inequality 5≥4
equal to
Less than or equal
≤ Inequality 4≤5
to
Symbol Meaning
Uppercase Designates set name
Lowercase Designates set elements
{ } Enclose elements in set
 or  Is (or is not) an element of
 Is a subset of
 Is a proper subset of

36
  is not a subset of
 Is a superset of
| or : Such that
| | The cardinality of a set

The Language of Mathematics

The Language of Mathematics was designed so we can write about:

Things like Numbers, Sets, Functions, etc
What we Do with those things (add, subtract, multiply, divide, join together,
etc)

Symbols

Mathematics uses symbols instead of words:

▪ There are the 10 digits: 0,1,2,...9

▪ There are symbols for operations: + - x /
▪ And symbols that "stand in" for values: x, y, ...
▪ And many special symbols: π = < ≤, ...

Letter Conventions

Often (but not always) letters have special uses:

Examples What they usually mean

Start of the alphabet: a, b, c, ... constants (fixed values)
From i to n: i, j, k, l, m, n positive integers (for counting)
End of the alphabet: ... x, y, z variables (unknowns)

Those are not rules, but they are often used that way.

Example: 𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃
People will assume that a and b are fixed values. And that 𝑥 is the one
that changes, which in turn makes 𝑦 change.

Nouns, Verbs, Sentences

Even though we don't use the words "noun", "verb", or "pronoun" in
Mathematics, you can imagine these similarities to English:

37
Nouns could be fixed things, such as numbers, or expressions with numbers:
15 2(3-1/2) 42

The Verb could be the equals sign "=", or an inequality like < or >

Pronouns (things like it, he, you, etc) could be variables like x or y:
5x-7 xy2 -3/x
And they could be put together into a Sentence like this:
3𝑥 + 7 = 22
(And we actually do use the word sentence in mathematics!)

Translate Phrases to Mathematical Expressions

Many words and phrases suggest mathematical operations . The

following common words and phrases indicate addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division.
Addition Subtraction Multiplication Division
▪ minus
▪ plus
▪ the difference
▪ the sum of ▪ times ▪ divided by
of
▪ increased by ▪ the product of ▪ the quotient
▪ decreased by
▪ total ▪ multiplied by of
▪ fewer than
▪ more than ▪ of ▪ per
▪ less that
▪ added to
▪ subtracted by
Verbal phrases can be translated into variable expressions. Some examples
are below.

Verbal Phrase Verbal Expressions

The sum of a number and 9. 𝑛+9
The difference of a number and 21. 𝑛 − 21
The product of 6 and a number. 6𝑛
48
The quotient of 48 and a number
𝑛
1
One third of a number. 𝑛
3

Whenever possible, select a single variable to represent an unknown

quantity. Then express related quantities in terms of the first variable selected.

Examples

38
 For each relationship, select a variable to represent one quantity and
state what that variable represents. Then express the second quantity in terms
of the variable selected.

a. The Kings scored 7 more points than the Rangers.

Let 𝒓 = number of points scored by the Rangers
Let 𝒓 + 𝟕 = number of points scored by the Kings

b. Bob and Marc share $65.

Let 𝒂 = how much Bob receives.
Let 𝟔𝟓 − 𝒂 = amount Marc receives.

SELF – ASSESSMENT

Answer the following questions:

1. Ana is 5 years less than twice as old as her brother. If 𝑎 is Ana's age and 𝑏
is her brother's age, what is the correct mathematical expression for Ana's
age? ____________.

2. The quotient of a number more than 3 and 3 less than a number when
translated to a mathematical expression is ____________.

3. The mathematical expression 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 = 𝟒𝟓 can be translated by the verbal

statement which is ____________.

4. Translate 𝟐(𝒙 − 𝟑) into verbal phrase.

5. The area of the isosceles trapezoid is one – half the product of its height
and the sum of two bases. Represent the given verbal statement into
mathematical equation.

39
Module 3: Sets and Operations on Sets
OBJECTIVES
At the end of lesson 3, the students should be able to:
• describe the membership of sets, including the empty set, using
proper notations, and decide whether given items are members
and determine the cardinality of a given set;
• define the relations between sets regarding membership, equality,
subset and proper subset using proper notation;
• perform the operations of union, intersection, complement, and
difference on sets using proper notation; and,
• draw and interpret Venn diagrams of set relations and operations
and use Venn diagrams to solve problems.
LESSON PROPER

Set theory deals with the logic involving group of objects that
most of the time have commonalities among them. A set to be studied
does not necessarily mean to be consisting of numbers only but can also
be groups of colors, country, names, etc. Set theory is very significant in
understanding all branches of mathematics. It is considered as the basis
of all the other mathematics. The study of set is important since it can
actually help us analyze a simple scenario up to a very complex picture.
The following are the different important terminologies that we
need to learn:
Set
a. a well-defined collection of distinct objects
b. Set can be denoted by a capital letter.
Examples:
1. A = {even numbers}
2. Q = {primary colors}
3. D = {0, 2, 5}
Naming of Sets
1. Listing/Roster Method – the elements are listed or named
Example
A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …}
2. Rule Method – a description or rule that describes the elements
of the set is used to name the set. “ ” is read as “such that”

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 Example
A = {x|x is a whole number.}
Element (∈)
a. the object that makes up a set
b. enclosed by braces and separated by commas
Examples:
1. Given: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
Then, 5 is an element of A which can also be written
as 5 ∈ A.
2. Given: B = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}
Then, 6 is an element of B which can also be written
as 6 ∈ B.
3. Given: C = {red, blue, yellow}
Then, blue is an element of C which can also be
written as blue ∈ C.

Universal Set (𝓤)

a. a set containing all the existing elements
b. All the sets are subset of the universal set.

Order of the Set

a. describes the number of elements inside a given set
Examples:
• Given: A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
Then, set A has an order of 6.

• Given: B = {pants, shorts, trousers}

Then, set B has an order of 3.

TYPES OF SETS
Sets are categorized into different types depending on their
property and characteristics. Listed below are some of the fundamental
types of sets:

1. Empty Set (∅ or { })
a. A set that has no element in it.
b. also called a null set

2. Finite Set

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 a. consist of countable numbers of elements
b. has a determinate number of elements
Example:
{2, 4, 6, 8, 10} has exactly 5 elements.

3. Infinite Set
a. has indeterminate number of elements
Example:
{even numbers} = {2, 4, 6, 8, …}

4. Proper Subset of a Set (⊂)

a. a set whose elements are found in a larger set
b. part of a larger set
Example:
Given: A = {odd numbers}; B = {1,3,11}
Then, B is a proper subset of A since all the elements
of B are in A. This can also be written, B ⊂ A.
5. Improper Subset of a Set (⊆)
a. A set is an improper subset of a given set if they are equal sets.
b. Null set is an improper subset of any set.
6. Disjoint Sets
a. two or more sets with no common elements
Example:
Given: A = {vowels}; B = {consonants}.
Then, A and B are disjoint sets since they do not have
common elements.
7. Joint Sets
a. two or more sets with at least one common elements
Example:
Given: A = {composite numbers}; B = {odd numbers}.
Then, A and B are joint sets since they have common
elements such as 9, 15, 21, …
8. Equivalent Sets
a. two or more sets with the same number of elements
Example:

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 Given: A = {1,2,3,4,5}; B = {6,7,8,9,10}.
Then, A and B are equivalent sets since both sets
have equal number of elements/same order.
9. Equal Sets
a. two or more sets with the same elements
Example:
Given: A = {red, blue, yellow}; B = {primary colors}.
Then, A and B are equal sets since both contain the
same elements.

Venn Diagram

A graph that employs closed

curves and especially circles to
represent logical relations between and
operations on sets and the terms of
propositions by the inclusion, exclusion,
or intersection of the curves (Merriam
Webster Dictionary).

BASIC OPERATIONS ON SETS

There are several operations that can be executed o numbers of
sets depending on the data that you need. The following are the basic
operations in sets:

1. Union of Sets (∪)

a. Union of two sets is simply the elements
resulted from combining the two sets.
b. Union is denoted by ∪ (i.e. Union of sets
A and B is written as A ∪ B.).
Example:
Given: A = {1,2,3,5,7,11}; B = {2,4,6,8,10}
Then, A ∪ B = {1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10,11}.

2. Intersection of Sets (∩)

a. Intersection of two sets is simply the
elements that are common to the two
sets.
b. Intersection is denoted by the symbol ∩
(i.e. Intersection of sets A and B is
written as A ∩ B.).

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 Example:
Given: A = {1,2,3,5,7,11}; B = {2,4,6,8,10}
Then, A ∩ B = {2}.

3. Difference of Sets
a. The difference of two sets is the elements resulted when the
elements common to the two sets are subtracted from the
minuend set.

A – B: B – A:

Example:
Given: A = {1,2,3,5,7,11}; B = {2,4,6,8,10}
Then, (1) A – B = {1,3,5,7,11}
(2) B – A = {4,6,8,10}

4. Complement ( ’ )
a. Complement of sets is the elements found in the universal set
that is not found in any of the subsets of the universal set.
b. The other way of saying this is that ∪’ = ∪ - (A ∪ B)

Example:
Given: ∪ = {numbers less than 15}
∪ = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14}
A = {odd numbers less than 15}
A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13}
B = {prime numbers less than 15}
B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13}
Then, (1) A’ = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14}
(2) B’ = {1, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14}

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Sample Exercises

1. Write the following sets in listing/roster form:

a. B = The set of all prime numbers greater than 1 but less than 29

B = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23}

b. F = The set of all factors of 36

F = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 9, 12, 18, 36}

2. Write the following in set builder form/ rule method

a. H = {January, June, July}

H = {x I x is a month that starts at letter “J”}

b. L = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}

L = {x I x is an odd number less than 11}

3. Shade the identified region using Venn Diagrams

a. B ∩ C ∩ A b. A – (B ∩ C)

4. There are 40 students in a class. 20 take Chemistry and 25 take

French. 8 students take both.

a. Find how many students take none.

b. How many are there in at least one of the classes?

Let C = Chemistry
F = French

“8 take both.” “20 take chemistry.”

C F C F
8 20 – 8 8
= 12

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 “25 take French.” Then,

C F C F
12 8 25 – 8 12 8 17
= 17

Since, “There are 40 students in a class.” Thus,

C F C F
12 8 17 12 8 17

40 – 12 – 8 – 17 3
=3

a. Find how many students take none.

Answer: 3

b. How many are there in at least one of the classes? (“at least one”
means one or more classes)

Answer: 12 + 8 + 17 = 37

Additional Questions:

c. How many students take Chemistry only?

Answer: 12

d. How many students take French only?

Answer: 17

5. 100 students were interviewed: 28 took chemistry, 32 took Biology, 40

took Physics, 9 took Chemistry and Biology, 10 took Chemistry and
Physics, 8 took Biology and Physics and 4 took all three.

a. How many students took none of the three subjects?

b. How many students took Chemistry and Biology but not Physics?

Let C = Chemistry
B = Biology

30
 P = Physics

“4 took all three.” “8 took Biology and Physics.”

C B C B

4 4
8–4
=4

P P

“10 took Chemistry and Physics.” “9 took Chemistry and Biology.”

C B C B
9–4
=5

4 4
10 – 4 4 6 4
=6

P P

“40 took Physics.” “32 took Biology.”

C B C B
5 5 32 – 5 – 4 – 4
= 19
4 4
6 4 6 4

40 – 6 – 4 – 4
= 26 26
P

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 “28 took Chemistry.” “100 students were interviewed.”

C B C B
5 5
28 – 5 – 4 – 6 19 13 19
= 13 4
4 6 4
6 4
26
26 P
100 – 13 – 5 – 19 – 6 – 4 – 4 – 26
P = 23

Thus,

C B
5
13 19

4
6 4

26

P 23

a. How many students took none of the three subjects?

Answer: 23

b. How many students took Chemistry and Biology but not Physics?

Answer: 5

Additional Questions:

c. How many students took Chemistry only?

Answer: 13

d. How many students took Physics only?

Answer: 26

e. How many students took exactly two subjects?

Answer: 5 + 6 + 4 = 15

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ASSESSMENT

A. Answer the following. Write your answers on the space provided for
you. (2 points each) (Review carefully your answers then FINALIZE
your answers in the google classroom. This is M2-L3-EA.)
1. Given the set, N = {x I x is a positive integer and is a divisor of 18},
write in listing/roster form.

2. Given the set, I = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}, write it in a set builder/rule method.

3. Using the Venn diagram at the right, illustrate the

following.
a. B ∩ C b. (B ∪ A) – C

4. If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} and C = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}, find:

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 a. A ∪ B
b. (A ∩ B) ∩ C

5. True or False.
_____a. The set of whole numbers and set of integers are disjoint sets.
_____b. The intersection of A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4} is {0, 1, 2, 3,
4, 5, 7, 9}.
_____c. Given that A = {odd numbers} and B = {even numbers}, then, B is a
subset of A.
_____d. The set of letters in an English Alphabet is an infinite set.
B. Read, analyze then solve the following problems. (Review carefully your
answers then FINALIZE your answers in the google classroom. This is M2-L3-EB.)
1. A group of twenty college students were asked whether they are using the
social networking sites. For that, eight said they use Facebook. Ten said
they use twitter. Four said they use both. (7 points)
a. Find how many are not using none?
b. Find how many are using only Facebook and only twitter?
2. At a breakfast buffet, 20 people chose coffee and 17 chose juice. Ten
people chose both coffee and juice. If each person chose at least one of
these beverages, how many people visited the buffet? (5 points)

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