WRITING GUIDE

Academic year 2020-2021

Baltic Defence College
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CONTENTS
GUIDANCE FOR WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER - GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF ACADEMIC WRITING..........4

Critical approach to using sources.....................................................................................................9

HOW TO WRITE AN ACADEMIC PAPER................................................................................................12

Choosing a topic and problematizing..............................................................................................12

Setting limitations on your research................................................................................................13
Analytical approach.........................................................................................................................14
What is description?....................................................................................................................14
What is analysis?.........................................................................................................................15
What is evaluation?.....................................................................................................................16
Argumentative essay as an analytical method.................................................................................17
Structure of the paper.....................................................................................................................17
Introduction.................................................................................................................................18
Body text.....................................................................................................................................22
Conclusions and recommendations.............................................................................................23
Differences between Argumentative Essay and Bachelor’s/Master’s Thesis writing.......................25
Language use in the Research Paper - Style.....................................................................................27
Using tentative language.................................................................................................................27
Revising your draft...........................................................................................................................28
ANNEX A: TRANSITION WORDS, PHRASES AND SENTENCES...............................................................30

Annex B. RESOURCES...........................................................................................................................33

Textbooks........................................................................................................................................33
Online support for the Research Paper...........................................................................................34
Information Resources....................................................................................................................34

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GUIDANCE FOR WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER - GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF
ACADEMIC WRITING

The following chapter aims to provide an overview of the principles of academic

writing. It should help you achieve success when undertaking academic writing, such
as putting together a Research Paper. The principles laid down in here define the
college’s expectations as to what your final paper should look in general terms.

Compliance with the principles outlined here will be one of the main factors
assessors will consider when they come to mark your paper. By the same token,
these principles will serve as a tool to ensure that all assessors apply equal
standards while assessing your paper, and that their appraisals are consistent with
the advice given by your supervisors. Therefore, these principles will be one of the
main points of reference for your supervisors, who will be appointed to give you
advice and assistance during the drafting process.

Focus, originality and relevance

In academic writing, credit is given particularly for a focused and purposeful effort,
which always keeps inquiry on a well-defined track and contains the main thread of
argument throughout the entire paper. The reader will always be expecting you to
accomplish what you have set out to do (or, conversely, not to do things you
promised not to pursue at all). If in the beginning you promise, for instance, to make
comparisons or to look into particular things or to follow a certain sequence, you
must deliver on those promises. It is also worthwhile to always check whether you
are still examining the same problem, which you should have defined in the very
beginning: sometimes the perception and definition of the main problem undergoes
transformation in the head of the writer, thereby leading him or her in an entirely new
direction, but without re-defining and adjusting the stated problem. Thus the
presented solution may appear to be of some different problem than that initially
intended, and therefore unfocused. Everything which blurs the focus, confuses the
reader about the actual purpose of the paper, detracts from the main problem and
leads into aspects, irrelevant to its solution, must be avoided. A focused paper must
also ‘carry a message’.

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Everything written in the paper (the presented facts, arguments of other authors, and
your own assessments) must be clearly related to its purpose and to the main
problem (or its constituent parts). Irrelevant material and lines of inquiry, which do
not have any relation to, or do not add any value to the solution of the problem,
should not appear at all. Also, you should be very careful in defining the scope of the
problem you are going to explore: very broadly defined, multi-layered problems will
lead you in too many unrelated directions and undermine the focus of the paper. It
often happens that the study drowns under the weight of its own complexity. Too
broad a definition of the problem is usually the primary cause of such a predicament.

Original work might be understood in different ways. For example, original work
might be one that looks at a topic from a novel angle and does not repeat something
that is already commonly known. The paper might be based on original sources,
such as interviews or archival research, which have not been used before. It might
approach at a phenomenon from a new analytical angle, or it might reconsider
solutions to a contemporary problem that has not been discussed before. Originality
may also interpreted as something that contributes to the body of literature in a given
field and involves primary data collection (conducting interviews or sending out
questionnaires to gather data). Given that the paper you have to write is rather short,
you are not expected to gather large amounts of data yourself. A critical analysis of
secondary sources (e.g. books and articles written by other authors) would be
enough for this type of paper. Originality is the context of BALTDEFCOL Research
Paper project is understood as something that the author produces for the first time
and is based on his/her original ideas.

Finally, depending on the topic chosen, your work should aim to not only present
facts and analyse information but also to draw conclusions from it. Consider how, for
example, the commander, force planner, strategist or military lawyer might apply the
military instrument more effectively (relevant, of course, to your topic of study).
Based on the conclusions, recommendations could be suggested. These
recommendations should be placed at the end of the paper.

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Critical thinking

One of the reasons for conducting any academic study is to explore a certain topic in
depth. This mandates critical thinking. It does not necessarily mean you should
criticise everything you read or hear, just for the sake of it. Rather, it means that you
should attempt to carefully analyse rather than just describe phenomena in your
work. It means that you must ask questions. For example, do not simply accept
anything you read or are told without attempting to verify it for yourself, either
through logical reasoning, or cross-checking it against other sources or arguments.

Best practice requires as thorough inquiry into relevant aspects of the problem as
possible. Omitting or ignoring important aspects without any proper justification is
one of the main errors that will undermine your academic writing. Further, you
should not only scratch the surface of certain issues, as it will lead to shallow, under-
developed or outright worthless parts of the study, which will also impinge on your
work. Once you have decided that it is necessary to look into something, the reader
expects you to conduct a rigorous and critical analysis of your topic. Often a less
detailed scrutiny of certain aspects can be justified by lesser importance of the
analysed sub-question, or element of inquiry, but this should be made clear in the
very beginning by defining the role and weight of that particular sub-question or
element. You will find a more detailed look at in M2 Guide to Critical Thinking and
Critical Argumentation.

Accuracy and credibility

Academic accuracy and credibility is an ideal to strive for while undertaking any
piece of research. Best practice for academic writing requires that the result of your
effort is as accurate, credible and considered as possible. This means that your
opinions and judgements should not be based on subjective prejudices, perceptions,
dogmas, feelings or sentiments (e.g. your background as an air force officer should
not prevent you from concluding, on a basis of an historical record, that air power
cannot win the wars alone). Your independent assessments should rather stem from
empirical data and knowledge derived from your sources in a bid to find an answer to
a particular problem.

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Inaccurate facts, figures, dates, names or quotations only create confusion and, in
turn, damage the credibility of the writer. At the same time, the credibility of the paper
can be at stake if its author does not use authoritative, reliable sources to make the
argument or relies on rumours. Essentially, credibility means that anyone else,
having processed the same sources and applied the same analytical method, should
be able to reach the same conclusion that you have. Credibility necessitates careful
examination of all pros and cons on the subject and consideration of all the
arguments, including those which do not fit your own perceptions or do not support
your case. Keeping your mind open to diverse arguments and information, going as
deep as possible into the matter and remaining critical all help to fulfil this principle.

Finally, the accuracy and credibility of your academic writing can also be damaged if
you do not maintain a rigorous focus. Having formulated your final judgement on
some particular aspect of the issue, you are expected to uphold it throughout your
work. Coming up with a totally opposite argument at some other spot in your writing
will surely be noticed by readers and treated as a mistake. Credibility also requires
that different elements of the paper (e.g. assumptions and limitations) are not treated
as mutually exclusive but are instead are taken into account in the analysis.

Structure, cohesion and clarity

Having adequately addressed the principle of focus and relevance, you are half way
there in ensuring cohesion of the paper. However, a few more aspects need to be
considered. The first of those aspects is structure.

For the paper to be logically organised, its structure has to be clear and allow the
reader to understand how you are dealing with the subject. By merely casting a look
at the list of contents and examining the roadmap provided in the introduction, the
reader should be able to see the issues and topics underlying the main problem as
well as ‘decipher’ your logic of dealing with the subject. Spending time organising the
paper always pays off by enhancing clarity and logic and hence cohesion. You
should always make sure, however, that your outline and explanation of structure in
the very beginning is consistent with the structure of the end product itself.

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Secondly, the reader should always see how different structural parts of the paper
are interconnected and what is going to be addressed next. You should never keep
your reader in the dark and have to make sure that different chapters are properly
introduced, explaining what is going to be achieved there. Also, never assume that
things that are clear and obvious to you will also be equally obvious to the reader.
Always provide explanations as to what your train of thought is and how you come
up with various arguments. Finally, clarity of language always helps. Long and
cumbersome sentences do not help to win over the reader and convince him or her
of your argument.

Use of research sources

This is one of the fundamental principles of excellent academic writing. It is essential

that readers are able to easily distinguish which thoughts and ideas belong to the
author of the paper, and which do not (i.e. taken from the sources used). This is
achieved by making references and using quotation marks (‘’) for shorter quotes and
indentation for longer quotes (i.e., those longer than three lines).

There are differences in marking directly cited text and text where ideas or thoughts
of other authors are rephrased. However, the bottom line is that failure to identify
properly thoughts, ideas and assessments ‘borrowed’ from other authors will entail
harsh sanction. It will be treated by assessors and BALTDEFCOL authorities as
cheating and become subject to the provisions of the regulations on plagiarism.

It is crucial that you do not give reasons to call your integrity and fairness in doubt.
Even one single case throughout the entire paper, where suspicion of cheating may
arise, will damage your credibility and prompt in-depth scrutiny into how you have
used the sources. To avoid plagiarism and charges of cheating, study carefully the
regulations for quoting and referencing techniques, making bibliographies and run
your work through plagiarism Checking system Turnitin before you submit it for
assessment. The Module Coordinator will provide instructions for the use of
plagiarism detection program not later than 2 weeks before the deadline for
submission of the paper. Should you have any questions regarding referencing,
the module coordinator is always there to provide additional guidance.

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It is advisable not to cite websites such as Wikipedia or GlobalFirePower.com in
your work, as they can be manipulated by anyone, and may not contain accurate
information. Generally, caution should be exercised if citing information from blogs.
Some blogs – particularly those written by academics, secretaries of state or other
professionals – can be extremely useful for research, not least original research
(because blogs often contain academics’ first thoughts on a subject, before they are
composed into more thorough and thoughtful analysis). However, other blogs can
contain nothing more than unsubstantiated opinion. These should be avoided as
source material for your writing.

Critical approach to using sources

Our reasoning is influenced by the information we use. If the information is outdated,

fragmented, biased or inaccurate, so are our conclusions drawn on the basis of
these. Kärt Miil from Tartu University library offers a number of questions that can be
asked to verify trustworthiness of a source.

 When was this source published (could it be that more recent information is
available)? The publication date alone, of course, does not automatically
disqualify sources for being trustworthy. Some work that was published
decades or even centuries ago may still be relevant today. However, there are
other sources that may not stand the test of time and may become obsolete
quite quickly, especially in areas where developments are fast.
 Who is the person who has published the work? Is this an authoritative expert
in the field? Are the ideas consistent with other ideas by other experts in the
field? How many times is this person’s work cited (h-index). Which scientific
institutions and universities is this person affiliated with, if any? What source
material does this person use in their own writing? Does the person have a
vested interest in the matter?
 Where is the book or article published? Is this an established publishing
house specialised in dissemination of scientific research? Are there any book
reviews available – how is the book reviewed by other experts in the field?
Journals that have a rigorous peer review process are more reliable than the
ones without.

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  If you have found information on a web site, who owns it and what is their
background? What is the purpose of setting up this web site (e.g. to further a
certain political agenda)? Who is the intended target group of the web site?
When was the web site last updated? Are there any ‘dead links’? This
indicates if the site is actively monitored and up to date. What is the name of
the web page – usually government organisations have their name (or
abbreviation of it) in the domain name. Information found on official
government agencies’ web sites is usually checked and more reliable than
that found in blogs or forums.

When you read articles and books, there are often references to other authors’
ideas, not just the one(s) writing the book or article. For example, you are reading a
book by John Smith in which he refers to the work of another author Jane Jones.
John Smith then paraphrases or summarises the ideas of Jane Jones. The aim of
referring to other authors might be to give an overview of literature and help the
reader understand relevant background to the issue at hand. However, when using
other author’s ideas, it is advisable to use primary sources – to find and read the
original work, not accept how another author has interpreted it. Sometimes it might
happen that when paraphrasing or summarising someone’s work, ideas acquire a
slightly different meaning or parts of the original message might be omitted. To avoid
misinterpretation of the original author’s ideas, it is advisable to look up the primary
source and not rely on secondary or tertiary sources.

Another test of good sources is that they present verifiable information. It should be
possible to check and verify if the information presented is correct or not. If this
information is lacking, it might be a good idea to try to find it yourself and check if the
information is indeed correct (Miil, n.d.).

Summary

When putting together the Research Paper, just as any other academic paper, it is
always necessary to judge your product against the principles outlined above. As
you write it, keep asking yourself whether your paper:

 Is focused and original;

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  Has a workable analytical approach and applies it correctly (the course
requirement is that you write an argumentative essay but you may choose a
different approach in agreement with your supervisor);

 Engages critically with the literature by providing analysis as opposed to only

description;

 Provides accurate and credible information, which is relevant to the focus;

 Is well-structured, cohesive and clear;

 Treats the sources fairly.

In each case, when you are in doubt about your paper’s compliance with one or
several of these principles, you should think why this has occurred. Timely
identification and removal of those problems is an important part of the process of
academic writing.

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HOW TO WRITE AN ACADEMIC PAPER

Choosing a topic and problematizing

The first step in researching and writing the research paper is to select a topic to
describe, analyse and evaluate. You will probably choose one from the list of topics
provided to you or alternatively, you may want to pick your own topic. Once you have
a topic, you have to ‘problematize’ it.

Problematization may mean identifying and challenging assumptions of something

that is accepted as true or identifying ‘gaps’ in literature you read – what seems not
to be there, what seems to be lacking in what is there? For example, problematizing
by establishing a ‘gap’ may mean that something has not received any attention at
all, has received little attention or an important aspect has not been considered.
Challenging assumptions, on the other hand, has to do with questioning the validity
of certain positions and conclusions based on these.

There are some steps you can take to problematize the chosen topic. Firstly,
brainstorm the topic, identify any contradictions and/or issues with it, or any
unanswered questions. Then you may need to ask a series of questions to discover
how some phenomenon emerged; what its features are; who the main actors
involved are, and so on. You might also ask what is lacking or missing, what difficulty
is there that could be removed, what condition is there to improve, what problem
have you identified that could be addressed in your paper. When writing the
Research Paper in BALTDEFCOL, a problem in your work is understood as “a
general issue, concern, or controversy addressed that narrows the topic” (Creswell,
2012, p. 60). The problem is what is ‘behind’ the study – what concerns you about an
issue (Creswell, 2012).

Reading newspapers, following world news and current affairs may help you to
identify the ‘problem’. Listening to lectures at BALTDEFCOL and reading some
theoretical material may also inspire you. Take notes and use them as you ascertain
whether or not to discuss this or that issue in your paper.

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Setting limitations on your research

The papers you will write at BALTDEFCOL are relatively short. Therefore, you will
not be able to produce in-depth analysis. This makes it necessary to set limitations
on the research you do for your papers. When choosing a topic, you must think
about what aspects you find the most important; what aspects you should give the
most attention to; and what aspects you do not think need such close scrutiny and
attention. As such, limitations are both negative and positive; negative as they add
restrictions; positive because through those restrictions you can undertake more in-
depth analysis about a shorter timeframe or topic, for example.

There can be different types of limitation. The most frequent limitation relates to time.
If you plan to analyse a sequence of events, it is sometimes necessary to put a limit
on the period you intend to write about. For example, if you want to analyse the
conflict in Afghanistan, you would probably not discuss the problems the country has
faced since the mediaeval era. Rather, you might, for instance, set a time limit from
2000 to 2015. This allows you to tighten your analysis and make it more focused.
You must provide reasons as to why you think this is the most important period; for
example, you might argue that this period is when the major powers – such as the
United States and United Kingdom – have been heavily focused on the country,
which has altered its history.

Another type of limitation is the limitation of scope. As mentioned previously, it is

rarely possible to analyse all the different aspects of a phenomenon or an issue is
such a short paper, so you should make it clear both to yourself and the reader of
your paper, what exactly you are interested in and what you want to show. Certain
limitations are visible from the title of the paper itself: if the title says ‘The Baltic
States’ contribution to “Smart Defence”’, you should not talk about German
contributions or about the health care system in the United States.

If the topic is as broad as that mentioned above, certain limitations of scope should
also appear in the text. First of all, you need to think about what aspects of the Baltic
States’ contributions to ‘Smart Defence’ you plan to write about. Are you interested in
a particular aspect of ‘Smart Defence’; or in the influence of the decision-making
process on the outlook of the Baltic States’ policies; or maybe in the causes or

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effects of such policies? You should be clear about your question and do not wander
around picking on the various interesting but irrelevant features.

You may put any limits you want on your research. What is vital is how you present
your case. State clearly why you have set the limitations you have and also why you
think that some of the aspects that might seem important are not relevant to your
work. Also, use those limitations positively in order to help yourself with the
formulation and opening up of your research question(s): after all, setting any limits
on timeframe or scope will have a considerable impact on the events or phenomena
you aim to ‘problematize’ – that is to say, to probe and ask questions about.

Analytical approach

One of the major tasks when preparing for academic writing is to decide which
method is the most useful for the particular questions raised. Choosing an
inappropriate analytical approach might impair the research itself and limit the
credibility of its results. The course requirement is that the analytical approach is the
argumentative essay; however, other methods may also be used depending on the
area and focus of the paper (e.g. case study, theory application, etc.). Your
supervisor will provide further guidance on the recommended approach.

As your paper need to have an analytical approach, the following chapter will provide
information how to go from description to analysis and evaluation. There has to be
the right balance between descriptive, analytical and evaluative enquiry in your
Research Paper. Description, analysis and evaluation are all very different, but are at
the same time connected. You cannot easily do one without the other. Each will be
introduced in turn.

What is description?
Description is the simplest form of academic writing. It involves telling an accurate
‘story’ about a topic, to provide background and contextual information. Description
allows one to introduce a topic. In many respects, it is the foundation of all academic
writing. After all, it is not possible to analyse or evaluate anything if there is no
information to work with. However, you have to try to avoid only telling stories. The

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level of writing expected is higher than only the basic descriptive writing. If you have
any doubts about how to do this, read the following or refer back to the Initial Unit.

Example of description: The Falklands War occurred in 1982, when Argentina

invaded the Falkland Islands and overpowered the small British garrison of
approximately sixty troops. The governor – Sir Rex Hunt – eventually surrendered
the islands to Argentine rule. The British government responded by sending a large
naval expeditionary force 13,000 kilometres into the South Atlantic to oust the
Argentine invaders. After a series of small but fierce battles – at locations like
Fitzroy, Goose Green and Mount Tumbledown – the British pushed forward to
victory. The status-quo ante bellum was re-established on 14th June 1982. A few
days later, Argentina’s government fell from power.

Notice that most of the sentences in this extract are simple statements, which
describe events as they happened. There is hardly any analysis: it is not stated
how important any of these events were; why they were important; or how they
were – or were not – linked together in the wider military operation.

What is analysis?
Analysis takes academic writing to the next level of sophistication. It involves
examining, explaining and understanding how descriptive components fit together; it
provides reasons for the descriptive facts, often comparing and contrasting various
issues, while explaining why some things matter, and why some things do not.

Example of analysis: The Argentine decision to invade the Falklands must be seen
in light of the country’s situation, which, in 1982, was precarious. Argentina was
suffering from severe economic and political difficulties, and the Argentine leader,
General Leopoldo Galtieri, was keen on diverting his people’s attention from those
concerns by stoking nationalist fervour. To the Argentine leader, the Falkland Islands
looked like a feasible prize; he did not think that the British would retaliate, as they
had shown little interest in the islands’ future during the early 1980s. Meanwhile, the
British decision to send a counter-invasion force south to recapture the islands must

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be understood in the context of two factors: firstly, that Britain wanted to maintain its
status as a great power by proving itself capable of such a formidable military
operation; and secondly, that the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, realised that
the British people would never re-elect her if their country’s slight – at the hands of a
South American dictator – was not reversed.

Notice how this extract does not introduce much descriptive material. It gets
straight into analysing the reasons behind the Falklands conflict, i.e.,
Argentina’s domestic political and economic crisis, and the fact that the
British had failed to pay much attention to the Falklands during the early 1980s
(which led the Argentines to believe they could get away with the invasion). It
also explains why the British felt compelled to respond in the way that they
did.

What is evaluation?
Evaluation takes analysis towards a conclusion. It involves making macro (‘big
picture’) evaluations about the success of failure of the actors and events under
analysis. Macro evaluations are normally part of the conclusions and
recommendations, which must go towards the end of any piece of academic writing.

Example of evaluation: In hindsight, it is clear why the British prevailed in their

conflict with the Argentines. The technological superiority of the Royal Navy, the
global reach of the Royal Air Force, and the professionally trained and educated
soldiers of the British Army, simply overwhelmed the Argentine occupation troops,
which were comprised primarily of conscripts, who – no matter how brave – were
badly equipped. While it was at a considerable logistical disadvantage, the United
Kingdom exploited its alliances with France and the United States, which helped it
significantly, not least with the provision of military intelligence and supplies, but also
political support in the United Nations. All in all, while there was a general
impression of British decline after the Second World War, the Falklands War showed
that Britain was still a global power with which to be reckoned – one of the few
countries that still possessed a truly worldwide military reach.

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Notice how this extract develops the analysis: it makes a series of carefully
reasoned evaluations, on how and why, for example, the Argentines failed, and
the British prevailed, even though they were operating a long way from their
homeland. It also concludes by making a ‘big picture’ judgment, i.e., by
concluding that the impact of the Falklands War boosted the global standing
of the United Kingdom.

Argumentative essay as an analytical method

In an argumentative essay type of research paper, the main idea is to present

arguments for and against a certain disputed issue. If, for example, you want to
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of creating professional versus conscript
armed forces, you should choose the methodology of an argumentative essay. As a
rule, in an argumentative essay, you provide your opinion on an issue and discuss
why the alternative views on the topic are not suitable. You have to support your
opinions with credible arguments, so you must not forget to back up your statements
with factual material in the form of references.

Remember that, in essence, an argumentative essay is supposed to convince a

sceptical audience. As such, your tone should be mild and respectful of other
positions. At the same time firm enough to get your point across. Below you will find
a checklist for an argumentative essay outlining key components of the paper and
questions to address when revising your work.

Note on methodology: While argumentative essay is defined as a learning outcome

for the research paper module, Course participants who would like to undertake
research using a different methodological approach may do so in consultation with
their supervisor. It is then the supervisor’s responsibility to guide the Course
participant in terms of the analytical approach chosen.

Structure of the paper

Writing an academic paper is like building a house. You need imagination to envision
possible solutions, but it is also very important to follow the basic rules and principles

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of writing (much as a builder follows an architect’s plans). Producing a good paper is
not so much a matter of extensive knowledge but of the ability to correctly arrange
the walls so that the structure stands on its own and looks good.

Preliminary note on paragraphs: While doing academic writing, it is necessary to

concentrate not only on the general structure of your work, but also on sentences
and especially your paragraphs. Paragraphs are the building blocks of any writing,
which allow you to organise and construct the structure of your essay. There are
different ways of writing paragraphs according to the specific message that you want
to convey. However, you have to make sure that each of the paragraphs transmits a
message and that each of them has a purpose that works to advance your
argument. The most typical would be the paragraphs containing: a topic sentence;
sentences developing further the argument presented in the topic sentence; and
(sometimes) a sentence or two to sum up. When writing, think of the aim of each of
your paragraphs and construct it accordingly. Ask yourself: how is this paragraph (or
a set of paragraphs, if you are developing a theme) advancing your general goal?
Don not use information that is not important for the topic the paragraph deals with.

Finally, the paragraphs themselves are the bricks, but in order to build your
argument, they have to be clearly connected. For that purpose, use some ‘cement’ –
otherwise known as transition words. These words allow the text to look concise and
even and allow a reader to digest your work more smoothly. You will find more on
connecting devices and linking ideas in both within and between paragraphs in
Annex A. The thesaurus function in Microsoft Word is useful for finding more
synonyms (alternative words) for transition words.

Introduction

When you begin drafting the introductory section, it is important to understand what
an introduction is and what it is not. An introduction is more than just the first few
pages of the Research Paper. It has a specific purpose, which includes multiple
components:

1. The introduction could begin with a hook. A hook can be either a powerful
and controversial quote from an established author, politician or military

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 commander, a surprising fact or statistic, a though-provoking rhetorical
question, an assertive statement or your own sentence that is written in a way
that sparks interest. The aim of a hook is to attract the reader’s attention.

This is a good example of a hook: ‘It is forbidden to kill; therefore all murderers are
punished unless they kill in large numbers and to the sound of the trumpets’
(Nemeth, 2008, p. 110).

This, by itself, in contrast, is an ineffective one: People have always fought.

2. Secondly, the introduction should provide background information relevant to

the research question and the problem it aims to address – this is called the
link. It is necessary to introduce the problem you have identified and place it
into a particular context. Let us assume that your interest is in the geopolitical
objectives of a particular country. It is necessary to show why this country’s
approach matters; why is this a significant issue to discuss; what concerns
you about it; and why it is important to understand – the ‘problematization’ of
the issue. It provides an opportunity to produce original work – by having
familiarised yourself with the relevant literature, you may notice that there are
certain ‘gaps’ – areas that have deserved little or no attention or assumptions
that previously has not been taken into consideration. This critical approach to
reading may lead you to identify to ‘problems’ that have not yet been
addressed or have not been comprehensibly analysed.
3. Thirdly, the introduction should outline the thesis: the central argument. This
is very important and needs to be included in your introductory section,
preferably somewhere on the first page. The thesis could be one sentence or
more, but is usually limited from one to three sentences. The thesis should
begin with a statement, which should then be developed into additional
strands of argument, supported with preliminary evidence.

In many disciplines, research papers start with either a question or a hypothesis that
in the conclusion is answered or proven/disproven. That is not the case in the
argumentative essay. The conclusion (thesis) is stated in the introduction and it is
expected that this position is not changed in the body or the conclusion. This does
not mean that arguments for and against a certain position are not weighed but the
main position remains unchanged throughout the paper.

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The thesis statement is very important and has to include specific characteristics. It
needs to be included in the introductory section, preferably somewhere on the first
page. As was stated before, the thesis is a position the author takes and defends
throughout the paper. An effective thesis statement should highlight both the topic
the essay is covering and the author’s opinion/view on that topic. It should also be
arguable. Thesis statement should be linked to the key words used in the essay title.
For example, if in the title of the essay the words “nuclear deterrence” are
mentioned, these should also be included in the thesis statement.

An effective thesis statement is not

• the topic (e.g. Reasons for the fall of communism);

• a fact (e.g. Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe);
• an unsupported opinion (e.g. The fall of communism is the best thing
has happened in Europe);
• a question (e.g. Why did communism collapse in Eastern Europe?);
• a list (e.g. For political, economic, social and cultural reasons,
communism collapsed in Eastern Europe);
• emotional (e.g. Communism collapsed in Eastern Europe because
communism is evil).

An effective thesis statement is

• a clear answer to the question ‛what is your essay arguing?’;

• a definable, arguable claim;
• specific.

This is a good example of a thesis: ‘Despite the belief that nuclear deterrence is a
guarantor of peace, the government should reduce spending on nuclear weapons as
the money could be used more effectively increasing cyber warfare and counter
insurgency capabilities’.

Meanwhile, this is not an effective thesis statement: ‘This paper will analyse the
reasons for the fall of communism’. This is because it only describes – in a simple
way – what you are going to do but does not provide any argument, analysis or
judgment.

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In the early stages of writing, the thesis might not be very clear. However, it is
necessary to draft a preliminary thesis. By doing so, you have some initial idea that
guides and focuses the writing.

4. Finally, introduce the structure of your paper (‘bridge’). Explain in a paragraph

how your paper will be structured. You may want to add what each section
aims to achieve.

Generally, writing an introduction is based on the movement from ‘the general’ to ‘the
specific’, i.e. the movement from the general ideas and context of the problem to
discuss the specific issues and problems. It is natural to finish the introduction with
an outline of your work.

Some of you may have worked with your supervisor and may have come up with a
slightly different approach to the one outlined here, which may better suit your essay.
If this is the case, but you have reservations or concerns, discuss these with your
supervisor.

Summary: what is the purpose of the introduction?

 To define and limit the objectives of the study. From the introduction, the reader
should get a clear idea of what you want to analyse, as well as what you will not
examine, if such limitations are needed;

 To orient the reader by explaining the background and/or specific context of the
analysis and place of your investigation in it. This aspect can take different
forms: a presentation of the historical background; of different theoretical
perspectives on the issue; and so on;

 To present your main argument used in the work – thesis statement;

 To provide an outline of the work. An introduction is like a map of your work, an

image of what is to come;

 To attract attention of the reader and convince them to read further. An

interesting line of argument and a clear style encourages them to read further,
while messy sentences and a lack of logic makes the reader wary from the very
beginning.

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 Checkbox for the introductory chapter

 Is the problem clearly stated?

B
 Would it be clear for anyone why it is an important issue to discuss?
o
 What, if any, are the limitations of the study? Are they stated? d
 What is the methodological approach is used in the paper (e.g. y
argumentative essay, case study)? Is it clearly stated?
 In argumentative essay, is there a thesis statement?
 What is the structure of your paper?

text

The outline of the paper provided in the introduction should be followed throughout
the rest of the text. The body text itself – as a rule – should be organised into
chapters and subchapters dealing with the specific arguments or parts of the
argument. The organisation itself, depends on the task you give yourself in the work.
For example, if you write an argumentative essay, the arguments themselves will
guide the structure of your work. What is important is that the structure is clear,
logical, functions to achieve the task you set yourself and is focused on the main
question that you have proposed to answer. The body text is also comprised of
research based information and its analysis.

Even though there are no limitations as to how many chapters or subchapters you
should have in your paper, the requirements of good style suggest that the number
be as small as possible. Having too many chapters can lead to fragmentation and of
a lack of consistency – it should be remembered that, ideally, each chapter should
also have a short introduction and a conclusion.

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 Checkbox for the body text
 Is the structure of your paper clear? Are the chapters and sub-chapters
properly organised?
 Are the chapters dealing precisely with the issues they promise to deal
with?
 Are all the important aspects of the problem discussed?
 Is there a balance between the descriptive, analytical and evaluative parts
of the paper?
 Does the paper provide a balanced view of the matter under discussion?
 Are opinions supported with factual material?
 Are ideas of other authors properly attributed?

Conclusions and recommendations

The aim of the conclusion should be to ‘wrap up’ what you have discussed in your
Research Paper, give evaluations, and to provide an answer to the question(s) or
issues raised in the introduction. According to the Purdue Online Writing Laboratory:
After moving from general to specific information in the introduction and body
paragraphs, your conclusion should begin pulling back into more general information
that restate the main points of your argument. Conclusions may also call for action.

As a rule, you must show how your line of reasoning was developed to reach its final
point. A conclusion that provides evaluation is particularly important: do not merely
summarise your arguments, or else you may descend into banal description. For
example, in the conclusion part of an argumentative essay, you should provide your
final position on the issue you have analysed. But remember: the conclusion should
not contain any new analysis; it should be a place for synthesis, summary,
evaluation and reflection. Do not try to solve ‘big issues’ which are too complicated
for discussion in a short paper. For example, do not offer a roadmap for the
correction or improvement of a failed state, or for the root-and-branch reform of your
country’s military forces. A good conclusion will always be clear, crisp and succinct.

23
Depending on the title of your essay, recommendations or proposed solutions may
also be part of the conclusion. For instance, if you have analysed military co-
operation amongst the Baltic and Nordic States, you might wish to propose a series
of proposals as to how this co-operation might be enhanced, developed or moved
into new areas (either on operational or strategic level). These recommendations
must remain credible. To use the example above, it would be imprudent to advance
that the Baltic States develop nuclear weapons or aircraft carriers, when there is little
prospect of their doing so due to cost constraints and industrial capacity.

So, in particular, what should the conclusion do?

1. It should summarise key findings;
2. It should restate the thesis/central argument;
3. It should make an overall conclusion in support of the thesis;
4. It should draw conclusions based on the information presented in the body of
the essay;
5. It should identify the implications of the key findings (answer the ‛so what?’
question).;
6. If applicable, it should offer recommendations. For example, how your nation’s
government or armed forces, etc., might address any problems, shortfalls or
issues you have identified.

To sum up, the concluding chapter can be said to be a mirror image of the
introduction. If in the introduction moves from the general context to more specific
issues, the conclusion goes from the specific arguments back to a general overview.
This should produce a punchy evaluative summary, and therefore complete your
piece of academic writing.

Checkbox for the conclusion

 Are the key ideas of the paper summarised?
 Are the key findings analysed and evaluated?
 Is the position expressed in the thesis statement restated and reinforced?
 Are there any recommendations offered? Please note that depending on the
topic this might not always be applicable.

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 Checklist for an argumentative essay

What should the introduction do?

 Give general information about the topic;

 Narrow the topic down and define the essay’s aim;
 State the problem to be investigated:
 Present a thesis statement (i.e. your argument).
 Explain how the work is organised.

What should the ‘body text’ do?

 Present a balanced view, providing two or more sides of an argument;

 Analyse the information, not only describe it;

 Provide relevant factual information, expert opinions, and so on, supported by references;
 Order paragraphs properly; for example, every paragraph should introduce one idea only
and should open with a sentence outlining what it will be about (a ‘topic sentence’);
 Link ideas with appropriate connecting words, which makes the relationship between them
clear;
 Apply academic rigour; for example, no personal pronouns to be used; no emotional words
to be used.

What should the conclusion do?

 Summarise the main ideas;

 Evaluate the analysed information from the ‘body text’ by drawing conclusions and
providing solutions;
 Re-enforce the thesis and clearly answer the question set in the essay question (check this
carefully);
 End with a potent statement to stimulate the reader;
 Length is roughly the same as the introduction.

Differences between Argumentative Essay and Bachelor’s/Master’s Thesis

writing

As Course participants are required to write Argumentative Essays, it is necessary to

explain the main differences between an argumentative essay and other types of
academic papers. Those of you who have written their Bachelor’s or Master’s thesis
can build on your experience as the general principles for academic rigour are
probably similar. However, the scope, depth, application of methods and the need for

25
theoretical foundation are different compared to research papers written for degree
studies.

Some other aspects pertaining to differences include the ‘research gap’. Writing a
Bachelor’s or Master’s degree often requires the student to first identify what has not
been researched before and come up with a novel approach to the topic at hand. In
an argumentative essay, the fact that the topic has been researched before, is not an
issue. While an understanding of the area is a good start to ‘problematising’ or
explaining the significance of topic of the essay, the fact that similar research has
already been conducted is not relevant for you and not an impediment to writing your
work on the same topic.

Secondly, original research usually means creation of new knowledge or

understanding in a field. In an argumentative essay, original research in this sense is
not the expectation. It is not required to interview people or send out questionnaires,
meaning going through time-consuming data collection and analysis. Originality in an
argumentative essay stems from the author’s independent and critical interpretation
of different sources and perhaps a different approach to the issue at hand compared
to previous scientific papers or other student papers written earlier.

For papers in degree studies, it is often required that a separate summary or an

abstract is added to the paper. It serves as a snapshot of the whole paper, usually
explaining the research problem, aim, key findings and conclusion/implications.
Depending on the domain and specific requirements of the educational institution, it
may also have information about the participants involved in the study (sample), data
collection, method, etc. Often after the abstracts, key words related to the research
paper are mentioned. These are not requirements for the argumentative essays and
should not be included in the work.

As the argumentative essays are fairly short, there is also no need to include a table
of contents. For longer papers in degree studies, it is necessary, as the reader may
want to look into specific places (for example results and discussion) instead of
reading the whole paper. Again, not to waste words, skip the table of contents.

26
Language use in the Research Paper - Style

The style of the Research Paper should be formal and impersonal. Language used
should not be colloquial. The first person (I/we) should not be used. Passive voice
should be used instead. Please note, however, that a depending on disciplinary
traditions the use of the first person in academic writing may be encouraged. If you
aim to publish, please read carefully the instructions to authors and requirements of
submitting your work. You might also be tasked by the editor asks to rewrite parts of
your work in the first person.

Using tentative language

Hedging is the use of language that is suitable for protecting claims and also for
indicating the level of certainty. When there is no definitive proof of something or
something is not an established fact (for example, predicting what will happen in the
future), less definitive words should be used. Instead of writing, “The future of the
military education is definitely technology based”, as there might be some doubt
what the future is going to be, it is better to consider a more tentative approach, “It
is possible that the future of the military education is technology based”. Phrases
such as it is possible, this suggests, usually, sometimes suggest that the statements
that follow are not facts. Although there may be evidence in support of the claims,
these may depend on circumstances or not be true in every situation.

Blackwell (n.d.) describes the language functions with example words and phrases
that can be used for hedging in Table 1.

1. Quantifiers Some
a fraction
a minority/majority of
a proportion of
to some extent
2. Appearance appears to
has the appearance of
is similar to
shares characteristics with
appears to be in line with
3. Possibility might
may

27
 could
can
has the possibility of
has the potential to
is able to
4. Frequency sometimes
rarely
tends to
has a tendency to
5. Comparatively in a simpler way than ...
more simply than …
When compared to …
6. Context In the context of …
…in certain situations…
Within some households…
7. Evidence Based on …
As indicated by …
According to …
8. Description in language can be described as
could be considered to be
is sometimes labelled
can be equated to
the term is often used to mean
the term is often used to refer to
this may indicate that …
this may suggest that …
Table 1. List of hedging functions and words (Blackwell, n.d.).

Revising your draft

When thinking about the schedule for writing your work, you should leave enough
time for revision. No first draft, even when written by a renowned scholar, is perfect.
Therefore, the language, structure and the ideas presented should be carefully
examined and revised before the final submission. There are two levels of
examination of a paper, thus, two different ways of reading the paper. First is the
‘Bird’s view’: read the paper, keeping track of its general flow of ideas, logic of
argumentation, and checking whether it complies with the regulations for academic
writing and referencing. Also, ensure it complies with the principles of academic
writing, especially analytical approach and critical thinking; accuracy and credibility;
and structure, cohesion and clarity.

28
 Checkbox for the “Bird’s view”
Yes No
Does the text lead clearly from introduction to conclusion? Is there a
‘red thread’ throughout the paper?
Is everything you say necessary for your argument? Is the argument
focused on the main topic and argument?
Is the argumentation logical? Is it clear how the arguments are
developed? Are you missing some important element in your chain
of argumentation? Do conclusions logically follow from the key
findings?

Secondly, the ‘Ant’s view’: read the paper thoroughly, focusing on the construction
of the paragraphs and sentences themselves. For the reader to comprehend what
you want to say in the work, both levels are important. A lack of clarity on the ‘low’
level can lead to confusion, while a lack of clarity on the ‘high’ level can lead to the
complete misunderstanding of your work. In order to avoid this, keep in mind the
principles of academic writing while writing the text and then be prepared to revise it
when you finish the first draft.

Checkbox for the “Ant’s view”

Yes No
How are paragraphs organised? Are there clear topic sentences
(mini-summaries of what is to come)?
Are the paragraphs coherent? For example, paragraphs dealing
explicitly with the Atlantic Alliance’s structure should not contain
statements about the European Union’s foreign policy problems.
Is the sequence of sentences in a single paragraph clear? Are ideas
connected with transition words or phrases to mark their relationship
(e.g. contrast, addition, etc.)?
Are the paragraphs clearly connected between themselves? Use
transition words, phrases and sentences for these connections as
well.
Is the grammatical structure of the sentences correct? Are there any
spelling errors?

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ANNEX A: TRANSITION WORDS, PHRASES AND SENTENCES

To create a text where the relationship of ideas is clear and the flow of text is
smooth, transition words/ linking words are needed. Some of the more common
linking words and phrases you can find in the table below. Please note that the table
is illustrative and only has more common transition words listed in it.

Table of commonly used transition/linking words

Addition Effect Compariso Concessio Contrast Time
n n
Again Accordingl Likewise After all After all Afterwards
Also y Equally Although Although As long as
Then Con- Similarly this may be true At length
Besides sequently In a like true/ And yet At that time
Equally Hence manner credible/ At the same At the same
Finally In short accurate But time
First Then At the same For all that Before
(followed Therefore time However Earlier
by second, Thus Even though In contrast Immediatel
third, Truly Admittedly In spite of y
fourth, etc.) Naturally Nevertheles Meanwhile
Further Of course s Presently
Further- Not- Shortly
more withstanding Since
In addition On the Soon
Additionall contrary Thereafter
y On the one Thereupon
Lastly hand /on the Until
Likewise other hand When
Moreover Still While
Next Yet

University of North Carolina Writing Centre (n.d.) distinguishes between 3 types of

transitions:

1. ‘Transitions between sections: Particularly in longer works, it may be

necessary to include transitional paragraphs that summarize for the reader
the information just covered and specify the relevance of this information to
the discussion in the following section.
2. Transitions between paragraphs: If you have done a good job of arranging
paragraphs so that the content of one leads logically to the next, the transition

30
 will highlight a relationship that already exists by summarizing the previous
paragraph and suggesting something of the content of the paragraph that
follows. A transition between paragraphs can be a word or two (however, for
example, similarly), a phrase, or a sentence. Transitions can be at the end of
the first paragraph, at the beginning of the second paragraph, or in both
places.
3. Transitions within paragraphs: As with transitions between sections and
paragraphs, transitions within paragraphs act as cues by helping readers to
anticipate what is coming before they read it. Within paragraphs, transitions
tend to be single words or short phrases.’

An essential idea of transition between paragraphs is provided by Oshima and

Hogue (2006). Their advice is to place old information at the beginning of the
sentence and new information at the end of the sentence. This way the text connects
what readers already know and can connect this with any new information. The
transition sentence can, of course, be placed at the beginning or the end of
paragraphs.

End of a paragraph […] Joshua S. Goldstein, an emeritus professor at the American

University, argues that the years since the end of the Cold war have been ‘an era of
rapid progress towards peace’ due to the decline in the annual battle related deaths
from an average of 100,000 in 1990’s to 55,000 in the new millennium (Goldstein,
2011).

Despite the decrease of battle-related deaths, however, in recent years, there has
been a visible increase in the number of deaths caused by war, thereby indicating
that armed conflicts continue to occur.[…] Paragraph continues…

In this example we can see that old information about the decrease of battle-related
deaths is connected to the new information increase of deaths caused by war.

Or consider this example:

Paragraph A: supports the view that x country’s new government is democratic.

Transition: Despite the previous arguments, there are many reasons to think that x
country’s new government is not as democratic as typically believed.

31
Paragraph B: points that contradict the view that x country’s new government is
democratic.

Transitions within a paragraph can be achieved besides connective words also by

connecting the subject from one sentence with the subject in the next sentence. For
example: International students want to understand the conventions of American
academic culture. These students often attend webinars and contact the
international student counsellor. Subject in sentence one = International students.
Subject in second sentence = These students (Oshima and Hogue, 2006).

32
Annex B. RESOURCES

There are multiple resources available in support of writing the Research Papers.
Firstly, the Initial Unit should provide an overview of the Research Paper writing
process. Course participants should not be limited to the materials provided in the
Initial Unit but are encouraged to explore independently.

Textbooks

There are two textbooks that are useful for academic writing, which form part of the
brilliant and humorous For Dummies series. These are:

1. Writing Essays for Dummies;

2. Public Speaking and Presentations for Dummies.

One copy of each is available in the Baltic Defence College’s library. In addition, a
number of other excellent books on research, critical thinking, professional writing
and improving English skills are also available in the library for Course participants to
peruse. Most books that cover professional writing can be useful and beneficial as
long as it is adapted to the learning outcomes and formal requirements of the
Research Paper established at the Baltic Defence College. Some such examples are
available in BALTDEFCOL library. For example,
Denscombe, M. 2013. The Good Research Guide. Maidenhead: McGraw Hill/Open
University Press;
Bailey. S. 2011. Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. London,
New York: Routledge;
Savage, A. and Mayer, P. 2005. Effective Academic Writing 2. Hong Kong: Oxford
University Press;
Chapnick, A. and Stone, C. 2010. Academic Writing for Military Personnel. Ottawa:
University of Ottawa Press. The latter resource is also available online.

33
Online support for the Research Paper

Course material, including required and supplementary materials are available online
in the e-learning platform ILIAS. Module coordinator will provide more information
about specific details.

Information Resources

The A. P. Møller Defence Research Library is the primary centre for research at the
Baltic Defence College. This excellent facility is well-endowed with over 14,000
books, periodicals and other sources, which can be consulted for academic writing.
Many of the library’s resources can be found electronically on ILIAS. Those that are
not available can be browsed and searched for through the electronic catalogue
https://www.ester.ee/search~S1. What is more, the library has multiple other
services that can be beneficial in the research writing process, including access to
multiple e-books, such as the Stone and Chapnick Academic Writing for Military
Personnel. Should there be any questions, ask librarians for additional guidance.

34
Baltic Defence College

Riia 12, Tartu

Estonia

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