COLLEGE OF URBAN DEVELOPMENT AND

ENGINEERING
Department of Urban Infrastructure and Transport Management
Urban Infrastructure Provision and Management Master’s
Program

Assessment of the Challenge of Sustainable Domestic Water Supply in

Chencha Town, Southern Nation Nationalities and Peoples Region

By
Tomas Tolomo Toga
Id: - ECSU1902663

Advisor
Dr.Belete Ejigu (PhD)

A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Urban Infrastructure and Transport

Management, Ethiopian Civil Service University, In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Award of a Master’s Degree in Urban Infrastructure
Planning and Management.

May, 2021
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
 Declarations

I am Tomas Tolomo,I.D.ECSU1902663,do here by declare that this Thesis is

my original work and that it has not been submitted partially; or in full, by any
other person for an award of a degree in any other university/institution.

Name of Participant……………….Signature…………………….

Date…………….

This Thesis has been submitted for examination with my approval as College
supervisor.

Name of Advisor……………………Signature…………………….

Date……………

i
 APPROVAL

The undersigned certify that they have read and hereby recommend to the Ethiopian Civil
Service College to accept the Thesis submitted by Tomas Tolomo, and entitle Assessment of
the Challenge of Sustainable Domestic Water Supply in Chencha Town, Southern Nation
Nationalities and Peoples Region”, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
a Master’s Degree in (program).

Name of Supervisor …………………..Signature………. Date…………………

Name of Internal Examiner …………………Signature…………. ……..

Date……………………...

Name of External Examiner …………………………Signature…………. ……

Date……………………....

Name of Head of Department………………….

Signature………………….

Date…………….

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Abstract
This study provides empirical findings on challenges of sustainable domestic water supply
systems in Chencha town. Chencha town has been experiencing multiple problems in getting
potable water supply in adequate quantity and quality. There is one borehole to supply water
for residents and due to inefficient water supply majority residents of town were using on
spot spring, hand pump and unprotected taps. As the result, still the demand is not satisfied
and a number of people do not have access to adequate amount of potable water. This was
done by analyzing the water sources for domestic purpose, key aspects of sustainability,
accessibility and reliability, the satisfaction level of the existing water supply systems and
water tariff.

To achieve these objectives, descriptive research design was utilized. A household survey
with 167 HHs, key informant interviews with 6 individuals and personal observations were
used to gather data. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze the data quantitatively
followed by the discussions obtained from interviews and observations.

The study has confirmed that Chencha town water supply service could' not cover the
demand of the town with present existing capacity. At present the coverage of water supply is
only 6% in terms of population. All areas of the town could not get equal and proportional
service. Some parts get more water supplies while the peripheral areas remain without water.
Finally, population growth, weak financial capacity, weak institutional integration among
stockholders, weak to enforce contract agreement and poor asset management discussed as
major challenges for sustainable water supply in the Chencha town.

Key words: Water source, water production, water supply, demand for water, distribution,
consumption,tarifsustainable

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Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................1
1.2 Background of the Study...................................................................................................1
1.3 Statement of the Problems................................................................................................3
1.4 Objectives of the Study.....................................................................................................5
1.4.1 General Objective........................................................................................................5
1.4.2 Specific Objectives.......................................................................................................5
1.5 Research Questions...........................................................................................................5
1.6 Significance of the Study..................................................................................................5
1.7 Scope of the Study............................................................................................................6
1.8 Description of the Study Area...........................................................................................6
1.8.1 Socioeconomic condition..............................................................................................6
1.8.2 Climate condition.........................................................................................................7
1.9 Limitation of the Study.....................................................................................................8
1.10 Operational definition of terms.........................................................................................8
2 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review................................................................................10
2.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................10
2.2 Theoretical Literature Review........................................................................................10
2.2.1 Concept of Sustainability...........................................................................................10
2.2.2 Sustainable water supply system...............................................................................12
2.2.3 Urban water Supply...................................................................................................17
2.3 Empirical Literature Review...........................................................................................20
2.3.1 Global Water Supply.................................................................................................20
2.3.2 Urban water supply in Tanzania..............................................................................20
2.3.3 Urban water supply in Nigeria..................................................................................21
2.3.4 Urban water supply status in turkey........................................................................21
2.3.5 Water Supply Status in Ethiopia..............................................................................22
2.4 Research Gap..................................................................................................................24
2.5 Conceptual Framework of the Study..............................................................................26
2.6 Conclusion......................................................................................................................27
3 CHAPTER THREE: Research Methodology....................................................................28
3.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................28
3.2 Research design...............................................................................................................28
3.3 Research approach..........................................................................................................28
3.4 Sampling design..............................................................................................................29
3.5 Sampling Technique.......................................................................................................29
3.6 Target population............................................................................................................29
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3.7 Sampling frame...............................................................................................................30
3.8 Sampling Unit.................................................................................................................30
3.9 Sample Size.....................................................................................................................30
3.10 Data source and Data Collection Methods......................................................................31
3.10.1 Primary and Secondary data sources.......................................................................31
3.10.2 Data collection methods.............................................................................................32
3.10.2.2 Interview.................................................................................................................32
3.11 Data analysis and presentation........................................................................................32
3.12 Operationalization Framework of the study....................................................................33
3.13 Ethical Consideration......................................................................................................34
3.14 Conclusion......................................................................................................................35
4 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION........................................................36
4.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................36
4.2 Response Rate.................................................................................................................36
4.3 Sex Distribution of Respondents.....................................................................................36
4.4 Age Distribution of Respondents....................................................................................37
4.5 Marital Status of the Respondents..................................................................................37
4.6 Income Source of Family................................................................................................38
4.7 Educational Background of the Respondents.................................................................38
4.8 Prioritized urban infrastructure.......................................................................................39
4.9 The Status of the Existing Water Supply Condition in the Town...................................39
4.9.1 Sources of water supply, its potential and service coverage....................................39
4.9.2 Water Service Coverage............................................................................................41
4.9.3 Water demand and supply system in the town........................................................41
4.9.4 Water Tariff...............................................................................................................44
4.9.5 Accessibility of water supply in the town.................................................................47
4.9.6 Satisfaction level of the residents in existing water supply.....................................49
4.9.7 Evaluation of sustainable water supply in the town................................................50
4.9.8 Major challenges for sustainable domestic water supply in the town....................61
5 CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS...............................................................65
5.1 Conclusions.....................................................................................................................65
5.2 Recommendations...........................................................................................................67
6 References.............................................................................................................................68
7 Annex-3: Data collection instruments................................................................................vii
7.1 Annex 3A: Questionnaire will be completed by the Households...................................vii
7.2 Annex-3b: Key informant interview with the manager of chencha town water
supply service office......................................................................................................................xii
7.3 Annex-3c: Key Informant Interview (KII) With Chencha Town Water Supply
Service Employees.......................................................................................................................xiv
7.4 Annex-3d: Key informant interview with chencha town Mayor...................................xiv

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7.5 Annex-3e: Personal Observation Checklist....................................................................xv

List of Tables

Table 1: Water Accessibility Indictors.....................................................................................19

Table 2: Sample size determination.........................................................................................31
Table 3: Operationalization Framework of the study..............................................................33
Table 4: Sex of Respondents....................................................................................................36
Table 5: Age of Respondents...................................................................................................37
Table 6: Marital Status of Respondents...................................................................................37
Table 7: Family Income source of Respondents......................................................................38
Table 8: Education Level of Respondents...............................................................................38
Table 9: Prioritized urban infrastructure..................................................................................39

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Table 10: domestic water demand as per GTP-2.....................................................................41
Table 11: Chencha town water tariff setting............................................................................44
Table 12: fairness of water tariff..............................................................................................45
Table 13: monthly water consumption and its fee...................................................................46
Table 14: Travel distance to fetch water..................................................................................48
Table 15: Time spending in queue...........................................................................................48
Table 16: community satisfaction............................................................................................49
Table 17: Required man power and current available man power in the office......................51
Table 18: is transparency about water tariff.............................................................................52
Table 19: Fairness of water distribution in the town................................................................54
Table 20: Community participation in existing water supply system......................................55
Table 21: Responsible to fetch water.......................................................................................55
Table 22: Was your water supply system failed......................................................................58

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 List of Figure

Figure 1: Location map of the study area 7

Figure 2: Relationship among Economic, Environmental and Social sustainability 12

Figure 3: The relation between sustainable water supply aspects 17

Figure 4: Conceptual framework of the study 26

Figure 5: Primary water source for domestic purpose 40

Figure 6: Annual water demand and supply in the town 43

Figure 7: Water consumption in the town 44

Figure 8: Graphs of monthly water consumption and price 45

Figure 9: Days and time of water available 47

Figure 10: Travel distance to fetch water 49

Figure 11: Community satisfaction 50

Figure 12: Institutional framework of Chencha town 51

Figure 13: Responsible to fetch water 56

Figure 14: Time taken to repair 58

Figure 15: woishe on spot spring Figure 16: hand pump at Gomata village 59

Figure 17: unprotected source around St.Gebriel church and Maremia village 60

Figure 18: Reasons for non-functionality of the system 63

Figure 19:non-functional service reservoir and public taps 64

v
 List of Acronyms

AFDB------------------------ African Development Bank

AMCOW-------------------- African Ministers’ Council on Water

ECSA ------------------------Ethiopian Central Statistics Agency

FGD--------------------------Focus Group Discussion

GTP------------------------ Growth and Transformation Plan

IMF------------------------ International Money Fund

MoWIE-------------------- Minister of Water, Irrigation and Electricity

NGOs---------------------- Non-Governmental Organizations

OWNP --------------------One WHASH National Programme

SD -------------------------Sustainable Development

SDG-----------------------Sustainable Development Goal

SNNPR------------------- Southern Nation and Nationalities Peoples Regional State

SSA----------------------- Sub-Sahara Africa

SPSS----------------------- Statistical Package for Social Studies

UN-HABITAT------------ United Nations Centre for Human Settlements

UNICEF------------------- United Nations Children's Fund

UN-------------------------- United Nations

WASH--------------------- Water, Sanitation and Hygiene

WHO ----------------------World Health Organization

WTP ----------------------Willingness to Pay

vi
CHAPTER ONE

1.1 Introduction

As water is a basic need for human life, access to clean, and safe drinking water is a basic
human right. As a criterion, an adequate, reliable, clean, acceptable and safe drinking
water supply has to be available for various users. Moreover, everyone needs access to
safe water in adequate quantities for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene and
sanitation facilities that do not compromise health or dignity. Access to water is one of
the most important catalysts given high priority by the UN for sustainable development
(Dinka, 2018).It is very much important that sound knowledge about the availability of
water sources, discharge rate, treatment facilities, supply systems, distribution systems,
demands and consumption, water tariff, water coverage and accessibility, and
institutional and financial capacity in study regarding to water supply. This attempt
identifies the root causes and the major challenges of sustainable water supply in the
town. Different researchers conduct on related issues in different town of Ethiopia and
the problems they face the towns of Ethiopia are relatively the same. Therefore, study
will required to assess the magnitude of water supply and its sustainability and to solve
the problems based on the research in the study area. In this study challenges they face
the community of the town and service providers will be addressed and also the research
will bridge the existing research gap and helps to solve the problems with research based
for brings sustainable development of urban water supply in study area and other parts of
the country. Finally, background of the issue, statement of the problems, objectives of the
study, and literatures reviews with regarding to the issue, the research gap and the
representative sample population selection techniques are included in this paper.

1.2 Background of the Study

The sustainable development of the world largely depends on the sustainable

development of water since other sectors are inter-related with water resources. It
requires the progress of the three dimensions of the sustainable development (social,
economic and environmental). A Water supply system may face a number of challenges
associated with many factors in provision of quality, efficient, reliable, resilient and
sustainable water supply for the present and future generations (Dinka et al, 2018).

Households with the lowest levels of access to safe water supply frequently pay more for
their water than do households connected to a piped water system. The high cost of water
may force households to use alternative sources of water of poorer quality that represent a
greater risk to health. It may also reduce the volume of water used by households (WHO
&UNICEF, 2015). According to UNICEF (2010), in the world 884 million people use
unimproved drinking water sources in 2010, and in 2015 estimates about 672 million
people will still using unimproved drinking water sources. The World Health
Organization also stated that 435 million people taking water from unprotected wells and
springs and 144 million people collecting untreated surface water from lakes, ponds,
rivers and streams and still 842 million people of the world has no access to clean
drinking water (WHO, 2017).

The typical mode of water supply in urban systems is designed to provide continuous
safe, clean drinking water. Today, increased urbanization and climate change are putting
a great pressure on water supply, and as a result, 1.2 billion people are receiving water
less than 24 h a day under intermittent water supply systems, which are running in
downward spiral (Aboelnga, 2019).

The water sources available to provide clean drinking water to Africa’s population are
limited. As demand for water grows, the impact on water management and the ability of
urban centers, where access is much higher than in rural areas, to provide an adequate
supply of water is tremendous. While access to improved water sources has grown in
urban areas, progress has stagnated at 85% as urban populations grow between 2000 and
2010, 84 million urban Africans gained access to improved water supply. Urban water
infrastructure lags behind population growth for several reasons: rapid urbanization and
population growth, a rising share of informal settlements, inadequate infrastructure, and
institutional weaknesses including low cost recovery, inadequate governance, and
deteriorating water sources (AMCOW, 2012).

Similar to the urban water sector in many developing countries, there are serious
constraints in meeting the challenge to provide adequate water sustainably for all urban
residents in Ethiopia. Water supply shortages and quality deteriorations are among the
problems which require greater attention and action. Various strategies are always being
developed to make water accessible to all inhabitants. However due to insufficient
structures coupled with rapid population growth and urbanization, the gap between
demand and supply of water continues to widen (Degnet, 2011).

The water supply sector in Ethiopia is one of the least developed and is mostly
characterized by inadequate management capacity to handle policy and regulatory issue
and to plan, operate, and maintain the service (MoWIE, 2015). Most Utilities are not
staffed with skilled and experienced personnel, adequate tools and equipment are not also
available to operate and maintain their system in most utilities (MoWIE, 2013).

In short while a sustainable water supply is one that ensures adequate and equal
distribution of clean water to all residents, give priority for customers’ selection of
service type, considers economic viability of various society groups and well-functioning
of the whole ecosystem, the situation of water supply in Chencha town is out of the
consideration of all these points and the sustainable supply of water have never been
achieved in the town’s history of water supply service.

Therefore, this study will investigate factors that affect the sustainability of water supply
in the study area. To this end, it will bridge the existing research gap and come up with
different planning solutions for the sustainability of the service.

1.3 Statement of the Problems

Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries are characterized by highly variable water

resources, with relatively low per capita supply on average. More ever, the SSA countries
withdraw the lowest annual volume per capita of all regions and display the lowest rate of
access to drinking water (64.5 percent), except for Oceania which is 55.2 percent (IMF,
2015).World Vision Ethiopia (2016) states that Ethiopia has plenty of water resources but
the available water is not distributed evenly across the Country and the amount varies
with seasons and years. The challenge in any situation is to maintain a year-round supply
that is adequate to meet people’s needs. To ensure that supply meets demand the source
of the water must be carefully chosen, taking into account present and future demand for
water, and the costs. The cost of water supplies is heavily influenced by the distance of
reliable water sources from towns.

Rapid urbanization in Ethiopia is leading to overcrowding, development of slums and

informal settlements. They in turn inhibit the increase in the nature of challenges that
hamper effective urban water supply and consumption systems. Growing population will
further increase the demand for water. The limited cost-effective water supply
augmentation options, lack of reliable estimates to forecast residential water demands,
water source choice decisions and several other factors; are becoming more important for
making in the water supply sector (Akkaraboyina, 2018). Challenges of urban water
supply are increasingly becoming a big problem in many cities of Ethiopia and the
situation of chencha Town of South Nation Nationalities people Region (SNNPR) is not
different from reality.

The provision of adequate clean drinking water in the study area has been through
challenging situations in the Chencha town. Chencha town water supply service office,
the legitimate body to supply water for the town, had many problems as an institution to
ensure a sustainable water supply. Budget shortage, poor institutional organization and
lack of coordination with stakeholders were some of them. Moreover, the shortage of
water supply in the town has caused various burdens on the community related to
economic and health matters. To cope up with the water supply shortage, they use
different alternative sources like unprotected and untreated ground water for various
purposes, river for washing clothes, cooking and taking shower. Women, in particular,
are the one to carry the entire burden of water problem. They carry and bring water home
to accomplish the day-to-day domestic activities, waste much of their time and energy.
The sustainability of water supply projects and the benefits they deliver are some of the
overriding concerns of the sector. Therefore, in the light of the aforementioned problems,
this paper will try to assess the challenges of sustainable water supply in the study area,
Chencha town.
 1.4 Objectives of the Study

1.4.1 General Objective

The main objective of the study is to assess the challenges of sustainable water supply in
the Chencha town.

1.4.2 Specific Objectives

1) To identify the potential and actual sources of domestic water supply and analyze its
service coverage in Chencha town.
2) To analyze the current domestic water demand and supply in the town.
3) To evaluate the level of community satisfaction on domestic water supply in the
town.
4) To evaluate the accessibility and sustainability of water supply in the town.
5) To explore the major challenges for sustainable domestic water supply in the town.

1.5 Research Questions

The study will be address the following questions
1) What are the main sources of water supply and the potential of these sources to serve
the community and also how much are served from these sources in the town?
2) In what level of community satisfaction on domestic water supply is there?
3) What is the current status of domestic water demand and supply in the town?
4) The current water supply system in the town is accessible and sustainable?
5) What are major challenges for sustainable domestic water supply in the town?
1.6 Significance of the Study

The findings of this study will provide a different perspective and baseline knowledge
about Water supply challenges in town. It will expect to increase the knowledge and up to
date information on urban water supply systems and its adverse impacts on the urban
population. It will also serve as a working document to policy makers in the water sector,
the Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), the community and environmental
advocates. The study will further serve as baseline data for any further investigation, as a
useful material for academic purposes, and as an added literature to the existing
knowledge. In general, it will also help to fill the gaps on the data which are not
adequately addressed in quantitative methods.
 1.7 Scope of the Study

The scope of this study is limited in terms of geography/space and theme. The scope of
this study is to assess the challenges of sustainable domestic water supply from the
different point of aspects such as, technical, institutional, social, financial and
environmental aspect and domestic water demand and supply, water source availability
and its potential to serve, service coverage and the satisfaction level of community in
three selected kebeles namely 01, 02 and 03 with total number of 4905 households only.
Due to the limitation of time and resource water demand and supply for commercial,
industrial, institutional, irrigation purpose and fire protection will not assessed. And also
the three selected Kebeles’ sample sized respondents are considered as representing the
whole town households so; the five Kebeles’ households are excluded from this study.

1.8 Description of the Study Area

Chencha town is found in Gamo Zone, Southern nation nationalities and people Region
Ethiopia. The town is located 37 kilometers north of ArbaMinch and 530 km to the
southwest from Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia, and 298 km from the regional
town Hawassa. Chencha town is located at between 37°34′′East and 6°15′ North and an
altitude of 2732m above sea level. According to Ethiopia central statistical Agency
population and housing census (ECSA, 2007) estimation the total population of the town
was 10, 225, and of this 5,175 were male and 5,050 were female but, According to recent
information from Chencha town finance and economic development office and
municipality (2020) revealed that the total population of the town was 36,940, and of this,
19,141 were females and 17799 were males.

1.8.1 Socioeconomic condition

The town of chencha is known for traditional clothing of shama as it includes the dorze
and other communities with traditional weaving undertakings. Chencha is temperature
climate zone with the potential and current production capacity of fruits like apple, cooks
and other fruits and vegetables, different kinds of root plants like potato, carrot, cereals,
and timber trees and also the town of chencha is tourist attracting place with the endowed
beauty of nature and the topography of the town.
1.8.2 Climate condition

The area receives bimodal rainfall that is summer is wettest season and heavier rain fall
and the belg rain at smallest than the meher rain. The area has average rainfall of 1467
mm/year and mean annual minimum and maximum temperature of 12-14°c

Figure 1: Location map of the study area

S
ource: own work Extracted from SNNPR boundary shapefile raw data by using GIS
software 2021.
 1.9 Limitation of the Study

The Limitations of this study were unavailable and well maintained documents, like
design document of existing water supply and relevant water supply studies in water
service office in the town, insufficient financial resources and shortage of time to use
large sample in the study area; And also unwillingness of kebeles administration to give
population data. Moreover, it was difficult for interview with Mayor, Head office water
service sector and employer due to limited time, did not found in office at working time,
taking more time in meeting and giving repeated appointment to interview. In order to
handle the limitations the researcher was take some compensatory measures Such as,
searching water supply related documents from Chencha zuria woreda water and mining
office and getting baseline study for water supply and sanitation by SNNPR water and
mining Berue in Chencha town; and made agreement with Mayor, Head office of water
service sector, employer and Kebeles administration.

1.10 Operational definition of terms

Unimproved water supply: Use of unprotected dug well, unprotected spring, cart with
small tank, or drum, tanker truck, surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal,
irrigation, and channel).

Sustainable water supply: means to find reliable and resilient approaches to various
human needs for water for that does neither exhaust the water sources and the local
economy nor have long term negative impact on the environment

Improved Water Supply: Provision of water in good quality or safe for health, good
quantity or the required amount of water is available for use any time throughout the
year; and collection of water need not take much of your time and effort.

Coverage: refers to the proportion of people served with the adequate levels of water
supply

Access to water supply : it is adequate amount of water which is needed to satisfy the
metabolic, hygienic and domestic requirements usually about 20 liters of safe water per
person per day and its source may be a public fountain or a stand pipe not more than 200
meters away from households.

Mode of water services: Encompasses many forms, include direct access to a water
source (underground or surface), access to alternative sources of water, typically
provided by the private sector (e.g. water Vendor), access to piped water and public taps
or standpipes

Water tariff: refers to a price assigned to water supplied by a public utility through a
piped network to its customers.

Piped water on premises: refers to piped household water connection located inside the
user’s dwelling, plot or yard.
2 CHAPTER TWO: Literature Review
2.1 Introduction

In this study literature review part provides background information on sustainable water
supply system and its challenges. This chapter deals with reviewing the works of others
on the sustainable water supply and its challenges concepts of different terms related with
topic of the study, urban water supply practices and its sustainability, theoretical
evaluation of sustainable water supply and empirical evaluation of urban water supply
and also the conceptual framework of the study discussed in this chapter.

2.2 Theoretical Literature Review

2.2.1 Concept of Sustainability

As the United Nations, the World Commission on Environment and Development (2010)
states that “Sustainability is a process of change in which the misuse of resources, the
course of projects, the direction of development and institutional development are all
synchronized and enhance both present and future potential to meet human needs and
ambitions.”

Sustainability is a concept that has arisen from the debate on sustainable development,
which became important from the 1970’s onwards. However, for many organizations in
the development sector, the United Nations document written in 1987, entitled “Our
Common Future”, is probably the most widely quoted definition. According to the report:

“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present

generations without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs.”

As noted by Emas, 2015 with the Concept of Sustainable Development: the most often
used definition of sustainable development is that proposed by the Brundtland
Commission the explanation does, however, touch on the importance of intergenerational
equity. This concept of conserving resources for future generations is one of the major
features that distinguish sustainable development policy from traditional environmental
policy, which also seeks to internalize the externalities of environmental degradation. The
overall goal of sustainable development (SD) is the long-term stability of the economy
and environment; this is only achievable through the integration and acknowledgement of
economic, environmental, and social concerns throughout the decision making process.

Economic sustainability implies a system of production that satisfies present consumption

levels without compromising future needs (Lobo, Pietriga and Appert, 2015).economic
sustainability requires the decisions that made in the most equitable and fiscally sound
way possible, while considering the other aspects of sustainability (Zhai and Chang,
2019).

Social sustainability encompasses notions of equity empowerment, accessibility,

participation, cultural identity and institutional stability Daly, 1992.In Faith’s (2006)
opinion, at the social level sustainability entails fostering the development of people,
communities and cultures to help achieve meaningful life, drawing on proper health care,
education gender equality, peace and stability across the globe.

Environmental sustainability the concept of Environmental sustainability is about the

natural Environmental and how it remains productive and resilient to support human life.
Environmental sustainability relates to ecosystem integrity and carrying capacity of
natural environmental (Brodhag and Talie, 2006).

The concept of sustainability appears poised to continue to influence future discourse

regarding development science. This, in view of Porter and Vander Linde (1995), implies
that the best choices are likely to remain those that meet the needs of society and are
environmentally and economically viable, economically and socially equitable as well as
socially and environmentally bearable. This leads to three interconnected sphere or
domain of sustainability that describe the relationship among the environmental,
economic and social aspects of sustainable development (Justice M, 2019).

According to Wanamaker (2018), the spheres constitute a set of interrelated concepts

which should form a basis of human decisions and actions in the quest for sustainable
development. Yang (2019) supports this by opining that basically proper decision on
sustainable resource management will bring about sustainable growth for sustainable
society
Figure 2: Relationship among Economic, Environmental and Social sustainability

Environmental
resource management
Environmental protection
Habitat Restotation
&preservation

Social Economic
Quality of life smart growth
education Sustainability
Long range planning
community development cost saving
equal oppurtunity
law &ethics

Source: Wanamaker (2018), modified by researcher

2.2.2 Sustainable water supply system

Bolstering water supplies and staying ahead of growing urban water demands has been,
and will continue to be, a key aspect of the sustainability of water supply systems. But
now the needs and expectations of urban residents are forcing water providers to consider
much more than simply providing sufficient volumes of safe water. For instance,
customers are demanding that water be provided at a cost that is affordable to all; that
water users be strongly encouraged to use water in the most conservative manner
possible; that the waste of water due to leaking pipes be eliminated; that carbon emissions
of the energy used to move and clean water be reduced; that the volume of water
extracted from freshwater ecosystems that imperils aquatic species be reduced; and that
water suppliers give due consideration to the likelihood of reduced water supply as the
climate changes. These concerns shape customer opinions as to whether their water
managers are performing in a sustainable manner as measured by 21st-century standards,
and these best practices also influence the attractiveness of a city to new residents and
businesses (Richter, 2018).
As Gwyneth (2011) with the objectives Rural Water System Sustainability outlined that:
“community water supply systems are engineered solutions that operated through social
cooperation. It has also been mentioned that the technical adequacy is the first and most
critical for long- term sustainability of water system.” As Prasad, Khet, Dahal and
Neupane (2018) recommended that for the sustainability of the community water supply
systems, people's participation from the beginning to the post construction phase is
necessary. Sufficient operation & maintenance fund should be allocated. Formulation and
implementation of water safety plan is mandatory. Similarly, the strong and capable
users' committee must be formed and institutional capacity building is necessary for the
stakeholders.

2.2.2.1 Indicators for Water Supply Sustainability

According to Marieke, Desta and Betelhem (2018) the sustainability indicators include
factors which are commonly used to assess the presence of conditions for sustainable
WASH service provision related to financial, institutional/managerial, environmental,
technical and social sustainability (sometimes referred to as FIETS) and also Africa
development bank (AfDB,2015) states that “Sustainability is threatened by technical,
environmental, financial, economic and institutional and regulatory risks”. But these
dimensions are interrelated and interdependent to each other.

2.2.2.1.1 Institutional aspects

Strengthening the capacity of the managing bodies of water supply schemes and
enhancing cooperation among the institutions is an underlying determinant for the
provision of a sustainable water supply service. Transparency and accountability should
be the main feature of the water service giving institutions. The lack of accountability and
transparency in some government agencies leads to higher costs, delays in
implementation, and lack of trust by community members (Elellan, 2015). Being a
critical factor in the water supply sector, institutional capacity is influenced by the
organizational framework and the quality of staff. The organizational framework should
encompass all the components of the sector from planning and design to operation and
mantainence. Another important element in institutional issues is allocation of adequate
budget to carry out the mandate, including budget lines for staff salaries, administration,
equipment, transportation and training. Unless the required technical, material and
financial capacity of the responsible institution is fulfilled, the institution may not
discharge its responsibility and the intended goal of adequate water provision on
sustainable basis might be compromised (Yitayh, 2011).

2.2.2.1.2 Environmental aspects

The environmental aspect of water services sustainability deals with the water source.
Efforts to protect source watersheds or aquifers and implement green infrastructure can
be significantly cost-effective and promote the quality and health of the surrounding
ecosystem. Watershed protection is important in providing a clean and reliable water
source. In urban areas Watershed protection also provides sufficient clean water to
sustain healthy natural ecosystems upstream and downstream. Communities can
minimize their water needs by fostering water use efficiency in homes, businesses,
industries, and outdoor irrigation, and by encouraging adoption of water conservation
practices in all sectors through education and incentives (Richter et al, 2018).Wherever
possible, ideally through watershed management plans incorporated into urban planning:
The quality of water in many schemes depends upon the protection of sources from
animal interference, anthropogenic activities upstream of the, dispersed and point source
domestic and industrial liquid and solid wastes (One Wash National Programme PhaseII
Ethiopia ,2018).

2.2.2.1.3 Technical aspects

Technical issues relating to the design and construction of a water system are the most
obvious determinants of water system sustainability. Technical capacity depends on the
availability of equipment and spare parts for operating and mantainence of the system,
people who can be trained to operate equipment, and the quality of construction of the
system. Effective O&M is a crucial component in sustainability of a water scheme. It
brings about important health benefits by sustaining accessible water supplies in adequate
quantity and quality; by reducing the time and effort spent on water collection; and by
providing income-generating activities (Elellan, 2015).according to Adugna (2019) water
losses due to Leakage are a clear obstacle to sustainability of the water supply system;
this Leakage leads to reduced coverage of the existing water demand, possibly so much
so that the system can no longer operate continuously. Intermittent supply will cause
further technical problems by air intruding into the pipes and will tempt customers to
install private storage tanks. Extensive leakage may lessen the coverage of existing water
demand so much that the system can no longer operate continuously. Intermittent supply
will cause further technical problems by air intruding into the pipes (risk of water
hammers, damage to water meters, measurement errors, etc.) and polluted water (risk of
bacterial infection spreading contagious diseases). Costly supply alternatives must be
kept available, such as water tanker trucks. Quick response to mechanical breakdown and
leaks; good design and specification are also essential to reduce non-revenue water, to
improve water quality and reduce overall costs (One Wash National Programme PhaseII
Ethiopia, 2018).

2.2.2.1.4 Financial aspects

Financial sustainability requires that available funds are used effectively and raised
equitably. In order to cover O&M costs and other important expenses of a particular
water scheme, the collected money from user communities should be managed properly
and used for the intended purposes. Cost-effective services require sound financial
management to prevent the misuse of scarce funds. Raising funds equitably is vital to
sustainable cost recovery and use of services: if poor users are priced out it deprives the
service of revenue, and deprives users of safe water. Water tariff should be affordable.
The willingness and ability to pay for water service needs to be considered before the
scheme is built and during tariff setting. Tariff setting should consider different aspects so
that the water schemes are not abandoned because the beneficiaries can’t afford it
(Elellan, 2015).As AfDB (2015) noted financial sustainability risk is generally associated
with the capability of utility companies to optimize their operating costs, improve the
revenue from the commercialization of water and to operate profitably with a margin
sufficient to finance current and future operations, maintenance activities, and minor
investments, to some extent. Solid financials in water utilities provide the basis for
sustainable future services thanks to adequate investments in infrastructure renewal,
technical innovations and ecological measures.
2.2.2.1.5 Social aspects

Social aspect requiring equitable access to safe drinking water in adequate quantity and
good quality; and ensuring protection of human health and social welfare. Many poor
urban dwellers have to pay very high water prices to informal water vendors or do
without water. Access to water for household uses is critical for a family’s health and
social dignity. Access to water for productive uses such as agriculture and family-run
businesses is vital to realize livelihood opportunities, generate income and contribute to
economic productivity. Access to safe drinking water and sanitation is a human right, yet
its limited realization throughout the world often has disproportionate impacts on women.
The fact that many women and children are carrying water as a daily chore has a number
of social and economic implications (United Nations World Water Development Report,
2015). Equitable distribution water points and pipes ought to be evenly distributed in
order to address the problem of the low income group. Moreover, reopening the closed
ones (by giving them to organized small scale enterprises) and installing additional
public water points would narrow down the gap between demand and supply taking into
consideration the number of people, density and distance between water points
(Wonduante,2013).Sustainability rate of water supply systems increases as a result of
communities’ owning and managing their schemes, existence of management
organization at the village level, protection of the water point, communities cost recovery
for operation and maintenance, and recognition of women. Currently, the principles of
communities’ involvement in water supply projects are widely accepted among NGOs.
As a result, the developed water supply systems are the property of the specific
community and not of the donor agency or the government (Elellan, 2015).
 Figure 3: The relation between sustainable water supply aspects

Institutional Social
aspect aspect

Sustainable
Technical
aspect water supply Financial
aspect

Environmental
aspect

Source: developed by researcher from the literature of sustainable water supply indicators (2021)

A weakness in one of these can lead to failure of the system and could affect the long
term Sustainability of water supply systems.

2.2.3 Urban water Supply

2.2.3.1 Sources of Domestic Water Supply

According to OWNP (2016) in urban areas, the water supply for domestic use originates
from one of the following basic sources:

A spring :-( a point where ground water emerges at the surface of the ground), from
where water can be piped to consumers. A spring may flow throughout the year or only at
times.

A well or borehole:-These may supply individual residences or a large number of houses

where the water is delivered through a network of pipes. In addition to this, institutions
such as schools, health facilities, religious establishments, small commercial enterprises
and industries may have their own water supply system from hand-dug or deep wells.
Surface water:-from rivers and lakes, which may be abstracted directly or stored in a
reservoir created by building a dam across a river. Abstraction means taking water from
the source so that can be used. Springs and wells are considered improved sources of
water if they are constructed and used in such a way that they adequately protect the
water from contamination, especially by faecal matter. Spring or well water is generally
used with minimal or no treatment. Surface water is an unimproved source and will
require some form of treatment before it is safe to use for drinking. In larger towns and
cities, surface water is treated in a water treatment plant before being distributed to
consumers.

Rainwater: Rainwater refers to rain that is collected or harvested from surfaces (by roof
or ground catchment) and stored in a container, tank or cistern until used. Rain water is
the purest water in nature but it tends to become impure as it passes through the
atmosphere. It picks up suspended impurities from the atmosphere such as dust, soot and
microorganisms and gases such as carbon dioxide, nitrogen, oxygen and ammonia.

2.2.3.2 Domestic Water Service Provision Options

UN-HABITAT (2006) cited in Chala (2011), stated that, water service provision options
are standpipes, yard and house connections.

Household connection: Household connection, is a water service pipe connected within

house plumbing to one or more taps (e.g. in the kitchen and bathroom) or tap placed in
the yard or plot outside the house.

Public tap or standpipe: Public tap or standpipe is a public water point from which
people can collect water. Many low-income households that are unable to afford a
household connection are relying on public water points.

Domestic reseller: Increasingly, households with a private connection are selling water
to their neighbors.

Intermediate service providers: this includes private providers or community based

Organizations delivering water in un served areas.
2.2.3.3 Domestic Water Accessibility

Accessibility cannot be physical availability of a service or facility. It establishes the

extent to which factors like distance, time and cost have decayed. Optimum accessibility
in the case of water means effectively over coming access indicators of distance, time and
affordability (Alaci and Alehegn, 2009).

According to (UN-HABITAT 2003), access to safe water is the share of the population
with reasonable access to an adequate amount of safe water. Safe water includes treated
surface water and untreated but uncontaminated water such as from springs sanitary wells
and boreholes. In urban areas the water source may be a public fountain or a stand pipe
not more than 200 meters away from households.

Time and distance traveled to fetch water are also key indicators of water accessibility.
To most communities of Africa, long distance travel to fetch water is common. Hence,
they spend much time and money. According to WHO (2004) standards if households
travel more than 200 meters far away from house in urban, there is no Access. Distance
travel to fetch water is also one of the indicators of water accessibility. WHO standards in
relation to time, more than 30 minutes no access 5 minutes - 30 minutes basic access and
within 5 minutes intermediate access.

Table 1: Water Accessibility Indictors

Travel distance to Average time spent to WHO standard

collect water collect water
Water supply through Water supplied through Optimal access
taps continuously multiple taps
Continuously
< 500m Intermediate
Within 5 minute access
500-1000m With 30 minutes Basic access
>1km >30 minutes No access
Source: WHO, 2008
 2.3 Empirical Literature Review

2.3.1 Global Water Supply

The proportion of the global population lacking at least drinking water has halved, from
19% in 2000 to 10% in 2017, and decreased in all SDG regions. In 2017, nine out of ten
of the 785 million people who still used limited services, unimproved sources or surface
water lived in three regions: Sub-Saharan Africa (400 million), Eastern and South-
Eastern Asia (161 million), and Central and South Asia (145 million). More than half of
the 144 million people who still collected water directly from rivers, lakes and ponds
lived in Sub-Saharan Africa (UNICEF and WHO, 2019).

2.3.2 Urban water supply in Tanzania

According to World bank urban water and sanitation in Tanzania (2017) outlet that the
most dominant source of drinking water for Tanzanians in urban areas is piped water
(26.3 %).Those who cannot get water piped to their premises may next rely on a
neighbor’s connection (23.3 %), protected well (14.3 %) or public tap or standpipe
(11.8%). A relatively small percentage relies on other sources, both improved (e.g.,
boreholes or tube wells, 5 %); and unimproved (e.g., tanker trucks or small carts, 4.9 %;
unprotected wells, 4.4 % among others).Disaggregating water access by different
population groups reveals that coverage of piped water to premises is more than three
times higher for the top 60% of the population (36.7%) than for the bottom 40% of the
population (10.8 %). About 28 % of the bottom 40% of total population instead rely on
piped services to a neighbor, and a larger share of poor households rely on public
standpipes and protected and unprotected wells. Field research has shown that those
receiving piped services, particularly in Dar es Salaam, have been plagued by poor
continuity of service leading them to rely often on multiple sources. While some in low-
income urban areas are digging wells unofficially to deal with the lack of continuous
supply, recourse is tanker trucks or carts with small tanks. Interestingly, reliability in
urban areas for piped supply seems to be even lower than that of rural areas. Although no
comprehensive water quality data have been collected across Tanzania’s urban centers,
some small studies have shown worrying results for water quality in Dar es Salaam. Even
if the water is not contaminated at the source, the reliance on storage in the household
due to poor continuity leads to increased risk of contamination. While 80 percent of those
who receive water from their own tap treat their water for drinking, this drops to 50
percent for those who receive from a public standpipe. Given that the study finds shared
tap sources to be more contaminated, this makes these customers even more at risk.

2.3.3 Urban water supply in Nigeria

According to Engr. Dr. Joachim C. (2019) conduct research with the objective of urban
water supply in Nigeria: issues and challenges finding out that With an urban population
growth rate of 5% , Nigerian urban cities are in dire need of improved and efficient water

supply system that guarantee access to potable water. Lack of accessible, reliable and
safe drinking water, together with poor sanitation and hygiene, is estimated to cost
Nigeria about $1.3 billion in access time, loss due to premature death, productive time
lost and health care costs. And also according to his finding Public water systems in most
urban cities in Nigeria have become nonfunctional. Those that are functioning are below
capacity and hardly meet increasing Demand. People now rely on: private boreholes,
buying water from water vendors (Mai Rua), Supplies from water tankers, packaged
water and using untreated Surface water.

2.3.4 Urban water supply status in turkey

In Turkey, 52.5% of drinking water is supplied from surface water resources including
dams, rivers, lakes and sea while 47.5% is abstracted from wells and springs. According
to the official Turkish water statistics of the year 2012, physical, conventional and
advanced treatment methods were applied to 55.3% of supplied water to the network
while the remaining 44.7% was supplied to the network after only disinfection process
due to good raw water quality. There is no single water related directive and no single
institution charged with developing policies for water supply in Turkey. Instead, there are
many water related directives and many institutions to apply. These directives and this
situation cause a lack of coordination and cooperation between the responsible
institutions for water. Bank of Provinces, a related establishment of the Ministry of
environment and urban planning, is responsible for financing of water supply and
sanitation projects. The Ministry of forestry and water affairs is in charge of developing,
monitoring and management of water resources while the Ministry of health is in charge
of monitoring drinking water quality. Therefore, a number of governmental entities form
the framework of the sector whereas local governments play a central role as water
service providers (Karadirek, 2017)

According to AfDB (2014) report showed that most urban water projects address similar
problems as urban populations grow and the demand for water and sanitation services
increases:(I) low water production capacity; (ii) low and unreliable supply water
security, distribution and connection to users; (iii) poor water quality (unsafe or
untreated); (iv) low levels of safe water consumption, and (v) inequitable access to
improved water supply services among urban and peri-urban areas and socio-economic
groups.

2.3.5 Water Supply Status in Ethiopia

According to second growth and transformation plan midterm review report(2018) The
main objective of the water supply development program is to provide access to safe and
sustainable supply of drinking water to the population in both the rural and urban areas of
the country. Potable water accessibility at the national level had reached 56.6 million
(rural 47 million, urban 6.6 million) at the end of 2015/16, up from 51.7 million (rural
42.8 million, urban 8.9 million) in 2014/15 – i.e., at the start of the GTP II period. In the
fiscal year 2016/17, it was planned to further increase it by constructing 42,308 rural
water facilities and 90 water schemes in urban areas. In actual fact, 21,354 rural and 106
urban potable water supply schemes were implemented during the fiscal year, enabling
an additional 5.9 million people (of whom 4.9 million rural and nearly one million urban)
to gain access to safe water supply. As a result, the number of people who had access to
safe drinking water rose by 10.4 percent to 62.5 million (rural 51.9 million and urban
10.6 million) in 2016/17, from 56.6 million in 2015/16 as indicated above.

In the same period, national water coverage also increased from 61 percent to 65.7
percent, while rural and urban coverage rose from 63.1 percent to 68.5 and from 52.5
percent to 54.7 percent, respectively. Overall, results obtained for the main performance
indicators in this sub-sector reveal excellent progress in terms of plan implementation
during the fiscal year 2016/17.

According to Asnake (2012) with the study of assessing the challenges of sustainable
water supply in Harar town describes that Frequent interruptions in production coupled
with limited capacity of reservoirs and unfair distribution of water points on one hand and
the growing need on the other hand are ever widening the already existing unbridgeable
gap between the demand for and supply of water and also he pointed out that the present
reservoirs, the rate of meter connection and the spatial distribution of public stand pipes
or water points can seldom meet the demand of the community. In addition to this his
study indicates that 87.8% of the water is not equally distributed in Harar town due to
scarcity of water, management problem, lack of maintenance, system distribution failures
and topography of the town.

According to Akkaraboyina (2018) studied with the objective assessing the challenges of
water supply and consumption systems of Tora Town, SNNPR, He found that the
average family size of the households was 4.4Nos and majority of water consumption
between 30 to 70L/day /household on average and this was compared with the National
Minimum Daily water requirements of 20Liters/Person/day was very low relative to the
amount of water required per each individual for home consumption per day. And also
Ermias, Brook and Kannan, (2016) with the objectives of assessment of Urban Water
Supply and Sanitation: The Case of Bedesa town, Demo Woyde Woreda of Wolaita
Zone, Southern Ethiopia revealed that the average per capita domestic water consumption
of the town was found to be 9.6l/c/d for the base year (2014) which only satisfies 48% of
the minimum urban water consumption value set by WHO as a basic need (20 l/c/day).

Mulatu (2017) carried out the study with objective of Evaluation of water supply and
demand: The case of Shambu town, Western Oromia, concluded in his study that the
water demands of Shambu town exceed supply by about 44% and its water supply
distribution network reaches only about 35% of the capital. More than half of its
population has less than 2 h of water service a day and has no service at.

As Mandefro and Habtamu (2017) studied on Water supply and demand scenario of Dilla
town, the survey result revealed that majority of the residents (52%) travelled more than
200 m to collect water from public tap and majority of the residents (48%) spent more
than 30 min to collect drinking water. According to Ministry of Water, Irrigation and
Energy (MoWIE ,2011),basic access of water for urban dweller is 20 L per capita per
day within 0.5 km service radius in universal access plan. And on the other hand, as per
WHO (2008), the basic access of water is 20 L per capita per day within 100 m to 1 km
and the average time spent to collect water is 5 to 30 min. More than 1 km of traveling
distant in search of water is said to be no access. Thus, majority of households did not
have basic access of water for their domestic needs. It implies that water accessibility
standards are not well exercised in the town. And also they pointed out that financial
constraint and poor management of the existing water supply are the main challenges for
the low coverage of the water supply and the households due to water shortage they incur
additional costs and face health problems like diarrhea as they are forced to use
alternative sources of water of poor quality.

Wonduante (2013) studied on assessing the Challenges of Sustainable Water Supply in

Gondar town, As his findings shown that the private pipe connection users, the one who
consumes more pays less price and vice-versa, i.e. after a certain limit of consumption,
the tariff remains the same, means that the water consumption greater than 100m 3 the
tariff per cubic meter is 5.75 ETB. This pricing approach subsidizes the high-income
level community and increases burden on the poor people, particularly public stand pipe
users because they are paying using flat rate charging system. And also the study
revealed that Households spend on average ETB 0.37 per capita per day on water and this
per capita expenditure by the households is high and clearly shows how much the service
is unaffordable. In addition to this the study revealed that 93.1% of the households are
willing to pay (WTP) for the service and willingness to pay is not problem related to
sustainability of urban water supply in the study area.

2.4 Research Gap

Different research papers have been conducted in sustainable water supply and the
challenges of sustainability in different towns of Ethiopia, for instance, the study by
Asnake, 2012; on assessing the challenges of sustainable water supply in Harar town,
Harari region in Addis Ababa University and his study conducted in big town and he did
not discussed about the issues of financial, social, environmental, technical and
institutional aspects of sustainable water supply in detail; Elellan, 2015 on Sustainability
of Water Supply Schemes in Tulu- Bolo town and surrounding villages in South West
Shewa Zone of the Oromia Regional State in Addis Ababa university and the study focus
on sustainability water supply scheme with regarding to technical, institutional, financial,
environmental and social sustainability aspects more detail ;And Ermias & Brook, 2016 ,
on Assessment of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation: The Case of Bedesa town, Damot
Woreda of Wolaita Zone, SNNPR the study focused on water production, water demand
and domestic water consumption. Although these studies have been conducted on a
variety of topics in different town, related topics have not been studied in the Chencha
town. Therefore, this situation initiates the researcher to conduct this study to assessing
challenges of sustainable domestic water supply in the study area.
 2.5 Conceptual Framework of the Study

The conceptual framework of the study encompasses all the concepts to be exploited in
this study with regarding to the domestic water supply and sustainability aspects and
presented as following diagram

Figure 4: Conceptual framework of the study

Challenges of sustainable domestic water supply

Sustainability

Environmental Social Financial Institutional Technical

Water source Skilled man

Community Cost recovery Availability
protection power
participation of equipment
Conservation Water tariff
Equal Integration Training to
of water Budget
distribution of Accountability technician
source allocation
water supply &transparency
environment Operation &
Maintenance

Domestic water supply

Water source Domestic water Supply

demand

Source types Accessibility

Potential Consumption Affordability
rate Reliability
Service coverage
Acceptability
Source: own work compilation (2021)
 2.6 Conclusion

Sustainable water supply is the result of sustainable development. For instance,

Sustainable development achieves long term stability of the economy, environment and
social through conserving the environment, increasing the production rate and keeping
social equity for current and future generation. Similarly urban water supply is to be
sustainable it requires strengthen of institutional capacity, protection of water source, fair
distribution of water for all level of society; operation and maintenance cost recovery and
affordable water tariff and availability of sufficient equipment and spare parts and
technically skilled person. Finally, to assess the sustainable water supply in the town,
determinants of sustainability and different countries water supply situations were
reviewed in this chapter.
3 CHAPTER THREE: Research Methodology

3.1 Introduction

Research Design is needed because it facilitates the smooth sailing of the various
research operations, thereby making research as efficient as possible yielding maximum
information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money (Kothari, 1990).It
constitutes the blue print for the collection of, measurements and analysis of data. Under
this chapter research design, research approach ,sampling design, sampling techniques,
target population, sampling frame, sampling unit, sample size, data source and data
collection methods; and data analysis and presentation techniques of the study.

3.2 Research design

This study used descriptive research to describe the natures of above mentioned
problems. The descriptive research helps to identify the observed facts, reality and to
answers the questions which raised in this study in order to address real fact. For
instance, descriptive research finds the facts with regarding to domestic water supply; its
accessibility and sustainability and factors that influence sustainable domestic water
supply in the town. The time dimension of the study was cross- sectional where different
data at points in time are collected to obtain the necessary information. The primary data
were collected through questionnaire, interview and site survey/observation; and the
secondary data were reviewed from different reference books, published and unpublished
documents related to the study, internet, reports documents and other relating materials.

3.3 Research approach

This study used both qualitative and quantitative research approaches. With the interests,
attitudes and efforts of different stakeholders in the qualitative aspect were dealt the
sources of domestic water supply, service coverage, community satisfaction level and
domestic water supply sustainability and its challenges in the town and quantitative
approach dealt with the quantitative information’s about the potential of the water source
and to compare the domestic water demand and amount of water is supplied in the town.
The reason for the application of these mixed research approaches is, it often create a
multi-faceted view of the research question, and potentially facilities the creation of
stronger inferences than do single research approach.

3.4 Sampling design

In this study, to select sample respondents from the total population, both probability and
non-probability sampling techniques were used. Therefore, simple random sampling was
used to identify the individual respondents out of the sample unit. Whereas non-
probability sampling was used to select key respondents or informants that are town
water service office manager, experts of water service office and Mayor of town were
selected purposively.

3.5 Sampling Technique

In this study the researcher both probability and non-probability sampling techniques
were applied. From the variety of probabilistic sampling techniques, the researcher used
simple random sampling. And also from non-probabilistic sampling techniques purposive
sampling method was used for this study. To select required number of household sample
from each kebele the researcher used purposive sampling method to identify the kebeles
from which the respondent households were selected. After selecting the kebeles the
researcher used simple random method to determine the desired sample size of household
respondents from each kebel’s for this study. On the other hand, to select key informant
interviewer purposive method was used. This is because due to their importance of
providing the required information for this study. Finally, after determining the required
sample size from the two each kebele’s the researcher was list all households then drawn
randomly to identify the respondents in this study

3.6 Target population

The target populations of this study are the total households of Chencha town, employees
of the Chencha town water service office and Mayor of town. There are 8,780 total
numbers of households in the Chencha town.
 3.7 Sampling frame

Sampling frame is the population frame from which the sample was drawn. According to
recent information obtained from the town’s municipality the town has eight kebeles out
of those five kebeles are formed recently in a year 2019 from the expansion area of the
town but, the three kebeles are the existing one namely 01,02 and 03 and number of
households in each kebele are 861, 1633 and 2411 respectively. Therefore, due to time,
resource limitation and lack of obtaining relevant information from the new formed five
kebeles taking into consideration the three kebeles (01, 02 and 03) are purposively
selected for this study and the total number of households of those kebeles are 4905
households; and the Number of households in each of the two kebeles are 861, 1633 and
2411 respectively.

3.8 Sampling Unit

The sample units of this study are households in the two selected kebeles, Mayor of the
Chencha town, Water service office Manager and Experts, in order to obtain sufficient
information on water supply system and the limitations of sustainability in the town.

3.9 Sample Size

In order to determine the total sample size for the study from the selected household’s
2
Z pq
Kothari, (2004) formula was used; the formula is: n¿
d2

Where, n= Desired sample size

Z = standard normal variable at required confidence level or Z statistic (93 %).
P= Estimated characteristics of target population.
q =1- p, non-estimated characteristics of the target population.
d = Level of statistical significance or margin of error (7%).
If there is no estimated characteristic of target population, 50% used then, P= 0.5 and
q = 1- p = 0.5. And the Z statistics value for 93% confidence level is 1.81 and the
desired accuracy at the 0.07 level of significance. Therefore, based on above
 2
Z pq
explanation the sample size is computed as follows: n ¿ 2 (Kothari, 2004), n
d
2
(1 . 81) (0 . 5)(0 .5) =167 households.
¿ ¿¿

No Selected kebeles No of households No of sample households from each kebele =(

A∗n
)
N
1 01 861 (861*167)/ 4905=29
2 02 1633 (1633*167)/ 4905=56
3 03 2411 ( 2411*167)/ 4905=82
Total 4905 167
To determine the number of households from the two Kebeles, by using the formula of
proportional allocation, that is, p* n, Hence, p = (A*n) |N Where “A” represents number
of households in the Kebeles, “n” represents sample size and “N” represents number of
household in the town.

Table 2: Sample size determination

Hence, the total sample size of this study is 167 respondents and each kebele sample
households’ are 29, 56 and 82 for 01, 02 and 03 respectively .In order to draw sample
element which is to be included in the each kebele, simple random sampling was used.

3.10 Data source and Data Collection Methods

3.10.1 Primary and Secondary data sources

Both Primary and secondary sources of data were used to gather reliable and valid
information and to minimize biasness and reduce the subjectivity of the research findings.
The main source of primary data is collected from sample households and Key Informant
Interviews with Chencha town water service office Manager and Expert; and Mayor of
town. In addition to this Personal Observation and informal discussion with users was
conducted to get direct information. On the other hand Secondary data was collected
from published and unpublished written documents such as annual reports, inventory
reports, previous relevant studies, books and websites.
3.10.2 Data collection methods

In this study survey techniques of questionnaires, interview and personal observation

were used to collect required data.

3.10.2.1 Questionnaires

To collect the necessary data from the household respondents the researcher was develop
the combination of open-ended and closed ended questionnaire based on the stated
objective of the study. In addition to this, the researcher was translated the questionnaire
in to local working language Amharic to get reliable information.

3.10.2.2 Interview

The researcher was prepared semi-structured interview for the Mayor of Chencha town,
Manager of water service office and Employer of water service office. The reason for
choosing this type of interview is to allow the possibility to be flexible and to adjust the
question to the each information. In addition, it helps to obtain additional information
which is related to the study topic.

The researcher was observed the current condition of water supply sources and settlement
pattern of the community in the town. This way of data gathering tool helps the
researcher to analyses the facts and the reality of the problems through observation.

3.11 Data analysis and presentation

To analyze the collected data a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis

methods were employed. Quantitative data which is generated from household survey are
analyzed using simple descriptive statistical tools like frequency, mean and percentages
and they are operated with Statistical Package for Social Studies (SPSS) and Micro Soft
Excel. The qualitative data such as collected from Key Informants Interview and personal
observation were also analyzed through description and narrating the situation
contextually. so that the town’s water supply situation was properly revealed. The data
analyzed were presented using tables, graphs, photos and charts.
 3.12 Operationalization Framework of the study

In order to measure and answer the research questions some of the identified concepts
and variables with method of data collection and analysis procedure are stated as follows.

Table 3: Operationalization Framework of the study

Research Objective Concepts Variables Method of Data Methods of

Collection Data
Analysis

To identify the Water source Types sources Questionnaire,

potential and actual interview, personal
Quantity or lit/s/or m3/min or
sources of domestic observation and
amount of water m3/h Descriptive
Town Water
water supply and Service area
served population Sector statistics
analyze its service
coverage Design document.

To evaluate the level The relation

of community between water Level of satisfaction Questionnaires Descriptive
satisfaction on supply and in % statistics
domestic water demand
supply

Domestic water Accessibility Interview,

To analyze the
supply to fulfill Questionnaires
current domestic Reliability Descriptive
the demand for
water demand and and personal statistics
the community
supply. observation
 The time and Interview,
To evaluate the
distance between Questionnaires,
accessibility and Time and travel
household & water and personal
sustainability of distance to fetch
source as per the observation Descriptive
water supply
standards statistics

Environmental ,finan

Determinants of cial,

sustainability social, institutional

& technical aspects

Factors that affect Environmental ,finan Interview, Descriptive

To explore the major
domestic water cial, social, Questionnaires, statistics
challenges for
supply institutional & and personal
sustainable domestic
sustainability technical factors observation
water supply

3.13 Ethical Consideration

The researcher was present letter from Ethiopia Civil Service University, college of urban
development and engineering study to the relevant party to provide information. After the
researcher was get official permit to conduct the study on the town, quantitative survey
respondents and qualitative survey informants were provided in detail explanation on the
overall objective of the study a head of time. Interview and questionnaires were
administered on free willingness of respondents. Respondents be informed that
information providers and to aware the interviewees not transferred to third party or not
used for any other purpose. Thus, their participation is based on their consent. The
researcher made all the possible efforts to keep the participants identities and responses.
 3.14 Conclusion

The third chapter of the study examined to present the components of the appropriate
methods employed in the research. To conduct this study the researcher used different
procedures to collect data from households and sectors. To collect the data from
households first the researcher was want to the selected kebeles and got number of
households and block settlement pattern of each then the prepared questionnaires was
distributed and filled with house to house visits. In addition to collect data from key
informants the researcher was prepared five questions to Mayor of town, five questions to
water service office employer and fourteen questions to Manager of water service office;
and their responses written on hand and also researcher was prepared check lists to
observe the physical condition of existing water supply system .during field observation,
the physical condition of existing water supply system was seen and photo was captured.
Finally, all qualitative and quantitative data were collected the researcher was identifying
the variables and enter in to computer software program to analyze.
4 CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction
In this section results from the households survey, personal observation and interview of
key informants were presented in the subsequent sections. The analysis begins by
characterizing the sample sized households and followed by the presentation of findings
and discussions about main sources of water supply and the potential of these sources;
current status of domestic water demand and supply; accessibility and sustainability of
current water supply system, community satisfaction on domestic water supply and major
challenges for sustainable domestic water supply in the town.

4.2 Response Rate

For this study to collect the necessary data from the household respondents the researcher
was develop the combination of open-ended and closed ended questionnaire to address
the stated objectives. The researcher prepared questionnaires for 167 sample households
and the questionnaires were filled with house to house; and not had unreturned
questionnaires. Therefore, all 167 questionnaires were filled accurately and the response
rate to this survey was 100 %.

4.3 Sex Distribution of Respondents

As the issue of water is more of the concern of women, more emphasis was given to
female member of households. Accordingly 94(56.3 %) of sample household respondents
are females, whereas 73(43.7 %) of the total sample household respondents are male
(Table 4).

Table 4: Sex of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent
Male 73 43.7 43.7 43.7

Valid Female 94 56.3 56.3 100.0

Total 167 100.0 100.0

Source:-household survey (2021)

 4.4 Age Distribution of Respondents

Out of the total of 167 respondents that have been interviewed in the survey, 67(40.1%)
are between age 18-34 (youth age group), 86(51.5 %) are adult (35-60) and 14(8.4%)
above age 60.

Table 5: Age of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Age(18-34) 67 40.1 40.1 40.1
Age(35-60) 86 51.5 51.5 91.6
Valid
Age(>60) 14 8.4 8.4 100.0
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)

4.5 Marital Status of the Respondents

About 24(14.4%) were single, 3(1.8%) respondents were divorced, 126(75.4 %)

respondents were married and 14(8.4%) were widowed.

Table 6: Marital Status of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Married 126 75.4 75.4 75.4
Unmarried 24 14.4 14.4 89.8
Valid Divorce 3 1.8 1.8 91.6
Widow 14 8.4 8.4 100.0
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)
 4.6 Income Source of Family

Table 7 shows that the majority of sample households income source was Government
Employee which counts 64(38.3%),the second income source was undefined
49(29.3%) ,trade 19(11.4%) ,daily labor worker 23(13.8%) and retired 12(7.2%) .

Table 7: Family Income source of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative

Percent
Trade 19 11.4 11.4 11.4
Government Employee 64 38.3 38.3 49.7
Retired 12 7.2 7.2 56.9
Valid
Daily Labor 23 13.8 13.8 70.7
Other 49 29.3 29.3 100.0
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)

4.7 Educational Background of the Respondents

The result shown that 40(24%) of the respondents educated grade level Grade (1-8) , 37
(22.2%) educated grade level total Grade(1-12),39(23.4%) respondents diploma
level ,30(18%) degree level and 21(12.6%) respondents are Illiterate This implies that
the majority of sample households in the town are completed primary school.

Table 8: Education Level of Respondents

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

Illiterate 21 12.6 12.6 12.6
Grade(1-8) 40 24.0 24.0 36.5
Grade(1-12) 37 22.2 22.2 58.7
Valid
Diploma 39 23.4 23.4 82.0
Degree 30 18.0 18.0 100.0
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)
 4.8 Prioritized urban infrastructure

Household survey respondents were also asked about which urban infrastructure need to
be provided primarily or to be provided prior. As the result shows, 94(56.3%) of
respondents have indicated that they desired water supply, 7(4.2%), 2(1.2%), 28(16.8%)
and 26(15.6%) of the respondents replied that they preferred health, education, road and
power supply (electricity) services are their first priority respectively. Surprisingly, no
household respondent showed interest in telephone facilities supply. This may be because
of household respondents suffering in scarcity of water supply condition in the study
area.

Table 9: Prioritized urban infrastructure

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Health center 7 4.2 4.2
Education 2 1.2 1.2
Water 94 56.3 56.3
Road 26 15.6 15.6
Electricity 28 16.8 16.8
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)

4.9 The Status of the Existing Water Supply Condition in the Town

4.9.1 Sources of water supply, its potential and service coverage

The existing water supply source of the town is from different sources including
borehole, springs, hand pump wall and unprotected sources. According to the Manager of
Chencha town water service office Ato Girma Gidago responses the Current water supply
through piped system for both domestic and nondomestic purpose is Lassie Borehole
only. Lassie Borehole was constructed by world vision Ethiopia in 1998 E.C with the
depth of 145 meter. The well head at Lassie Borehole is not equipped with the required
accessories including water meter, gate valve and pressure gauge. As a result the amount
of water produced and pressure head couldn’t be measured on site however based on
information from the water supply service office, the yield of the borehole is estimated
5.8 l/sec or 501.12m3/day. Almost all communities use other source of water such as on
spot spring namely Woishe as their primary and secondary source during dry (bega)
season and when water goes out. The constructed period of Woishe was not definitely
known but it was well maintained by Chencha town municipality in 2020 and its yield is
0.34 L/sec; and also certain community they living in 02 kebele specifically around local
name Gomata village use hand pump wall as their primary source and its yield is 0.125
L/sec and certain community they living in 01 and 03 kebeles specifically around local
name Maremiya and Gebirel Tsebel village respectively use water from unimproved
water sources and the quality of the water is in series question.

Figure 5: Primary water source for domestic purpose

Source:-household survey (2021)

From the above figure the majority 97(57.49%) of the town residents using public
fountain (woishe on spot, hand pump wall and unprotected stand tap) as their primary
water source for domestic purpose and 71(42.51%) using water from piped system. This
result shown us there is series water supply problem in the town.

4.9.2 Water Service Coverage

Coverage refers to the proportion of people served with the adequate water supply.
According to the field observation of the researcher seen that the distribution line of
the w ater s upply laid mos t of the tow n but central part of the town
including, Hospital sefer, Gebiya sefer and Around central cafe sefer were get water
from piped system.as the per of official data of Chencha water service office 2021
currently the office has 1700 number of households are domestic customers, which
counts 19.36% of total of 8780 households living in the town; more than 70% of
households using Woishe spring on spot; and the remaining 10.64% using hand pump
wall and unimproved water source. Based on the second Growth and Transformation
Plan of the water sector to serve 75 % of urban population from piped system the above
figure shown that more less people using piped system in the Chencha town still now.

4.9.3 Water demand and supply system in the town

4.9.3.1 Domestic Water Demand

The demand for water is known as domestic water demand for actual household activity.
The water requirement for drinking, washing, and cooking, bathing, cleaning and
personal hygiene is included under the category of Domestic water demand. As per the
GTP-2 water supply service level standard, it is required to provide safe water in urban
areas is listed in the following table.

Table 10: domestic water demand as per GTP-2

Category of Population size Minimum water requirement per Reliability

town/city day
1 more than 1 million 100 L/c/day Uninterrupted for
2 100,000-1 million 80 L/c/day at least 16 hours
3 50,000 -100,000 60 L/c/day per day
4 20,000-50,000 50 L/c/day
5 less than 20,000 40 L/c/day
Source:-compiled from MoWIE GTP-2 for water supply and sanitation sub-sector,
2015 by author
From the above table Chencha town is categorized under category 3 with total population
36,940 and daily water requirement standard for this town is 50 L/c/day. Therefore total
water requirement is the product of number of town population and 50 L/c/day, i.e.
36,940*50=1847000 L/c/day=1847m3/c/d or 1847m3/c/d*365=674,155 m3/c/year

4.9.3.2 Current water supply status in the town

According to the Chencha town water service office information the existing water
supply is supplied from the capacity of 100m3 service reservoir for both domestic and
non-domestic users. The 100m3 service reservoir was constructed in 1998 E.C by NGO
named World Vision Ethiopia .The reservoirs are not equipped with float valve and water
meter is not installed on the outlet pipe which made it difficult to measure the amount of
water distributed the community. The transmission main from Lassie Borehole to the
service reservoirs is 75mm GS pipe. Similarly the main distribution lines delivering water
from the reservoirs to Kebele 01 & 03 is 75mm GS pipe and to Kebele 02 is 50mm GS
pipe. The sizes of the main distribution lines emanating from the reservoirs are very small
to supply the current town residents of more than 36 thousand.

Modes of services in the town is only yard connection and totally 1700 customers are
there; and also there are 10 public Fountains constructed in different villages but they are
not functional. To determine the quantity of water which supplied to the residents for
domestic use it is better to quantify the amount of lost water, water used for non-domestic
and water for fire protection, but due to not installation of water meter at outlet of the
service reservoir, unavailability of design document for existing water supply and water
service office has no recent data on the amount of water produced, it is difficult to
measure the quantity of water supplied for domestic purpose. To determine the amount of
water supplied for domestic purpose, the researcher used the town water service office
water sold data; according the information gained from office the total water sold in 2020
40,632m3 per year for the 1700 customers.
Figure 6: Annual water demand and supply in the town

6%

Annual water demand m3/year

Anuual water supplied for

domestic purpose m3/year

94%

Source:-household survey (2021)

4.9.3.3 Water Consumption

With GTP–II, the per-capita water demand for Chencha town, whose total population is
20,000-50,000, is estimated to be 50lt/day. Based on this minimum per-capita water
consumption standard per person per day, the minimum amount of water required to feed
the town water users per annum is 1,847m 3/day. Average water consumption per day for
sample households they used water from piped system is 27.96 L/day/HHs but, average
family size computed from sample survey was 4.92 implying that the household average
daily water needed for domestic consumption equals to 4.92*50lt is 246 L/d/HHs which
is by far greater than their current consumption. Hence, this finding confirms the
existence of serious modern water supply shortage in the town and Current water
consumption of the sample household also confirms that the water sold by the town water
service is far less than their actual need.
Figure 7: Water consumption in the town

comparasion between current and needed water consumption per

householid

28
curren average water
consumption L/d/HHs
As per GTP-2 water
246 consumption L/d/HHs

Source:-household survey (2021)

4.9.4 Water Tariff

Tariff is the price paid by customers for water. Tariff is calculated in such way that the
income from sales is sufficient to pay for all expenses including some additional saving
for further expansion and investment. According to Chencha water service office
information the tariff was setting with the guideline of Minister of water and Energy
(MoWE, 2013); and by sharing experience from related town water tariff like Mirab
abaya town.

Table 11: Chencha town water tariff setting

Domestic Non-domestic
No Volume of water in (m3) Price in Birr Volume of water in (m3) Price in Birr
1 1-5 5 1-5 8
2 6-10 8 6-10 10
3 11-25 10 11-25 11
4 26 above 11 26 above 12
Source:-Chencha town water service office, 2020
4.9.4.1 Fairness of water price for household water consumption

Water tariffs must be easy to administer for the water utility, and understandable and
equitable for the consumers, with each type of consumer paying their fair share. From the
survey results, out of 71 households they using water from piped system 28(39.4%)
responded the price for water consumption is fair but the majority 43(60.6%) responded
the price is not fair (Table 12).

Table 12: fairness of water tariff

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Yes, it is fair 28 39.4 39.4
Valid No, it is not fair 43 60.6 60.6
Total 71 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)
Figure 8: Graphs of monthly water consumption and price

Source:-household survey (2021)

As the above figure shown, the price for water consumption is various between the
minimum consumption and maximum price; and also maximum consumption and
minimum price. For instance, for the monthly water consumption per household
0.9m3/month the average price for this consumption is 180 ETB/month; and for the
monthly water consumption 2.4 m3/month the average price is 35 ETB/month; and also
for the same water consumption the price is differ. To indicate this, for consumption 0.6
m3/month the consumers paid nearly 20ETB, 26 ETB, 25 ETB, 50 ETB and 60 ETB.
Regarding to compare the tariff set by the town water service office to current paid price,
as per town water service office tariff, the maximum price for water consumption 26 m 3
and above is 11 ETB. However, accordingly the survey revealed that there was no 26 m 3
of water consumed per month per households in the town; and also the consumer paid 3 th
up to 35th percentage very high exceeded price for their water consumption.so the tariff
set by town water service office and the price paid by customers was mismatched.

Table 13: monthly water consumption and its fee

No Monthly water Paid Limited price Difference in

consumption (M3) price(ETB) according to Difference Percentage (%)
CTWSS(ETB)
1 0.09 30 5 25 500
2 0.15 30 5 25 500
3 0.18 26 5 21 420
4 0.3 40 5 35 700
5 0.45 35 5 30 500
6 0.6 55 5 50 1000
7 0.75 24 5 19 380
8 0.87 20 5 15 300
9 0.9 180 5 175 3500
10 1.05 20 5 15 300
11 1.2 63 5 58 1160
12 1.5 64 5 59 1180
13 1.8 85 5 80 1600
14 2.4 35 5 30 500
Source:-own work compilation (2021)

4.9.5 Accessibility of water supply in the town

4.9.5.1 Duration of Water Availability in piped system

It is a known fact that the period water is available to the customers in a day is an
indicator of reliability of the water supply system which in turn has a significant bearing
on consumer attitudes. The respondents were asked about water availability in week out
of 71 users of water supply from piped system 16(22.5%), 21(29.6%), 2(2.8%), 3(4.2%)
responded that water is available one day, two days, three days and four days in week
respectively and majority 29 (40.8%) response that water is not available in a week. This
result shown that the majority of the households did not have get water from the system
within a week; and also the respondents were asked about duration of water when it
comes one in a day 13(18.3%), 13(18.3%), 2(2.8%) responded that water is durable for 8
hours, 16 hours, 24 hours respectively; and 43 (60.6%) response that water is durable
below 8 hours in the system. From the above results we conclude that this more
frequency of water interruption forced the residents to use unprotected hand dug wall
and spending more time to fetch water from public fountain, as well as was increase the
users of public fountain (on spot spring) in the town.

Figure 9: Days and time of water available

 Source:-household survey (2021)

According to second growth and transformation plan recommended that, urban residents
have get water from the system for 16 hours in a day with out interrupted. However, from
the above results the majority of residents (78.87%) were getting water below 16 hours
and while (21.2%) getting water for 16 hours and above from piped system in the
Chencha town.
4.9.5.2 Travel distance and time taken to collect water

Travel distance and time spent in collecting water is very important in determining the
physical dimension of water accessibility. The primary objective of water supply
programs is to develop water sources closer to the point of use so that the time and
energy spent on water collection is reduce.

Table 14: Travel distance to fetch water

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

<500 meters 33 34.4 34.4
501-1000 meters 42 43.8 43.8
Valid
>1000 meters 21 21.9 21.9
Total 96 100.0 100.0
Source:-survey result (2021)
On the issue of distance travelled to collect water for domestic propose, out of 96
households respondents they using public fountain as their primary water source
33( 34.4% ) said that the distance to their source of water is less than 500m,42( 43.8% )
said that it is between 501 and1000 m and 21(21.9%) said it is above1000 m. Regarding
time spent to fetch water 4(4.2%) responded time to wait in line less than 20
minutes ,6(6.3%) waiting time is 21-30 minutes ,14(14.6%) said 31-60 minutes and
72(75%) responded that the time to wait in line to fetch water from public fountain is
more than 60 minutes.

Table 15: Time spending in queue

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

<20 minutes 4 4.2 4.2
21-30 minutes 6 6.3 6.3
Valid 31-60 minutes 14 14.6 14.6
>60 minutes 72 75.0 75.0
Total 96 100.0 100.0
Source:-survey result (2021)
According to WHO (2008), the minimum quantity of domestic water required in urban
areas is taken as 20 l/c/day within the radius of 1 km and 30 minutes have access to safe
drinking water. But, in the study area, even if majority have travelled bellow 1 Km to
fetch water, taking in to consideration of spending time in queue,55-90 % of the
residents, they using public fountain have not access to safe drinking water in the town.

Figure 10: Travel distance to fetch water

Travel distance (m) from house to public fountain

Frequency of respondents percentage
48.8
42
33 34.4

21 21.9

<500m
501-1000m
>1000m

Source:-survey result (2021)

4.9.6 Satisfaction level of the residents in existing water supply

The sample households were asked how satisfied they were with the current water
supply. Consequently, 122(73.1%) of the respondents said the existing water supply is
not satisfactory at all i.e. the water supply doesn’t meet their daily demand. About
36(21.6 %) of the respondents said the water supply is fairly satisfactory (enough), only
9(5.4%) of the respondents were satisfied with the existing water supply.

Table 16: community satisfaction

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Very satisfied 9 5.4 5.4
Enough 36 21.6 21.6
Valid
Not satisfied 122 73.1 73.1
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)
Figure 11: Community satisfaction

Source:-household survey (2021)

4.9.7 Evaluation of sustainable water supply in the town

4.9.7.1 Institutional framework and Organizational capacity

An institutional set-up with legal and regulatory framework and educated staff, good
working place is necessary to effectively manage a water supply system. Organizational
framework of Chencha water supply service office was structured according to Southern
nation, nationalities and people regional state, water and irrigation development Bureau.
As the regional water buero Chencha town water service office is categorized under
category four.
 Figure 12: Institutional framework of Chencha town
City/Woreda/Zone Council

Town Water Board

WSSS Manager

Audit Service Marketing &Customers

Service

Drinking water Finance, Property Human

Supply management Management Resource
department &Procurement department
department Resources

Source:-Chencha town water service office (202

Table 17: Required man power and current available man power in the office

No Education qualification Required no Available no Difference

1 Degree and above 13 5 8
2 Diploma 19 0 19
3 Grade 10 and Certificate
th
7 4 3
4 Under grade 10th 5 0 5
5 Total 44 9 35
Source:-developed by researcher from CTWSS office human resource document (2021)
From the table, the available number of employer in the office is few compered to
required number of employer; and currently office fulfilled only 20.45% of 44 total
number of employer; and when considering the manpower requirement set by the
regional water and irrigation development Bureau, the town’s office falls short in few
numbers of employer and educational qualifications.

Transparency and accountability is another main feature of the water service office. As
the respondents asked about transparency of water tariff setting and consumption price
out of 71 piped system users 42(59.2%) answered that there is no transparency about
water tariff and 29(40.8%) said there is transparency about the tariff; and also the
suggestion and comments collected from the respondents conform that there is no
transparency about water distribution shifting time, in such way sometimes water
distributed at night when sleeping and might cause water loose at home. The lack of
accountability and transparency in government agencies leads to higher costs,
extravagance of resource and lack of trust by community Table.

Table 18: is transparency about water tariff

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Yes 29 40.8 40.8
Source:-survey (2021)
Valid No 42 59.2 59.2
4.9.7.2 Financial issues
Total 71 100.0 100.0
Management of water schemes cannot be successful if financial resources are not
available and managed efficiently. Finance is needed for the construction, operation,
maintenance, and management of a water supply scheme. According to the head of
Chencha town water service office, the office gets income from two sources; tariff
collection and fees from new customers. The Tariff is collected from the users of
household connections and public tap users were not paid for the water. As employer of
Chencha town water service office respose, due to low production of water and from few
customers Lack of willingness to pay, the income from the sale of water is very low. The
annual plan to collect revenue from tariff collection and fees from new customers in
2021/2012 EFY is 550,000 ETB and CTWSSO 2020 report shown that the collected
revenue in 2020 is 388,000.66 ETB ,which means the office has 70.55% of performance
in collecting revenue from water sale and new customers .

Allocation of budget to carry out the mandate, including budget lines for staff salaries,
administration, equipment, transportation and training is very important in water provider
sector. The information gained from key informant Chencha town Mayor, he said that
there is no budget allocated to existing water supply for operation and maintenance,
instead of to construct new water supply system the town administration allocate 126
million ETB, which gained from world bank by loan; and also according to manager of
town water service office information, the sector’s expenditure covered from the collected
revenue only and not have any subsidized from government and non-government bodies
to increase the financial capacity of the office. As the manager information, currently the
office faced the following problems due to lack of financial capacity;

Not have sufficient money to pay salary, even if the customers not bought the bill
and paid user fee in properly; the employer have not got the monthly salary to two
to three months, as the result the employer were not happy in working in the
office.
The office unable to pay to power consumption periodically, as the result power
sector cutoff the power line and these causes more water interruption in the town.
Because of the office has deficit of finance, the sector cannot fulfilled the required
equipment and spare parts as well as technically skilled manpower, this leads the
operation and mantainence tasks have been ineffective. All the above evaluation
indicates that currently, the Chencha town water service office was financially
weak sector.

4.9.7.3 Social issues

Social aspect requiring equitable access to safe drinking water in adequate quantity and
good quality; Equitable distribution of water supply for all residents, increasing the
involvement of community and minimizing burden from women and children to fetch
water from public fountain are the important factors to sustain urban water supply from
the perspective of social aspects. In relation with the distribution of water to the town the
respondents were asked whether they believe that there is equal distribution of water or
not, most of them 150(89.9%) answered that there is no equal distribution of water
among the different parts of the town and 17 (10.2 %) of the respondents answered as
there is equal distribution of water in the town. In addition to this, the respondents
informed that some households they got water from piped system daily in corruption and
for those corrupted one water is distributed at night time when the majority of the
community were sleeping; and also they informed that, the residents they living around
main road, the rich households and the government cabinet bodies were got water
frequently from the system. However, the poorest one they living in house provided by
government and majority residents they spread water line with in their yard were got
water once or twice in month from the system and the researcher was conform this
information during household survey. The reasons for unfairness of water distribution,
the manager Ato Girma Gidago said that, topography of the town made it difficult to
distribute equally; and also in water distribution lines not valves were installed at junction
properly, this leads when we open the one part distribution line, the one got water
immediately and the other is not; this implies that, there is design and installation
problems of the existing water supply system in the town.

Table 19: Fairness of water distribution in the town

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Fair 17 10.2 10.2
Not 150 89.8 89.8
Valid
fair
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)
4.9.7.3.1 Community participation

Individuals and communities, the private sector and NGOs have very important roles to
play in the implementation of Water Supply Service activities and in achievement of
water supply schemes. The communities should be involved because as consumers of the
service they have an obligation to pay for it or to make some other contribution that will
ensure that the service is provided for them.

With regard to participation of the community in the water supply development the
findings revealed that 75(44.9%) of the sample households had participated in one way or
another and 92(55.1%) respondents not participated in existing water supply system. Out
of the participants they said that, we participated in development of new water supply
project by supporting 200 ETB and while participants said that, we participated by
supporting money in maintenance when our distribution line was failed. However,
according to town water service manager response, the sector was not set any procedures
to participate the community in the water development system; instead the sector was met
with the community if necessary.
Table 20: Community participation in existing water supply system

Frequenc Percent Valid Percent

y
Yes 75 44.9 44.9
Valid Not 92 55.1 55.1
Total 167 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)

Women in the study area have so in any responsibilities inside and outside. They spend
their time for various productive purposes. Nevertheless, the absence of piped water
supply added great burden by taking their time through fetching and absenteeism from
school. Because they always bear the burden of fetching water, they miss out
opportunities for productive activities or leisure time.

Table 21: Responsible to fetch water

Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Adult women 18 18.8 18.8
Adult men 13 13.5 13.5
Child under age 15 22 22.9 22.9
Valid
Mother 20 20.8 20.8
Father 23 24.0 24.0
Total 96 100.0 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)
Figure 13: Responsible to fetch water

Source:-household survey (2021)

As figure displays Mother, adult women and child under age 15 were collect water in
the majority of households. Among the 96 public fountain users, 20(20.8%) of them
reported that mother, 18(18.8%) adult women and 22 (22.9%) under age 15 always take
the responsibility to fetch water for the family. 13(13.5%) and 23(24%) of the
respondents replied that adult man and father fetch water for the family respectively.

Solely, 60(62.5%) of women of all ages and children fetch water in the sample
households. This indicates that the responsibility to fetch water mainly lies upon women
and children in the study area.as result, adult women and children were spent their time in
queue to fetch water instead of studying and other productive working, and also leads to
burden on children carrying water above their capacity.

4.9.7.4 Technical aspects

4.9.7.4.1 Technical skills and availability of spare parts in the office

The technical specifications of water supply schemes should take into account the local
capacity to supply equipment for construction and to provide spare parts in the future.
Technicians need proper training and skills to maintain a water supply system for the
scheme to operate properly and sustainably. According to the head of the town water
service office, the office did not provided training to technicians to repair water supply
schemes and also from key informant interview with Chencha town water service office
technician, the researcher obtained information there was no any training provided by
office and other parts. Now, the technicians install and repair the system through
knowledge gained from collage and long years’ experience. In Chencha town, excavation
works to install or repair pipe lines are done by daily laborers who are hired by the
community and guided by town water service office technician; and the installations are
then carried out by the technicians. Regarding to availability of spare parts, the manager
of office and technician were answered that, the office has not sufficient spare parts and
equipment to repair the failed system, even the available equipment and spare parts were
aged. Currently, the office borrows unavailable equipment and spare parts from Chencha
woreda water and mining office when they are needed.

4.9.7.4.2 Time taken for repairs

Some users in Chencha town mentioned that some pipe lines tend to break when the
municipality constructs drainage ditch and road. The manager of CTWSSO also noted
that they experience breakage of water pipe lines frequently, Breakages of water pipe
lines occur due to the old age of the original pipe lines. Before to conduct the time taken
for repairs, the researcher asked the households about whether their system was failed or
not. Among the total households 85(50.9%) replied that their system was failed and
82(49.1%) answered their system was not failed (Table).consequently, out of 85
respondents, for which their system was failed 33(38.8%) responded that, the system was
immediately maintained or repaired and the rest 52(61.2%) responded that, the system
was not repaired immediately, most of the piped system users said that, because of the
town water service office did not repair our system as we requested, we pay money for
the informal technician to repair the system and this results exposed us to expense high
cost during the system was failed. Regarding to time taken for repair, the manager and
technicians of Chencha water service office were asked and they answered for this,
“except the main pipe lines, water pipe lines in the customers yard is the responsibility of
the customers to repair. Therefore, the time taken to fix these pipe lines is also depending
on the time taken by users to purchase spare parts and date of request to repair”.
Table 22: Was your water supply system failed

Frequency Percent Valid

Percent
yes 85 50.9
Valid no 82 49.1
Total 167 100.0
Source:-household survey (2021)

Figure 14: Time taken to repair

Source:-household survey (2021)

4.9.7.5 Environmental issues

This section deals with the water source protection and conservation of water sources.
The availability and quality of the water resources linked to characteristics that affect the
supply and its sustainability is discussed henceforth. Watershed protection is important in
providing a clean and reliable water source and in urban areas Watershed protection also
provides sufficient clean water to sustain healthy natural ecosystems upstream and
downstream. From the field observation, the researcher conducted that, some water
sources are protected by traditional fence which made from bamboo (local name
Kerkaha); some protected by spring capping structure which constructed from concrete
slab and masonry ;and while not protected well.

Figure 15: woishe on spot spring Figure 16: hand pump at Gomata village

Source:-field observation (2021)

As the public fountain users noted that, both sources seen in the above photo reduce the
water production (yield) in dry season, but not polluted by contaminants throughout the
year, and also no any action taken to keep up the safe yield of the sources. Due to the
reduction of spring yield in dry season the users spent more waiting time to fetch water
compare to that summery season. Therefore, it requires conservation of water sources
environment through planting different locally produced trees
Figure 17: unprotected source around St.Gebriel church and Maremia village

Source:-field observation (2021)

As the users of those sources mentioned that, both sources reduce the water production
(yield) in dry season as well as polluted by contaminants in summery and sometimes in
dry season; and also they inform that, the sources produce worms sometimes and our
healthy affected by water born disease. And also they, requested to the town water
service office to provide improved water supply and to mitigate this hazardous, however
still now, the office could not give proper solution for those problems. So in the Chencha
town, because of unfulfilled of the minimum required drinking water standards with
regarding to quantity and quality, the sustainability of water supply schemes would be
questioned. Therefore, it requires more attention to conserve and protect the water
sources environment through different conservation and protection mechanisms.
4.9.8 Major challenges for sustainable domestic water supply in the town

Population growth: The steady growth of the town's population due to natural increase
and migration from different rural areas coupled with the expansion of the town imposed
higher burden upon the water utility office of Chencha town, WSS and it becomes
difficult to accommodate the ever growing population. The problem is exacerbated by the
failure to design optimum use of water for the town due to underestimation of population
growth based on national population growth rate. Since, in 2006 the construction of
existing water supply system, the recommended national population growth rate for
population projection set by MoWR (2006) was 4.06%. However, according to key
informant Mr.Getachew Tsegaye (Mayor) responded that, now day the population of the
town increased by 5-6% from the construction period of the existing water supply system.
From the above figure currently, Chencha town population increased by 1-2%
additionally from which 4.06% set by MoWR, this leads under estimation of population
and their per capita water demand for the town.

Lack of Financial Capacity:-Financial Capacity is the critical issue for sustain urban
water supply system and Chencha town water service office was faced by lack of
financially to provision sustainable water supply for the town residents. This constraint is
also the most limiting factor in the fulfillment of required manpower, adequate equipment
facilities and chemicals, sufficient place to work for workers; and also to allocate
sufficient budget for operation and mantainence of the system and desired service
provision. According to town water service manager Mr.Girma Gidago noted, now the
office financially administrated itself; and has not any subside from Federal and Regional
government and even from town administration to support the office by finance. The
office expenditure like, monthly salary for employer, power consumption, pension,
planted and unplanted stationary all covered from the income source user tariff and new
customer service; beside this, the Mayor Mr. Getachew Tsegaye conforms the manager
idea, he said that now the town administration did not allocate budget to the town water
service office instead of the administration give more attention to develop new water
supply project in the town, because the existing water supply system aged and already
goes to failure.

Weak institutional coordination:-Sectorial integration is very important aspects in

sustainable water supply system. But major stakeholders in Chencha town water supply
activities, have no strong coordinated linkages among the municipality, power sector and
road sector. According to Mr.Girma Gidago (Manager) information, due to weak
integration of municipality and office, most of the pipe lines breaking down during the
construction of drainage ditch and road; also sometimes municipality shifts pipe lines
without permission and paying compensation for water infrastructure asset, this issues
made complicate between two sectors; and also regarding integration with the power
sector, power sector not announce the time of power interruption and sometimes the
sector request high payment for power consumption, this causes unexpected water supply
interruption and ineffective service provision. Generally, enriched idea raised from both
Mayor and Manager, there is no any common working plan to integrate stockholder
sectors with town water service office instead, informal discussion made if it necessary.

Weak to enforce a contract agreement:-Government bodies have not only empowered

to initiate projects, but have mandatory to monitoring, evaluation of the progresses and
implement the initiated projects. However, in Chencha town new water supply project
was initiated in 2019 by southern water work enterprise and not going properly as the
construction schedule.
 According to Mr. Getachew Tsegaye (Mayor) informed that, the town water supply
project was initiated in 2019 with 126 million ETB and after completion of 27% of the
project, the contractor took over payment and left without completing the signed contract
period; and also he said that, As I have current information from SNNPR water and
irrigation development Bureau, now the previous contract terminated and signed new
agreement with another contract to ongoing the water supply project in the Chencha
town.

As the result of contract termination and signed new contract agreement process, due to
the process took long period the town water supply project was delayed for more than a
year and this situation has created angry and resentment in the community.

Poor Asset management:-A good overview of assets and their state is crucial for
sustainable water service provision. This facilitates planning of timely repairs and
rehabilitation of scheme components and is especially important for more complexes
urban and town schemes. As the researchers try to assess the reasons for non-
functionality of the public fountains, first ask the households about the availability of
non-functional system, out total respondents 53(31.7%) answered there is non-functional
system for years and 114 (68.3%) responded that not have; consequently, the reasons for
non-functionality of the system 16(32.2%) replied Due to not maintained,19 (35.8%)
replied that Due to less flow of water and 18(34%) said did not know the reason (Figure
18)

Figure 18: Reasons for non-functionality of the system

 35.8
30.2 34
40
30
16 19
20
18
10
0
Deu to not
maintained Deu to less
flow of water I didi not
know the
reason
Frequency of respondent Percentage

Source:-household survey (2021)

From the above result we understand that, if some systems have been maintained certain
community access water from those system. During the field observation, most public
taps are non-functional. However, government or other organizations were invest to
construct those water supply system; due to weak handover, poor planning, poor giving
attention and weak management, all non-functional system are considered as wa

Figure 19:non-functional service reservoir and public taps

Source:-field observation (2021)

5 CONCLUSIONS and RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Conclusions

The residents using water from piped system and public fountains for their domestic
purposes as primary sources and from those the majority 57.5 % using on spot spring,
hand pump well and unprotected taps. Current the town water service office, supply
water for residents from one borehole with 100m3 service reservoirs and the office has
1700 domestic user customers, they using water from piped system. According to this
study revealed that, there are 19.36% only using water from piped system and this result
shows unfitted to that second growth and transformation plan to achieve 75% of urban
residents to have use water from piped system.

The current water demand of the town was found to be 1847m 3/c/day and only 22.8
m3/c/day water supplied. This implies that only 6% of domestic per capita water demand
was met in the Chencha town. And also the finding revealed that the average per capita
domestic water consumption of the town was found to be 5.7 l/c/d for the residents.

With regarding to water supply accessibility finding results shown that, 78.89 % of the
water using from piped system were get water for below 16 hours in a day from the
system and this indicates there is more interruption in the town and also unreliability of
water supply in the town; in other 55-90% of public fountain users were travel more than
1km to fetch water and spending more than 30 minutes in queue, this also indicates,
majority of public fountain users were not have basic water access according to WHO
guideline in the town. Finally, water supply situation in the town was not accessible and
reliable, due to this 73.05% of respondents were not satisfied with in existing domestic
water supply system in the town.

The services rendered by the water supply schemes in the study area are not sustainable
due to technical problems of not training provided for technician, unavailability of
equipment and spare parts and longtime taken to maintain the failed system; due to
financial problems of not have sufficient budget and low yearly income from users fee
and new customers service; due to social problems of unequal water distribution, more
burden on women and children under age 15 and low community participation; due to
institutional problems of few number of employer and lack of transparency; and due to
environmental problem of poor water source conservation. These determinants are
affecting the availability, reliability and sustainability of the water supply. Therefore, it is
essential that a holistic approach be taken which addresses all sustainability factors and
the relationships between them to sustain water supply services and finally, unexpected
1-2% additionally population growth, have weak financial capacity of the town water
service sector, weak institutional integration among stockholders, weak to enforce the
contract agreement and poor asset management were conducted as challenges for
sustainable water supply in the Chencha town.

5.2 Recommendations

Improving the existing water supply service in the town in terms of quantity, reliability
and sustainability means that, upgrading the socio economic welfare of the people in the
Town. Thus, the following measures need to be taken to reverse the existing problems:

Conduct detail study: conduct detail study on both underground and surface water to
create a potential source of water supply if financial and environmental conditions allow.
Policy and planning on the development of adequate, reliable, fair, sustainable and
effective water supply should be established based on a better understanding of what
impediments are there in water supply management and what improvement in water
supply service people need;

Taking as opportunity, the willingness of the Community to participate to improve

the existing water supply: involving the community in decision making and supporting
the project by resource; and allow community based organizations and private sector
involvement in different components of water supply service such as provision of pipes,
meters, equipment and machines is very important to development of the water supply
system. In Chencha town, the researcher assessed the willingness of the community, as
their response shows all respondents have willing to participate to improve the existing
water supply. So, this is one greater opportunity.

Equitable distribution: water points and pipes ought to be evenly distributed in order to
address the problem of the low income group and for all water undistributed parts of the
town. Moreover, maintaining failed public taps, installing additional public water points
and using equitable shifting time to all users to distribute the available water quantity
would narrow down the gap between demand and supply taking into consideration the
number of people, density and distance between water points;

Strengthen the institutional capacity: the institutional structure should be staffed with
qualified personnel and equipped with the required facilities and also the institution
(office) should have transparency regarding to water tariff payment and accountability for
other sectorial service provision;

Conservation water sources: water sources should be conserved and recharged by the
natural aquifer, covering the water catchments with forests that can increase water
production of the source in dry season and keeping the water source from contaminants.

Employing appropriate technology: appropriate technology that can meet appropriate

Standards and can have adequate spare parts and fittings should be applied. Even in the
long term the use of solar energy rather than the current electricity would be appreciated.
This can minimize the expenditure for power consumption and stable water interruption
in the town. Moreover, Chencha town residents now, complain about the fee for water
consumption, this resulted from, according to manager response, the water mater which
installed in some households are aged and the technicians also not read it properly; and
even the accountants collect the bill sale home to home visit and calculate monthly bill
manually. So, it requires Employing appropriate technology use in Chencha town water
service office.

Controlling squatter settlements: illegal spatial expansion of the town across the
municipal boundary of the town makes the extension of pipelines and then distribution of
water points difficult and leave out the firing/ peripheral areas out of the reach of potable
water. Now day, Chencha town population increasing rapidly due to migration from
surrounding rural areas and those migrants settled at expansion area and using land
without planning. Therefore, rules and regulations ought to be set to control such illegal
settlements around the town.
6 References

Akkaraboyina. (2018). Assessing the Challenges of Water Supply and Consumption

Systems of Tora Town, Snnpr, Ethiopia. 6, 880-887.

AMCOW. (2015). Water supply & sanitation in ethiopia.

Asnake. (2012). Assessing the Challenges of Sustainable assessing the Challenges of

Sustainable The case of Harar town. Addis Ababa University .

AfDB. (2015). Water Supply & Sanitation in Africa: Findings, Lessons and Good
Practices to Improve Delivery.

Chala. (2011). An assessment of urban water supply and sanitation: the case of ambo
town, oromia region.

Dhakal, D. (2018 ). Sustainable Community Water Supply System with Special

Reference to Nepal. 45. No 1,, 108-11.

Elellan. (2015). Sustainability of Water Supply Schemes:The Case of Tulu- Bolo town
and surrounding villages in South West Shewa Zone of the Oromia Regional
State.

Emas. (2015). The Concept of Sustainable Development: Definition and Defining

Principles. Florida International University.

Ermias, B. ( 2016). Assessment of Urban Water Supply and Sanitation: The Case
ofbedesa Town, Damot Woyde Woreda of Wolaita Zone, Southern Ethiopia . 6,
No.5 ,.

FDRE. (2018). The Second Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP II) Midterm Review
Report. National Planning Commission.

FDRE. (2018). OWNP phaseii A Multi-Sectoral swap

Karadirek. ( 2016). Urban water losses management in turkey: the legislation and
challenges pp,572 - 584.

Mandefro, H. ( 2017). Water supply and demand scenario of Dilla Town,Southern

Ethiopia. 9(12), 270-276.

Marieke, D. E. (2018). Sustaining rural water services in ethiopia: rural water service
levels report. IRC WASH.

Marieke, S. E. (2018). Small town water services sustainability checks: development and
application in Ethiopia. 52–68.

Mensah. (2019). Sustainable development: Meaning, history,principles, pillars, and

implications for human action: Literature review. 1-21.

Misgina. ( 2006). An Assessment of Challenges of Sustainable Rural Water Supply: The

Case of Ofla Woreda in Tigray Region. Mekelle Universit.

MoWIE. (2015). Second Growth and Transformation National Plan for the Water Supply
and Sanitation Sub-sector. Addis Abeba

UN. (2009). The Millennium Development Goals Report.

OWASH. (2016). Openwash Urban Water Supply:The Open University UK/World

Vision Ethiopia/UNICEF.

Rathnayaka, M. (2016). Assessment of Sustainability of Urban Water Supply and

Demand Management Options:A Comprehensive Approach. 1-14.

Richter. (2016). Assessing the Sustainability of Urban Water Supply Systems. 40-47.

UNICEF. (2019). Global Framework for Urban Water, Sanitation and Hygiene. UNICEF.

WB. (2017). Urban Water and Sanitation in Tanzania.

WHO. (2017). Annual Report Water Supply,Sanitation and Hygiene(JMP).

WHO. (2017). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene .

Yitayh. (2011). Assessment of problems to sustainability of rural water supply and

management systems inmachakel woreda, amhara region.
Zemenu. (2012). Assessment of challenges ofsustainable rural water supply: quarit
woreda, amhara region .
7 Annex-3: Data collection instruments
7.1 Annex 3A: Questionnaire will be completed by the Households

General Introduction: The main objective of this questionnaire is to gather information

about the supply and demand of water; technical, financial, institutional and social
challenges for the sustainability of the water supply in chencha town. The data to be
collected from this household survey will be used only for educational research purpose.
Your responses will be kept confidential. So, I kindly request you to participate in this
study voluntarily. The quality of this study depends on your genuine response. Therefore,
you are kindly requested to answer all questions and give reliable information on the
issues.

Thank you in advance for your time and kind

cooperation

Instruction:-1.Cricle the choose

2. Write your answer in blank space

A.GENERAL BACKGROUND

1. Kebele………… 2. Sex………. 3. Age …………….

4. What is your current marital: - A.Widowed B. Single C. Divorced married

5. Religion: - A. Muslim B. orthodox C. protestant D. Catholic E. others

6. Income source of the family: - A. Business/Peaty trade B. Government employee

C. Daily labor D. Retired E. if others specify ______ _

7. Education Level: - A. Unable to read and write B. Some Primary school (1-8
Grade)

C. secondary school (9-12 Grade) D. Diploma F. Degree F. above degree

8. Number of family member's--------------------------

9. Which urban infrastructure services you need mostly to provide? A. Health B.

Education

vii
C. Water D. Road E. Electricity F. Telephone

B. THE EXISTING. STATUS OF WATER SUPPLY IN CHENCHA TOWN

Issues related with water sources, supply, service coverage, consumption,

distribution and accessibility status in the town

1. What are the sources of water for the purpose of domestic use in your household?

n Purpose for used

o source In In summer
winter drinking cooking washing

1 Piped connection
2 public stand pipe/ hand pump
3 dug well
4 Water vendor
5 Rainwater
6 river
7 Other specify

I. For public stand pipe/ hand pump users

1. How long does it take you for a round trip to fetch water?

A. less than 15 minutes B. 16-30 minutes C. 31 minutes – 1hour D. more than 1

hour

2. How long do you stand in queue to fetch water from the closest public tap?

A. less than 20 minutes B. 21-30 minutes C. 31 – 60 minutes D. More than 1

hour

3. How far is the public tap from your household (estimated distance in meters)?

A.500 m or less B. 501m- 1000m C. more than 1000m

4. At what time is the public tap available to fetch water?

A. Morning B .day time C. always on

viii
5. Are you pay to water with using standpipe/public pipe/bono? (Bono user only)
A. Yes B. no
6. If your answer for question No“5” is yes, how much birr for 20 litter jercan?
------------
7. Are you believe that the tariff you pay is fair?
A. Yes B. no
8. Who mostly fetch the water for your household?

A. Adult woman B. Adult man C. Female child (under age 15) D. Male (under
age 15)

9. Are you satisfied with the availability and water supply system?

A. More than enough B. satisfactory C. Fairly E. not satisfactory

II. Pipe connection users

1. What type of connection usually uses for water supply for your HHs?

A. Private meter connection B. Shared (public) meter connection

2. On average how do you get water from the system in week?

A. daily B. Two day C. Three D. four E. more than four day.

3. Whenever you get water for how many hours it available?

A .8 hours B.16 hours C.24 hours D. If other specify the

time-----------------

4. How much water consumed in your house per day……………liters per day.

5. Are you pay to water with using pipe connection?

A. Yes B. no
6. If your answer for question No“5” is yes, how much birr per monthly consumption?
------------
7. Water tariff setting to pay is fair?
A. yes B. no
8. is there transparency was made paying for the water?

ix
A. Yes B.no
9. Are you satisfied with the existing water supply services of the town?

A Very satisfactory B. Satisfactory C. Unsatisfactory

C. ISSUES RELATED TO SUSTAINABILITY ASPECTS

1. Is there any nonfunctional water supply schemes for the long period of time in your
area?
A. Yes B. no
2. If your answer for question No“1” is yes, what is the reason of beyond non
functionality?
A. not maintained B. due to decreasing of the amount of water C. due to water is not
safe to drink D. I did not know the reason

3. Did you see the failurity of water supply scheme in your area?

A. yes B. no
4. If your answer for question No“3” is yes, how long it take to maintain?
A, immediately maintained B.it takes long time to maintain
5. Is there decreasing the amount of water quantity in dry season?
A. Yes B.no
6. If your answer for question No“5” is yes, is there any mechanisms be applied to
conserve the environment of water source in order to increase the yield of the water?
A. Yes, list out the mechanisms:
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
B.no any mechanism applied
7. Is your water source protected?
A. yes B.no
8. If your answer for question7 is yes, what mechanisms be applied to protect the water
source?
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

x
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------
B.no any mechanism applied
9. Are you participated in water supply and management system?
A. yes B. no
10. If your answer for question No“9” is yes, in when and what?
A. Before the construction of the water supply project-in decision making
B. During the construction of the water supply project-by supporting the project with
resource
C. After the construction of the water supply project-in protecting and conservation of the
water source
D. If other, list…………………………………………………………………………
11. Are you willing to participate in improving the system?
A. yes B. no
12. If your answer for question No“11” is yes, in what you motived to participate?
A. By supporting with money
B. By supporting with labor
C. By supporting with both money and labor
13. Have any suggestion and comments on water supply system in your
town?......................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
............................................................

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 7.2 Annex-3b: Key informant interview with the manager of chencha town
water supply service office

Date _______________
Name - _______________________________
Gender - _______________________________
Education Level ________________________
Occupation____________________________
1. What are the existing water supply sources for the town?

n Name of source Construction period Yield m3/day Number of users

o
1
2
3
4
5
6
7

2. What is the distribution system of the water supply in the town?

3. Is there problem associated with distribution system of the water supply?
3. The service of water supply covers whole the town? If no what is the reason?
4. How many customers use the pipe connection?
5. Is there water tariff to pay? If yes how much per m3 consumption?
6. Is there water tariff to pay for standpipe users? If yes how much per litter?
7. Is the town water supply service fit the demand of community?
8. is there any legal and regulatory framework with regarding to illegal connection,
somebody damages the water supply system and loosing water at home by piped
connection?

xii
9. Is there integration formed with different stockholders?
10. In what mechanisms of the cost of construction, operation and maintenance of water
supply system recovered?
11. Is there any mechanisms be applied to conserve the environment of water source in
order to increase the yield?
12. Is there adequate equipment for the operation and maintenance in the sector?
13. What problems the society complains about?
14. Is there quick response to complaints?
15. Is there awareness created for the community with regarding to water resource
management?
16. Does the society have the perception of responsibility and ownership?

17. What are the major challenges of sustainable water supply system of the town?

xiii
 7.3 Annex-3c: Key Informant Interview (KII) With Chencha Town Water
Supply Service Employees
Date------------------------------

1. What are the problems face the existing water supply in the town?
2. Is there training provided for you to improve the skill of technical capacity?
3. Have you faced a technical problem that is above your training?
4. Is there adequate equipment and spare part for maintenance?
5. What are the technical problems the society complains about?
6. Is there quick response to complaints for the maintenance?
7. Does the society have the perception of responsibility and ownership?
8. Have any suggestion and comments on water supply system in your
town?................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
..........................................................................................................................................
................................................

7.4 Annex-3d: Key informant interview with chencha town Mayor

Date--------------------------------

1. In what condition the existing water supply of the town is there?

2. Is the town water supply service fit the demand of community?
3. Do you think water is fairly distributed over the town?
4. Are you believe that the town water sector management system have
accountability and transparency?
5. And what are the main problems face the existing water supply in the town?
6. Do you have suggest about water supply management in your town?

xiv
 7.5 Annex-3e: Personal Observation Checklist

Kebele ………………….
1. The current situation of the water source
 Type of water source
 Issues with protection and conservation around the water source
 Yield of the source
 What is the physical condition of the water sources?
 Topographic setting nearby water sources
 Settlement Pattern
2. Water fetching situation for domestic purpose in standpipe
 Who fetches water for domestic purpose?
 How it is collected?
 How it is transported?
 Distance of the source from user community
 What is the peak time for water collection?
 The time of waiting to collect fetch water
3. Different document
Town water supply service office human resource document
 Town water supply service office 2020 annual plan and report document
 Water supply design document
 Town Water Service Supplying Agreement Form
 Water Connection Estimation Form
 Tariff collection form

xv
xvi