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VSH-Bulletin Nr. 2, August 2017 | AEU-Bulletin no 2, août 2017

Piezoresponse force microscopy image of the ferroelectric domain structure of multiferroic ErMnO3. The dark and light regions
correspond to opposite orientations of the electric dipoles. The vertical dimension is about 20 μm.
Image courtesy of Manfred Fiebig and Martin Lilienblum (ETH Zürich)

Fundamental Materials Research and the Course of Human Civilization

Nicola Spaldin* Unless we change direction, we are likely to wind up where we are headed.
(Ancient Chinese proverb)

The field of Materials Science has at its core the sci-

ably first achieved accidentally in kilns designed for
ence and engineering of “useful stuff”: We materials
firing pottery. Second, the favourable properties of
scientists make materials for shelter, tools, trans-
bronze result from the alloying of different elemental
portation, information technologies, health, as well
metals (in this case copper and tin), and the detailed
as recreation and the arts… all of the essentials and
fundamental physics of why alloying so profoundly
luxuries without which our lives would be unimagi-
improves the behaviour remains a topic of current
nable. As a result of this universal utility, the value of
research interest! But it’s clear that without this basic
applied research and development in Materials Sci-
materials discovery, which led to a complete change
ence is rarely called into question. In this issue of the
of direction in the evolution of human progress, the
“Bulletin VSH-AEU” concentrating on fundamental
world today would be a vastly different place. Later,
research, I focus on the necessity of basic materials
the adoption of iron – which can be hammered rather
research, and make the case that, because of its cen-
than cast – in the Iron Age drove radical changes in
tral role and unique relevance, fundamental research
agriculture as well of course weaponry leading to the
in Materials Science is a cornerstone of human pro-
establishment of countries and empires and coincid-
gress.
ing with the beginning of written literature. Interest-
ingly, many of these early scientific developments
From the Stone Age through the Bronze and Iron
were disseminated through trade, or what we would
Ages to today’s Silicon Age, every major advance in
now call international collaboration.
human civilization has been driven by a fundamen-
tal development in Materials Science. The transition
Iron continued to play a central role throughout his-
from Hunter-Gatherer societies to the adoption of
tory, culminating after around 4000 years of develop-
agriculture at the Neolithic revolution coincided with
ments in metallurgy with the industrial revolution.
developments in processing techniques for natural
But a profound change in direction was initiated at
materials such as stone so that tools for grinding or
cutting could be produced. The discovery of material
composites led to, for example, the attachment of
* ETH Zürich, Professur für Materialtheorie,
stone blades to wooden handles with fibres or resins,
Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 27, HIT G 43.3, 8093 Zürich.
providing additional leverage over hand-held tools.
Metals were at first a rarity, and native nuggets of E-mail: nicola.spaldin@mat.ethz.ch
copper, silver and gold were used primarily as orna- Nicola Spaldin, PhD FRS, is the Professor of Materials Theory
ments for ceremonial purposes. But the discovery of at ETH Zürich. She was educated at Cambridge University
the smelting process to extract metals from mineral (BA and MA in Natural Sciences) and UC Berkeley (PhD in
Chemistry). Following postdoctoral work at Yale University
ores ushered in a new era, the Bronze Age, associ- in Applied Physics, she established her independent career at
ated with the establishment of cities and the begin- UC Santa Barbara as Assistant, Associate then Full Professor,
ning of crafts and trade. It’s hard to appreciate what before moving to ETH in 2011. She is a passionate science educator,
a remarkable breakthrough in basic metallurgy the director of her department’s study program, and holder of the ETH Gol-
development of bronze represents: First, the smelt- den Owl Award for excellence in teaching. She developed the class
of materials known as multiferroics, which combine and couple ferro-
ing process requires temperatures above the melting
magnetism and ferroelectricity. When not trying to make a room-
point of the metal (~1000º C for copper) as well as temperature superconductor, she can be found playing her clarinet, or
a reducing atmosphere, conditions that were prob- skiing or climbing in the Alps.
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the end of the 19th century by a remarkable event: best researchers and made space for their creativity.
The discovery of the electron [1]. In his laboratory The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956 was awarded jointly
in Cambridge, J. J. Thomson was performing detailed to William Shockley, John Bardeen and Walter Brat-
fundamental experiments to try to figure out what tain “for their researches [sic] on semiconductors and
the mysterious radiation emitted by negative metal- their discovery of the transistor effect” at “Bell Labs”
lic electrodes – so-called “cathode rays” – was made (then “Bell Telephone Laboratories”, now “Nokia Bell
of. Thomson was able to show that the rays are made Labs”), precisely fifty years after Thomson’s prize for
of particles that are negatively charged with a mass the discovery of the electron.
almost 2000 times lighter than a hydrogen atom.
Soon it was recognized that Thomson’s cathode ray So now we live in the “Silicon Age”, with silicon tran-
particles are the same as those that carry current in sistors forming the core of much of the microelec-
wires and they became known as electrons. Thom- tronics that enable our modern way of life. Not only
son’s discovery was a profound breakthrough in fun- our computers and mobile phones, but every aspect
damental sub-atomic physics, for which he received of for example commerce, transportation, and com-
the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physics "in recognition of the munication are now underpinned by microelectronic
great merits of his theoretical and experimental inves- devices. Since those very first transistors in the 1940s
tigations on the conduction of electricity by gases". I and 50s, we have improved the properties of silicon
doubt that he could have imagined, though, that his devices to an astonishing extent, enabling the trans-
fundamental research would so dramatically change formation for example from clunky old main-frame
the course of human history – that he had made the computers to sleek smartphones with tremendous
first steps to ushering in a new age – by paving the capabilities, all with the same material – silicon – at
way for the development of electronic devices. their core. We have grown to expect the exponential
increase in capability and corresponding decrease in
In fact, the equipment that Thomson developed for size and cost, captured by Moore’s Law [2], and to
his fundamental studies – glass tubes strong enough anticipate ever more automation and convenience in
to withstand the pumping out of most of the air our everyday activities.
molecules – provided engineers with the design for
the first electronic devices: Three-terminal devices But this silicon revolution will soon be forced to
called vacuum tubes or triodes which could be used come to an end as we start to run into fundamen-
as switches, for amplification, and to make simple tal physical limits, set by the size of the individual
logic circuits. Vacuum tubes offered the first glimpse atoms that make up the silicon material. And this
of the tremendous capabilities that might be pro- means that the steady march towards faster, smaller
vided by electrical circuits. Since, however, they were lighter products with more and more functionality
bulky, sometimes unreliable and devoured energy, can't continue within our existing framework. Now,
they also provided device physicists and materials while this might not seem so disastrous (certainly
scientists with a strong incentive to find a route to a the controls on my smartphone are already smaller
more convenient three-terminal device. The resulting than I can see without my reading glasses), it is in
development of the semiconductor transistor, first in fact a profound problem for society: As living stand-
germanium and soon after in silicon because of its ards improve in emerging regions and the “internet
superior material properties, is certainly one of the of things” becomes more widespread, worldwide use
most significant breakthroughs of the 20th Century. of microelectronics is expanding more rapidly than
It is interesting to reflect on the enablers for this giant ever before, so that by most projections more than
leap forward: The relevant properties of semiconduc- half of the world’s energy will be consumed by infor-
tors are fundamentally quantum mechanical, and mation technologies within a couple of decades [3].
a prerequisite to the development of the transistor And this is not sustainable. So, we need to take the
was the development of quantum mechanics and the step beyond the silicon age, we need to develop an
subsequent decades of fundamental research on the entirely new device paradigm, and to do this we need
quantum theory of solids. Equally important was the a new material. Without a new material, we are stuck
tremendous technological progress that had been with our existing concepts for information technol-
made in the properties of silicon and germanium, ogy and we have an energy bottleneck in human
particularly in producing materials of very high purity, progress. And fundamental research in Materials Sci-
which was motivated by the need for high-frequency ence – very likely with a complete change in direc-
radar receivers during the Second World War. And tion – underpins the invention of this material.
finally, the vision of the management (and indeed the
shareholders) at Bell Telephone Laboratories, who Let me give you an example from my own research.
created an environment that both attracted the very A couple of decades ago, I was a young postdoctoral
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researcher working on ferromagnetic materials – bismuth ferrite, BiFeO3, in which the iron atoms pro-
these are materials that contain magnetic dipoles vide the magnetism, and the ferroelectricity comes
with their north and south poles aligned parallel to from the so-called “lone pair” of electrons on the Bi
each other – in a research group that specialized in atoms [6]. (Readers with a chemistry background
ferroelectric materials, which are materials that con- will recognize an analogy here with the origin of the
tain aligned electric dipoles, made of positive and dipole moment in the ammonia molecule.) Our sec-
negative charges. My plan was to take the tools and ond method was to engineer new crystal structures
techniques that my host group had developed to that force magnetic atoms into new environments
study ferroelectric materials and apply them to the that are compatible with electric dipoles, which is the
study of ferromagnetic materials; the “ferro” in both case for example with yttrium manganite, YMnO3
names reflects the similarities in some of the under- [7]. The unconventional mechanism for ferroelectric-
lying physics between the two material classes. ity in the latter case causes an unusual arrangement
of the orientation regions of the electric dipoles
I noticed, almost by accident, that the kinds of mate- (called domains) resulting in exquisite textures, like
rials that I was working on were different in many those shown in the header to this article for the iso-
ways from those of my colleagues. For example, most morphous ErMnO3.
ferromagnetic materials are black metals, like iron,
whereas most ferroelectric materials are transparent I emphasize here that this research was driven entirely
oxide ceramics; barium titanate, chemical formula by annoyance that such a simple question – Why are
BaTiO3, is the prototypical example. My materials there so few magnetic ferroelectrics? – had not been
were shiny and ductile, theirs brittle. This appar- answered [8]. At the start of our work, there were
ent “contra-indication” between ferromagnetism no device physicists waiting eagerly for our materials,
and ferroelectricity intrigued me, and after a week- because no-one was thinking about the possibilities
end of poring over encyclopediae of both material that a material that is both magnetic and ferroelec-
types (this was before the days of convenient on-line tric might offer. Practical, working multiferroics did
searching!) I convinced myself that it was real: There not exist even in our imaginations. Soon, however,
were no ferromagnetic materials in the handbook on we discovered that these aesthetic crystal chemis-
ferroelectrics [4], and vice versa. Immediately I asked tries, with their gorgeous dipolar domain structures
myself the question “Why are there so few magnetic and their combined magnetism and ferroelectricity,
ferroelectrics?” [5]. Answering this question became have entirely unexpected and potentially techno-
a passion (maybe even an obsession) for me and logically transformative functionalities [9]. Perhaps
formed the focal point of my research program over most importantly, we demonstrated that we are able
the next decades. I changed direction, and stopped to modify the magnetic properties of multiferroics
heading where I was headed. with electric fields [10, 11]. This is exciting from a
basic physics perspective – usually a magnetic field
Finding the answer took fundamental research into is needed to modify magnetic properties – but also
the basic chemistry of the bonding in ferroelectric has profound technological implications: Replacing
materials to understand why it contra-indicated the magnetic fields in our existing magnetism-based
ferromagnetism. And this fundamental research technologies with electric fields offers tremendous
allowed us to make what was in the end quite a sim- opportunity for energy savings, miniaturization and
ple discovery: That the atoms that form the kinds of efficiency. In a completely unexpected discovery,
chemical bonds needed to produce electric dipoles we found that the domain walls – the intersections
in a material have different arrangements of their separating regions (domains) with different orienta-
constituent electrons from those that tend to make tions of the ferroelectric dipoles – form nanoscale
magnetic dipoles. But we were also able to show that conducting channels that can be moved around
there is no fundamental law of physics preventing using electric fields [12]. This has potential applica-
their coexistence. Armed with this understanding tion in novel memory or information processing
of why ferromagnetic and ferroelectrics tend not to architectures. The combination of magnetism and
occur together, my colleagues and I were able to cre- ferroelectricity leads to an unusual surface electronic
ate new materials – we call them multiferroics – that structure that is being actively explored for cataly-
really are ferromagnetic and ferroelectric. We did this sis and water splitting applications. And the ability
in two ways: Our first route was to design new mate- to control the electrical and structural properties
rials that combine the two types of atoms – those using magnetic fields, which can be applied without
that tend to form magnetic dipoles and those that invasive electrodes and wires, is being explored for
tend to form electric dipoles – in the same mate- biomedical applications. Our new multiferroic mate-
rial. An example is the perovskite-structure oxide, rials, which started out as a playground for exploring
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fundamental questions in physics and chemistry, are Such a material would revolutionize energy pro-
poised to enable new device paradigms, and in turn duction, transmission and storage: Imagine power
entirely new ways of designing technologies [13]. Per- grids that don’t lose energy, portable MRI machines,
haps we are about to enter a new Multiferroics Age? cheap and widespread “Maglev” trains and paradigm
shifts in computing technologies. A room-tempera-
Or perhaps not. Of course, there’s more to human ture superconductor would be utterly geopolitically
civilization than information technology, and more transformative. Then I would bet that the next era of
to Materials Science than microelectronics. And we human civilization would be named after this as-yet
need fundamental research in all branches of Materi- undiscovered material.
als Science to address many of the most challenging
global issues identified by the United Nations [14]. Let me end with a plea to government officials, man-
Problems of climate change, and the environment, agers of funding agencies, and university adminis-
for example, will only be solved with new materials trators: Of course, applied research is important,
that can provide clean affordable alternative energy. nowhere more so than in Materials Science. And
Improved bio- and bio-compatible materials are every Materials Scientist is in her heart an engineer,
needed to advance human health and to assist per- strongly motivated by solving practical problems
sons with physical disabilities. New materials made that will enable the technologies that improve peo-
from earth-abundant, readily available elements will ple’s lives. We spend most of our time setting practi-
ensure a more equitable global wealth distribution cal achievable goals for relevant problems and devel-
and mitigate our dependency on minerals mined in oping materials that get us to where we are headed.
conflict zones. My personal hope is that historians But if we work only on materials with an applica-
will consider the post-silicon era to be a “Golden tion already in mind we limit ourselves to applica-
Age” in which fundamental research in Materials tions that we have already thought of. And we will
Science will have helped to enable a world in which not make something really new that will open up
peace, prosperity and reason prevail. entirely new directions and device paradigms. The
true breakthroughs that will change the course of
So, what next? Well, like many others in the Materi- history will not come from initiatives to improve
als Physics community, I’m working to understand existing materials or devices, or to advance technol-
the so-called strong correlations between elec- ogies that have already been identified. Instead, they
trons in solids. Why, if one electron somewhere in will come from off-beat individuals or small teams of
a material rearranges a little bit, this explicitly and fundamental researchers pushing the boundaries of
profoundly affects all of the other electrons. This knowledge in directions for which there is not yet
research is very fundamental and might never lead an application. Pioneers who will not end up where
to anything useful. Even in that case I would argue the rest of us are headed, but instead will change
that it is worthwhile: Exposing the profound beauty direction and go somewhere that we have not yet
of interacting electrons is comparable to imaging envisaged. I urge you to create an environment that
the complexity of our galaxy, the satisfaction of nurtures that adventurous spirit, an environment
finding a new elementary particle at CERN, or the that enables not only the applied research that will
joy of listening to the Tonhalle Orchestra play a benefit society immediately, but also the fundamen-
Brahms symphony; all activities which as a society tal research that we can enjoy now for its aesthetic
we find worthwhile to invest in. On the other hand, beauty and that will have its technology payoff only
understanding strong electron correlations could be in future generations. I urge you to be good scien-
the first step towards making a room-temperature tific ancestors. And what better legacy than to have
superconductor, a material that conducts electricity enabled the discovery of the material that defines
without any resistance, under everyday conditions. the course of human civilization.

References
[1] J. J. Thomson, Cathode rays, Philosophical Magazine, Series 5, Volume 44, No. 269, 293 (1897).
[2] G. E. Moore, Cramming more components onto integrated circuits, Electronics, 38, 114 (1965).
[3] www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/gigawatts2009.pdf
[4] M. E. Lines and A. M. Glass, Principles and applications of ferroelectrics and related materials, Oxford University Press 2001
(first published 1977).
[5] N. A. Hill (now Spaldin), Why are there so few magnetic ferroelectrics?, J. Phys. Chem. B 104, 6694 (2000).
[6] J. Wang, J. B. Neaton, H. Zheng, V. Nagarajan, S. B. Ogale, B. Liu, D. Viehland, V. Vaithyanathan, D. G. Schlom, U. V. Waghmare,
N. A. Spaldin, K. M. Rabe, M. Wuttig and R. Ramesh, Epitaxial BiFeO3 multiferroic thin film heterostructures, Science 299, 1719
(2003).
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[7] B. B. van Aken, T. T. M. Palstra, A. Filippetti and N. A. Spaldin, The origin of ferroelectricity in magnetoelectric YMnO3, Nature
Materials 3, 164 (2004).
[8] N. A. Spaldin, Find your most interesting question, Science 349, 110 (2015).
[9] N. A. Spaldin and M. Fiebig, The renaissance of magnetoelectric multiferroics, Science 309, 391 (2005).
[10] T. Zhao, A. Scholl, F. Zavaliche, K. Lee, M. Barry, A. Doran, M. P. Cruz, Y. H. Chu, C. Ederer, N. A. Spaldin, R. R. Das, D. M. Kim,
S. H. Baek, C. B. Eom and R. Ramesh, Electrical control of antiferromagnetic domains in multiferroic BiFeO3 films at room tempe-
rature, Nature Materials 5, 823 (2006).
[11] N. A. Spaldin and R. Ramesh, Electric field control of magnetism in complex oxide thin films, Materials Research Society Bul-
letin 33, 1047 (2008).
[12] J. Seidel, L. W. Martin, Q. He, Q. Zhan, Y.-H. Chu, A. Rother, M. E. Hawkridge, P. Maksymovych, P. Yu, M. Gajek, N. Balke, S. V.
Kalinin, S. Gemming, F. Wang, G. Catalan, J. F. Scott, N. A. Spaldin, J. Orenstein and R. Ramesh, Conduction at domain walls in
oxide multiferroics, Nature Materials 8, 229 (2009).
[13] N. A. Spaldin, Multiferroics: Past, present, and future, Materials Research Society Bulletin 42, 385 (2017).
[14] http://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/global-issues-overview/

Stellenausschreibung - Poste à pourvoir

Assistant Professor (Tenure Track) of Soil Resources

The Department of Environmental Systems Science (www.usys.ethz.ch) of ETH Zurich invites applications for
an assistant professor (tenure track) focusing on (1) the role of soil as a key natural resource, supporting a
wide range of forest and other terrestrial ecosystem functions and services and/or (2) quantifying the
effects of changes of land use and climate on various soil functions at local to global scales. Candidates
should be interested in system-oriented multidisciplinary research and are expected to develop an
innovative and internationally recognised research programme, making an important contribution to linking
soil ecosystem services to land-use and climate change.

The successful candidate will have a strong background in soil sciences and demonstrated potential for
innovative research. At the assistant professor level commitment to teaching and the ability to lead a
research group are expected. Teaching duties will include advanced-level courses on the assessment,
modelling or management of soil resources as part of the environment.

Assistant professorships have been established to promote the careers of younger scientists.
ETH Zurich implements a tenure track system equivalent to other top international universities.

Please apply online at: www.facultyaffairs.ethz.ch

Applications should include a curriculum vitae, a list of publications, a statement of future research and
teaching interests, and a description of the three most important achievements. The letter of application
should be addressed to the President of ETH Zurich, Prof. Dr. Lino Guzzella. The closing date for
applications is 31 August 2017. ETH Zurich is an equal opportunity and family friendly employer and
is responsive to the needs of dual career couples. We specifically encourage women to apply.