Eduwaves360-Experiments Instruments E

JEE (MAIN+ADVANCED)
EXPERIMENTS & INSTRUMENTS

JEE (MAIN+ADVANCED)

CONTENT
S.No Pages
1. Theory 2 – 73
2. Exercise -1 74 – 84
3. Exercise -2 84 – 87
4. Answer key 88
Experiments & Instruments

1. SIMPLE PENDULUM
AIM
To study dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square of amplitude
and time.
APPARATUS
Ticker timer, paper tape, meter scale, thread, clamp, metallic brick as bob, clamps, split cork and a
spring balance.
THEORY
The energy of a simple harmonic oscillator is directly proportional to square of its amplitude. When
the bob of a simple pendulum is set into vibrations, its amplitude goes on decreasing with time due to
friction of air and friction at the point of support. Such vibrations whose amplitude decreases with
time due to some dissipative force are called damped vibrations. The vibrations of simple pendulum
are also damped vibrations.
At any time t the energy Et is given by Et = E.e–t, where  is the decay constant and energy E is given
1
by E = KA2 where A is the amplitude and K is force constant.
2
Split Cork
Stand
Thread
Clamps
Metallic
Brick
Ticker Paper Tape
Timer
PROCEDURE
1. Find the mass of the metallic brick by the spring balance.
2. Fix the clamp stand on the edge of the table with the help of clamps.
3. The one end of the thread with the metallic brick and pass the other end of the thread through the split
cork hold the cork in the clamp stand.
4. Fix the ticker timer at the same height above the ground on the brick is attach the paper tape at the
centre of the brick with the help of the cello tape. The ticker timer places a dot on the paper tape after
regular interval of time. This time interval is much less than the time period.
5. Pull the brick towards the ticker timer and taut the paper tape. Start the ticker timer and release the
brick.
6. As the brick reaches the outer extreme switch off the ticker timer. Till now, the ticker timer has left
many dots on the paper tape.
BANSAL CLASSES Private Ltd. ‘Bansal Tower’, A-10, Road No.-1, I.P.I.A., Kota-05 Page # 2
7. Remove the paper tape. The pattern of dots obtained on the tape will be as shown below
C A B Paper tape
8. Mark the central dot A and the extreme dots B and C corrensponding to the extreme positions of the
mettllick brick.
9. Measure the distance of the dots from the central dotA. This is the amplitude. Continue measuring the
amplitudes after regular interval of time. Due to damping, the amplitude decreases with time.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of for spring balance = ....... kg
Corrected mass of the metallic block = m = ...... kg
Time period of ticker-timer (one tick) = ...... sec
Length of simple pendulum, = L = ........ m
2
Side from central dot S. no. of dot from Dis placement from (A mplitude) Time Interval
central dot (A ) central dot A (m) = t = No. of dot x time period

A mplitude
1
Right 2
3
1
Left 2
3
GRAPH
Y
2
A
X
O t
From the graph it is clear that Energy  (Amp)2 and the energy of the pendulum decreases with time.
PRECAUTIONS
1. An inextensible and string thread should be used for making the pendulum.
2. The lower faces of the split cork should lie in the same horizontal plane.
3. The amplitude of ocsillation should be kept small.
4. The experiment should be performed at a place which in free from any air disturbance.
5. The metallic brick should be suspended close to the ground.
6. The metallic brick should move along the refrence line without any jerkey motion.
RESULT
This shows that the energy is being transferred from kinetic to potential and vice versa. From the
above graph it is proved that there is dissipation of energy during SHM of simple pendulum.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Pendulum support should be rigid.
2. The amplitude should remain small.
3. Pendulum should be sufficiently long (about 2 metres)
4. Pulling string should be used to avoid spinning of the metallic block.
5. Paper tape should be attached to the centre of the bottom of the block.
SOURCE OF ERROR
1. The support may not be fully rigid.
2. Movement of metallic block may not be proper.
2. METRE SCALE
AIM
To determine the mass of a given body using a metre scale by principle of moments.
APPARATUS
A metre scale, a broad heavy wedge with sharp edge, a weight box, a body of unknown mass.
THEORY
Metre scale as a beam balance :
(a) Introduction : Like a physical balance, a metre scale can be used as a beam balance making use of
the same principle of moments.
Besides it has adjustable power arm and weight arm about fulcrum whose length can be adjusted.
(b) Diagram : See fig.
0 20 50 60 70 80 90 100
Unknown body Paper pan

Standard weights
mg
Wedge Mg
Figure (a) Metre-scale balance.
Power and weight arms of equal length.
0 20 50 60 70 80 90 100
Unknown body Paper pan

Standard weights
mg
Wedge Mg
Figure (b) Metre-scale balance.
Power and weight arms of unequal length.
(c) Construction (Arrangement) : The metre scale is balanced by putting its 50 cm mark over the
sharp edge of a heavy broad wedge which works as fulcrum. In this position the weight of the metre
scale and reaction of the wedge, balance each other.
(d) Working : The body is tied to a strong and light thread loop and suspended on the left of the wedge
on some fixed mark. (Say 20 cm in diagram)
A light paper pan is suspended by a strong and light thread on the right. Weights are put on the pan.
The position of the loop of the pan and weight in it are so adjusted that the metre scale becomes
horizontal again.
Position of thread of the loops and the amount of weights in the pan are noted.
Mass of the body is calculated using following theory.
(e) Theory : If m and M be the mass of the body and mass of the weight used and a1 and a2 be the
distance of their loops from wedge. Then, power (mass) arm = a1, weight arm = a2
From principle of moments mg a1 = Mg a2
Ma 2
or m= , which can be calculated.
a1
(f) Two different methods :
(i) Arm lengths fixed and equal and weight adjustable.
The thread loops are suspended at position forming both arm of equal length. Weights in the paper
pan are adjusted till the metre scale becomes horizontal. (figure (a)).
In this case a1 = a2 = a
Hence, mga1 = Mga2
or m =M
A physical balance makes use of this method.
(ii) Masses and power arm fixed and weight arm adjustable.
Mass is suspended at a fixed distance a1.
Length of power arm is adjusted by moving weight loop thread in and out till the metre scale becomes
horizontal (figure (b))
In this case a1 = a, a2 = A
Hence mga1 = Mga2, becomes mg a = MgA
A
or m =M
a
PROCEDURE
(i) First method
1. Arrange the metre scale horizontally by supporting it at the sharp edge of the broad heavy wedge at
50 cm mark.
2. Suspended the body of unknown mass by a loop thread at a fixed mark on the left of the wedge.
3. Suspended paper pan at same distance on the right of the wedge with some weights in it.
4. Adjust the weights in paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the mass of the weights in the pan.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three time by increasing the length of the arms in equal steps keeping the lengths
equal.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS
S. No. Length of weight M as s of W eight in the Unknown mas s
(or power) arm Paper pan (body)
a (cm) M (g) m(g)
1. 30 M 1 = 20 m1 = M 1 = 20
2. 35 M 2 = 20 m2 = M 2 = 20
3. 40 M 3 = 20 m3 = M 3 = 20
(Note : Observations are as sample)

m1  m 2  m 3
Mean mass, m= g = ... g
3
It will be found that M1 = M2 = M3 = m in all cases.
RESULT
The unknown mass of the body, m = 20 g
(ii) Second method
1, 2. Step 1 and 2 of first method.
3. Suspend the paper pan on the right of the wedge with some known weight in it.
4. Adjust the distance of the paper pan till the metre scale becomes horizontal.
5. Note the position of the paper pan and thus length of the weight arm.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5, three times by increasing the mass of the weights by equal amount.
7. Record the observations as given below in table.
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Fixed length of power arm = a = 25 cm
S. No. Mass of weight Length of the Unknown mass
in the paper pan Weight arm (body)
M(g) A(cm) m(g)
M1A 1
1. 20 A 1 = 30 m1 = = 24
a
M2 A 2
2. 30 A 2 = 20 m2 = = 24
a
M3 A 3
3. 40 A 3 = 15 m3 = = 24
a
(Note : Observations are as sample)

m1  m 2  m 3
Mean mass, m= g = ... g
3
It will be found that m1 = m2 = m3 = m in all cases.
RESULT
The unknown mass of the body, m = 24 g
PRECAUTIONS
1. The wedge should be broad and heavy with sharp edge.
2. Metre scale should have uniform mass distribution.
3. Threads used for loops should be thin, light and strong.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wedge may not be sharp.
2. Metre scale may have faulty calibration.
3. The threads used for loops may be thick and heavy.
3. DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS BY SEARLE’S METHOD

AIM
Determine Young's modulus of the material of a given wire by using Searle's apparatus.
APPARATUS
Searle's apparatus, two long steel wires, a screw gauge, a metre rod, slotted weights and hanger.
THEORY
The experimental setupconsists of twoidentical wires P andQ of uniform
cross section suspended from a fixed rigid support. The free ends of these
parallel wires are connected to a frame F as shown in the figure. The
length of the wire Q remains fixed while the load L attached to the wire P
through the frame F is varied in equal steps so as to produce extension
along .the length. The extension thus produced is measured with the help
of spirit level SL and micrometer screw M attached to the F frame on the
side ofthe experimental wire.On placingthe slotted weights on the hanger
H upto a permissible value (half of the breaking force) the wire gets
extended bysmallamountandthespiritlevelgets disturbedfromhorizontal
setting.Thisincreaseinlengthismeasuredbyturningthemicrometerscrew
M upwards so as to restore the balance of the spirit level. If n be the
number of turns of the micrometer screw and f be the difference in the cap
reading, the increase in length M is obtained by
l = n × pitch + f × least count
In some situations, the change in length is obtained by vernier arrangement instead of the screw gauge.
The load on the hanger is reduced in the same steps and spirit level is restored to horizontal position. The
mean of these two observations gives the true increase in length of the wire corresponding to the given
value of load. This is to eliminate the effect of hysterisis.
Auxiliary wire (fixed length)

Q P Experimental wire (both uniform cross-section)
Rectangular metal frame

Frame ‘R’
F1 F2
bubble
Spirit level
Fixed end of frame
Free end of frame resting on micrometer
Micrometer screw
Hanger
Slotted Weights (W) are put here
Attachment to prevent load from falling
Dead Weight (L)
From the data obtained, a graph showing extension (l) against the load (W) is plotted which is obtained
as a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the line gives
l l
tan   
W Mg
Mg l
Now, stress = 2 and strain =
r L
MgL L
Y = Stress/ strain = 2 = 2
r l r tan θ
With known values of initial length L, radius r of the experimental wire and tan,Young’s modulusYcan
be calculated.
PROCEDURE
Table : Measurement of Extension with Load.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Remove the kinks in the wire by loading and unloading it before starting the experiement.
2. Do not load the wire beynod one-third of the breaking stress.
3. Measure the diameter at 10 different places and at each place in two mutually perpendiclar directions.
4. The load should be changed in equal steps of 0.5 kg and it should be added or removed very gently.
5. To avoid back lash error, the screw should always be turned in the same direction.
6. While calculating extension for varieous loads, the difference between consecutive readings should
never be taken but difference between the 6th and 1st, 7th and 2nd and so on the taken. In this way
all the reading will be utilised.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The experimental wire may not have a uniform area of cross-section throughout its length.
2. The diameter of the wire may decrease when loaded.
3. The slotted weights may not be standard weights.
4. SURFACE TENSION
AIM
To determine the surface tension of water by capillary rise method.
APPARATUS
Three capillary tubes of different radii and a tipped pointer clamped in a metallic plate with a handle,
travelling microscope, clamp and stand, a fine motion adjustable height stand, a flat bottom open dish,
clean water in a beaker, thermometer.
THEORY
Rise of liquid level in a capillary tube (Ascent formula) :
Let a capillary tube be dipped in a liquid which makes concave meniscus in the tube. Due to surface
tension, the tube molecules exert a force T on the liquid molecules in the unit length of the circle of
contact of the liquid surface with the tube. This force acts at an angle  (angle of contact) with the wall
of the vessel [fig. (a)]. Components T sin  perpendicular to the wall of the tube cancel for the whole
circle. Component T cos along the wall of the tube become added. For the tube of radius r, the circle
of contact has circumference 2r and the upward force on all molecules becomes 2rT cos .
It is this upward force that pulls the liquid upward in the capillary tube. The liquid rises in the capillary
tube upto a height till the weight of the liquid risen equals this force.
Let the liquid rise upto a height h(as measured for the lower meniscus B) and let the meniscus ABC
have hemispherical shape [Fig. (b)].
Then, voume of the liquid risen upto lower meniscus = r2h.
Volume of liquid in meniscus above B [Fig. (b)]
= Volume of cylinder of radius and height r – Volume of hemisphere of radius r
2 1
= r2 . r – r3 = r3
3 3
T cos  T cos 
 
A C
T sin  r T sin 
 B 
T T
h
A r D r C
B
(a) (b)
Fig. : Water level rising in a glass capillary tube

Total volume of the liquid risen

1  r
= r2h + r3 = r2 h  
3  3
If liquid has a density , then

 r
mass of liquid risen = r2 h   
 3
  r
and weight of the liquid risen = r2 h  3  g
 
For equilibrium,
 r 2T cos  r
r2 h   g = 2r T cos  or h= –
 3 rg 3
1
[From above we find that h  , i.e., liquid rises more in a capillary tube of small radius]
r
(h  r / 3)rg
Also, T =
2 cos 
Measuring height h of liquid risen in capillary tube and knowing other quantities, surface tension of
liquid (T), can be calculated.
r hrg
[In practice, is neglected as compared to h, then T = ]
3 2 cos 
TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
Q
Eye-Piece
E
Compound Microscope
Q R
Objective O
Main Scale
P
P
V
L L
Fig: Travelling microscope
A travelling microscope is a device which is used for the accurate measurement of very small distances.
Basically, it is a compound microscope fixed on a strong metallic horizontal platform which can be
balanced with the help of levelling screws L and L [Fig. (2)]. The compound microscope has ability
to slide or travel both along horizontal and vertical levels. Due to the horizontal or vertical travelling of
the microscope, we have named it as a travelling microscope.
The compound microscope consists of two convex lenses called objective O which is placed closed
to the object and eye-piece E placed near the eye of an observer. The objective O is a simple convex
lens small aperture and a small focal length. These two lenses are placed in two distinct tubes placed
coaxially. To focus object the tubes can be moved by using a rack and pinion arrangement R. The
microscope has a crosswire in front of eye-piece which serves as a reference mark. The object to be
seen is placed in front of the objective and the image is viewed through the eye piece. The final image
fomed is virtual, magnified and inverted.
The distance through which the microscope moves can be read with the help of a vernier scale (V)
moves with the microscope along with the scale engraved on the frame work. The horizontal movement
of microscope is done with the help of screw P in the [Fig. 6. (2)] and the vertical movement of
microscope is done with the help of screw Q whereas the horizontal and vertical shifting for fine
adjustment microscope can be done with the help of fine screws P and Q.
PROCEDURE
DIAGRAM
Capillary
tubes
Handle
Clamp Metallic
plate
Pointer
Stand Dish
Adjustable
stand
Fig. : Measurement of surface tension by capillary rise method
(a) Setting the apparatus

1. Place the adjustable height stand on the table and make its base horizontal by levelling screws.
2. Take dirt and grease free water in an open dish with flat bottom and put it on the top of the stand.
3. Take three capillary tubes of different radii (ranging from 0.05 mm to 0.15 mm).
4. Clean and dry them, clamp the capillary tubes in a metallic plate in order of increasing radius. Also
clamp a pointer after third capillary tube.
5. Clamp the horizontal handle of the metallic plate in a vertical stand, so that the capillary tubes and the
pointer become vertical.
6. So adjust the height of metallic plate that the capillary tubes dip in water in open dish.
7. Adjust the position of the pointer, such that its tip just touches the water surface.
(b) Measurement of capillary rise
8. Find the least count of the travelling microscope for the horizontal and the vertical scale. Record the
same in the note-book.
9. Raise the microscope to a suitable height, keeping its axis horizontal and pointed towards the capillary
tubes.
10. Bring the microscope in front of first capillary tube (which has maximum rise).
11. Make the horizontal cross wire just touch the central part of the concave meniscus (seen convex
through microscope [fig. (b)]
12. Note the reading of the position of the microscope on the vertical scale.
13. Now move the microscope horizontally and bring it in front of the second capillary tube.
14. Lower the microscope and repeat steps 11 and 12.
15. Repeat steps 13 and 14 for third capillary tube.
16. Lower the stand so that pointer tip becomes visible.
17. Move the miscroscope horizontally and bring it in front of the pointer.
18. Lower the microscope and make the horizontal cross wire touch the tip of the pointer. Repeat step
12.
(c) Measurement of the internal diameter of the capillary tube.
C D
Capillary
B tube
Fig. (a) Fig. (b) Fig.(c)

19. Place the first capillary tube horizontally on the adjustable stand.
20. Focus the microscope on the end dipped in water. A white circle (inner bore) surrounded by a green
circular strip (glass cross-section) will be seen [fig. (c)].
21. Make horizontal cross-wire touch the inner circle at A. Note microscope reading on vertical scale.
22. Raise the microscope to make the horizontal cross-wire touch the circle at B. Note the reading (the
difference gives the vertical internal diameter AB of the capillary tube).
23. Move the microscope on horizontal scale and make the vertical cross wire touch the inner circle at C.
Note microscope reading on horizontal scale.
24. Move the microscope to the right to make the vertical cross-wire touch the circle at D. Note the
reading (the difference gives the horizontal internal diameter CD of the capillary tube).
25. Repeat steps 19 to 24 for other two capillary tubes.
26. Note temperature of water in dish.
27. Record your observations as given below.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of travelling microscope (L.C.) = ..... cm.
Table for height of liquid ris e
Reading of Menis cus Reading of Pointer Tip
Serial Total Total Height
No. of M.S.R V.S.R. Reading M.S.R V.S.R. Reading h 1 – h 2
Capillary N n × (L.C.) N + n(L. C.) N n × (L.C.) N + n(L. C.)
tube (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) = h (cm)
h 1 (cm) h 2 (cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.
Table for internal diameter of the capillary tube
Microscope Reading for cross

Internal Diameter
Serial Wire in position
Internal radius
No. of
Mean
Capillary Vertical Horizontal d
(A) (B) (C) (D) AB CD = r (cm)
tube AB CD 2
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) 2
(cm) (cm)
d(cm)
(1) (2a) (2b) (2c) (2d) (3a) (3b) (3c) (4)
1.
2.
3.
Temperature of water, (t) = .... ºC.

Density of water at observed temperature,  = .... g cm–3
Angle of contact of water in glass,  = 8º
i.e., cos  = 0.99027 taken as 1.
CALCULATIONS
r ( h  r / 3)g
From formula, T =
2 cos 
Put values of h (column 4-first table) and r (column 4-second table) for each capillary tube separately
and find the value of T (in dynes cm–1).
Find mean value,
T1  T2  T3
T = = ....... dynes cm–1.
3
RESULT
The surface tension of water at tºC = ....... dynes cm–1.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Capillary tube and water should be free from grease.
2. Capillary tube should be set vertical.
3. Microscope should be moved in lower direction only to avoid back lash error.
4. Internal diameter of capillary tube should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions.
5. Temperature of water should be noted.
SOURCES OF ERROR
Water and capillary tube may not be free from grease.
5. COEFFICIENT OF VISCOSITY
AIM
To determine the coefficient of viscosity of a given viscous liquid by measuring the terminal velocity of
a given spherical body.
APPARATUS
A half metre high, 5 cm broad glass cylindrical jar with millimetre graduations alongits height, transparent
viscous liquid, one steel ball, screw gauge, stop clock/watch, thermometer, clamp with stand.
THEORY
Terminal velocity :
(a) Definition : The maximum velocity acquired by the body, falling freely in a viscous medium, is called
terminal velocity.
(b) Expression : Considering a small sphere of radius r of density  falling freely in a viscous medium
(liquid) of density . The forces acting on it are :
4 3
The weight of the sphere acting downward = r g
3
4 3
The upward thrust = Weight of the liquid displaced by the sphere = r g
3
The effective downward force,
4 3 4
mg = r g – r3g
3 3
4 3
= r ( – ) g
3
Upward force of viscosity, F = 6rv
When the downward force is balanced by the upward force of viscosity, the body falls down with a
constant velocity, called terminal velocity.
Hence, with terminal velocity,
4 3
6rv = r ( – ) g
3
2
2 r (  )g
or Terminal velocity, v = 
9
This is the required expression.
2
2 r (  )g
Terminal velocity v =
9 
2 r 2 (  )g
or =
9 v
knowing r,  and , and measuring v,  can be calculated.
DIAGRAM
Clamp
Thermometer
Liquid
Stand
Steel ball
Glass
cylinder
Scale
PROCEDURE
1. Clean the glass jar and fill it with the viscous liquid, which must be transparent.
2. Check that the vertical scale along the height of the jar is clearly visible. Note its least count.
3. Test the stop clock/watch for its tight spring. Find its least count and zero error (if any)
4. Find and note the least count and zero error of the screw gauge.
5. Determine mean radius of the ball.
6. Drop the ball gently in the liquid. It falls down in the liquid with accelerated velocity for about one-
third of the height. Then it falls with uniform terminal velocity.
7. Start the stop clock/watch when the ball reaches some convenient division (20 cm; 25 cm; .....).
8. Stop the stop clock/watch just when the ball reaches lowest convenient division (45 cm).
9. Find and note the distance fallen and time taken by the ball.
10. Repeat steps 6 to 9 two times more.
11. Note and record temperature of the liquid.
12. Record your observations as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of vertical scale = .... mm.
Least count of stop clock/watch = .... s.
Zero error of stop clock/watch = .... s.
Pitch of the screw (p) = 1 mm.
Number of divisions on the circular scale = 100
1
Least count of screw gauge (L.C.) = = 0.01 mm
100
Zero error of screw gauge (e) = .... mm.
zero correction of screw gauge (C) = (–e) = .......... mm
Diameter of spherical ball
(i) Along one direction, D1 = .... mm
(ii) In perpendicular direction, D2 = .... mm
Terminal velocity of spherical ball
Distance fallen S = .... cm
Time taken, t1 = .... s
t2 = .... s
t3 = .... s
CALCULATIONS
D1  D 2
Mean diameter D= mm
2
D
Mean radius r = mm = .... cm
2
t t t
Mean time t = 1 2 3 = .... s
3
S
Mean terminal velocity,v = = .... cm s–1
t
2r 2 (  ) g
From formula, = = .... C.G.S. units.
9v
RESULT
The coefficient of viscosity of the liquid at temperature (ºC) = .... C.G.S. units.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Liquid should be transparent to watch motion of the ball.
2. Balls should be perfectly spherical.
3. Velocity should be noted only when it becomes constant.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The liquid may have nonuniform density.
2. The balls may not be perfectly spherical.
3. The noted velocity may not be constant.
6. PLOTTING A COOLING CURVE

AIM
To study the relationship between the temperature of a hot body and time by plotting a cooling curve.
APPARATUS
Newton’s law of cooling apparatus (a thin-walled copper calorimeter suspended in a double walled
enclosure) two thermometers, clamp and stand, stop clock/watch.
THEORY
Newton was the first person to investigate the heat lost by a body in air. He found that the rate of loss
of heat is proportional to the excess temperature over the surroundings. This result, called Newton’s
law of cooling, is approximately true in still air only for a temperature excess of 20 K or 30 K.
Consider a hot body at a temperature T placed in surroundings at temperature T0.
dQ
Rate of loss of heat = –
dt
dQ
Using Newton’s law of cooling, –  (T – T0)
dt
dQ
or = – k (T – T0), where k is a constant of proportionality whose value depends upon the area and
dt
nature of surface of the body.
If the temperature of the body falls by a small amount dT in time dt, then
dQ = mcdT
where m is the mass of the body and c is the specific heat of the material of the body.
dT
Now, mc = – k(T – T0)
dt
dT k
or =– (T – T0)
dt mc
dT  k 
or = – K(T – T0) Here, K  mc  cons tan t 
dt  
The negative sign indicates a decrease in temperature with time.
Again, dT = – K dt
T  T0
1
Integrating,  T  T dT = – K  dt
0
or loge (T – T0) = – Kt + C ......(1)

where C is a constant of integration.
Y
loge (T – T0)
t X
This is the equation of a straight line having nagative slope (– K) and intercept C on Y-axis. Figure
shows the graph of loge (T – T0) versus time t. While t has been treated as the x-variable, loge (T –
T0) has been treated as the y-variable.
If Tm is the maximum temperature of hot body, then at t = 0 from equation (i)
log (Tm – T0) = C
 log (T – T0) – log (Tm – T0) = – kt
 T  T0 
log  T  T  = – kt
 m 0 
T  T0
Tm  T0 = e–kt
so (T – T0) = (Tm – T0) e–kt
Clamp
 
Stirrer
Lid
Hot water
Stand Calorimeter
Double walled
container
Cooling Calorimeter
PROCEDURE
1. Fill the space between double wall of the enclosure with water and put the enclosure on a laboratory
table.
2. Fill the calorimeter two-third with water heated to about 80°C.
3. Suspend the calorimeter inside the enclosure along with a stirrer in it. Cover it with a wooden lid
having a hole in its middle.
4. Suspend from clamp and stand, one thermometer in enclosure water and the other in calorimeter
water.
5. Note least count of the thermometers.
6. Set the stop clock/watch at zero and note its least count.
7. Note temperature (T0) of water in enclosure.
8. Start stirring the water in calorimeter to make it cool uniformly.
9. Just when calorimeter water has some convenient temperature reading (say 70°C), note it and start
the stop clock/watch.
10. Continue stirring and note temperature after every 5 minutes . The temperature falls quickly in the
beginning.
11. Note enclosure water temperature after every five minutes.
12. When fall of temperature becomes slow note temperature at interval of two minutes for 10 minutes
and then at interval of 5 minutes.
13. Stop when fall of temperature becomes very slow.
14. Record your observations as given ahead.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of enclosure water thermometer = .............°C
Least count of calorimeter water thermometer = .............°C
Least count of stop clock/watch = ............ s.
Table for time and temperature
Serial No. Time for cooling Temperature of Temperature of water Difference
of Obs. t(min) water in calorimeter in enclosure of temperature log10 (T – T0)
(T )°C (T0) °C (T – T0)°C
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
CALCULATIONS
1. Temperature of water in enclosure will be found to remain same. If not then take its mean is T0.
2. Find temperature difference (T – T0) and record it in column 5 of the table.
3. Plot a graph between time t (column 2) and temperature T (column 3), taking t along X-axis and T
along Y-axis. The graph comes to be as shown in given figure. It is called ‘cooling curve’ of the
liquid.
Graph between time and temperature (Cooling curve)
Scale :
X - axis : 1 cm = 5 minutes of t
Y - axis : 1 cm = 5° C of T
Y
70
65
60
55
50
(T – T0)
45
40
35
30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 X
Time (t) in minute
[COOLING CURVE]
RESULT The temperature falls quickly in the beginning and then slowly as difference of temperature goes
on decreasing. This is an agreement with Newton’s law of cooling.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Double-walled enclosure should be used to maintain surrounding at a constant temperature.
2. Stirring should remain continuous for uniform cooling
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Surrounding temperature may change.
2. The stirring of hot liquid may not be continuous.
7. RESONANCE COLUMN
AIM
To find (i) the velocity of sound in air at room temperature using a resonance tube by two resonance
positions method, and (ii) hence find the velocity at 0°C.
APPARATUS
Resonance tube apparatus, two tuning forks of different frequencies (512 Hz and 480 Hz), a rubber
pad, a thermometer, a plumb line, a set square and water in a beaker.
Speed of sound using RESONANCE COLUMN

A tuning fork of known frequency (f) is held at the mouth of a long tube, which
is dipped into water as shown in the figure. The length (l1) of the air column in
the tube is adjusted until it resonates with the tuning fork. The air temperature
and humidity are noted. The length of the tube is adjusted again until a second
resonance length (l2) is found (provided the tube is long)
Then, l2 – l1 =/ 2, provided l1, l2 are resonance lengths for adjacent resonances.
  = 2(l2 – l1), is the wavelength of sound.
Since the frequency f, is known; the velocity of sound in air at the temperature () and humidity (h) is
given by C = f  = 2(l2 – l1)f
It is also possible to use a single measurement of the resonant length directly, but, then it has to be
corrected for the “end effect”:
(fundamental) = 4(l1 + 0.3d), where d = diameter
Errors : The major systematic errors introduced are due to end effects in (end correction) and also due
to excessive humidity.
Random errors are given by
C (l2  l1 ) l2  l1
 
C l2  l1 l2  l1
PROCEDURE
1. Set the resonance tube AB vertical with the help of the plumb line and the levelling screws at the base
of the apparatus. Fill the reservoir R and some portion of the resonance tube with water.
Suspend the thermometer by the side of the resonance tube to note the room temperature.
2. Release the pinch-cock and adjust the level of water in the resonance tube near the endA by adjusting
the position of the reservoir R and then, after closing the pinch-cock lower down the position of the
reservoir R.
3. Strike the tuning fork gently on the rubber pad and place it just above the upper endAof the resonance
tube so that the prongs of the vibrating tuning fork are in vertical plane.. Now open the pinch-cock
and let the water level in the resonance tube fall slowly. At some position of the water level, you will
listen sound of increasing loudness.
4. Repeat step (2) and (3), to get the exact position of water level in the resonance tube for which the
sound is of maximum intensity. Note the position of the water level with the help of a set square
keeping one of its perpendicular edges tangential to meniscus of water and other edge parallel to line
of graduations on the metre scale. Not the length l1 of the resonance column as shown in figure (a).
This position corresponds to the first resonance position, Confirm the resonance position by taking
four readings, two when the level of water is falling and the other two when the water level is rising.
Note down these lengths of the air column is l1.
5. Lower the position of water level so that it is increased about three times the length l1. Repeat steps
(2), (3) and (4) to be the second position of resonance with the same tuning fork. Note this length l2
of air column as shown in figure (b).
6. Now take the second tuning fork and repeat steps (2), (3), (4) and (5).
7. Note the room temperature with the help of the temperature.
Record the observations as detailed below:

OBSERVATIONS
(a) Frequency of the 1st tuning fork (n1) = 480 Hz
Frequency of the 2nd tuning fork (n2) = 512 hz
Room temperature in the beginning (t1) = ... °C
Room temperature at the end (t2) = ... °C
Position of upper end A of the resonance tube, r1 = ... cm
(b) Table : Table for the Resonant Lengths
CALCULATION
(i) Calculate velocity of sound in air, V1 by substituting the values of n1 in Hertz, l1 and l2 in metre in the
formula : V1 = 2n1(l2 – l2) = ...... ms–1.
(ii) Similarly, calculate V2 from the observation, by putting the values of n2, l'1 and l'2 in the formula:
V2 = 2n2 (l'2 – l'1) = ...... ms–1.
V1  V2
 Mean value of velocity of sound at room temperature (...°C), Vt = = .... cm/s = .... m/s.
2
t1  t 2
(iii) Mean room temperature = = t°C = ...... °C.
2
273
(iv) Velocity of sound at 0°C, V0 = Vt –1
273  t = .... ms
or V0 = (Vt – 0.61.t) = ..... ms–1
RESULT
The velocity of sound in air at room temperature, ....°C = ...... ms–1.
The velocity of sound at 0°C = ms–1.
(Compare this value at 0°C with actual value i.e., 332 ms–1 and find the % error.)
PRECAUTIONS
1. The resonance tube should be set vertical using levelling screws.
2. The tuning fork should be struck gently against a soft rubber pad. It should never be banged against a
hard surface. Hard surface will cause a slight change in frequency or make the fork dead.
3. The prongs of the tuning fork should not touch the edge of the tube and their ends should remain in the
centre of the tube.
4. The resonance position should be obtained for water level rising as well as falling in the tube.
5. The tuning fork should not be handled roughly.
6. Reading of the lower meniscus of the water level should be noted with the help of a set square.
SOURCES OF ERROR
(1) The presence of moisture in the tube will rise the velocity of sound.
(2) Position of the second resonance may not be accurately determined.
8.1 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A GIVEN SOLID

AIM
To determine specific heat of a given solid (lead shots) by method of mixtures.
APPARATUS
Solid (lead shots), copper calorimeter with copper stirrer and lid, calorimeter jacket (wooden box
with coating of insulating material inside), hypsometer, heating arrangement tripod, burner and wire
gauze or a hot plate, two Celsius thermometers graduated in 0.2ºC. Water and a physical balance,
weight box and milligram fractional weights.
THEORY
The law of mixtures states that when two substances at different temperatures are mixed, i.e., brought
in thermal contact with each other, then the heat is exchanged between them, the substance at higher
temperature loses heat and that at lower temperature gains heat. Exchange of heat energy continues
till both the substances attain a common temperature called equilibrium temperature.
The amount of heat energy lost by the hotter body is equal to the amount of heat energy gained by
colder body, provided (i) no heat is lost to the surroundings and (ii) the substances mixed do not react
chemically to produce or absorb heat. In brief, the law mixtures is written as :
On mixing of two substances at different temperatures, if no heat is lost to surroundings ; at the
equilibrium temperature,
Heat gained = Heat lost
For a body of mass m, and specific heat s, when its temperature falls by , the amount of heat lost by
it is given as
Q = m.s.
The same formula is used for the amount of heat gained by colder body where  would be the rise in
temperature.
SPECIFIC HEAT
Specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of
substance through one degree celsius.
S.I. unit of specific heat is J kg–1 K–1. Convenient measures of mass in the lab is gram and temperature
is ºC so we express specific heat as J g–1 ºC–1.
Celsius thermometer TA
TB, range 0ºC to 100ºC.
(0.2ºC least count)
Lead shots
Hypsometer
Steam S
N
Cotton
Stirrer
Jacket
Hypsometer for generating steam and Fig.: Calorimeter containing known mass of water,
heating the given solid. stirrer and a thermometer placed inside a jacket.
PROCEDURE
1. To ensure that two thermometers read the temperature of a body exactly the same, one is compared
with the other one which is taken as the standard thermometer.
Mark the thermometer used for measuring temperature of water in calorimeter at room temperature
as TA and the other used in hypsometer as TB. Suspend them side by side from a clamp stand and
note their readings. The error in the temperature measured by thermometer B, is
e = TB – TA
The correction is (– e).
The correction (– e) is algebracally added to readings of temperature recorded by thermometer TB
used hypsometer.
2. Take about 100 grams of lead shots in the tube of hypsometer and add sufficient quantity of water in
the hypsometer.
3. Insert the thermometer marked TB in the tube such that its bulb is surrounded by lead shots and fix the
tube inside the mouth of hypsometer.
4. Place the hypsometer on the wire gauze placed on the tripod and start heating it using the burner.
Note : Alternatively, hot plate may be used in place of tripod and burner arrangement.
MEASURING MASSES
5. Ensure that the physical balance is in proper working condition and on turning the knob, the pointer
moves equal divisions on the left and right sides of the zero mark of the scale provided at the back of
pointer.
6. Check that the calorimeter is clean and dry. Use a piece of cloth to rub it and shine its surface. Weigh
the calorimeter along with stirrer, note the reading as mc.
7. weigh the calorimeter with stirrer and lid. Record it as m1.
8. Place few pieces of ice in a beaker containing water such that its temperature becomes 5 to 7ºC
below the room temperature. Fill 2/3 of the calorimeter with cold water from the beaker and ensure
that no moisture from air should condense on the surface of the calorimeter, clean the surface if at all
the drops appear.
9. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, lid and water in it.
10. Place the calorimeter in the jacket. Insert thermometer labelled asAthrough the lid cover of calorimeter
and hold it in a clamp provided on the jacket such that the bulb of thermometer is well immersed in
water but does not touch the bottom of the calorimeter.
11. Note and record the temperature of water in the calorimeter.
12. Observe the temperature of the solid in hypsometer at intervals of two minutes till the temperature
becomes steady. After the temperature becomes steady for about 5 minutes, record it as 2.Apply the
correction (– e) to it and write the corrected temperature of solid.
13. Note the temperature of cold water in the calorimeter once again. This is to be taken as the reading for
calculations. Immediately after this, remove the cork along with thermometer from the copper tube of
hypsometer. Take out the tube, raise the lid of calorimeter and transfer the hot solid quickly to water
in the calorimeter without any splash of water.
14. Stir the water in the calorimeter till the temperature of the mixture becomes steady. Note the equilibrium
temperature reached by the hot solid and the cold water in the calorimeter.
15. Gently take the thermometer out of the water in the calorimeter. Take care that no water drops come
out of the calorimeter along with the thermometer.
16. Take out the calorimeter from the jacket and weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, lid, water and solid in
it. Record it as m3.
OBSERVATIONS
Room temperature reading by thermometer A, TA = ..................... ºC
Room temperature reading by thermometer B. TB = ..................... ºC
Correction required for thermometer B, e = TA – TB
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m = ...................... g
Specific heat of the material of calorimeter, copper from tables, sc = 0.4 J/g/ºC,
Specific heat of water sw = 4.2 J/g/ºC
Water equivalent of calorimeter, W = m1 (sc /sw)
* when sw for water is taken as 1 cal/g/ºC
 0.4 
W = m × s1 otherwise write W as W = m ×   g
 4.2 
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + lid = m1 = ................... g
Mass of calorimeter + lid + cold water = m2 = ................... g
Temperature of cold water in calorimeter, 1 = ................... g
Steady temperature of solid in hypsometer by thermometer B,  2 = ................... ºC
Corrected temperature of solid, 2 2 = 2 + (– e) = ................... ºC
Final, i.e. equilibrium temperature of the mixture  e = ................... ºC
Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + lid + water + solid = m3 = ................... g
CALCULATION
(a) Let the specific heat of solid be S J/g/ºC
Mass of cold water in calorimeter, mw = m2 – m1 = .................... g
sc
Water equivalent of calorimeter + stirrer, W=m× s
w
Rise in temperature of cold water and calorimeter and stirrer, e – 1 = ..............ºC

Amount of heat gained by cold water and calorimeter = (mw + W) × sw × (e – 1) = .............. J
...(1) where specific heat of water = sw = 4.2 J/g/ºC
(b) Mass of solid added to cold water, ms = m3 – m2 = ............. g
Rise in temperature of solid, 2 – e = ............. ºC
Assumed value of specific heat of solid, s = ............. J/g/ºC
Heat lost by hot solid = mass × sp. heat × fall of temperature = (m3 – m2) s (2 – e) ... (2)
Applying law of mixtures, keeping in view the conditions,
Heat lost = Heat gained
Equating (2) and (1)
(m3 – m2) s (2 – e) = (mw + W) sw (e – 1)
(m w  W ) ( e  1 ). s w
 s = ( m  m ) (   ) = ...................... J/g/ºC
3 2 2 e
s may be written in S.I. unit as J/kg/ºC, by multiplying the calculated value above by 1000.
RESULT
Specific heat of given (solid), s = ............... J/kg/°C
Value from tables st = ............ J/kg/ºC
s  st
Percentage Error in the value of S = s × 100 = ........... %
t
PRECAUTIONS
1. Physical balance should be in proper working condition
2. Sufficient quantity of water should be taken in the boiler of the hypsometer
3. The calorimeter should be wiped clean and its surface should be shining so as to minimise any loss of
heat due to radiation.
4. The thermometers used should be of the same range and their least counts be compared before
starting the experiment. Cold water in calorimeter should not be so cold that it forms dew droplets on
the outer surface of calorimeter. Solid used should not be chemically reactive with water.
5. Hypsometer, burner and heating system should be at sufficient distance from the calorimeter so that
calorimeter absorbs no heat from them.
6. The solid should be heated such that its temperature is steady for about 5 to 7 minutes.
7. The solid should be transferred quickly so that its temperature when dropped in water is the same as
recorded.
8. Water should not be allowed to splash while dropping the solid in water in the calorimeter.
9. After measuring equilibrium temperature, the thermometer when removed should not have any water
droplets sticking to it.
10. Cold water taken in the beaker should be as much below temperature as the equilibrium temperature
after adding solid is expected to go above it. This is to take care of heat absorbed from surroundings
by cold water or that lost by warm water during the course of experiment. It would be of interest to
know that this correction had been thought of by count Rumsfort in 19th century.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Radiation losses can be minimised but cannot be completely eliminated.
2. During transfer of hot solid into calorimeter, the heat loss cannot be accounted for.
3. Though mercury in the thermometer bulbs have low thermal capacity, it absorbs some heat and
lowers the temperature to be measured.
8.2 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A GIVEN LIQUID
AIM
To determine the specific heat of a given liquid (kerosene or turpentine oil) by method of mixtures.
APPARATUS
A calorimeter with stirrer and lid cover. The lid cover having provision of two holes for passing
thermometer and stirrer. A jacket for calorimeter. A thermometer having 0.5ºC least count. Given
liquid (it should be non-volatile) kerosene oil or turpentine oil.Acylindrical piece of metal (about 6 to
8 cm long and about 1 cm diameter), cotton thread about 20 cm long to tie the metal piece with it and
it should be non-slipping. Beaker with water, tripod stand, wire gauze, burner or hot plate, physical
balance and weight box and fractional weights.
THEORY
Specific heat : The heat capacity of a substance of any kind is defined as the amount of heat required
to raise the temperature of its unit mass through 1 kelvin.
Symbol used for it is s or c and S.I. unit of specific heat is J per kg per K. (J kg–1 K–1)
Note : To determine the specific heat of a solid in the lab, it is convenient to measure mass in gram and
temperature in ºC. Therefore; the value of specific heat is determined as Jg–1 ºC–1 and then converted
into S.I. unit J kg–1 K–1.
Thermometer
Thread (0ºC – 100ºC) in 0.5ºC
Boiling Water
Solid (metal piece)
Copper stirrer
Heating set up
Felt or glasswool
Oil (experimental Liquid)
Outer Jacket
Calorimeter
Figure (A): Experimental set up for determining specific heat of given liquid (kerosene oil)
Water Equivalent of Calorimeter : It is the equivalent amount of water which will need the same
amount of heat for certain rise of temperature as required by the calorimeter for the same rise of
temperature.
Water equivalent is generally written as W. For a calorimeter of mass m and of specific heat of its
material as s, its water equivalent :
s c (material of calorimeter, copper)
W =m× s w ( water )
400 J kg 1 º C 1
= m × 4200 kg 1 º C 1
= m × 0.095 g
Method of mixtures : In this method a hot substance is added to a cold substance such that both the
substances mutually exchange heat till they reach an equilibrium temperature common to both. Care is
usually taken that no heat is lost to the surroundings.
Law of mixtures : In very brief, in method of mixtures when no heat is lost anywhere else to
surrounding etc. at thermal equilibrium.
Heat gained by colder body = Heat lost by hotter body
The amount of heat exchanged ‘Q’ = m.s. where m is mass, of the substance, s thermal specific
heat and  is change in temperautre.
For a colder body,  is rise in temperature (e – 1) e and 1being equilibrium temperature and initial
temperatures respectively.
For hotter body,  is fall in temperature (2 – e) 2 and e are respectively the initial temperature of hot
body, and equilibrium temperature of the mixture.
Method of mixtures is used for determining specific heat of substances; solids or liquids.
PROCEDURE
1. Set the beaker, tripod, wire gauze and burner as shown in fig.(A) and fill the beaker to half of its
volume with tap water and start heating the water.
2. Tie the cylindrical metal piece tightly using one end of machine thread. Make sure that the thread does
not slip from the piece and about 10 cm of thread is there for suspending the metal piece in water.
3. Weigh the calorimeter with stirrer, in physical balance, Record its mass as m1.
4. Fill the calorimeter (3/4) with given liquid whose specific heat is to be determined.
5. Weigh the calorimeter + stirrer + given liquid (oil). Record the mass as m2.
6. Read the temperature of oil in the calorimeter and record it as 1 ºC.
7. Wet the metal piece, shake it and weigh it in physical balance. Record the mass as m3.
8. The metal piece is suspended by thread and placed in the beaker of water. Start heating the water and
boil it with metal piece inside for about 20 minutes.
9. When the sample has been in boiling water for enough time duration (say, 15 minutes) such as to attain
temperature of boiling water (100 ºC), once again note the temperature of oil in the calorimeter, lift the
metal piece by thread and transfer it quickly to the calorimeter.
10. Ensure that there is minimum loss of heat during transfer of metal piece, to achieve this, the jacket of
calorimeter is held close to the hot water bath and sample of metal is transferred quickly without
splashing any oil.
11. It is advisable to given metal piece a little shake to remove any adhering hot water just before transfering
it to liquid.
Also the metal piece is made wet before weighing with a view not to add any weight of adhering water
(point 7).
12. The lid cover is kept over the calorimeter immmediately after transfer of hot solid in the oil and the
mixture is well stirred till final steady temperature (equilibrium temperature, is reached).
13. Record the equilibrium temperature as e.
Record your readings and observations as follows :

OBSERVATIONS
1. Mass of calorimeter + stirrer, m1 = ................................. g
2. Mass of calorimeter + stirrer + oil, m2 = ................................ g
3. Temperature of oil in the calorimeter, 1 = ................................. ºC
4. Mass of the cylindrical piece tied to thread, m3 = ................................ g
5. Temperature of boiling water in the beaker, i.e., temperature of metal piece 2 = 100ºC
6. Steady equilibrium temperature of mixture e = ................................ ºC
CALCULATIONS
Water equivalent of calorimeter,
Specific heat of material of calorimeter
W = mass × Specific heat of water
s c of copper 400
= m1 × s of water = m1 × = m1 × 0.095
w 4200
Mass of oil, m = m2 – m1 = ........................ g
Water equivalent of calorimeter, W = m1 × 0.095 (for copper calorimeter)
Temperature of oil in calorimeter 1 = ............................ ºC
Equilibrium temperature e = ............................ ºC
Rise in temperature of calorimeter, stirrer and oil ()1 = e – l
Heat gained by calorimeter = W × (e – 1 )
Heat gained by oil, = (m2 – m1) × s × (e – 1)
= m s  (e – 1 )
Total heat gained, (Q)1 = (W + m.s) (e – 1) ....(1)
Temperature of hot solid, cylinder piece 1 = 100ºC
Equilibrium temperature e = ....................... ºC
Fall in temperature (Q)2 = (100 – e) = ....................... ºC
Mass of solid piece, m3 = ....................... g
Specific heat of metal of solid piece of metal (.... name of the metal used) from tables
s = ....................... J g–1 ºC–1
Heat lost by hot solid,
(Q)2 = m3 × s × (2 – e) = m3 × s × (100 – e) ....(2)
Applying law of mixture : equating (1) and (2)
(e – 1) (W + m.s) = m3 × s × (100 – e)
m 3 . s(100   e ) W
Specific heat of liquid, s = m( e  1 ) – = ................ J g–1 ºC–1
m
s value may be written in S.I. unit, J kg–1 ºC–1 by multiplying the above value by 1000.
RESULT
Specific heat of given oil (kerosene oil) s = .................... J kg–1 K–1
Value of specific heat of kerosene oil from tables, st = ....................J kg–1 K–1
Note : To write the value in S.I. unit, kelvin is used for temperature, so ºC is replaced by K.
s  s t
Percentage error in value of S = st × 100 = .................. %
PRECAUTIONS
1. Solid piece is weighed before heating in boiling water.
2. Sufficient amount of liquid (at least half filled calorimeter) should be taken
3. The calorimeter should be wiped clean and its surface should be shining so as to minimise loss of heat
due to radiation.
4. Solid should be heated in boiling water for sufficient time duration so as to attain the steady temperature
of boiling water.
5. The solid should be transferred quickly, so as not to lose much heat and it should be transferred
carefully not to splash and lose any mass of liquid.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Even though the metal piece is kept in boiling water, it may not exactly attain its temperature.
2. Small losses of heat due to radiation to atmosphere during transfer of solid to oil or from the surface
of the calorimeter are inevitable.
9. METER BRIDGE
AIM
Fo find resistance of a given wire using a metre bridge and hence determine the specific resistance of
the material of the wire.
APPARATUS
A metre bridge, a wire about 1 metre long (of the material), a resistance box, a jockey, one-way key,
a galvanometer, a battery eliminator or a Daniell cell, thick connecting wires, sand paper, screw
gauge, S.W.G. tables etc.
Specific resistance of the material of a wire using a METER BRIDGE :

A known length (l) of a wire is connected in one of the gaps (P)
of a metre bridge, while a Resistance Box is inserted into the
other gap (Q). The circuit is completed by using a battery (B),
a Rheostat (Rh), a Key(K) and a galvanometer (G).The balance
length (l ) is found byclosing keyk and momentarilyconnecting
the galvanometer until it gives zero deflection (null point). Then,
P l
 .......(1)
Q 100  l
using the expression for the meter bridge at balance. Here, represents the resistance of the wire while Q
represents the resistance in the resistance box. The key K is open when the circuit is not in use.
L r 2
The resistance of the wire, P =   = P .......(2)
r 2 L
where r is the radius of wire and L is the length of the wire, r is measured using a screw gauge while L is
measured with a scale.
Errors : The major systematic errors in this experiment are due to the heating effect, end corrections
introduced due to shift of the zero of the scale at A and B, and stray resistances in P and Q, and errors
due to non-uniformity of the meter bridge wire.
Error analysis : End corrections can be estimated by including known resistances P1 and Q1 in the two
ends and findingthe null point:
P1 l1  
 ..... (2), where  and  are the end corrections.
Q1 100  l1  
When the resistance Q1 is placed in the left gap and P1 in the right gap,
PROCEDURE
1. Draw the circuit diagram in your note book as shown in figure (a).
2. Arrange the metre bridge and the various components; the coil X, Resistance Box Q, galvanometer
G, battery eliminator of Lechlanche cell E as shown in assembly diagram figure (b) with Q in the right
gap.
3. Clean the insulation at the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with sand paper. Tighten all the
plugs of the resistance box by pressing and turning each plug. Make tight connections keeping the
adjust switch of eliminator at 2V.
4. Ensure that the wire used for connecting the jockey to the galvanometer is sufficiently long.
Figure: (a) Measuring unknown resistance of a wire by metre bridge.
Figure: (b)Assembly diagram for measuring resistance.

With Q in the right gap:
5. Take out a plug to introduce a suitable resistance say, Q = 10 from the resistance box. Use 2V
connector in the eliminator and close the key K to complete the battery circuit.
6. The check the circuit, press the jockey near left end of the wire at point A and note the direction of
deflection of the galvanometer needle. Now shift the jockey to other extreme end point C of the wire
and note the direction of deflection of the needle of the galvanometer. The directions of deflection
should be opposite in the above two cases. If the deflection is on one side only, then there is some
fault in the circuit. Check or seek help of your teacher and rectify the fault.
7. Now choose an appropriate value of Q from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the
galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wire (i.e., between 30 cm to 70 cm). This
makes the error in measurement of l smaller. Moreover it ensures better sensitivity of the bridge as the
unbalanced current through galvanometer G per mm. Change of position of the jockey is more. Note
the position of null point D, the balancing length AD = lcm and DC = (100 – l) cm.
8. Repeat the above step four time more by selecting the suitable values of Q for the null point to fall
between 30 cm and 70 cm.
9. Interchange the positions of the resistance X and Q in the left gap and X in right gap.
With Q in the left gap
10. Repeat the step 7 for the same five value of the resistance taken out of resistance box Q as done with
Q in the right gap.
11. Now cut the resistance wire X at the points where it leaves the binding terminals. Straighten it by
stretching and remove any kinds and measure its length with a metre scale.
12. Measure the diameter of the wire by a screw gauge whose least count and zero error have been
determined in advance. Measure the diameter at four more points uniformly spaced throughout the
length of the wire. At each point, the diameter is measured in two mutually perpendicular direction.
13. Record your observations as follow:
OBSERVATIONS
1. Data available for the wire
Material = ....... (usually managanin or constantan)
Gauge (s.w.g.) no. = ...... (if known)
Standard value of specific resistance (from table) = ...... ohm m
2. Table: Observation for Resistance of Wire
X1  X 2  X 3  X 4  X 5
Mean value of resistance, X = = .... ohm
5
Observations for Specific Resistance
3. Length of the wire, (L) = ....... cm
4. Measurement of diameter
Pitch of the screw gauge (p) = ....... cm
No. of divisions on the circular scale = 100
p
Least count of screw gauge, a  = ...... cm
100
Zero error e = ......... cm
Zero correction (– e) = .... cm
PRECAUTIONS
1. The connection should be neat, clean and tight. The ends of the connecting wires should rubbed and
cleaned with a sand paper.
2. The apparatus should be arranged according to the arrangement diagram given in the book and then
the connections should be made accordingly.
3. Plugs in the resistance box should be pressed and made tight by screwing them a little in the clockwise
direction.
4. The key of the battery or the cell should be closed first and then the jockey is touched on wire when
the reading is being taken. The jockey key is removed first and then the battery key, immediately after
that to minimize the error due to change of resistance by heating.
5. While moving the jockey to and fro to locate the balance point, the jockey should be lifted again and
again and should not be pressed and slided to touch the wire throughout.
6. While finding out the balance point, the sliding contact should not be pressed too hard, otherwise the
uniformity of the wire will be damaged.
7. To avoid any error due to non-uniformity of bridge wire, the balance point should always be obtained
near the mid-point of the wire.
8. The battery key should be closed first before pressing the jockey on the bridge wire, but for stopping
the current in circuit, reverse order should be followed. This becomes necessary to save the
galvanometer from a 'momentary kick' due to self induced e.m.f. produced at the time of 'make' or
'break' of the current in the circuit.
9. As and when a sensitive galvanometer is used for detection of balance point, it may get damaged due
to sudden high currents through it. The damage can be prevented by using:
(a) A high resistance in series and removing it by shorting it when the balance point is reached. To
avoid the botheration of removing the H.R., the shorting key K could be used.
or
(b) By using a shunt resistance of low value with the key K' closed and removing the shunt key
opening the key K'. Refer to Fig. (a) and (b) below.
Galvanometer (High series resistance as Galvanometer (Low value shunt as protective

protective resistance) resistance).
Fig. (a) On nearing the null point, the key (b) Initially K' is closed, on nearing the null point,
K is is closed the key K' is opened
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire of the metre bridge may not be uniform area of cross-section throughout its entire length.
2. End correction. We have assumed that in a metre bridge, the resistance of the copper strips and the
soldering at the ends of the bridge wire are negligible, but actually they are not so small that they can
be neglected. Moreover, the bridge wire may not be exactly one metre long and the scale may not be
exactly placed with respect to the wire, either because the wire is slightly longer or shorter or because
of the difficulty of making the connections between the ends of the wire and the strips exactly at the
ends of the scale. The effect of all these factors is to introduce some unknown resistance at the two
ends of the wire. These error at the ends of the wire are called end errors and the corresponding are
called end corrections.
3. The wire may get heated up due to the passage of current and its resistance might change. Therefore,
to minimise this error, the current is passed for a short period and the reading is taken quickly*.
4. The screw gauge may have backlash error due to loose fitting of screw.
RESULT. (i) Within the experimental error, the unknown value of resistance as determined by using a
metre bridge is found to be ....... ohms. and
(ii) The value of specific resistance of the material of the wire is ........ ohm-m with a percentage error
of ....... percent.
10. RESISTANCE BY OHM’s LAW

AIM Verify Ohm’s law for the given unknown resistance (say a 60 cm constantan wire). Plot a graph of
potential difference versus current. From the slope of the graph and length of the wire, calculate the
resistance per cm of the wire.
K Battery
+ –
+
Ammeter
– Rh
Resistance Wire
+ –
Voltmeter
Fig. Circuit diagram
E1 E2
Rheostat
Plug key
Dry-cells Resistance
Wire
Connecting wire
+
Fig. Assembly circuit diagram

APPARATUS
Resistance wire (60 cm constantan wire or a standard resistance coil) ; an ammeter (1.5A range);
D.C.voltmeter (1.5 V range); Rheostat; one way plug key, An accumulator or dry cells or a battery
eliminator and connecting copper wires.
THEORY
Ohm’s Law states that when a steady current flows through a conductor, the ratio of the potential
difference between the ends of the conductor and the current flowing through it is a constant, provided
the physical conditions of the conductor such as length, temperature, density etc., do not change.
If V represents the potential difference between the two ends of a conductor and I the current flowing
in it, then
V I
 V  RI where R is the constant of proportionality..
V
or = R ; R is the resistance of the conductor..
I
When the potential difference V is measured in volts and the current I in amperes, the resistance R is
measured in ohms.
To establish current-voltage relationship (or Ohm’s Law) it is to be shown that a change in potential
difference at the two ends of a conductor means a corresponding change in current in such a manner
that the is a constant.
A graph drawn with potential difference along X-axis and current along Y-axis should be a straight
line. This line is termed as the characteristic of the conductor having resistance and will have different
inclinations for different conductors.
PROCEDURE
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram showing the connections to be made as shown in Fig. (11.1)
2. Arrange the apparatus on the working table in the laboratory and assemble the circuit connections as
shown in Fig.
3. The ammeter is connected in series with the given resistance wire (R) or standard unknown resistance
and the voltmeter is connected in parallel i.e., across it. The current must enter the ammeter and the
voltmeter through their terminals marked +ve. The rheostat must be connected through one of its
lower terminals and the upper terminal.
4. Note the zero-errors of the ammeter and voltmeter, it anyAlso before sending the current through the
circuit note the least count of the voltmeter and the ammeter and record these in the observation
tables.
5. Insert the plug key K, slide the rheostat contact starting from the left end to the right end see that the
deflections in the voltmeter and ammeter are such as to give at least ten independent sets of
observations.
6. Now start the rheostat contact at one end so that a small current passes in the resistance wire or the
standard resistance coil. Note down the potential difference between the ends of the experimental
resistance wire i.e., voltmeter reading and the current flowing in it i.e., ammeter reading.
Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both the voltmeter and ammeter give full division readings
(not in fractions). Note down these voltmeter and ammeter readings.
7. Take at least ten sets of such independent observations.
8. Measure the length of the experimental wire just outside the binding terminals.
9. Plot a graph showing the potential difference between the ends of the experimental wire along the Y-
axis and the current through the conductor along the X-axis selecting proper scales.
OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Value of each small division on ammeter
(or least count of ammeter) =.......................ampere
zero correction for ammeter = .....................ampere
Value of each small division on voltmeter (or least count of Voltmeter) = ....................Volt.
Zero correction for Voltmeter = ......................Volt
Since the comes a constant quantity, hence current-voltage relationship is
established i.e., voltage (V)  current (I) or Ohm’s Law is verified.
S.No. Voltmeter reading V (volt) Ammeter reading I (Amp) Potential difference
(Potential difference) (Current) (Current)
Observed Corrected Observed Corrected V

= a constant
(V) in volts (I) in amperes I
= R (in ohms)
(Unknown resistance)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Since the graph between the potential difference and current is a straight line (Fig. 11.3), the law has
also been verified graphically or the voltage-current relationship i.e., voltage  current is also verified
graphically. In fact the ratio is the resistance of the experimental wire in ohms.
Y
Q
(XQ , YQ ) Scale : Along X-axis
YQ
........DIV. = ........amperes
Along Y-axis
P
T ........DIV. = ...........volts
YP (XP,YP)
XP XQ
X
O Current (I) in amperes
Fig.
Calculation of resistance per cm of the given resistance wire from the slope of the graph :
The slope of a graph at a given point is the slope of the tangent to it at that point. The graph between
the potential difference (V) in volts and current (I) in amperes is a straight line (Fig.). To measure the
slope of this straight line, select two points P(XP, YP) , Q(XQ, YQ) on the line, not necessarily
observational points which are well separated record from the graph. If the values of YP,XP (at P ) and
of YQ and XQ (at Q).

Then the slope is :
YQ – YP QT .......V
= = =R
XQ – X P TP .......A
= ...........ohm
gives the resistance (R) in ohms of the given resistance wire.
Length of the wire outside the terminals L = ......cm
R ......ohm
 Resistance per cm of the wire = = = ......ohm / cm
L ........cm
RESULT
(i) Since the ratio comes a constant quantity so ohm’s law gets verified.
(ii) The graph of potential difference versus current is a straight line and the slope of this line gives the
resistance R of the given resistance wire in ohms.
Here R = ..........ohm.
Length of the wire = L = ........cm
 Resistance per unit
R
length of the wire = = ...........ohm/cm
L
PRECAUTIONS
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with sand paper.
2. Ammeter and voltmeter should be of proper range.
3. A low resistance rheostat should be used. Rheostat must be connected through one of its lower
terminals and the upper terminal.
4. Ammeter is to be connected in series with the circuit and the voltmeter in parallel with the unknown
resistance i.e., the given resistance wire.
5. Positive of the ammeter and voltmeter should be connected to positive electrode of the battery.
6. The connections should be tight, short and straight.
7. The wires should only be connected at the terminals and not in between.
8. Get your circuit connections checked by the teacher before passing the current.
9. Do not pass current into the wire for a longer interval of time otherwise due to large heating, the ratio
V/ I may not remain constant.
10. Measure only that length of experimental resistance wire which is just outside the binding terminals.
11.1 POTENTIOMETER-COMPARING EMF OF PRIMARY CELLS

AIM
To compare the e.m.fs. of two primary cells (Daniell and Lechlanche cells) using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS
A potentiometer (with 10 wires stretched on the board), with a sliding jockey, two primary cells
(Daniell and Lechlanche), one two-way key, a resistance box plug type (0 to 1000  range), a
Weston type galvanometer, a battery or battery eliminator, a low resistance rheostat about 20, a
one-way key, connecting wires and sand paper.
THEORY
Let the two primary cells whose e.m.fs. are to be compared, be so connected in the circuit that their
positive poles are joined together to the end A of the potentiometer wire AB and their negative poles
are joined to a galvanometer through a two-way key a, b, c. The other terminal of the galvanometer
is connected to a jockey J as shown in fig. The two primary cells with e.m.f.'s E1 and E2 can be
connected in turn to the sliding contact J though the galvanometer G with the help of the two-way
a b c. Let a steady potential difference be maintained (using the battery E and rheostat Rh) across the
ends of the wire AB, the end A being at higher potential than the end B.
By closing the gap ac in the two-way key when the cell E1 is connected in the circuit, and by sliding
the jockey J, a position of the null deflection in the galvanometer is found at J1. Let l1, the length AJ1,
of the wire. Similarly, on joining terminal bc, using the cell E2 in the circuit, length l2 is determined for
null deflection. Now according to the principle of potentiometer.
We have
E1 = kl1
and E2 = kl2
where k is the potential gradient, i.e. drop of potential per unit length
E1 kl2
 
E 2 kl2
E1 l1

E 2 l2 ... working formula
where E1 and E2 are e.m.f.'s of two cells of low internal resistance; l1 and l2 are respectively balancing
lengths, when E1 and E2 are connected to the circuit.
PROCEDURE
1. Draw a neat circuit diagram in your note book. Measure drop of potential across E, E1 and E2 and
start your experiment, if E > E1 and also E > E2.
2. Connect the battery E to the ends of the potentiometer with its +ve terminal toAthrough a rheostat Rh
and a one-way key K as shown in figure.
3. Also connect the positive terminals of the two cells to be compared, to the endA and join the negative
terminals of the cells E1 and E2 to terminals a and b respectively of two-way key.
4. Connect other end of R.B. to one terminal of galvanometer and the other end of the galvanometer to
a jockey J which can be made to slide along the wire.
5. First put one of the cells, say E1 in the circuit by inserting the plug in the gap ac. Introduce minimum
resistance by Rh and a resistance of 1000 from R.B. and then press the jockey at one end of the
wire. Note direction of deflection in the galvanometer. Now repeat the same process with the jockey
pressed near the other end of the wire and note the direction of deflection. If the two deflections are
in opposite directions, the connection are correct.
6. In case deflections above are in the same direction, check your connections as the current from E
should be more than that from each of the cells E1 and E2. Repeat till the deflections are in opposite
directions.
7. After this, slide the jockey forward and backward along the wire and obtain the balance point where
on pressing the jockey, there is no deflection in the galvanometer. Plug in the resistance of 1000 ohms
in the R.B. to get the accurate position of null point. Note the length of the wire AJ1. Record it as l1.
8. Next transfer the plug from ac to be and introduce E2 in the circuit. Obtain the balance point J2 and
note the length AJ2 as l2.
9. Repeat the experiment by shifting the contact point of rheostat. Repeat three times more and calculate
l1/l2 for each set of readings and obtain their mean. This gives the ratio E1 / E2.
10. Record your observations as follows:
OBSERVATIONS
1. No. of wires on the potentiometer board = ....... (usually 10 in good instrument).
2. Range of voltmeter for observing e.m.f. of battery and cells = ...... V.
3. Least count of voltmeter scale = ..... V.
4. Source of supply of current to auxiliary circuit = ... (Load batteries or eliminator)
5. Drop of potential across battery E = .... V
6. Drop of potential across, the cell E1 (Lechlanche) = .... V
7. Drop of potential across the cell E2 (Daniell) = .... V
Set rheostat 'Rh' at zero value of resistance, potential drop across E being more than that across
E1 and E2, (we can proceed further, otherwise; increase the p.d. of E such that it becomes greater
than E1 and E2.)
Table
Balance length when E1, Lechlanche
Balance length when E2, Daniell cell
No. of Cell Ratio
is in the circuit. l 2 (cm)
Obs. is in the circuit, l 1 (cm) E1=E2 / l 1 /l 2
1 2 Mean l 1 1 2 Mean l 2
1
2
3
4
5
E1
Mean value of E  ......
2
PRECAUTIONS
1. Ensure that e.m.f. of battery E is greater than E1 and E2 of the cells.
2. The wires of the potentiometer should be thoroughly cleaned.
3. All the positive terminals should be connected at one point.
4. The current should be passed for a long time so as to avoid any heating of the wires and the resulting
change of resistance.
5. The ends of the wire are soldered to metal strips and thus have a resistance which must be determined
for greater accuracy.
6. The rheostat used must have a low resistance (about 20 ohms) so that a slight change in the position
of the rheostat slider results in a small variation in the distribution of p.d. over the potentiometer wire
AB. So its resistance should be less than that of the potentiometer wire.
7. Never use a resistance box in the auxiliary circuit, i.e., with the battery E.
8. The length of wire should always be measured from the end A of the wire where all the positive
terminals are connected. The length of the wire at balance point must be carefully noted as the length
on odd numbered wire is from left to right, i.e., zero onwards whereas on even numbered wires from
the opposite directions and length on these is to be taken as (number of full metres plus) (100 – the
reading on metre scale).
9. The balance points should always be obtained at large instance from the end A (assumed as 0 cm
mark) where all the positive terminals of the battery and the cells are connected. If possible, the
balance points should be obtained on the last wire.
10. Jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, otherwise the diameter of the wire may not remain
uniform. Also do not press the jockey on the wire while sliding it.
11. Deflection on the same side ; when jockey touches either end of the wire, it may be due to:
(a) A loose connection somewhere
(b) e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery E being less than that of either of the two cells. For this reason, two
accumulators are generally used in series.
(c) Positive and negative terminals of the cells or battery being wrongly connected.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Potentiometer wire may not be having uniform cross-section throughout its entire length
2. Heating of the potentiometer wire may introduce some error.
3. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery producing fall of potential along the wire, may not be constant.
4. Resistances at the ends of wire of potentiometer may not be negligible.
IMPORTANT NOTE
In order to protect the galvanometer from damage which may be caused due to excessive current, a
high resistance should be connected in series with it while obtaining approximate position of the balance
point. This does not affect the position of the balance point in any way. However, this resistance
should be removed while trying for the exact position of the balance point. The same purpose can be
achieved by using a shunt across the galvanometer.
RESULT
The ratio of e.m.f.'s (expected value 1.35 to 1.55) of E1 / E2 for Lechlanche cell to Daniell cell = ......
Internal Resistance of a Cell
11.2 POTENTIOMETER-FINDING INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL

AIM
To determine the internal resistance of a given primary cell by using a potentiometer.
APPARATUS
A potentiometer, a rheostat, battery eleminator or cells in series. (e.m.f. of battery E > E1 of the cell)
two one-way keys, a Lechlanche cell, a resistance box (0 to 20 ohm), a R.B. (0 to 2000 ), a
jockey, a galvanometer, connecting wires etc.
THEORY
Internal Resistance (r), Resistance offered by electrolyte of a cell to the flow of ions inside the
electric cell is its internal resistance. For an active cell its value is about 2.
As already explained, the potential difference between the terminals of a cell is less in a closed circuit
than in an open circuit. The difference between the two values is spent up in driving the current
through the electrolyte of the cell against the internal resistance offered by it. Let E be the e.m.f. of a
cell, R the resistance of the external circuit and r the internal resistance of the cell, then the current in
the circuit is given by
E
I
Rr
or E = I (R + r) ... (1)
If V be the terminal potential difference between the terminals of the cell in the closed circuit, then
V = IR ... (2)
E Rr r
Therefore,   1 ... (3)
V R R
(E  V )
r R
V
Let the balance point for the cell E in the open circuit be at a distance l1 cm from the end A of the
potentiometer, then the e.m.f. of the cell is proportional to the length l1. If the cell is connected by
connecting a resistance R in parallel and the new balance point is obtained at a distance l2 from A,
then the potential difference V between the terminals of the cell is proportional to l2 and therefore,
E l1 R  r r
   1
V l2 R R ... (same as equation 3 above)
(l1  l2 )
or r R ... Working formula
l2
APPARATUS
1. Draw a neat and tidy diagram as shown in figure, in your note-book.
2. Rub and clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper to remove any insulation.
3. Procure the necessary apparatus and arrange it properly on the table. Make neat and tight circuit
connections as shown in figure. Connect two ends of the potentiometer wire AB to the auxiliary
battery through a rheostat Rh and key K1.Also connect the positive terminal of the Lechlanche cell E1
to the end A of the wire which is at a higher potential than B. Complete the other circuit connections
as shown in the circuit diagram.
Figure : Internal resistance of a cell, circuit diagram

4. Take out the plug of 1000 ohm from R.B.P, inset the plugs in keys K1 and K2 and move the jockey
near the end a and press it there and note the direction of deflection of the pointer in the galvanometer.
Now move the jockey to the other end B and press it there and again note the direction of deflection.
The deflections in these cases must be in the opposite direction. If it is not so, then check the connections
and adjust the rheostat so that the above condition is achieved and the null point is roughly obtained
on the last wire.
5. Now determine the correct position of the null point. Remove the plug from key K2 and plug back
the 1000 plug in P and measure accurately the length of the wire from the end A upto the null point
J. Let it be l1.
6. Introduce a resistance of 3 ohms from the resistance box R.B.(R). Close K1 first and then K2 and
determine as before the exact position of the balance point without disturbing the previous position of
the rheostat. Let the balancing length of the wire in this case be l2.
7. Repeat the experiment with other different values of R say 4, 5 and 6 ohms, each time taking
observations for both open and closed circuits.
8. Record your observations as follows:
OBSERVATIONS
Preliminary check: Using a voltmeter of high resistance
1. Potential drop across the battery, E1 = .... volt
2. Potential drop across the cell, E = ..... volt (Ensure that E1 greater than E)
If r is determined by plotting a graph, take at least 6 observations.

CALCULATIONS
Substitute the value of R and mean values of l1 and l2 in the formula
R.(l1  l2 )
r
l2
for each set of observations and calculate the value of r. Since the internal resistance varies with the
external resistance R, the mean of these values of r should not be taken and the range of variation of
r should be mentioned in the result.
PRECAUTIONS
1. The cell whose internal resistance is required to be determined, should not be disturbed during the
course of the experiment. The disturbance may cause alteration in the internal resistance of the cell.
2. Rheostat Rh should be adjusted to introduce nearly zero resistance and balance point for null
deflection determined.
3.Afreshly prepared cell should be used. While using Lechlanche cell wait for about a minute between
two readings to enable the depolariser (MnO2) to recover its ability to depolarise.
4. As soon as the observations are taken, the plugs K1 and K2 should be taken out to avoid too much
heating of the potentiometer wire as well as that of the resistance box coils from box P.
5. A high resistance should be connected in series with the galvanometer and first the approximate
position of the null point should be located. Once the approximate position is known, then remove this
high resistance in the galvanometer circuit does not in any way change the position of the null point.
The same purpose can be achieved by using a shunt across the galvanometer.
SOURCES OF ERROR
1. Potentiometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section throughout its entire length.
2. The e.m.f. of the auxiliary battery producing the fall of potential along the potentiometer may not be
constant throughout the course of experiment.
3. Potentiometer wire end resistances are not taken into account.
4. Heating of the potentiometer wire by current, may introduce some error.
RESULT
The internal resistance of the given Lechlanche cell varies with the current drawn from it and its
determined value lies between ..... and ...... ohms.
12. HALF DEFLECTION METHOD

AIM
To find the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and find its figure of merit.
APPARATUS
Aweston type moving coil galvanometer, a cell, two resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a voltmeter,
connecting wires and a sand paper.
E K1 R
+ – ( ) R.B.
S K2
RB ( )
Fig. : Half deflection method
THEORY
The connections for finding the resistance of a galvanometer by the half deflection method are shown
in Fig. 14.1. When the key, K1 is closed, keeping the key K2 open, the current Ig through the
galvanometer is given by
E
Ig = where E = E.M.F. of the cell.
RG
R = Resistance from the resistance box R.B .
G = Galvanometer resistance.
If  is the deflection produced, then
E
= k ....(1)
RG
If now the key K2 is closed and the value of the shunt resistance S is adjusted so that the deflection is
reduced to half of the first value, then current flowing through the galvanometer Ig is given by
E  S  k
Ig = GS
  =
R  G S 2
(G  S)
ES k
or Ig = = ....(2)
R (G  S)  GS 2
Comparing (1) and (2), we get
(R + G) 2S = R(G + S) + GS
or (R – S) G = RS
RS
or G
R –S
R
If the value of R is very large as compared to S, then is nearly equal to unity. Hence
R –S
FIGURE OF MERIT
Figure of merit of a galvanometer is that much current sent through the galvanometer in order to
produce a deflection of one division on the scale.
If k is the figure of merit of the galvanometer, and ‘’ be the number of divisions on the scale, then
Current (Ig) through the galvanometer is given by
Ig = k
PROCEDURE
1. Draw a diagram showing the scheme of connections as in Fig. 14.1 and make the connections
accordingly.
2. Check the connections and show the same to the teacher before passing current.
3. Introduce a high resistance R from the resistance box (R.B.), close the key K1 and adjust the value of
R till the deflection is within scale and maximum. Note the deflection and the value of the resistance R.
4. Close the key K2 and adjust the value of the shunt resistance S so that the deflection is reduced
exactly to half the first value. Note this deflection and the value of the resistance S.
5. Repeat the experiment three times taking different deflections of the galvanometer.
6. To find the figure of merit :

(i) Find the e.m.f. of the cell by a voltmeter. See the positive of the cell is connected to the positive
marked terminal of the voltmeter.
(ii) Connect the cell E, the galvanometer G, the resistance box R.B. and the key K1 in series as shown
in Fig.(14.2)
E K1 R
+ – ( ) R.B.
Fig. Figure
Fig. 18.2 of Merit
: Figure of Merit
take out 5,000 ohms plug from the resistance box and make all other plugs tight. put in the key K1 and
adjust the value of the resistance R from the resistance box so that a deflection , near about 30 divisions
is indicated in the galvanometer. Note the deflection in the galvanometer and also the value of the
resistance R from the resistance box.
(iii) Adjust the value of R from the resistance box to get a deflection of about 20 divisions and again
note the deflection and the resistance.
(iv) Increase the number of cells to two. Find the e.m.f. and the value of the resistance R to get a
deflection of about 30 and again about 20 divisions as in the previous step.
(i) RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER :
S.No. Resistance Deflection Shunt Half deflection Galvanometer Resistance
R Resistance
  RS
(ohms) S   G  ( ohms )
(ohms) 2 R –S
1.
2.
3.
4.
Mean value of G = .............ohms
(ii) FIGURE OF MERIT :
Galvanometer resistance (G) = ..............ohms.
No. of divisions on the galvanometer scale = .....................
S.No. Number e.m.f. (E) of cell Resistance Deflection () Figure of Merit
of cells (volts) in the res istance
E
(volts) box (R) K 
(R  G)
(ohms)
1. One
2. One
3. two
4. two
PRECAUTIONS
1. The value of ‘R’ should be large.
2. To decrease the deflection, the shunt resistance should be decreased and vice-versa.
3. In this method it is assumed that the deflection is proportional to the current. This is possible only in a
weston type moving coil galvanometer.
4. The connections must be tight and the ends of connecting wires should be cleaned.
13.1 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX MIRROR
AIM
To find the focal length of a convex mirror using a convex lens.
APPARATUS
An optical bench with four uprights, a convex mirror, a convex lens, a knitting needle and a half meter
scale.
THEORY
Suppose a convex lens L is interposed between a convex mirror M and an object needle O as shown
in Fig. 15(A).1 When the relative position of M, L and O are adjusted in such a way that there is no
parallax between the object needle O and its image I, then in that position, the rays will fall normally
on the convex mirror M. The rays which fall on the mirror normally should meet at the centre of
curvature C of the mirror when produced (Fig.) The distance MC gives the radius of curvature R.
Half of the radius of curvature gives the focal length f of the mirror.
(a) L
O M C
(b) I
O L M
Fig. Focal length of the convex mirror using a convex lens

Now without disturbing the positions of the object O and the lens L, the convex mirror is removed
and another needle is placed in the position of the image I of the object O, formed by the lens L by
using parallax method as shown in Fig.
R MI'
Measure MI. Now, f = =
2 2
PROCEDURE
1. Mount the convex mirror M, a convex lens L and the object needle O on an optical bench as shown
in Fig. (a). Look for the inverted image of O through the system of the lens L and the mirror M by
adjusting the position of O or L with respect to that of the mirror. When the inverted image is not
obtained, a convex lens of larger focal length should be used.
2. Remove the parallax between the object needle O and its inverted image and note the position of O,
L and M on the bench scale.
3. Remove the mirror M and do not disturb the lens L and O at all. Take another needle I and place it on
the other side of the lens [Fig. (b)].
Adjust the position of the needle so that there is no parallax between the needle I and the inverted
image of the object needle O formed by the lens. Note this position of the needle I on the optical
bench.
4. Take five sets of observations for different positions of O and L.
5. Determine the index correction between the mirror M and the image needle I.
Index correction
Length of the knitting needle, y = .............cm
Observed distance with the needle between M and I, x = .............cm
 Index correction between M and I = (y–x) = .............cm.
Table Determination of Focal Length
No. of Position of object Pos ition of lens L Pos ition of Position of image Observed
Obs needle O Mirror M needle I' dis tance, MI'
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean, MI = ................cm

Corrected distance, MI = ................cm
Corrected MI'
 f = = ....................cm
2
RESULT
Focal length of the given convex mirror = ....................cm
= ....................m
PRECAUTIONS
1. The line joining the pole of the mirror, the centre of the lens L and the tip of the needle, should be
parallel to the length of the optical bench.
2. The auxiliary lens L must have sufficiently large focal length.
3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip while removing the parallax, the eye should be kept at the
least distance of distinct vision i.e., 25 cm away from the needle.
4. In the second part of the experiment i.e., after removing the mirror M, the positions of L and O should
not be disturbed at all.
13.2 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

AIM
To find the value of v for different values of u in case of concave mirror and to find its focal length.
APPARATUS
An optical bench alongwith three uprights, one mirror holder, two needles, concave mirror, a knitting
needle and a meter scale.
THEORY
The relation between the object distance u, the image distance v and the focal length f of a concave
mirror is given as
1 1 1
= + ....(i)
f u v
uv
or f= ....(ii)
uv
In the case of concave mirror, for real image both u and v are negative as per new cartesian sign
convention. The focal length f is also negative.
PROCEDURE
TO FIND THE ROUGH FOCAL LENGTH :
1. First of all find the rough or the approximate focal length of the given concave mirror. It can be done
by the following method:
Obtain a clear and distinct image of some far off object like that of the sun or of a distant tree on a
white paper with the given concave mirror. Adjust the distance between the white paper and the
mirror so that a sharp image is focussed on the paper. Measure this distance between the white paper
and mirror with a meter scale, this distance is the approximate focal length f of the mirror.
TO SET MIRROR AND NEEDLE :
u
P Image of O
Concave Mirror
v
F C
O I'
Uprights
OPTICAL BENCH
1. Hold the concave mirror in the clamp of one of the three uprights. Mount it in the clamp holder in such
a way that the principal axis of the mirror is horizontal and parallel to the length of the optical bench.
For this, shift the upright carrying the mirror near one end of the optical bench and look into the mirror
keeping your eye vertically above the bed of the optical bench. Now turn the mirror slowly in such a
way that the image of your eye is obtained at the centre of the mirror. This ensures the principal axis of
mirror being parallel to the length of the bed.
2. Mount the two needles on the uprights and adjust their heights in such a way that the tips of the two
needles and the pole (i.e., the centre of the mirror) lie in the same straight line parallel to the length of
the optical bench. After this adjustment, the tips of needles will be at the same height as the pole of the
mirror. Make a distinction between the object needle and the height as the pole of the mirror. Make a
distinction between the object needle and the image needle by putting some distinguishable mark on
them. To do this, a paper flag may be fixed on one of the needle-say on the object needle ‘O’.
3. Mark the position of a point which is at a distance equal to the approximate focal length, from the pole
P of the mirror as shown in Fig. 15(B).1 Label this point as F (i.e, the focus).
4. Shift the object needle towards the pole P of the mirror to a position that lies beyond the focus F
but remain between F and C (the centre of curvature of the mirror). The point C lies at a distance
equal to 2f from the pole P of the mirror. Since the object is situated between F and C, so a real
and inverted image of the object needle will be formed beyond C as shown in Fig. You can see
this inverted image in the mirror by closing your one eye and keeping the other eye along the
optical bench at the height of the pole of the mirror.
5. Now mount the second needle on the upright and shift this needle to the position I of the image of the
object needle. Remove the parallax between this second needle and the image I of the object needle.
In the position of no parallax, the second needle locates the position of the image of the object needle.
For this very reason the second needle is termed as the image needle I'.
6. Note and record the position of the mirror, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale.
7. Repeat the above steps for five different position of object needle (i.e., for five different values of u)
and record your observations as detailed below :
OBSERVATIONS
1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ...............cm
2. Length of the knitting needle, x = ...............cm
3. Observed distance between the mirror and the object needle O when the knitting needle is introduced
in between them y = ...............cm
4. Observed distance between the mirror and the image needle I when the knitting needle is introduced in
between them,
z = .............cm
5. Index error for u, e1= (y–x) = .............cm
Index correction for u, = (–e1) = .............cm
6. Index error for v, e2 = (z–x) = .............cm
Index correction for v, = (–e2) = .............cm
7. Table
Object distance Image distance v
Positions of
No. u (cm) (cm)
of Corrected Corrected 1 1
Obs. The mirror Object Image Obsd.
u = u' +
Obsd.
v = v' + f
u.v
(P) needle (O) needle (I') (P–O) = u' (P–I') = v' u v uv
(–e1) (–e2)
–1 –1
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm ) (cm ) (cm)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean value of f = ...............cm.

8. Plotting Graphs and Calculation of f
(a) u and v graph : Choose suitable but the same scale to represent u along x-axis and v along y-axis. In
this case, according to Coordinate Sign Convention, both u and v will be negative. Plot the points for
various sets of values of u and v from the observation table. The graph will be a rectangular hyperbola
as shown in Fig.
y
2f
u(cm) f
x' P O x
45° f
2f
Hyperbola R
Q
(–2f, –2f)
v(cm)
Y
Fig. Graph of u vs. v for a concave mirror (rectangular hyperbola)

Finding f from this graph : Draw a line OQ bisecting the angle XOY and cutting the graph at point
Q. The coordinates of this point are (–2f, –2f) as shown in Fig. Note the distances of the foot of the
perpendiculars QP and QR respectively on x and y-axis. The distance QP = OR = –2f. Half of these
distances gives the focal length of the concave mirror. Thus,
QP
f= = .......cm
2
QR
Also f=– = .....cm
2
Take the mean of these two values of f.
1 1 1 1
(b) and graph : Choose a suitable but the same scale to represent along X-axis and along Y-
u v u v
1 1
axis, taking O as origin (0, 0). Plot the graph between and . The graph would be a straight line
u v
as shown in fig.15(B).3. This straight line graph cuts the two axis at an angle of 45º (fig.15(B).3)
making equal interapts (OA) and OB) on them.
1
f=– = ................... cm
OA
1  –1 
 , 0  1
f=– = .................. cm A (cm) 1
OB  f  u O
takes the mean of these two value off. x'
 –1
B  0, 
 f 
1 1 Y
Fig. Graph of vs. for a concave mirror
u v
PRECAUTIONS
1. The principal axis of the mirror should be horizontal and parallel to the length of the scale.
2. The uprights supporting the needles and the mirror should be rigid
3. The tips of the needles and the pole of the mirror should be at the same horizontal level.
4. Parallax of the image and object needles should be removed tip to tip
5. The object and the image needles should be clearly distinguished from each other by putting a paper
flag on one of them and they should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
6. Index corrections for both u and v, should be properly determined and must be applied.
RESULT
Mean value of focal length by computation = ...........cm
Focal length of the given concave mirror as determined from the graph in figure 15(B). 2 f = ...............cm
and from the graph in figure 15.(B). 3 f = .................... cm
13.3 Focal length of Convex lens

Aim
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting of graphs between u and v and between 1/u and 1/
v.
APPARATUS
A convex lens of short focal length (say 15 to 20 cm.), two needles, three uprights, one clamp, an
optical bench, a half meter rod and a knitting needle.
THEORY
Position of the image formed by a convex lens depends upon the position of the object with respect to
the lens. Fig. (C).1 shows the different positions of the images formed by a convex lens for different
object positions.
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is
1 1 1
= –
f v u
PROCEDURE
1. Find the rough focal length of the given convex lens by focussing a sharp, clear and inverted image of
a distant object on a white paper and measuring this distance between the lens and the white paper
with a meter scale.
2. If the optical bench is provided with levelling screw, then level it using a spirit level.
3. Mount the convex lens (held in its holder) on the central upright of the optical bench.
Also mount the two needles on the remaining two uprights.Arrange the tips of the needles at the same
vertical height as the centre of the lens.
B'
L
Image of AB
A'
A
2F F F 2F C
Image
B Needle
Object needle CD
AB v D
u
Fig. (C) Two pin method for determining the focal length f of a convex lens.
(Arrangement on the optical branch)
4. Mark one needle as AB object needle and the other one CD as image needle and distinguish between
them by rubbing tip of one of the needles with a piece of chalk or putting a paper flag on it.
5. Find the index corrections for u and v using a knitting needle.
6. Shift the position of the object needle AB to a distance greater than 2f from the lens. Look from the
other side of the lens along its principal axis near the end of the bench. If the setting is correct, an
inverted, real image AB is seen. Now adjust the position of the second needle CD such that parallax
between the image of the object needle and the image needle is removed. The position of the second
needle is so adjusted that parallax is removed tip to tip as shown in Fig.(C).2
7. Note the positions of the lenses, the object needle and the image needle on the bench scale and thus
find the observed values of u and v. Apply index corrections to get the corrected values for u and v.
8. Repeat the above steps for 5 different positions of the object by placing it beyond 2F and between F and
2F.
Record your observations as detailed below :
OBSERVATIONS
(i) Approximate focal length of the lens f = ...........cm
(ii) For index correction
Actual length of the knitting needle x = ...........cm
(a) For u
1. Observed distance between the object needle and the lens
when knitting needle is inserted between them, y = ................cm
2. Index error for u, e1 = (y – x) = ................cm
3. Index correction for u, (–e1) = (x – y) = ................cm
(b) For v
4. observed distance between the image needle and the lens
when knitting needle is inserted between them, z = ................cm
2. Index error for v, e2 = (z – x) = ................cm
3. Index correction for v, (–e2) = (x – z) = ................cm
Table
Pos ition of Object dis tance u (cm) Image dis tance v (cm)
No. Lens Object Image Obs erved Corrected u Obs erved Corrected 1 1
of at O needle needle (O–A ) = u' = u' + (–e 1 ) (C–O) = v' v  v  (  e 2 ) u v
Obs . at A at C
–1 –1
(cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm) (cm ) (cm )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
6. Plotting Graphs and Calculations of f

(a) u-v Graph :-
(i) Choose a suitable but the same scale to represent u along x-axis and v along y-axis. Remember
that u is negative and v is positive for a convex lens, according to the coordinate sign convention
used these days.
(ii) Plot the points for various sets of value of u and v from the observation table. The graph will
be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in fig.15(C).3
Y
v (cm)
C
(–2f, 2f) B
45º
X' X
A O
u (cm) Y'
Fig Graph of u v/s v for a convex lens (rectangular hyperbola)
Finding f fr om this gr aph : Draw a line OC bisecting the angle X OY and cutting the graph at point
C. The coordinates of this point are (–2f, 2f) as shown in fig. Note the distances if the foot of the
perpendiculars OA and OB respectively on X and Y axis. Half of these distances given the focal
length of the convex lens. Thus
OA
f= = .................. cm
2
OB
also f= = .................. cm
2
take the mean of these two values of f.
(b) Calculation of f from graph between 1/u and 1/v : Choose a suitable but the same scale to represent
1 1 1 1
along x-axis and along y-axis, taking O as the origin (0, 0). Plot the graph between and .
u v u v
The graph would be a straight line as shown in figure. 15(C).4. This straight line graph cuts the two
axis at an angle of 45º (figure 15(C).4) making equal intercepts (OA and OB) on them.
measure AO and OB. Then
1 1
f=  = ....................cm
OA OB
y
B
v
1
(cm–1)
x' x
A 1 O
–1
u (cm ) y'
Fig. Graph of 1/u vs. 1/v for a convex lens

RESULT
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from the graph of
(i) (u, v) Fig. =.................cm
(ii)  ,  Fig.
1 1
=.................cm
u v
PRECAUTIONS
1. The tips of the needles should be as high as the optical centre of the lens.
2. The uprights carrying the lens and the needles should not be shaky.
3. Parallax should be removed tip to tip.
4. The eye should be placed at such a position that the distance between the image needle and the eye is
more than 25 cm.
5. The image and object needles should not be interchanged for different sets of observations.
6. A pieceof chalk may be rubbed on the tip of the object needle or a paper flag put on it, so as to
distinguish it from the image needle.
14. MINIMUM DEVIATION

AIM
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for a given glass prism by Plotting a graph between the
angle of incidence and angle of deviation and hence find the refractive index of the material of the
prism.
APPARATUS
A drawing board, a sheet of paper, glass triangular prism, pins, a half meter scale, a graph paper and
a protractor
THEORY
Refraction Through a prism (angle of minimum deviation)
A
A T
N1
P  N2
i r1 r2 e
E F G H
B C
Figure Refraction of light through a prism
Minimum Deviation - In (Fig.), ABC
represents the principal section of a glass prism. Let EF be a ray of light that is incident on the
refracting face AB of the prism. The straight path FG represents the refracted ray through the prism
and GH represents the emergent ray. FN1 and GN2 are drawn normal to the refracting faces AB and
AC at points F and G respectively. Incident ray EF Produced to PT, as as result of refraction through
the prism ABC emerges along GH. The incident ray shown as EF (extruded as dotted line FPT)
deviates and follows the path PGH. The angle  is the angle between the incident ray EFPT (produced)
shown dotted and the emergent ray GH (produced backwards) to meet EFT at the the point P. This
angle  is known as the angle of deviation. The angle BAC of the prism (i.e., the angle between its two
refracting faces) is called the angle of the prism and it is denoted by the letter ‘A’. It can be proved
from simple geometrical considerations that
A +  = i + e ....(i)
and A = r1 + r2 ....(ii)
where i = angle of incidence
e = angle of emergence
r1 = angle of refraction at face AB

r2 = angle of refraction at face AC.
The relation (i) clearly shows that angle of deviation  varies with the angle of incidence i.
The variation of angle  with angle i is represented graphically in Fig.
It is obvious from Fig. That the angle  decreases with the increase in the value of i initially, till a
particular value (io) of the angle of incidence is reached. For this value of angle of incidence, the
corresponding value of the angle of deviation is minimum and it is denoted by the letter m. This angle
of deviation is called the angle of minimum deviation. When a prism is so placed with respect to the
incident ray that the angle of deviation produced by it is minimum, then the prism is said to be in the
position of minimum deviation. In this position, the following relation holds between the angles.
i.e., i = e and r1 = r2 ....(iii)
In this position, the incident ray and the emergent ray are symmetrical with respect to the prism and
the ray passes through the prism is parallel to its base. Refractive index of material of prism is given as,
 A  m 
sin  
 2 
µ=
sin A / 2
Where m is the angle of minimum deviation andA is the angle of the prism
Y
48
46
Angle of deviation ()/ degree
44
42
40
38
m
36
34 X
20 30 40 i0 50 60 70 80
Angle of incidence (i)/ degree
Fig. 16.2 Variation of angle of deviation with angle of incidence for refraction through a prism
PROCEDURE
1. Fix the sheet of the white paper on the drawing board with cello-tape or drawing pins.
2. Draw a straight line XY nearly at the centre of the sheet parallel to its length. Mark points marked as
O at suitable spacing on this line XY and draw normal to the line XY at points O as shown in Fig.
Draw straight line PQ corresponding to the incident rays that are drawn at angles of incidence ranging
from 30° to 60°, i.e., for angles of 30°, 40º, 50° and 60° using a protractor.
3. Place the prism with one of its refracting surfaces on the line XY and trace its boundary ABC as
shown in Fig.
I
N1 A K N2
Q F  S
i e P3
r1 r2
F G P4
P2
R P1 T
N3
X Y
B O C
Fig.
4. Fix two pins P and Q about 8 cm apart on the incident ray line and view its image with your one eye
closed from the face BC of the prism. Fix two pins R and S on the paper such that the tips of these
pins and the tips of the images of the incident ray pins P and Q all lie on the same straight line.
5. Remove the pins R and S and encircle their pin pricks on the paper. Remove the pins P and Q and
also encircle their pin pricks.
6. Join the points (i.e., pin pricks) S and R and produce it backwards to meet the incident ray PQ
produced (shown by dotted lines). Thus RS is the emergent ray corresponding to the incident ray PQ.
Draw arrow heads to show the direction of the rays.
7. Measure the angle of deviation  with a protractor.
8. Repeat the steps (3 to 7) for different values of angle of incidence (Fig.) and measure the corresponding
angles of deviation . Take at least seven values of angle i ranging from 30° - 60°.
Measurement of refracting angle ‘A’ of the prism.
1. Draw a line XY on the drawing sheet as depicted in Fig.
G I H
P1 P1
N1 P2 A P'2 N2
P
K
P3 2A M P'3
P4 P'4
L N Y
X
B E O F C
Fig. Measurement the refracting angle A of the prism
2. Mark points O in the middle of XY and E and F on either side of O equidistant from E such that OE
= OF (say 1 cm each).
3. Draw three vertical lines EG, OI and FH through E, O and F respectively, such that these are parallel
to each other.
4. Place the prism with its refracting edgeAon the line OI such that BC is along XY. The points E and F
would be symmetric with respect to edges B and C.
5. Draw the boundaryABC of the face of prism touching the board.
6. Fix pins P1 and P2 vertically, 4 cm apart, observe their reflection in the faceAB and fix the pin P3 such
that the images of P1, P2 and P3 are in a straight line. Fix another pin P4 such that prick of P4 is also in
the same straight line. Join the pricks of P3 and P4 by line LK and produce it backward. KL is
reflected ray of incident ray GK.
7. Similarly locate NM by joining P3 P4 as the reflected ray of incident ray HM. Draw NM backward to
meet the line LK produced backward at point P. The point P should lie on the line OI if observations
are correctly taken.
8. The angle LPN is equal to 2 A (it can be proved geometrically from the figure). Measure the angle
LPN and determine A, the angle of prism.
OBSERVATION
(i) Table for angles i and 
No of Obs. Angle of incident i Angle of deviation δ
1 30°
2 35°
3 40°
4 45°
…. ……
8 60°
(ii) Plotting the graph between i and  Plot a graph between angles i and  for various sets of values
recorded in the observation table. The graph will be a curve as shown in Fig.
(iii)For angle ‘A’of the prism
LPN = ...........° = 2A
or AngleA = ...........°
CALCULATIONS
Determine the angle of minimum deviation m from the graph.
RESULT
(i) The angle of deviation  first decreases with the increase in the angle of incidence, attains a minimum
value and then increases with further increase in the angle of incidence as indicated in the (–i) graph
Fig.
PRECAUTIONS
1. A sharp pencil should be used for drawing the boundary of the prism.
2. The separation between the pins should not be less than 8 cm.
3. The angle of incidence should lie between 30° to 60°.
4. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observation. So an ink mark should be placed on
it to distinguish it as the refracting angle Aof the prism.
5. The pins should have sharp tips and fixed vertically and the pin pricks should be encircled immediately
after they are removed.
6. Proper arrows should be drawn to indicate the incident, the refracted and the emergent rays.
7. A smooth curve practically passing through all the plotted points should be drawn.
15. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB

AIM
To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.
APPARATUS
A piece of paper, a marker, glass slab, travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.
THEORY
Refraction is a phenomenon of propagation of light from one transparent medium into the other medium
such that light deviates from its original path. The ratio of velocity of light in the first medium to that in
the second medium is called refractive index of second medium with respect to the first. Usually the
first medium is air.
The bottom surface of a vessel containing a refracting liquid appears to be raised, such that apparent
depth is less than the real depth. Refractive index of refracting liquid is defined as the ratio of real
depth to the apparent depth.
real depth
Mathematically, Refractive index µ =
apparent depth
For accurate measurements of depths, a travelling microscope [Fig. (a)] is used.
If reading of real depth at the bottom of the slab is r1, if reading at cross due to refraction is r2 and at
the top of slab if reading is r3, then
real depth = r3 – r1, and
apparent depth = r3 – r2.
r3 – r1
Therefore, refractive index of glass (material of slab) µ =
r3 – r2
r3
r2 R
Stem of travelling microscope
r1 R
R
Lycopodium
Powder
Glass slab
O
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. : Travelling microscope taking reading (a) at the cross mark
(b) at the cross mark with slab placed on it (c) at powder sprinkled on the top of the slab
PROCEDURE
For accurate measurement of depths, travelling microscope is used [for travelling microscope turn to
page no. 41]
1. Note the number of divisions of vernier which coincide with number of full scale divisions.
2. Find the value of each main division and hence least count of the microscope scale as (1 M.S.D. – 1
V.S.D.).
3. Set the microscope in its stand such that it is capable of sliding vertically up and down as the screw
attached to rack and pinion is turned.
4. On a sheet of white paper, mark a cross and place it below the objective of the microscope.
5. Move the microscope very gently. Using the screw, focus the eye piece on cross mark and bring the
cross in focus such that the cross wires, coincides with the marked cross on the paper. Note the
reading of the microscope as r1 [Fig. (a)].
6. Place the given glass slab on the cross mark. You would observe that the cross mark appears to be
raised.
7. Move the microscope gradually and gently upward to bring the cross mark in focus and on cross of
cross wires. Record the reading as r2 [Fig (b)].
8. Sprinkle some fine lycopodium powder on the glass slab and move the microscope upward till the
powder particle come into focus. Record the reading on the scale as r3 [Fig. (C)].
9. Difference of readings r3 and r1 i.e. r3 – r1 gives the real depth whereas r3 – r2 gives the apparent
depth.
10. Record your observations as follows and calculate the value of refractive index m.
OBSERVATIONS
Least count of travelling microscope.
10 Vernier Scale Division = 9 Main Scale Divisions
(Scales may differ from instrument to instrument).
Value of one main scale division = 1 mm i.e. 0.1 cm.
10 V.S.D. = 9 M.S.D. (V.S.D. Vernier Scale Division, M.S.D. Main Scale Divisions)
9
 1 V.S.D. = M.S.D.
10
9 1 1
L.C. = 1 M.S.D. – 1 V.S.D. = 1 M.S.D. – M.S.D. = M.S.D. or × 0.1 cm = 0.01 cm.
10 10 10
Reading of microscope focussed on
Cross mark without slab Cross mark with slab placed on it Powder sprinkled on top of slab
No.
of Main Vernier Reading Main scale Vernier Reading Main Vernier Reading
Obs. scale div. N + n × reading (N) div. N+n× scale div. N+n×
reading Coinciding L.C. = r1 Coinciding L.C. = r2 reading Coinciding L.C. = r3
(N) (N)
(cm) n (cm) (cm) n (cm) (cm) n (cm)
1.
2.
3.
Mean values r1 = ..........cm, r2 = ..............cm and r3 = ..........cm
CALCULATIONS
Real depth = dr = r3 – r1 = ..........cm.
(1) ........cm; (2) ........cm and (3) .........cm; Mean dr = ......cm
Apparent depth = da = r3 – r2 = ........cm.
(1) .........cm (2) .........cm (3) ..........cm; Mean da = ..............cm
Real depth dr
Refractive index µ = = = .........
Apparent depth da
PRECAUTIONS
1. Least count of the scale of travelling microscope should be carefully calculated.
2. Microscope once focussed on the cross mark, the focussing should not be disturbed throughout the
experiment. Only rack and pinion screw should be turned to move the microscope upward.
3. Eye piece should be adjusted such that cross wires are distinctly seen.
4. Cross wires, cross should be set on the ink cross mark on the paper.
5. Only a thin layer of powder should be spread on the top of slab.
6. Express your result upto significant figures keeping in view the least count of instrument.
RESULT
The refractive index of the glass slab by using travelling microscope is determined as ...........(no units
required as it is simply a ratio).
16. CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF A P-N JUNCTION
AIM
To study the static and dynamic curves of a p-n junction diode in forward bias and to determine its
static and dynamic resistances
REQUIREMENTS
A p-n junction diode, a three volt battery, a high resistance rheostat, 0-3 volt voltmeter, one
milliammeter, one way key and connecting wires.
THEORY
When a junction diode is forward biased, a forward current is produced which increases with increase
in bias voltage. This increase is not proportional.
The ratio of forward bias voltage (V) and forward current (I) is called the static resistance of
VF
semiconductor diode, i.e., R = .
IF
In case of a varying bias voltage and varying forward current, the ratio of change in forward biase
voltage (V) and corresponding change in forward current (I) is called the dynamic resistance
 VF 
 r  
 I F  .
To find the static and dynamic resistance of semiconductor diode, a graph has to be plotted between
forward bias voltage (V) and forward bias current (I). This graph is called the characteristic curve of
semicondctor diode.
PROCEDURE Diode
+
Battery Rh +
– Voltmeter V
– mA Milliammeter
()
K
Fig. 18.1
(a) Make the connections as shown in figure.
(b) Keep the moving contact of the rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter and
milliammeter will show a zero reading.
(c) Move the contact towards the positive to apply the forward bias voltage V = 0.1 V. The current
remain zero
(d) Increase the forward bias voltage to 0.3 V in steps. The current will still be zero. (This is due to the
junction potential barrier of 0.3 V).
(e) Increase V to 0.4 V. Record the current.
(f) Increase V in step of 0.2 and note the corresponding current.
(g) At V = 2.4 V. The current increases suddenly. This represents the forward breakdown stage.
(h) Draw a graph of I on y-axis and V on x-axis. The graph will be as shown in figure
RECORD OF READINGS
(i) Least count of voltmeter = ......................... V Zero error of mA = ........................ mA
(ii) Least count of milliammeter = ................. mA Zero error of voltmeter = ...................V
Sr. No. Forward bias voltage VF (V) Forward bias current IF (mA)
1 0 0
2 : 0
3 : 0
4 : :
: : :
: : :
: : :
GRAPH
y
Forward current IF (mA)
B
n
A
C
A
A
O x
Forward bias voltage VF (V)
CALCULATIONS
(i) For static resistance (R)
VF
R= I
F
OA
From the graph R = = .........., ohm
OA
Diode used......(specify the code)
(ii) For dynamic resistance (r)
VF
r = I
F
AC
 From the graph r = ohms
BC
RESULT
(i) The static resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ........... ohm
(ii) The dynamic resistance of the given semiconductor diode = ......... ohm
PRECAUTIONS
(i) Make all connections neat, clean and tight
(ii) Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit is not in use
(iii) Avoid applying forward bias voltage beyond breakdown
POSSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

(i) The connection may not be tight
(ii) The junction diode may be faulty
17. CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF A ZENER DIODE
AIM
To draw the characteristic curves of a zener diode and to determine its reverse breakdown voltage.
APPARATUS
A Zener diode (with reverse breakdown voltage of 6 V), a ten volt battery, a rheostat, two voltmeters
(range 0, 10 V), one milliammeter, one 20 resistance, one way key, connecting wires.
THEORY
Zener diode is a semiconductor diode in which the n-type sections are heavily doped, This heavy
doping results in a low value of reverse breakdown voltage.
The reverse breakdown voltage of Zener diode is called Zener voltage (Vz). The reverse current that
results after the breakdown, is called Zener current (Iz).
The circuit diagram is given in figure
Vi = Input voltage
V0 = Output voltage
Ri = Input resistance
Ii = Input current
IZ = Zener diode current
IL = Load current
IL = Ii – IZ
V0 = Vi – RiIi
V0 = RLIL
Initially as Vi increases, Ii increases hence V0 increases linearly.At break-down, increase of Vi increases
Ii by large amount, so that V0 = Vi – RiIi becomes constant.
This constant value of V0 Which is the reverse breakdown voltage, is called Zener voltage.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Ri Ii IL
mA 
20 
Iz
+ +
Zener RL
10 V V2 V0
diode
N758 A
V1 Vi
( ) 
PROCEDURE
(a) Make the connections as shown in figure above making sense that zener diode is reverse biased
(b) Bring the moving contact to rheostat to the minimum and insert the key K. Voltmeter and ameter will
read zero
(c) Move the contact a little towards positive end to apply some reverse bias voltage (Vi). Milliammeter
reading remains zero.
(d) As Vi is further increased, Ii starts increasing and V0 becomes less than Vi. Note the values of Vi, V0
and Ii
(e) Keep increasing Vi in small steps of 0.5 V. Note the corresponding values of Ii and V0
(f) At one stage as Vi is increased, Ii increases by large amount and V0 does not increase. This is reverse
break down situation
(g) As Vi is increased further, Ii will increase keeping V0 constant. Record your observation in tabular
column
(h) Draw graph of output voltage V0 along y-axis and input voltage along x-axis. The graph will be as
shown in figure
(i) Draw graph of input current along y-axis and input voltage along x-axis. The graph will be as shown
in figure
GRAPHS
Input voltage (V i) volt

8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Output voltage (V0) volt
Zener
voltage 10
6
20
Input current Ii (mA)
5
30
4 40
3 50
2 60
1 70
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Input voltage (Vi) volt
RECORD OF READINGS
Least count of voltmeter V1 =........... V
Least count of voltmeter V2 =............V
Least count of milli-ammeter =.........mA
Serial No. Input voltage Vi Input current Ii Output voltage V0
(V) (mA) (V)
1 0 0 0
2 0.5 : :
3 1 : :
4 1.5 : :
5 : : :
6 : : :
RESULT
The reverse breakdown voltage of given Zener diode is 6 volts.
PRECAUTIONS
(i) Use voltmeter and milliammeter of suitable range.
(ii) Connect the zener diode p-n junction in reverse bias.
(iii) The key should be kept open when the circuit is not in use.
18. CHARACTERISTIC CURVES OF A TRANSISTOR
AIM
To study the characteristics of a common emitter n-p-n or p-n-p transistor and to find out the values
of current and voltage gains.
REQUIREMENTS
An n-p-n transistor, a 3 V battery, a 30 V battery, two rehostats, one 0–3 V voltmeter, one 0–30 V
voltmeter, one 0–500A microammeter, one 0–50 mA milliammeter, two one way keys, connecting
wires.
THEORY
A transistor can be considered as a thin wafer of one type of semiconductor between two layers of
another type. A npn transistor has one p-type wafer in between two n-type. Similarly p-n-p the
transistor has one n-type wafer between two p-type.
In a common emitter circuit, the emitter base makes the input section and the collector base the output
section, with emitter base junction, forward bias and the collector base junction, reverse biased.
The resistance offered by the emitter base junction is called input resistace Ri and has a low value.
The resistance offered by the collector base junction is called output resistance R0 and has high value.
Due to the high output resistance, a high resistance can be used as a load resistance.
RL R0
The ratio or measures the resistance gain of the common emitter transistor..
Ri Ri
The ratio of change in collector current to the corresponding change in base current, measures the
current gain in common emitter transistor and is represented by .
I c
 = I
b
The product of current gain and the reistance gain measures the voltage gain of the common emitter
transistor.
FORMULA USED
Vb
Input resistance, Ri 
I b
Vc
Output resistance, R0 
I c
R0
Resistance gain, = R
i
I c
Current gain,  = I
b
Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain
R0
i.e. AV =  R
i
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
Ic – +
mA
npn
Ib + –
A Rh +
+
3V 30V
– Rh + –
+ Vc V2
V1 Vb Ie –
–
K1 Ib Ic K2
( ) ( )
PROCEDURE
(a) Make circuit diagram as shown in given figure (A)
(b) Drag the moveable contact of rheostat to the minimum so that voltmeters V1 and V2 read zero volt
FOR INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

(c) Apply the forward bias voltage at the emitter base junction note the base voltage (Vb) and the base
current (Ib)
(d) Keep increasing Vb till Ib rises suddenly
(e) Make collector voltage 10 V and repeat the above steps
(f) Now make collector voltage 20 V, 30 V and repeat the above steps. Note the value of Vb and Ib in
each case
FOR OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

(g) Make all reading zero. Keep the collector voltage zero.
(h) Make base current Ib = 100 A by adjusting the base voltage. You will be able to read some collector
current even though the collector voltage is zero
(i) Make the the collector voltage 10V, 20V, 30V, etc. and note corresponding collector currents. Record
your observations in the tabular form as given below
(j) Make the current Ib equal to 200 A, note the values of Ic corresponding to the different values of Vc
RECORD OF REOBSERVATIONS
Least count of voltmeter, V1 = ..........V
Least count of voltmeter, V2 = ..........V
Least count of milliammeter =.............mA
Least count of microammeter =...............A
Table-1 For base voltage and base current
Sr. Base voltage, (Vb) Base current, Ib (A)
No. (V) Vc = 0V Vc = 10V Vc = 20V Vc = 30V
1
2
3
4
5
Table-2 For collector voltage and collector current
Sr. Collector voltage, Vc Collector current, Ic (mA)
No. (V) Ib = 100 A Ib = 200 A Ib = 300 A Ib = 400 A
1
2
3
4
5
GRAPHS
I. (For Input Characteristics)
Draw a graph of base voltage (Vb) on the x-axis and base current (Ib) on the y-axis from table no. 1.
The graph will be as shown in figure.
Y
V c= V
V c =0
2 V
400
V c = 10
30 0V
V
Base current (Ib). mA
V
c=
DIb
150
100
50 Vb
X
–0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Base voltage (Vb) V
I b
The slope of the graph gives the value of and its reciprocal gives the value of input resistance Ri.
Vb
Vb
Ri = = ........... ohms
I b
II. For Output Characteristics
Draw the graph between collector voltage Vc and collector current Ic for 10 mA base current Ib
taking Vc along x-axis and Ic along y-axis from table no.2. The graph will be as shown in figure.
15 Ib= 400 A
Collector current
Ib= 300 A
(Ic) mA
15 Ic
Vc
10 Ib= 200 A
5 Ib= 100 A
X
5 10 20 25 30
Collector voltage (Vc) V
I c
From the graph the slope gives the value of and its reciprocal gives the output resistance.
Vc
Vc
R0 = = ................. ohm
I c
III. For Calculation of Current Gain
Plot a graph of base current (Ib) on x-axis and collector current Ic on y-axis. The graph will be as
shown in figure.
I c
The slope of the graph will give the value of I which is the value of current gain ().
b
A
20
Collector current
(Ic) mA
15 Ic
10 B
C
5
Ib
X
100 200 300 400
Base Current (Ib) A
AC = ................................. mA
= ................................. A
BC = ................................. A
= ................................. A
AC
 = = ...................
BC
For calculation of voltage gain (Av)

Voltage gain = Current gain × Resistance gain
Ro
Av =  × R
i
RESULT
For the given common emitter transistor, Current gain  = ....................
Voltage gain Av = ....................
PRECAUTONS
(i) Use voltmeter and milliammeter of suitable range
(ii) The key should be kept open when the circuit is not in use
POSIBLE SOURCES OF ERRORS

(i) Voltmeter and ammeter may have a zero error
(ii) All the connections may not be tight
19. IDENTIFICATION OF DEVICES

AIM
To identify a diode, a L.E.D., a transistor, a resistor and a capacitor from a mixed collection of such
items
APPARATUS
A multimeter and a collection of a junction diode, L.E.D., a transistor, a resistor, a capacitor and
integrated circuit.
THEORY
For identification of different items, we have to consider both, their physical apperarance and working
1. An IC (integrated circuit) is in the form of a chip (with flat back) and has multiples terminals, say 8 or
more. Therefore, it can easily be identified.
2. A transistor is a three terminal device and can be sorted out just by appearance
3. A resistor, a capacitor, a diode and an LED are two teminal devics. For identifying these, we use the
following facts :
(i) A diode is a two terminal device that conducts only when it is forward biased
(ii) An LED is a light emitting diode. It is also a two teminal device which conducts and emits light only
when it is forward biased.
(iii) A Resistor is a two teminal device. It conducts both with d.c. and a.c. voltage. Further, a resistor
conducts equally even when teminals of d.c. battery are reversed
(iv) A capacitor is a two terminal device which does not conduct with d.c. voltage applies either way.
But, conducts with a.c. voltage
0.05 
BC
AC 128
Capacitor 548
Resistor
L.E.D.
Diode Transistor
I.C.
PROCEDURE
1. Looks at the given mixture of various components of electrical circuit and pick up the one having more
than three terminals. The number of terminals may be 8, 10, 14, or 16. This component will have a flat
face. This component will be the integrated circuit i.e., IC.
2. Now find out the component having three legs or terminals. It will be a transistor
3. The component having two legs may either be a junction or capacitor or resistor or a light emitting
diode. These items can be distinguished from each other by using a multimeter as an ohmmeter.
4. Touch the probes to the two ends of each item and observe the deflection on the resistance scale.
After this, interchange the two probes and again observe the deflection
5. (i) If the same constant deflection is observed in the two cases (before and after interchanging the
probes), the item under observation is a resistor
(ii) If unequal deflections are observation, it is a junction diode
(iii) If unequal deflections are observed in the two cases along with emission of light in the case when
deflection is large, the item under observation is an LED
(iv) On touching the probes, if a large deflection is observed, which then gradually decreases to zero
the item under observation is a capacitor
In case the capacity of the capacitor is of the order of picofarad,then the deflection will become zero
within no time
RESULT
When the item is observed physically
S. No. Number of legs (or pins) of the item Inference
1 More than three The item is an IC
2 Three The item is a transistor
3 Two junction diode, L.E.D.,
resistor or capacitor
With multimeter as an ohmmeter :

S. No. Possible deflection before and after interchanging the Inference
probes
probes
1 Same cosntant deflection The item is a resistor
2 Small deflection in one case and large deflection in the The item is a junction diode
other
3 Small deflection in one case and large deflection in the The item is an L.E.D.
other along with emission of light
4 Large deflection, which gradually falls to zero The item is a capacitor of small
capacity
PRECAUTIONS
Observe all those precautions which were related to multimeter and explained at the end of multimeter.
20. MULTIMETER
AIM
Use of multimeter to :
(a) Identify base of transistor.
(b) Distinguish between N-P-N and P-N-P type transistor.
(c) Identify terminals of an IC.
(d) See the unidirectional flow of current in case of a diode and LED.
(e) Check whether the given electronic component (e.g., diode, transistor or IC) is in working order.
APPARATUS
A multimeter, P-N-P transistor, N-P-N transistor, an IC, junction diode, L.E.D., etc
THEORY
Multimeter : It is an electrical instrument which can be used to measure all the three basic electrical
quantities i.e., electrical resistance, current (a.c. and d.c.) and voltage (direct and alternating). Since it
can measure Ampere (A) (unit of current), Volt (V) (Unit of e.m.f.) and Ohm (unit of resistance), that
is why it is also called as AVO meter. In this way, this single instrument will replace the Voltmeter and
Ammeter.
CONSTRUCTION
The most commonly used form of multimeter is shown in figure, which is basically a pointer type
moving coil galvanometer. The pointer of the multimeter can move over its dial, which is marked in
resistance, current and voltage scales of different ranges. The zeros of all the the scales are on the
extreme left, except that of resistance scale, whose zero is on the extreme right. A dry cell of 1.5 V is
provided inside it. When the multimeter is used as an ohmmeter, the dry cell comes in closed circuit.
Selector switch
Zero ohm switch
Jack socket
Figure : Multimeter
1. Circuit jacks : In the multimeter shown in fig. there are two circuit jacks, one each at the extreme
corners of the bottom of the multimeter. The jack at right corner is marked positive ( + ), while the
other at left corner is marked negative ( – ). In certain multimeters, the positive circuit jack is not
provided but circuit jacks are provided in front of all the markings in regionsA, B, C and D. When the
range switch is turned in any region, then all the circuit jacks in that region act as the positive circuit
jacks.
Two testing leads (generally one black and the other red in colour) are provided with a multimeter.
Each lead carries two probes (one smaller than the other) as its two ends. The smaller probe of red
lead is inserted in jack marked positive, while the smaller probe of black lead is inserted in jack
marked negative.
It may be pointed out that the battery cell remains connected to the meter only, when the range switch
is in regionA. Further, actually the positive of the battery cell is connected to the negative circuit jack
and the negative of the battery cell is connected to the positive circuit jack.
2. Zero ohm switch : This switch is provided at the left side of the multimeter. However, in some
multimeters, the zero ohm switch is also provided on its front panel. This switch is set, while measuring
a resistance. In order to set this switch, the smaller probes are inserted in the two jacks and the bigger
probes are short circuited. This switch is worked, till the pointer comes to zero mark, which lies at the
right end of resistance scale. The action of multimeter as different types of meters is explained below:
(i) Ammeter : The galvanometer gets converted into d.c. ammeter when range switch lies in the
region B of the multimeter panel. W hen range switch is in region B, it can be used as d.c. ammeter of
range 0 to 0.25 mA , 0 to 25 mA and 0 to 500 mA by bri ngi ng the knob in f ront of the desired mark
when the rangeswitch is in the region B, a very small resistance called shunt resistancewhose value is
different for different range, gets connected in parallel to the galvanometer. In this position, the battery
cell is cut off from the meter.
(ii) Voltmeter : Multimeter can be used to measure both direct and alternating voltage
(a) d.c. Voltmeter : The galvanometer gets converted into d.c. voltmeter when the range switch lies
in the region C of the multimeter panel. With different positions of range switch in this region, it can be
used as d.c. voltmeter of ranges 0-0.25 V, 0-2.5 V, 0-10 V, 0-50 V and 0 to 1000 volts. When the
range switch is in region C, a high resistance, whose value depends upon the range selected, gets
connected in series to the galvanometer. In this case the battery cell is not in circuit with the meter.
(b) a.c. Voltmeter : The galvanometer gets converted into a.c. voltmeter when the range switch is
turned and it lies in the region D of the multimeter panel. With the different positions of the range
switch in this region, multimeter can be used as a.c. voltmeter of range 0 to 10 V, 50V, 250V and
1000V. A solid state crystal diode rectifier is incorporated in the circuit so as to use it for a.c.
measurement.
(iii) ohm-meter : When the knob in the lower part of the multimeter i.e., the range switch is turned so
as to be in the region A of the multimeter panel, the galvanometer gets converted into a resistance
meter. When range switch is in front of a small black mark against × K mark, it works as resistance
meter of range 0 to 50 Kand when the knob is in front of ×  mark, it works as a resistance metre
of range 0 to 50 × 106 ohm. When the range switch is in region A, a battery cell of 0.5 V and suitable
resistor whose value is different for × K  and ×  marks, gets connected in series to the
galvanometer.
PROCEDURE
(1) Take a multimter and plug in the smaller probes of the testing leads into jack sockets marked as
positive ( + ) and negative ( – ).
(2) Turn the selector switch in the regionA, so that it points towards the small black mark against × 
or × K . Adjust the zero ohm switch till the pointer of the multimeter comes to zero mark of the
resistance scale (on extreme right), when the two probes are short ciruited.
(a) To identify the base of transistor :
Transistor
(3) In most of the cases the central lead of a transistor is base lead but in some cases it may not be so. In
order to identify the base lead, touch the two probes to the extreme two legs of the transistor. Note
the resistance of transistor between these two legs. Now, interchange the probes touching the two
extreme legs of the transistor again and note the resistance of transistor between these legs.
If in both cases the resistance of transistor is high, then the central leg is base of transistor and the two
extreme legs are emitter and collector, because emitter collector junction offers high resistance in both
directions.
But if the resistance is high in one direction and low in the other direction, then one of the extreme legs
is base of transistor.
(4) To find, which of the extreme legs is base, touch one probe to the left leg and the other to the central
leg. Note the resistance between these two legs. Now interchange the two probes and again note the
resistance.
In case the resistance is low in one direction and high in other direction, then the left leg is base
otherwise the right leg is base of the transistor.
(b) To find whether the given transistor is N-P-N or P-N-P :
(5) First find the base of transistor as explained above
(6) Now touch the probe of black wire to the base and the probe of the red wire to any one of the
remaining two legs and note the resistance from the multimeter
(7) In case the resistance of the transistor is low, it is an N-P-N transistor, otherwise P-N-P
(c) Flow of current in a junction diode :
(8) Touch the two probes of the multimeter with the two legs of the diode and note the value of resistance.
Now interchange the two probes and note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in other
case resistance is high, then it shows the unidirectional flow of current through a junction diode.
Flow of current in a L.E.D.
(9) Touch the two probes of the multimeter with the two legs of the L.E.D. and note the value of resistance.
Now interchange the two probes and note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in other
case resistance is high, also the L.E.D. will glow by emitting light when its resistance is low, then it
shows the unidirectional flow of current through a L.E.D.
(d) Check whether the given diode or transistor is in working order :
(10) Set the multimeter as resistance meter as explained in steps 1 and 2. Now touch the probes with the
two legs of the junction diode and note the value of resistance. Now interchange the probes and again
note the resistance. If in one case resistance is low and in the second case resistance is high, then the
junction diode is in working order. If in both cases the resistance is low, then the junction diode is
spoilt.
FOR A TRANSISTOR
(11) Confirm the base, emitter and collector of the given transistor. Find the resistance of E-B junction
and B-C junction using the multimeter, keeping in mind either the given transistor is P-N-P or N-P-N.
Again find the resistance of E-B junction and B-C junction by interchanging the probes. If in both
directions the resistances of both the junctions come to be low, then the given transistor is spoiled if in
one direction resistance is low while in other direction the resistance is high, show that the transistor is
in working order.
PRECAUTIONS
The following precautions should be observed while using a multimeter.
(1) The electrical quantity to be measured should be confirmed each time before starting the measurement
otherwise the multimeter may get damaged if one starts measuring voltage and the selector switch is in
the region of current or resistance etc.
(2) The instrument should not be exposed to high temperature and moisture for long time, otherwise it will
get damaged.
(3) When order of the magnitude of voltage or current is not known, measurement is always started on the
highest range and then adequate lower range is selected in gradual steps.
(4) while handling high voltages, probes should be held from their insulating covers.
(5) Due to to high sensitivity of the instruments, it should not be given big shocks/vibrations.
(6) Batteries out of life should be immediately replaced by new ones. Otherwise components inside will
get corroded by leakage of the electrolyte.
Q1 l2  
 ..... (3)
P1 100  l2  
which give two linear equation for finding  and .
In order that  and  be measured accurately, P1 and Q1 should be as different from each other as
possible. For the actual balance point,
P l l'
  1' ,
Q 100  l   l2
Errors due to non-uniformity of the meter bridge wire can be minimised by interchanging the resistances
in the gaps P and Q.
' '
P l1 l2
  '  '
P l1 l2
where, l’1 and l’2 are of the order of the least count of the scale.
The error is, therefore, minimum if l’1 = l’2 i.e. when the balance point is in the middle of the bridge. The
error in  is
P 2r L P
  
P r L P
EXERCISE-1
[SINGLE CORRECT CHOICE TYPE]
Q.1 The length of a given cylindrical wire is increased by 100%. Due to the consequent decrease in
diameter the change in the resistance of the wire will be :
(A) 200% (B) 100% (C) 50% (D) 300%
Q.2 The length of a wire of a potentiometer is 100 cm, and the emf of its stand and cell is E volt. It is
employed to measue the emf of a battery whose internal resistance is 0.5. If the balance point is
obtained at  = 30 cm from the positive end, the emf of the battery is
30E 30E
(A) (B)
100.5 100  0.5
30( E  0.5i) 30E
(C) , where i is the current in the potentiometer wire. (D)
100 100
Q.3 In a meter bridge set up, which of the following should be the properties of the one meter long wire?
(A) High resistivityand low temperature coefficient
(B) Low resistivityand low temperature coefficient
(C) Low resistivityand high temperature coefficient
(D) High resistivityand high temperature coefficient
Q.4 Consider the MB shown in the diagram, let the resistance X have temperature coefficient 1 and the
resistance from the RB have the temperature coefficient 2. Let the reading of the meter scale be 10cm
from the LHS. If the temperature of the two resistance increase bysmall temperature T then what is the
shift in the position of the null point? Neglect all the other changes in the bridge due to temperature rise.
1 1
(A) 9(1 – 2)T (B) 9(1 + 2)T (C) ( + 2)T (D) ( – 2)T
9 1 9 1
Q.5 For a post office Box, the graph of galvanometer deflection versus R (resistance pulled out of RB) for
the ratio 100 : 1 is given as shown.Acareless student pulls out two non consecutive values R marked in
the graph. Find the value of unknown resistance.
(A) 3.2 ohm (B) 3.24 ohm (C) 3.206 ohm (D) 3.26 ohm
Q.6 Identify which of the following diagrams represent the internal construction of the coils wound in a
resistance box or PO box?
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Q.7 In the laboratory method for measuring the latent heat of steam, the steam is passed through the device
shown below. The function of the device is
Insulated walls
Steam to calorimeter
Steam from boiler
(A) to prevent condensed steam from reaching the calorimeter

(B) to reduce the pressure of the steam
(C) to ensure that the pressure of the steam is equal to the atmospheric pressure.
(D) to control the rate of flow of steam
Q.8 In a meter bridge experiment, we try to obtain the null point at the middle. This
(A) reduces systematic error as well as random error.
(B) reduces systematic error but not the random error.
(C) reduces random error but not the systematic error.
(D) reduces neither systematic error nor the random error.
Q.9 An approximate value of number of seconds in an year is  × 107. Determine the % error in this
value.
(A) 0.5 % (B) 8% (C) 4% (D) 15 %
Q.10 While studying the dissipation of energy of a simple pendulum by plotting a graph between square
of amplitude and time which of the following apparatus is not essential ?
(A) ticker timer (B) meter scale (C) paper tape (D) stop watch
Q.11 In an experiment to find loss of energy w.r.t. time in the case of swinging simple pendulum the
correct graph between (amp)2 and time is -
a2 a2 a2
a2
(A) (B) (C) (D)
t t t t
A
Q.12 Amplitude of vibrations of simple pendulum is A. It becomes after 20 seconds. The amplitude
3
after 60 seconds will be -
A A A A
(A) (B) (C) (D)
6 8 9 27
Q.13 Variation of energy of the bob E moving in viscous medium as function of time t is shown graphically
as -
E0
E0 E0 E0
(A) E (B) E (C) E (D) E
O t O t O t O t
Q.14 In an experiment to find mass of a body with the help of meter rod. Following data is recorded
where length of fixed arm (power arm) is 25 cm
mass at weight pan (g) length of weight arm is (cm)
20 30
32 20
60 10
the calculated mass is -
(A) 42.5 g (B) 42.3 g (C) 24.8 g (D) 24.5 g
Q.15 In Searle’s apparatus we have two wires. During experiment we study the extension in one wire.
The use of second wire is -
(A) to support the apparatus because it is heavy and may not break single wire
(B) to compensate the changes in length caused by changes in temperature of atmosphere during
experimentation
(C) to keep the apparatus in level so that extension is measured accurately
(D) all the three above
Q.16 The air bubble in sprit level in Searle’s apparatus is at centre. With increase in length of experimental
wire towards your right hand, the air bubble will shift towards your -
(A) right towards experimental wire (B) towards compensating wire
(C) towards either of them (D) does not shift
Q.17 The teacher allows all the students of a class to perform the experiment to determine the Young’s
modulus of elasticity with the same experimental wire. It does not give correct result to the last
student because of -
(A) elastic limit (B) elastic fatigue
(C) plasticity (D) permanent set
Q.18 To mesure the height of water level a student sees the pointer tip through the travelling microscope
he must have seen this image -
(A) (B) (C) (D)
Q.19 While performing the experiment to find out the surface tension of water, Ajay got the height of
the water 6 cm during winter. Repeating the same experiment during summer, the height would be
(A) h > 6 (B) h = 6 (C) h < 6 (D) h = 12
Q.20 To observe, how is the surface tension of water affected on dissolving a detergent in it experimentally,
student must observe that -
(A) pure water rises to a higher level in the same capillary tube whereas detergent solution rises
to a lesser height
(B) the height of detergent solution is more than the rise of water in an identical capillary tube
(C) same rise of water and detergent solution in both the tubes
(D) water rises in the capillary tube but detergent solution depressed in the tube
Q.21 While performing an experiment to find coefficient of viscosity the ball should be -
(A) centrally dropped in the glass jar
(B) dropped along the calibrated side of glass jar
(C) dropped along the opposite side of calibrations
(D) dropped in any manner but slowly
Q.22 While performing an experiment to find coefficient of viscosity to avoid the formation of air bubble
around the surface of steel balls -
(A) the balls should be kept absolutely dry before dropping them
(B) the balls should be rinsed with acetylene
(C) the balls should be wetted with the used viscous liquid
(D) the balls should be dropped gently
Q.23 While measuring the speed of sound by performing a resonance column experiment, a student get’s
the first resonance condition at a column length of 18 cm during winter. Repeating the same
experiment during summer, she measures the column length to be x cm for the second resonance.
Then -
(A) x > 54 (B) 54 > x > 36 (C) 36 > x > 18 (D) 18 > x
Q.24 To find the value of resistance R using Ohm’s law, we are given four voltmeters as below. Which
one will you prefer to be connected in the circuit ?
(A) 1.5 V, 10,000  (B) 2.0 V, 20,000  (C) 1.5 V, 1000  (D) 10 V, 20,000 
Q.25 In above question which ammeter will you prefer ?

(A) 1 A, 10  (B) 2 A, 0.01  (C) 1 A, 0.001  (D) 10 A, 1 
Q.26 Variation of current passing through a conductor as the voltage supplied across its ends as varied
is shown in the adjoining diagram. If the resistance (R) is determined at the points A, B, C and
D we will find that -
D
C
V B
I
(A) RC = RD (B) RB > RA (C) RC > RB (D) RA > RC
Q.27 In the measurement of resistance of a wire using Ohm’s law, the plot between V and I is drawn
as shown.
V(volt)
(3, 3)
(1, 1.2) (2, 1.8)
I(amp)
The resistance of the wire is -
(A) 0.833  (B) 0.9 
(C) 1  (D) None of these
Q.28 In the experiment, to find the resistance of a given wire by using Ohm’s law, teacher recommends
that +ve terminals of ammeter and voltmeter both should be connected to +ve terminal of the
battery but you have connected +ve of ammeter with –ve of voltmeter. Your circuit diagram is -
(A) correct
(B) terminals of ammeter be reversed
(C) terminals of voltmeter be reversed
(D) terminals of ammeter and voltmeter may be connected in any order
B
Q.29 In Wheatstone bridge experiment as shown in figure – P Q
(A) Key K1 should be pressed first and then K2 G
A K1 C
(B) Key K2 should be pressed first and then K1 R X
(C) any key can be pressed in any order D
(D) both keys should be pressed simultaneously. K2

+ –
Q.30 In a metre bridge experiment null point is obtained at 20 cm from one end of the wire when
resistance X is balanced against another resistance Y. If X < Y, then where will be the new position
of the null point from the same end, if one decide to balance a resistance of 4X against Y -
(A) 50 cm (B) 80 cm (C) 40 cm (D) 70 cm
Q.31 For the given circuit diagram student records the voltmeter reading and measures length AJ. He
plots a graph between voltmeter reading V plotted on y-axis and length of potentiometer wire
AJ =  on x-axis then the shape of the graph is –
y y
V V
(in volt )
(in volt )
(A) (B)
o x o x
 (in cm)  (in cm)
y y
V V
(in volt )
(in volt )
(C) (D)
o x o x
 (in cm)  (in cm)
Q.32 A potentiometer wire is made of constantan or manganin because it has -

(A) high specific resistance, low temperature coefficient
(B) low specific resistance, high temperature coefficient
(C) low specific resistance, low temperature coefficient
(D) high specific resistance, high temperature coefficient
Q.33 Which of the following statements is not wrong ?

(A) To increase sensitivity of a potentiometer increase current through potentiometer wire.
(B) To increase sensitivity increase external resistance in battery circuit connected to potentiometer.
(C) To increase sensitivity increase battery voltage
(D) To increase sensitivity increase the emf of battery.
Q.34 We use a high resistance box in series with battery in half deflection method -
(A) to bring the deflection of galvanometer within the scale
(B) to minimize power loss
(C) because high resistances are easily available
(D) none of these
Q.35 To find the galvanometer resistance we should adjust the value of the shunt resistance so that
deflection of the galvanometer becomes -
(A) almost same of the previous value (B) double of the previous value
(C) half of the previous (D) exactly same of the previous value
Q.36 A galvanometer of resistance 98  is connected in circuit as shown in figure. It has 40 divisions

on both sides of zero. When the shunt is not connected, the galvanometer gives full scale deflection.
The figure of merit of galvanometer is -
2
(A) 2 × 10–4 A/div 10 k 
I = 2 × 10–4 A
G
(B) 5 × 10–6 A/div 
(C) 5 × 10–2 A/div
2V
(D) 2 × 105 A/div
Q.37 A student while measuring resistance of galvanometer uses a high resistance box (HRB) in series
with galvanometer and a low resistance box (LRB) in parallel to galvanometer. He introduces
resistance R = 1000 from HRB for deflection . When he closes key K2 in the figure shown
below and introduces resistance S = 60 . Then resistance of galvanometer is about –
K1
HRB
G
K2
LRB
(A) 56  (B) 60  (C) 64  (D) 940 
Q.38 A student plots a graph between the resistance R and the reciprocal of deflection  for the given
galvanometer. The graph obtained is as shown in figure. From the graph he can calculate the
resistance of galvanometer as –
(A) ratio of slope to intercept
(B) ratio of intercept to slope 1
(C) product of slope and intercept 
(D) galvanometer resistance can not be calculated from it.
R
Q.39 A galvanometer is connected as shown in figure. It has resistance of 100 . What should be the
resistance connected to it in parallel so that its deflection is reduced to half ?
S
1k=R
G
100
2V
(A) 100  (B) 99  (C) 91  (D) 90 
Q.40 Which of the following statement is false -

(A) the bench correction is always equal to the negative of bench error
(B) larger the distance between the two objects larger the magnitude of parallax
(C) parallax disappear if the positions of two objects coincide
(D) parallax can occur between any two objects
Q.41 The focal length of a convex mirror is obtained by using a convex lens. The following observations
are recorded during the experiment -
object position = 5 cm
lens = 35.4 cm
Image = 93.8 cm
Mirror = 63.3 cm
Bench error = –0.1 cm
then the focal length of mirror will be -
(A) 7.5 (B) 8.4 cm (C) 15.3 cm (D) none of these
Q.42 A student gets a graph u versus v for a mirror. Point plotted above the point P on the curve are
for values of v -
v
45º
u
(A) smaller than ƒ (B) smaller than 2ƒ
(C) larger than 2f (D) larger than ƒ
Q.43 In an optics experiment, with the position of the object fixed, a student varies the position of a
convex lens and for each position, the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the object. A graph
between the object distance u and the image distance , from the lens, is plotted using the same
scale for the two axes. A straight line passing through the origin and making an angle of 45° with
the x-axis meets the experimental curve at P. The coordinates of P will be –
f f 
(A) (2f, 2f) (B)  2 , 2  (C) (f, f) (D) (4f, 4f)
 
Q.44 In an experiment for a small angled prism, angle of prism A, the angle of minimum deviations ()
varies with the refractive index of the prism as shown in the graph -
(A) Point P corresponds to  = 1

(B) Slope of the line PQ = A/2
(C) Slope = 2A
(D) None of the above statements is true
Q.45 A parallel beam of light is incident on a prism as shown in figure. Such that the rays get reflected
from opposite faces. The angle of deviation  between reflected rays from faces AB and AC is –
B C
(A) A (B) 2A
A
(C) (D) Non relation between A and 
2
Q.46 An experiment is performed to find the refractive index of glass using a travelling microscope in
this experiment distances are measured by -
(A) a standard laboratory scale
(B) a meter scale provided on the microscope
(C) a screw gauge provided on the microscope
(D) a vernier scale provided on the microscope
Q.47 A mark on a table top is seen by a student through a microscope at a distance of 30 cm from the
microscope. Seeing along same vertical path he puts a slab in between microscope and table top
at any position. He finds that he is to move the microscope by 5 cm, away from the slab to see
the focussed image of the same mark. If refractive index of glass slab is 1.5. The thickness of glass
slab introduced is –
(A) 15 cm (B) 5 cm (C) 30 cm (D) 20 cm
Q.48 A student in an experiment gets following observations.

Reading for the bottom of an empty beaker = 12.324 cm.
Reading for the bottom of the beaker when partially filled with the liquid = 12.802 cm.
Reading for the liquid surface = 13.895 cm.
The refractive index would be -
(A) 1.232 (B) 1.389 (C) 1.280 (D) 1.437
Q.49 In an experiment, microscope is focused on a scratch on the bottom of a beaker. Turpentine oil
is poured into the beaker to a depth of 4 cm, and it is found necessary to raise the microscope
through a vertical distance of 1.28 cm to bring the scratch again into focus. The refractive index
of the turpentine oil would be -
(A) 1.28 (B) 1.82 (C) 1.47 (D) 3.12
Q.50 Mark the correct statement(s) –

(A) Diode, LED and transistor are two leg devices
(B) Diode, LED and resistor are two leg devices
(C) Transistor and IC are 3 leg devices
(D) IC and transistor are having same number of legs but not three
Q.51 Continuity test is made with multimeter by keeping the selector switch ON at -
(A) voltage position (B) current position
(C) resistance position (D) None of these
Q.52 A two terminal device when connected in series with a battery and a galvanometer in series with
it through a two way key as shown in figure. The galvanometer shows maximum deflection which
gradually decreases to zero, when key k1 is close and k2 open. Now key k1 is open and k2 is
closed. Now battery is disconnected and galvanometer is directly connected to the same device,
the deflection in galvanometer is maximum and reversed and decreases to zero gradually. The
device is –
Device Device
G G k2
1 3 1 3
k1 2 2
(A) p-n junction (B) resistance (C) LED (D) capacitor
Q.53 A student is given a transister. He is asked to find out the terminals of p-n-p transistor as emitter,
base and collector. He is told that the terminal marked with red dot is emitter. He touches red
probe with known terminal as emitter and marks other two lead wires as A and B. He measures
resistance between emitter and lead A. Then measured resistance between emitter and lead B and
finds that resistance increases. This shows –
(A) A is base and B is collector (B) A is collector and B is base
(C) either can be collector or base (D) multimeter cannot be used to test the terminals
Q.54 A working transistor with its three legs marked P, Q and R is tested using a multimeter. No
conduction is found between P and Q. By connecting the common (negative) terminal of the
multimeter to R and the other (positive) terminal to P or Q, some resistance is seen on the multimeter,
which of the following is true for the transistor ?
(A) it is an n-p-n transistor with R as base (B) it is a p-n-p transistor with R as collector
(C) it is a p-n-p transistor with R as emitter (D) it is an n-p-n transistor with R as collector
Q.55 In a metre bridge experiment, null point is obtained at 20 cm from one end of the wire when resistance
X is balanced against another resistanceY. If X < Y, then where will be the new position of the null point
from the same end, if one decides to balance a resistance of 4X against Y ?
(A) 50 cm (B) 80 cm (C) 40 cm (D) 70 cm
Q.56 In a potentiometer experiment the balancing with a cell is at length 240 cm. On shunting the cell with a
resistance of 2, the balancing length becomes 120 cm. The internal resistance of the cell is
(A) 1 (B) 0.5 (C) 4 (D) 2
Q.57 Aglass prism of angleA= 60° gives minimum angle of deviation  = 30° with the max. error of 10 when
a beam of parallel light passed through the prism during an experiment. Find the permissible error in the
measurement of refractive index  of the material of the prism.
(A) 5/9% (B) 5/18% (C) 5/36% (D) 10/9%
[SUBJECTIVE TYPE]
Q.58 In a given optical bench, a needle of length 10 cm is used to estimate bench error. The object needle,
image needle & lens holder have their reading as shown.
x0 = 1.1 cm
xI = 21.0 cm
xL = 10.9 cm
Estimate the bench errors which are present in image needle holder and object needle holder.Also find
the focal length of the convex lens when.
x0 = 0.6 cm
xI = 22.5 cm
xL = 11.4 cm
Q.59 Make the appropriate connections in the meter bridge set up shown.
Resistance box is connected between _____. Unknown resistance is
connected between______. Battery is connected between ______.
Q.60 In a Searle's experiment, the diameter of the wire as measured by a screw gauge of least count 0.001 cm
is 0.050 cm. The length, measured by a scale of least count 0.1 cm, is 110.0 cm. When a weight of 50
N is suspended from the wire, the extension is measured to be 0.125 cm by a micrometer of least count
0.001 cm. Find the maximum error in the measurement of Young's modulus of the material of the wire
from these data.
Q.61 Draw the circuit for experimental verification of Ohm's law using a source of variable D.C. voltage, a
main resistance of 100 , two galvanometers and two resistances of values 106  and 10–3 
respectively. Clearly show the positions of the voltmeter and the ammeter.
Q.62 An unknown resistance X is to be determined using resistances R1, R2 or

R3. Their corresponding null points areA, B and C. Find which of the
above will give the most accurate reading and why?
EXERCISE-2
(JEE MAIN & ADVANCED Previous Year's Questions)
Q.1 Graph of position of image vs position of point object from a convex
lens is shown. Then, focal length of the lens is
(A) 0.50 ± 0.05 cm
(B) 0.50 ± 0.10 cm
(C) 5.00 ± 0.05 cm
(D) 5.00 ± 0.10 cm
[JEE 2006]
Q.2 In an experiment to determine the focal length (f) a concave mirror by the u-v method, a student places
the object pinAon the principal axis at a distance x from the pole P. The student looks at the pin and its
inverted image from a distance keeping his/her eye in line with PA. When the student shifts his/her eye
towards left, the image appears to the right of the object pin. Then,
(A) x < f (B) f < x < 2f (C) x = 2f (D) x > 2f
[JEE 2007]
Q.3 A student measures the focal length of a convex lens byputting an object pin at a distance u from the lens
and measuring the distance v of the image pin. The graph between u and v plotted by the student should
look like :
v(cm) v(cm) v(cm) v(cm)
(A) (B) (C) (D)

O u(cm) O u(cm) O u(cm) O u(cm)
[AIEEE-2008]
Q.4 An experiment is performed to find the refractive index of glass using a travelling microscope. In this
experiment distance are measured by
(A) a vernier scale provided on the microscope (B) a standard laboratory scale
(C) a meter scale provided on the microscope (D) a screw gauge provided on the microscope
[AIEEE-2011]
Q.5 A meter bridge is set-up as shown, to determine an unknown resistance 'X' using a standard 10 ohm
resistor. The galvanometer shows null point when tapping-key is at 52 cm mark. The end-corrections
are 1 cm and 2 cm respectively for the ends A and B. The determined value of 'X' is
X 10
A B
(A) 10.2 ohm (B) 10.6 ohm (C) 10.8 ohm (D) 11.1 ohm
[JEE-2011]
Q.6 Using the expression 2d sin  = , one calculates the values of d by measuring the corresponding angles
 in the range 0 to 90º. The wavelength  is exactly known and the error in  is constant for all values of
, As  increases from 0º ,
(A) the absolute error in d remains constant (B) the absolute error in d increases
(C) the fractional error in d remains constant (D) the fractional error in d decreases.
[JEE-2013]
Q.7 The current voltage relation of diode is given by I = (e1000v/T – 1) mA, where the applied voltage V is in
volts and the temperature T is in degree kelvin. If a student makes an error measuring ±0.01 V while
measuring the current of 5mA at 300K, what will be the error in the value of current in mA?
(A) 0.02 mA (B) 0.5 mA (C) 0.05 mA (D) 0.2 mA
[JEE Main-2014]
Q.8 During Searle's experiment, zero of the Vernier scale lies between 3.20 × 10 m and 3.25 × 10–2 m of
–2
the main scale. The 20th division of the Vernier scale exactly coincides with one of the main scale
divisions. When an additional load of 2 kg is applied to the wire, the zero of the Vernier scale still lies
between 3.20 × 10–2 m and 3.25 × 10–2 m of the main scale but now the 45th division of Vernier scale
coincides with one of the main scale divisions. The length of the thin metallic wire is 2 m and its cross-
sectional area is 8 × 10–7 m2. The least count of the Vernier scale is 1.0 × 10–5 m. The maximum
percentage error in the Young's modulus of the wire is
[JEE-2014]
L
Q.9 The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum is T  2 . Measured value of L is 20.0 cm known to
g
1 mm accuracyand time for 100 oscillations of the pendulum is found to be 90s using a wrist watch of 1s
resolution. The accuracy in the determination of g is :
(A) 1% (B) 5% (C) 2% (D) 3%
[JEE Main 2015]
Q.10 Consider a Vernier callipers in which each 1 cm on the main scale is divided into 8 equal divisions and a
screw gauge with 100 divisions on its circular scale. In the Vernier callipers, 5 divisions of the Vernier
scale coincide with 4 divisions on the main scale and in the screw gauge, one complete rotation of the
circular scale moves it by two divisions on the linear scale. Then:
(A) If the pitch of the screw gauge is twice the least count of the Vernier callipers, the least count of the
screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
(B) If the pitch of the screw gauge is twice the least count of the Vernier callipers, the least count of the
screw gauge is 0.005 mm.
(C) If the least count of the linear scale of the screw gauge is twice the least count of the Vernier callipers,
the least count of the screw gauge is 0.01 mm.
(D) If the least count of the linear scale of the screw gauge is twice the least count of the Vernier callipers,
the least count of the screw gauge is 0.005 mm.
[JEE 2015]
Q.11 The energy of a system as a function of time t is given as E(t) = A2exp (–t), where  = 0.2 s–1. The
measurement of A has an error of 1.25%. If the error in the measurement of time is 1.50%, the
percentage error in the value of E(t) at t = 5 s is
[JEE 2015]
Q.12 There are two Vernier callipers both of which have 1 cm divided into 10 equal divisions on the main
scale. The Vernier scale of one of the calipers (C1) has 10 equal divisions that correspond to 9 main
scale divisions. The Vernier scale of the other caliper (C2) has 10 equal divisions that correspond to 11
main scale divisions. The readings of the two calipers are shown in the figure. The measured values
(in cm) by callipers C1 and C2, respectively are
2 3 4
C1
0 5 10
2 3 4
C2
0 5 10
(A) 2.87 and 2.83 (B) 2.87 and 2.86 (C) 2.85 and 2.82 (D) 2.87 and 2.87
[JEE 2016]
Q.13 In an experiment to determine the acceleration due to gravity g, the formula used for the time period of
7(R  r )
a periodic motion is T = 2 . The values of R and r are measured to be (60 ± 1) mm and
5g
(10 + 1) mm, respectively. In five successive measurements, the time period is found to be 0.52 s,
0.56 s, 0.57 s, 0.54 s and 0.59 s. The least count of the watch used for the measurement of time period
is 0.01 s. Which of the following statement(s) is(are) true?
(A) The error in the measurement of r is 10%
(B) The error in the measurement of T is 3.57%
(C) The error in the measurement of T is 2%
(D) The error in the determined value of g is 11%
[JEE 2016]
Q.14 The following observations were taken for determining surface tension T of water by capillary method :
diameter of capillary, D = 1.25 × 10–2 m rise of water, h=1.45 ×10–2 m. Using g = 9.80 m/ s2 and the
rhg
simplified relation T = × 103 N/m, the possible error in surface tension is closest to:
2
(A) 10% (B) 0.15% (C) 1.5% (D) 2.4%
[JEE Main 2017]
Q.15 A person measures the depth of a well by measuring the time interval between dropping a stone and
receiving the sound of impact with the bottom of the well. The error in his measurement of time is
T = 0.01 seconds and he measures the depth of the well to be L= 20 meters. Take the acceleration due
to gravity g = 10 ms–2 and velocity of sound is 300 ms–1. Then the fractional error in measurement,
L/L, is closest to
(A) 0.2% (B) 5% (C) 1% (D) 3%
[JEE 2017]
EXERCISE-1
Q.1 D Q.2 D Q.3 A Q.4 A Q.5 B
Q.6 D Q.7 A Q.8 A Q.9 A Q.10 D
Q.11 A Q.12 D Q.13 B Q.14 D Q.15 B
Q.16 B Q.17 B Q.18 C Q.19 C Q.20 A
Q.21 A Q.22 C Q.23 A Q.24 B Q.25 C
Q.26 D Q.27 C Q.28 A Q.29 B Q.30 A
Q.31 B Q.32 A Q.33 B Q.34 A Q.35 C
Q.36 B Q.37 C Q.38 B Q.39 C Q.40 B
Q.41 C Q.42 C Q.43 A Q.44 A Q.45 B
Q.46 D Q.47 A Q.48 D Q.49 C Q.50 B
Q.51 C Q.52 D Q.53 A Q.54 A Q.55 A
Q.56 D Q.57 B Q.58 5.50 ± 0.05 cm Q.59 CD, AB, EF
Voltmeter
106 
G1
100 
Ammeter
Q.60 Y = 1.09 × 1010 N/m2 Q.61 . G2 10-3 
E
Q.62 This is true for r1= r2; So R2 given most accurate value
EXERCISE-2
Q.1 C Q.2 B Q.3 C Q.4 A Q.5 B
Q.6 D Q.7 D Q.8 4 Q.9 D Q.10 BC
Q.11 4 Q.12 A Q.13 ABD Q.14 C Q.15 C

Eduwaves360-Experiments Instruments E

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Eduwaves360-Experiments Instruments E

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Eduwaves360-Experiments Instruments E

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JEE (MAIN+ADVANCED)

EXPERIMENTS & INSTRUMENTS

EXPERIMENTS & INSTRUMENTS

EXPERIMENTS & INSTRUMENTS

central dot (A ) central dot A (m) = t = No. of dot x time period

Unknown body Paper pan

Unknown body Paper pan

(Note : Observations are as sample)

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

(Note : Observations are as sample)

3. DETERMINATION OF YOUNG’S MODULUS BY SEARLE’S METHOD

Auxiliary wire (fixed length)

Rectangular metal frame

Dead Weight (L)

Fig. : Water level rising in a glass capillary tube

Total volume of the liquid risen

If liquid has a density , then

Fig. : Measurement of surface tension by capillary rise method

(a) Setting the apparatus

Fig. (a) Fig. (b) Fig.(c)

Microscope Reading for cross

Temperature of water, (t) = .... ºC.

6. PLOTTING A COOLING CURVE

or loge (T – T0) = – Kt + C ......(1)

Speed of sound using RESONANCE COLUMN

Record the observations as detailed below:

8.1 SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY OF A GIVEN SOLID

is ºC so we express specific heat as J g–1 ºC–1.

Rise in temperature of cold water and calorimeter and stirrer, e – 1 = ..............ºC

Solid (metal piece)

Oil (experimental Liquid)

Record your readings and observations as follows :

Specific resistance of the material of a wire using a METER BRIDGE :

Figure: (a) Measuring unknown resistance of a wire by metre bridge.

Figure: (b)Assembly diagram for measuring resistance.

Galvanometer (High series resistance as Galvanometer (Low value shunt as protective

10. RESISTANCE BY OHM’s LAW

Fig. Assembly circuit diagram

OBSERVATION AND CALCULATIONS

Observed Corrected Observed Corrected V

of YQ and XQ (at Q).

11.1 POTENTIOMETER-COMPARING EMF OF PRIMARY CELLS

11.2 POTENTIOMETER-FINDING INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF CELL

Figure : Internal resistance of a cell, circuit diagram

If r is determined by plotting a graph, take at least 6 observations.

12. HALF DEFLECTION METHOD

6. To find the figure of merit :

Fig. Focal length of the convex mirror using a convex lens

Mean, MI = ................cm

13.2 FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR

Mean value of f = ...............cm.

Fig. Graph of u vs. v for a concave mirror (rectangular hyperbola)

13.3 Focal length of Convex lens

6. Plotting Graphs and Calculations of f

Fig. Graph of 1/u vs. 1/v for a convex lens

14. MINIMUM DEVIATION

r1 = angle of refraction at face AB

15. REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB

(a) (b) (c)