ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING I

Module 7.1 Course Notes

TRANSFORMERS

Course Prepared by:

Electrowatt Engineering (UK) Ltd,
Electrowatt House, North St
Horsham,
West Sussex, UK
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CONTENTS

CHAPTER 1 - POWER TRANSFORMERS 5

1.1 GENERAL 5

1.2 CONSTRUCTION 5
1.2.1 General 5
1.2.2 Liquid (Oil) Filled Transformers 6
1.2.3 Artificial Liquid Filled Transformers 6
1.2.4 Dry Type Transformers 7

1.3 RATINGS 9

1.4 IMPEDANCE VOLTAGE AND REGULATION 10

1.4.1 Transformer Inrush Current 10

1.5 INSULATION 10
1.5.1 Dry Type Transformers 10
1.5.2 Liquid Filled Transformers 11

1.6 COOLING 11

1.7 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS 11

1.8 CABLE BOXES 14

1.9 TAP CHANGING 15

1.9.1 General 15
l.9.2 Off Load Tap Changers 15
1.9.3 On Load Tap Changers 15

1.10 AUTO TRANSFORMERS 17

1.11 TRANSFORMER TESTING 18

1.11.1 Manufacturers’ Tests 18
1.11.2 Users’ Tests 19
1.12 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION 19

1.13 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS 19

CHAPTER 2 - PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS 20

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2.1 GENERAL 20

2.2 CRITERIA 20

2.3 PROCEDURE 20

CHAPTER 3 - TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE 23

3.1 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER 23

3.1.1 Oil Insulated Transformers (Conservator type) 23
3.1.2 Operating Temperature and Atmospheric Conditions 23
3.1.3 Electrical Strength and Presence of Moisture 23
3.1.4 Treatment of Transformer Oil 23
3.1.5 Acidity 24
3.1.6 Sludging 24
3.1.7 Flash Point of Oil 24
3.1.8 Cast Resin Transformers 24

3.2 WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATORS 24

3.3 GAS OPERATED RELAYS 25

3.4 FORCED COOLING 25

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CHAPTER 1 - POWER TRANSFORMERS

1.1 GENERAL
In onshore installations main electric power is taken in bulk from the local electricity supply company at
voltages up to 25-150kV. In offshore installations however main power must be generated locally, and this is
usually done at 6.6kV.
There are instances of generation at other levels, but these are always ‘high voltages’. Some large loads are
fed directly from the HV systems, but for most purposes the supplies are needed at low voltage, typically
380/220V up to 415/240V. These are provided through 3-phase power transformers.
Transformers are covered by DEP 33.65.40.31-Gen.

FIGURE 1.1
THREE PHASE OIL FILLED TRANSFORMER

1.2 CONSTRUCTION

1.2.1 General
Power transformers are generally enclosed in a tank or similar protection. They may be liquid cooled or air
cooled. If liquid cooled, the coolant may be mineral (hydrocarbon) oil, silicone oil or some artificial liquid
such as complex esters (Midel). Sometimes large units in power stations may be water cooled using oil as the
insulation medium. For many applications involving a fire risk dry type or cast resin transformers are used.

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The internal construction of all power transformers is similar. The windings are stacked around a 3-limbed
laminated iron magnetic core, the low-voltage windings innermost and the high-voltage windings outside
them is the best arrangement for insulation. In the cut-away portion of Figure 1.1 ducts are arranged through
both windings on each limb to assist cooling. The terminations of the windings are brought out to cable
boxes for external connections (see para 1.8) or, for large outdoor transformers, to terminal bushings.

1.2.2 Liquid (Oil) Filled Transformers

The largest bulk-power transformers are usually in a single tank, completely filled with oil and with a header
tank called a ‘conservator’ on the roof. This maintains a static head of pressure on the oil and also allows free
expansion and contraction. The transformer of Figure 1.1 is of this type.
In the pipe connecting the main tank to the conservator there is often inserted a device called a ‘Buchholz
Relay’. It has two elements: one traps and collects any small gas bubbles evolved in a winding due to the
early stages of a possible breakdown of insulation. If sufficient gas has accumulated, a float switch gives an
alarm. The other element is a pivoted vane. If a major fault occurs inside the tank, the displaced oil surges
past the vane, causing it to swing, make a contact and trip the supply breaker. It should be noted that after an
oil change or oil filling several Buchholz alarms may be expected due to the accumulation of trapped air.
Nowadays any gas accumulating in a Buchholz relay can be bled off and taken away for chemical analysis.
The proportion of different gases (hydrogen, acetylene and methane etc.) found is characteristic of different
types of incipient faults indicating overheating of oil or the decomposition of insulation. However the
interpretation of the results of gas analysis needs expert advice.
The oil coolant extracts heat produced by the I2R losses of the currents in all the windings and also by the
iron losses. It circulates through a closed cooling system by thermosyphon action (in a few cases by
pumping). Heat is extracted from the coolant through radiating tubes or fins either by natural convection, by
forced cooling from fans or, more rarely, by water cooling. The cooling of transformers is dealt with more
fully in para 1.6. The whole arrangement can be seen in Figure 1.1 which shows a typical outdoor
transformer.
Facilities are provided for oil filling, draining and sampling for test. Oil samples are taken periodically for
insulation testing in the laboratory, where they are examined for deterioration or water contamination.
A tapping switch, normally for off-load use only, is usually fitted for changing the transformer taps. The
larger system network transformers may have on-load tap-changing gear - see para 1.9 for details.
Smaller oil-filled transformers are usually sealed, with an air or sometimes nitrogen filled space above the oil
instead of a conservator, to allow for oil expansion when hot. A typical sealed transformer is shown in
Figure†1.2.

1.2.3 Artificial Liquid Filled Transformers

In onshore installations where transformers can be distanced from other plant the fire risk is no greater than
normal and mineral oil-filled transformers are generally used. Offshore, however, the risk of fire is crucial
and other designs of transformers are necessary.
In the past non-flammable liquids containing polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were used such as “Askeral”.
Such products are now decreed to be dangerously toxic to personnel and the environment and consequently
are no longer used.
There are alternative fluids such as silicone oil and synthetic liquids called “Midel” and R-TEMP.
In addition manufacturers also make gas filled transformers containing principally SF6.
However, whilst the above products are available there is a growing trend towards the use of transformers
which do not contain any fluid at all such as cast resin units.
In Shell generally oil filled transformers are used
- sealed up to 1600kVA
- larger units conservator type
occasionally cast resin transformers are used.

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FIGURE 1.2
TYPICAL 2000kVA SEALED POWER TRANSFORMER

1.2.4 Dry Type Transformers

Two basic types of dry type transformer now exist for wholly indoor use, namely
- traditional dry types
- cast resin units
The traditional dry type transformer is still used by the CEGB and nuclear industry up to about 11kV. Shell
on some offshore installations and industry in general are tending more and more to towards the use of the
robust cast resin transformers which are suitable for hostile environments involving fire risks.
A cut-away view of a cast resin transformer is shown in Figure 1.3.

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FIGURE 1.3
CAST RESIN TRANSFORMER
For comparison purposes Figure 1.4 shows the heat of combustion released by four different insulating
mediums. The cast resin transformer clearly has the lowest fire risk.

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FIGURE 1.4
HEAT OF COMBUSTION FROM THE INSULATION OF
COMPARABLE 630kVA TRANSFORMERS WITH DIFFERENT DIELECTRICS
Such transformers are air cooled having air ducts arranged through the solid encapsulation. They are made
up to ratings having a value of several MVA and are often given dual ratings (e.g. 2000/2500kA). The lower
rating where the cooling air circulates naturally and the higher rating where cooling is assisted by the radial
fans shown at the base of the transformer in Figure 1.3.
This type of transformer may be readily incorporated into their own LV distribution switchgear assembly to
form a single unit thereby saving space by bringing the incoming LV switchgear connections right up to the
transformer LV terminals.

1.3 RATINGS
The capacity of transformers is always given in kVA or MVA, because the heating depends only on the
actual current and is not affected by the power factor of that current.
A transformer is designed to give a nominal secondary voltage from a nominal primary voltage - for example
11000/415V or 6600/440V. Owing to voltage drop within the transformer itself, the actual turns ratio must
be somewhat lower than this if the nominal secondary voltage is still to be achieved at full load. In the two
examples cited above the turns ratio (that is, the non-load ratio) would need to be about 11000/435V and
6600/460V respectively.
Alone among electrical plant, transformers are required by British and IEC Standards to have their no-load
rating displayed on their nameplates (generators and motors have their full-load ratings). The nameplate
figure is therefore sometimes misleading in that it suggests a 435V or 460V system, whereas the nominal
system voltage is still 415V and 440V. In Shell documentation, only nominal voltages are normally used,
notwithstanding any transformer nameplate figures. Errors due to this misunderstanding may often be found
on other drawings.

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1.4 IMPEDANCE VOLTAGE AND REGULATION

In a manner similar to generators, transformers present impedance to the flow of through-currents. This
impedance is measured by the percentage voltage applied at rated frequency to the primary winding
necessary to circulate full rated current in the secondary when short-circuited.
The effect of transformer impedance is to cause an internal voltage drop when load current is passed through
the transformer. Exactly as with a generator, the greatest drop is caused when a reactive current passes
through the reactance of the transformer. (The vectorial treatment of impedance loading on a generator is
fully covered in the manual ‘Electrical Generation Equipment’, Chapter 4). See also Chapter 6 of Electrical
Theory A3.
The internal drop due to load current causes a reduction of the secondary terminal voltage below its open-
circuit level. This reduction, usually expressed as a percentage of the no-load voltage, is termed the
‘regulation’ of the transformer under the stated load conditions. Since the impedance of a transformer is
almost wholly reactive, it follows that the greatest regulation occurs when a low power factor load is applied.
If E is the nominal rated line voltage applied to the primary winding, and if ESC is the line voltage which,
when applied to the primary, will circulate full rated current in the short-circuited secondary, then

Z = Error!
ESC is called the ‘impedance voltage’ of the transformer and is usually expressed as a percentage of E. This
same percentage gives the value of Z, which is the ‘percentage impedance of the transformer’, see Electrical
Theory A3, Chapter 10.
This impedance is almost pure inductive reactance and ranges in value from about 5% to 15% for the sizes of
transformers in use in industrial installations. The measured percentage impedance is marked on each
transformer nameplate and is used, together with other circuit impedances, to calculate the symmetrical
short-circuit level on the low-voltage system. See Electrical Theory A3 and Generation and Distribution B1.

1.4.1 Transformer Inrush Current

At the instant of switching on a transformer, while the core is unfluxed and therefore offers no reactance, a
large magnetising ‘inrush current’ will flow which, although transient, may achieve a value of up to five
times full load primary current. This current decays rapidly after switch-on, but may persist for several
seconds.
Once the core is magnetised, the impedance of a transformer to fault currents is constant; this contrast with a
generator whose reactance changes from subtransient through transient to synchronous as a fault progresses.

1.5 INSULATION

1.5.1 Dry Type Transformers

The maximum temperature to which the windings of dry-type transformers may be allowed to rise depends
on the type of insulating material round the conductors. These transformers are classified according to the
insulating material used, and to each class is allotted a maximum ultimate temperature. The classification is
as follows (according to IEC 76 : 1976 and IEC 85):
Class Typical Insulating Material Ultimate Temperature
A Impregnated cotton, silk, etc; paper; enamel 105°C
E Paper laminates; epoxies 120°C
B Glass fibre, asbestos (unimpregnated); mica 130°C
F Glass fibre, asbestos, epoxy impregnated 155°C
H Glass fibre, asbestos, silicone impregnated 180°C
C Mica, ceramics, glass, with inorganic binders > 180°C

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It should be noted that the classification letters do not follow an alphabetical sequence. This is because there
were originally only three classes - ‘A’, ‘B’ and ‘C’. Later intermediate classes were added, and it was
decided not to disturb the original well-understood three.
Certain of the higher-temperature materials may be hygroscopic and therefore not always suitable in any
particular environment, particularly where dampness is severe.
It should be particularly noted that the classification depends on the ultimate temperature to which the
insulating material may be subjected, for it is this which determines whether or not it will suffer damage
when heated. It does not depend on temperature rise alone. If, for instance, the ambient temperature is 40°C,
a Class ‘B’ material may be used if the designed temperature rise will not exceed 90°C, so making the
ultimate maximum temperature 130°C. Designed temperature rise must therefore take into account the
greatest expected ambient temperature in which the transformer will operate.

1.5.2 Liquid Filled Transformers

Liquid-filled transformers are not classified for insulation as are the dry type. There is an overall requirement
that the temperature rise of the windings shall not exceed 65°C, and that the temperature rise at the top of the
liquid shall not exceed 60°C if the transformer is sealed or has a conservator.

1.6 COOLING
The cooling system of a given transformer is identified by a 4-letter code, as follows:

1st and 3rd letter: kind of cooling medium

2nd and 4th letter: kind of circulation
The code symbols for the first and third letters are:

Mineral oil O
Synthetic insulating liquid L
Gas G
Water W
Air A
Solid insulant S
The code symbols for the second and fourth letters are:

Natural circulation N
Forced circulation F
Examples of the use of this code are:

Oil-filled, thermosyphon circulation, natural ventilation ONAN

Dry-type encapsulated, fan cooled SNAF
Oil-filled, pumped circulation, water cooled by pump 0FWF
1.7 THREE PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
A 3-phase transformer has a 3-limb core. For transformers designed to BS 171 the terminals of the windings
mounted on each limb are identified by a letter as shown in Table 1.

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FIGURE 1.5
WINDING AND TERMINAL MARKINGS
TABLE 1. DESIGNATED LETTERS FOR 3-PHASE TRANSFORMERS

Winding Designated Letter

Limb 1 Limb 2 Limb 3
High Voltage A B C
Low Voltage a b c
Tertiary (if fitted) 3A 3B 3C
The external connections to the high and low voltage windings are brought out of the tank through bushings.
These terminals are labelled using letters appropriate to the winding concerned as shown in Figure 1.5. When
viewed from a position facing the high-voltage side of the transformer, the phase sequence is A-B-C from
left to right. The subscript numbers identify the winding terminals, including tappings, numbered in the
direction of the applied or induced voltage at a given instant.
Three-phase windings can be connected in delta, star or zig-zag (not very common); the star or zig-zag
connection must be chosen if a star-point is required to provide a neutral for a 4-wire system or for earthing.
A common arrangement for 3-phase power transformers in both onshore and offshore installations is for
delta-connected high-voltage windings and star-connected low-voltage windings, with the star-point brought
out to provide a neutral and earth for the low-voltage system.
A delta-connected winding is designated by the letter ‘D’, a star-connected winding by ‘Y’ and a zig-zag
winding by ‘Z’. Capital letters are used for the high-voltage windings and lower-case for the low-voltage.

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Thus ‘Dy’ stands for delta HV/star LV; Yy for star HV/star LV, and so on. When the star-point of a star-
connected winding is brought out it is designated ‘YN’ for a high-voltage or ‘yn’ for a low-voltage winding.
The winding connections for a delta/star transformer having a delta-connected high-voltage winding are
shown in Figure 1.6, which also shows the vector relationship between the voltage applied to each high-
voltage winding and the induced voltage in each corresponding low-voltage winding, the reversal between
secondary and primary being ignored.
Taking the phase-to-neutral vector of ‘A’ phase high-voltage as reference vector as 12 o’clock, the
corresponding ‘a’ phase low-voltage vector leads by 30° and is therefore at 11 o’clock. Thus the vector
symbol in this particular connection arrangement is ‘Dy11’, which describes the high and low-voltage
winding connections and the angular displacement between primary and secondary voltages. Other winding
arrangements are sometimes used, and for full particulars of these, together with their vector symbols,
reference should be made to BS 171 - Specification for Power Transformers.
In the case shown above the vector symbol is sometimes written ‘Dyn11’ to draw attention to the neutral’s
being brought out on the secondary (low-voltage) side.
Transformers of different vector groups, must not in general be paralleled. If all the primaries are supplied
from a common source, the secondaries of differing groups such as Dy11, Dy1, Yy0 will have different
phase relationships. For example, there will be 60° difference between Dy1 and Dy11 (which leads on it), or
30° difference between Yy0 and Dy1 (which lags on it). Such out-of-phase secondaries must never be
paralleled, even though their primaries may be in parallel.
The exception is that groups with the same clock numbers, such as Dy11, Yd11, Yz11, may be paralleled,
provided that there is no other objection, since the secondaries are all in phase. This of course assumes that
the secondary voltage magnitudes are the same.

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FIGURE 1.6
VOLTAGE VECTOR SYMBOLS

1.8 CABLE BOXES

The terminals of large transformers which are connected to external overhead lines are brought out through
ceramic bushings in the cover (shown in Figure 1.1) although some transformers have bushings emerging
from the sides of the tank. The terminals of other transformers have to be connected to cables. This applies
particularly to transformers on offshore installations and to most transformers in onshore oil installations.
The windings are connected to cables through cable boxes fixed to the transformer tank. If cables are used on
both HV and LV sides, the cable boxes would be on opposite sides of the tank, as seen in Figure 1.2.
On most transformers the current on the HV side is low enough to be carried by a single, 3-core cable which
enters the HV box through a sealing gland and divides inside. Sometimes small current transformers are also
fitted inside the cable box.
On the LV side currents are much heavier and often exceed 3000A. The LV cable box is therefore much
larger. In order to carry such currents, three, or sometimes four, single-core cables are required for each
phase. This results in the cable runs in the area of a transformer being very heavy and often difficult to
accommodate. In addition there may be two similar sized cables to carry the neutral, or 4th-wire, current.
On some installations the LV cable box is dispensed with and the windings are connected directly to the
switchboard by busbar type copperwork in an enclosed duct which is brought right up to the side of the
transformer.

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1.9 TAP CHANGING

1.9.1 General
Tappings are usually provided to vary the transformer’s turns ratio by up to ±5%. The correct tap is set when
the installation is first commissioned and should not need to be changed for a considerable time. However, as
the system load grows over the years, the tapping may need to be changed to maintain the secondary
working voltage. This is normally done on all phases together by means of a switch on the transformer tank
and must only be carried out off-load and isolated - that it, with the transformer dead on both sides. Changes
of tap settings may be carried out only by Authorised Persons, and then only on the instructions of the
Engineering Department. All tap changers on offshore and onshore oil installations are of the off-load type.
When not in use the tap changer handle or key mechanism is locked off.
In the larger shore networks on-load tap changers may be used to maintain system voltage; they are usually
remotely controlled from a Control Centre and are described in para 1.9.3. On-load tap changers are not used
on offshore or onshore oil installations but may be employed on the networks supplying onshore plants.
In transformer design, whenever possible, taps are located on the star point (earthy) end of a winding.
However, in many cases, as with a delta winding, this is not possible.

l.9.2 Off Load Tap Changers

It is usual to provide four additional tappings with off-load tap changers, making a total of five, at 2.5%
intervals, so that the turns ratio varies by ±2.5% ±5%. Tappings are always placed on the high-voltage side;
this allows the lowest possible current rating for the tapping switch itself. Thus an 11000/415V transformer
with four such extra tappings would be shown on a drawing as ‘11000 ±2.5% ±5%/415V’ and would
actually give 11000/394, 405, 415, 425 or 436V on load. In order to raise the secondary voltage it is
necessary to go to a lower (i.e. negative) HV tap, that is, to remove turns from the HV winding and hence
increase the volts per turn overall.
The tap changer switch handle can be seen in Figure 1.2. It must always be kept padlocked against
unauthorised or accidental operation.

1.9.3 On Load Tap Changers

Large network transformers which are provided with on-load tap changing normally have a much larger
number of taps in smaller steps. The principle used is ‘make-before-break’: this means that the new tap must
be connected before the old tap is broken, otherwise there would be a break in supply and an interruption of
full-load current by the tapping switch.
The difficulty with this simple idea is that, during the transition period while both taps are made, a small
number of turns of the transformer’s HV winding are short-circuited by the two taps, and a heavy current
will flow through them. Arrangements are therefore made to insert resistance temporarily into this short-
circuited loop to limit the current until the tap change is complete and the short-circuit removed. Figure 1.7
shows in principle how this is done.

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FIGURE 1.7
ON LOAD TAP CHANGING
A, B and C are adjacent taps on an HV winding. In (a) the tapping is on A, and it is desired to move it, on
load, to B.
The moving member consists of a main contact M and two ‘transition’ contacts P and Q which are connected
to M each through a resistance. In position (a) M carries the full load, and P and Q are not in contact.
In the first part (b) of the transition the main contact M is still on tap A. Contact Q moves to B and contact P
is still on A. Q and M now short-circuit the HV turns between A and B, but the short-circuit current is
limited by the lower half of the resistance. Meanwhile M is still carrying the load current from tap A.
At the next stage (c) the moving member has travelled on, and the main contact M leaves tap A. P and Q now
share the load current which passes through both halves of the resistance. These two halves also limit the
current in the shorted turns between A and B.
At the next stage (d) the main contact M has moved to tap B, so that it is once again carrying the load
current, but now from the new tap. P however is still on tap A, so that the current from the shorted turns is
limited by the upper half of the resistance.
Finally the moving member is at position (e), where the main contact M is on B and carrying the load, while
P and Q are out of contact, as they were in position (a), but now on the new tap.
During these transition stages the load current has never been interrupted, nor has the main contact ever been
called upon to break any large current. Moreover the current in the short-circuited turns is always limited by
one or both halves of the resistance.
In some designs of tap changer the transition resistors are replaced by reactors. These have a similar limiting
effect but are not a source of heat. They also cancel each other out magnetically in stage (c) when both are
sharing the load.
During stage (c) the full-load current passes momentarily through both halves of the resistance. To keep
them to a reasonable size, they must be short-rated. This poses the problem that, if the driving motor power
should be lost at the moment the mechanism reached stage (c), it would stick there and a rapid burnout of the
resistors would follow, with inevitable damage to the short-circuited turns. Steps must therefore be taken to
prevent this happening.
The philosophy is that the power to operate the tap changer mechanism must never do so directly but should
be used only to store energy. When a tap change is called for, that energy is released and is sufficient to
complete the change on its own, even if the external power supply fails.
The stored-energy tap changer mechanism is usually of one or two types spring-operated or flywheel-
operated. In the former a motor winds and charges a spring. A tap change cannot begin until the spring is
fully charged, and, once released, it completes the change on its own.
In the flywheel type a motor runs up a flywheel on receipt of a tap change signal. When the wheel is up to
full speed the motor is disconnected and a clutch engages. The kinetic energy of the flywheel completes the
change on its own. Nevertheless, an alarm and trip signal is generated if the tapping gets stuck and is
incomplete.
On-load tap changers and their operating mechanisms are usually separate assemblies bolted to the
transformer tank, through which the tappings form all three phases are brought out into the changer
compartment. This too is usually oil filled but separate from the main tank, so that the tap changer can be
drained for maintenance without having to drain the main tank.
Provision is made for manual operation, if that should be necessary, by inserting an operating handle. The
speed of the tap change remains the same as with power operation, since the same stored energy is released.

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FIGURE 1.8
AUTO TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

1.10 AUTO TRANSFORMERS

Where a transformer ratio is fairly close - for example 3:1 or less - there is much advantage in both cost and
weight in combining the primary and secondary windings, as in Figure 1.8(a). Such an arrangement is called
an ‘auto-transformer’.
In Figure 1.8(a) the secondary winding is combined with the primary, one terminal of each being common;
the other secondary terminal is effectively a tap on the primary winding. This arrangement gives a step-down
effect, like a potentiometer, depending on the primary/secondary turns ratio. Since the primary and
secondary currents are in opposition, the net current in the common part is less than the secondary current
alone. For example, if the primary current were 100A and the ratio 3:1, the secondary current would be
300A, and the net current in the common part would then be the difference, namely 200A. This part of the
winding could therefore be of lighter construction than would be needed if the transformer had been of the
normal double-wound type. Also, because of the closer linkage between the primary and secondary
windings, there is less leakage reactance, and the reactance of an auto-transformer is in general less than that
of its double-wound counterpart.
Although Figure 1.8(a) shows a voltage step-down arrangement, an can equally be used for stepping up
(unlike a potentiometer), as in Figure 1.8(b). This is possible because the primary flux still links the whole of
the secondary winding, so developing in it the full emf determined by the secondary turns. Use of an auto-
transformer is a very economical way of converting, for example, control supplies from 110V to 220V or
vice versa.
Because a double-wound transformer provides complete electrical isolation between the two sides, an earth
fault on one side is not carried over into the other. This is not the case however with an auto-transformer.
Both sides are electrically connected through the common terminal and the ‘tap’.

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It is important for reasons of safety that, if one line is earthed on one side, that earth should be applied to the
common terminal so that it is also applied to both sides, as shown in Figure 1.8(c). In that case, if the primary
voltage were 220V and the secondary 110V, the common earth would ensure that the ‘live’ secondary
terminal would never be more than 110V to earth.
A safety hazard would exist if an auto-transformer were wrongly connected, as shown in Figure 1.8(d). Here
the earthed line is not the common one, with the result that there is now no direct earth on the 110V system,
one line being at 110V and the other at 220V to earth - a possibly dangerous situation when the secondary
circuit is switched in one pole only.
This error can easily arise when domestic equipment which has been designed for the USA 110V system is
adapted to operate from the UK 240V supply. Any such adaptations should always be carefully checked for
polarity.

1.11 TRANSFORMER TESTING

1.11.1 Manufacturers’ Tests

All power transformers are subjected to extensive tests by the manufacturers before delivery to the customer.
While Shell operators and maintenance staff are not responsible for carrying out these tests, it is obviously an
advantage to have some knowledge of them. They are summarised below. If more details are required,
references should be made to BS 171 : 1980 and IEC 76 - Specification for Power Transformers.
Tests by the manufacturer are of three kinds:
Routine A test to which each individual transformer is subjected.
Type A test made on a transformer which is representative of other transformers, to demonstrate
that they comply with specified requirements not covered by routine tests.
Special A test other than a type test or a routine test, agreed by the manufacturer and the purchaser,
and applicable only to one or more transformers of a particular contract.
Routine tests comprise:
a) Measurement of winding resistance, using a d.c. source and taking account of temperature.
b) Ratio, polarity and phase relationships, in which the voltage ratio is measured on each tapping. The
polarity of single-phase transformers and the vector group symbol of 3-phase transformers are
checked.
c) Impedance voltage, using an a.c. source at the rated frequency, and carried out between pairs of
windings. Impedance voltage is defined in para 1.4.
d) Load losses, at rated frequency and carried out between pairs of windings.
e) No-load losses and no-load current, measured at rated voltage and frequency.
f) Induced overvoltage withstand: a test of dielectric insulation using a source of higher-than-rated
frequency to avoid excessive excitation current.
g) Separate source voltage withstand: similar to (f) but using a source not less than 80% of the rated
frequency.
h) The insulation resistance of each winding in turn to all other windings, core and frame or tank, all
connected together and to earth. (Note: Where windings are star-connected or delta-connected inside
the transformer, phase-to-phase insulation tests cannot be carried out).

Type tests and special tests are made only if specified by the purchaser. They include:
j) Temperature rise test.
k) Impulse-voltage withstand tests (with and without chopped waves).
l) Measurement of zero-phase sequence impedance.

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1.11.2 Users’ Tests

Shell operators and maintenance staff, while not responsible for the manufacturers’ tests referred to above,
are required to apply certain routine checks and tests to power transformers at the intervals laid down in the
appropriate maintenance schedules.
These routine tests include:
a) Visual examination of the transformer and its earthing resistor (if any), cable connections and
earthing arrangements for tightness, mechanical damage, corrosion and signs of overheating.
b) Checking the oil level and inspecting for leaks and clear drains.
c) High-voltage insulation resistance test on the HV windings.
d) Low-voltage insulation resistance test on the LV windings.
e) Simulation of overtemperature and overpressure by manual operation of the protection devices, and
checking that the alarm indications appear and the circuit-breaker trips.

1.12 TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

The protection of electrical installations, including transformers, against damage caused by overload or fault
conditions is described in the manual ‘Electrical Protection’ B-3. To summarise, the protection provided for
transformers may consist of one or more of the following:
HV Side Overcurrent
Earth fault
LV Side Restricted earth fault
General Overpressure (‘Qualitrol’)
Overtemperature
Buchholz (oil-filled only)
Differential
Surge arresters

1.13 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

There is a range of small transformers, other than power transformers, which are used to operate measuring
instruments, meters and protective relays. They comprise voltage transformers (VT) and current transformers
(CT). See Electrical Theory A3 and Electrical Protection B3.

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CHAPTER 2 - PARALLEL OPERATION OF TRANSFORMERS

2.1 GENERAL
It is generally the case that one or more transformers may operate in parallel to improve the reliability of the
supply. Thus, depending upon the security criteria to be met, a load of a given value can continue to be
supplied when one or more of the transformers is out of service.
To be able to operate in parallel certain criteria have to be met as shown below.

2.2 CRITERIA
The criteria to be met are as follows:
- Same or compatible vector group e.g. Dy11 and Yz11
- The winding(s) to be paralleled have the same rated voltage
- Same tapping range
- Same phase sequence and polarity
- Same or very similar percentage impedance on rating
All this data is generally given on the nameplate. Thus making sure that transformers are specified
identically, or the nameplates read identically, the transformers may be paralleled. And during
commissioning proper measurement should be made to ensure that paralleling is possible.
But, if in doubt, don’t!
The transformers will share the load in accordance with their rated kVA and impedance.
However, how would the transformers share the load in the event that one unit did not have the same
percentage impedances as the other(s) but in all other respects were similar?
This situation could arise when there was a need to meet an extra load before it was possible to acquire
another wholly suitable transformer. Alternatively it could arise if one transformer failed and there was a
need to replace it with another readily available transformer which had a different impedance value.
The example below shows how to calculate the effect of paralleling two transformers of dissimilar
percentage impedance.

2.3 PROCEDURE
- Firstly take the nameplate percentage impedances of each transformer and divide by 100 to convert
to per unit values
- Express the per unit values of impedance to a convenient kVA base e.g. the rating of the largest
transformer
- Using Ohm’s Law calculate in the normal way how the total load will simply divide between wholly
reactive impedances

2.4 EXAMPLE
No 1 transformer : 2000kVA having a percentage reactance of 7% (1.52 ohms at 6.6kV)
No 2 transformer : 2000kVA having a percentage reactance of 5% (1.1 ohms at 6.6kV)
Load to be shared 3500kVA
Assuming that the transformers have the same ratio and are operating on the same nominal tap.

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FIGURE 2.0
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TWO TRANSFORMERS IN PARALLEL
Load through No 1 = Error! x 3500
2000kVA transformer
= 1458kVA
Load through No 2 = Error! x 3500
2000kVA transformer
= 2042kVA
Theoretically No 2 transformer is overloaded and for this not to be the case the load should be reduced to
(Error!x 3500) = 3428kVA
In fact a much higher overload could be permitted if it were not continuous, see Figure 2.1.

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FIGURE 2.1
BASIS FOR CALCULATING TRANSFORMER LOADING
(IEC 354 : 1972)

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CHAPTER 3 - TRANSFORMER MAINTENANCE

3.1 TYPES OF TRANSFORMER

The main difference between transformers is the insulation medium and the method of cooling.
It should be noted that sealed transformers are maintenance free.

3.1.1 Oil Insulated Transformers (Conservator type)

Oil insulated and air cooled are the most common, and the maintenance of such is usually confined to the
condition of the oil. The most important factors are:
a) Operating temperature
b) Atmospheric conditions
c) Electric strength
d) Presence of moisture
e) Acidity
f) Sludge precipitation
Transformer oil should be sampled 3 months after the first filling and tested further as follows:
a) Transformers in foggy or moisture laden atmosphere or located in a housing with restricted
ventilation - every 12 months.
b) Transformers in well ventilated clean atmosphere - every 18 months.

3.1.2 Operating Temperature and Atmospheric Conditions

Oil deterioration is accelerated by:
1) Prolonged high operating oil temperature (oil sludging develops when temperatures of 75°C and
above are maintained for long periods).
2) Poor ventilation of substation, resulting in damp and/or stagnant air which may cause condensation
and/or corrosion inside the cover if this tank is of the non-conservator type. Such condensation is
liable to promote the development of acidity and sludging.
Where high temperature or poor atmospheric conditions are unavoidable the transformer should be
inspected more frequently than stated above.

3.1.3 Electrical Strength and Presence of Moisture

The electric strength is considerably reduced by included moisture or fibres and particularly by a
combination of both.
The electric strength test on the oil should be carried out by means of test cell specified in BS 5874 Method
of Determination of the Electric Strength of Insulating Oils. The oil should withstand 30kV for one minute.
The temperature at which the electric strength test is made should be measured. If the oil fails to withstand
30kV for one minute and if the temperature is outside the limits 15-25°C plus of minus 5°C, the presence of
moisture can readily be detected by the crackle test. A failure on the electric strength test, or the presence of
moisture as indicated by the crackle test, should be taken as an indication that treatment is required. Dust or
fibres are not so easily detected but the periodic treatment of the oil to maintain the electric strength will
usually ensure adequate freedom from such impurities.

3.1.4 Treatment of Transformer Oil

The contamination of transformer oil is usually due to the presence of moisture or other foreign matter held
in suspension. In this case the oil can be reconditioned by means of passing the oil through an oil cleaning
centrifuge plant of the Hopkinson, de Laval or other manufacture. With these types of plant, the centrifuge
bowl can be set up either as a purifier (for very wet oils) or as a clarifier (for oils which are not very wet). A
filter press is also sometimes used instead of a centrifuge plant.

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3.1.5 Acidity
The large majority of transformers are reasonably free from acidity, but occasionally a unit will develop this
trouble, which tends to increase rapidly once it has started. It is frequently accompanied by a pungent odour,
consequently, if such an odour or appreciable corrosion under the cover is noted during routine inspection,
immediate action should be taken to have the oil tested thoroughly. It is reasonable practice to limit the
acidity of the oil to a neutralisation value of 0.3mg KOH per gramme of oil. Above this value the frequency
of tests should be increased and if it is found to exceed 0.5mg KOG/g the oil should be replaced.
Regular filtration checks the development of the acidity but is not effective in removing acid once it has
formed. To remove acid the oil may be returned to the oil suppliers for reconditioning, or new oil may be
provided, but in either case the lower the acidity at the time of changing the oil, the less will the new filling
be affected by acid absorption from the core and windings.
If the acidity is allowed to exceed 0.5mg KOH/g there is considerable risk of sludge precipitation and/or
corrosion of metal surfaces above oil level by condensed acidic vapours, also it may not be satisfactory or
economic to recondition the oil.
When the oil is removed, the core, coils and tank interior should be thoroughly washed down, preferably
using a pressure jet of warm clean new oil to remove as much as possible of the old acid oil.

3.1.6 Sludging
In service the oil in a transformer may deposit sludge, which adheres to the core and windings and tends to
choke the oil circulating ducts. This results in higher core and winding temperature with the formation of still
more sludge, the action being cumulative. The sludge is always far more acid than the oil, and if present
should be removed by washing all parts with a pressure jet of warm clean new oil. It should be noted that
sludge generally hardens when exposed to the atmosphere and it is recommended that cleaning should be
done immediately upon removal of the core and coils from the oil.

3.1.7 Flash Point of Oil

Care is necessary at all times when opening up a transformer, irrespective of the flash point of the oil,
because oil under normal working conditions may give off vapour which, when mixed with air, may result in
an explosive mixture.
Discharge under oil may result in the flash point being reduced but after a relatively short time it may
increase again.
The structure of the hydrocarbons of the oil can be changed by subjection to a very high temperature, with
formation of hydrogen gaseous hydro-carbons, carbon and oils of lowered flash point. This so-called
‘cracking’ may have occurred if there has been any abnormal local heating or arcing under oil, as might
occur under an internal fault condition. Special precautions should therefore be taken, particularly if the oil
has been drained from the tank, to avoid the risk of fire or explosion if an internal fault is suspected to have
occurred.

3.1.8 Cast Resin Transformers

The cast resin transformers are also maintenance free, with the exception of cleaning and normal operating
inspection to ensure the unit has not been overloaded.
Every 12 months, clean by blowing out. Check the earthing and all terminations, and remedy deteriorating
paintwork.

3.2 WINDING TEMPERATURE INDICATORS

A temperature sensing probe is carefully placed at a point of the transformer body which will be proportional
to the running load temperature of the transformer. This temperature probe is fed to the winding temperature
device which has a temperature compensation pocket. This pocket will also have an electric heater element
which is energised from a load measuring current transformer of one of the outgoing phases. The insulant
temperature rise and the measured secondary load are therefore combined to give a “Winding Temperature
Indication”. The operation of the WTI can be tested by a current injection into heater element. This should be
carried out between 12 and 18 months.

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3.3 GAS OPERATED RELAYS

Oil transformers are protected by a Buchholz relay which is a combined oil level detector and a gas pressure
surge detector.
The relay is injected by the slow injection of air into the unit to lower the oil level and operate the alarm. The
unit is then bled to release the injected air and so allow the oil to refill. An alarm contact is monitored for
falling and rising oil level. The relay is then injected by a vast flow of air at a measured pressure. The
minimum pressure required to cause trip operation is recorded. The alarm level operating points and the
pressure injected to cause trip operation will be established at commissioning and repeated every 12 months.

3.4 FORCED COOLING

The WTI is used to provide stages of switching for fan and/or pumps to provide cooling. The transformer
will be rated in accordance with the cooling method. If the cooling system is not available the transformer
operation must be confined to the lower rating. The cooling system should be checked every 12 months.

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