Fleming’s Right Hand Rule

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, when a moving conductor is placed

inside a magnetic field, a current will be induced in it. If the conductor is forcefully moved inside
the magnetic field, there will be a relationship between the direction of applied force, magnetic
field and the current. Fleming’s right-hand rule determines this relation between these three
directions.

Fleming’s Right Left Rule

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in an external magnetic field, the conductor
experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the current flow’s direction. As shown in
the illustration, a left hand can be held to represent three mutually orthogonal axes on the thumb,
forefinger, and middle finger.

Difference Between Fleming’s Left-Hand and Right-Hand Rule

Left-Hand Rule Right-Hand Rule

It is used for electric motors It is used for electric generators

The purpose of the rule is to find the The purpose of the rule is to find the direction of induced
direction of motion in an electric motor current when a conductor moves in a magnetic field.

The thumb represents the direction of the The thumb represents the direction of motion of the
thrust on the conductor. conductor.

The index finger represents the direction The index finger represents the direction of the Magnetic
of the Magnetic Field. Field.

The middle finger represents the direction The middle finger represents the direction of the induced
of the current current
Transformer
A transformer is a device used in the power transmission of electric energy. The transmission
current is AC. It is commonly used to increase or decrease the supply voltage without a change
in the frequency of AC between circuits. The transformer works on basic principles of
electromagnetic induction and mutual induction.

Transformer Types

Based on Voltage Levels

Commonly used transformer type, depending upon voltage they are classified as:

 Step-up Transformer: They are used between the power generator and the power grid.
The secondary output voltage is higher than the input voltage.
 Step down Transformer: These transformers are used to convert high voltage primary
supply to low voltage secondary output.

Based on the Medium of Core Used

In a transformer, we will find different types of cores that are used.

 Air core Transformer: The flux linkage between primary and secondary winding is
through the air. The coil or windings wound on the non-magnetic strip.
 Iron core Transformer: Windings are wound on multiple iron plates stacked together,
which provides a perfect linkage path to generate flux.

Based on the Winding Arrangement

 Autotransformer: It will have only one winding wound over a laminated core. The
primary and secondary share the same coil. Auto also means “self” in language Greek.
Based on Install Location

 Power Transformer: It is used at power generation stations as they are suitable for high
voltage application
 Distribution Transformer: Mostly used at distribution lanes for domestic purposes.
They are designed for carrying low voltages. It is very easy to install and characterized by
low magnetic losses.
 Measurement Transformers: These are further classified. They are mainly used for
measuring voltage, current, power.
 Protection Transformers: They are used for component protection purposes. In circuits,
some components must be protected from voltage fluctuation etc. Protection transformers
ensure component protection.

Transformer – Working Principle

The main principle of operation of a transformer is mutual inductance between two circuits
which is linked by a common magnetic flux. A basic transformer consists of two coils that are
electrically separate and inductive, but are magnetically linked through a path of reluctance. The
working principle of the transformer can be understood from the figure below.

Transformer Working

 As shown above the electrical transformer has primary and secondary windings. The core
laminations are joined in the form of strips in between the strips you can see that there are some
narrow gaps right through the cross-section of the core. These staggered joints are said to be
‘imbricated’. Both the coils have high mutual inductance. A mutual electro-motive force is
induced in the transformer from the alternating flux that is set up in the laminated core, due to
the coil that is connected to a source of alternating voltage. Most of the alternating flux
developed by this coil is linked with the other coil and thus produces the mutual induced electro-
motive force. The so produced electro-motive force can be explained with the help of Faraday’s
laws of Electromagnetic Induction as
e=M*dI/dt
If the second coil circuit is closed, a current flows in it and thus electrical energy is transferred
magnetically from the first to the second coil.

The alternating current supply is given to the first coil and hence it can be called as the primary
winding. The energy is drawn out from the second coil and thus can be called as the secondary
winding.

In short, a transformer carries the operations shown below:

1. Transfer of electric power from one circuit to another.

2.  Transfer of electric power without any change in frequency.
3. Transfer with the principle of electromagnetic induction.
4. The two electrical circuits are linked by mutual induction.

EMF Equation of Transformer

N1 – number of turns in primary.

N2 – number of turns in secondary.
Φm – maximum flux in weber (Wb).
T – time period. Time is taken for 1 cycle.
The flux formed is a sinusoidal wave. It rises to a maximum value Φm and decreases to negative
maximum Φm. So, flux reaches a maximum in one-quarter of a cycle. The time taken is equal to
T/4.
Average rate of change of flux = Φm/(T/4) = 4fΦm
Where f = frequency
T = 1/f
Induced emf per turn = rate of change of flux per turn
Form factor = rms value / average value
Rms value = 1.11  (4fΦm) = 4.44 fΦm [form factor of sine wave is 1.11]
RMS value of emf induced in winding = RMS value of emf per turn  x  no of turns
Primary Winding
Rms value of induced emf = E1 = 4.44 fΦm * N1
Secondary winding:
Rms value of induced emf = E2 = 4.44 fΦm * N2

This is the emf equation of the transformer.

For an ideal transformer at no load condition,
E1 = supply voltage on the primary winding.
E2 = terminal voltage (theoretical or calculated) on the secondary winding.

Voltage Transformation Ratio

K is called the voltage transformation ratio, which is a constant.

Case1: if N2 > N1, K>1 it is called a step-up transformer.
Case 2: if N2< N1, K<1 it is called a step-down transformer.

Applications Of Transformer

 The transformer transmits electrical energy through wires over long distances.
 Transformers with multiple secondary’s are used in radio and TV receivers which require
several different voltages.
  Transformers are used as voltage regulators.
 To step up/ To Step down voltage and current.
Electric Motor
An electric motor is used to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. Let’s go through
an instance: What does the mixer in your house do for you? The rotating blades mash and mix
things for you. And if someone were to ask you how that works, what would you say? You
would probably say that it works on electricity. Well, that’s not incorrect. Motors convert electric
energy to mechanical work. The opposite is done by generators that convert mechanical work
to electrical energy.

Different Parts of an Electric Motor and Their Function

A simple motor has the following parts:

 A power supply – mostly DC for a simple motor

 Field Magnet – could be a permanent magnet or an electromagnet
 An Armature or rotor
 Commutator
 Brushes
 Axle

1. Power Source: A simple motor usually has a DC power source.  It supplies power to the
motor armature or field coils.
2. Commutator: It is the rotating interface of the armature coil with a stationary circuit.
3. Field Magnet: The magnetic field helps to produce a torque on the rotating armature coil
by virtue of Fleming’s left-hand rule.
 4. Armature Core: Holds the armature coil in place and provides mechanical support.
5. Armature Coil: It helps the motor to run.
6. Brushes: It is a device that conducts current between stationary wires and moving parts,
most commonly the rotating shaft.

Working Principle of An Electric Motor

The working of an electric motor is based on the fact that a current carrying conductor produces
a magnetic field around it. To better understand, imagine the following situation.
Take two bar magnets and keep the poles facing each other with a small space in between. Now,
take a small length of a conducting wire and make a loop. Keep this loop in between the space
between the magnets such that it is still within the sphere of influence of the magnets. Now for
the last bit. Connect the ends of the loop to battery terminals.

Once electricity flows through your simple circuit, you will notice that your loop “moves”. So
why does this happen? The magnetic field of the magnets interferes with that produced due to
electric current flowing in the conductor. Since the loop has become a magnet, one side of it will
be attracted to the north pole of the magnet and the other to the south pole. This causes the loop
to continuously rotate. This is the principle of working of electric motor.

Types of Electric Motor

The primary classification of electric motor is as follows:
Uses of an Electric Motor
Electric motors are used in a variety of applications. Some of them are listed below.

 Drills
 Water Pumps
 Hard Disc Drives
 Washing Machines
 Industrial Equipment

You can expect the efficiency of a functioning motor to be around 70 – 85% as the remaining
energy is wasted in heat production and sounds emitted.

Electric Generator
Electric generators, also known as dynamos is an electric machine that converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy. The electric generator’s mechanical energy is usually provided by
steam turbines, gas turbines, and wind turbines. Electrical generators provide nearly all the
power that is required for electric power grids.
The reverse conversion of electrical energy to mechanical energy is done by an electric motor.
Both motors and generators have many similarities. But in this, the article let us focus mainly on
electric generators and how they convert mechanical energy to electrical energy.

How do Generators create Electricity?

Generators do not create electricity instead it uses the mechanical energy supplied to it to force
the movement of electric charges present in the wire of its windings through an external electric
circuit. This flow of electrons constitutes the output electric current supplied by the generator. 
The modern-day generators work on the principle of electromagnetic induction discovered by
Michael Faraday. He realized that the above flow of current can be created by moving an
electrical conductor in a magnetic field. This movement creates a voltage difference between the
two ends of the conductor which causes the electric charges to flow, hence generating electric
current.

Components of an Electric Generator

The main components of an electric generator are given below

 The Frame – the structure

 An Engine – the source of mechanical energy
 The Alternator – produces an electrical output from the mechanical input
 A Fuel System – to keep the generator operational
 A Voltage Regulator – to regulate the voltage output
 A Cooling System – to regulate heat levels that build up in the system
 A Lubrication System – for durable and smooth operations over a span
 An Exhaust System – to dispose of the waste exhaust gases produced in the process
 A Charger – to keep the battery of the generator charged
 Main Control – the control panel controlling generator interface

Types of Electric Generators

The classification of electric generators depends on the type of electrical energy that is produced,
which is either direct current or alternating current.

 AC generators: AC generators are known as single-phase generators and are limited to

25 kW.
 DC generators: These generators are divided into three categories, and they are shunt,
series, and compound-wound. Shunt generators are used in battery chargers. Series
generators are used in street lights. While most of the DC generators are compound-
wound.

Uses of an Electric Generator

 They provide the power for most power networks across cities
 Small scale generators provide a good backup for household power needs or small
businesses
  At construction sites, before the power is set up, they extensively make use of electric
generators
 Energy-efficient as fuel consumption is reduced drastically
 Since they give a range of voltage output, they are used in labs
 They are used to drive motors
 They are used in transportation

DC Generator
A DC generator is an electrical machine whose main function is to convert mechanical energy
into electricity. When conductor slashes magnetic flux, an emf will be generated based on the
electromagnetic induction principle of Faraday’s Laws. This electromotive force can cause a
flow of current when the conductor circuit is closed.

Parts of a DC Generator
A DC generator can also be used as a DC motor without changing its construction. Therefore, a
DC motor, otherwise a DC generator can be generally called a DC machine. Below we have
mentioned the essential parts of a DC Generator.

Parts of a DC Generator
Stator
The main function of the stator is to provide magnetic fields where the coil spins. A stator
includes two magnets with opposite polarity facing each other. These magnets are located to fit
in the region of the rotor.
Rotor
A rotor in a DC machine includes slotted iron laminations with slots that are stacked to shape a
cylindrical armature core. The function of the lamination is to decrease the loss caused due
to eddy current.
Armature Windings
Armature windings are in a closed circuit form and are connected in series to parallel for
enhancing the sum of produced current.
Yoke
The external structure of the DC generator is known as Yoke. It is made of either cast iron or
steel. It provides necessary mechanical power for carrying the magnetic-flux given through the
poles.
Poles
The function of a pole is to hold the field windings. These windings are wound on poles and are
either connected in series or parallel by the armature windings.
Pole Shoe
Pole shoe is mainly utilized for spreading the magnetic flux to avoid the field coil from falling.
Commutator
A commutator works like a rectifier that changes AC voltage to DC voltage within the armature
winding. It is designed with a copper segment, and each copper segment is protected from each
other with the help of mica sheets. It is located on the shaft of the machine.
Brushes
The electrical connections can be ensured between the commutator as well as the exterior load
circuit with the help of brushes.

How does a DC Generator Work?

According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, we know that when a current-carrying
conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field, an emf is induced in the conductor. According to
Fleming’s right-hand rule, the direction of the induced current changes whenever the direction of
motion of the conductor changes. Let us consider an armature rotating clockwise and a conductor
at the left moving upwards. When the armature completes a half rotation, the direction of the
motion of the conductor will be reversed downward. Hence, the direction of the current in every
armature will be alternating. But with a split ring commutator, connections of the armature
conductors get reversed when a current reversal occurs. Therefore, we get unidirectional current
at the terminals.

E.M.F Equation of DC generator

The emf equation of the DC generator is given by the equation:
Eg=PϕZN60AEg=PϕZN60A

where
Z is the total number of armature conductor
P is the number of poles in a generator
A is the number of parallel lanes within the armature
N is the rotation of armature in r.p.m
E is the induced e.m.f in any parallel lane within the armature
Eg is the generated e.m.f in any one of the parallel lane
N/60 is the number of turns per second
Time for one turn will be dt=60/N sec

Losses in DC Generator
In a DC machine, the input power is fully not transformed into the output power. Some part of
input power gets wasted in various forms. In a DC machine, the losses are broadly classified into
four types as:

 Copper Loss
Copper loss takes place when the current flows through the winding. These losses occur
due to the resistance in the winding. The copper loss is categorized into three forms as
armature loss, the field winding loss and brush contact resistance loss.
 Core Losses or Iron Losses
Some losses in the iron core occur when the armature rotates in the magnetic field. These
losses are known as core losses. These losses are categorized into two losses as
Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss.

Types of DC generator
The DC generator can be classified into two main categories as separately excited and self-
excited.

Separately Excited
In a separately excited type generator, the field coils are energized from an independent exterior
DC source.

Self Excited
In a self-excited type, the field coils are energized from the generated current within the
generator. These types of generators can further be classified into a series of wounds, shunt-
wound, and compound wound.

Applications of DC Generators
A few applications of DC generators are:

 The separately excited type DC generators are used for power and lighting purposes.
 The series DC generator is used in arc lamps for lighting, stable current generator and
booster.
 DC generators are used to reimburse the voltage drop within Feeders.
 DC generators are used to provide a power supply for hostels, lodges, offices, etc.

This was a comprehensive explanation about DC generators. From the information above, we
can conclude that the main advantages of a DC generator are its simple construction and design.

AC Generator
AC generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The AC
Generator’s input supply is mechanical energy supplied by steam turbines, gas turbines and
combustion engines. The output is alternating electrical power in the form of alternating voltage
and current.
AC generators work on the principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which states
that electromotive force – EMF or voltage – is generated in a current-carrying conductor that
cuts a uniform magnetic field. This can either be achieved by rotating a conducting coil in a
static magnetic field or rotating the magnetic field containing the stationary conductor. The
preferred arrangement is to keep the coil stationary because it is easier to draw induced
alternating current from a stationary armature coil than a rotating coil.
The generated EMF depends on the number of armature coil turns, magnetic field strength,
and the speed of the rotating field.

AC Generator Parts and Function

The various parts of an AC generator are:

 Field
 Armature
 Prime Mover
 Rotor
 Stator
 Slip Rings
The following are the functions of each of these components of an AC generator.

Field
The field consists of coils of conductors that receive a voltage from the source and produce
magnetic flux. The magnetic flux in the field cuts the armature to produce a voltage. This voltage
is the output voltage of the AC generator.

Armature
The part of an AC generator in which the voltage is produced is known as an armature. This
component primarily consists of coils of wire that are large enough to carry the full-load current
of the generator.

Prime Mover
The component used to drive the AC generator is known as a prime mover. The prime mover
could either be a diesel engine, a steam turbine, or a motor.

Rotor
The rotating component of the generator is known as a rotor. The generator’s prime mover drives
the rotor.

Stator
The stator is the stationary part of an AC generator. The stator core comprises a lamination of
steel alloys or magnetic iron to minimise the eddy current losses.

Slip Rings
Slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to and fro from the rotor of an AC
generator. They are typically designed to conduct the flow of current from a stationary device to
a rotating one.

Working of an AC Generator
When the armature rotates between the poles of the magnet upon an axis perpendicular to the
magnetic field, the flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. As a result, an electric
current flows through the galvanometer and the slip rings and brushes. The galvanometer swings
between positive and negative values. This indicates that there is an alternating current flowing
through the galvanometer. The direction of the induced current can be identified using Fleming’s
Right Hand Rule.

Advantages of AC Generators over DC Generators

Following are a few advantages of AC generators over DC generators:
  AC generators can be easily stepped up and stepped down through transformers.
 Transmission link size in AC Generators is thinner because of the step-up feature.
 Losses in AC generators are relatively lesser than in DC machine
 The size of an AC generator is smaller than a DC generator

Most of us begin our study with Direct Current, but eventually, we learn that direct current is not
the only type of current we come across. There are sources of electricity that produce voltages
and currents which are alternating in nature. This type of current is called an alternating current
or an AC. The video will help you explore the differences between an alternating current and a
direct current.