Math Handbook PDF

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hand book
KEY NOTES TERMS
DEFINITIONS FORMULAE
Mathematics
Highly Useful for Class XI & XII Students,
Engineering Entrances and Other Competitions
Amit Rastogi
Supported by
Love Agarwal
Brijesh Dwivedi
ARIHANT PRAKASHAN, (SERIES) MEERUT

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Arihant Prakashan (Series), Meerut

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PREFACE
Handbook means reference book listing brief facts on a
subject. So, to facilitate the students in this we have
released this Handbook of Mathematics. This book has
been prepared to serve the special purpose of the students,
to rectify any query or any concern point of a particular
subject.
This book will be of highly use whether students are
looking for a quick revision before the board exams or just
before other examinations like Engineering Entrances or
any similar examination, they will find that this handbook
will answer their needs admirably.
This handbook can even be used for revision of a subject
in the time between two shift of the exams, even this
handbook can be used while travelling to Examination
Centre or whenever you have time, less sufficient or more.
The format of this handbook has been developed
particularly so that it can be carried around by the
students conveniently.
The objectives of publishing this handbook are :

— To support students in their revision of a subject just
before an examination.
— To provide a focus to students to clear up their doubts
about particular concepts which were not clear to them
earlier.
— To give confidence to the students just before they
attempt important examinations.
However, we have put our best efforts in preparing this
book, but if any error or what so ever has been skipped
out, we will by heart welcome your suggestions. A part
from all those who helped in the compilation of this book
a special note of thanks goes to Mr. Ashwani of Arihant
Publications.
Authors
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CONTENTS
1. Sets and Relations 1-9 ! Cube Roots of Unity
! Set ! nth Roots of Unity
! Subset and Superset ! Geometry of Complex
! Venn Diagram Numbers
! Operations on Sets
4. Theory of Equations and
! Ordered Pair
Inequations 46-61
! Relation
! Composition of Relation ! Polynomial
! Quadratic Equation
2. Functions and Binary ! Quadratic Expression
Operations 10-27 ! Inequality
! Functions ! Linear Inequality
! Equal Functions ! Solution Set
! Real Valued and Real
Functions 5. Sequences and Series 62-73
! Standard Real Functions and ! Sequence
their Graphs ! Series
! Operations on Real ! Arithmetic Progression (AP)
Functions ! Geometric Progression (GP)
! Compositions of Two ! Harmonic Progression (HP)
Functions ! Arithmetic-Geometric
! Even and Odd Functions Progression
! Binary Operations
6. Permutations and
3. Complex Numbers 28-45 Combinations 74-84
! Equality of Complex ! Fundamental Principles of
Numbers Counting
! Iota ! Factorial
! Algebra of Complex ! Permutation
Numbers ! Circular Permutation
! Argand Plane and Argument ! Combination
of a Complex Number
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7. Binomial Theorem and ! Random Variable

Principle of Mathematical ! Bernoulli Trials and
Induction 85-92 Binomial Distribution
! Binomial Theorem for
Positive Integer 11. Trigonometric Functions,
! General Term in a Binomoal Identities and Equations
Expansion 124-140
! Middle Term in a Binomial ! Measurement of Angles
Expansion ! Relation Between Degree
! Greatest Term and Radian
! Multinomial Theorem ! Trigonometric Ratios For
! R-f Factor Relations Acute Angle
! Binomial Theorem for Any ! Trigonometric (or Circular)
Index Functions
! Principle of Mathematical ! Graph of Trigonometric
Induction Functions
! Fundamental Trigonometric
8. Matrices 93-101
Identities
! Matrix
! Trigonometric Functions of
! Algebra of Matrices
Compound Angles
! Transpose of Matrix
! Transformation Formulae
! Symmetric and Skew-
Symmetric Matrices ! Trigonometric Functions of
Multiple Angles
! Elementary Operations
(Transformations of a ! Trigonometric Periodic
Matrix) Functions
! Conjugate of a Matrix ! Trigonometric Equations
! Rank of a Matrix
12. Solution of
9. Determinants 102-112 Triangles 141-147
! Determinant ! Basic Rules of Triangle
! Minor and Cofactors ! Trigonometrical Ratios of
! Adjoint of a Matrix Half of the Angles of
! Inverse of a Matrix Triangle
! Homogeneous and Non- ! Area of a Triangle
homogeneous System of
Linear Equations 13. Heights and
Distances 148-150
10. Probability 113-123 ! Angle of Elevation
! Experiment ! Angle of Depression
! Algebra of Events
! Baye’s Theorem
!
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14. Inverse Trigonometric ! Equation of Tangent

Functions 151-159 ! Equation of Normal
! Domain and Range of ! Pair of Tangents
Inverse Trigonometric ! Common Tangents of Two
Functions Circles
! Graphs of Inverse ! Family of Circles
Triginometric Functions ! Limiting Points
! Elementary Properties of ! Diameter of Circle
Inverse Trigonometric
Functions 18. Parabola 190-199
! Inverse Hyperbolic ! Conic Section
Functions ! General Equation of Conic
! Standard Forms of a
15. Rectangular Axis 160-165 Parabola and Related Terms
! Rectangular Axis ! Equation of Tangent
! Quadrants ! Point of Intersection of Two
! Distance Formulae Tangents
! Section Formulae ! Equation of Normal
! Area of Triangle/ ! Length of Tangent and
Quadrilateral Normal
! Shifting of Origin/Rotation ! Equation of Diameter
of Axes ! Pair of Tangents
! Equation of Locus ! Chor of Contact
16. Straight Line 166-175 19. Ellipse 200-208

! Slope (Gradient) of a Line ! Parametric Equation
! Angle between Two Lines ! Equation of Tangent
! Equation of a Straight Line ! Equation of Normal
! Distance of a Point from a
Line 20. Hyperbola 209-219
! Equation of the Bisectors ! Hyperbola of the Form
! Pair of Lines x2 y2
—2 – —2 = 1
a b
17. Circles 176-189 ! Conjugate Hyperbola
! Standard Equation of a –x2 y2
Circle — +—= 1
a2 b2
! Equation of Circle Passing ! Equation of Hyperbola in
Through Three Points Different Forms
! Parametric Equation of ! Tangent Equation of
Circle Hyperbola
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! Normal Equation of 24. Indefinite

Hyperbola Integrals 254-268
! Asymptote ! Some Standard Integral
! Rectangular Hyperbola Formulae
! Properties of Integration
21. Limits, Continuity & ! Intergation by Substitution
Differentiability 220-223 ! Integration by Parts
! Limit ! Integration by Partial
! Methods of Evaluating Fractions
Limits ! Integration of Irrational
! Sandwich Theorem Algebraic Function
! Continuity
! Differentiability 25. Definite Integrals 269-274
! Fundamental Theorems of ! Fundamental Theorem of
Differentiability Calculus
! Properties of Definite
22. Derivatives 234-241 Integral
! Derivatives of Standard ! Integral Function
Functions
! Fundamental Rules for 26. Applications of
Derivatives Integrals 275-283
! Derivatives of Different ! Area of Curves Given by
Types of Function Polar Equations
! Differentiation of a ! Area of Curves Given by
Determinant Parametric Curves
! Successive Differentiations ! Curve Sketching
! Partial Differentiations ! Volume and Surface Area
23. Application of
27. Differential
Derivatives 242-253
! Derivatives as the Rate of Equations 284-290
Change ! Order and Degree of a
! Tangents and Normals Differential Equation
! Rolle’s Theorem ! Linear and Non-Linear
! Lagrange’s Mean Value Differential Equations
Theorem ! Solution of Differential
! Approximations and Errors Equations
! Increasing Function ! Formation of Differential
! Maxima and Minima of Equations
Functions
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28. Vectors 291-304 31. Mathematical

! Types of Vectors Reasoning 338-342
! Addition of Vectors ! Statement (Proposition)
! Differences (Subtraction) of ! Elementary Logical
Vectors Connectives or Logical
! Multiplication of a Vector by Operators
a Scalar ! Truth Value and Truth Table
! Components of a Vector ! Quantifiers
! Vector Joining Two Points ! Validity of Statements
! Section Formulae
! Scalar or Dot Product of 32. Linear Programming
Two Vectors
Problem (LPP) 343-346
! Vector or Cross Product of
! Objective Function
Two Vectors
! Constraints
! Scalar Triple Product
! Vector Triple Product ! Non-negative Restrictions
! Optimal Value
29. Three Dimensional ! Solution of Simultaneous
Geometry 305-319 Linear Inequations
! Coordinate System ! Graphical Method of Solving
a Linear Programming
! Direction Cosines
Problem
! Line in Space
! Different Types of Linear
! Plane
Programming Problems
! Angle Between Two Planes
! Parallelism and 33. Elementary
Perpendicularity of Two
Arithmetic-I 347-367
Planes
! Types of Number System
30. Statistics 320-337 ! Classification of Numbers in
Decimal Number System
! Graphical Representation of
Frequency Distributions ! Test of Divisibility of a
! Measures of Central Natural Number
Tendency ! Rule of Determine the Digit
! Arithmetic Mean at Unit Place
! Geometric Mean ! Rational Numbers
! Harmonic Mean ! Irrational Number
! Median ! Real Number
! Mode ! Complex Numbers
! Covariance ! Fraction
! Rank Correlation ! Ascending/Descending
(Spearman’s) Orders in Fraction
! Regression ! Power of Index
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! Surds 36. Elementary

! HCF and LCM Algebra 398-406
! Simplification ! Polynomial
! Average ! Synthetic Division Method
! Ratio and Proportion (Horner’s Method)
! Proportion ! Remainder Theorem
! Linear Equations
34. Elementary ! Rational Expression
Arithmetic-II 368-378
! Fundamental Formula 37. Logarithms 407-409
! Speed, Time and Distance ! Types of Logarithms
! Problem Based on Trains ! Anti Logarithm
! Boats and Streams
38. Geometry 410-424
! Pipes and Cisterns
! Triangles
! Clock ! Congruency of Triangles
! Calendar ! Quadrilaterals
! Polygon
35. Elementary
Arithmetic-III 379-397 39. Mensuration 425-439
! Percentage ! Perimeter and Area of Plane
! Profit, Loss and Discount Figure
! Simple Interest ! Surface Area and Volume of
! Compound Interest Solid Figure
! Growth and Depriciation
Some Great Mathematicians &
! Partnership
Their Contributions 440-443
! Share and Debenture
! Alligation or Mixture Appendix I to VII 444-454
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1
Sets and Relations
Set
Set is a collection of well defined objects which are distinct from each
other. Sets are usually denoted by capital letters A, B, C ,K and
elements are usually denoted by small letters a , b, c,... .
If a is an element of a set A, then we write a ∈ A and say a belongs to A
or a is in A or a is a member of A. If a does not belongs to A, we write
a ∉ A.
Standard Notations
N : A set of all natural numbers.
W : A set of all whole numbers.
Z : A set of all integers.
Z+ / Z− : A set of all positive/negative integers.
Q : A set of all rational numbers.
Q+ / Q− : A set of all positive/negative rational numbers.
R : A set of all real numbers.
R+ / R− : A set of all positive/negative real numbers.
C : A set of all complex numbers.
Methods for Describing a Set

(i) Roster Form / Listing Method / Tabular Form In this
method, a set is described by listing the elements, separated by
commas and enclosed within braces.
e.g. If A is the set of vowels in English alphabet, then
A = { a , e, i , o , u }
(ii) Set Builder Form / Rule Method In this method, we write
down a property or rule which gives us all the elements of the set.
e.g. A = { x : x is a vowel in English alphabet}
Types of Sets
(i) Empty/Null/Void Set A set containing no element, it is denoted
by φ or { }.
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2 Handbook of Mathematics
(ii) Singleton Set A set containing a single element.

(iii) Finite Set A set containing finite number of elements or no
element.
Note : Cardinal Number (or Order) of a Finite Set The number of
elements in a given finite set is called its cardinal number. If A is a finite
set, then its cardinal number is denoted by n ( A).
(iv) Infinite Set A set containing infinite number of elements.
(v) Equivalent Sets Two sets are said to be equivalent, if they
have same number of elements.
If n( A) = n( B), then A and B are equivalent sets.
(vi) Equal Sets Two sets A and B are said to be equal, if every
element of A is a member of B and every element of B is a member
of A and we write it as A = B.
Subset and Superset

Let A and B be two sets. If every element of A is an element of B, then
A is called subset of B and B is called superset of A and written as
A ⊆ B or B ⊇ A.
Power Set
The set formed by all the subsets of a given set A, is called power set of
A, denoted by P ( A).
Universal Set (U)

A set consisting of all possible elements which occurs under
consideration is called a universal set.
Proper Subset
If A is a subset of B and A ≠ B, then A is called proper subset of B and
we write it as A ⊂ B.
Comparable Sets
Two sets A and B are comparable, if A ⊆ B or B ⊆ A.
Non-comparable Sets
For two sets A and B, if neither A ⊆ B nor B ⊆ A, then A and B are
called non-comparable sets.
Disjoint Sets
Two sets A and B are called disjoint, if A ∩ B = φ . i.e. they do not have
any common element.
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Sets and Relations 3
Intervals as Subsets of R
(i) The set of real numbers x, such that a ≤ x ≤ b is called a closed
interval and denoted by [a , b] i.e. [a, b] = { x : x ∈ R , a ≤ x ≤ b}.
(ii) The set of real number x, such that a < x < b is called an open
interval and is denoted by ( a , b)
i.e. ( a , b) = { x : x ∈ R , a < x < b}
(iii) The sets [a , b) = { x : x ∈ R , a ≤ x < b} and
( a , b] = { x : x ∈ R , a < x ≤ b } are called semi-open or
semi-closed intervals.
Venn Diagram
In a Venn diagram, the universal set is represented by a rectangular
region and its subset is represented by circle or a closed geometrical
figure inside the rectangular region.
U
A
Operations on Sets
1. Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B, denoted by A ∪ B, is the set of all those
elements which are either in A or in B or both in A and B.
A U
B
Laws of Union of Sets

For any three sets A, B and C, we have
(i) A ∪ φ = A (Identity law)
(ii) U ∪ A = U (Universal law)
(iii) A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law)
(iv) A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law)
(v) ( A ∪ B) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C ) (Associative law)
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2. Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted U
by A ∩ B, is the set of all those elements A
B
which are common to both A and B.
If A1 , A 2 ,... , A n is a finite family of sets, then
their intersection is denoted by
n
∩ Ai or A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ ... ∩ A n .
i =1
Laws of Intersection
For any three sets, A, B and C, we have
(i) A ∩ φ = φ (Identity law)
(ii) U ∩ A = A (Universal law)
(iii) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)
(iv) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)
(v) ( A ∩ B) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law)
(vi) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∪ ( A ∩ C )
(intersection distributes over union)
(vii) A ∪ ( B ∩ C ) = ( A ∪ B) ∩ ( A ∪ C )
(union distributes over intersection)
3. Difference of Sets
For two sets A and B, the difference A − B is the set of all those
elements of A which do not belong to B.
A B U
Symmetric Difference
For two sets A and B, symmetric difference is the set ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A)
denoted by A ∆ B.
A U
B
A–B B–A
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Laws of Difference of Sets
(a) For any two sets A and B, we have
(i) A − B = A ∩ B′ (ii) B − A = B ∩ A′
(iii) A − B ⊆ A (iv) B − A ⊆ B
(v) A − B = A ⇔ A ∩ B = φ
(vi) ( A − B) ∪ B = A ∪ B
(vii) ( A − B) ∩ B = φ
(viii) ( A − B) ∪ ( B − A) = ( A ∪ B) − ( A ∩ B)
(b) If A, B and C are any three sets, then
(i) A − ( B ∩ C ) = ( A − B) ∪ ( A − C )
(ii) A − ( B ∪ C ) = ( A − B) ∩ ( A − C )
(iii) A ∩ ( B − C ) = ( A ∩ B) − ( A ∩ C )
(iv) A ∩ ( B ∆ C ) = ( A ∩ B) ∆ ( A ∩ C )
4. Complement of a Set A' U

If A is a set with U as universal set, then A
complement of a set A, denoted by A′ or Ac is the
set U − A .
Properties of Complement of Sets are
(i) ( A′ )′ = A = U − A′ (law of double complementation)
(ii) (a) A ∪ A′ = U
(b) A ∩ A′ = φ (complement laws)
(iii) (a) φ′ = U
(b) U ′ = φ (laws of empty set and universal set)
(iv) ( A ∪ B) ′ = U − ( A ∪ B)
Important Points to be Remembered

(i) Every set is a subset of itself i.e. A ⊆ A, for any set A.
(ii) Empty set φ is a subset of every set i.e. φ ⊂ A, for any set A.
(iii) For any set A and its universal set U, A ⊆ U
(iv) If A = φ, then power set has only one element, i.e. n( P( A)) = 1.
(v) Power set of any set is always a non-empty set.
(vi) Suppose A = {1, 2}, then P( A) = {{1}, { 2}, {1, 2}, φ }.
(a) A ∈ P( A) (b) { A} ∉ P( A)
(vii) If a set A has n elements, then P( A) has 2n elements.
(viii) Equal sets are always equivalent but equivalent sets may not be equal.
(ix) The set { φ } is not a null set. It is a set containing one element φ.
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Results on Number of Elements in Sets

(i) n ( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n ( B) − n( A ∩ B)
(ii) n( A ∪ B) = n( A) + n( B), if A and B are disjoint sets.
(iii) n( A − B) = n( A) − n( A ∩ B)
(iv) n ( B − A) = n ( B) − n ( A ∩ B)
(v) n( A ∆ B) = n( A) + n( B) − 2n( A ∩ B)
(vi) n( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = n( A) + n( B) + n(C ) − n( A ∩ B)
− n( B ∩ C ) − n( A ∩ C ) + n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(vii) n (number of elements in exactly two of the sets A, B, C )
= n( A ∩ B) + n( B ∩ C ) + n(C ∩ A) − 3n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(viii) n (number of elements in exactly one of the sets A, B, C )
= n( A) + n( B) + n(C ) − 2n( A ∩ B)
− 2n( B ∩ C ) − 2n( A ∩ C ) + 3n( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(ix) n( A′ ∪ B ′ ) = n( A ∩ B)′ = n(U ) − n( A ∩ B)
(x) n( A′ ∩ B ′ ) = n( A ∪ B)′ = n(U ) − n( A ∪ B)
Ordered Pair
An ordered pair consists of two objects or elements grouped in a
particular order.
Equality of Ordered Pairs

Two ordered pairs ( a1 , b1 ) and ( a2 , b2 ) are equal iff a1 = a2 and b1 = b2.
Cartesian (or Cross) Product of Sets

For two non-empty sets A and B, the set of all ordered pairs (a, b) such
that a ∈ A and b ∈ B is called Cartesian product A × B, i.e.
A × B = {( a , b) : a ∈ A and b ∈ B}
Ordered Triplet
If there are three sets A, B, C and a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈C , then we form
an ordered triplet (a, b, c). It is also called 3-triple. The set of all
ordered triplets (a, b, c) is called the cartesian product of three sets
A, B and C.
i.e. A × B × C = {( a , b, c): a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈C }
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Diagramatic Representation of
Cartesian Product of Two Sets
We first draw two circles representing sets A A B
and B one opposite to the other as shown in the 1 f
given figure and write the elements of sets in 2
the corresponding circles. 3 g
Now, we draw line segments starting from each
element of set A and terminating to each
element of set B.
Properties of Cartesian Product
For three sets A, B and C,
(i) n( A × B) = n( A) × n( B)
(ii) A × B = φ, if either A or B is an empty set.
(iii) A × ( B ∪ C ) = ( A × B) ∪ ( A × C )
(iv) A × ( B ∩ C ) = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C )
(v) A × ( B − C ) = ( A × B) − ( A × C )
(vi) ( A × B) ∩ (C × D ) = ( A ∩ C ) × ( B ∩ D )
(vii) A × ( B′ ∪ C ′ )′ = ( A × B) ∩ ( A × C )
(viii) A × ( B ′ ∩ C ′ )′ = ( A × B) ∪ ( A × C )
(ix) If A ⊆ B and C ⊆ D , then ( A × C ) ⊆ ( B × D )
(x) If A ⊆ B, then A × A ⊆ ( A × B) ∩ ( B × A)
(xi) If A ⊆ B, then A × C ⊆ B × C for any set C.
(xii) A × B = B × A ⇔ A = B
(xiii) If A ≠ B, then A × B ≠ B × A
(xiv) If either A or B is an infinite set, then A × B is an infinite set.
(xv) If A and B be any two non-empty sets having n elements in
common, then A × B and B × A have n 2 elements in common.
Relation
If A and B are two non-empty sets, then a relation R from A to B is a
subset of A × B.
If R ⊆ A × B and ( a , b) ∈ R , then we say that a is related to b by the
relation R, written as aRb.
If R ⊆ A × A, then we simply say R is a relation on A.
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Representation of a Relation
(i) Roster form In this form, we represent the relation by the set
of all ordered pairs belongs to R.
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { −3, − 2, − 1, 1, 2, 3} to set
B = { 1, 4, 9, 10}, defined by aRb ⇔ a 2 = b,
Then, ( −3)2 = 9,( −2)2 = 4,( −1)2 = 1, ( 2)2 = 4,( 3)2 = 9.
Then, in roster form, R can be written as
R = {( −1, 1), ( − 2, 4), (1, 1),( 2, 4),( − 3, 9),( 3, 9)}
(ii) Set-builder form In this form, we represent the relation R
from set A to set B as
R = {( a , b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and the rule which relate the elements
of A and B}
e.g. Let R is a relation from set A = { 1, 2, 4, 5} to set
 1 1 1
B = 1, , ,  such that
 2 4 5
  1  1  1 
R = (1, 1),  2,   4,   5,  
  2  4  5 
Then, in set-builder form, R can be written as
 1
R = ( a , b) : a ∈ A, b ∈ B and b = 
 a
Note We cannot write every relation from set A to set B in set-builder form.
Domain, Codomain and Range of a Relation

Let R be a relation from a non-empty set A to a non-empty set B. Then,
set of all first components or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging
to R is called the domain of R, while the set of all second components
or coordinates of the ordered pairs belonging to R is called the range
of R Also, the set B is called the codomain of relation R.
Thus, domain of R = { a : ( a , b) ∈ R } and range of R = { b : ( a , b) ∈ R }
Types of Relations
(i) Empty or Void Relation As φ ⊂ A × A, for any set A, so φ is a
relation on A, called the empty or void relation.
(ii) Universal Relation Since, A × A ⊆ A × A , so A × A is a
relation on A, called the universal relation.
(iii) Identity Relation The relation I A = {( a , a ) : a ∈ A} is called
the identity relation on A.
(iv) Reflexive Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
reflexive relation, if every element of A is related to itself.
Thus, ( a , a ) ∈ R , ∀ a ∈ A ⇒ R is reflexive.
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(v) Symmetric Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
symmetric relation iff ( a , b) ∈ R ⇒ ( b, a ) ∈ R , ∀ a , b ∈ A
i.e. a R b ⇒ bRa , ∀ a , b ∈ A
(vi) Transitive Relation A relation R on a set A is said to be
transitive relation, iff ( a , b) ∈ R and ( b, c) ∈ R
⇒ ( a , c) ∈ R , ∀ a , b, c ∈ A
Equivalence Relation
A relation R on a set A is said to be an equivalence relation, if it is
simultaneously reflexive, symmetric and transitive on A.
Equivalence Classes
Let R be an equivalence relation on A (≠ φ). Let a ∈ A .
Then, the equivalence class of a denoted by [a ] or ( a ) is defined as the
set of all those points of A which are related to a under the relation R.
Inverse Relation
If A and B are two non-empty sets and R be a relation from A to B,
then the inverse of R, denoted by R −1 , is a relation from B to A and is
defined by R −1 = {( b, a ) : ( a , b) ∈ R }.
Composition of Relation
Let R and S be two relations from sets A to B and B to C respectively,
then we can define relation SoR from A to C such that
( a , c) ∈ SoR ⇔ ∃ b ∈ B such that ( a , b) ∈ R and ( b, c) ∈ S .
This relation SoR is called the composition of R and S .
(i) RoS ≠ SoR (ii) (SoR )−1 = R −1oS −1 known as reversal rule.
Important Results on Relation

(i) If R and S are two equivalence relations on a set A, then R ∩ S
is also an equivalence relation on A.
(ii) The union of two equivalence relations on a set is not
necessarily an equivalence relation on the set.
(iii) If R is an equivalence relation on a set A, then R −1 is also an
equivalence relation on A.
(vi) Let A and B be two non-empty finite sets consisting of m and n
elements, respectively. Then, A × B consists of mn ordered
pairs. So, the total number of relations from A to B is 2nm .
(v) If a set A has n elements, then number of reflexive relations
2
from A to A is 2n − n .
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2
Functions and
Binary Operations
Function
Let A and B be two non-empty sets, then a function f from set A to set
B is a rule which associates each element of A to a unique element of B.
f
It is represented as f : A → B or A → B and function is also called the
mapping.
Domain, Codomain and Range of a Function

If f : A → B is a function from A to B, then
(i) the set A is called the domain of f ( x ).
(ii) the set B is called the codomain of f ( x ).
(iii) the subset of B containing only the images of elements of A is
called the range of f ( x ).
A B
f d
a
b e Range
c f
g
Domain h
Codomain
Characteristics of a Function f : A → B
(i) For each element x ∈ A, there is unique element y ∈ B.
(ii) The element y ∈ B is called the image of x under the function f.
Also, y is called the value of function f at x i.e. f ( x ) = y.
(iii) f : A → B is not a function, if there is an element in A which has
more than one image in B. But more than one element of A may
be associated to the same element of B.
(iv) f : A → B is not a function, if an element in A does not have an
image in B.
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Functions and Binary Operations 11

Identification of a Function from its Graph
Let us draw a vertical line parallel to Y-axis, such that it intersects the graph of
the given expression. If it intersects the graph at more than one point, then the
expression is a relation else, if it intersects at only one point, then the
expression is a function.
Y Y
X′ X X′ X
O O
Y′ Y′
(i) (ii)
In figure (i), the vertical parallel line intersects the curve at two points, thus the
expression is a relation whereas in figure (ii), the vertical parallel line intersects
the curve at one point. So, the expression is a function.
Types of Functions
1. One-One (or Injective) Function
A mapping f : A → B is a called one-one (or injective) function, if
different elements in A have different images in B, such a mapping is
known as one-one or injective function.
Methods to Test One-One
A B
(i) Analytically If f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) ⇒ x1 = x2 f
4
or equivalently x1 ≠ x2 1
6
2
⇒ f ( x1 ) ≠ f ( x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈ A, 3 7
then the function is one-one.
(ii) Graphically If every line parallel to X-axis cuts the graph of
the function atmost at one point, then the function is one-one.
Y
X' X
O
Y'
(iii) Monotonically If the function is increasing or decreasing in
whole domain, then the function is one-one.
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Number of One-One Functions

Let A and B are finite sets having m and n elements respectively, then
n P , n ≥ m
the number of one-one functions from A to B is  m
 0, n < m
 n( n − 1)( n − 2) ... ( n − ( m − 1)), n ≥ m
=
 0, n<m
2. Many-One Function
A function f : A → B is called many-one function, if two or more
than two different elements in A have the same image in B.
Method to Test Many-One
(i) Analytically If x1 ≠ x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) = f ( x2 ) for some x1 , x2 ∈ A, then
the function is many-one.
A B
f
4
1
2 5
3 6
(ii) Graphically If any line parallel to X-axis cuts the graph of

the function atleast two points, then the function is many-one.
Y
y = f (x)
X' X
Y'
(iii) Monotonically If the function is neither strictly increasing

nor strictly decreasing, then the function is many-one.
Number of Many-One Function
the number of many-one function from A to B is
= Total number of functions − Number of one-one functions
 n m − n Pm , if n ≥ m
=
 n m , if n < m
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3. Onto (or Surjective) Function
If the functionf : A → B is such that each element in B (codomain) is
the image of atleast one element of A, then we say that f is a function
of A onto B. Thus, f : A → B is onto iff f ( A) = B.
A B
f
2
3 5
4 6
i.e. Range = Codomain

Note Every polynomial function f : R → R of odd degree is onto.
Number of Onto (or Surjective) Functions

number of onto (or surjective) functions from A to B is
 n m − n C1( n − 1)m + n C2( n − 2)m − n C3 ( n − 3)m + ... , n < m

=  n!, n=m
 0, n>m

4. Into Function
If f : A → B is such that there exists atleast one A B
f
element in codomain which is not the image of 2 5
any element in domain, then f is into. 3 6
Thus, f : A → B, is into iff f ( A) ⊂ B 4 7
i.e. Range ⊂ Codomain
Number of Into Function
Let A and B be finite sets having m and n elements respectively, then
number of into functions from A to B is
 n C ( n − 1)m − n C2( n − 2)m + n C3 ( n − 3)m ... , n ≤ m
= 1
 nm , n>m
5. One-One and Onto Function (or Bijective)
A function f : A → B is said to be one-one and onto (or bijective), if f is
both one-one and onto.
A f B
a1 b1
a2 b2
a3 b3
a4 b4
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Number of Bijective Functions

 n !, if n = m
number of onto functions from A to B is  .
 0, if n > m or n < m
Equal Functions
Two functions f and g are said to be equal iff
(i) domain of f = domain of g.
(ii) codomain of f = codomain of g.
(iii) f ( x ) = g( x ) for every x belonging to their common domain and
then we write f = g.
Real Valued and Real Functions

A function f : A → B is called a real valued function, if B ≤ R and it
is called a real function if, A ≤ R and B ≤ R.
1. Domain of Real Functions
The domain of the real function f ( x ) is the set of all those real numbers
for which the expression for f ( x ) or the formula for f ( x ) assumes real
values only.
2. Range of Real Functions
The range of a real function of a real variable is the set of all real
values taken by f ( x ) at points of its domain.
Working Rule for Finding Range of Real Functions
Let y = f ( x ) be a real function, then for finding the range we may use
the following steps
Step I Find the domain of the function y = f ( x ).
Step I Transform the equation y = f ( x ) as x = g ( y ).
i.e. convert x in terms of y.
Step III Find the values of y from x = g( y ) such that the values of x
are real and lying in the domain of f.
Step IV The set of values of y obtained in step III be the range of
function f.
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Standard Real Functions and their Graphs

1. Constant Function
Let c be a fixed real number. The function which associates each real
number x to this fixed number c, is called a constant function.
i.e. y = f ( x ) = c for all x ∈ R.
Y
(0, c) y = c
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = { c}.
2. Identity Function
The function which associates each real number x to the same number
x, is called the identity function.
i.e. y = f ( x ) = x , ∀x ∈ R.
Y
y=x
45°
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = R
3. Linear Function
If a and b are fixed real numbers, then the linear function is defined as
y = f ( x ) = ax + b. The graph of a linear function is given in the
following diagram, which is a straight line with slope tanα.
Y Y
y = ax + b, y = ax + b, a < 0 , b > 0
a > 0,
b > 0,
(0, b) (0, b)
α α
X' X X' X
O O
Y' Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = R.
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4. Quadratic Function
If a , b and c are fixed real numbers, then the quadratic function is
expressed as
y = f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c, a ≠ 0
2
 b 4ac − b2
⇒ y = a x +  +
 2a  4a
which represents a downward parabola, if a < 0 and upward parabola,
 b 4ac − b2 
if a > 0 and vertex of this parabola is at  − , .
 2a 4a 
Y Y  – b , 4ac – b2
2a 4a
y = ax2 + bx + c, a > 0 A
O X
X'
X' X
O
A y = ax2 + bx + c, a < 0
2
Y'  – b , 4ac – b Y'
2a 4a
Domain of f ( x ) = R
 4ac − b2   4ac − b2 
Range of f ( x ) is  − ∞ ,  , if a < 0 and  , ∞ , if a > 0.
 4a   4a 
5. Power Function
The power function is given by y = f ( x ) = x n , n ∈ I , n ≠ 1, 0.
The domain and range of y = f ( x ), is depend on n.
(a) If n is positive even integer, i.e. f ( x ) = x 2 , x 4 , ...
Y
y = x n, n is positive even integer
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ )

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(b) If n is positive odd integer, i.e. f ( x ) = x3 , x5 , ...
Y y = xn, n is positive odd integer
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = R
(c) If n is negative even integer, i.e. f ( x ) = x − 2 , x − 4 , K
Y y = x n, n is negative even integer
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R − { 0} and Range of f ( x ) = ( 0, ∞ )
(d) If n is negative odd integer, i.e. f ( x ) = x − 1 , x − 3 , K
Y y = xn, n is negative odd integer
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R − { 0} and Range of f ( x ) = R − { 0}
6. Square Root Function

Square root function is defined by y = f ( x ) = x , x ≥ 0.
Y
y= x
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ ) and Range of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ )
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7. Modulus (or Absolute Value) Function

Modulus function is given by y = f ( x ) =|x|, where |x| denotes the
absolute value of x,
 x , if x ≥ 0
i.e. |x| =  .
 − x , if x < 0
Y
y = –x, x < 0 y = x, x ≥ 0
X' X
O
Y'
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ ).
8. Signum Function
Signum function is defined as follows
|x|  x
 , if x ≠ 0  , if x ≠ 0
y = f(x) =  x or |x|
 0, if x = 0  0, if x = 0
Y
y=1
X' X
O
y=–1
Y'
Symbolically, signum function is denoted by sgn ( x ).
Thus, y = f ( x ) = sgn (x)
 −1, if x < 0

where, sgn ( x ) =  0, if x = 0
 1, if x > 0

Domain of sgn ( x ) = R and Range of sgn ( x ) = { −1, 0, 1}
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9. Greatest Integer Function/Step Function/
Floor Function
The greatest integer function is defined as y = f ( x ) = [x ]
Y
3
2
1
–2 –1
X' X
1 2 3 4
–1
–2
Y'
where, [x ] represents the greatest integer less than or equal to x. In

general, if n ≤ x < n + 1 for any integer n , [x ] = n.
Thus, [2.304] = 2, [4] = 4 and [– 8.05] = – 9
x [ x]
0≤ x < 1 0
1≤ x < 2 1
–1≤ x < 0 –1
–2≤ x < –1 –2
M M
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = I , the set of integers.

Properties of Greatest Integer Function
(i) [x + n ] = n + [x ], n ∈ I
(ii) [− x ] = − [x ], x ∈ I
(iii) [− x ] = − [x ] − 1, x ∉ I
(iv) [x ] ≥ n ⇒ x ≥ n , n ∈ I
(v) [x ] > n ⇒ x ≥ n + 1, n ∈ I
(vi) [x ] ≤ n ⇒ x < n + 1, n ∈ I
(vii) [x ] < n ⇒ x < n , n ∈ I
(viii) [x + y ] = [x ] + [ y + x − [x ]] for all x , y ∈ R
(ix) [x + y ] ≥ [x ] + [ y ]
 1  2  n − 1
(x) [x ] + x +  + x +  + ... + x + n  = [nx ], n ∈ N .
 n  n
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10. Least Integer Function/Ceiling

Function/Smallest Function
The least integer function is defined as y = f ( x ) = ( x ), where
( x ) represents the least integer greater than or equal to x.
Y
3
2
1
–3 –2 –1
X' X
1 2 3 4
–1
–2
Y'
Thus, (3.578) = 4, (0.87) = 1, (4) = 4, ( − 8.239) = − 8, ( − 0.7) = 0

In general, if n is an integer and x is any real number such that
n < x ≤ n + 1, then ( x ) = n + 1
∴ f ( x ) = ( x ) = [x ] + 1
x (x )
–1< x ≤ 0 0
0< x ≤ 1 1
1< x ≤ 2 2
2 <x≤3 3
– 2 < x≤ –1 –1
M M
Domain of f = R and Range of f = I
11. Fractional Part Function

It is defined as f ( x ) = { x }, where { x } represents the fractional part of x,
i.e., if x = n + f , where n ∈ I and 0 ≤ f < 1, then { x } = f
e.g. { 0. 7} = 0.7, { 3} = 0, { − 3.6} = 0.4
Y
1
2
2
+
–
x
x
=
=
y
X' X
–2 –1 O 1 2 3
Y'
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Properties of Fractional Part Function
(i) { x } = x − [x ]
(ii) { x } = x , if 0 ≤ x < 1
(iii) { x } = 0, if x ∈ I
(iv) { − x } = 1 − { x }, if x ∉ I
12. Exponential Function

Exponential function is given by y = f ( x ) = a x , where a > 0, a ≠ 1.
The graph of the exponential function is as shown, which is increasing,
if a > 1 and decreasing, if 0 < a < 1.
Y Y
y = a x, a > 1
y = a x, 0 < a < 1
(0, 1) (0, 1)
X' X X' X
O O
Y' Y'
(i) (ii)
Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = ( 0, ∞ )
13. Logarithmic Function

A logarithmic function may be given by y = f ( x ) = loga x, where
a > 0, a ≠ 1 and x > 0.
The graph of the function is as shown below, which is increasing, if
a > 1 and decreasing, if 0 < a < 1.
Y y = loga x, a > 1 Y
y = loga x, 0 < a < 1
X' X
O (1, 0) X' X
O (1, 0)
Y' Y'
(i) (ii)
Domain of f ( x ) = ( 0, ∞ ) and Range of f ( x ) = R

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Operations on Real Functions

Let f : A → B and g : A → B be two real functions, then
(i) Addition The addition f + g is defined as
f + g : A → B such that ( f + g) ( x ) = f ( x ) + g( x ).
(ii) Difference The difference f − g is defined as f − g : A → B such
that ( f − g)( x ) = f ( x ) − g( x ).
(iii) Product The product f g is defined as
fg : A → B such that ( fg) ( x ) = f ( x ) g( x ).
Clearly, f ± g and fg are defined only, if f and g have the same
domain. In case, the domain of f and g are different, then
domain of f + g or fg = domain of f ∩ domain of g.
(iv) Multiplication by a Number (or a Scalar) The function cf,
where c is a real number is defined as
cf : A → B, such that ( cf ) ( x ) = cf ( x ).
f
(v) Quotient The quotient is defined as
g
f f f(x)
: A → B such that ( x ) = , provided g( x ) ≠ 0.
g g g( x )
Composition of Two Functions

Let f : A → B and g : B → C be two functions. Then, we define
gof : A → C, such that
gof ( x ) = g( f ( x )), ∀ x ∈ A
A B g C
f
x f(x)
g (f (x))
gof

(i) If f and g are injective, then fog and gof are injective.
(ii) If f and g are surjective, then fog and gof are surjective.
(iii) If f and g are bijective, then fog and gof are bijective.
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Inverse of a Function
Let f : A → B is a bijective function, i.e. it is one-one and onto
function. Then, we can define a function g : B → A, such that
f ( x ) = y ⇒ g( y ) = x, which is called inverse of f and vice-versa.
Symbolically, we write g = f −1
f
A B
x y
g = f –1
A function whose inverse exists, is called an invertible function or

inversible.
(i) Domain ( f −1 ) = Range ( f )
(ii) Range ( f −1 ) = Domain ( f )
(iii) If f ( x ) = y, then f −1( y ) = x and vice-verse.
Periodic Functions
A function f ( x ) is said to be a periodic function of x, if there exists a
real number T > 0, such that
f (T + x ) = f ( x ), ∀ x ∈Dom( f ).
The smallest positive real number T, satisfying the above condition is
known as the period or the fundamental period of f ( x ).
Testing the Periodicity of a Function

(i) Put f (T + x ) = f ( x ) and solve this equation to find the positive
values of T independent of x.
(ii) If no positive value of T independent of x is obtained, then f ( x )
is a non-periodic function.
(iii) If positive values of T which is independent of x are obtained,
then f ( x ) is a periodic function and the least positive value of T
is the period of the function f ( x ).
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(i) Constant function is periodic with no fundamental period.
1
(ii) If f ( x ) is periodic with period T, then and f ( x ) are also periodic with
f (x)
same period T.
(iii) If f ( x ) is periodic with period T1 and g( x ) is periodic with period T2 , then
f ( x ) + g( x ) is periodic with period equal to
(a) LCM of {T1 , T2 }, if there is no positive k, such that f (k + x ) = g( x )
and g(k + x ) = f ( x ).
1
(b) LCM of {T1 , T2 }, if there exist a positive number k such that
2
f (k + x ) = g( x ) and g(k + x ) = f ( x )
T
(iv) If f ( x ) is periodic with period T , then kf ( ax + b) is periodic with period ,
|a|
where a , b , k ∈ R and a , k ≠ 0.
(v) If f ( x ) is a periodic function with period T and g( x ) is any function, such
that range of f ⊆ domain of g , then gof is also periodic with period T .
Even and Odd Functions

Even Function A real function f ( x ) is an even function, if f ( − x ) = f ( x ).
Odd Function A real function f ( x ) is an odd function, if f ( − x ) = − f ( x ).
Properties of Even and Odd Functions

(i) Even function ± Even function = Even function.
(ii) Odd function ± Odd function = Odd function.
(iii) Even function × Odd function = Odd function.
(iv) Even function × Even function = Even function.
(v) Odd function × Odd function = Even function.
(vi) gof or fog is even, if both f and g are even or if f is odd and g is
even or if f is even and g is odd.
(vii) gof or fog is odd, if both of f and g are odd.
d
(viii) If f ( x ) is an even function, then f ( x ) or ∫ f ( x ) dx is an odd
dx
d
function and if f ( x ) is an odd function, then f ( x ) or ∫ f ( x ) dx is
dx
an even function.
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(ix) The graph of an even function is symmetrical about Y -axis.
(x) The graph of an odd function is symmetrical about origin or
symmetrical in opposite quadrants.
(xi) An every function can never be one-one, however an odd
function may or may not be one-one.
Binary Operations
Let S be a non-empty set. A function * from S × S to S is called a binary
operation on S i.e. * : S × S → S is a binary operation on set S.
Note Generally binary operations are represented by the symbols *, ⊕, ... etc.,
instead of letters figure etc.
Closure Property
An operation * on a non-empty set S is said to satisfy the closure
property, if
a ∈S , b ∈S ⇒ a * b ∈S , ∀ a, b ∈S
Also, in this case we say that S is closed under *.
An operation * on a non-empty set S, satisfying the closure property is
known as a binary operation.
Some Particular Cases

(i) Addition is a binary operation on each one of the sets N, Z, Q, R
and C, i.e. on the set of natural numbers, integers, rationals,
real and complex numbers, respectively. While addition on the
set S of all irrationals is not a binary operation.
(ii) Multiplication is a binary operation on each one of the sets N, Z,
Q, R and C, i.e. on the set of natural numbers, integers,
rationals, real and complex numbers, respectively. While
multiplication on the set S of all irrationals is not a binary
operation.
(iii) Subtraction is a binary operation on each one of the sets Z, Q, R
and C, i.e. on the set of integers, rationals, real and complex
numbers, respectively. While subtraction on the set of natural
numbers is not a binary operation.
(iv) Let S be a non-empty set and P (S ) be its power set. Then, the
union, intersection and difference of sets, on P (S ) is a binary
operation.
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(v) Division is not a binary operation on any of the sets N, Z, Q, R

and C. However, it is a binary operation on the sets of all
non-zero rational (real or complex) numbers.
(vi) Exponential operation (a, b) → a b is a binary operation on set N
of natural numbers while it is not a binary operation on set Z of
integers.
Properties of Binary Operations

(i) Commutative Property A binary operation * on a non-empty
set S is said to be commutative or abelian, if
a * b = b * a, ∀ a, b ∈S.
Addition and multiplication are commutative binary operations
on Z but subtraction is not a commutative binary operation,
since 2 − 3 ≠ 3 − 2 .
Union and intersection are commutative binary operations on
the power set P (S ) of S. But difference of sets is not a
commutative binary operation on P (S ).
(ii) Associative Property A binary operation * on a non-empty set
S is said to be associative, if (a * b) * c = a * (b * c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ S.
Let R be the set of real numbers, then addition and
multiplication on R satisfies the associative property.
(iii) Distributive Property Let * and o be two binary operations on
a non-empty sets. We say that * is distributed over o, if
a * ( b o c) = ( a * b) o ( a * c), ∀ a, b, c ∈ S also (called left
distributive law) and (b o c) * a = (b * a) o (c * a), ∀ a, b, c ∈ S
also (called right distributive law).
Let R be the set of all real numbers, then multiplication
distributes over addition on R.
Since, a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c, ∀ a, b, c ∈ R.
Identity Element
Let * be a binary operation on a non-empty set S. An element e ∈ S, if it
exist, such that a * e = e * a = a, ∀ a ∈ S, is called an identity elements
of S, with respect to *.
For addition on R, zero is the identity element in R.
Since, a + 0 = 0 + a = a, ∀ a ∈ R
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For multiplication on R, 1 is the identity element in R.
Since, a × 1 = 1 × a = a , ∀ a ∈ R
Let P (S) be the power set of a non-empty set S. Then, φ is the identity
element for union on P (S), as A ∪ φ = φ ∪ A = A , ∀ A ∈ P (S )
Also, S is the identity element for intersection on P (S ).
Since, A ∩ S = A ∩ S = A, ∀ A ∈ P (S ).
For addition on N the identity element does not exist. But for
multiplication on N the identity element is 1.
Inverse of an Element
Let * be a binary operation on a non-empty set S and let e be the
identity element.
Suppose a ∈S , we say that a is invertible, if there exists an element
b ∈ S such that a * b = b * a = e
Also, in this case, b is called the inverse of a and we write, a −1 = b
Addition on N has no identity element and accordingly N has no
invertible element.
Multiplication on N has 1 as the identity element and no element other
than 1 is invertible.

If S be a finite set containing n elements, then
2
(i) the total number of binary operations on S is n n .
(ii) the total number of commutative binary operations’ on S is
n n ( n + 1)/ 2.
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3
Complex Numbers
Complex Number
A number of the form z = x + iy, where x , y ∈ R, is called a complex
number. Here, the symbol i is used to denote −1 and it is called iota.
The set of complex numbers is denoted by C.
Real and Imaginary Parts of a Complex Number Let z = x + iy
be a complex number, then x is called the real part and y is called the
imaginary part of z and it may be denoted as Re( z ) and Im ( z ),
respectively.
Purely Real and Purely Imaginary Complex Number A complex
number z is a purely real, if its imaginary part is 0.
i.e. Im ( z ) = 0. And purely imaginary, if its real part is 0 i.e. Re ( z ) = 0.
Zero Complex Number A complex number is said to be zero, if its
both real and imaginary parts are zero.
Equality of Complex Numbers

Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 and z 2 = a2 + ib2 are equal, iff
a1 = a2 and b1 = b2 i.e. Re ( z1 ) = Re ( z 2 ) and Im ( z1 ) = Im ( z 2 ).
Iota
Mathematician Euler, introduced the symbol i (read as iota) for − 1
with property i 2 + 1 = 0. i.e. i 2 = − 1. He also called this symbol as the
imaginary unit. Integral power of iota (i) are given below.
i = −1 , i 2 = − 1, i3 = − i , i 4 = 1
So, i 4n + 1 = i , i 4n + 2 = − 1, i 4n +3 = − i , i 4n + 4 = 1
 ( −1)n / 2 , if n is an even integer

In other words, i n =  n −1
( −1) 2 ⋅ i , if n is an odd integer

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Complex Numbers 29
Algebra of Complex Numbers

1. Addition of Complex Numbers
Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z 2 = x2 + iy2 be any two complex numbers, then
their sum will be defined as
z1 + z 2 = ( x1 + iy1 ) + ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1 + x2 ) + i( y1 + y2 )
Properties of Addition of Complex Numbers
(i) Closure Property Sum of two complex numbers is also a
complex number.
(ii) Commutative Property z1 + z 2 = z 2 + z1, ∀ z1 , z 2 , z3 ∈ C
(iii) Associative Property ( z1 + z 2 ) + z3 = z1 + ( z 2 + z3 ),
∀ z1 , z 2 , z3 ∈ C
(iv) Existence of Additive Identity z + 0 = z = 0 + z
Here, 0 is additive identity element.
(v) Existence of Additive Inverse z + (− z ) = 0 = (− z + z )
Here, ( −z ) is additive inverse or negative of complex number z.
2. Subtraction of Complex Numbers

the difference z1 − z 2 is defined as
z1 − z 2 = ( x1 + iy1 ) − ( x2 + iy2 )
= ( x1 − x2 ) + i( y1 − y2 )
Note The difference of two complex numbers z1 − z2 , follows the closure
property, but this operation is neither commutative nor associative, like in real
numbers. Also, there does not exist any identity element for this operation and
so inverse element also does not exists.
3. Multiplication of Complex Numbers

their multiplication is defined as
z1z 2 = ( x1 + iy1 ) ( x2 + iy2 ) = ( x1x2 − y1 y2 ) + i( x1 y2 + x2 y1 )
Properties of Multiplication of Complex Numbers

(i) Closure Property Product of two complex numbers is also a
complex number.
(ii) Commutative Property z1z 2 = z 2z1 ∀ z1 , z 2 ∈ C.
(iii) Associative Property ( z1 z 2 ) z3 = z1( z 2 z3 ) ∀ z1 , z 2 , z3 ∈ C.
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(iv) Existence of Multiplicative Identity z ⋅ 1 = z = 1 ⋅ z

Here, 1 is multiplicative identity element of z.
(v) Existence of Multiplicative Inverse For every non-zero
complex number z there exists a complex number z1 such that
z ⋅ z1 = 1 = z1 ⋅ z.
Then, complex number z1 is called multiplicative inverse element
of complex number z.
(vi) Distributive Property For each z1 , z 2 , z3 ∈ C
(a) z1( z 2 + z3 ) = z1z 2 + z1z3 [left distribution]
(b) ( z 2 + z3 )z1 = z 2z1 + z3 z1 [right distribution]
4. Division of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z 2 = x2 + iy2 be two complex numbers, then their
z
division 1 is defined as
z2
z1 ( x1 + iy1 ) ( x1x2 + y1 y2 ) + i( x2 y1 − x1 y2 )
= =
z 2 ( x2 + iy2 ) x22 + y22
provided, z 2 ≠ 0.
z1
Note The division of two complex numbers , follows the closure property, but
z2
this operation is neither commutative nor associative, like in real numbers. Also,
there does not exist any identity element for this operation and so inverse
element also does not exists.
Identities Related to Complex Numbers

For any complex numbers z1 , z 2, we have
(i) ( z1 + z 2 )2 = z12 + 2 z1z 2 + z 22
(ii) ( z1 − z 2 )2 = z12 − 2z1z 2 + z 22
(iii) ( z1 + z 2 )3 = z13 + 3z12z 2 + 3z1z 22 + z32
(iv) ( z1 − z 2 )3 = z13 − 3z12z 2 + 3z1z 22 − z32
(v) z12 − z 22 = ( z1 + z 2 ) ( z1 − z 2 )
These identities are similar as the algebraic identities in real numbers.
Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number, then conjugate of z is denoted by z,
i.e. z = x − iy
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Complex Numbers 31
Properties of Conjugate of Complex Numbers
For any complex number z , z1 , z 2, we have
(i) ( z ) = z
(ii) z + z = 2 Re( z ), z + z = 0 ⇔ z is purely imaginary.
(iii) z − z = 2i [Im( z )], z − z = 0 ⇔ z is purely real.
(iv) z 1 + z 2 = z 1 + z 2
(v) z 1 − z 2 = z 1 − z 2
(vi) z 1 ⋅ z 2 = z 1 ⋅ z 2
 z1 z1
(vii)   = , z2 ≠ 0
 z 2 z 2
(viii) z1 z 2 ± z1 z 2 = 2 Re( z1 z 2 ) = 2 Re( z1 z 2 )
(ix) ( z )n = ( z n )
(x) If z = f ( z1 ), then z = f ( z1 )
a1 a2 a3 a1 a2 a3
(xi) If z = b1 b2 b3 , then z = b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3 c1 c2 c3
where, ai , bi , ci ; ( i = 1, 2 , 3) are complex numbers.

(xii) z z = {Re ( z )} 2 + { Im ( z )} 2
Reciprocal/Multiplicative Inverse of a Complex Number

Let z = x + iy be a non-zero complex number, then the multiplicative
inverse
1 1 1 x − iy
z −1 = = = ×
z x + iy x + iy x − iy
[on multiply and divide by conjugate of z = x + iy]
x − iy x i( − y )
= 2 = 2 + 2
x +y 2
x +y 2
x + y2
Modulus (or Absolute value) of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy , then modulus or magnitude of z is denoted by|z| and is
given by |z| = x 2 + y 2
Geometrically it represents a distance of point z ( x , y ) from origin.
Note In the set of non-real complex number, the order relation is not defined i.e.
z1 > z2 or z1 < z2 has no meaning but | z1| >| z2 | or | z1| < | z2 | has got its
meaning, since| z1| and| z2 | are real numbers.
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Properties of Modulus of Complex Numbers

(i)|z|≥ 0
(ii) (a)|z| = 0, iff z = 0 i.e. Re( z ) = 0 = Im ( z ) (b)|z|> 0, iff z ≠ 0
(iii) −|z |≤ Re( z ) ≤|z| and −|z|≤ Im ( z ) ≤|z|
(iv)|z| =|z| =|− z| =| − z|
(v) zz =|z|2
(vi)|z 1z 2| =|z 1||z 2|
In general,|z1z 2z3K z n | =|z1||z 2||z3|K| z n |
z1 |z 1|
(vii) = , provided z 2 ≠ 0
z2 |z 2|
(viii)|z 1 ± z 2|≤|z 1| +|z 2|

In general,|z 1 ± z 2 ± z3 ± K ± z n|≤|z1| +|z 2| +|z3| + K +|z n |
(ix)|z 1 ± z 2|≥||z 1| −|z 2||
(x)|z n | =|z|n
(xi)||z 1| −|z 2||≤|z1 + z 2|≤|z1| +|z 2| i.e. greatest and least possible
value of|z 1 + z 2| is|z1| +|z 2| and||z 1| −|z 2|| respectively.
(xii) z1z 2 + z1z 2 = 2|z1||z 2| cos (θ1 − θ 2 ) = 2 Re( z , z 2 )
(xiii)|z 1 + z 2|2 = ( z 1 + z 2 ) ( z 1 + z 2 )
=|z 1|2 +|z 2|2 + z 1z 2 + z 2z1
=|z 1|2 +|z 2|2 + 2 Re( z 1 z 2 )
=|z1|2 +|z 2|2 + 2|z1||z 2| cos (θ1 − θ 2 )
(xiv) |z 1 − z 2|2 = ( z1 − z 2 )( z1 − z 2 ) =|z1|2 +|z 2|2 − ( z1z 2 + z1z 2 )
=|z1|2 +|z 2|2 − 2 Re( z1 z 2 )
=|z1|2 +|z 2| 2 − 2 |z1||z 2|cos (θ1 − θ 2 )
(xv)|z1 + z 2| 2 +|z1 − z 2|2 = 2 {|z1|2 +|z 2|2 }
z1
(xvi)|z1 + z 2|2 =|z1|2 +|z 2|2 ⇔ is purely imaginary.
z2
(xvii)|az1 − bz 2|2 +|bz1 + az 2|2 = ( a 2 + b2 )(|z1|2 +|z 2|2 ) where a , b ∈ R.
(xviii) z is unimodulus, if |z| = 1
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Complex Numbers 33
Argand Plane and Argument

of a Complex Number
Argand Plane
Any complex number z = x + i y can be represented geometrically by a
point ( x , y ) in a plane, called Argand plane or Gaussian plane.
Y
Imaginary axis
z (x+ iy) or z (x, y)
y
θ
x X
O M Real axis
There exists a one-one correspondence between the points of the plane

and the members of the set C of all complex numbers.
The length of the line segment OP is the modulus of z,
i.e.|z|= length of OP = x 2 + y 2 .
Argument
The angle made by the line joining point z to the origin, with the
positive direction of real axis is called argument of that complex
number. It is denoted by the symbol arg (z) or amp (z).
 y
arg (z) = θ = tan−1  
 x
Argument of z is not unique, general value of the argument of z is
2nπ + θ, where n is an integer. But arg (0) is not defined.
A purely real number is represented by a point on real axis.
A purely imaginary number is represented by a point on imaginary
axis.
Principal Value of Argument

The value of the argument which lies in the interval ( − π , π ] is called
principal value of argument.
(i) If x > 0 and y > 0, then arg (z) = θ
(ii) If x < 0 and y > 0, then arg (z) = π − θ
(iii) If x < 0 and y < 0, then arg (z) = – ( π − θ )
(iv) If x > 0 and y < 0, then arg (z) = − θ
y
where, θ = tan−1 .
x
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Properties of Argument
 π, if z is purely negative real number
(i) arg ( z ) = 
 − arg( z ), otherwise
(ii) arg( z 1z 2 ) = arg ( z 1 ) + arg ( z 2 ) + 2 kπ,( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
In general,
arg ( z1z 2z3K z n ) = arg ( z1 ) + arg ( z 2 ) + arg( z3 )
+ K + arg ( z n ) + 2kπ , ( k is an integer)
 z1 
(iii) arg   = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ) + 2kπ ( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
 z2 
(iv) arg ( z1z 2 ) = arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ) +2kπ,( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
 z
(v) arg   = 2 arg ( z ) + 2 kπ , (k = 0, 1 or − 1)
z
(vi) arg ( z n ) = n arg ( z ) + 2kπ, (k is an integer)
 z 2 z 
(vii) If arg   = θ , then arg  1  = 2kπ − θ,( k = 0, 1 or − 1)
 z1  z2 
(viii) If arg (z) = 0 ⇒ z is real
 π , if arg ( z ) > 0
(ix) arg (z) − arg ( − z ) = 
 − π , if arg ( z ) < 0
(x) If|z1 + z 2| =|z1 − z 2|, then
z  π
arg  1  ⇒ arg ( z1 ) − arg ( z 2 ) =
 z2  2
(xi) If|z1 + z 2| =|z1| +|z 2|, then arg ( z1 ) = arg (z 2 )
π
(xii) If|z − 1| =|z + 1|, then arg ( z ) = ±
2
 z − 1 π
(xiii) If arg   = , then|z|= 1
 z + 1 2
(xiv) (a) If z = 1 + cos θ + i sin θ, then
θ θ
arg ( z ) = and|z| = 2 cos
2 2
(b) If z = 1 + cos θ − i sin θ, then
θ θ
arg ( z ) = − and|z| = 2 cos
2 2
(c) If z = 1 − cos θ + i sin θ, then
π θ θ
arg ( z ) = − and|z| = 2 sin
2 2 2
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Complex Numbers 35
(d) If z = 1 − cos θ − i sin θ, then
θ π θ
arg (z) = − and|z| = 2 sin
2 2 2
(xv) If|z1|≤ 1,|z 2|≤ 1, then
(a)|z1 − z 2|2 ≤ (|z1| −|z 2|)2 + [arg ( z1 ) − arg( z 2 )]2
(b)|z1 + z 2|2 ≤ (|z1| +|z 2|)2 − [arg( z1 ) − arg( z 2 )]2
Polar Form of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number, then z can be written as
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), where θ = arg ( z ) and r = x 2 + y 2 this is called
polar form.
Y
P (x, y)
y
θ
X´ x X
Q
Y´
If the general value of the argument is considered, then the polar form
of z is z = r [cos ( 2nπ + θ ) + i sin ( 2nπ + θ )] , where n is an integer.
Eulerian Form of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number, then it can be written as
z = reiθ
where, r = z and θ = arg (z)
This is called Eulerian form and eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ and
e− i θ = cos θ − i sin θ.
De-Moivre’s Theorem
A simplest formula for calculating powers of complex numbers in the
standard polar form is known as De-Moivre’s theorem.
If n ∈ I (set of integers), then (cos θ + i sin θ )n = cos nθ + i sin nθ and if
n ∈ Q (set of rational numbers), then cos nθ + i sin nθ is one of the
values of (cos θ + i sin θ )n .
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Properties of De-Moivre’s Theorem

p
(i) If is a rational number, then
q
 p p 
(cos θ + i sin θ ) p / q =  cos θ + i sin θ
 q q 
1
(ii) = (cos θ + i sin θ )−1 = cos θ − i sin θ
cos θ + i sin θ
(iii) More generally, for a complex number z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) = reiθ
z n = r n (cos θ + i sin θ )n
= r n (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) = r n einθ
  nπ   nπ 
(iv) (sin θ + i cos θ )n = cos  − nθ + i sin  − nθ 
  2   2 
(v) (cos θ1 + i sin θ1 )(cos θ 2 + i sin θ 2 )K (cos θ n + i sin θ n )
= cos (θ1 + θ 2 + K + θ n ) + i sin (θ1 + θ 2 + K + θ n )
(vi) (sin θ ± i cos θ ) ≠ sin nθ ± i cos nθ
n
(vii) (cos θ + i sin φ )n ≠ cos nθ + i sin nφ

Note
(i) cos 0 + i sin 0 = 1 (ii) cos π + i sin π = − 1
π π π π
(iii) cos + i sin = i (iv) cos − i sin = − i
2 2 2 2
Cube Roots of Unity

Cube roots of unity are 1, ω, ω 2,
−1 3 −1 i 3
where ω= +i = ei 2π / 3 and ω 2 = −
2 2 2 2
2π 4π
arg (ω ) = and arg (ω 2 ) =
3 3
Properties of Cube Roots of Unity

 0, if r is not a multiple of 3.
(i) 1 + ω 2 + ω 2r = 
 3, if r is a multiple of 3.
(ii) ω3 = 1
(iii) ω3 r = 1, ω3 r + 1 = ω and ω3 r + 2 = ω 2, where r ∈ I .
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Complex Numbers 37
(iv) Cube roots of unity lie on the unit circle z = 1 and divide its
circumference into 3 equal parts.
(v) It always forms an equilateral triangle.
(vi) Cube roots of − 1 are − 1, − ω , − ω 2.
Some Important Identities

(i) x + x + 1 = ( x − ω)( x − ω2 )
2
(ii) x 2 – x + 1 = ( x + ω)( x + ω2 )
(iii) x 2 + xy + y 2 = ( x − yω)( x − yω2 )
(iv) x 2 − xy + y 2 = ( x + ωy )( x + yω2 )
(v) x 2 + y 2 = ( x + iy )( x − iy )
(vi) x 3 + y 3 = ( x + y )( x + yω)( x + yω2 )
(vii) x 3 − y 3 = ( x − y )( x − yω)( x − yω2 )
(viii) x 2 + y 2 + z2 − xy − yz − zx = ( x + yω + zω2 )( x + yω2 + zω)
or ( xω + yω2 + z)( xω2 + yω + z)
or ( xω + y + zω2 )( xω2 + y + zω)
(ix) x 3 + y 3 + z3 − 3xyz = ( x + y + z)( x + ωy + ω2 z)( x + ω2 y + ωz)
nth Roots of Unity

The nth roots of unity, it means any complex number z, which satisfies
the equation z n = 1 or z = (1)1/ n
2kπ 2kπ
or z = cos + i sin , where k = 0, 1, 2, K , ( n − 1)
n n
Properties of nth Roots of Unity

(i) nth roots of unity form a GP with common ratio ei 2π / n .
(ii) Sum of nth roots of unity is always 0.
(iii) Sum of p th powers of nth roots of unity is n, if p is a multiple of n.
(iv) Sum of p th powers of nth roots of unity is zero, if p is not a
multiple of n.
(v) Product of nth roots of unity is ( −1)n − 1.
(vi) The nth roots of unity lie on the unit circle|z| = 1 and divide its
circumference into n equal parts.
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Square Root of a Complex Number

If z = x + i y, then
 | z| + x |z| − x 
z = x + iy = ±  +i  , for y > 0
 2 2 
 | z| + x | z| − x 
=± −i  , for y < 0
 2 2 
Logarithm of a Complex Number

Let z = x + iy be a complex number and in polar form of z is reiθ , then
log( x + iy ) = log (reiθ ) = log (r ) + i θ
y
= log ( x 2 + y 2 ) + i tan−1
x
or log( z ) = log (|z|) + i amp ( z ),
In general, z = rei ( θ + 2nπ )
log ( z ) = log|z| + i arg( z ) + 2nπi
Geometry of Complex Numbers

1. Geometrical Representation of Addition
If two points P and Q represent complex numbers z1 and z 2,
respectively, in the argand plane, then the sum z1 + z 2 is represented
by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of parallelogram OPRQ having
OP and OQ as two adjacent sides.
Y
R(a1 + a2, b1 + b2)
Q(a2,b2)
P
N
(a1,b1)
X
O L K M
2. Geometrical Representation of Subtraction

Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z 2 = a2 + ib 2 be two complex numbers represented
by points P ( a1 , b1 ) and Q( a2 , b2 ) in the argand plane. Q′ represents the
complex number ( −z 2 ). Complete the parallelogram OPRQ′ by taking
OP and OQ′ as two adjacent sides.
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Complex Numbers 39
Y
Q(a2, b2)
P(a1, b1)
O
X′ X
R(a1 – a2, b1 – b2)

Q′(– a2, – b2)
Y′
The sum of z1 and −z 2 is represented by the extremity R of the
diagonal OR of parallelogram OPRQ′. R represents the complex
number z1 − z 2.
3. Geometrical Representation of Multiplication

Y R(z1 z2)
Q(z2)
)
+θ 2 P(z1)
θ1 r2 (θ 1
r1
θ1 θ2
X
O L
R has the polar coordinates (r1r2 , θ1 + θ 2 ) and it represents the complex

numbers z1z 2.
4. Geometrical Representation of the Division

Y
P(z1)
r1 R(z1/z2)
(r1/r2) Q(z2)
θ2 (θ1 – θ2)
r2
θ1
O θ2
X
L
r 
R has the polar coordinates  1 , θ1 − θ 2 and it represents the complex
 r2 
number z1/ z 2.
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5. Geometrical Representation of the Conjugate

of Complex Numbers
If a point P represents a complex number z, then its conjugate z is
represented by the image of P in the real axis.
Y P(x, y)
θ
X′ X
–θ
P (x , – y )
Y′
Geometrically, the point (x , − y) is the mirror image of the point ( x , y )

on the real axis.
Concept of Rotation
Let z1 , z 2 and z3 be the vertices of a ∆ABC described in anti-clockwise
sense. Draw OP and OQ parallel and equal to AB and AC, respectively.
Y C (z 3 )
B (z 2 )
Q(z3 – z1) A (z 1 )
α P(z2 – z1)
X
O
Then, point P is z 2 − z1 and Q is z3 − z1. If OP is rotated through angle

α in anti-clockwise, sense it coincides with OQ.
 z − z1 
∴ amp  3  =α
 z 2 − z1 
Applications of Complex Numbers

in Coordinate Geometry
Distance between Complex Points
(i) Distance between the points A( z 1 ) and B ( z 2 ) is given by
AB =|z 2 − z 1| = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2
where, z1 = x1 + iy1 and z 2 = x2 + iy2.
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Complex Numbers 41
(ii) The point P ( z ) which divides the join of segment AB internally in
the ratio m : n is given by
mz 2 + nz1
z=
m+n
If P divides the line externally in the ratio m : n, then
mz 2 − nz1
z=
m−n
Triangle in Complex Plane

(i) Let ABC be a triangle with vertices A ( z 1 ), B ( z 2 ) and C( z 3 ) , then
(a) Centroid of the ∆ABC is given by
1
z = (z 1 + z 2 + z 3 )
3
(b) Incentre of the ∆ABC is given by
az + bz 2 + cz3
z= 1
a+ b+ c
(ii) Area of the triangle with vertices A( z 1 ), B ( z 2 ) and C( z 3 ) is
given by
z1 z1 1
1
∆= z2 z2 1
2
z3 z3 1
For an equilateral triangle,
z12 + z 22 + z32 = z 2z3 + z3 z1 + z1z 2
(iii) The triangle whose vertices are the points represented by
complex numbers z1 , z 2 and z3 is equilateral, if
1 1 1
+ + =0
z 2 − z3 z3 − z1 z1 − z 2
i.e. z12 + z 22 + z32 = z1z 2 + z 2z3 + z3 z1
Straight Line in Complex Plane

(i) The general equation of a straight line is az + az + b = 0, where a
is a complex number and b is a real number.
a
(ii) The complex and real slopes of the line az + az + b = 0 are −
a
 a + a
and − i  .
 a − a
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(iii) The equation of straight line through z1 and z 2 is

z = tz1 + (1 − t ) z 2, where t is real.
(iv) If z1 and z 2 are two fixed points, then|z − z 1| =|z − z 2|represents
perpendicular bisector of the line segment joining z 1 and z 2.
(v) Three points z1 , z 2 and z3 are collinear, if
z1 z1 1
z2 z2 1 = 0
z3 z3 1
This is also, the equation of the line passing through z1 , z 2 and z3

z − z2
and slope is defined to be 1 .
z1 − z 2
(vi) Length of Perpendicular The length of perpendicular from a
|az1 + az1 + b|
point z1 to az + az + b = 0 is given by
2|a|
(vii) The equation of a line parallel to the line az + az + b = 0 is
az + az + λ = 0, where λ ∈ R.
(viii) The equation of a line perpendicular to the line az + az + b = 0 is
az − az + iλ = 0, where λ ∈ R.
(ix) The equation of the perpendicular bisector of the line segment
joining points A ( z1 ) and B ( z 2 ) is
2 2
z ( z1 − z 2 ) + z ( z1 − z 2 ) = z1 − z 2
(x) If z is a variable point in the argand plane such that arg ( z ) = θ,
then locus of z is a straight line through the origin inclined at an
angle θ with X-axis.
(xi) If z is a variable point and z1 is fixed point in the argand
plane such that ( z − z1 ) = θ, then locus of z is a straight line
passing through the point z1 and inclined at an angle θ with the
X-axis.
(xii) If z is a variable point and z1 , z 2 are two fixed points in the argand
plane, such that
(a) |z − z1| +|z − z 2| =|z1 − z 2|, then locus of z is the line
segment joining z1 and z 2.
(b) ||z − z1| −|z − z 2|| =|z1 − z 2|, then locus of z is a straight line
joining z1 and z 2 but z does not lie between z1 and z 2.
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Complex Numbers 43
 z − z1 
(c) arg   = 0 or π, then locus z is a straight line passing
 z − z2 
through z1 and z 2.
(xiii)
Y Q(zeiα)
P(z)
α
X′ θ
X
O
Y′
iα
(a) ze is the complex number whose modulus is |z| and
argument θ + α.
(b) Multiplication by e− iα to z rotates the vector OP in clockwise
sense through an angle α.
(xiv) If z1 , z 2 and z3 are the affixes of the points A, B and C in the
argand plane, then
 z − z1 
(a) ∠BAC = arg  3 
 z 2 − z1 
z3 − z1 z3 − z1
(b) = (cos α + i sin α ), where α = ∠BAC.
z 2 − z1 z 2 − z1
(xv) If z1 , z 2 , z3 and z 4 are the affixes of the points A, B, C and D,
respectively in the argand plane.
 z − z1 
(a) AB is inclined to CD at the angle arg  2 .
 z 4 − z3 
 z − z1  π
(b) If CD is inclined at 90° to AB, then arg  2  =± .
 z 4 − z3  2
Circle in Complex Plane

(i) An equation of the circle with centre at z 0 and radius r is
|z − z 0| = r or zz − z 0z − z 0z + z 0z 0 − r 2 = 0
(a) |z − z 0|< r , represents interior of the circle.
(b) |z − z 0|> r, represents exterior of the circle.
(c) z − z 0 ≤ r is the set of points lying inside and on the circle
z − z 0 = r. Similarly, z − z 0 ≥ r is the set of points lying
outside and on the circle z − z 0 = r.
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(d) General equation of a circle is

zz + az + az + b = 0
where, a is a complex number and b is a real number. Centre
of the circle = − a
Radius of the circle = aa − b or |a|2 − b
(e) Four points z1 , z 2 , z3 and z 4 are concyclic, if
(z 4 − z 1 ) (z 2 − z 3 )
is purely real.
(z 4 − z 3 ) (z 2 − z 1 )
|z − z 1|  Circle, if k ≠ 1
(ii) = k⇒
|z − z 2|  Perpendicular bisector, if k = 1
(iii) The equation of a circle described on the line segment joining z 1
and z 2 as diameter is ( z − z 1 ) ( z − z 2 ) + ( z − z 2 ) ( z − z1 ) = 0.
z − z1
(iv) arg = β, then locus is the arc of a circle for which the
z − z2
segment joining z1 and z 2 is a chord.
(v) If z1 and z 2 are the fixed complex numbers, then the locus of a
 z − z1 
point z satisfying arg   = ± π / 2 is a circle having z1 and z 2
 z − z2 
at the end points of a diameter.
 z + 1 π
(vi) If arg   = , then z lies on circle of radius unity and centre
 z − 1 2
as origin.
(vii) If|z − z1|2 +|z − z 2|2 =|z1 − z 2|2, then locus of z is a circle with z1
and z 2 as the extremities of diameter.
Conic in Complex Plane

Let z 1 and z 2 be two fixed points, and k be a positive real number.
(i) If k >|z 1 − z 2|, then |z − z 1| +|z − z 2| = k represents an ellipse
with foci at A( z1 ) and B( z 2 ) and length of the major axis is k.
(ii) If k <|z 1 − z 2|, then||z − z 1| −|z − z 2|| = k represents hyperbola
with foci at A( z 1 ) and B ( z 2 ).

(i) − a × − b ≠ ab
a × b = ab is possible only, iff atleast one of the quantity
either a or b is/are non-negative. e.g. i 2 = −1 × −1 ≠ 1
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Complex Numbers 45
(ii) i is neither positive, zero nor negative.
(iii) Argument of 0 is not defined.
π π
(iv) Argument of purely imaginary number is or − .
2 2
(v) Argument of purely real number is 0 or π.
1 a + a2 + 4
(vi) If z + = a, then greatest value of|z| = and least
z 2
− a + a2 + 4
value of|z| =
2
(vii) The value of i i = e− π / 2
(viii) The non-real complex numbers do not possess the property of
order,
i.e. x + iy < (or) > c + id is not defined.
(ix) The area of the triangle on the argand plane formed by the
1
complex numbers z , iz and z + iz is |z|2.
2
(x) If ω1 and ω 2 are the complex slope of two lines on the argand
plane, then the lines are
(a) perpendicular, if ω1 + ω 2 = 0.
(b) parallel, if ω1 = ω 2.
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4
Theory of Equations
and Inequations
Polynomial
An algebraic expression of the form a0 + a1x + a2x 2 +...+ an x n , where
n ∈ N , is called a polynomial. It is generally denoted by p( x ), q( x ),
f ( x ), g( x ) etc.
Real Polynomial
Let a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an be real numbers and x is a real variable, then,
f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + K + an x n is called a real polynomial of real
variable x with real coefficients.
Complex Polynomial
If a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an be complex numbers and x is a varying complex
number, then f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + K + an − 1x n − 1 + an x n is called a
complex polynomial or a polynomial of complex variable x with complex
coefficients.
Degree of a Polynomial
A polynomial f ( x ) = a0 + a1x + a2x 2 + a3 x3 + K + an x n , real or complex
is a polynomial of degree n, if an ≠ 0.
Some Important Deduction

(i) Linear Polynomial A polynomial of degree one is known as
linear polynomial.
(ii) Quadratic Polynomial A polynomial of second degree is
known as quadratic polynomial.
(iii) Cubic Polynomial A polynomial of degree three is known as
cubic polynomial.
(iv) Biquadratic Polynomial A polynomial of degree four is
known as biquadratic polynomial.
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Theory of Equations and Inequations 47
Polynomial Equation
If f ( x ) is a polynomial, real or complex, then f ( x ) = 0 is called a
polynomial equation.
Quadratic Equation
A quadratic polynomial f ( x ) when equated to zero is called quadratic
equation.
i.e. ax 2 + bx + c = 0, where a , b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0.
Roots of a Quadratic Equation

The values of variable x which satisfy the quadratic equation is called
roots of quadratic equation.
Solution of Quadratic Equation

1. Factorisation Method
Let ax 2 + bx + c = a( x − α ) ( x − β ) = 0. Then, x = α and x = β will satisfy
the given equation.
2. Direct Formula
Quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) has two roots, given by
− b + b2 − 4ac − b − b2 − 4ac
α= ,β =
2a 2a
− b+ D − b− D
or α= ,β =
2a 2a
where, D = ∆ = b2 − 4ac is called discriminant of the equation.
Above formulas also known as Sridharacharya formula.
Nature of Roots
(i) Let quadratic equation be ax 2 + bx + c = 0, whose discriminant
is D.
Also, let a , b , c ∈ R and a ≠ 0. Then,
(a) D < 0 ⇒ Complex roots
(b) D > 0 ⇒ Real and distinct roots
b
(c) D = 0 ⇒ Real and equal roots as α = β = −
2a
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Note If a, b, c ∈ Q, a ≠ 0, then
(a) D > 0 and D is a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are unequal and rational.
(b) D > 0, a = 1; b, c ∈ I and D is a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are integral.
(c) D > 0 and D is not a perfect square.
⇒ Roots are irrational and unequal.
(ii) Conjugate Roots The irrational (complex) roots of a quadratic
equation, whose coefficients are rational (real) always occur in
conjugate pairs. Thus,
(a) if one root be α + iβ, then other root will be α − iβ.
(b) if one root be α + β , then other root will be α − β .
(iii) Let D1 and D2 are the discriminants of two quadratic equations.
(a) If D1 + D2 ≥ 0, then atleast one of D1 and D2 ≥ 0
Thus, if D1 < 0, then D2 > 0, if D2 < 0, then D1 > 0 or D1 and
D2 both can be non-negative (means positive or zero).
(b) If D1 + D2 < 0, then atleast one of D1 and D2 < 0
Thus, if D1 > 0, then D2 < 0, if D2 > 0, then D1 < 0 or D1 and
D2 both can be negative.
Roots Under Particular Conditions

For the quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0.
(i) If a > 0 and b = 0, roots are real/complex according as c < 0 or c > 0.
These roots are equal in magnitude but of opposite sign.
(ii) If c = 0, one root is zero, other is − b / a.
(iii) If b = c = 0, both roots are zero.
(iv) If a = c, roots are reciprocal to each other.
a > 0, c < 0
(v) If  ⇒ Roots are of opposite sign.
a < 0, c > 0
a > 0, b > 0, c > 0
(vi) If  ⇒ Both roots are negative, provided D ≥ 0
a < 0, b < 0, c < 0
a > 0, b < 0, c > 0
(vii) If  ⇒ Both roots are positive, provided D ≥ 0
a < 0, b > 0, c < 0
(viii) If sign of a = sign of b ≠ sign of c
⇒ Greater root in magnitude is negative.
(ix) If sign of b = sign of c ≠ sign of a
⇒ Greater root in magnitude is positive.
(x) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ One root is 1 and second root is c/a.
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Relation between Roots and Coefficients

1. Quadratic Equation
If roots of quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) are α and β, then
−b coefficient of x
Sum of roots = S = α + β = =−
a coefficient of x 2
c constant term
Product of roots = P = α ⋅ β = =
a coefficient of x 2
D
Also, | α − β | =
|a|
2. Cubic Equation
If α , β and γ are the roots of cubic equation ax3 + bx 2 + cx + d = 0.
b
Then, ∑ α =α +β + γ = −
a
c
∑ αβ = αβ + βγ + γα =
a
d
αβγ = −
a
3. Biquadratic Equation
If α , β , γ and δ are the roots of the biquadratic equation
ax 4 + bx3 + cx 2 + dx + e = 0, then
b
S1 = α + β + γ + δ = − ,
a
c c
S 2 = αβ + αγ + αδ + βγ + βδ + γδ = ( − 1)2 =
a a
c
or S 2 = (α + β )( γ + δ ) + αβ + γδ =
a
d d
S3 = αβγ + βγδ + γδα + αβδ = ( − 1)3 =−
a a
d
or S3 = αβ( γ + δ ) + γδ(α + β ) = −
a
e e
and S 4 = α ⋅ β ⋅ γ ⋅ δ = ( − 1)4 =
a a
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Symmetric Roots
If the roots of quadratic equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ( a ≠ 0) are α and β,
then
b2 − 4ac ± D
(i) (α − β ) = (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± =
a a
b − 2ac
2
(ii) α 2 + β 2 = (α + β )2 − 2 αβ =
a2
b b2 − 4ac ±b D
(iii) α 2 − β 2 = (α + β ) (α + β )2 − 4αβ = ± 2
=
a a2
b( b − 3ac)
2
(iv) α3 + β3 = (α + β )3 − 3 αβ(α + β ) = −
a3
± ( b2 − ac) b2 − 4ac
(v) α3 − β3 = (α − β )3 + 3 αβ(α − β ) =
a3
2
 b2 − 2ac 2c2
(vi) α 4 + β 4 = {(α + β )2 − 2 αβ } 2 − 2α 2β 2 =  2
 − 2
 a  a
± b( b2 − 2ac) b2 − 4ac
(vii) α 4 − β 4 = (α 2 − β 2 ) (α 2 + β 2 ) =
a4
b − ac
2
(viii) α 2 + αβ + β 2 = (α + β )2 − αβ =
a2
α β α +β 2
(α + β ) − 2 αβ b2 − 2ac
2 2
(ix) + = = =
β α αβ αβ ac
bc
(x) α β + β α = αβ(α + β ) = − 2
2 2
a
2 2
α β α 4 + β 4 (α 2 + β 2 )2 − 2 α 2 β 2 b2D + 2a 2c2
(xi)   +   = = =
β α α2 β2 α2 β2 a 2c 2
Formation of Polynomial Equation from Given Roots

If α1, α 2, α3 ,..., α n are the roots of an nth degree equation, then the
equation is x n − S1x n −1 + S 2x n − 2 − S3 x n −3 +...+( −1)n S n = 0, where S n
denotes the sum of the products of roots taken n at a time.
1. Quadratic Equation
If α and β are the roots of a quadratic equation, then the equation is
x 2 − S1x + S 2 = 0, where S1 = sum of roots and S 2 = multiplication of roots.
i.e. x 2 − (α + β) x + αβ = 0.
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2. Cubic Equation
If α, β and γ are the roots of cubic equation, then the equation is
x3 − S1x 2 + S 2x − S3 = 0
i.e. x3 − (α + β + γ) x 2 + (αβ + βγ + γ α) x − αβγ = 0
3. Biquadratic Equation
If α , β , γ and δ are the roots of a biquadratic equation, then the
equation is
x 4 − S1x3 + S 2x 2 − S3 x + S 4 = 0
i.e. x 4 − (α + β + γ + δ )x3 + (αβ + βγ + γδ + αδ + βδ + αγ )x 2
− (αβγ + αβδ + βγδ + γδα )x + αβγδ = 0
Equation in Terms of the Roots of another Equation

If α , β are roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0, then the equation
whose roots are
(i) − α , − β ⇒ ax 2 − bx + c = 0 [replace x by −x]
(ii) α n , β n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a( x1/ n )2 + b ( x1/ n ) + c = 0 [replace x by x1/ n ]
(iii) kα , kβ ⇒ ax 2 + kbx + k2c = 0 [replace x by x / k]
(iv) k + α , k + β ⇒ a( x − k) + b( x − k) + c = 0
2
[replace x by ( x − k)]
α β
(v) , ⇒ k2ax 2 + kbx + c = 0 [replace x by kx]
k k
(vi) α1/ n , β1/ n ; n ∈ N ⇒ a( x n )2 + b( x n ) + c = 0 [replace x by x n ]
The quadratic function f ( x ) = ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c is
always resolvable into linear factor, iff
abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch 2 = 0
a h g
or h b f =0
g f c
Condition for Common Roots in Quadratic Equations

1. Only One Root is Common
If α is the common root of quadratic equations a1x 2 + b1x + c1 = 0 and
a2x 2 + b2x + c2 = 0, then a1α 2 + b1α + c1 = 0 and a2 α 2 + b2 α + c2 = 0.
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By Cramer’s Rule
α2 α 1
= =
− c1 b1 a1 − c1 a1 b1
− c2 b2 a2 − c2 a2 b2
α2 α 1
or = =
b1c2 − b2c1 a2c1 − a1c2 a1b2 − a2b1
a2c1 − a1c2 b c − b2c1
∴ α= = 1 2 ,α ≠ 0
a1b2 − a2b1 a2c1 − a1c2
Hence, the condition for only one root common is
( c1a2 − c2a1 )2 = ( b1c2 − b2c1 )( a1b2 − a2b1 )
2. Both Roots are Common

The required condition is
a1 b1 c1
= =
a2 b2 c2
(i) To find the common roots of two equations, make the coefficient
of second degree term in the two equations equal and subtract.
The value of x obtained is the required common root.
(ii) Two different quadratic equations with rational coefficient can
not have single common root which is complex or irrational as
imaginary and surd roots always occur in pair.
Properties of Polynomial Equation

1. Let f ( x ) = 0 be a polynomial equation, then we have the following
results.
(i) f ( a ) ⋅ f ( b) < 0, then atleast one or in general odd number of
roots of the equation f ( x ) = 0 lies between a and b.
Y f(a) = +ve
Y f(a) = +ve
A x=b A C x=b
X X
O x=a O x=a B
f(b) = –ve f(b) = –ve

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(ii) f ( a ) ⋅ f ( b) > 0, then in general even number of roots of the
equation f ( x ) = 0 lies between a and b or no root exist.
(iii) f ( a ) = f ( b), then there exists a point c between a and b such
that f ′ ( c) = 0, a < c < b.
2. Repeated roots A polynomial equation f ( x ) = 0 has exactly n
roots equal to α if f (α ) = f ′ (α ) = f ′′(α )... = f n −1(α ) = 0 and
f n (α ) ≠ 0.
(i) If the roots of the quadratic equation a1x 2 + b1x + c1 = 0,
 α α 
a2x 2 + b2x + c2 = 0 are in the same ratio  i. e. 1 = 2  , then
 β1 β 2 
b12 a1c1
= .
b22 a2c2
(ii) If one root is k times the other root of the quadratic equation
ax 2 + bx + c = 0 ,then
( k + 1)2 b2
= .
k ac
Quadratic Expression
An expression of the form ax 2 + bx + c, where a , b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0 is
called a quadratic expression in x.
1. Graph of a Quadratic Expression
We have,
y = ax 2 + bx + c = f ( x )
 b
2
D 
y = a  x +  − 
 2a  4a 2 
2
D  b
⇒ y+ = a x + 
4a  2a 
D b
Let y+ = Y and x + =X
4a 2a
Y
Y = a ⋅ X2 ⇒ X2 =
a
(i) The graph of the curve y = f ( x ) is parabolic.
b
(ii) The axis of parabola is X = 0 or x + = 0 i.e., parallel to
2a
Y-axis.
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(iii) If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward.

If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward.
X-axis
a > 0, D < 0 a < 0, D < 0

X-axis
2. Position of y = ax 2 + bx + c with Respect to Axes

(i) For D > 0, parabola cuts X-axis and has two real and distinct
− b± D
points i.e. x = .
2a
a<0 D>0
X-axis
X-axis
a>0 D>0
b
(ii) For D = 0, parabola touch X-axis in one point, x = − .
2a
a<0 D=0
X-axis
X-axis
a>0 D=0
(iii) For D < 0, parabola does not cut X-axis (i.e. imaginary value
of x).
a<0 D<0
X-axis
X-axis
a>0 D<0
3. Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic

Expression
−b
(i) If a > 0, quadratic expression has least value at x = . This least
2a
4ac − b2 D
value is given by =− . But their is no greatest value.
4a 4a
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b
(ii) If a < 0, quadratic expression has greatest value at x = − . This
2a
4ac − b2 D
greatest value is given by =− . But their is no least
4a 4a
value.
4. Sign of Quadratic Expression

(i) a > 0 and D < 0, so f ( x ) > 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is positive for all
real values of x.
(ii) a < 0 and D < 0, so f ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is negative for all
real values of x.
(iii) a > 0 and D = 0, so f ( x ) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is positive for all
real values of x except at vertex, where f ( x ) = 0.
(iv) a < 0 and D = 0, so f ( x ) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e. f ( x ) is negative for all
real values of x except at vertex, where f ( x ) = 0.
(v) a > 0 and D > 0
Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then f ( x ) > 0 for
x ∈ ( − ∞ , α ) ∪ (β , ∞ ) and f ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈(α , β ).
(vi) a < 0 and D > 0
Let f ( x ) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β ), then, f ( x ) < 0 for
all x ∈ ( − ∞ , α ) ∪ (β , ∞ ) and f ( x ) > 0 for all x ∈(α , β ).
5. Intervals of Roots
In some problems, we want the roots of the equation ax 2 + bx + c = 0 to
lie in a given interval. For this we impose conditions on a , b and c.
b c
Since, a ≠ 0, we can take f ( x ) = x 2 + x + .
a a
(i) Both the roots are positive i.e., they lie in ( 0, ∞ ), iff roots are real,
the sum of the roots as well as the product of the roots is positive.
−b c
i.e. α +β = > 0 and αβ = > 0 with b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
a a
Similarly, both the roots are negative i.e. they lie in (− ∞, 0), iff
roots are real, the sum of the roots is negative and the product of
the roots is positive.
−b c
i.e. α +β = < 0 and αβ = > 0 with b2 − 4ac ≥ 0
a a
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(ii) Both the roots are greater than a given number k, iff the
following conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, > k and af ( k) > 0
2a
–b/2a
X' X X' X
k (–b/2a) k
(iii) Both the roots are less than a given number k, iff the following
conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, < k and af ( k) > 0
2a
(iv) Both the roots lie in a given interval ( k1 , k2 ), iff the following
conditions are satisfied
−b
D ≥ 0, k1 < < k2 and af ( k1 ) > 0, af ( k2 ) > 0
2a
or f ( k1 ) ⋅ f ( k2 ) > 0
(–b/2a)
X' X X' X
k1 (–b/2a) k2 k1 k2
(v) Exactly one of the roots lie in a given interval ( k1 , k2 ), iff D > 0 and
f ( k1 ) f ( k2 ) < 0.
k2 k1
X' X X' X
k1 k2
(vi) A given number k lies between the roots, iff af ( k) < 0 and D > 0.
k
X' X
Note The roots of the equation will be of opposite sign, iff 0 lies between the
roots.
⇒ af (0 ) < 0, D > 0
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Descarte’s Rule of Signs
The maximum number of positive real roots of a polynomial equation
f ( x ) = 0 is the number of changes of sign in f ( x ).
The maximum number of negative real roots of a polynomial equation
f ( x ) = 0 is the number of changes of sign in f ( − x ).
Lagrange’s Identity
If a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3 ∈ R, then
( a12 + a22 + a32 )( b12 + b22 + b32 ) − ( a1b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3 )2
= ( a1b2 − a2b1 )2 + ( a2b3 − a3 b2 )2 + ( a3 b1 − a1b3 )2
Important Points about Roots of Algebraic Equation

(i) An equation of degree n has n roots, real or imaginary.
(ii) Irrational roots of a polynomial equation with rational coefficients, always
occurs in a pair, e.g. if 2 + 3 is a root, then 2 − 3 is also its root.
(iii) Imaginary roots of a polynomial equation with real coefficients always
occur in a pair e.g. if ( 2 + 3 i) is a root, then ( 2 − 3 i) is also its root.
(iv) An odd degree equation has atleast one real root whose sign is opposite
to that of its last term (constant term), provided that the coefficient of
highest degree term is positive.
(v) Every equation of an even degree whose constant term is negative and
the coefficient of highest degree term is positive has atleast two real
roots, one positive and one negative.
(vi) If an equation has only one change of sign, then it has one positive root.
(vii) If all the terms of an equation are positive and the equation involves
no odd powers of x, then all its roots are complex.
(viii) If all the terms of an equation are positive and equation involves only odd
power of x, then O is the only real root.
Inequality
A statement involving the symbols >, <, ≤ or ≥ is called an inequality
or inequation.
Here, the symbols < (less than), > (greater than), ≤ (less than or equal
to) and ≥ (greater than or equal to) are known as symbol of
inequalities.
e.g. 5 < 7, x ≤ 2, x + y ≥ 11
Types of Inequalities
(i) Numerical inequality An inequality which does not involve
any variable is called a numerical inequality.
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e.g. 4 > 2, 8 < 21

(ii) Literal inequality An inequality which have variables is
called literal inequality.
e.g. x < 7, y ≥ 11, x − y ≤ 4
(iii) Strict inequality An inequality which have only < or > is called
strict inequality.
e.g. 3x + y < 0, x > 7
(iv) Slack inequality An inequality which have only
≥ or ≤ is called slack inequality.
e.g. 3x + 2 y ≤ 0, y ≥ 4
Linear Inequality
An inequality is said to be linear, if the variable (s) occurs in first
degree only and there is no term involving the product of the variables.
e.g. ax + b ≤ 0, ax + by + c > 0, ax ≤ 4.
Linear Inequality in One Variable

A linear inequality which has only one variable, is called linear
inequality in one variable.
e.g. ax + b < 0, where a ≠ 0
Linear Inequality in Two Variables

A linear inequality which have only two variables, is called linear
inequality in two variables.
e.g. 3x + 11 y ≤ 0, 4t + 3 y > 0
Concept of Intervals on a Number Line
On number line or real line, various types of infinite subsets, known as
intervals, are defined below
Closed Interval
The set of all real numbers x, such that a ≤ x ≤ b, is called a closed
interval and is denoted by [a, b].
On the number line, [a , b] may be represented as follows
a≤x≤b
−∞ ∞
a b
Open Interval
The set of all real numbers x, such that a < x < b, is called an open
interval and is denoted by (a, b) or ] a, b [.
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On the number line, ( a , b) may be represented as follows
a<x<b
−∞ ∞
a b
Semi-open or Semi-closed Intervals

Here, ( a , b] = { x : a < x ≤ b, x ∈ R } and [a , b) = { x : a ≤ x < b, x ∈ R }
are known as semi-open or semi-closed intervals.
a<x≤b
−∞ ∞
a (a, b] b
a≤x<b
−∞ ∞
a [a, b) b
Solution of an Inequality
Any solution of an inequality is the value(s) of variable(s) which makes
it a true statement.
1. Addition or Subtraction
Some number may be added (or subtracted) to (from) both sides of an
inequality i.e. if a > b, then for any number c,
a + c > b + c or a − c > b − c
2. Multiplication or Division
Let a, b and c be three real numbers, such that a > b and c ≠ 0.
a b
(i) If c > 0, then > and ac > bc.
c c
a b
(ii) If a > b and c < 0, then < and ac < bc.
c c
Solution Set
The set of all solutions of an inequality is called the solution set of the
inequality.
Algebraic Solution of Linear Inequalities in One Variable

Any solution of an linear inequality in one variable is a value of the
variable which makes it a true statement.
e.g. x = 1 is the solution of the linear inequality 4x + 7 > 0.
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Solution of System of Linear Inequalities in One Variable

The common point which satisfy both the inequations is said to be the
solution of system of equation.
Important Point to be Remembered

a1x 2 + b1x + c1
To find the values attained by rational expression of the form
a2 x 2 + b2 x + c2
for real values of x, proceed as follows
(a) Equate the given rational expression to y.
(b) Obtain a quadratic equation in x by simplifying the expression.
(c) Obtain the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
(d) Put discriminant ≥ 0 and solve the inequation for y.
The values of y, so obtained determines the set of values attained by the
given rational expression.
Inequation Containing Absolute Value

(i)|x|< a ⇒ − a < x < a ( a > 0)
(ii)|x|≤ a ⇒ − a ≤ x ≤ a ( a > 0)
(iii)|x|> a ⇒ x < − a or x > a ( a > 0)
(iv)|x|≥ a ⇒ x ≤ − a or x ≥ a ( a > 0)
Important Inequalities
1. Arithmetic, Geometric and Harmonic Mean Inequalities
a+b 2
(i) If a , b > 0, then ≥ ab ≥
2 (1 / a ) + (1 / b)
(ii) If ai > 0, where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n, then
a1 + a2 + K + an n
≥ ( a1 ⋅ a2 ⋅ .... ⋅ an )1/ n ≥
n 1 1 1
+ +K +
a1 a2 an
(iii) If a1 , a2 ,... , an are n positive real numbers and m1 , m2 ,... , mn are
n positive rational numbers, then
1
m1a1+ m2a2 +...+ mn an
≥ ( a1m1 ⋅ a2m 2 ⋅ . . . ⋅ anm n ) m1 + m 2 +... + m n
m1 + m2 +...+ mn
i.e. Weighted AM ≥ Weighted GM
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(i) If a > b and b > c, then a > c. Generally, if a1 > a2 , a2 > a3 ,K , an − 1 > an , then
a1 > an .
(ii) If a > b , then a ± c > b ± c , ∀ c ∈ R
a b
(iii) (a) If a > b and m > 0, am > bm, >
m m
b a
(b) If a > b and m < 0, bm > am, >
m m
(iv) If a > b > 0, then
1 1
(a) a2 > b2 (b) | a | > |b | (c) <
a b
(v) If a b2 (b) | a | > |b | (c) >
a b
(vi) If a < 0 < b, then
(a) a2 > b2 , if | a | > |b |
(b) a2 < b2 , if | a | < |b |
(vii) If a < x a
(b) 0 ≤ x 2 < a2 , if a > b
a
(ix) If > 0, then
b
(a) a > 0, if b > 0
(b) a < 0, if b < 0
(x) If ai > bi > 0, where i = 1, 2, 3,... , n, then
a1a2 a3K an > b1b2b3Kbn
(xi) If ai > bi , where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n, then
a1 + a2 + a3 + K + an > b1 + b2 + K + bn
(xii) If 0 < a < 1 and n is a positive rational number, then
(a) 0 < a n < 1 (b) a − n > 1
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5
Sequences
and Series
Sequence
Sequence is a function whose domain is the set of natural numbers or
some subset of the type { 1, 2, 3,... , k}. We represents the images of
1, 2, 3,K , n , ... as f1 , f2 , f3 ,... , fn ... , where fn = f ( n ).
In other words, a sequence is an arrangement of numbers in definite
order according to some rule.
l A sequence containing a finite number of terms is called a finite
sequence.
l A sequence containing an infinite number of terms is called an
infinite sequence.
l A sequence whose range is a subset of real number R, is called a
real sequence.
Progression
A sequence whose terms follow a certain pattern is called a progression.
Series
If a1 , a2 , a3 ,... , an ,... is a sequence, then the sum expressed as
a1 + a2 + a3 + ... + an +... is called a series.
l A series having finite number of terms is called finite series.
l A series having infinite number of terms is called infinite series.
Arithmetic Progression (AP)

A sequence in which terms increase or decrease regularly by a fixed
number. This fixed number is called the common difference of AP.
e.g. a, a + d, a + 2d,... is an AP, where a = first term and d = common
difference.
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Sequences and Series 63

nth Term (or General Term) of an AP
If a is the first term, d is the common difference and l is the last term
of an AP, i.e. the given AP is a , a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d,..., l, then
(a) nth term is given by an = a + ( n − 1)d
(b) nth term of an AP from the last term is given by an′ = l − ( n − 1)d
Note
(i) an + an′ = a + l
i.e. nth term from the begining + nth term from the end
= first term + last term
(ii) Common difference of an AP
d = an − an − 1, ∀ n > 1
1
(iii) an = [an − k + an + k ], k < n
2
Properties of Arithmetic Progression
(i) If a constant is added or subtracted from each term of an AP, then
the resulting sequence is also an AP with same common
difference.
(ii) If each term of an AP is multiplied or divided by a non-zero
constant k, then the resulting sequence is also an AP, with
d
common difference kd or respectively, where d = common
k
difference of given AP.
(iii) If an , an + 1 and an + 2 are three consecutive terms of an AP, then
2an + 1 = an + an + 2.
(iv) If the terms of an AP are chosen at regular intervals, then they
form an AP.
(v) If a sequence is an AP, then its nth term is a linear expression in
n, i.e. its nth term is given by An + B, where A and B are
constants and A = common difference.
Selection of Terms in an AP
(i) Any three terms in AP can be taken as
( a − d ), a , ( a + d )
(ii) Any four terms in AP can be taken as
( a − 3d ), ( a − d ), ( a + d ), ( a + 3d )
(iii) Any five terms in AP can be taken as
( a − 2d ), ( a − d ), a , ( a + d ), ( a + 2d )
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Sum of First n Terms of an AP

Sum of first n terms of AP, is given by
n n
S n = [2a + ( n − 1) d ] = [a + l ] , where l = last term
2 2
Note
(i) A sequence is an AP iff the sum of its first n terms is of the form
An 2 + Bn, where A and B are constants and common difference in such
case will be 2 A.
(ii) an = S n − S n − 1 i.e.
nth term of AP = Sum of first n terms − Sum of first (n − 1) terms
Arithmetic Mean (AM)

(i) If a, A and b are in AP, then A is called the arithmetic mean of a
a+b
and b and it is given by A =
2
(ii) If a1 , a2 , a3 ,... , an are n numbers, then their AM is given by,
a + a2 + ... + an
A= 1
n
(iii) If a , A 1, A 2, A 3 , ... , An , b are in AP, then
(a) A 1, A 2, A 3 , K , An are called n arithmetic mean between a
and b, where
na + b
A1 = a + d =
n +1
( n − 1)a + 2b
A2 = a + 2d =
n +1
M M M
a + nb b− a
An = a + nd = and d =
n +1 n +1
(b) Sum of n AM’s between a and b is nA
a+b
i.e. A 1 + A 2 + A 3 + K + An = nA, where A =
2
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Important Results on AP
(i) If ap = q and aq = p , then ap + q = 0, ar = p + q − r
(ii) If pap = qaq , then ap + q = 0
1 1
(iii) If ap = and aq = , then apq = 1
q p
(iv) If S p = q and S q = p , then S p + q = − ( p + q)
(v) If S p = S q , then S p + q = 0
(vi) If a2 , b2 and c2 are in AP, then
1 1 1 a b c
, , and , , both are also in AP.
b+ c c+ a a+b b+ c c+ a a+b
(vii) If a1, a2 ,..., an are the non-zero terms of an AP, then
1 1 1 1 n −1
+ + + .... + =
a1 a2 a2 a3 a3 a4 an − 1 an a1 an
Geometric Progression GP
A sequence in which the ratio of any term (except first term) to its just
preceding term is constant throughout. The constant ratio is called
common ratio (r ).
an + 1
i.e. = r, ∀ n ≥ 1
an
If a is the first term, r is the common ratio and l is the last term of a
GP, then the GP can be written as a , ar , ar 2 , ... , ar n −1 , ... l.
nth Term (or General Term) of a GP

If a is the first term, r is the common ratio and l is the last term, then
(i) nth term of a GP from the beginning is given by an = ar n − 1
l
(ii) nth term of a GP from the end is given by an′ = n −1 .
r
(iii) The nth term from the end of a finite GP consisting of m terms
is ar m − n .
(iv) an an′ = al
i.e. nth term from the beginning × nth term from the end
= first term × last term
Properties of Geometric Progression
(i) If all the terms of GP are multiplied or divided by same non-zero
constant, then the resulting sequence is also a GP with the same
common ratio.
(ii) The reciprocal of terms of a given GP also form a GP.
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(iii) If each term of a GP is raised to same power, then the resulting

sequence also forms a GP.
(iv) If the terms of a GP are chosen at regular intervals, then the
resulting sequence is also a GP.
(v) If a1 , a2 , a3 ,.... , an are non-zero and non-negative term of a GP,
then log a1 , log a2 , log a3 ,K , log an are in an AP and vice-versa.
(vi) If a , b and c are three consecutive terms of a GP, then b2 = ac.
Selection of Terms in a GP
a
(i) Any three terms in a GP can be taken as , a and ar.
r
a a
(ii) Any four terms in a GP can be taken as 3 , , ar and ar3 .
r r
a a
(iii) Any five terms in a GP can be taken as 2 , , a , ar and ar 2.
r r
Sum of First n Terms of a GP

(i) Sum of first n terms of a GP is given by
 a (1 − r n )
 , if r < 1
1−r


S n =  a (r − 1) , if r > 1
n
 r −1

 na , if r = 1

a − lr lr − a
(ii) S n = , r < 1 or S n = ,r > 1
1−r r −1
where, l = last term of the GP
Sum of Infinite Terms of a GP

a
(i) If |r|< 1, then S ∞ =
1−r
(ii) If |r|≥ 1, then S ∞ does not exist.
Geometric Mean GM
(i) If a , G , b are in GP, then G is called the geometric mean of a and
b and is given by G = ab.
(ii) GM of n positive numbers a1 , a2 , a3 ,... , an are given by
G = ( a1a2... an )1/ n
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(iii) If a , G1 , G2 , G3 , K , Gn , b are in GP, then
(a) G1 , G2 , G3 ,K , Gn , are called n GM’s between a and b, where
1
 b  n +1
G1 = ar = a   ,
 a
2
 b n +1
G2 = ar = a  
2
 a
M M M
n 1
 b n +1  b n +1
Gn = ar = a  
n
and r =  
 a  a
(b) Product of n GM’s,
G1 × G2 × G3 × K × Gn = G n , where G = ab
Important Results on GP
1
 xn−q p−q
(i) If ap = x and aq = y , then an =  n − p 
y 
(ii) If am + n = p and am − n = q, then
m
 q 2 n
am = pq and an = p  
 p
(iii) If a, b and c are the pth, qth and rth terms of a GP, then
a q − r × b r − p × c p −q = 1
(iv) Sum of n terms of b + bb + bbb + K is
b  10 (10 n − 1) 
an =  − n ; b = 1, 2, K , 9
9 9 
(v) Sum of n terms of 0 ⋅b + 0 ⋅bb + 0 ⋅bbb + K is
b (1 − 10 − n ) 
an = n −  ; b = 1, 2, K , 9
9 9 
(vi) If a1 , a2 , a3 , K , an and b1 , b2 , b3 , ... , bn are in GP, then the sequence
a1 ± b1, a2 ± b2 , a3 ± b3 K will not be a GP.
(vii) If pth, qth and rth term of geometric progression are also in geometric
progression, then p, q and r are in arithmetic progression.
(viii) If a, b and c are in AP as well as in GP, then a = b = c.
(ix) If a, b and c are in AP, then x a , x b and x c are in geometric progression.
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Harmonic Progression (HP)

A sequence a1 , a2 , a3 ,..., an ,... of non-zero numbers is called a Harmonic
1 1 1 1
Progression (HP), if the sequence , , , K , ,... is in AP.
a1 a2 a3 an
nth Term (or General Term) of Harmonic Progression

(i) nth term of the HP from the beginning
1
an =
1 1 1
+ ( n − 1)  − 
a1  a2 a1 
a1 a2
=
a2 + ( n − 1) ( a1 − a2 )
(ii) nth term of the HP from the end
1 a1 a2 l
an′ = = ,
1 1 1  a1 a2 − l( n − 1)( a1 − a2 )
− ( n − 1)  − 
l  a2 a1 
where l is the last term.
1 1 1 1 1 1
(iii) + = + = +
an an′ a l First term of HP Last term of HP
1
(iv) an = , if a , d are the first term and common difference
a + ( n − 1)d
of the corresponding AP.
Note There is no formula for determining the sum of harmonic series.
Harmonic Mean
(i) If a , H and b are in HP, then H is called the harmonic mean of
2ab
a and b and is given by H =
a+b
(ii) Harmonic Mean (HM) of a1 , a2 , a3 ,K , an is given by
1 11 1 1 1
=  + + +..... + 
H n  a1 a2 a3 an 
(iii) If a , H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , .... , H n , b are in HP, then
(a) H 1 , H 2 , H 3 , K , H n
are called n harmonic means between a and b, where
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( n + 1)ab
H1 = ,
a + nb
( n + 1)ab
H2 = ,
2a + ( n − 1)b
( n + 1) ab
H3 =
3a + ( n − 2) b
MM
( n + 1) ab ( n + 1)ab
Hn = =
na + ( n − ( n − 1)) b na + b
1 1 1 1 n 2ab
(b) + + +...+ = , where H =
H1 H 2 H3 Hn H a+b
Important Results on HP
(i) If in a HP, am = n and an = m, then
mn mn
am + n = , amn = 1, ap =
m+n p
(ii) If in a HP, ap = qr and aq = pr,
then ar = pq
(iii) If H is HM between a and b, then
(a) ( H − 2a)( H − 2b) = H 2
1 1 1 1
(b) + = +
H − a H −b a b
H+ a H+b
(c) + =2
H − a H −b
Properties of AM, GM and HM between Two Numbers

1. If A, G and H are arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means of
two positive numbers a and b, then
a+b 2ab
(i) A = , G = ab , H =
2 a+b
(ii) A ≥ G ≥ H
(iii) G 2 = AH and so A, G , H are in GP.
 A, if n = 0
a n + 1 + bn + 1  1
(iv) =  G , if n = −
a n + bn  2
 H , if n = − 1
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2. If A,G,H are AM, GM and HM of three positive numbers

a , b and c, then the equation having a, b and c as its root is
3G3
x3 − 3 Ax 2 + x – G3 = 0
H
a+ b+ c
where, A = , G = ( abc)1/ 3
3
1 1 1
+ +
1 a b 
c
and =
H  3 
 
3. If number of terms in AP/GP/HP are odd, then AM/GM/HM of
first and last term is middle term of progression.
4. If A1 , A2 be two AM’s, G1 , G2 be two GM’s and H 1 , H 2 be two HM’s
between two numbers a and b, then
G1G2 A + A2
= 1
H 1H 2 H 1 + H 2
Arithmetic-Geometric Progression
A sequence in which every term is a product of corresponding term of
AP and GP is known as arithmetic-geometric progression.
The series may be written as
a , ( a + d ) r ,( a + 2d ) r 2 ,( a + 3d ) r3 , K , [a + ( n − 1)d ] r n −1
a dr (1 − r n −1 ) { a + ( n − 1) d }r n
Then, S n = + − , if r ≠ 1
1−r (1 − r )2 1−r
n
Sn = [2a + ( n − 1)d ], if r = 1
2
a dr
Also, S∞ = + , if|r |< 1
1 − r (1 − r )2
Method of Difference
Let a1 + a2 + a3 + ... be a given series.
Case I If a2 − a1 , a3 − a2 ,K are in AP or GP, then an and S n can be
found by the method of difference.
Clearly, S n = a1 + a2 + a3 + a4 + K + an
or Sn = a1 + a2 + a3 + K + an −1 + an
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So, S n − S n = a1 + ( a2 − a1 ) + ( a3 − a2 ) + ( a4 − a3 ) + ( an − an − 1 ) − an
⇒ an = a1 + ( a2 − a1 ) + ( a3 − a2 ) + K + ( an − an − 1 )
∴ an = a1 + T1 + T2 + T3 + K + Tn − 1
where, T1 , T2 , T3 ,K are terms of new series and S n = Σan
Case II It is not always necessary that the sequence of first order of
differences i.e. a2 − a1 , a3 − a2 , ... , an − an −1,... is always in AP or in
GP. In such cases, we proceed as follows.
Let a1 = T1 , a2 − a1 = T2 , a3 − a2 = T3 ,... , an − an −1 = Tn
So, an = T1 + T2 + ... + Tn ...(i)
an = T1 + T2 + ... + Tn −1 + Tn ...(ii)
On subtracting Eq. (i) from Eq. (ii), we get
Tn = T1 + (T2 − T1 ) + (T3 − T2 ) + ... + (Tn − Tn −1 )
Now, the series (T2 − T1 ) + (T3 − T2 ) + ... + (Tn − Tn −1 ) is series of second
order of differences and if it is either in AP or in GP, then an = ΣTr .
Otherwise, in the similar way, we find series of higher order of
differences and the nth term of the series.
Exponential Series
1 1 1 1
The sum of the series 1 + + + + + K ∞ is denoted by the
1! 2! 3! 4!
number e.
1 1 1 1
∴ e=1+ + + + +K
1! 2! 3! 4!
(i) e lies between 2 and 3.
(ii) e is an irrational number.
x x 2 x3
(iii) ex = 1 + + + + K ∞, x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!
x x 2 x3
(iv) e− x = 1 − + − + K ∞, x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!
a
(v) For any a > 0, a x = ex log e
x2 x3
= 1 + x (loge a ) + (loge a )2 + (loge a )3 + K ∞, x ∈ R
2! 3!
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Logarithmic Series
x 2 x3 x 4
(i) loge (1 + x ) = x − + − + K ∞, ( −1 < x ≤ 1)
2 3 4
∞
xn
= ∑ ( −1)n − 1 , ( −1 < x ≤ 1)
n =1 n
x 2 x3 x 4
(ii) loge (1 − x ) = − x − − − − K ∞, ( −1 ≤ x < 1)
2 3 4
x 2 x3 x 4
⇒ − loge (1 − x ) = x + + + + K ∞, ( −1 ≤ x < 1)
2 3 4
 1 + x  x3 x5 
(iii) loge   = 2 x + + + K ∞ , ( −1 < x < 1)
 1 − x  3 5 
1 1 1 1
(iv) loge 2 = 1 − + − + −K ∞
2 3 4 5
Some Important Series

∞ ∞ ∞
1 1 1
(i) ∑ n!
=e= ∑ ( n − 1)!
= ∑ ( n − k)!
=e
n =0 n =1 n =k
∞
1 1 1 1
(ii) ∑ = + +
n ! 1! 2! 3!
+K ∞ = e − 1
n =1
∞
1 1 1 1
(iii) ∑ = + +
n ! 2! 3! 4!
+K ∞ = e − 2
n =2
∞
1 1 1 1
(iv) ∑ = + +
( n + 1)! 1 ! 2 ! 3 !
+K ∞ = e − 1
n =0
∞ ∞
1 1 1 1 1
(v) ∑ ( n + 1)!
= ∑ = + +
( n + 2)! 2 ! 3 ! 4 !
+K ∞ = e − 2
n =1 n =0
∞
1 1 1 1 e + e −1 ∞
1
(vi) ∑ ( 2n )!
=1+ + +
2! 4! 6!
+K =
2
= ∑ ( 2n − 2)!
n =0 n =1
∞ −1 ∞
1 1 1 1 e−e 1
(vii) ∑ = + +
( 2n − 1)! 1 ! 3 ! 5 !
+K =
2
= ∑ ( 2n + 1)!
n =1 n =0
( ax ) ( ax )2 ( ax )3 ( ax )n
(viii) eax = 1 + + + +K + +K ∞
1! 2! 3! n!
∞ ∞
n n
(ix) ∑ =e= ∑
n = 0 n! n =1 n!
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∞ ∞
n2 n2
(x) ∑ n!
= 2e = ∑ n!
n =0 n =1
∞ 3 ∞
n n3
(xi) ∑ n!
= 5e = ∑ n!
n =0 n =1
∞ 4 ∞
n n4
(xii) ∑ n!
= 15e = ∑ n!
n =0 n =1
n n n
(xiii) ∑ ( ar ± br ) = ∑ ar ± ∑ br
r =1 r =1 r =1
n n
(xiv) ∑ kar = k ∑ ar
r =1 r =1
n
(xv) ∑ k = k + k + ... n times = n. k , where k is a constant.
r =1
n
n( n + 1)
(xvi) ∑ r = 1 + 2 +K + n = 2
r =1
(xvii) Sum of first n even natural numbers.

i.e. 2 + 4 + 6 + K + 2n = n( n + 1)
(xviii) Sum of first n odd natural numbers.
i.e. 1 + 3 + 5 + K + ( 2n − 1) = n 2
n
n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
(xix) ∑ r 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + K + n 2 = 6
r =1
2
n
 n( n + 1)
(xx) ∑ r3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + K + n3 =  2 
r =1
n
n( n + 1)( 6n3 + 9n 2 + n − 1)
(xxi) ∑ r 4 = 14 + 24 + 34 + K + n 4 = 30
r =1
(xxii) Sum of n terms of series

12 − 22 + 32 − 42 + 52 − 62 + 72 − 82 + ...
n( n + 1)
Case I When n is odd =
2
− n( n + 1)
Case II When n is even =
2
n
(xxiii) 2 ∑ ai a j = ( a1 + a2 + ... + an )2 − ( a12 + a22 + ... + an2 )
i < j=1
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6
Permutations and
Combinations
Fundamental Principles of Counting
There are two Fundamental Principles of Counting
1. Multiplication Principle
If first operation can be performed in m ways and then a second
operation can be performed in n ways. Then, the two operations taken
together can be performed in mn ways. This can be extended to any
finite number of operations.
2. Addition Principle
If an operation can be performed in m ways and another operation,
which is independent of the first, can be performed in n ways. Then,
either of the two operations can be performed in m + n ways. This can
be extended to any finite number of mutually exclusive events.
Factorial
For any natural number n, we define factorial as
n ! or |n = n( n − 1)( n − 2) K 3 × 2 × 1.
The rotation n ! represent the present of first n natural numbers.
Important Results Related to Factorial

(i) 0 ! = 1 ! = 1
(ii) Factorials of negative integers and fractions are not defined.
(iii) n ! = n ( n − 1)! = n( n − 1)( n − 2)!
n!
(iv) = n( n − 1)( n − 2) L (r + 1)
r!
(v) n ! + 1 is not divisible by any natural number between 2 and n.
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Permutations and Combinations 75

Exponent of a Prime p in n!
If p is prime and pr divides n ! , then maximum exponent of prime p in
n ! is given by
n  n   n 
E p( n !) =   +  2  +  3  + K
 p  p   p 
Permutation
Each of the different arrangement which can be made by taking some
or all of a number of things is called a permutation.
Mathematically The number of ways of arranging n distinct
objects in a row taking r ( 0 < r ≤ n ) at a time is denoted by P ( n , r )
or n Pr .
n!
i.e. n
Pr =
( n − r )!
Properties of Permutation
(i) n
Pn = n ( n − 1) ( n − 2)... 1 = n !
n!
(ii) n
P0 = =1
n!
(iii) n P1 = n
(iv) n
Pn − 1 = n !
n −1 n −2 n −3
(v) n
Pr = n ⋅ Pr −1 = n( n − 1) ⋅ Pr − 2 = n( n − 1)( n − 2) ⋅ Pr − 3
n −1 n −1
(vi) Pr + r ⋅ Pr −1 = Pr
n
n
Pr
(vii) n
= n −r +1
Pr − 1
Important Results on Permutation

(i) The number of permutations of n different things taken r at
a time, when each thing may be repeated any number of times
is n r .
(ii) The number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a
time, where 0 < r ≤ n and the objects do not repeat, is
n( n − 1) ( n − 2) ... ( n − r + 1), which is denoted by n Pr or P ( n , r ).
(iii) The number of permutations of n different things taken all at a
time is n Pn = n ! .
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(iv) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time, in

which p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind and r are
alike of third kind and rest are different is
n!
.
p ! q !r !
(v) The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time, in
which p1 are alike of one kind p2 are alike of second kind, p3 are
alike of third kind,..., pr are alike of rth kind and
p1 + p2 + p3 +...+ pr = n is
n!
p1 ! p2 ! p3 !... pr !
Restricted Permutation
(i) Number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time,
(a) when a particular thing is to be included in each arrangement
is r ⋅ n − 1Pr − 1.
n −1
(b) when a particular thing is always excluded is Pr .
(ii) Number of permutations of n different objects taken r at a time in
which m particular objects are always
n −m n −m
(a) excluded = Pr (b) included = Pr − m × r !
(iii) Number of permutations of n different things taken all at a
time, when m specified things always come together is
m !( n − m + 1)! .
(iv) Number of permutations of n different things taken all at a time,
when m specified things never come together is
n ! − m ! × ( n − m + 1)! .
(v) Number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time,
when p( p < r ) particular things are to be always included in each
arrangement is p !{ r − ( p − 1)} ⋅ n − pPr − p.
Circular Permutation
In a circular permutation, firstly we fix the position of one of the
objects and then arrange the other objects in all possible ways.
(i) Number of circular permutations of n different things taken all
at a time is ( n − 1)! . If clockwise and anti-clockwise orders are
taken as different.
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(ii) Number of circular permutations of n different things taken all
at a time, when clockwise or anti-clockwise orders are not
1
different = ( n − 1)! .
2
(iii) Number of circular permutations of n different things taken r at
a time, when clockwise or anti-clockwise orders are taken as
n
Pr
different is .
r
(iv) Number of circular permutations of n different things, taken r at
a time, when clockwise or anti-clockwise orders are not different
n
Pr
is .
2r
(v) If we mark numbers 1 to n on chairs in a round table, then n
persons sitting around table is n!.
Combination
Each of the different groups or selections which can be made by some
or all of a number of given things without reference to the order of the
things in each group is called a combination.
Mathematically The number of combinations of n different things
taken r at a time is
 n n!
C( n , r ) or n Cr or   i.e. n Cr = , 0≤r ≤ n
  r !( n − r )!
r 
Properties of Combination
(i) n
C0 = n Cn = 1
(ii) n
C1 = n
(iii) n
Cr = n Cn − r
(iv) If n Cr = n C p, then either r = p or r + p = n
n
Pr
(v) n
Cr =
r!
n +1
(vi) n Cr + n Cr − 1 = Cr
n −1
(vii) n ⋅ Cr − 1 = ( n − r + 1) n Cr −1
n n −1 n ( n − 1) n −2
(viii) n
Cr = Cr − 1 = Cr − 2
r r (r − 1)
(ix) n
C0 + n C1 + n C2 + K + n Cn = 2n
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(x) n
C0 + n C2 + n C4 + K = n C1 + n C3 + K = 2n − 1
2n + 1 2n + 1 2n + 1
(xi) C0 + C1 + C2 + K + 2n +1 Cn = 22n
n +1 n +2 2n − 1
(xii) n
Cn + Cn + Cn + K + Cn = 2n
Cn +1
n
(xiii) If n is even, then the greatest value of Cr is n Cn / 2.
(xiv) If n is odd, then the greatest value of n Cr is n C ( n +1)
2
Important Results on Combination

(i) The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a
time allowing repetitions is n + r − 1Cr .
(ii) The total number of combinations of n different objects taken r at
a time in which
(a) m particular objects are excluded = n − mCr .
(b) m particular objects are included = n − mCr − m .

1. Number of Functions
(i) If a set A has m elements and set B has n elements, then
(a) number of functions from A to B is n m .
(b) number of one-one function from A to B is n
Pm , m ≤ n.
(c) number of onto functions from A to B is
n m − n C1( n − 1)m + n C2( n − 2)m K ; m ≤ n.
(d) number of increasing (decreasing) functions from A to B is
n
Cm , m ≤ n.
(e) number of non-increasing (non-decreasing) functions from A
to B is m + n − 1Cm .
(f) number of bijective (one-one onto) functions from A to B is
n ! , if m = n.
2. Use in Geometry
(i) Given, n distinct points in the plane, no three of which are
collinear, then the number of line segments formed = n C2.
(ii) Given, n distinct points in the plane, in which m are collinear
( m ≥ 3), then the number of line segments is ( n C2 − mC2 ) + 1.
(iii) Given, n distinct points in the plane, no three of which are
collinear, then the number of triangle formed = n C3
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(iv) Given, n distinct points in a plane, in which m are collinear
( m ≥ 3), then the number of triangle formed = n C3 − mC3
(v) The number of diagonals in a n-sided closed polygon = n C2 − n
(vi) Given, n points on the circumference of a circle, then
(a) number of straight lines = n C2
(b) number of triangles = n C3
(c) number of quadrilaterals = n C4
n
(vii) Number of rectangles of any size in a square of n × n is ∑ r3 and
r =1
n
number of square of any size is ∑ r 2.
r =1
(viii) In a rectangle of n × p ( n < p), numbers of rectangles of any size

np
is n +1C2 ⋅ P +1C2 ⋅ or ( n + 1) ( p + 1) and number of squares of
4
n
any size is ∑ (n + 1 − r )( p + 1 − r ).
r =1
(ix) Suppose n straight lines are drawn in the plane such that no two
lines are parallel and no three lines are concurrent, then number
of parts which these divides the plane is equal to 1 + ∑ n.
3. Prime Factors
Any natural number > 1, can be expressed as product of primes.
Let n = p1α 1 p2α 2 p3α 3 K prα r , where
pi , i = 1, 2, 3, ... , r , are prime numbers.

α i , i = 1, 2, 3, K , r , are positive integers.
(i) Number of distinct positive integral divisors of n
(including 1 and n) is
(α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1)(α3 + 1) K (α r + 1).
(ii) Sum of distinct positive integral divisors of n is
( p1α 1 + 1 − 1) ( p2α 2 + 1 − 1) ( p3α 3 + 1 − 1) ( prα r + 1 − 1)
⋅ ⋅ ...
p1 − 1 p2 − 1 p3 − 1 pr − 1
(iii) Total number of divisors of n (excluding 1 and n), is
(α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1)(α3 + 1) K (α r + 1) − 2.
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(iv) Total number of divisors of n (excluding 1 or n), is

(α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1)(α3 + 1) K (α r + 1) − 1.
(v) The number of ways in which n can be resolved as a product of
two factors is
1
(a) (α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1)(α3 + 1)K (α r + 1), if n is not a perfect square.
2
1
(b) [(α1 + 1)(α 2 + 1)(α3 + 1) K (α r + 1) + 1], if n is a perfect
2
square.
(vi) The number of ways in which n can be resolved into two factors
which are prime to each other is 2r − 1, where r is the number of
different factors in n.
4. Integral Solutions
(i) The number of integral solutions of
n+r −1
x1 + x2 + K + xr = n , where x1 , x2 ,K xr ≥ 0 is Cr −1 or
n + r −1
Cn .
(ii) Number of integral solutions of
n −1
x1 + x2 + K + xr = n, where x1 , x2 , K , xr ≥ 1, is Cr − 1.
5. Sum of Digits
(i) Sum of the numbers formed by taking all the given n digits
= (Sum of all the n digits) × ( n − 1)! × (1
111
42......
43 1).
n-times
(ii) The sum of all digits in the unit place of all numbers formed with
the help of a1 , a2 , K , an all at a time (repetition of digits is not
allowed) is ( n − 1)!( a1 + a2 + K + an ).
(iii) The sum of all digits of numbers that can be formed by using the
digits a1 , a2 ,K , an (repetition of digits is not allowed) is
 10n − 1
( n − 1)!( a1 + a2 + K + an )  
 9 
6. Arrangements
(i) The number of ways in which m (one type of different things) and
n (another type of different things) can be arranged in a row so
that all the second type of things come together is n !( m + 1)!.
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(ii) The number of ways in which m (one type of different things) and
n (another type of different things) can be arranged in row so that
no two things of the same type come together is
2 × m ! n ! , provided m = n
(iii) The number of ways in which m (one type of different things) and
n (another type of different things) ( m ≥ n ), can be arranged in a
circle so that no two things of second type come together
( m − 1)! m Pn and when things of second type come together
= m!n!
(iv) The number of ways in which m things of one type and n things of
another type (all different) ( m ≥ n ), can be arranged in the form of
a garland so that all the second type of things come together, is
m !n !
and if no two things of second type come together, is
2
( m − 1)! m Pn
2
(v) If there are l objects of one kind, m objects of second kind,
n objects of third kind and so on. Then, the number of possible
arrangements permutations of r objects out of these objects
= Coefficient of x r in the expansion of
 x x2 xl   x x2 xm 
r ! 1 + + + K +  1 + + +K + 
 1! 2! l !  1! 2! m !
 x x2 xn 
1 + + +K + .
 1! 2! n !
7. Dearrangements
If n distinct objects are arranged in a row, then the number of ways in
which they can be dearranged so that no one of them occupies the
 1 1 1 1
place assigned to it is n ! 1 − + − + K ( −1)n  and it is
 1! 2! 3! n !
denoted by D ( n ).
8. Selection
There are two types of selection, which are as follows
1. Selection from Different Items

(i) The number r of ways of selecting at least one item from n
distinct items is 2n − 1.
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(ii) The number of ways of answering one or more of n questions is

2n − 1.
(iii) The number of ways of answering one or more of n questions
when each question has an alternative = 3n − 1.
2. Selection from Identical Items

(i) The number of ways of selecting r items out of n identical items
is 1.
(ii) The number of ways of selecting zero or more items out of n
identical items is ( n + 1).
(iii) The number of ways of selecting one or more out of p + q + r
items, where p are alike of one kind, q are alike of second kind
and rest are alike of third kind, is [( p + 1)( q + 1)(r + 1)] − 1.
(iv) The number of ways of selecting one or more items from p
identical items of one kind; q identical items of second kind; r
identical items of third kind and other n are distinct, is
( p + 1)( q + 1)(r + 1) 2n − 1.
(v) The number of ways of selecting r items from a group of n items in
which p are identical n ≥ p + r, is
n− p n− p n− p n− p
Cr + Cr −1 + Cr − 2 + ... + C0, if r ≤ p
n− p n− p n− p n− p
and Cr + Cr −1 + Cr − 2 + ... + Cr − p, if r > p
(vi) If there are m items of one kind, n items of another kind and so
on. Then, the number of ways of choosing r items out of these
items = coefficient of x r in
(1 + x + x 2 + K + x m ) (1 + x + x 2 + K + x n )K
(vii) If there are m items of one kind, n items of another kind and so
on. Then, the number of ways of choosing r items out of these
items such that atleast one item of each kind is included in every
selection = coefficient of x r in
( x + x 2 + K + x m )( x + x 2 + K + x n )K
Division into Groups

There are two types of division into groups, which are as follow
1. Division of Distinct Items into Groups

(i) The number of ways in which ( m + n ) different things can be
divided into two groups which contain m and n things
respectively
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( m + n )!
= , where m ≠ n
m !n !
This can be extended to ( m + n + p) different things divided into
three groups of m, n and p things respectively. In this case,
( m + n + p)!
number of ways , where m ≠ n ≠ p.
m ! n ! p!
(ii) The number of ways of dividing 2n different elements into two
( 2n )!
groups of n objects each is , when the distinction can be
( n !)2
made between the groups, i.e. if the order of group is important.
This can be extended to 3n different elements divided into
( 3n )!
3 groups of n objects each. In this case, number of ways = .
( n !)3
(iii) The number of ways of dividing 2n different elements into two
groups of n objects when no distinction can be made between the
groups i.e. order of the group is not important is
( 2n )!
.
2 !( n !)2
This can be extended to 3n different elements divided into
3 groups of n objects each.
( 3n )!
In this case, number of ways = .
3 !( n !)3
(iv) The number of ways in which mn different things can be divided
equally it into m groups each containing n objects, if order of the
group is not important is
( mn )!
.
( n !)m m !
(v) If the order of the group is important, then number of ways of
dividing mn different things equally into m distinct groups each
containing n objects is
( mn )!
.
( n !)m
(vi) The number of ways of dividing n different things into r groups is
1 n r
[r − C1(r − 1)n + rC2(r − 2)n − rC3 (r − 3)n + K ].
r!
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(vii) The number of ways of dividing n different things into r groups

taking into account the order of the groups and also the order of
things in each group is
n + r −1
Pn = r(r + 1)(r + 2)...(r + n − 1).
2. Division of Identical Items into Groups

(i) The number of ways of dividing n identical items among r
persons, each of whom, can receive 0, 1, 2 or more items (≤ n ) is
n + r −1
Cr −1.
Or The number of ways of dividing n identical items into r groups, if
blank groups are allowed is n + r −1Cr −1.
(ii) The number of ways of dividing n identical items among r
persons, each one of whom receives at least one item is n −1Cr −1.
Or The number of ways of dividing n identical items into r groups
such that blank groups are not allowed is n −1Cr −1.
(iii) The number of ways of dividing n identical things among r
persons such that each gets 1, 2, 3, … or k things is the coefficient
of x n − r in the expansion of (1 + x + x 2 + K + x k − 1 )r .
(iv) The number of ways in which n identical items can be divided
into r groups so that no group contains less than m items and
more than k( m < k) is coefficient of x n in the expansion of
( x m + x m + 1 + K + x k )r .
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7
Binomial Theorem
and Principle of
Mathematical Induction
An algebric expression consisting of two terms with positive and
negative sign between them is called binomial expression.
Binomial Theorem for Positive Integer

If n is any positive integer, then
( x + a )n = n C0x n + n C1x n − 1a + n C2x n − 2a 2 + ...+ n Cn a n .
n
i.e. ( x + a )n = ∑ n
Cr x n − r a r …(i)
r=0
where, x and a are real numbers and n C0 , n C1 , n C2 , K , n Cn are called

binomial coefficients.
Also, here Eq. (i) is called Binomial theorem.
n!
n
Cr = for 0 ≤ r ≤ n.
r !( n − r )!
Properties of Binomial Theorem for Positive Integer

(i) Total number of terms in the expansion of ( x + a )n is ( n + 1) i.e.
finite number of terms.
(ii) The sum of the indices of x and a in each term is n.
(iii) The above expansion is also true when x and a are complex
numbers.
(iv) The coefficient of terms equidistant from the beginning and the
end are equal. These coefficients are known as the binomial
coefficients i.e. n Cr = n Cn − r , r = 0, 1, 2, ... , n.
(v) The values of the binomial coefficients steadily increase to
maximum and then steadily decrease.
(vi) In the binomial expansion of ( x + a )n , the r th term from the end
is ( n − r + 2)th term from the beginning.
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(vii) If n is a positive integer, then number of terms in ( x + y + z )n is

( n + 1)( n + 2)
.
2
Some Special Cases

(i) ( x − a )n = n C0 x n − n C1x n −1a + n C2x n − 2a 2 − n C3 x n −3 a3
+ ... + ( − 1)n n Cn a n
n
∑ ( −1) Cr ⋅ x n − r ⋅ a r
r n
i.e. ( x − a )n =
r=0
(ii) (1 + x )n = n C0 + n C1x + n C2x 2 + ... + n Cr x r + K + n Cn x n

n
i.e. (1 + x )n = ∑ n Cr ⋅ x r
r=0
(iii) (1 − x ) = C0 − C1x + n C2x 2 − n C3 x3 + ... + ( −1)r n Cr x r

n n n
+ ... + ( −1)n n Cn x n
n
i.e. (1 − x )n = ∑ ( −1)r n
Cr ⋅ x r
r=0
(iv) The coefficient of x r in the expansion of (1 + x )n is n Cr and in the

expansion of (1 − x )n is ( −1)r n Cr .
(v) (a) ( x + a )n + ( x − a )n = 2 ( n C0x n a 0 + n C2x n − 2a 2 + K )
(b) ( x + a )n − ( x − a )n = 2 ( n C1x n −1a + n C3 x n − 3 a3 + K )
(vi) (a) If n is odd, then ( x + a )n + ( x − a )n and ( x + a )n − ( x − a )n
 n + 1
both have the same number of terms equal to  .
 2 
n 
(b) If n is even, then ( x + a )n + ( x − a )n has  + 1 terms.
2 
 n
and ( x + a ) − ( x − a ) has   terms.
n n
 2
General Term in a Binomial Expansion

(i) General term in the expansion of (x + a )n is
Tr +1 = n Cr x n − r a r
(ii) General term in the expansion of ( x − a )n is
Tr +1 = ( −1)r n Cr x n − r a r
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Binomial Theorem and Principle of Mathematical Induction 87

(iii) General term in the expansion of (1 + x )n is
Tr +1 = n Cr x r
(iv) General term in the expansion of (1 − x )n is
Tr +1 = ( −1)r n
Cr x r
Some Important Results

n
 b
(i) Coefficient of x m in the expansion of  ax p + q  is the coefficient
 x 
np − m
of Tr + 1, where r = .
p+ q
n
 b
(ii) The term independent of x in the expansion of  ax p + q  is the
 x 
np
coefficient of Tr + 1 , where r = .
p+ q
(iii) If the coefficient of rth, (r + 1) th and (r + 2) th term of (1 + x )n are
in AP, then n 2 − ( 4 r + 1)n + 4 r 2 = 2
(iv) In the expansion of ( x + a )n ,
Tr + 1 n −r +1 a
= ×
Tr r x
(v) (a) The coefficient of x n − 1 in the expansion of
n ( n + 1)
( x – 1) ( x – 2)....( x – n ) = −
2
(b) The coefficient of x n − 1 in the expansion of
n ( n + 1)
( x + 1) ( x + 2)....( x + n ) =
2
(vi) If the coefficient of pth and qth terms in the expansion of (1 + x )n
are equal, then p + q = n + 2.
n
 x
(vii) If the coefficients of x r and x r + 1 in the expansion of  a +  are
 b
equal, then n = (r + 1)( ab + 1) − 1.
(viii) The number of terms in the expansion of
( x1 + x2 + K + xr )n is n + r − 1Cr − 1.
Middle Term in a Binomial Expansion

(i) If n is even in the expansion of ( x + a )n or ( x − a ) n , then the
n 
middle term is  + 1 th term.
2 
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(ii) If n is odd in the expansion of ( x + a )n or ( x − a )n , then the middle

( n + 1) ( n + 3)
terms are th term and th term.
2 2
Note When there are two middle terms in the expansion, then their
binomial coefficients are equal.
Greatest Coefficient
Binomial coefficient of middle term is the greatest binomial coefficient.
(i) If n is even, then in ( x + a )n , the greatest coefficient is n Cn / 2.
(ii) If n is odd, then in ( x + a )n , the greatest coefficient is n C n −1
  2
 or n C n + 1  .
 
 2 
Greatest Term
In the expansion of ( x + a )n ,
n +1
(i) If is an integer = p (say), then greatest terms are
x
+1
a
T p and T p + 1.
n +1 n +1
(ii) If is not an integer with m as integral part of , then
x x
+1 +1
a a
Tm + 1 is the greatest term.
Divisibility Problems
From the expansion, (1 + x )n = 1 + n C1x + n C2x 2 +...+ n Cn x n
We can conclude that
(i) (1 + x )n − 1 = n C1x + n C2x 2 +...+ n Cn x n is divisible by x i.e. it is a
multiple of x.
or (1 + x )n − 1 = M ( x )
(ii) (1 + x )n − 1 − nx = n C2x 2 + n C3 x3 +...+ n Cn x n = M ( x 2 )
n( n − 1) 2 n
(iii) (1 + x )n − 1 − nx − x = C3 x3 + n C4x 4 +...+ n Cn x n = M ( x3 )
2
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Important Results on Binomial Coefficients
If C0 , C1 , C2 ,.... , Cn are the coefficients of (1 + x )n , then
n +1
(i) n
Cr + n Cr − 1 = Cr
n
Cr n
(ii) n −1
=
Cr −1 r
n
Cr n −r +1
(iii) n
=
Cr −1 r
(iv) C0 + C1 + C2 + K + Cn = 2n
(v) C0 + C2 + C4 +... = C1 + C3 + C5 +... = 2n − 1
nπ
(vi) C0 − C2 + C4 − C6 +K = ( 2 )n cos
4
nπ
(vii) C1 − C3 + C5 − C7 +... = ( 2 )n sin
4
(viii) C0 − C1 + C2 − C3 + K + ( − 1)n Cn = 0
(ix) C1 − 2 ⋅ C2 + 3 ⋅ C3 − K = 0
(x) C0 + 2 ⋅ C1 + 3 ⋅ C2 + K + ( n + 1) ⋅ Cn = ( n + 2) 2n −1
(xi) C0Cr + C1Cr + 1 +...+ Cn − rCn = 2n
Cn − r
( 2n )!
= 2n
Cn + r =
( n − r )!( n + r )!
( 2n )!
(xii) C02 + C12 + C22 +...+ Cn2 = 2n
Cn =
( n !)2
 0, if n is odd.
(xiii) C02 − C12 + C22 − C32 + ... + ( −1)n ⋅ Cn2 = 
( − 1) ⋅
n/ 2 n
Cn / 2 if n is even.
,
2 2
(xiv) C1 − 2C2 + 3C32 − K + ( − 1)n n ⋅ Cn2
n
−1 n n!
= ( −1) 2 . . , when n is even.
2  n  n
  !  !
 2  2
C1 C2 Cn 2n +1 − 1
(xv) C0 + + +K + =
2 3 n + 1 ( n + 1)
C1 C2 C3 Cn 1
(xvi) C0 − + − + ... + ( − 1)n =
2 3 4 n +1 n +1
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n
C1 C2 C3 C  3
(xvii) C0 + + 2 + 3 + K + nn =  
2 2 2 2  2
n 1 3r 7r 15r 
(xviii) ∑ ( −1)r n
Cr  r + 2r + 3 r + 4r +.... upto m terms
r=0 2 2 2 2 
2 −1
mn
= mn n
2 ( 2 − 1)
Multinomial Theorem
For any n ∈ N ,
n ! r1 r2
(i) ( x1 + x2 )n = ∑ x x
r1 !r2 ! 1 2
r1 + r2 = n
n!
(ii) ( x1 + x2 +...+ xn )n = ∑ x r1 x r2K xkrk
r1 !r2 !K rk ! 1 2
r 1 + r 2 +K+ rk = n
(iii) The general term in the above expansion is

n!
x r1 x r2K xkrk
r1 !r2 !K rk ! 1 2
(iv) The greatest coefficient in the expansion of ( x1 + x2 + K + xm )n is
n!
m−r
, where q and r are the quotient and remainder
( q !) [( q + 1)!]r
respectively, when n is divided by m.

(i) If n is a positive integer and a1 , a2 , K , am ∈ C , then the coefficient
of x r in the expansion of ( a1 + a2x + a3 x 2 + ... + am x m − 1 )n is
n!
∑ a n1 x a2n 2 K am
n1 ! n 2 !K n m ! 1
nm
.
(ii) Total number of terms in the expansion of ( a + b + c + d )n is

( n + 1)( n + 2)( n + 3)
.
6
R-f Factor Relations

If ( A + B)n = I + f where I and n are positive integers, n being odd
and 0 ≤ f < 1, then ( I + f ) f = kn , where A − B2 = k > 0 and A − B < 1.
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Binomial Theorem for Any Index

If n is any rational number, then
n ( n − 1) 2 n ( n − 1) ( n − 2) 3
(1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + x + ... ,|x|< 1
1⋅ 2 1⋅ 2⋅ 3
(i) In the above expansion, if n is any positive integer, then the
series in RHS is finite and if n is negative/ rational number, then
there are infinite number of terms exist.
(ii) General term in the expansion of (1 + x )n is
n( n − 1)( n − 2)K [n − (r − 1)] r
Tr + 1 = x .
r!
(iii) Expansion of ( x + a )n for any rational index
a
Case I When x > a i. e. < 1
x
n n
  a   a
In this case, ( x + a )n =  x 1 +   = x n 1 + 
  
x   x
 a n ( n − 1)  a 
2
n( n − 1)( n − 2)  a 
3 
= x n 1 + n ⋅ +   +   +....
 x 2!  x 3!  x 
x
Case II When x < a i.e. < 1
a
n n
  x  x
In this case, ( x + a )n =  a 1 +   = a n 1 + 
  a   a
 x n ( n − 1)  x 
2
n ( n − 1)( n − 2)  x 
3 
= a n 1 + n ⋅ +   +   +....
 a  a
 
a 2! 3!
n( n + 1) 2 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 3
(iv) (1 − x )− n = 1 + nx + x + x +K
1⋅ 2 1⋅ 2⋅ 3
n( n + 1)( n + 2)K ( n + r − 1) r
+ x + ...
r!
n( n + 1) 2 n( n + 1) ( n + 2) 3
(v) (1 + x )− n = 1 − nx + x − x +K
2! 3!
n ( n + 1)( n + 2) ... ( n + r − 1) r
+ ( −1)r x + ...
r!
n( n − 1) 2 n( n − 1) ( n − 2) 3
(vi) (1 − x )n = 1 − nx + x − x +K
2! 3!
n ( n − 1)( n − 2) ... ( n − r + 1) r
+ ( −1)r x +...
r!
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(vii) (1 + x )−1 = 1 − x + x 2 − x3 + K + ( −1)r x r +...

(viii) (1 − x )−1 = 1 + x + x 2 + x3 + K + x r +...
(ix) (1 + x )−2 = 1 − 2x + 3x 2 − 4x3 + K + ( −1)r (r + 1) x r +...
(x) (1 − x )−2 = 1 + 2x + 3x 2 + 4x3 +... + (r + 1) x r +...
(xi) (1 + x )−3 = 1 − 3x + 6x 2 − 10x3 + K ∞
(xii) (1 − x )−3 = 1 + 3x + 6x 2 + 10x3 + ... ∞
(xiii) (1 + x )n = 1 + nx , if x 2 , x3 , ... are all very small as compared to x.
Principle of Mathematical Induction

In an algebra, there are certain results that are formulated in terms of
n, where n is a positive integer. Such results can be proved by specific
technique, which is known as the principle of Mathematical Induction.
Statement
A sentence or description which can be judged either true or false, is
called the statement.
e.g. (i) 3 divides 9.
(ii) Lucknow is the capital of Uttar Pradesh.
1. First Principle of Mathematical Induction

Let P ( n ) be a statement involving natural number n. To prove
statement P ( n ) is true for all natural number, we follow following
process
(i) Prove that P(1) is true.
(ii) Assume P ( k) is true.
(iii) Using (i) and (ii) prove that statement is true for n = k + 1,
i.e. P ( k + 1) is true.
This is first principle of Mathematical Induction.
2. Second Principle of Mathematical Induction

In second principle of Mathematical Induction following steps are used:
(i) Prove that P(1) is true.
(ii) Assume P ( n ) is true for all natural numbers such that 2 ≤ n < k.
(iii) Using (i) and (ii), prove that P ( k + 1) is true.
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8
Matrices
Matrix
A matrix is a rectangular arrangement of numbers (real or complex)
which may be represented as
 a11 a12 a13 .... a1n 
a a22 a23 .... a2 n 
A =  21 .
 .... .... .... .... .... 
a amn 
 m1 am 2 am3 ....
Matrix is enclosed by [ ] or ( ).
Compact form the above matrix is represented by [aij ]m × n or A = [aij ].
Element of a Matrix
The numbers a11 , a12 ,K etc., in the above matrix are known as the
element of the matrix, generally represented as aij , which denotes
element in ith row and jth column.
Order of a Matrix
In above matrix has m rows and n columns, then A is of order m × n.
Types of Matrices
(i) Row Matrix A matrix having only one row and any number of
columns is called a row matrix.
(ii) Column Matrix A matrix having only one column and any
number of rows is called column matrix.
(iii) Null/Zero Matrix A matrix of any order, having all its elements
are zero, is called a null/zero matrix, i.e. aij = 0, ∀ i , j.
(iv) Square Matrix A matrix of order m × n, such that m = n, is
called square matrix.
(v) Diagonal Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]m × n is called a
diagonal matrix, if all the elements except those in the leading
diagonals are zero, i.e. aij = 0 for i ≠ j. It can be represented as
A = diag [a11 a22K ann ].
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(vi) Scalar Matrix A square matrix in which every non-diagonal

element is zero and all diagonal elements are equal, is called
scalar matrix, i.e. in scalar matrix, aij = 0, for i ≠ j and aij = k, for
i = j.
(vii) Unit/Identity Matrix A square matrix, in which every
non-diagonal element is zero and every diagonal element is 1, is
called unit matrix or an identity matrix,
 0, when i ≠ j
i.e. aij = 
1, when i = j
(viii) Rectangular Matrix A matrix of order m × n, such that m ≠ n,
is called rectangular matrix.
(ix) Horizontal Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows is less
than the number of columns, is called horizontal matrix.
(x) Vertical Matrix A matrix in which the number of rows is
greater than the number of columns, is called vertical matrix.
(xi) Upper Triangular Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is
called a upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i > j.
(xii) Lower Triangular Matrix A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is
called a lower triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i < j.
(xiii) Submatrix A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix by
deleting any number of rows or columns or both is called a
submatrix of the given matrix.
(xiv) Equal Matrices Two matrices A and B are said to be equal, if
both having same order and corresponding elements of the
matrices are equal.
(xv) Principal Diagonal of a Matrix In a square matrix, the
diagonal from the first element of the first row to the last
element of the last row is called the principal diagonal of a
matrix.
1 2 3
e.g. If A = 7 6 5 , then principal diagonal of A is 1, 6, 2.
 
1 1 2
(xvi) Singular Matrix A square matrix A is said to be singular
matrix, if determinant of A denoted by det (A) or| A| is zero, i.e.
|A|= 0, otherwise it is a non-singular matrix.
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Matrices 95
Algebra of Matrices
1. Addition of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices each of order m × n. Then, the sum of
matrices A + B is defined only if matrices A and B are of same order.
If A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]m × n . Then, A + B = [aij + bij ]m × n .
Properties of Addition of Matrices
If A, B and C are three matrices of order m × n , then
(i) Commutative Law A + B = B + A
(ii) Associative Law ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
(iii) Existence of Additive Identity A zero matrix (0) of order
m × n (same as of A), is additive identity, if
A+ 0= A= 0+ A
(iv) Existence of Additive Inverse If A is a square matrix, then
the matrix (– A) is called additive inverse, if
A + ( − A) = 0 = ( − A) + A
(v) Cancellation Law A + B = A + C ⇒ B = C [left cancellation law]
B + A = C + A ⇒ B = C [right cancellation law]
2. Subtraction of Matrices
Let A and B be two matrices of the same order, then subtraction of
matrices, A − B, is defined as
A − B = [aij − bij ] m × n ,
where A = [aij ]m × n , B = [bij ]m × n
3. Multiplication of a Matrix by a Scalar

Let A = [aij ]m × n be a matrix and k be any scalar. Then, the matrix
obtained by multiplying each element of A by k is called the scalar
multiple of A by k and is denoted by kA, given as
kA = [kaij ]m × n
Properties of Scalar Multiplication
If A and B are two matrices of order m × n, then
(i) k( A + B) = kA + kB
(ii) ( k1 + k2 ) A = k1 A + k2 A
(iii) k1k2 A = k1( k2 A) = k2( k1 A)
(iv) ( − k) A = − ( kA) = k( − A)
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4. Multiplication of Matrices
Let A = [aij ]m × n and B = [bij ]n × p are two matrices such that the
number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B, then
n
multiplication of A and B is denoted by AB, is given by cij = ∑ aikbkj ,
k=1
where cij is the element of matrix C and C = AB.

 a a2   b b2
e.g. If A =  1  and B =  1 , then
a3 a4 b3 b4
 a b + a2 b3 a1 b2 + a2 b4 
AB =  1 1 .
 3 1
a b + a b
4 3 a3 b2 + a4 b4
Properties of Multiplication of Matrices

(i) Associative Law ( AB)C = A( BC )
(ii) Existence of Multiplicative Identity A ⋅ I = A = I ⋅ A,
where, I is called multiplicative Identity.
(iii) Distributive Law A( B + C ) = AB + AC
(iv) Cancellation Law If A is non-singular matrix, then
AB = AC ⇒ B = C [left cancellation law]
BA = CA ⇒ B = C [right cancellation law]
(v) Zero Matrix as the Product of Two Non-zero Matrices
AB = O, does not necessarily imply that A = O or B = O or both A
and B = O.
Note Multiplication of diagonal matrices of same order will be
commutative.

(i) If A and B are square matrices of the same order, say n, then both the
product AB and BA are defined and each is a square matrix of order n.
(ii) In the matrix product AB, the matrix A is called premultiplier (prefactor)
and B is called postmultiplier (postfactor).
(iii) The rule of multiplication of matrices is row columnwise (or → ↓ wise) the
first row of AB is obtained by multiplying the first row of A with first,
second, third,... columns of B respectively; similarly second row of A with
first, second, third, ... columns of B, respectively and so on.
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Matrices 97
Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix
Let A be a square matrix. Then, we can define
(i) An + 1 = An ⋅ A, where n ∈ N .
(ii) Am ⋅ An = Am + n .
(iii) ( Am )n = Amn , ∀m , n ∈ N
Matrix Polynomial
Let f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n − 1 + a2x n − 2 + K + an . Then,
f ( A) = a0 An + a1 An − 2 + K + an I n is called the matrix polynomial.
Transpose of a Matrix
Let A = [aij ]m × n , be a matrix of order m × n. Then, the n × m matrix
obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of A is called the
transpose of A and is denoted by A′ or AT .
A′ = AT = [a ji ]n × m
Properties of Transpose
For any two matrices A and B of suitable orders,
(i) ( A′ )′ = A (ii) ( A ± B)′ = A′ ± B′
(iii) ( kA)′ = kA′ (iv) ( AB)′ = B′ A′
(v) ( An )′ = ( A′ )n (vi) ( ABC )′ = C ′ B′ A′
Symmetric and Skew-Symmetric Matrices

(i) A square matrix A = [aij ]n × n is said to be symmetric, if A′ = A.
i.e. aij = a ji , ∀i and j.
(ii) A square matrix A is said to be skew-symmetric, if A′ = − A,
i.e. aij = − a ji , ∀i and j.
Properties of Symmetric and

Skew-symmetric Matrices
(i) Elements of principal diagonals of a skew-symmetric matrix are
all zero. i.e. aii = − aii ⇒ 2aii = 0 or aii = 0 , for all values of i.
(ii) If A is a square matrix, then
(a) A + A′ is symmetric. (b) A − A′ is skew-symmetric matrix.
(iii) If A and B are two symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrices of
same order, then A + B is also symmetric (or skew-symmetric).
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(iv) If A is symmetric (or skew-symmetric), then kA ( k is a scalar) is

also symmetric (or skew-symmetric) matrix.
(v) If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then the
product AB is symmetric, iff BA = AB.
(vi) Every square matrix can be expressed uniquely as the sum of a
symmetric and a skew-symmetric matrix.
1 1
i.e. Matrix A can be written as ( A + A′ ) + ( A − A′ )
2 2
(vii) The matrix B′ AB is symmetric or skew-symmetric according as A
is symmetric or skew-symmetric matrix.
(viii) All positive integral powers of a symmetric matrix are symmetric.
(ix) All positive odd integral powers of a skew-symmetric matrix are
skew-symmetric and positive even integral powers of a
skew-symmetric are symmetric matrix.
(x) If A and B are symmetric matrices of the same order, then
(a) AB − BA is a skew-symmetric and
(b) AB + BA is symmetric.
(xi) For a square matrix A, AA′ and A′ A are symmetric matrix.
Elementary Operations (Transformations of a Matrix)

Any one of the following operations on a matrix is called an elementary
transformation.
(i) Interchanging any two rows (or columns), denoted by
Ri ←→ R j or Ci ←→ C j .
(ii) Multiplication of the element of any row (or column) by a
non-zero scalar quantity and denoted by
Ri → kRi or Ci → kC j .
(iii) Addition of constant multiple of the elements of any row to the
corresponding element of any other row, denoted by
Ri → Ri + kR j or Ci → Ci + kC j .
Elementary Matrix
A matrix obtained from an identity matrix by a single elementary
operation is called an elementary matrix.
Equivalent Matrix
Two matrices A and B are said to be equivalent, if one can be obtained
from the other by a sequence of elementary transformation.
The symbol ≈ is used for equivalence.
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Matrices 99
Trace of a Matrix
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix A is called the
trace of A, denoted by trace (A) or tr (A).
Properties of Trace of a Matrix

(i) Trace ( A ± B) = Trace (A) ± Trace (B)
(ii) Trace ( kA) = k Trace (A)
(iii) Trace ( A′ ) = Trace (A)
(iv) Trace ( I n ) = n
(v) Trace (O ) = 0
(vi) Trace ( AB) ≠ Trace (A) × Trace (B)
(vii) Trace ( AA′ ) ≥ 0
Conjugate of a Matrix
The matrix obtained from a matrix A containing complex number as its
elements, on replacing its elements by the corresponding conjugate
complex number is called conjugate of A and is denoted by A.
Properties of Conjugate of a Matrix

Let A and B are two matrices of order m × n and k be a scalar, then
(i) ( A ) = A (ii) ( A + B) = A + B
(iii) ( AB) = AB (iv) ( kA) = kA
(v) ( A ) = ( A )
n n
Transpose Conjugate of a Matrix

The transpose of the conjugate of a matrix A is called transpose
conjugate of A and is denoted by Aθ or A* ,
i.e. ( A′ ) = ( A )′ = Aθ or A*
Properties of Transpose Conjugate of a Matrix

(i) ( A* )* = A (ii) ( A + B)* = A* + B*
(iii) ( kA)* = k A* (iv) ( AB)* = B* A*
(v) ( An )* = ( A* )n
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Some Special Types of Matrices

1. Orthogonal Matrix
A square matrix of order n is said to be orthogonal, if AA′ = I n = A′ A
Properties of Orthogonal Matrix
(i) If A is orthogonal matrix, then A′ is also orthogonal matrix.
(ii) For any two orthogonal matrices A and B, AB and BA is also an
orthogonal matrix.
(iii) If A is an orthogonal matrix, then A−1 is also orthogonal matrix.
2. Idempotent Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be idempotent, if A2 = A .
Properties of Idempotent Matrix
(i) If A and B are two idempotent matrices, then
(a) AB is idempotent, iff AB = BA.
(b) A + B is an idempotent matrix, iff AB = BA = O
(c) AB = A and BA = B, then A2 = A, B2 = B
(ii) (a) If A is an idempotent matrix and A + B = I , then B is an
idempotent and AB = BA = O.
(b) Diagonal (1, 1, 1, ...,1) is an idempotent matrix.
3. Involutory Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be involutory, if A2 = I
4. Nilpotent Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be nilpotent matrix, if there exists a
positive integer m such that Am = 0. If m is the least positive integer
such that Am = 0, then m is called the index of the nilpotent matrix A.
5. Unitary Matrix
A square matrix A is said to be unitary, if A′ A = I
6. Periodic Matrix
If Ak+1 = A, where k is a positive integer, then A is known as periodic
matrix and k is known as period of matrix A.
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Matrices 101
Rank of a Matrix
A positive integer r is said to be the rank of a non-zero matrix A, if
(i) there exists at least one minor in A of order r which is not zero.
(ii) every minor in A of order greater than r is zero, rank of a matrix A
is denoted by ρ( A) = r.
Properties of Rank of a Matrix

(i) The rank of a null matrix is zero i.e. ρ(O ) = 0
(ii) If I n is an identity matrix of order n, then ρ( I n ) = n.
(iii) (a) If a matrix A does’t possess any minor of order r, then ρ( A) ≥ r.
(b) If atleast one minor of order r of the matrix is not equal to zero,
then ρ( A) ≤ r.
(iv) If every (r + 1)th order minor of A is zero, then any higher order
minor will also be zero.
(v) If A is of order n, then for a non-singular matrix A, ρ( A) = n
(vi) ρ( A′ ) = ρ( A)
(vii) ρ( A* ) = ρ( A)
(viii) ρ( A + B) ≤ ρ( A) + ρ( B)
(ix) If A and B are two matrices such that the product AB is defined,
then rank ( AB) cannot exceed the rank of the either matrix.
(x) If A and B are square matrix of same order and ρ( A) = ρ( B) = n,
then ρ( AB) = n
(xi) Every skew-symmetric matrix of odd order has rank less than its
order.
(xii) Elementary operations do not change the rank of a matrix.
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9
Determinants
Determinant
Every square matrix A is associated with a number, called its
determinant and it is denoted by ∆ (read as delta) or det (A) or| A|.
Only square matrices have determinants. The matrices which are not
square do not have determinants.
(i) First Order Determinant
If A = [a ], then det (A) =| A| = a.
(ii) Second Order Determinant
a a12 
If A =  11 , then
a21 a22
| A| = a11a22 − a21a12
(iii) Third Order Determinant
 a11 a12 a13 
If A =  a21 a22 a23 , then
 
 a31 a32 a33 
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
| A| = a11 − a12 + a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
or| A| = a11( a22a33 − a32a23 ) − a12( a21a33 − a31a23 )
+ a13 ( a21a32 − a22a31 )
1 3 −2
e.g. The expansion of the determinant A = 4 − 2 1 is
2 −5 4
−2 1 4 1 4 −2
A=1 −3 −2
−5 4 2 4 2 −5
= 1 ( − 8 + 5) − 3 (16 − 2) − 2 ( − 20 + 4)
= − 3 − 42 + 32 = − 13
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Determinants 103
Evaluation of Determinant of Square Matrix

of Order 3 by Sarrus Rule
 a11 a12 a13 
If A = a21 a22 a23 , then determinant can be formed by enlarging
 
 a31 a32 a33 
the matrix by adjoining the first two columns on the right and draw
lines as show below parallel and perpendicular to the diagonal.
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
The value of the determinant, this will be the sum of the product of
element in line parallel to the diagonal minus the sum of the product of
elements in line perpendicular to the line segment. Thus,
∆ = a11a22a33 + a12a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 − a13 a22a31 − a11a23 a32 − a12a21a33 .
Note This method doesn’t work for determinants of order greater than 3.
Properties of Determinants
(i) The value of the determinant remains unchanged, if rows are
changed into columns and columns are changed into rows.
e.g. | A′| =| A|
(ii) If A = [aij ]n × n , n > 1 and B be the matrix obtained from A by
interchanging two of its rows or columns, then
det (B) = − det (A)
(iii) If two rows (or columns) of a square matrix A are proportional,
then| A| = 0.
(iv)|B| = k| A|, where B is the matrix obtained from A, by
multiplying one row (or column) of A by k.
(v)|kA| = kn| A|, where A is a matrix of order n × n.
(vi) If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is the sum
of two or more terms, then the determinant can be expressed as
the sum of two or more determinants.
a1 + a2 b c a1 b c a2 b c
e.g. p1 + p2 q r = p1 q r + p2 q r
u1 + u 2 v w u1 v w u2 v w
(vii) If the same multiple of the elements of any row (or column) of a
determinant are added to the corresponding elements of any
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other row (or column), then the value of the new determinant
remains unchanged,
e.g.
a11 a12 a13 a11 + ka31 a12 + ka32 a13 + ka33
a21 a22 a23 = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33
(viii) If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is zero, then
its value is zero.
(ix) If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are identical, then
its value is zero.
(x) If each element of row (or column) of a determinant is expressed
as a sum of two or more terms, then the determinant can be
expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.
(xi) If r rows (or r columns) become identical, when a is substituted
for x, then ( x − a )r −1 is a factor of given determinant.
Important Results on Determinants

(i)| AB| =| A||B|, where A and B are square matrices of the same
order.
(ii)| An | =| A|n
(iii) If A, B and C are square matrices of the same order such that ith
columns (or rows) of A is the sum of i th columns (or rows) of B
and C and all other columns (or rows) of A, B and C are identical,
then| A| =|B| +|C|
(iv)|I n| = 1, where I n is identity matrix of order n.
(v)|On| = 0, where On is a zero matrix of order n.
(vi) If ∆( x ) be a 3rd order determinant having polynomials as its
elements.
(a) If ∆( a ) has 2 rows (or columns) proportional, then ( x − a ) is a
factor of ∆( x ).
(b) If ∆( a ) has 3 rows (or columns) proportional, then ( x − a )2 is
a factor of ∆( x ).
(vii) A square matrix A is non-singular, if | A| ≠ 0 and singular, if
| A| = 0.
(viii) Determinant of a skew-symmetric matrix of odd order is zero and
of even order is a non-zero perfect square.
(ix) In general, |B + C| ≠|B| +|C|
(x) Determinant of a diagonal matrix
= Product of its diagonal elements
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Determinants 105
(xi) Determinant of a triangular matrix
= Product of its diagonal elements
(xii) A square matrix of order n is non-singular, if its rank r = n i.e. if
| A| ≠ 0, then rank ( A) = n
f1( x ) f2( x ) f3 ( x )
(xiii) If ∆( x ) = g1( x ) g2( x ) g3 ( x ) , then
a b c
n n n
Σ f1( x ) Σ f2( x ) Σ f3 ( x )
x =1 x =1 x =1
n n n n
(a) Σ ∆( x ) = Σ g1( x ) Σ g2( x ) Σ g3 ( x )
x =1 x =1 x =1 x =1
a b c
n n n
Π f1( x ) Π f2( x ) Π f3 ( x )
x =1 x =1 x =1
n n n n
(b) Π ∆ ( x ) = Π g1( x ) Π g2( x ) Π g3 ( x )
x =1 x =1 x =1 x =1
a b c
1
(xiv) If A is a non-singular matrix, then| A−1| = =| A|−1.
| A|
(xv) Determinant of a orthogonal matrix = 1 or − 1.
(xvi) Determinant of a hermitian matrix is purely real.
(xvii) If A and B are non-zero matrices and AB = O, then it implies
| A| = O and|B| = O.
Minors and Cofactors

a11 a12 a13
If ∆ = a21 a22 a23 , then the minor M ij of the element aij is the
a31 a32 a33
determinant obtained by deleting the ith row and jth column,
a22 a23
i.e. M11 = minor of a11 =
a32 a33
a21 a23
M12 = minor of a12 =
a31 a33
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a21 a22
and M13 = minor of a13 =
a31 a32
The cofactor of the element aij is Cij = ( − 1)i + j M ij
Properties of Minors and Cofactors

(i) The sum of the products of elements of any row (or column) of a
determinant with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of
any other row (or column) is zero,
a11 a12 a13
i.e. if ∆ = a21 a22 a23 , then a11C31 + a12C32 + a13C33 = 0
a31 a32 a33
and so on.
(ii) The sum of the product of elements of any row (or column) of a
determinant with the cofactors of the corresponding elements of
the same row (or column) is ∆,
a11 a12 a13
i.e. if A = a21 a22 a23 , then| A| = ∆ = a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13
a31 a32 a33
n
(iii) In general, if| A| = ∆ , then| A| = ∑ aij Cij
i =1
and (adj A) = ∆n − 1 , where A is a matrix of order n × n.
Applications of Determinants in Geometry

Let the three points in a plane be A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ),
then
x1 y1 1
1
(i) Area of ∆ABC = x2 y2 1
2
x3 y3 1
1
= [x1 ( y2 − y3 ) + x2 ( y3 − y1 ) + x3 ( y1 − y2 )]
2
x1 y1 1
(ii) If the given points are collinear, then x2 y2 1 = 0.
x3 y3 1
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Determinants 107
(iii) Let two points are A( x1 , y1 ), B( x2 , y2 ) and P ( x , y ) be a point on the
line joining points A and B, then the equation of line is given by
x y 1
1
x1 y1 1 = 0
2
x2 y2 1
Adjoint of a Matrix
Adjoint of a matrix is the transpose of the matrix of cofactors of the
given matrix,
T
C11 C12 C13  C11 C21 C31 
i.e. 
adj(A) = C21 C22 C23 = C12 C22 C32 

   
C31 C32 C33  C13 C23 C33 
Properties of Adjoint of a Matrix

If A and B are two non-singular matrices of same order n, then
(i) A ( adj A) = ( adj A) A =| A|I
(ii) adj ( A′ ) = ( adj A)′
(iii) adj ( AB) = ( adj B) ( adj A)
(iv) adj ( kA) = kn − 1( adj A), k ∈ R
(v) adj ( Am ) = (adj A)m
(vi) adj (adj A) =| A|n − 2 A, where A is a non-singular matrix.
(vii)|adj A|=| A|n − 1 , where A is a non-singular matrix.
2
(viii) |adj (adj A)| =| A |( n −1) , where A is a non-singular matrix.
(ix) adj ( I n ) = I n , adj (O ) = O
Note
(i) Adjoint of a diagonal matrix is a diagonal matrix.
(ii) Adjoint of a triangular matrix is a triangular matrix.
(iii) Adjoint of a symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix.
Inverse of a Matrix
Let A be a non-zero square matrix of order n, then a square matrix B,
such that AB = BA = I , is called inverse of A, denoted by A−1.
1
i.e. A− 1 = (adj A) given in properties
| A|
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Properties of Inverse of a Matrix

Let A and B be two square matrices of same order n. Then,
(i) ( A−1 )−1 = A
(ii) ( AB)−1 = B −1 A−1
In general, ( A1 A2 A3 K An )−1 = An−1 An−1− 1 K A3−1 A2−1 A1−1
(iii) ( A′ )−1 = ( A−1 )′
(iv)| A−1| =| A|−1
(v) AA−1 = A−1 A = I
(vi) ( Ak )−1 = ( A−1 )k , k ∈ N
a 0 0 1/ a 0 0
(vii) If A = 0 b 0 and abc ≠ 0, then A = 0 1/ b 0  .
  −1 
   
 0 0 c  0 0 1/ c
(viii) If A, B and C are square matrices of the same order and A is a
non-singular matrix, then
(a) AB = AC ⇒ B = C [left cancellation law]
(b) BA = CA ⇒ B = C [right cancellation law]
Note
l Square matrix A is invertible iff it is non-singular.
l If a non-singular square matrix A is symmetric, then A

−1
is also symmetric.
l A square matrix is invertible iff it is non-singular and every invertible matrix
possesses a unique inverse.
Differentiation of Determinant
a( x ) b (x) c( x )
If ∆( x ) = p ( x ) q( x ) r( x ) , then
u( x ) v( x ) w ( x )
a ′ ( x ) b′ ( x ) c′ ( x ) a( x ) b( x ) c( x )
d∆
= p ( x ) q( x ) r( x ) + p′ ( x ) q ′ ( x ) r ′ ( x )
dx
u( x ) v( x ) w ( x ) u( x ) v( x ) w ( x )
a( x ) b( x ) c( x )
+ p ( x ) q( x ) r( x )
u ′ ( x ) v′ ( x ) w ′ ( x )
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Determinants 109
Integration of Determinant
a11( x ) a12( x ) a13 ( x )
If ∆( x ) = a21 a22 a23 , then
a31 a32 a33
∫ a11( x ) dx ∫ a12( x ) dx ∫ a13 ( x ) dx

∫ ∆( x ) dx = a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
If the elements of more than one column or rows are functions of x,

then the integration can be done only after evaluation/expansion of the
determinant.
Homogeneous and Non-homogeneous

System of Linear Equations
A system of equations AX = B, is called a homogeneous system, if
B = O and if B ≠ O, then it is called a non-homogeneous system of
equations.
Solution of System of Linear Equations

The values of the variables satisfying all the linear equations in the
system, is called solution of system of linear equations.
1. Solution of System of Equations by Matrix Method

(i) Non-homogeneous System of Equations Let A X = B be
a system of n linear equations in n variables.
(a) If| A| ≠ 0, then the system of equations is consistent and has
a unique solution given by X = A−1B.
(b) If| A| = 0 and (adj A)B = O, then the system of equations is
consistent and has infinitely many solutions.
(c) If| A| = 0 and (adj A) B ≠ O, then the system of equations is
inconsistent i.e. having no solution.
(ii) Homogeneous System of Equations Let AX = O is a
system of n linear equations in n variables.
(a) If| A| ≠ 0, then it has only one solution X = O, is called the
trivial solution.
(b) If| A| = 0, then the system has infinitely many solutions and
it is called non-trivial solution.
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2. Solution of System of Equations by Rank Method

(i) Non-homogeneous System of Equations Let AX = B be a
system of n linear equations in n variables, then
Step I Write the augmented matrix [ A : B].
Step II Reduce the augmented matrix to Echelon form using
elementary row-transformation.
Step III Determine the rank of coefficient matrix A and
augmented matrix [ A : B] by counting the number of non-zero
rows in A and [ A : B].
Step IV
(i) If ρ( A) ≠ ρ( A B) → ρ( A : B) then the system of equations is
inconsistent.
(ii) If ρ( A) = ρ( A B) → ρ( A : B) = the number of unknowns, then
the system of equations is consistent and has a unique
solution.
(iii) If ρ( A) = ρ( A B) → ρ( A : B) < the number of unknowns, then
the system of equations is consistent and has infinitely many
solutions.
(ii) Homogeneous System of Equations
(a) If AX = 0, be a homogeneous system of linear equations and
ρ( A) = number of unknown, then AX = 0, have a non-trivial
solution i.e. X = 0.
(b) If ρ( A) < number of unknowns, then AX = 0, have a non-trivial
solution, with infinitely many solutions.
Solution of Linear Equations by

Determinant/Cramer’s Rule
Case I The solution of the system of simultaneous linear equations
a1x + b1 y = c1 ...(i)
a2x + b2 y = c2 ...(ii)
D1 D
is given by x = ,y= 2
D D
a1 b1 c b1 a1 c1
where, D = , D1 = 1 and D2 = provided that D ≠ 0.
a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2
(i) If D ≠ 0, then the given system of equations is consistent and
D D
has a unique solution given by x = 1 , y = 2 .
D D
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Determinants 111
(ii) If D = 0 and D1 = D2 = 0, then the system is consistent and has
infinitely many solutions.
(iii) If D = 0 and one of D1 and D2 is non-zero, then the system is
inconsistent.
Case II Let the system of equations be a1x + b1 y + c1z = d1,
a2x + b2 y + c2z = d2 and a3 x + b3 y + c3 z = d3 . Then, the solution of
D D D
the system of equation is x = 1 , y = 2 , z = 3 , it is called
D D D
Cramer’s rule.
a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1
where, D = a2 b2 c2 , D1 = d2 b2 c2 , D2 = a2 d2 c2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3
a1 b1 d1
and D3 = a2 b2 d2 .
a3 b3 d3
(i) If D ≠ 0, then the system of equations is consistent with unique
solution.
(ii) If D = 0 and atleast one of the determinant D1 , D2 , D3 is non-zero,
then the given system is inconsistent, i.e. having no solution.
(iii) If D = 0 and D1 = D2 = D3 = 0, then the system is consistent, with
infinitely many solutions.
(iv) If D ≠ 0 and D1 = D2 = D3 = 0, then system has only trivial
solution, ( x = y = z = 0).
Explanation/Value of Some Particular Types of Determinants

1 1 1
(i) a b c = ( a − b) (b − c) ( c − a)
a2 b2 c2
1 1 1
(ii) a b c = ( a − b) (b − c) ( c − a)( a + b + c)
a3 b3 c3
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1 1 1
(iii) a b c = ( a − b)(b − c)( c − a)[( a2 + b2 + c2 ) + ( ab + bc + ca)]
a4 b4 c4
1 1 1
(iv) a2 b2 c2 = ( a − b) (b − c) ( c − a)( ab + bc + ca)
a3 b3 c3
x 2 ( x + a)2 ( x − a)2
(v) y 2 ( y + a)2 ( y − a)2 = − 4 a3 ( x − y )( y − z)( z − x )
z2 ( z + a)2 ( z − a)2
1 1 1
(vi) a b c = a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca
b a c
1
= [(b − c)2 + ( c − a)2 + ( a − b)2 ]
2
a b c
(vii) b c a = − ( a + b + c) ( a2 + b2 + c2 − ab − bc − ca)
c a b
= − ( a3 + b3 + c3 − 3abc)
x+a b c d
a x +b c d
(viii) = x 3 ( x + a + b + c + d)
a b x+c d
a b c x +d
Maximum and Minimum Values of

Determinants
a1 a2 a3
If| A| = a4 a5 a6 , where ai′ s ∈ { α1 , α 2 ,... , α n }.
a7 a8 a9
Then,| A|max when diagonal elements are {min (α1 , α 2 ,... , α n )} and
non-diagonal elements are {max (α1 , α 2 ,... , α n )}.
Also,| A|min = −| A|max
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10
Probability
Experiment
An operation which produce some well-defined results or outcomes is
called an experiment.
Types of Experiments
1. Deterministic Experiment
Those experiments, which when repeated under identical conditions
produce the same result or outcome are known as deterministic
experiment.
2. Probabilistic/Random Experiment
Those experiments, which when repeated under identical conditions,
do not produce the same outcome every time but the outcome produced
is one of the several possible outcomes, are called random experiment.
Some Basic Definitions

(i) Trial Performing an experiment is called a trial. The number
of times an experiment is repeated is called the number of trials.
(ii) Sample Space The set of all possible outcomes of a random
experiment is called the sample space of the experiment and it is
denoted by S.
(iii) Sample Point The outcome of an experiment is called the
sample point, i.e. the elements of set S are called the sample
points.
(iv) Event A subset of the sample space associated with a random
experiment is called event or case.
(v) Elementary (or Simple) Event An event containing only one
sample point is called elementary event (or indecomposable
event).
(vi) Compound Event An event containing more than one sample
points is called compound event (or decomposable event).
(vii) Occurrence of an Event An event associated to a random
experiment is said to occur, if any one of the elementary events
associated to it is an outcome.
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(viii) Certain Event An event which must occur, whatever be the

outcomes, is called a certain event (or sure event).
(ix) Impossible Event An event which cannot occur in a random
experiment, is called an impossible event.
(x) Favourable Outcomes Let S be the sample space associated
with a random experiment and E ⊂ S. Then, the elementary
events belonging to E are known as the favourable outcomes to E.
(xi) Equally likely Outcomes The outcomes of a random
experiment are said to be equally likely, when each outcome is as
likely to occur as the other.
Algebra of Events
Let A and B are two events associated with a random experiment,
whose sample space is S. Then,
(i) the event ‘not A’ is the set A′ or S − A
(ii) the events A or B is the set A ∪ B
(iii) the events A and B is the set A ∩ B
(iv) the events A but not B is the set A − B or A ∩ B′
Note For more details, see operations on sets.
Probability—
Theoretical (Classical) Approach
If there are n equally likely outcomes associated with a random
experiment and m of them are favourable to an event A, then the
probability of happening or occurrence of A, denoted by P ( A), is given by
m Number of favourable outcomes to A
P ( A) = =
n Total number of possible outcomes
Axiomatic Approach
Let S = { w1 , w2 , w3 , ... wn } be a sample space, then according to
axiomatic approach we have the following
(i) 0 ≤ P ( wi ) ≤ 1 for each wi ∈ S
(ii) P ( w1 ) + P ( w2 ) + ... + P ( wn ) = 1
(iii) For any event A, P ( A) = ΣP ( wi ), wi ∈ A.
Note
l Theoretical approach is valid only when the outcomes are equally likely and
number of total outcomes is known.

l P(sure event) = P(S ) = 1 and P(impossible event) = P( φ ) = 0
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Probability 115
Different Types of Events and Their Probabilities
(i) Equally Likely Events The given events are said to be
equally likely, if none of them is expected to occur in preference to
the other.
Thus, if the events E and F are equally likely, then P ( E ) = P ( F )
(ii) Mutually Exclusive Events A set of events is said to be
mutually exclusive, if the happening of one event excludes the
happening of the other.
If A and B are mutually exclusive events, then ( A ∩ B) = φ.
∴ The probability of mutually exclusive events is P ( A ∩ B) = 0.
(iii) Probability of Exhaustive Events A set of events is said to
be exhaustive, if atleast one of them necessarily occurs whenever
the experiment is performed.
If E1 , E2 , K , En are exhaustive events, then
E1 ∪ E2 ∪ K ∪ En = S .
and so P ( E1 ∪ E2 ∪ E3 ∪ K ∪ En ) = 1 .
n
Note If Ei ∩ E j = φ for i ≠ j and U Ei = S , then events E1, E2 , ... , En are
i =1
called mutually exclusive and exhaustive events.
(iv) Independent Events Two events A and B, associated to a
random experiment, are independent if the probability of
occurrence or non-occurrence of A is not affected by the
occurrence or non-occurrence of B.
Note If A and B are independent events associated with a random
experiment, then
(a) P( A ∩ B) = P( A) P(B)
(b) A and B are independent events.
(c) A and B are independent events.
(d) A and B are independent events.
(v) Complementary Event Let A be an event of a sample space
S, the complementary event to A is the event containing all
sample points other than the sample point in A and it is denoted
by A′ or A i.e. A′ or A = { n : n ∈ S , n ∉ A}
∴ The probability of complementary event to A is
P ( A ) = 1 − P ( A)
Note
(i) P ( A) + P( A′ ) = 1 (ii) P( A ∪ A′ ) = P(S ) = 1
(iii) P( A ∩ A′ ) = P(φ ) = 0 (iv) P( A′ )′ = P( A)
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Partition of a Sample Space

The events A1, A 2,..., A n represent a partition of the sample space S, if
they are pairwise disjoint, exhaustive and have non-zero probabilities.
i.e.
(i) Ai ∩ Aj = φ; i ≠ j; i , j = 1,2, ... , n
(ii) A 1 ∪ A 2 ∪ ... ∪ An = S
(iii) P ( Ai ) > 0, ∀ i = 1,2,... , n
Important Results on Probability

(i) Addition Theorem of Probability
(a) For two events A and B
P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P ( B) − P ( A ∩ B)
(b) For three events A, B and C
P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P ( A) + P ( B) + P (C ) − P ( A ∩ B) − P ( B ∩ C )
− P( A ∩ C ) + P( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(c) For n events A1 , A 2 , K , A n
n n
P( U A i ) = ∑ P( Ai ) − ∑ ∑ P( A i ∩ A j )
i =1 i =1 1≤i <j ≤n
+ ∑ ∑ ∑ P( A i ∩ A j ∩ A k ) − K
1≤i < j <k ≤n
+ ( −1)n − 1 P ( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ K ∩ A n )
(ii) If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment,

then
(a) P ( A ∩ B) = P ( B) − P ( A ∩ B)
(b) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) − P ( A ∩ B)
(c) P [( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ B)] = P ( A) + P ( B) − 2P ( A ∩ B)
(d) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A ∪ B) = 1 − P ( A ∪ B)
(e) P ( A ∪ B ) = P ( A ∩ B) = 1 − P ( A ∩ B)
(f) P ( A) = P ( A ∩ B) + P ( A ∩ B )
(g) P ( B) = P ( A ∩ B) + P ( B ∩ A )
(iii) (a) P (exactly one of A, B occurs)
= P ( A) + P ( B) − 2P ( A ∩ B) = P ( A ∪ B) − P ( A ∩ B)
(b) P(neither A nor B occurs) = P ( A ′ ∩ B ′ ) = 1 − P ( A ∪ B)
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Probability 117
(iv) If B ⊆ A, then
(a) P ( A ∩ B ) = P ( A) − P ( B)
(b) P ( B) ≤ P ( A)
(v) If A and B are two events, then
P ( A ∩ B) ≤ P ( A)( or P ( B)) ≤ P ( A ∪ B) ≤ P ( A) + P ( B)
(vi) If A, B and C are three events, then
(a) P(exactly one of A, B, C occurs)
= P ( A) + P ( B) + P (C ) − 2P ( A ∩ B) − 2P ( B ∩ C )
− 2P ( A ∩ C ) + 3P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(b) P (atleast two of A, B, C occurs)
= P ( A ∩ B) + P ( B ∩ C ) + P (C ∩ A) − 2P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(c) P (exactly two of A, B, C occurs)
= P ( A ∩ B) + P ( B ∩ C ) + P ( A ∩ C ) − 3P ( A ∩ B ∩ C )
(vii) (a) P ( A ∪ B) = P ( A) + P ( B), if A and B are mutually exclusive
events.
(b) P ( A ∪ B ∪ C ) = P ( A) + P ( B) + P (C ), if A, B and C are
mutually exclusive events.
(viii) If the events A1 , A 2 , K , An are mutually exclusive, i.e.
Ai ∩ Aj = φ for i ≠ j, then
P ( A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ A3 ∪ K ∪ A n ) = P ( A1 ) + ( A2 ) + K + P ( An )
and P ( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ A3 ∩ K ∩ A n ) = P ( φ ) = 0
(ix) If A1 , A 2 , K , A n are independent events associated with a
random experiment, then probability of occurrence of atleast one
= P ( A1 ∪ A2 ∪ K ∪ An ) = 1 − P ( A1 ∪ A 2 ∪ K ∪ A n )
= 1 − P ( A1 )P ( A 2 ) K P ( A n )
(x) If A1 , A 2 , K , A n are n events associated with a random
experiment, then
n
(a) P ( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ K ∩ An ) ≥ Σ P ( Ai ) − ( n − 1)
i =1
(Bonferroni’s Inequality)
Or
P ( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ ... ∩ An ) ≥ 1 − P ( A1 ) − P ( A2 ) ... − P ( An )
n n
(b) P ( ∪ Ai ) ≤
i =1
∑ P( A i ) (Booley’s Inequality)
i =1
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Odds in Favour and Against of an Event

P( E )
(i) Odds in favour of an event E is given by
P( E )
P( E )
(ii) Odds in against of an event E is given by
P( E )
a
Note If odds in favour of an event E are a : b, then P(E ) = and
a+ b
b
P(E ) = .
a+ b
Conditional Probability
Let A and B be two events associated with a random experiment. Then,
the probability of occurrence of event A under the condition that B has
already occurred and P ( B) ≠ 0, is called the conditional probability and
it is given by
P ( A ∩ B)
P ( A / B) =
P ( B)
P ( A ∩ B)
If A has already occurred and P ( A) ≠ 0, then P ( B / A) =
P ( A)
Note If A and B are independent events, then P (B / A) = P(B) and
P( A / B) = P( A).
Properties of Conditional Probability

 A  A
(i) P   + P   = 1
 B  B
 A  B  ( A ∩ B)
(ii) P (( A ∪ B)/ F ) = P   + P   − P   , where F is an event
 F  F  F 
of sample space S such that P ( F ) ≠ 0.
Multiplication Theorem on Probability

(i) If A and B are two events associated with a random experiment,
then
P ( A ∩ B) = P ( A)P ( B / A), if P ( A) ≠ 0
or P ( A ∩ B) = P ( B)P ( A / B), if P ( B) ≠ 0
(ii) If A1 , A 2 ,K , A n are n events associated with a random
experiment, then
P ( A1 ∩ A 2 ∩ K ∩ A n ) = P ( A1 ) P ( A 2 / A1 ) P ( A3 / ( A1 ∩ A 2 ))
... P ( An / ( A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3 ∩ K ∩ An − 1 ))
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Probability 119
Theorem of Total Probability

Let S be the sample space and let E1 , E2 ,... , En be a partition of the
sample space S. If A is any event which occurs with E1 or E2 or … or
En , then
P ( A) = P ( E1 )P ( A / E1 ) + P ( E2 )P ( A / E2 ) + K + P ( En ) P ( A / En )
n
= Σ P ( Er )P ( A / Er )
r =1
Baye’s Theorem
Let S be the sample space and let E1 , E2 ,... , En be a partition of the
sample space S. If A is any event which occurs with E1 or E2 or … or
En , then probability of occurrence of Ei , when A occurred, is
P ( Ei )P ( A / Ei )
P ( Ei / A) = n , i = 1, 2, K , n
Σ P ( Ei )P ( A / Ei )
i =1
where, P ( Ei ), i = 1, 2,... , n is known as the priori probability

E 
and P  i  , i = 1, 2,... , n is known as posteriori probability
 A

Coin
A coin has two sides, head and tail. If an experiment consists of more than one
coin, then coins are considered as distinct, if not otherwise stated.
Die
A die has six face marked with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6. If an experiment consists of
more than one die, then all dice are considered as distinct, if not otherwise
stated.
Playing Cards
A pack of playing cards has 52 cards, which are divided into 4 suits (spade,
heart, diamond and club) each having 13 cards.
The cards in each suit are ace, king, queen, jack, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2.
King, queen and jack are called face cards, so there are in all 12 face cards. Also,
there are 16 honour cards, 4 of each suit namely ace, king, queen and jack.
The suits, clubs and spades are of black colour while the suits hearts and
diamonds are of red colour. So, there are 26 red cards and 26 black cards.
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Random Variable
Let S be a sample space associated with a given random experiment. A
real valued function X defined on S , i.e.
X : S → R, is called a random variable.
There are two types of random variable
(i) Discrete Random Variable If the range of the function
X : S → R is a finite set or countably infinite set of real numbers,
then it is called a discrete random variable.
e.g. In tossing of two coins S = {HH , HT , TH , TT }, let X denotes
number of heads in tossing of two coins, then
X ( HH ) = 2, X (TH ) = 1, X ( HT ) = 1, X (TT ) = 0
(ii) Continuous Random Variable If the range of X is an
interval (a, b) of R, then X is called a continuous random variable.
Probability Distribution of a Random Variable

If a random variable X takes values x1 , x2 , K , xn with respective
probabilities p1 , p2 , K , pn , then the representation
X x1 x2 x3 … xn
P(X) p1 p2 p3 … pn
is known as the probability distribution of X.

or
Probability distribution gives the values of the random variable along
with the corresponding probabilities.
Mathematical Expectation/Mean of a Random Variable

If X is a discrete random variable which assume values x1 , x2 , K , xn
with respective probabilities p1 , p2 , K , pn , then the mean µ of X is
defined as
n
E( X ) = µ = p1x1 + p2x2 + K + pn xn = ∑ pi xi
i =1
Variance of a Random Variable

Variance of a random variable is denoted by σ 2 and it is defined as
V ( X ) = σ 2 = E( X 2 ) − [E( X )]2
n
where, E( X 2 ) = ∑ xi2 pi
i =1
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Probability 121
Standard Deviation
σ = V ( X ) = E( X 2 ) − ( E( X ))2

(i) If Y = a X + b, then
(a) E(Y ) = E( aX + b) = aE( X ) + b
(b) σ 2y = V (Y ) = a 2V ( X ) = a 2σ x2
(c) σ y = V (Y ) =|a|σ x
(ii) If Y = aX 2 + bX + c, then
E(Y ) = E( aX 2 + bX + c)
= aE( X 2 ) + bE( X ) + c
Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution

Bernoulli Trials
Trials of a random experiment are called Bernoulli trials, if
(i) number of trials is finite
(ii) trials are independent
(iii) each trial has exactly two outcomes success and failure
(iv) probability of success remains same in each trial.
Binomial Distribution
The probability of r successes in n-Bernaulli trials is denoted by
P ( X = r ) and is given by
P ( X = r ) = n Cr pr q n − r , r = 0, 1, 2, ... n.
where, p = probability of success
q = probability of failure and p + q = 1
This can be represented by the following :
X 0 1 2 ... n
1 n−1 2 n− 2 n
P(X ) n
C0 p q0 n n
C1 p q n
C2 p q ... Cn p n
The above probability distribution is known as binomial distribution

with parameter n and p.
Note
l P( x = x ) or P ( x ) is called the probability function of binomial distribution.
l A binomial distribution with parameter n and p is denoted by B( n, p).

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Important Results
(i) If p = q, then probability of r successes in n trials is n Cr pn .
(ii) Mean = E( X ) = µ = np
(iii) Variance = σ 2x = npq
(iv) Standard deviation = σ x = npq
(v) Mean is always greater than variance.
(vi) If the total number of trials is n in any attempt and if there are N
such attempts, then the total number of r successes is
N ( n Cr pr q n − r )
Geometrical Probability
If the total number of possible outcomes of a random experiment is
infinite, in such cases, the definition of probability is modified and the
general expression for the probability P of occurrence of an event is
given by
Measure of region occupied by the event
P=
Measure of the whole region
where, measure means length or area or volume of the region, if we are
dealing with one, two or three dimensional space respectively.
Important Results to be Remembered

(i) When two dice are thrown, the number of ways of getting a total r is
(a) ( r − 1,) if 2 ≤ r ≤ 7 and (b) (13 − r), if 8 ≤ r ≤ 12
(ii) Experiment of insertion of n letters in n addressed envelopes.
1
(a) Probability of inserting all the n letters in right envelopes =
n!
1
(b) Probability that atleast one letter is not in right envelope = 1 −
n!
(c) Probability of keeping all the letters in wrong envelopes
1 1 ( −1) n
= − +K +
2! 3! n!
(d) Probability that exactly r letters are in right envelopes
11 1 1 1 
=  − + − K + ( − 1) n − r
r !  2! 3! 4 ! (n − r)! 
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Probability 123
(iii) (a) Selection of Shoes from a Cupboard Out of n pair of shoes, if k shoes
are selected at random, the probability that there is no pair is
n
C 2k
P = 2 nk
Ck
(b) The probability that there is atleast one pair is (1− P).
(iv) Selection of Squares from the Chessboard If r (1 ≤ r ≤ 7) squares are
selected at random from a chessboard, then probability that they lie on a
diagonal is
4 [ 7Cr + 6Cr + K + 1Cr ] + 2( 8 Cr )
64
Cr
(v) If A and B are two finite sets and if a mapping is selected at random from
the set of all mapping from Ato B, then the probability that the mapping is
n(B)
Pn ( A)
(a) a one-one function = , provided n(B) ≥ n( A)
n(B) n ( A)
n(B)
Pn ( A)
(b) a many-one function = 1 − , provided n(B) ≥ n( A)
n(B) n ( A)
n(B)
(c) a constant function =
n(B) n ( A)
n( A)!
(d) a one-one onto function = , provided n( A) = n(B)
n(B) n ( A)
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11
Trigonometric Functions,
Identities and Equations
Angle
When a ray OA starting from its initial B
position OA rotates about its end point O
de
si
and takes the final position OB, we say
al
that angle AOB (written as ∠ AOB) has
in
r m
Te
been formed.
θ°
The amount of rotation from the initial side A
to the terminal side is called the measure O Initial side
(Vertex)
of the angle.
Positive and Negative Angles

An angle formed by a rotating ray is said to be positive or negative
depending on whether it moves in an anti-clockwise or a clockwise
direction, respectively.
B O Initial side
A
−θ°
de
si
al
in
Te
m
mr
r
Te
in
al
θ°
si
de
A
O Initial side B
(Positive angle) (Negative angle)
Measurement of Angles
There are three system for measuring the angles, which are given
below
1. Sexagesimal System (Degree Measure)

In this system, a right angle is divided into 90 equal parts, called the
degrees. The symbol 1° is used to denote one degree. Each degree is
divided into 60 equal parts, called the minutes and one minute is
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Trigonometric Functions, Identities and Equations 125

divided into 60 equal parts, called the seconds. Symbols 1′ and 1′ ′ are
used to denote one minute and one second, respectively.
i.e. 1 right angle = 90°, 1° = 60′, 1′ = 60′ ′
2. Circular System (Radian Measure)

In this system, angle is measured in radian. A radian is the angle
subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc, whose length is equal to
the radius of the circle. The number of radians in an angle subtended
arc
by an arc of circle at the centre is equal to .
radius
3. Centesimal System (French System)

In this system, a right angle is divided into 100 equal parts, called the
grades. Each grade is subdivided into 100 min and each minute is
divided into 100 s.
i.e. 1 right angle = 100 grades = 100 g , 1 g = 100′, 1′ = 100′ ′
Relation between Degree and Radian

(i) π radian = 180°
 180°  22
or 1 radian =   = 57°16′ 22′ ′ where, π = = 3.14159
 π  7
 π 
(ii) 1° =   rad = 0.01746 rad
 180
(iii) If D is the number of degrees, R is the number of radians and G
is the number of grades in an angle θ, then
D G 2R
= =
90 100 π
Length of an Arc of a Circle

If in a circle of radius r, an arc of length l subtend an angle θ radian at
the centre, then
l
Q
θ r
1c
r P
l Length of arc
θ= = or l = r θ
r Radius
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Trigonometric Ratios For acute Angle

Relation between different sides and angles of a right angled triangle
are called trigonometric ratios or T-ratios.
Trigonometric ratios can be represented as
C
Perpendicular BC
sin θ = = ,
Perpendicular
Hypotenuse AC
e
us
en
Base AB
cos θ = =
ot
,
yp
Hypotenuse AC
H
Perpendicular BC
tan θ = = , θ
Base AB A B
Base
1
cosec θ =
sin θ
1 cos θ 1
sec θ = , cot θ = =
cos θ sin θ tan θ
Trigonometric (or Circular) Functions

Let X ′OX and YOY ′ be the coordinate axes. Taking O as the centre
and a unit radius, draw a circle, cutting the coordinate axes at
A, B, A′ and B′, as shown in the figure.
Y
B
P(x, y)
1 l
y
θ
X' A' O x M A X
B'
Y'
 arc AP θ l
Q∠AOP = radius OP = 1 = θ °, using θ = r 
 
Now, six circular functions may be defined as

(i) cosθ = x (ii) sinθ = y
1 1
(iii) sec θ = , x ≠ 0 (iv) cosec θ = , y ≠ 0
x y
y x
(v) tanθ = , x ≠ 0 (vi) cotθ = , y ≠ 0
x y
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Trigonometric Function of Some Standard Angles
Angle 0° 30° 45° 60° 90° 120° 135° 150° 180°
1 1 3 3 1 1
sin 0 1 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
3 1 1 1 1 3
cos 1 0 − − − −1
2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1
tan 0 1 3 ∞ − 3 −1 − 0
3 3
1 1
cot ∞ 3 1 0 − −1 − 3 −∞
3 3
2 2
sec 1 2 2 ∞ −2 − 2 − −1
3 3
2 2
cosec ∞ 2 2 1 2 2 ∞
3 3
Graph of Trigonometric Functions

1. Graph of sin x
Y y = sinx
π, 1
(– 3π , 1
2 ) 1 2 ( )
y=1
X' O X
–2π – 3π –π –π π π 3π
2π
2 2 2 2
–1 y=–1
(– π , –1 ) ( 3π , –1
)
2 2
Y'
(i) Domain = R (ii) Range = [−1, 1] (iii) Period = 2π
2. Graph of cos x
Y
y = cosx
(– 2π, 1) 1 (0, 1) (2π, 1)
y=1
D
X' O X
–2π – 3π −π –π π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
y = –1
(– π, –1) –1 (π, –1)
Y'
(i) Domain = R (ii) Range = [−1, 1] (iii) Period = 2π
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3. Graph of tan x
Y y = tanx
X' X
–π –π O π π π
–π
– 3π 2 4
3π
2 4 2 2
–1
Y'
π
(i) Domain = R ~ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
2
(ii) Range = ( − ∞ , ∞ )
(iii) Period = π
4. Graph of cot x
Y
y = cotx
X' X
–2π – 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
Y'
(i) Domain = R ~ nπ , n ∈ I (ii) Range = ( − ∞ , ∞ ) (iii) Period = π
5. Graph of sec x
Y
y = sec x
(–2π, 1) (2π, 1)
y=1
1
X' X
–2π – 3π –π –π O π π 3π 2π
2 2 2 2
–1 y = –1
(–π, –1) (π, –1)
Y'
π
(i) Domain = R ~ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
2
(ii) Range = ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(iii) Period = 2π
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6. Graph of cosec x
Y
y = cosec x
( –23π,1) (π2,1) ( 52π,1)

y=1
1
X' X
–2π –π
–π/2 O π π 3π 2π 5π
– 3π
2 –1 2 2 2
y = –1
– π,–1
( ) 3π,_1
( )
2 2
Y'
(i) Domain = R ~ nπ , n ∈ I
(ii) Range = ( −∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(iii) Period = 2π
Note|sin θ | ≤ 1,|cos θ| ≤ 1,|sec θ| ≥ 1,|cosec θ| ≥ 1 for all values of θ, for which
the functions are defined.
Trigonometric Functions in Terms of

sine and cosine Functions
Given below are trigonometric functions defined in terms of sine and
cosine functions
1 1
(i) sin θ = or cosec θ =
cosec θ sin θ
1 1
(ii) cos θ = or sec θ =
sec θ cos θ
1 cos θ 1 sin θ
(iii) cot θ = = or tan θ = =
tan θ sin θ cot θ cos θ
Fundamental Trigonometric Identities

An equation involving trigonometric functions which is true for all
those angles for which the functions are defined is called
trigonometrical identity.
(i) cos2 θ + sin2 θ = 1 or 1 − cos2 θ = sin2 θ or 1 − sin2 θ = cos2 θ
(ii) 1 + tan2 θ = sec2 θ or tan2 θ = sec2θ − 1 or sec2θ − tan2 θ = 1
(iii) 1 + cot2 θ = cosec2 θ or cot2 θ = cosec2θ − 1 or cosec2θ − cot2 θ = 1
Transformation of One Trigonometric Function to
Another Trigonometric Function 130
Trigonometric tan θ sec θ cosec θ
sin θ cos θ cot θ
function
tan θ 1 1
(sec2 θ − 1)
sin θ sin θ (1 − cos 2 θ) 2 2 cosec θ
(1 + tan θ) 1 + cot θ
sec θ
1 cot θ 1 (cosec2 θ − 1)
cos θ (1 − sin2 θ) cos θ (1 + cot2 θ)
(1 + tan2 θ) sec θ cosec θ
sin θ 1 1
(1 − cos 2 θ) tan θ (sec2 θ − 1)
tan θ (cosec2 θ − 1)
(1 − sin2 θ) cos θ cot θ
Handbook of Mathematics
(1 − sin2 θ) cos θ 1 1 (cosec2 θ − 1)

cot θ 2 cot θ 2
sin θ (1 − cos θ) tan θ (sec θ − 1)
1 1 1 + cot2 θ sec θ cosec θ

sec θ 2 (1 + tan2 θ)
(1 − sin θ) cos θ (cosec2 θ − 1)
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cot θ
1 1 (1 + tan2 θ) sec θ cosec θ

cosec θ (1 + cot2 θ)
sin θ (1 − cos 2 θ) tan θ (sec2 θ − 1)
Note Above table is applicable only when θ ∈ ( 0 ° , 90 ° ).

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Sign of Trigonometric Functions in

Different Quadrants
If we draw two mutually perpendicular (intersecting) lines in the plane
of paper, then these lines divide the plane of paper into four parts,
known as quadrants.
In anti-clockwise order, these quadrants are numbered as I, II, III and
IV. All angles from 0° to 90° are taken in I quardant, 90° to 180° in II
quardant, 180° to 270° in III quadrant and 270° to 360° in IV
quadrant.
Y
π π
II Quadrant 2 < θ < π I Quadrant 0 < θ <
2
sin θ and cosec θ are All trigonometric functions
positive. are positive.
(90°+θ) and (180° – θ) (360°+θ) and (90° – θ)
180° 90°
X′ X
270° 360°
3π 3π
III Quadrant π < θ < IV Quadrant < θ < 2π
2 2
tan θ and cot θ are positive. cos θ and sec θ are positive.
(180°+θ) and (270° – θ) (270°+θ) and (360° – θ)
Y′
Trigonometric Ratios of
Some Special Angles
1° 1°
Angle 7 15 ° 18 ° 22 36 °
2 2
sin θ 4− 2 − 6 3 −1 5 −1 1
2− 2
1
10 − 2 5
2 2 4 2 4
2 2
cos θ 3+1 1 1 5+1

4+ 2 + 6 10 + 2 5 2+ 2
4 2 4
2 2 2 2
tan θ ( 3 − 2 )( 2 − 1 ) 2− 3 5 −1 2 −1 10 − 2 5
10 + 2 5 5+1
Trigonometric Ratios (or Functions) of Allied Angles

Two angles are said to be allied when their sum or difference is either
zero or a multiple of 90°. The angles − θ , 90° ± θ , 180° ± θ , 270° ± θ,
360° − θ etc., are angles allied to the angle θ, if θ is measured in
degrees.
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Allied Angles sin θ cosec θ cos θ sec θ tan θ cot θ

−θ − sin θ − cosec θ cos θ sec θ − tan θ − cot θ
90° − θ cos θ sec θ sin θ cosec θ cot θ tan θ
90° + θ cos θ sec θ − sin θ − cosec θ − cot θ − tan θ
180° − θ sin θ cosec θ − cos θ − sec θ − tan θ − cot θ
180° + θ − sin θ − cosec θ − cos θ − sec θ tan θ cot θ
270° − θ − cos θ − sec θ − sin θ − cosec θ cot θ tan θ
270° + θ − cos θ − sec θ sin θ cosec θ − cot θ − tan θ
360° − θ − sin θ − cosec θ cos θ sec θ − tan θ − cot θ
Trigonometric Functions of Compound Angles

The algebraic sum of two or more angles are generally called
compound angles and the angles are known as the constituent angle.
Some standard formulae of compound angles have been given below
(i) sin ( A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
(ii) sin ( A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B
(iii) cos ( A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
(iv) cos ( A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
tan A + tan B
(v) tan ( A + B) =
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
(vi) tan( A − B) =
1 + tan A tan B
cot A cot B − 1
(vii) cot( A + B) =
cot B + cot A
cot A cot B + 1
(viii) cot( A − B) =
cot B − cot A

(i) sin ( A + B) sin ( A − B) = sin2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − cos2 A
(ii) cos ( A + B) cos ( A − B) = cos2 A − sin2 B = cos2 B − sin2 A
(iii) sin( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B sin C + cos A sin B cos C
+ sin A cos B cos C − sin A sin B sin C
or sin ( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C(tan A + tan B + tan C
− tan A tan B tan C )
(iv) cos( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C − sin A sin B cos C
− sin A cos B sin C − cos A sin B sin C
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or cos( A + B + C ) = cos A cos B cos C(1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C
− tan C tan A)
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
(v) tan( A + B + C ) =
1 − tan A tan B − tan B tan C − tan C tan A
If A + B + C = 0, then tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C
(vi) (a) sin( A1 + A2 + K + An ) = (cos A1 cos A 2 cos A 3 ... cos An )
× (S1 − S3 + S5 − S7 + K )
(b) cos( A1 + A2 + K + An ) = (cos A1 cos A 2cos A 3... cos An )
× (1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 + ... )
S1 − S3 + S5 − S7 + K
(c) tan( A1 + A2 + K + An ) =
1 − S2 + S4 − S6 + K
where, S1 = tan A1 + tan A 2 + K + tan An
[sum of the tangents of the separate angles]
S 2 = tan A1 tan A 2 + tan A 2 tan A3 + ...
[sum of the tangents taken two at a time]
S3 = tan A1 tan A 2 tan A3 + tan A 2 tan A3 tan A 4 + ...
[sum of the tangents taken three at a time]
Note If A1 = A2 = L An = A, then we have
S1 = n tan A,S 2 = nC2 tan 2 A, S 3 = nC3 tan 3 A,K so on.
Transformation Formulae
(i) 2 sin A cos B =
sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B)
(ii) 2 cos A sin B =
sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B)
(iii) 2 cos A cos B =
cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B)
(iv) 2 sin A sin B =
cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
C + D C − D
(v) sin C + sin D = 2 sin   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
(vi) sin C − sin D = 2 cos   sin  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
(vii) cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  
 2   2 
C + D C − D
(viii) cos C − cos D = − 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
C + D  D − C
= 2 sin   sin  
 2   2 
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Trigonometric Functions of Multiple Angles

2 tan A
(i) sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A =
1 + tan2 A
(ii) cos 2 A = cos2 A − sin2 A = 2 cos2 A − 1
1 − tan2 A
= 1 − 2 sin2 A =
1 + tan2 A
2 tan A
(iii) tan 2 A =
1 − tan2 A
(iv) sin 3 A = 3 sin A − 4 sin3 A
(v) cos 3 A = 4 cos3 A − 3 cos A
3 tan A − tan3 A
(vi) tan 3 A =
1 − 3 tan2 A
Trigonometric Functions of Sub-multiple Angles

A
2 tan
A A 2
(i) sin A = 2 sin cos =
2 2 1 + tan2 A
2
A
1 − tan2
A 2 A 2 A 2 A 2
(ii) cos A = cos 2
− sin = 2 cos − 1 = 1 − 2 sin =
2 2 2 2 1 + tan2 A
2
A
2 tan
(iii) tan A = 2
2 A
1 − tan
2
2 A
(iv) 1 − cos A = 2 sin
2
A
(v) 1 + cos A = 2 cos2
2
1 − cos A 2 A
(vi) = tan
1 + cos A 2
 A  A
(vii) sin   + cos   = ± 1 + sin A
 2  2
A  A
(viii) sin   − cos   = ± 1 − sin A
2  2
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1. Product of Trigonometric Ratio
1
(i) sin θ sin ( 60° − θ ) sin ( 60° + θ ) = sin 3 θ
4
1
(ii) cos θ cos ( 60° − θ ) cos ( 60° + θ ) = cos 3 θ
4
(iii) tan θ tan ( 60° − θ ) tan ( 60° + θ ) = tan 3 θ
1
(iv) cos 36° cos 72° =
4
1
(v) cos A cos 2 A cos 4 A K cos 2n − 1 A = n sin( 2n A)
2 sin A
2. Sum of Trigonometric Ratios

(i) sin A + sin ( A + B) + sin ( A + 2B) + ... + sin ( A + ( n − 1) B)
 B nB
sin  A + ( n − 1)  sin
=  2 2
B
sin
2
(ii) cos A + cos ( A + B) + cos( A + 2B) + ... + cos ( A + ( n − 1) B)
nB
sin
= 2 cos  A + ( n − 1)B
 
sin
B  2 
2
3. Identities for Angles of a Triangle

If A, B and C are angles of a triangle (or A + B + C = π), then
(i) (a) sin ( B + C ) = sin A (b) cos ( B + C ) = − cos A
 B + C A  B + C A
(c) sin   = cos (d) cos   = sin
 2  2  2  2
(ii) sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C = 4 sin A sin B sin C
(iii) cos 2 A + cos 2B + cos 2C = − 1 − 4 cos A cos B cos C
A B C
(iv) sin A + sin B + sin C = 4 cos cos cos
2 2 2
A B C
(v) cos A + cos B + cos C = 1 + 4 sin sin sin
2 2 2
(vi) tan A + tan B + tan C = tan A tan B tan C
(vii) cot B cot C + cot C cot A + cot A cot B = 1
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A B C A B C
(viii) cot + cot + cot = cot cot cot
2 2 2 2 2 2
A B B C C A
(ix) tan tan + tan tan + tan tan = 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Trigonometric Periodic Functions

A function f ( x ) is said to be periodic, if there exists a real number T > 0
such that f ( x + T ) = f ( x ) for all x. T is called the period of the function,
all trigonometric functions are periodic.

(i)sinθ, cos θ , cosec θ and sec θ have a period of 2π.
(ii)tanθ, cot θ have a period of π.
(iii)Period of sin k θ is 2π /k.
(iv) Period of tan k θ is π /k.
(v) Period of sinn θ , cosn θ , secn θ and cosecnθ is 2π , if n is odd and, π if n is
even.
(vi) Period of tann θ , cotn θ is π , if n is even or odd.
(vii) Period of |sin θ |, |cos θ |, |tanθ |, |cot θ |, |sec θ | and |cosec θ| is π.
(viii) Period of |sin θ | + |cos θ |, |tan θ | + |cot θ | and |sec θ | + | cosec θ | is π / 2.
Maximum and Minimum Values of a

Trigonometric Expression
(i) Maximum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ = a 2 + b2
Minimum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ = − a 2 + b2
(ii) Maximum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ + c = c + a 2 + b2
Minimum value of a cos θ ± b sin θ + c = c − a 2 + b2
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions sinh z , cosh z , tanh z , cosech z , sec h z , coth z
are angles of the circular functions, defined by removing is appearing
in the complex exponentials.
ex − e− x
(i) sinh x =
2
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ex + e− x
(ii) cosh x =
2
sinh x ex − e− x
(iii) tanh x = =
cosh x ex + e− x
1 2
(iv) cosech x = =
1 2
(v) sech x = =
cosh x ex + e− x
cosh x ex + e− x
(vi) coth x = =
Domain and Range of Hyperbolic Function

Hyperbolic function Domain Range
sinh x R R
cosh x R [1, ∞)
tanh x R (− 1, 1)
cosech x R − { 0} R − { 0}
sech x R (0, 1]
coth x R − { 0} R − [ −1, 1]
Identities
(i) cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1
(ii) sech2 x + tanh2 x = 1
(iii) coth2 x − cosech2 x = 1
(iv) cosh2 x + sinh2 x = cosh 2x
Formulae for the Sum and Difference

(i) sinh( x ± y ) = sinh x cosh y ± cosh x sinh y
(ii) cosh( x ± y ) = cosh x cosh y ± sinh x sinh y
tanh x ± tanh y
(iii) tanh ( x ± y ) =
1 ± tanh x tanh y
Formulae to Transform the Product into Sum or Difference

 x + y  x − y
(i) sinh x + sinh y = 2 sinh   cosh  
 2   2 
 x + y  x − y
(ii) sinh x − sinh y = 2 cosh   sinh  
 2   2 
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 x + y  x − y
(iii) cosh x + cosh y = 2 cosh   cosh  
 2   2 
 x + y  x − y
(iv) cosh x − cosh y = 2 sinh   sinh  
 2   2 
(v) 2 sinh x cosh y = sinh ( x + y ) + sinh( x − y )
(vi) 2 cosh x sinh y = sinh ( x + y ) − sinh( x − y )
(vii) 2 cosh x cosh y = cosh ( x + y ) + cosh ( x − y )
(viii) 2 sinh x sinh y = cosh( x + y ) − cosh ( x − y )
Formulae for Multiples of x

2 tanh x
(i) sinh 2x = 2 sinh x cosh x =
1 − tanh2 x
(ii) cosh 2x = cosh2 x + sinh2 x = 2 cosh2 x − 1 = 1 + 2 sinh2 x
1 + tanh2 x
=
1 − tanh2 x
2 tanh x
(iii) tanh 2x =
1 + tanh2 x
(iv) sinh 3x = 3 sinh x + 4 sinh3 x
(v) cosh 3x = 4 cosh3 x − 3 cosh x
3 tanh x + tanh3 x
(vi) tanh 3x =
1 + 3 tanh2 x
Important Formulae
1. (i) sinh2 x − sinh2 y = sinh ( x + y )sinh ( x − y )
(ii) cosh2 x + sinh2 y = cosh( x + y ) cosh( x − y )
(iii) cosh2 x − cosh2 y = sinh ( x + y )sinh( x − y )
2. (i) sinix = i sinh x (ii) cos(ix ) = cosh x
(iii) tan(ix ) = i tanh x (iv) cot(ix ) = − i coth x
(v) sec(ix ) = sech x (vi) cosec (ix ) = − i cosech x
3. (i) sinh x = − i sin(ix ) (ii) cosh x = cos (ix )
(iii) tanh x = − i tan(ix ) (iv) coth x = i cot(ix )
(v) sech x = sec(ix ) (vi) cosech x = i cosec(ix )
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Trigonometric Equations
An equation involving one or more trigonometrical ratios of unknown
angle is called a trigonometric equation.
Solution/Roots of a Trigonometric Equation

A value of the unknown angle which satisfies the given equation, is
called a solution or root of the equation.
The trigonometric equation may have infinite number of solutions.
(i) Principal Solution The least value of unknown angle
which satisfies the given equation, is called a principal solution
of trigonometric equation.
(ii) General Solution We know that trigonometric function are
periodic and solution of trigonometric equations can be
generalised with the help of the periodicity of the trigonometric
functions. The solution consisting of all possible solutions of a
trigonometric equation is called its general solution.

(i) sinθ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ, where n ∈ z
π
(ii) cosθ = 0 ⇒ θ = ( 2n + 1) , where n ∈ z
2
(iii) tanθ = 0 ⇒ θ = nπ, where n ∈ z
 π π
(iv) sin θ = sin α ⇒ θ = nπ + ( − 1)n α, where α ∈ − ,  and n ∈ z
 2 2
(v) cos θ = cos α ⇒ θ = 2nπ ± α, where α ∈ [0, π ] and n ∈ z
 π π
(vi) tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = nπ + α, where α ∈  − ,  and n ∈ z
 2 2
(vii) sin2 θ = sin2 α , cos2 θ = cos2 α, tan2 θ = tan2 α
⇒ θ = n π ± α, where n ∈ z
π
(viii) sinθ = 1 ⇒ θ = ( 4n + 1) , where n ∈ z
2
(ix) cosθ = 1 ⇒ θ = 2nπ, where n ∈ z
(x) cosθ = − 1 ⇒ θ = ( 2n + 1) π, where n ∈ z
sin θ = sin α and cos θ = cos α 


(xi) sin θ = sin α and tan θ = tan α ⇒ θ = 2nπ + α, where n ∈ z

tan θ = tan α and cos θ = cos α
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(xii) Equation of the form a cos θ + b sin θ = c

Put a = r cosα and b = r sin α , where
r = a 2 + b2 and|c|≤ a 2 + b2
∴ θ = 2nπ ± α + φ, n ∈ I
|c| b
where, α = cos−1 and φ = tan−1
a +b
2 2 a
(a) If|c|> a 2 + b2 , equation has no solution.
(b) If|c|≤ a 2 + b2 , equation is solvable.

n
 nπ 
(xiii) sin  + θ = ( − 1) 2 cos θ , if n is odd.
 2 
n
= ( −1) 2 sin θ , if n is even.
n −1
 nπ 
(xiv) cos  + θ = ( − 1) 2 sin θ , if n is odd.
 2  n
= ( −1) 2 cos θ , if n is even.
(xv) sin θ1 + sin θ 2 + K + sin θ n = n ⇒ sin θ1 = sin θ 2 = K = sin θ n = 1
(xvi) cos θ1 + cos θ 2 + K + cos θ n = n ⇒ cos θ1 = cos θ 2 = K = cos θ n = 1
(xvii) sin θ + cosec θ = 2 ⇒ sin θ = 1
(xviii) cos θ + sec θ = 2 ⇒ cos θ = 1
(xix) sin θ + cosec θ = − 2 ⇒ sin θ = − 1
(xx) cos θ + sec θ = − 2 ⇒ cos θ = − 1

(i) While solving an equation, we have to square it, sometimes the resulting
roots does not satisfy the original equation.
(ii) Do not cancel common factors involving the unknown angle on LHS and
RHS. Because it may be the solution of given equation.
(iii) (a) Equation involving sec θ or tan θ can never be a solution of the form
π
( 2n + 1) .
2
(b) Equation involving cosec θ or cotθ can never be a solution of the form
θ = nπ .
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12
Solution of Triangles
Basic Rules of Triangle

In a ∆ABC, the angles are denoted by capital letters A, B and C and
the lengths of the sides opposite to these angles are denoted by small
letters a , b and c, respectively. Area and perimeter of a triangle are
denoted by ∆ and 2s respectively.
A
b
c
B C
a
a+ b+ c
Semi-perimeter of the triangle is written as s = .
2
sin A sin B sin C 1
(i) Sine Rule = = = , where R is radius of the
a b c 2R
circumcircle of ∆ABC.
b2 + c2 − a 2 a 2 + c2 − b2
(ii) Cosine Rule cos A = , cos B =
2bc 2ac
a 2 + b2 − c2
and cosC =
2ab
(iii) Projection Rule a = b cos C + c cos B, b = c cos A + a cos C
and c = a cos B + b cos A
B−C b− c A
(iv) Napier’s Analogy tan = cot ,
2 b+ c 2
C− A c−a B A− B a− b C
tan = cot and tan = cot
2 c+a 2 2 a+b 2
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Trigonometrical Ratios of
Half of the Angles of Triangle
A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − c)( s − a )
(i) sin = , sin = ,
2 bc 2 ac
C ( s − a )( s − b)
sin =
2 ab
A s( s − a ) B s( s − b) C s( s − c)
(ii) cos = , cos = , cos =
2 bc 2 ac 2 ab
A ( s − b)( s − c) B ( s − a )( s − c)
(iii) tan = , tan =
2 s( s − a ) 2 s( s − b)
C ( s − a )( s − b)
tan =
2 s( s − c)
Area of a Triangle
Consider a triangle of side a , b and c.
1 1 1
(i) ∆ = bc sin A = ca sin B = ab sin C
2 2 2
c2 sin A sin B a 2 sin B sin C b2 sin C sin A
(ii) ∆ = = =
2 sin C 2 sin A 2 sin B
(iii) ∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c), its known as Heron’s formula.
a+ b+ c
where, s = [semi-perimeter of triangle]
2
abc
(iv) ∆ = = rs, where R and r are radii of the circumcircle and the
4R
incircle of ∆ABC, respectively.
Solutions of a Triangle
Elements of a Triangle
There are six elements of a triangle, in which three are its sides and
other three are its angle. If three elements of a triangle are given,
atleast one of which is its side, then other elements can be uniquely
calculated. This is called solving the triangle.
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Solution of Triangles 143

1. Solutions of a Right Angled Triangle
Let ∆ABC be a given triangle with right angle at C, then
B
c
a
A C
b
(i) the solution when two sides are given
Given To be calculated
a, b a a
tan A = ; B = 90° − A, c =
b sin A
a, c a
sin A = ; B = 90° − A
c
b = c cos A or b = c2 − a2
(ii) the solution when one side and one acute angle are given
Given To be calculated
a, A a
B = 90° − A, b = a cot A, c =
sin A
c, A B = 90° − A, a = c sin A, b = c cot A
2. Solutions of a Triangle in General

(i) When three sides a , b and c are given, then
2∆ 2∆ 2∆
sin A = , sin B = , sin C =
bc ac ab
a+ b+ c
where, ∆ = s ( s − a ) ( s − b) ( s − c) in which s =
2
and A + B + C = 180°.
(ii) When two sides and the included angle are given, then
 A − B a − b C A+ B C a sin C
(a) tan   = cot , = 90° − , c =
 2  a+b 2 2 2 sin A
 B − C b − c A B+C A b sin A
(b) tan   = cot , = 90° − , a =
 2  b+ c 2 2 2 sin B
 C − A c − a B C+ A B c sin B
(c) tan   = cot , = 90° − , b =
 2  c+a 2 2 2 sin C
This is called as Napier’s analogy.
(iii) When one side a and two angles A and B are given, then
c sin B a sin C
C = 180° − ( A + B) ⇒ b = and c =
sin C sin A
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(iv) When two sides a , b and the opposite ∠A is given, then

b a sin C
sin B = sin A, C = 180° − ( A + B), c =
a sin A
Now, different cases arise here
b
(a) If A is an acute angle and a 1, which is not possible, so no such triangle is
possible.
(b) When A is an acute angle and a = b sin A. In this case, only one
triangle is possible, which is right angled at B.
(c) If A is an acute angle and a > b sin A. In this case, there are
b sin A
two values of B given by sin B = , say B1 and B2 such
a
a sin C
that B1 + B 2 = 180°, side c can be calculated from c = .
sin A
Circles Connected with Triangle

1. Circumcircle
The circle passing through the vertices of the ∆ABC is called the
circumcircle and its radius R is called the circumradius.
A
O R
B C
a b c abc
∴ R= = = =
2 sin A 2 sin B 2 sin C 4∆
2. Incircle
The circle touches the three sides of the triangle internally is called the
inscribed or the incircle of the triangle and its radius r is called the
inradius of circle.
A
r
B C
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∆ A
∴ r= = ( s − a ) tan
s 2
B C A B C
r = ( s − b) tan = ( s − c) tan = 4R sin sin sin
2 2 2 2 2
B C C A A B
a sin sin b sin sin c sin sin
and r= 2 2 = 2 2 = 2 2
A B C
cos cos cos
2 2 2
3. Escribed Circle
The circle touches BC and the two sides AB and AC produced of ∆ABC
externally is called the escribed circle opposite to A. Its radius is
denoted by r1.
B
r1
A
C
Similarly, r2 and r3 denote the radii of the escribed circles opposite to
angles B and C, respectively. Hence, r1 , r2 and r3 are called the exradius
of ∆ABC. Here,
B C
a cos cos
∆ A A B C 2 2
(i) r1 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−a 2 2 2 2 cos
A
2
C A
b cos cos
∆ B B C A 2 2
(ii) r2 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−b 2 2 2 2 cos
B
2
A B
c cos cos
∆ C C A B 2 2
(iii) r3 = = s tan = 4R sin cos cos =
s−c 2 2 2 2 cos
C
2
(iv) r1 + r2 + r3 = 4R + r
r r r
(v) r1 r2 + r2 r3 + r3r1 = 1 2 3
r
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4. Orthocentre and Pedal Triangle

The point of intersection of perpendicular drawn from the vertices on
the opposite sides of a triangle is called orthocentre.
A
F E
B D C
The ∆DEF formed by joining the feet of the altitudes is called the pedal
triangle.
(i) Distance of the orthocentre of the triangle from the angular
points are 2R cos A, 2R cos B, 2R cos C and its distances from the
sides are 2 R cos B cos C, 2 R cos C cos A, 2 R cos A cos B.
(ii) The length of medians AD, BE and CF of a ∆ABC are
1 1
AD = 2b2 + 2c2 − a 2 , BE = 2c2 + 2a 2 − b2
2 2
1
and CF = 2a 2 + 2b2 − c2
2
Radii of the Inscribed and Circumscribed

Circles of Regular Polygon
O A
D
R π π R
n n
r
B L C
a π
(i) Radius of circumcircle ( R ) = cos ec
2 n
a π
(ii) Radius of incircle (r ) = cot , where a is the length of a side of
2 n
polygon.
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(iii) The area of the polygon = n (Area of ∆ABC)
1  π
= na 2 cot  
4  n
π n 2  2π 
= nr 2 tan = R sin  
n 2  n

(i) Distance between circumcentre and orthocentre
= R2 [1 − 8 cos A cos B cos C]
(ii) Distance between circumcentre and incentre
 A B C
= R 2 1 − 8 sin sin sin  = R2 − 2Rr
 2 2 2
1
(iii) Distance between circumcentre and centroid = R 2 − ( a2 + b2 + c2 )
9
(iv) m-nTheorem In a ∆ABC, D is a point on the lineBC such thatBD : DC = m : n
and ∠ADC = θ, ∠BAD = α , ∠DAC = β, then
A
α β
b
c
θ
B m C
D n
(a) (m + n) cotθ = m cotα − n cotβ
(b) (m + n) cotθ = n cotB − m cotC
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13
Heights and
Distances
Height and distance is the important application of Trigonometry, in
which we measure the height and distance of different object as towers,
building etc.
Angle of Elevation
If O be the observer’s eye and OX be the horizontal line through O.
P
t
igh
fs
eo
Lin
O X
Horizontal line
If the object P is at higher level than eye, then ∠ POX is called the
angle of elevation.
Angle of Depression
If the object P is a lower level than O, then ∠ POX is called the angle
of depression.
O Horizontal line
X
θ
Lin
eo
fs
igh
t
Note P
(i) Angle of elevation and depression are always acute angle.
(ii) Angle of elevation of an object from an observer is same as angle of
depression of an observer from the object.
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Heights and Distances 149
Important Results on Height and Distance

(i) a = h (cot α − cot β )
D
A α β
a B r C
α + β
(ii) If AB = CD , then x = y tan  
 2 
A
y
α β
C E
x B
H sin(β − α )
(iii) h =
cos α sin β
h cot α
and H =
cot α − cot β
⇒ H = x cot α tan (α + β )
A
E α H
B
h β
D C
h cot β
(iv) H =
cot α
D
B
H
h
α β
A C
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(v) H = x cot α tan(α + β)

A
BH
β x
D α
x C
α sin(α + β )
(vi) H =
sin (β − α )
C
α H
D B
β
a
E A
(vii) a = h (cot α + cot β )

h = a sin α sin β cosec (α + β )
and d = h cot β = a sin α cos β cosec (α + β )
A
α β
B C
D d
a
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14
Inverse Trigonometric
Functions
Inverse Function
If y = f ( x ) and x = g ( y ) are two functions such that f ( g ( y )) = y and
g ( f ( y )) = x, then f and y are said to be inverse of each other,
i.e. g = f −1. If y = f ( x ), then x = f −1( y ).
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

As we know that trigonometric functions are not one-one and onto in
their natural domain and range, so their inverse do not exist but if we
restrict their domain and range, then their inverse may exists.
Domain and Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The range of trigonometric functions becomes the domain of inverse
trigonometric functions and restricted domain of trigonometric
functions becomes range or principal value branch of inverse
trigonometric functions.
Table for Domain, Range and Other Possible

Range of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Principal value
Function Domain Other possible range
branch (Range)
− π , π   −3π , − π ,  π , 3π  etc.
y = sin −1 x [ −1, 1]  2 2   2 2   2 2 
y = cos −1 x [ −1, 1] [ 0, π ] [ −π , 0], [ π , 2π ] etc.
− π , π   −3π , − π  ,  π , 3π  etc.
y = tan −1 x R      
 2 2  2 2  2 2 
π π 3π
y = sec −1 x R − ( −1, 1) [ 0, π ] −   [ −π , 0] − –  , [ π , 2π ] −   etc.
 2  2  2
 − π , π  − {0}  −3π , − π  − {– π },  π , 3π  − {π }
y = cosec −1 x R − ( −1, 1)  2 2   2 2   2 2 
y = cot −1 x R ( 0, π ) ( −π , 0), ( π , 2π ) etc.

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Graphs of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

The graphs of inverse trigonometric functions with respect to line y = x
are given in the following table
Graph Graph
Function
(By interchanging axes) (By mirror image)
Y
5π
—–
2
2π Y
3π y=sin–1x
—– π y=x
2 —
π 2
1
π π y=sin x
— – — –1
2 1 2
−1
y = sin x X′ –1 X X′ π X
0π 0 1 —
–— 2
2 –1
–π π
3π –—
– —– 2
2
– 2π Y′
5π
– —–
2
Y′
Y
5π
—–
2
2π
3π Y
—– y=cos–1 x
2
π π
π/2 y=x
π/2
−1 1
y = cos x X′ X
1
–1 0 π
–—
2
y=cos x
–π X′ π X
–1 0 1 π/2
3π
– —–
2
–2π Y′
5π
– —–
2
Y′
Y 2π Y y=tan x
π
3— y=x
2 π/2
π y=tan–1 x
π –π/2
y = tan −1 x — X′ X
–2 –1 2 0 π/2
X′ –1 0 1 2 X
π –π/2
–— 2
–π
Y′ Y′
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Inverse Trigonometric Functions 153

Graph Graph
Function
(By interchanging axes) (By mirror image)
Y
2π Y
3π π
—
2
π/2
π 1 y=sec–1x
y = sec −1 π X′
x — –1 01 π/2 π X
X′ –2 –1 2
–1 0 1 2
X –1
–—π
2 y=sec x
–π Y′
Y′
Y
2π
Y y=cosec x
3π π/2
— y=x
2
1 y=cosec–1 x
π
π –π/2 –1
y = cosec −1 x — X′ X
2 0 1 π/2
–2 –1
X′ X
–1 0 1 2 –1
π π/2
–—
2
–π Y′
Y′
Y
2π
3π Y
—
2 π y=cot x y=x
π –1π
y=cot x —
−1
2
y = cot x π/2
–2 –1 X′ X
X′
–1 0 1 2
X 0 π/2
π
–—
2
–π Y′
Y′
Elementary Properties of
Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Property I
 −π π 
(i) sin−1 (sin θ ) = θ; θ ∈  , 
 2 2
(ii) cos−1 (cos θ ) = θ ; θ ∈ [0, π ]
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 π π
(iii) tan−1 (tan θ ) = θ; θ ∈  − , 
 2 2
−1  π π
(iv) cosec ( cosec θ ) = θ ; θ ∈ − , , θ ≠ 0
 2 2
−1 π
(v) sec (sec θ ) = θ; θ ∈ [0, π ], θ ≠
2
(vi) cot−1 (cot θ ) = θ; θ ∈( 0, π )
Property II
(i) sin (sin−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(ii) cos (cos−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
(iii) tan (tan−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ R
(iv) cosec ( cosec−1x ) = x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1| ∪|1, ∞ )
(v) sec (sec−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1| ∪|1, ∞ )
(vi) cot (cot−1 x ) = x ; x ∈ R
Property III
(i) sin−1 ( − x ) = − sin−1 x; x ∈ [−1, 1]
(ii) cos−1( − x ) = π − cos−1 x; x ∈ [−1, 1]
(iii) tan−1( − x ) = − tan−1 x; x ∈ R
(iv) cosec−1 ( − x ) = − cosec−1x; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(v) sec−1 ( − x ) = π − sec−1 x; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
(vi) cot−1 ( − x ) = π − cot−1 x; x ∈ R
Property IV
 1
(i) sin−1   = cosec−1x; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
 x
 1
(ii) cos−1   = sec−1 x ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
 x
−1
 1   cot x ; if x > 0
(iii) tan−1   = 
 x   − π + cot−1 x ; if x < 0
Property V
π
(i) sin−1 x + cos−1 x = ; x ∈ [− 1, 1]
2
π
(ii) tan−1 x + cot−1 x = ; x ∈ R
2
π
(iii) sec−1 x + cosec−1x = ; x ∈ ( − ∞ , − 1] ∪ [1, ∞ )
2
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Property VI
 −1
 sin { x 1 − y + y 1 − x };
2 2

if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 1 or
2 2


 if xy < 0 and x + y > 1
2 2

 −1
y =  π − sin { x 1 − y + y 1 − x } ;
2 2
(i) sin−1 x + sin−1

 if 0 < x , y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

− π − sin−1 { x 1 − y 2 + y 1 − x 2 };


 if − 1 ≤ x , y < 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

 sin−1{ x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 };

 if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 1
2 2

 or if xy > 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

 −1
(ii) sin−1 x − sin−1 y =  π − sin { x 1 − y − y 1 − x };
2 2

 if 0 < x ≤ 1, − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

 − π − sin−1 { x 1 − y 2 − y 1 − x 2 };

 if − 1 ≤ x < 0 , 0 < y ≤ 1 and x 2 + y 2 > 1

Property VII
(i) cos−1 x + cos−1 y
 cos−1 { xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≥ 0

=
 2π − cos−1{ xy − 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x, y ≤ 1 and x + y ≤ 0

(ii) cos−1 x − cos−1 y
 cos−1{ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ x , y ≤ 1 and x ≤ y
=
 − cos−1{ xy + 1 − x 2 1 − y 2 }; if − 1 ≤ y ≤ 0, 0 < x ≤ 1 and x ≥ y
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Property VIII
(i) tan−1 x + tan−1 y
 −1  x + y 
 tan  ; if xy < 1
  1 − xy 
  x+ y
=  π + tan−1  ; if x > 0, y > 0 and xy > 1
  1 − xy 
 −1  x + y 
 − π + tan  1 − xy  ; if x < 0, y < 0 and xy > 1

−1 −1
(ii) tan x − tan y
 −1  x − y 
 tan  ; if xy > − 1
  1 + xy 
  x− y
=  π + tan−1   ; if x > 0, y < 0 and xy < − 1
  1 + xy 
 −1  x − y 
 − π + tan   ; if x < 0, y > 0 and xy < − 1
  1 + xy 
Property IX
x 1 − x2
(i) sin−1 x = cos−1 1 − x 2 = tan−1 = cot−1
1 − x2 x
 1   1
= sec−1  = cosec−1   , x ∈( 0, 1)
 1 − x2   x
 
1 − x2
(ii) cos−1 x = sin−1 1 − x 2 = tan−1
x
x  
1
= cot−1 = sec−1  
1− x 2  x
 1 
= cosec−1  , x ∈( 0, 1)
 1 − x2 
 
 x   1   1
(iii) tan−1 x = sin−1  = cos−1  = cot−1  
 1 + x2   1 + x2   x
   
 1 + x2 
= cosec−1  
 x 
 
= sec−1( 1 + x 2 ), x ∈ ( 0, ∞ )
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Property X
 −1 1 1
 sin ( 2x 1 − x ); if − ≤ x≤
2
2 2

−1  −1 1
(i) 2 sin x =  π − sin ( 2x 1 − x ); if
2
≤ x≤1
 2
 − π − sin−1( 2x 1 − x 2 ); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1
 2
 cos−1 ( 2x 2 − 1); if 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
(ii) 2 cos−1 x =  −1
 2π − cos ( 2x − 1); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 0
2
 −1  2x 
 tan  ; if − 1 < x < 1
  1 − x2 
  2x 
(iii) 2 tan−1 x =  π + tan−1  ; if x > 1
  1 − x2 
 −1  2x 
 − π + tan  ; if x < − 1
  1 − x2 
Property XI
 −1 1 1
 sin ( 3x − 4x ); if − ≤ x ≤
3
2 2
−1
 −1 1
(i) 3 sin x =  π − sin ( 3x − 4x );3
if < x ≤ 1
 2
 − π − sin−1 ( 3x − 4x3 ); if − 1 ≤ x < − 1
 2
 −1 3 1
 cos ( 4x − 3x ); if ≤ x ≤ 1
2
 1 1
(ii) 3 cos−1 x =  2π − cos−1( 4x3 − 3x ); if − ≤ x ≤
 2 2
 2π + cos−1( 4x3 − 3x ); if − 1 ≤ x ≤ − 1
 2
 −1  3x − x 
3
1 1
 tan  ; if − < x<
 1 − 3x 
2
 3 3
  3 x − x3
1
(iii) 3 tan−1 x =  π + tan−1  ; if x >
 1 − 3x 
2
 3
  3x − x 3
1
 − π + tan−1   ; if x < −
  1 − 3 x 2
 3
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Property XII
 −1  2x 
 sin  ; if − 1 ≤ x ≤ 1
  1 + x2 
  2x 
(i) 2 tan−1 x =  π − sin−1  ; if x > 1
  1 + x2 
 −1  2x 
 − π − sin   ; if x < − 1
  1 + x2 
 −1  1 − x 
2
 cos  ; if 0 ≤ x < ∞
1 + x 
2
−1 
(ii) 2 tan x = 
 − cos−1  1 − x  ;
2
if − ∞ < x < 0
 1 + x 
2


 x + y + z − xyz 
(i) tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = tan−1  ,
 1 − xy − yz − zx 
if x > 0, y > 0, z > 0 and ( xy + yz + zx ) < 1
π
(ii) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 1
2
(iii) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y + tan−1 z = π , then x + y + z = xyz
π
(iv) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = , then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
2
(v) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = π, then
x 1 − x 2 + y 1 − y 2 + z 1 − z 2 = 2xyz
(vi) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y + cos−1 z = 3π, then xy + yz + zx = 3
(vii) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y + cos−1 z = π, then x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xyz = 1
3π
(viii) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y + sin−1 z = , then xy + yz + zx = 3
2
(ix) If sin−1 x + sin−1 y = θ , then cos−1 x + cos−1 y = π − θ
(x) If cos−1 x + cos−1 y = θ, then sin−1 x + sin−1 y = π − θ
π
(xi) If tan−1 x + tan−1 y = , then xy = 1
2
π
(xii) If cot−1 x + cot−1 y = , then xy = 1
2
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x y x 2 2xy y2
(xiii) If cos−1 + cos−1 = θ, then 2 − cos θ + 2 = sin2 θ
a b a ab b
 S1 − S3 + S5 − ... 
(xiv) tan−1 x1 + tan−1 x2 +...+ tan−1 xn = tan−1  
 1 − S 2 + S 4 − S 6 + ...
where, S k denotes the sum of the products of x1 , x2 ,... , xn takes k
at a time.
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

If sinh y = x , then y is called the inverse hyperbolic sine of x and it is
written as y = sinh−1 x.
Similarly, cosh−1 x , tan h−1x etc., can be defined.
Domain and Range of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Function Domain Range
sinh−1 x R R
cosh−1 x [ 1, ∞] R
tanh−1 x ( −1, 1) R
cosech −1 x R − {0} R − {0}
sech−1 x ( 0, 1] R
coth−1 x R − [ −1, 1] R − {0}
Relation between Inverse Circular Functions

and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
(i) sinh−1x = − i sin−1( ix ) (ii) cosh−1x = − i cos−1 x
(iii) tanh−1x = − i tan−1( ix )

(i) sinh−1x = loge ( x + x 2 + 1 ) (ii) cosh−1x = loge ( x + x 2 − 1 )
1  1 + x 1  x + 1
(iii) tanh−1x = loge   (iv) coth−1x = loge   ,|x|> 1
2  1 − x 2  x − 1
 1 + 1 − x2 
(v) sech−1x = loge   , x ∈ ( 0, 1]
 x 
 
 1 + 1 + x 2 
 loge  ,x > 0
  x 
  
−1
(vi) cos ech x = 
 
 loge  1 − 1 + x 2 
,x< 0
  x 
  
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Rectangular Axis
Coordinate Geometry
The branch of mathematics in which we study the position of any
object lying in a plane with the help of two mutually perpendicular
lines in the same plane, is called coordinate geometry.
Rectangular Axis
Let XOX ′ and YOY ′ be two fixed straight lines, which meet at right
angles at O. Then,
Y
P (x, y)
X' X
O
Y'
(i) X ′OX is called axis of X or abscissa or the X-axis.

(ii) Y ′ OY is called axis of Y or ordinate or the Y-axis.
(iii) The ordered pair of real numbers ( x , y ) is called cartesian
coordinate.
(iv) Coordinates of the origin are ( 0, 0).
(v) y-coordinate of a point on X-axis is zero.
(vi) x-coordinate of a point on Y -axis is zero.
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Rectangular Axis 161
Quadrants
The X and Y-axes divide the coordinate plane into four parts, each part
is called a quadrant which is given below
Y
(–, +) (+, +)
II Quadrant I Quadrant
x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
X' X
(–, –) (+, –)
III Quadrant IV Quadrant
x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0
Y'
Polar Coordinates
In ∆OPQ,
Y
P (x, y)
r
y
θ
X′ X
O x Q
Y′
x y
cosθ = and sinθ = ⇒ x = r cosθ and y = r sinθ
r r
 y
where, r = x 2 + y 2 and θ = tan−1  
 x
The polar coordinate is represented by the symbol P (r , θ ).
Distance Formulae
(i) Distance between two points P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q ( x2 , y2 ), is
PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 .
P (x1, y1) Q (x 2 , y 2 )
(ii) If points are (r1 , θ1 ) and (r2 , θ 2 ), then distance between them is
r12 + r22 − 2 r1r2 cos(θ1 − θ 2 ).
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(iii) Distance of a point ( x1 , y1 ) from the origin is x12 + y12 .

(iv) If the coordinate axes are inclined at an angle ω, then distance
between ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is
= ( x1 − x2 )2 + ( y1 − y2 )2 + 2 ( x1 − x2 )( y1 − y2 ) cos ω
Section Formulae
(i) The coordinate of the point which divides the joint of ( x1 , y1 ) and
( x2 , y2 ) in the ratio m1 : m2 internally, is
 m1x2 + m2x1 m1 y2 + m2 y1 
 , 
 m1 + m2 m1 + m2 
A R C
(x 1 , y 1 ) m1 m2 (x2, y2)
 m x − m2x1 m1 y2 − m2 y1 
and externally is  1 2 , .
 m1 − m2 m1 − m2 
(ii) X-axis divides the line segment joining ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) in the
ratio − y1 : y2.
Similarly, Y-axis divides the same line segment in the ratio
− x1 : x2.
 x + x2 y1 + y2 
(iii) Mid-point of the joint of ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is  1 , .
 2 2 
(iv) Centroid of ∆ABC with vertices ( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ), is
 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 
 , .
 3 3 
(v) Circumcentre of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and
C( x3 , y3 ), is
 x1 sin 2 A + x2 sin 2B + x3 sin 2C y1 sin 2 A + y2 sin 2B + y3 sin 2C 
 , .
 sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C sin 2 A + sin 2B + sin 2C 
(vi) Incentre of ∆ ABC with vertices A ( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 )
and whose sides are a , b and c, is
 ax1 + bx2 + cx3 ay1 + by2 + cy3 
 , .
 a+ b+ c a+ b+ c 
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(vii) Excentre of ∆ABC with vertices A ( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ), C ( x3 , y3 ) and
whose sides are a, b and c, is given by
 − ax1 + bx2 + cx3 − ay1 + by2 + cy3 
I1 =  , ,
 − a+ b+ c − a+ b+ c 
 ax − bx2 + cx3 ay1 − by2 + cy3 
I2 =  1 , 
 a− b+ c a− b+ c 
 ax + bx2 − cx3 ay1 + by2 − cy3 
and I3 =  1 , 
 a+ b− c a+ b− c 
(viii) Orthocentre of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and
C( x3 , y3 ), is
 x1 tan A + x2 tan B + x3 tan C y1 tan A + y2 tan B + y3 tan C 
 , .
 tan A + tan B + tan C tan A + tan B + tan C 
Area of Triangle/Quadrilateral
(i) Area of ∆ABC with vertices A( x1 , y1 ), B ( x2 , y2 ) and C( x3 , y3 ), is
A (x1, y1)
B (x2, y2) C (x3, y3)
x1 y1 1
1 1 x1 − x3 x2 − x3
∆= x2 y2 1 =
2 2 y1 − y3 y2 − y3
x3 y3 1
These points A, B and C will be collinear, if ∆ = 0.
(ii) Area of the quadrilateral formed by joining the vertices
1 x1 − x3 x2 − x4
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) and ( x4 , y4 ) is .
2 y1 − y3 y2 − y4
(iii) Area of trapezium formed by joining the vertices

( x1 , y1 ),( x2 , y2 ),( x3 , y3 ) and ( x4 , y4 ) is
1
|[( y1 + y2 )( x1 − x2 ) + ( y2 + y3 )( x2 − x3 ) + ( y3 + y4 )( x3 − x4 )
2
+ ( y4 + y1 )( x4 − x1 )]|
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Shifting of Origin/Rotation of Axes

Shifting of Origin
Let the origin is shifted to a point O ′ ( h , k). If P ( x , y ) are coordinates of
a point referred to old axes and P ′ ( X , Y ) are the coordinates of the
same points referred to new axes, then
Y Y
P' (X, Y)
P (x, y)
X′ X
O' (h, k)
X′ X
O
Y′ Y′
x = X + h, y = Y + k
Rotation of Axes
Let ( x , y ) be the coordinates of any point P referred to the old axes and
( X , Y ) be its coordinates referred to the new axes (after rotating the old
axes by angle θ). Then,
X = x cos θ + y sin θ and Y = y cos θ − x sin θ
Y
Y P X
θ
O M
θ
θ
X' X
O
Y'
X'
Y'
Note If origin is shifted to point (h, k) and system is also rotated by an angle θ
in anti-clockwise, then coordinate of new point P′ ( x ′ , y′ ) is obtained by
replacing
x ′ = h + x cos θ + y sin θ
and y′ = k − x sin θ + y cos θ
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Locus
The curve described by a point which moves under given condition(s) is
called its locus.
Equation of Locus
The equation of curve described by a point, which moves under given
conditions(s), is called the equation of locus.
Step Taken to Find the Equation of Locus of a Point

Step I Assume the coordinates of the point say (h,k) whose locus is to be
found.
Step II Write the given condition in mathematical form involving h, k.
Step III Eliminate the variable(s), if any.
Step IV Replace h by x and k by y in the result obtained in step III. The equation
so obtained is the locus of the point, which moves under some stated
condition(s).
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Straight Line
A straight line is the locus of all those points which are collinear with
two given points.
General equation of a line is ax + by + c = 0
Note
l We can have one and only one line through a fixed point in a given direction.
l We can have infinitely many lines through a given point.
Slope (Gradient) of a Line

The trigonometrical tangent of the angle that a line makes with the
positive direction of the X-axis in anti-clockwise sense is called the
slope or gradient of the line.
So, slope of a line, m = tan θ
where, θ is the angle made by the line with positive direction of X-axis.
Important Results on Slope of Line

(i) Slope of a line parallel to X-axis, m = 0.
(ii) Slope of a line parallel to Y-axis, m = ∞.
(iii) Slope of a line equally inclined with axes is 1 or −1as it makes an angle of
45° or 135°, with X-axis.
(iv) Slope of a line passing through ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given by
y −y
m = tanθ = 2 1 .
x2 − x1
Angle between Two Lines

The angle θ between two lines having slopes m1 and m2, is
 m − m1 
tanθ = 2 .
1 + m1m2 
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Straight Line 167

(i) Two lines are parallel, iff m1 = m2.
(ii) Two lines are perpendicular to each other, iff m1m2 = − 1.
Equation of a Straight Line

General equation of a straight line is Ax + By + C = 0.
(i) The equation of a line parallel to X-axis at a distance b from it, is
given by
y=b
(ii) The equation of a line parallel to Y-axis at a distance a from it, is
given by
x=a
(iii) Equation of X-axis is
y=0
(iv) Equation of Y-axis is
x=0
Different Forms of the Equation of a Straight Line

(i) Slope Intercept Form The equation of a line with slope m and
making an intercept c on Y-axis, is
y = mx + c
If the line passes through the origin, then its equation will be
y = mx
(ii) One Point Slope Form The equation of a line which passes
through the point ( x1 , y1 ) and has the slope m is given by
( y − y1 ) = m ( x − x1 )
(iii) Two Points Form The equation of a line passing through the
points ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is given by
 y − y1 
( y − y1 ) =  2  ( x − x1 )
 x2 − x1 
This equation can also be determined by the determinant
method, that is
x y 1
x1 y1 1 = 0
x2 y 2 1
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(iv) Intercept Form The equation of a line which cuts off intercept
a and b respectively on the X and Y-axes is given by
x y
+ =1
a b
The general equation Ax + By + C = 0 can be converted into the
intercept form, as
x y
+ =1
− (C / A) − (C / B)
(v) Normal Form The equation of a straight line upon which the
length of the perpendicular from the origin is p and angle made
by this perpendicular to the X-axis is α, is given by
x cos α + y sin α = p
Y
B
C
p
α
X′ X
O A
Y′
(vi) Distance (Parametric) Form The equation of a straight line

passing through ( x1 , y1 ) and making an angle θ with the positive
direction of X-axis, is
x − x1 y − y1
= =r
cos θ sin θ
where, r is the distance between two points P ( x , y ) and Q( x1 , y1 ).
y)
Y (x ,
P
) y–y1
, y1
(x 1
Q
x–x1 R
y1
X′ θ X
A x1 M L
Y′
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Straight Line 169

Thus, the coordinates of any point on the line at a distance r from
the given point ( x1 , y1 ) are ( x1 + r cos θ , y1 + r sin θ ). If P is on the
right side of ( x1 , y1 ), then r is positive and if P is on the left side of
( x1 , y1 ), then r is negative.
Position of Point(s) Relative to a Given Line

Let the equation of the given line be ax + by + c = 0 and let the
coordinates of the two given points be P ( x1 , y1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 ).
(i) The two points are on the same side of the straight line
ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have the same
sign.
(ii) The two points are on the opposite side of the straight line
ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and ax2 + by2 + c have opposite
sign.
(iii) A point ( x1 , y1 ) will lie on the side of the origin relative to a line
ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and c have the same sign.
(iv) A point ( x1 , y1 ) will lie on the opposite side of the origin relative to
a line ax + by + c = 0, if ax1 + by1 + c and c have the opposite sign.
Condition of Concurrency
Condition of concurrency for three given lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0,
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0 and a3 x + b3 y + c3 = 0 is
a3 ( b1c2 − b2c1 ) + b3 ( c1a2 − a1c2 ) + c3 ( a1b2 − a2b1 ) = 0
a1 b1 c1
or a2 b2 c2 = 0
a3 b3 c3
Distance of a Point from a Line

The distance of a point from a line is the length of perpendicular
drawn from the point to the line. Let L : Ax + By + C = 0 be a line,
whose perpendicular distance from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) is d. Then,
| Ax1 + By1 + C|
d=
A2 + B2
Note The distance of origin from the line Ax + By + C = 0 is
|C|
d =
A2 + B 2
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Distance between Two parallel Lines

The distance between two parallel lines
y = m x + c1 …(i)
y = m x + c2 …(ii)
|c1 − c|
is given by d= 2
1 + m2
Point of Intersection of Two Lines

Let equation of lines be a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0, then
 b c − b2c1 c1a2 − c2a1 
their point of intersection is  1 2 , .
 a1b2 − a2b1 a1b2 − a2b1 
Line Parallel and Perpendicular to a Given Line

(i) The equation of a line parallel to a given line ax + by + c = 0 is
ax + by + λ = 0, where λ is a constant.
(ii) The equation of a line perpendicular to a given line
ax + by + c = 0 is bx − ay + λ = 0, where λ is a constant.
Image of a Point with Respect to a Line

Let the image of a point ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to ax + by + c = 0 be
( x2 , y2 ), then
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 −2 ( ax1 + by1 + c)
= =
a b a 2 + b2
(i) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to X-axis is
Q( x1 , − y1 ).
(ii) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to Y-axis is Q( − x1 , y1 ).
(iii) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to mirror y = x is
Q( y1 , x1 ).
(iv) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the line mirror
y = x tanθ is
x = x1 cos 2 θ + y1 sin 2 θ
y = x1 sin 2 θ − y1 cos 2 θ
(v) The image of the point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the origin is the
point ( − x1 , − y1 ).
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Straight Line 171
Equation of the Bisectors

The equation of the bisectors of the angle between the lines
a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0
a1x + b1 y + c1 a x + b2 y + c2
are given by =± 2 .
a1 + b1
2 2
a22 + b22
To find acute and obtuse angle bisectors, first make constant terms
in the equations of given straight lines a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0 positive, if it is required, then find a1a2 + b1b2.
(i) If a1a2 + b1b2 > 0, then we take positive sign for obtuse and
negative sign for acute.
(ii) If a1a2 + b1b2 < 0, then we take negative sign for obtuse and
positive sign for acute.
Pair of Lines
General equation of second degree
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0.
It will represent a pair of straight line iff
abc + 2 fgh − af 2 − bg2 − ch 2 = 0
a h g
or h b f =0
g f c
Homogeneous Equation of Second Degree

An equation in two variables x and y (whose RHS is zero) is said to be
a homogeneous equation of the second degree, if the sum of the indices
of x and y in each term is equal to 2. The general form of homogeneous
equation of the second degree in x and y is ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0.
Note Any homogeneous equation of second degree in x and y represents two
straight lines through the origin.
Important Properties
(i) Let ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 be an equation of pair of straight lines.
Then,
− h + h 2 − ab
(a) Slope of first line, m1 =
b
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− h − h 2 − ab
and slope of the second line, m2 =
b
2h Coefficient of xy
∴ m1 + m2 = − =−
b Coefficient of y 2
a Coefficient of x 2
and m1m2 = =
b Coefficient of y 2
Here, m1 and m2 are
(1) real and distinct, if h 2 > ab. (2) coincident, if h 2 = ab.
(3) imaginary, if h 2 < ab.
(b) Angle between the pair of lines is given by
2 h 2 − ab
tan θ =
|a + b|
(1) If lines are coincident, then h 2 = ab.
(2) If lines are perpendicular, then a + b = 0.
Note The angle between the lines represented by
ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 + 2 gx + 2 fy + c = 0
= angle between the lines represented by ax 2 + 2 hxy + by 2 = 0
(c) The joint equation of bisector of the angles between the lines
represented by the equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is
x 2 − y 2 xy
= ⇒ hx 2 − ( a − b) xy − hy 2 = 0.
a−b h
(d) The equation of the pair of lines through the origin and
perpendicular to the pair of lines given by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0
is bx 2 − 2hxy + ay 2 = 0.
(ii) If the equation of a pair of straight lines is ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx
+ 2 fy + c = 0, then the point of intersection is given by
 hf − bg gh − af 
 , .
 ab − h 2 ab − h 2 
(iii) The general equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 will
a h g
represent two parallel lines, if g2 − ac > 0 and = = and the
h b f
g2 − ac f 2 − bc
distance between them is 2 or 2 .
a ( a + b) b ( a + b)
(iv) The equation of the bisectors of the angles between the lines
represented by ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are given by
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Straight Line 173

( x − x1 )2 − ( y − y1 )2 ( x − x1 ) ( y − y1 )
= ,
a−b h
where, ( x1 , y1 ) is the point of intersection of the lines represented
by the given equation.
(v) Equation of the straight lines joining the origin to the points of
intersection of a second degree curve ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx +
2 fy + c = 0 and a straight line lx + my + n = 0 is
2
 lx + my   lx + my   lx + my 
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx   + 2 fy   + c   = 0.
 −n   −n   −n 

(i) A triangle is an isosceles, if any two of its median are equal.
(ii) In an equilateral triangle, orthocentre, centroid, circumcentre, incentre
coincide.
(iii) The circumcentre of a right angled triangle is the mid-point of the
hypotenuse.
(iv) Orthocentre, centroid, circumcentre of a triangle are collinear. Centroid
divides the line joining orthocentre and circumcentre in the ratio 2 : 1.
(v) If D , E and F are the mid-point of the sides BC , CA and AB of ∆ABC, then the
centroid of ∆ ABC = centroid of ∆DEF.
(vi) Orthocentre of the right angled ∆ABC, right angled at A is A.
(vii) The distance of a point ( x1 , y1) from the ax + by + c = 0 is
ax + by + c 
d = 1 1
.
 a2
+ b2 
(viii) Distance between two parallel lines ax + by + c1 = 0 and ax + by + c2 = 0 is
given by
 c −c 
d = 2 1 .
 a +b 
2 2
(ix) The area of the triangle formed by the lines y = m1x + c1 , y = m2 x + c2 and
y = m3 x + c3 is
1 ( c − c )2 
∆ = Σ 1 2 .
2 m1 − m2 
Cont...
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(x) Three given points A, B , C are collinear i.e. lie on the same straight line, if any
of the three points (say B) lie on the straight line joining the other two
points.
⇒ AB + BC = AC
(xi) Area of the triangle formed by the line ax + by + c = 0 with the coordinate
c2
axes is ∆ = .
2| ab |
(xii) The foot of the perpendicular(h , k ) from ( x1 , y1) to the line ax + by + c = 0 is
h − x1 k − y1 ( ax + by + c)
given by = = − 1 2 12 .
a b a +b
2c2 
(xiii) Area of rhombus formed by ax ± by ± c = 0 is .
 ab 
(xiv) Area of the parallelogram formed by the lines
a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 , a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 , a1x + b1y + d1 = 0
and a2 x + b2 y + d2 = 0 is
( d1 − c1) ( d2 − c2 ) 
 .
 a1b2 − a2b1 
(xv) (a) Foot of the perpendicular from ( a , b) on x − y = 0 is
 a + b a + b
 , .
 2 2 
(b) Foot of the perpendicular from ( a , b) on x + y = 0 is
 a − b a − b
 , .
 2 2 
(xvi) The image of the line a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 about the line ax + by + c = 0 is
2( aa1 + bb1) ( ax + by + c) = ( a2 + b2 ) ( a1x + b1y + c1).
(xvii) Given two vertices ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) of an equilateral ∆ABC, then its third
vertex is given by.
 x1 + x2 ± 3 ( y1 − y2 ) y1 + y2 m 3 ( x1 − x2 ) 
 , 
 2 2 
(xviii) The equation of the straight line which passes through a given point ( x1 , y1)
and makes an angle α with the given straight line y = mx + c are
m ± tanα
( y − y1) = ( x − x1)
1 m m tanα
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Straight Line 175
Y
P(x1, y1)
y = mx + c
α
M α N
L θ1 θ2
X' θ X
O R S
Y'
(xix) The equation of the family of lines passing through the intersection of the
lines a1x + b1y + c1 = 0 and a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0 is
( a1x + b1y + c1) + λ ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 ) = 0
where, λ is any real number.
(xx) Line ax + by + c = 0 divides the line joining the points ( x1 , y1) and ( x2 , y2 ) in
 ax + by1 + c 
the ratio λ : 1, then λ = −  1 .
 ax2 + by2 + c 
If λ is positive it divides internally and if λ is negative, then it divides
externally.
(xxi) Area of a polygon of n-sides with vertices A1( x1 , y1), A 2 ( x2 , y2 ) ,... , An ( x n , y n )
1  x1 y1 x2 y2 xn yn 
=  + + ... +
2  x2 y2 x3 y3 x1 y1 
(xxii) Equation of the pair of lines through (α , β) and perpendicular to the pair of
lines ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 = 0 is b ( x − α )2 − 2h ( x − α )( y − β) + a ( y − β)2 = 0.
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17
Circles
Circle
Circle is defined as the locus of a point which moves in a plane such
that its distance from a fixed point in that plane is constant.
P (x, y)
r
C (0, 0)
The fixed point is called the centre and the constant distance is called
the radius.
Standard Equation of a Circle

Equation of circle having centre ( h , k) and radius a is
( x − h )2 + ( y − k)2 = a 2. This is also known as central form of equation
of a circle.
Some Particular Cases of the Central Form
(i) When centre is ( 0, 0), then equation of circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2.
Y
a
X
O a
(ii) When the circle passes through the origin, then equation of the
circle is x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ky = 0.
Y
C(h, k)
a
k
O h M X
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Circles 177
(iii) When the circle touches the X-axis, the equation is
x 2 + y 2 − 2hx − 2ay + h 2 = 0.
Y
C (h, k)
a
O X
M
(iv) Equation of the circle, touches the Y-axis is
x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ky + k2 = 0.
Y
C (h, k)
M a
X
O
(v) Equation of the circle, touching both axes is

x 2 + y 2 − 2ax − 2ay + a 2 = 0.
Y
M a C (a, a)
a
X
O
(vi) Equation of the circle passing through the origin and centre
lying on the X-axis is x 2 + y 2 − 2ax = 0.
Y
X' a
O X
C (a, 0)
Y'
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(vii) Equation of the circle passing through the origin and centre
lying on the Y-axis is x 2 + y 2 − 2ay = 0.
Y
C
(0, a)
X' X
O
Y'
(viii) Equation of the circle through the origin and cutting intercepts a
and b on the coordinate axes is x 2 + y 2 − ax − by = 0.
Y
b
C(h, k)
X' a X
(0, 0)
Y'
Equation of Circle When Ends Points

of Diameter are Given
Equation of the circle, when the coordinates of end points of a diameter
are ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) = 0.
Equation of Circle Passing Through Three Points

Equation of the circle passes through three non-collinear points
x2 + y2 x y 1
x 2 + y12 x1 y1 1
( x1 , y1 ), ( x2 , y2 ) and ( x3 , y3 ) is 12 = 0.
x2 + y22 x2 y 2 1
x32 + y32 x3 y3 1
Y
Parametric Equation of a Circle
The parametric equation of
a P (x, y)
( x − h )2 + ( y − k)2 = a 2 is θ
X' X
x = h + a cos θ , y = k + a sin θ,0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π O
For circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2, parametric equation is

x = a cos θ , y = a sin θ Y'
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Circles 179
General Equation of a Circle
The general equation of a circle is given by x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0,
whose centre = ( − g,− f ) and radius = g2 + f 2 − c
(i) If g2 + f 2 − c > 0, then the radius of the circle is real and hence
the circle is also real.
(ii) If g2 + f 2 − c = 0, then the radius of the circle is 0 and the circle is
known as point circle.
(iii) If g2 + f 2 − c < 0, then the radius of the circle is imaginary. Such
a circle is imaginary, which is not possible to draw.
Position of a Point w.r.t. a Circle

A point ( x1 , y1 ) lies outside, on or inside a circle
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0, according as S1 > , = or < 0
where, S1 = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c
Intercepts on the Axes

The length of the intercepts made by the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 with X and Y -axes are
2 g2 − c and 2 f 2 − c respectively.
(i) If g2 > c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are real
and distinct, so the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 meets the
X-axis in two real and distinct points.
(ii) If g2 = c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are real
and equal, so the circle touches X-axis, then intercept on X-axis
is 0.
(iii) If g2 < c, then the roots of the equation x 2 + 2gx + c = 0 are
imaginary, so the given circle does not meet X-axis in real point.
Similarly, the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 cuts the Y -axis in
real and distinct points, touches or does not meet in real point
according to f 2 > , = or < c.
Equation of Tangent
A line which touch only one point of a circle.
1. Point Form
(i) The equation of the tangent at the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to a circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
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(ii) The equation of the tangent at the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to a circle

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is xx1 + yy1 = r 2.
2. Slope Form
(i) The equation of the tangent of slope m to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are
y + f = m ( x + g) ± ( g2 + f 2 − c) (1 + m 2 )
(ii) The equation of the tangents of slope m to the circle
( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 = r 2 are y − b = m ( x − a ) ± r 1 + m 2 and the
coordinates of the points of contact are
 mr r 
a ± ,bm .
 1 + m2 1 + m 2 

(iii) The equation of tangents of slope m to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 are
y = mx ± r 1 + m 2 and the coordinates of the point of contact
are
 rm r 
± ,m .
 1 + m2 1 + m 2 

3. Parametric Form
The equation of the tangent to the circle ( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 = r 2 at the
point ( a + r cos θ , b + r sin θ ) is ( x − a ) cos θ + ( y − b) sin θ = r.
Equation of Normal
A line which is perpendicular to the tangent is known as a normal.
1. Point Form
(i) The equation of normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
y +f
y − y1 = 1 ( x − x1 )
x1 + g
or ( y1 + f ) x − ( x1 + g) y + ( gy1 − fx1 ) = 0.
(ii) The equation of normal at the point ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x y
x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is = .
x1 y1
2. Slope Form
The equation of a normal of slope m to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
my = − x ± r 1 + m 2 .
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Circles 181
3. Parametric Form
The equation of normal to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 at the point
(r cos θ , r sin θ ) is
x y
= or y = x tan θ.
r cos θ r sin θ

(i) If ( x1 , y1) is one end of a diameter of the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0,
then the other end will be ( −2g − x1 , − 2f − y1).
(ii) If a line is perpendicular to the radius of a circle at its end points on the
circle, then the line is a tangent to the circle and vice-versa.
(iii) Normal at any point on the circle is a straight line which is perpendicular
to the tangent to the curve at the point and it passes through the centre
of circle.
(iv) The line y = mx + c meets the circle in unique real point or touch the
 c 
circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 , if r = 
 1+ m 
2
 ± mr m r 
and the point of contacts are  , .
 1 + m2 1 + m2 
 
(v) The line lx + my + n = 0 touches the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 , if r2 ( l2 + m2 ) = n2 .
(vi) Tangent at the point P ( r cosθ , r sinθ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 is
x cosθ + y sinθ = r.
(vii) The point of intersection of the tangent at the points P(θ1) and Q(θ2 ) on
the circle x 2 + y 2 = r2 is given by
θ + θ  θ + θ 
r cos  1 2  r sin 1 2 
 2   2 
x= and y = .
 θ1 − θ2   θ1 − θ2 
cos   cos  
 2   2 
(viii) A line intersect a given circle at two distinct real points, if the length of the
perpendicular from the centre is less than the radius of the circle.
(ix) Length of the intercept cut off from the line y = mx + c by the circle
a2 (1 + m2 ) − c2
x 2 + y 2 = a2 is 2
1 + m2
(x) If P is a point and C is the centre of a circle of radius r, then the maximum
and minimum distances of P from the circle are CP + r and |CP − r |
respectively.
(xi) Power of a point ( x1 , y1) with respect to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2fy + c = 0 is x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2fy1 + c.
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Pair of Tangents
(i) The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a
point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is
Q
P O
(x1, y1)
R
(x + y − r
2 2 2
) ( x12 + y12 − r ) = ( xx1 + yy1 − r 2 )2
2
or SS1 = T 2
where, S = x 2 + y 2 − r 2 , S1 = x12 + y12 − r 2
and T = xx1 + yy1 − r 2
(ii) The length of the tangents from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is equal to
x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c = S1

(iii) Chord of contact QR of two tangents, drawn from P ( x1 , y1 ) to
the circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is xx1 + yy1 = r 2 or T = 0.
Similarly, for the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
(iv) Let AB is a chord of contact of tangents from C to the circle
x 2 + y 2 = r 2. M is the mid-point of AB.
B
O M α C(x1, y1)
 r 2x r 2y 
(a) Coordinates of M  2 1 2 , 2 1 2 
 x1 + y1 x1 + y1 
x12 + y12 − r 2
(b) AB = 2r
x12 + y12
(c) BC = x12 + y12 − r 2
(d) Area of quadrilateral OACB = r x12 + y12 − r 2

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Circles 183
r
(e) Area of ∆ ABC = ( x12 + y12 − r 2)3/ 2
x12 + y12
r3
(f) Area of ∆ OAB = x12 + y12 − r 2
x12 + y12
r
(g) Angle between two tangents ∠ ACB is 2 tan−1 .
S1
(v) In general, two tangents can be drawn to a circle from a given
point in its plane. If m1 and m2 are slope of the tangents drawn
from the point P ( x1 , y1 ) to the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2, then
2x1 y1 y12 − a 2
m1 + m2 = and m1 × m2 =
x12 − a 2 x12 − a 2
(vi) The pair of tangents from ( 0, 0) to the circle
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 are at right angle, if g 2 + f 2 = 2c.
Equation of Chord Bisected at a Given Point

The equation of chord of the circle S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
bisected at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by T = S1.
i.e. xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = x12 + y12 + 2gx1 + 2 fy1 + c
Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of two perpendicular tangents to a
given circle is called a director circle. For circle x 2 + y 2 = r 2, the
equation of director circle is x 2 + y 2 = 2r 2.
Pole and Polar

If through a point P ( x1 , y1 ) (within or outside a circle) there be drawn
any straight line to meet the given circle at Q and R, the locus of the
point of intersection of tangents at Q and R is called the polar of P and
point P is called the pole of polar.
R
P (x1, y1)
T (h, k) Q
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(i) Equation of polar to the circle

x 2 + y 2 = r 2 is xx1 + yy1 = r 2.
(ii) Equation of polar to the circle x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 is
xx1 + yy1 + g ( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c = 0
(iii) Conjugate Points Two points A and B are conjugate points
with respect to a given circle, if each lies on the polar of the other
with respect to the circle.
(iv) Conjugate Lines If two lines be such that the pole of one lies
on the other, then they are called conjugate lines with respect to
the given circle.
Common Tangents of Two Circles

Let the centres and radii of two circles are c1 , c2 and r1 , r2 respectively.
Then, the following cases of intersection of these two circles may arise.
(i) When two circles are separate, four common tangents are
possible.
Condition, C1C2 > r1 + r2
Transverse common tangents
A
P′
B
r1 Q
r2
C1 T C2 D
Q′
P B′
A′ Direct common tangents
C1D r1
Clearly, = [externally]
C2D r2
C1T r1
and = [internally]
C2T r2
Length of direct common tangent
AB = A′ B′ = (C1C2 )2 − (r1 − r2 )2
Length of transverse common tangent
PQ = P ′Q ′ = (C1C2 )2 − (r1 + r2 )2
(ii) When two circles touch externally, three common tangents are
possible.
Condition, C1C2 = r1 + r2
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Circles 185
A
B
r1
T r2 D
C1 C2
Direct common tangent

Transverse
common tangent
S1 – S2 = 0
C1D r1
Clearly, = [externally]
C2D r2
C1T r1
and = [internally]
C2T r2
(iii) When two circles intersect, two common tangents are possible.
Condition, |r1 − r2|< C1C2 < (r1 + r2 )
A
B Direct common tangent
C1 C2 D
Common chord
(S1 – S2 = 0)
(iv) When two circles touch internally, one common tangent is
possible.
Condition, C1C2 =|r1 − r2|
r2
C1 C2
r1 Common tangent
S1 – S2 = 0
(v) When one circle contains another circle, no common tangent is
possible.
Condition, C1C2 <|r1 − r2|
C1 C2
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Angle of Intersection of Two Circles

The angle of intersection of two circles is Tangents
defined as the angle between the tangents to
the two circles at their point of intersection is r1 r2
θ
given by d
c1 c2
r 2 + r22 − d 2
cosθ = 1
2 r1r2
Orthogonal Circles
Two circles are said to be intersect orthogonally, if their angle of
intersection is a right angle.
If two circles
S1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g1x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0 and
S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g2x + 2 f2 y + c2 = 0 are orthogonal, then
2g1g2 + 2 f1 f2 = c1 + c2
Common Chord
The chord joining the points of intersection of two given intersecting
circles is called common chord.
Common chord
Y M
P
c1
Q c2
X′ X
O
Y′
(i) If S1 = 0 and S 2 = 0 be two intersecting circles, such that
S1 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g1x + 2 f1 y + c1 = 0
and S 2 ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2g2x + 2 f2 y + c2 = 0,
then their common chord is given by S1 − S 2 = 0
(ii) If C1 , C2 denote the centre of the given intersecting circles, then
their common chord
PQ = 2 PM = 2 (C1P )2 − (C1M )2
(iii) If r1 and r2 be the radii of two orthogonally intersecting circles,
2 r1r2
then length of common chord is .
r12 + r22
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Circles 187
Family of Circles
(i) The equation of a family of circles passing through the
intersection of a circle S = x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 and line
L = lx + my + n = 0 is S + λL = 0
where, λ is any real number.
(ii) The equation of the family of circles passing through the point
A( x1 , y1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 ) is
x y 1
( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1 ) ( y − y2 ) + λ x1 y1 1 = 0.
x2 y 2 1
(iii) The equation of the family of circles touching the circle
S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0 at point P ( x1 , y1 ) is
x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c + λ [xx1 + yy1 + g( x + x1 ) + f ( y + y1 ) + c] = 0
or S + λL = 0, where L = 0 is the equation of the tangent to
S = 0 at ( x1 , y1 ) and λ ∈ R.
(iv) Any circle passing through the point of intersection of two circles
S1 and S 2 is S1 + λ S 2 = 0, (where λ ≠ − 1).
Radical Axis
The radical axis of two circles is the locus P (h, k)
of a point which moves in such a way
Radical axis
that the length of the tangents drawn
from it to the two circles are equal. A
system of circles in which every pair has
the same radical axis is called a coaxial Q R
system of circles. The equation of radical C1 C2
axis of two circles S1 = 0 and S 2 = 0 is
given by S1 − S 2 = 0.
(i) The radical axis of two circles is always perpendicular to the line
joining the centres of the circles.
(ii) The radical axes of three circles, whose centres are non-collinear
taken in pairs are concurrent.
(iii) The centre of the circle cutting two given circles orthogonally,
lies on their radical axis.
(iv) Radical Centre The point of intersection of radical axis of
three circles whose centre are non-collinear, taken in pairs, is
called their radical centre.
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Coaxial System of Circles

A system of circle is said to be coaxial system of circles, if every pair of
the circles in the system has same radical axis.
(i) The equation of a system of coaxial circles, when the equation of
the radical axis P ≡ lx + my + n = 0 and one of the circle of the
system S ≡ x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0, is S + λP = 0.
where λ is an arbitrary constant.
(ii) Since, the lines joining the centres of two circles is perpendicular
to their radical axis. Therefore, the centres of all circles of a
coaxial system lie on a straight line, which is perpendicular to
the common radical axis.
Limiting Points
Limiting points of a system of coaxial circles are the centres of the
point circles belonging to the family.
Let equation of circle be x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + c = 0
∴ Radius of circle = g2 − c
For limiting point, r = 0
∴ g2 − c = 0 ⇒ g = ± c
Thus, limiting points of the given coaxial system as ( c , 0) and ( − c , 0).

 a2 l a2m
(i) Pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to x 2 + y 2 = a2 is  − ,− .
 n n 
S1 S2
(ii) Let S1 = 0 , S2 = 0 be two circles with radii r1 , r2 , then ± = 0 will meet at
r1 r2
right angle.
(iii) Family of circles touching a line L = 0 at a point ( x1 , y1) on it is
( x − x1)2 + ( y − y1)2 + λL = 0.
(iv) Circumcircle of a ∆ with vertices ( x1 , y1), ( x2 , y2 ), ( x3 , y3 ) is
x y 1
x1 y1 1
( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1) ( y − y2 ) x2 y2 1
=
( x3 − x1) ( x3 − x2 ) + ( y3 − y1) ( y3 − y2 ) x3 y3 1
x1 y1 1
x2 y2 1
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Circles 189
Image of the Circle by the Line Minor

Let the circle be x 2 + y 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
C1 r r
C2
(– g, – f )
lx + my + n = 0
and line minor is lx + my + n = 0.

Then, the image of the circle is
( x − x1 )2 + ( y − y1 )2 = r 2
where, ( x1 , y1 ) is mirror image of centre ( − g, − f ) with respect to mirror
line lx + my + n = 0 and r = g2 + f 2 − c.
Diameter of a Circle
The locus of the middle points of a system of parallel chords of a circle
is called a diameter of the circle.
(i) The equation of the diameter bisecting parallel chords
y = mx + c of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 is x + my = 0.
(ii) The diameter corresponding to a system of parallel chords of a
circle always passes through the centre of the circle and is
perpendicular to the parallel chords.
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18
Parabola
Conic Section
A conic is the locus of a point whose distance from a fixed point bears a
constant ratio to its distance from a fixed line. The fixed point is the
focus S and the fixed line is directrix l.
Z
P
M
directrix
S
(focus)
Z′
The constant ratio is called the eccentricity denoted by e.
(i) If 0 < e < 1, conic is an ellipse.
(ii) e = 1, conic is a parabola.
(iii) e > 1, conic is a hyperbola.
General Equation of Conic

If fixed point of curve is ( x1 , y1 ) and fixed line is ax + by + c = 0, then
equation of the conic is
( a 2 + b2 ) [( x − x1 )2 + ( y − y1 )2 ] = e2( ax + by + c)2
which on simplification takes the form
ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0,
where a , b, c, f , g and h are constants.
A second degree equation ax 2 + 2hxy + by 2 + 2gx + 2 fy + c = 0
represents
a h g
(i) a pair of straight lines, if ∆ = h b f = 0
g f c
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Parabola 191
(ii) a pair of parallel (or coincident) straight lines, if ∆ = 0
and h 2 = ab.
(iii) a pair of perpendicular straight lines, if ∆ = 0 and a + b = 0
(iv) a point, if ∆ = 0 and h 2 < ab
(v) a circle, if a = b ≠ 0, h = 0 and ∆ ≠ 0
(vi) a parabola, if h 2 = ab and ∆ ≠ 0
(vii) a ellipse, if h 2 < ab and ∆ ≠ 0
(viii) a hyperbola, if h 2 > ab and ∆ ≠ 0
(ix) a rectangular hyperbola, if h 2 > ab, a + b = 0 and ∆ ≠ 0
Important Terms Related to Parabola

(i) Axis A line perpendicular to the directrix and passes through
the focus.
(ii) Vertex The intersection point of the conic and axis.
(iii) Centre The point which bisects every chord of the conic passing
through it.
(iv) Focal Chord Any chord passing through the focus.
(v) Double Ordinate A chord perpendicular to the axis of a conic.
(vi) Latusrectum A double ordinate passing through the focus of
the parabola.
(vii) Focal Distance The distance of a point P ( x , y ) from the focus S
is called the focal distance of the point P.
Parabola
A parabola is the locus of a point which moves in a plane such that its
distance from a fixed point in the plane is always equal to its distance
from a fixed straight line in the same plane.
If focus of a parabola is S ( x1 , y1 ) and equation of the directrix is
ax + by + c = 0, then the equation of the parabola is
( a 2 + b2 )[( x − x1 )2 + ( y − y1 )2 ] = ( ax + by + c)2
Y
, y)
P(x
X' X
O S(x1, y1)
ax + by + c = 0
Y'
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Standard Forms of a Parabola and Related Terms

Terms y 2 = 4 ax y 2 = − 4 ax x 2 = 4 ay x 2 = − 4 ay
S Z
Z A A Z A
S S
A
Z S
Vertex A(0, 0) A(0, 0) A(0, 0) A(0, 0)

Focus S(a, 0) S(− a, 0) S(0, a) S(0, − a)
Equation of y=0 y=0 x=0 x=0
axis
Equation of x+ a=0 x−a=0 y+ a=0 y−a=0
directrix
Eccentricity e =1 e =1 e =1 e =1
Extremities (a, ± 2a) (− a, ± 2a) (± 2a, a) (± 2a, − a)
of
latusrectum
Length of 4a 4a 4a 4a
latusrectum
Equation of x=0 x=0 y=0 y=0
tangent at
vertex
Parametric x = at 2 x = − at 2  x = 2at  x = 2at
equation    
 y = at  y = − at
2 2
 y = 2at  y = 2at
Focal h+ a a−h k+ a a−k
distance of
any point
P (h, k) on
the parabola
Equation of x−a=0 x+ a=0 y−a=0 y+ a=0
latusrectum
Other Forms of a Parabola

If the vertex of the parabola is at a point A( h , k) and its latusrectum is
of length 4a, then its equation is
(i) ( y − k)2 = 4a ( x − h ), if its axis is parallel to OX i.e. parabola
opens rightward.
(ii) ( y − k)2 = − 4a ( x − h ), if its axis is parallel to OX ′ i.e. parabola
opens leftward.
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Parabola 193
(iii) ( x − h )2 = 4a ( y − k), if its axis is parallel to OY i.e. parabola
opens upward.
(iv) ( x − h )2 = − 4a ( y − k), if its axis is parallel to OY ′ i.e. parabola
opens downward.
(v) The general equation of a parabola whose axis is parallel to
X-axis, is x = ay 2 + by + c and the general equation of a parabola
whose axis is parallel to Y-axis, is y = ax 2 + bx + c.
Position of a Point
The point ( x1 , y1 ) lies outside, on or inside the parabola y 2 = 4ax
according as y12 − 4ax1 > , =, < 0.
Chord
Joining any two points on a curve is called chord.
(i) Parametric Equation of a Chord Let P ( at12 , 2at1 ) and
Q ( at22 , 2at2 ) be any two points on the parabola y 2 = 4ax, then the
equation of the chord is
2at2 − 2at1
( y − 2at1 ) = ( x − at12 )
at22 − at12
or y ( t1 + t2 ) = 2x + 2at1t2
2
(ii) Let P ( at , 2at ) be the one end of a focal chord PQ of the parabola
y 2 = 4ax, then the coordinates of the other end Q are
 a −2a 
 2, 
t t 
(iii) If l1 and l2 are the length of the focal segments, then length of the
latusrectum = 2 (harmonic mean of focal segment)
4l l
i.e. 4a = 1 2
l1 + l2
(iv) For a chord joining points P ( at12 , 2at1 ) and Q( at22 , 2at2 )
and passing through focus, then t1t2 = − 1.
(v) Length of the focal chord having t1 and t2 as end points is
a ( t2 − t1 )2.
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Equation of Tangent
A line which touch only one point of a Tangent
parabola. Y
)
1
Point Form ,y
( x1
The equation of the tangent to the P
parabola y 2 = 4ax at a point ( x1 , y1 ) is
X' X
given by yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 ). O
Slope Form
(a) The equation of the tangent of
Y'
slope m to the parabola y 2 = 4ax
a
is y = mx +
m
(b) The equation of the tangent of slope m to the parabola
a
( y − k)2 = 4a ( x − h ) is given by ( y − k) = m ( x − h ) +
m
 a 2a 
The coordinates of the point of contact are  h + 2 , k + .
 m m
Parametric Form
The equation of the tangent to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at a point
( at 2 , 2at ) is yt = x + at 2.
Condition of Tangency
a
(i) The line y = mx + c touches a parabola, iff c = and the point of
m
 a 2a 
contact is  2 ,  .
m m
(ii) The straight line lx + my + n = 0 touches y 2 = 4ax ,if nl = am 2 and
x cos α + y sin α = p touches y 2 = 4ax , if p cos α + a sin2 α = 0.
Point of Intersection of Two Tangents

Let two tangents at P ( at12 , 2at1 ) and Q( at22 , 2at2 ) intersect at R. Then,
their point of intersection is R ( at1t2 , a( t1 + t2 )) i. e. (GM of abscissa, AM
of ordinate).
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Parabola 195
Angle between Two Tangents
Angle θ between tangents at two points P ( at12 , 2at1 ) and Q( at22 , 2at2 ) on
the parabola y 2 = 4ax is given by
t −t
tan θ = 2 1
1 + t1t2
Important Results on Tangents

(i) The tangent at any point on a parabola bisects the angle between the
focal distance of the point and the perpendicular on the directrix from the
point.
(ii) The tangent at the extremities of a focal chord of a parabola intersect at
right angle on the directrix.
(iii) The portion of the tangent to a parabola cut off between the directrix and
the curve subtends a right angle at the focus.
(iv) The perpendicular drawn from the focus on any tangent to a parabola
intersect it at the point where it cuts the tangent at the vertex.
(v) The orthocentre of any triangle formed by three tangents to a parabola
lies on the directrix.
(vi) The circumcircle formed by the intersection points of tangents at any
three points on a parabola passes through the focus of the parabola.
(vii) The tangent at any point of a parabola is equally inclined to the focal
distance of the point and the axis of the parabola.
(viii) The length of the subtangent at any point on a parabola is equal to twice
the abscissa of the point.
(ix) Two tangents can be drawn from a point to a parabola. Two tangents are
real and distinct or coincident or imaginary according as given point lies
outside, on or inside the parabola.
(x) The straight line y = mx + c meets the parabola y 2 = 4 ax in two points.
a
These two points are real and distinct, if c > , points are real and
m
a a
coincident, if c = , points are imaginary, if c < .
m m
(xi) Area of the triangle formed by three points on a parabola is twice the area
of the triangle formed by the tangents at these points.
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Equation of Normal
A line which is perpendicular to the tangent at the point of contact
with parabola.
Y )
at
2,2
at
P(
Normal at P
X' X
O G
y2 = 4ax
Y'
Point Form
The equation of the normal to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at a point ( x1 , y1 )
y
is given by y − y1 = − 1 ( x − x1 ).
2a
Parametric Form
The equation of the normal to the parabola y 2 = 4ax at point ( at 2 , 2at )
is given by y + tx = 2at + at3 .
Slope Form
The equation of the normal to the parabola y 2 = 4ax in terms of its
slope m is given by y = mx − 2am − am3 at point ( am 2 , − 2am ).
Important Results on Normals

(i) If the normal at the point P( at12 , 2at1) meets the parabola y 2 = 4 ax at
2
( at22 , 2at2 ), then t2 = − t1 − .
t1
(ii) The tangent at one extremity of the focal chord of a parabola is parallel to
the normal at other extremity.
(iii) The normal at points P( at12 , 2at1) andQ( at22 , 2at2 ) to the parabola y 2 = 4 ax
intersect at the point
[ 2a + a(t12 + t22 + t1t2 ) − at1t2 (t1 + t2 )].
(iv) If the normal at points P( at12 , 2at1) and Q( at22 , 2at2 ) on the parabola
y 2 = 4 ax meet on the parabola, then t1t2 = 2.
(v) If the normal at two points P and Q of a parabola y 2 = 4 ax intersect at a
third point R on the curve, then the product of the ordinates of P and Q is
8 a2 .
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Parabola 197
(vi) If the normal chord at a point P( at2 , 2at) to the parabola y 2 = 4 ax

subtends a right angle at the vertex of the parabola, then t2 = 2.
(vii) The normal chord of a parabola at a point whose ordinate is equal to the
abscissa, subtends a right angle at the focus.
(viii) The normal at any point of a parabola is equally inclined to the focal
radius of the point and the axis of the parabola.
(ix) Maximum three distinct normals can be drawn from a point to a parabola.
(x) Conormal Points The points on the parabola at which the normals pass
through a common point are called conormal points. The conormal
points are called the feet of the normals.
Y
A
P(x1 , y1 )
X′ X
O
B
C
Y′
Points A, B and C are called conormal points.

(a) The algebraic sum of the slopes of the normals at conormals point is 0.
(b) The sum of the ordinates of the conormal points is 0.
(c) The centroid of the triangle formed by the conormal points on a
parabola lies on its axis.
Length of Tangent and Normal

Y
, y 1)
P (x 1
T ψ S(a, 0)
X' X
(–x1, 0) N G(x1+2a, 0)
(x1, 0)
y2 = 4ax
Y'
(i) The length of the tangent = PT = PN cos ec ψ = y1 cos ec ψ

(ii) The length of subtangent = NT = PN cot ψ = y1 cot ψ
(iii) The length of normal = PG = PN sec ψ = y1 sec ψ
(iv) The length of subnormal = NG = PN tan ψ = y1 tan ψ
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Equation of the Chord Bisected at a Given Point

The equation of the chord of the parabola y 2 = 4ax which is bisected at
( x1 , y1 ) is yy1 − 2a ( x + x1 ) = y12 − 4ax1 , or T = S1
where, S1 = y12 − 4ax1 and T = yy1 − 2a ( x + x1 ).
Equation of Diameter
The locus of mid-point of a system of parallel chords of a conic is
known its diameter.
The diameter bisecting chords of slope m to the parabola y 2 = 4ax is
2a
y= .
m
Pair of Tangents
The combined equation of the pair of tangents drawn from a point to a
parabola y 2 = 4ax is given by
SS1 = T 2
where, S = y 2 − 4ax , S1 = y12 − 4ax1
and T = [ yy1 − 2a ( x + x1 )]
Chord of Contact
The chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the
parabola y 2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a ( x + x1 ).
Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to a
parabola is known as director circle.
The director circle of a parabola is same as its directrix.
Pole and Polar

Let P be a point lying within or outside a given parabola. Suppose any
straight line drawn through P intersects the parabola at Q and R.
Then, the locus of the point of intersection of the tangents to the
parabola at Q and R is called the polar of the given point P with
respect to the parabola and the point P is called the pole of the polar.
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Parabola 199
Y
P(x1, y1)
X' O X
T
R y2 = 4ax
Y'
(i) The polar of a point P ( x1 , y1 ) with respect to the parabola
y 2 = 4ax is yy1 = 2a( x + x1 ) or T = 0.
(ii) Any tangent is the polar of its point of contact.
n 2am 
(iii) Pole of lx + my + n = 0 with respect to y 2 = 4ax is  , − .
l l 
 y y y + y2 
(iv) Pole of the chord joining ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) is  1 2 , 1 .
 4a 2 
(v) If the polar of P ( x1 , y1 ) passes through Q( x2 , y2 ), then the polar of
Q will passes through P. Here, P and Q are called conjugate
points.
(vi) If the pole of a line a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0 lies on another line
a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0, then the pole of the second line will lies on the
first line. Such lines are called conjugate lines.
(vii) The point of intersection of the polar of two points Q and R is the
pole of QR.
(viii) The tangents at the ends of any chord of the parabola meet on
the diameter which bisect the chord.

(i) For the ends of latusrectum of the parabola y 2 = 4 ax , the values of the
perimeter are ± 1.
(ii) The circles described on focal radii of a parabola as diameter touches the
tangent at the vertex.
(iii) The circles described on any focal chord of a parabola as diameter
touches the directrix.
(iv) If y1 , y2 , y3 are the ordinates of the vertices of a triangle inscribed in the
1
parabola y 2 = 4 ax , then its area is |( y1 − y2 ) ( y2 − y3 ) ( y3 − y1)|.
8a
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19
Ellipse
Ellipse is the locus of a point in a plane which moves in such a way
that the ratio of the distance from a fixed point (focus) in the same
plane to its distance from a fixed straight line (directrix) is always
constant, which is always less than unity.
Major and Minor Axes

The line segment through the foci of the ellipse with its end points on
the ellipse, is called its major axis.
The line segment through the centre and perpendicular to the major
axis with its end points on the ellipse, is called its minor axis.
x2 y2
Horizontal Ellipse i.e. + = 1,( 0 < b < a )
a2 b2
If the coefficient of x 2 has the larger denominator, then its major axis
lies along the X-axis, then it is said to be horizontal ellipse.
Z′ Y Z
B(0, b)
P(x, y)
M
S′(–ac, 0) K
X′ X
K′ A′(–a, 0) C S N A
(ae, 0) (a,0)
B′ (0, –b) a
a x=
x=– e
e
(i) Vertices A( a , 0), A1( − a , 0)

(ii) Centre O ( 0, 0)
(iii) Length of major axis, AA1 = 2a; Length of minor axis, BB1 = 2b
(iv) Foci are S ( ae, 0) and S1( − ae, 0)
a a
(v) Equation of directrices are l : x = ,l ′ ; x = −
e e
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Ellipse 201
2b2
(vi) Length of latusrectum, LL1 = L ′ L1 ′ =
a
b2
(vii) Eccentricity, e = 1 − <1
a2
(viii) Focal distances of point P ( x , y ) are SP and S1P i.e.|a − ex| and
|a + ex|. Also, SP + S1P = 2a = major axis.
(ix) Distance between foci = 2ae
2a
(x) Distance between directrices =
e
x2 y2
Vertical Ellipse i.e. + = 1, ( 0 < a < b )
a2 b2
If the coefficient of x 2 has the smaller denominator, then its major axis
lies along the Y -axis, then it is said to be vertical ellipse.
Y
B l
L1 S L
N
P' P(x,y)
X' X
A1 O A
S1 L'
L'1
B1 l'
Y'
(i)Vertices B ( 0, b), B1( 0, − b)

(ii)Centre O( 0, 0)
(iii)Length of major axis BB1 = 2b, Length of Minor axis AA1 = 2a
(iv) Foci are S ( 0, ae) and S1( 0, − ae)
b b
(v) Equation of directrices are l : y = ; l ′ : y = −
e e
2a 2
(vi) Length of latusrectum LL1 = L ′ L1 ′ =
b
a2
(vii) Eccentricity e = 1 − <1
b2
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(viii) Focal distances of point P ( x , y ) are SP and S1P ,

i.e.|b − ex| and|b + ex|.
Also, SP + S1P = 2b = major axis.
(ix) Distance between foci = 2be
2b
e
Parametric Equation
The equation x = a cos φ , y = b sin φ, taken together are called the
x2 y2
parametric equation of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, where φ is any
a b
parameter.
Special Form of Ellipse

If centre of the ellipse is ( h , k) and the direction of the axes are parallel
( x − h )2 ( y − k)2
to the coordinate axes, then its equation is + = 1.
a2 b2
Ordinate and Double Ordinate

Let P be any point on the ellipse and PN be perpendicular to the major
axis AA′, such that PN produced meets the ellipse at P ′. Then, PN is
called the ordinate of P and PNP ′ is the double ordinate of P.
Position of a Point with Respect to an Ellipse

The point ( x1 , y1 ) lies outside, on or inside the ellipse
x2 y2 x12 y12
+ = 1 according as + − 1 > 0, = or < 0.
a 2 b2 a 2 b2
Auxiliary Circle
x2 y2
The ellipse 2
+ = 1, becomes x 2 + y 2 = a 2, if b = a.
a b2
This is called auxiliary circle of the ellipse. i.e. the circle described on
the major axis of an ellipse as diameter is called auxiliary circle.
Eccentric Angle of a Point

x2 y2
Let P be any point on the ellipse 2
+= 1. Draw PM perpendicular
a b2
from P on the major axis of the ellipse and produce MP to the auxiliary
circle in Q. Join CQ.
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Ellipse 203
The ∠ ACQ = φ is called the eccentric angle of the point P on the
ellipse.
Y
Q
B P(x, y)
X′
A1 φ A
X
C M
B1 x2 y2
x2 + y2 = a 2 + = 1, (a>b)
a2 b2
Y′
Equation of Tangent
(i) Point Form The equation of the tangent to the ellipse
x2 y2 xx yy
2
+ 2 = 1 at the point ( x1 , y1 ) is 21 + 21 = 1 or T = 0.
a b a b
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the tangent to the ellipse
x y
cos θ + sin θ = 1.
at the point ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) is
a b
(iii) Slope Form The equation of the tangent of slope m to the
x2 y2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 are y = mx ± a 2m 2 + b2 and the coordinates
a b
 a 2m b2 
of the point of contact are  ± ,m .
 a m +b
2 2 2
a m +b 
2 2 2

(iv) Point of Intersection of Two Tangents The equation of
the tangents to the ellipse at points P ( a cos θ1 , b sin θ1 ) and
x y
Q ( a cos θ 2 , b sin θ 2 ) are cos θ1 + sin θ1 = 1
a b
x y
and cos θ 2 + sin θ 2 = 1 and these two intersect at the point
a b
  θ1 + θ 2   θ1 + θ 2  
 a cos   b sin  
  2   2 
,
  θ1 − θ 2   θ − θ2  
 cos   cos  1  
  2   2  
(v) Pair of Tangents The combined equation of the pair of
x2 y2
tangents drawn from a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
2
x 2
y 2  x 2
y 2   xx yy 
is  2 + 2 − 1  12 + 12 − 1 =  21 + 21 − 1 i.e. SS1 = T 2
a b  a b  a b 
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Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to an
x2 y2
ellipse is a director circle. If equation of an ellipse is 2 + 2 = 1, then
a b
equation of director circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 + b2.
Equation of Chord
Let P ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) and Q( a cos φ , b sin φ ) be any two points of the
x2 y2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1.
a b
(i) The equation of the chord joining these points will be
b sin φ − b sin θ
( y − b sin θ ) = ( x − a cos θ )
a cos φ − a cos θ
x  θ + φ y  θ + φ  θ − φ
or cos   + sin   = cos  
a  2  b  2   2 
(ii) The equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a
point ( x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse
x2 y2 xx yy
+ = 1 is 21 + 21 = 1 or T = 0.
a 2 b2 a b
x2 y2
(iii) The equation of the chord of the ellipse 2
+ = 1 bisected at
a b2
the point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by
xx1 yy1 x12 y12
+ −1= + −1
a2 b2 a2 b2
or T = S1
Equation of Normal
(i) Point Form The equation of the normal at ( x1 , y1 ) to the ellipse
x2 y2 a 2x b2 y
+ = 1 is − = a 2 − b2
a 2 b2 x1 y1
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the normal to the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 at ( a cos θ , b sin θ ) is
a 2 b2
ax sec θ − by cosec θ = a 2 − b2
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Ellipse 205
(iii) Slope Form The equation of the normal of slope m to the
x2 y2 m ( a 2 − b2 )
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 are given by y = mx ±
a b a 2 + b2m 2
and the coordinates of the point of contact are
 a2 b2m 
± ,± 
 a 2 + b2m 2 a 2 + b2m 2 

(iv) Point of Intersection of Two Normals Point of
intersection of the normal at points ( a cos θ1 , b sin θ1 ) and
( a cos θ 2 , b sin θ 2 ) are given by
  θ + θ2 
 2 cos  1 
 a − b cos θ cos θ
2
 2 
,
 a 1 2
 θ1 − θ 2 
 cos  
  2 
θ + θ2  
sin  1 
− (a − b )
2 2
 2 
sin θ1 sin θ 2
b θ − θ2  
cos  1 
 2 
x2 y2
(v) If the line y = mx + c is a normal to the ellipse 2
+ = 1, then
a b2
m (a − b )
2 2 2 2
c2 =
a 2 + b2m 2
Conormal Points
The points on the ellipse, the normals at which the ellipse passes
through a given point are called conormal points.
Y
Q
P B R
X' X
A' O M(h,k) A
S
B'
Y'
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Here, P, Q, R and S are the conormal points.

(i) The sum of the eccentric angles of the conormal points on the
x2 y2
ellipse, 2 + 2 = 1 is an odd multiple of π.
a b
(ii) If θ1 , θ 2 , θ3 and θ 4 are eccentric angles of four points on the
ellipse, the normals at which are concurrent, then
(a) Σ cos (θ1 + θ 2 ) = 0
(b) Σ sin (θ1 + θ 2 ) = 0
(iii) If θ1 , θ 2 and θ3 are the eccentric angles of three points on the
x2 y2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, such that
a b
sin (θ1 + θ 2 ) + sin (θ 2 + θ3 ) + sin (θ3 + θ1 ) = 0,
then the normals at these points are concurrent.
(iv) If the normal at four points P ( x1 , y1 ), Q ( x2 , y2 ), R( x3 , y3 ) and
x2 y2
S ( x4 , y4 ) on the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 are concurrent, then
a b
1 1 1 1
( x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 )  + + +  =4
 x1 x2 x3 x4 
Conjugate Points and Conjugate Lines

Two points are said to be conjugate points with respect to an ellipes, if
each lies on the polar of the other.
Two lines are said to be conjugate lines with respect to an ellipse, if
each passes through the pole of the other.
Diameter and Conjugate Diameter

The locus of the mid-point of a system of parallel chords of an ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 is called a diameter, whose equation of diameter is
a 2 b2
b2
y = − 2 x.
a m
Two diameters of an ellipse are said to be conjugate diameters, if each
bisects the chords parallel to the other.
Properties of Conjugate Diameters

(i) The eccentric angles of the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters
of an ellipse differ by a right angle.
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Ellipse 207
(ii) The sum of the squares of any two conjugate semi-diameters of
an ellipse is constant and equal to the sum of the squares of the
semi-axis of the ellipse i.e. CP 2 + CD 2 = a 2 + b2.
(iii) If PCP ′ , QCQ ′ are two conjugate semi-diameters of an ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1 and S , S1 be two foci of an ellipse, then
a 2 b2
SP × S1P = CQ 2
Y
(a cos θ, b sin θ)
(–a sin θ, b cos θ)
P
Q
X′ X
C
Q′
P′
Y′
(iv) The tangent at the ends of a pair of conjugate diameters of an
ellipse form a parallelogram.
(v) The area of the parallelogram formed by the tangents at the
ends of conjugate diameters of an ellipse is constant and is equal
to the product of the axes.
Important Points on Ellipse

(i) The line y = mx + c touches the ellipse
x2 y2
+ = 1, if c 2 = a 2m 2 + b2
a2 b2
(ii) The tangent and normal at any point of an ellipse bisect the external and
internal angles between the focal radii to the point.
(iii) If SM and S ′ M′ are perpendiculars from the foci upon the tangent at any
x2 y2
point of the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, then SM × S ′ M′ = b2 and M , M′ lie on the
a b
auxiliary circle.
x2 y2
(iv) If the tangent at any point P on the ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 meets the major
a b
axis in T and minor axis in T ′, then CN × CT = a2 , CN ′ × CT ′ = p2 , where N
and N′ are the foot of the perpendiculars from P on the respective axis.
(v) The common chords of an ellipse and a circle are equally inclined to the
axes of the ellipse.
Contd. …
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(vi) Maximum four normals can be drawn from a point to ellipse.

x2 y2
(vii) Polar of the point ( x1 , y1) with respect to the ellipse + = 1 is
a2 b2
xx1 yy1
+ 2 = 1.
a2 b
xx1 yy1
Here, point ( x1 , y1) is the pole of + 2 = 1 with respect to ellipse
a2 b
x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 b2
x2 y2
(viii) The pole of the line lx + my + n = 0 with respect to ellipse + = 1 is
a2 b2
 − a2 l − b2m
P , .
 n n 
(ix) Two tangents can be drawn from a point P to an ellipse. These tangents
are real and distinct or coincident or imaginary according as the given
point lies outside, on or inside the ellipse.
(x) Tangents at the extremities of latusrectum of an ellipse intersect on the
corresponding directrix.
x2 y2
(xi) Locus of mid-point of focal chords of an ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is
a b
x 2 y 2 ex
+ = .
a 2 b2 a
(xii) Point of intersection of the tangents at two points on the ellipse
x 2 y2
+ = 1, whose eccentric angles differ by a right angle lies on the
a2 b2
2
x y2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 2 .
a b
x2 y2
(xiii) Locus of mid-point of normal chords of an ellipse 2 + 2 = 1 is
a b
2
 x2 y2   a6 b6 
 2 + 2   2 + 2  = (a − b )
2 2 2
a b  x y 
x2 y2
(xiv) Eccentric angles of the extremities of latusrectum of an ellipse 2 + 2 = 1
a b
−1  b
are tan  ±  .
 ae 
(xv) The straight lines y = m1x and y = m2 x are conjugate diameters of an
x2 y2 b2
ellipse 2 + 2 = 1, if m1 m2 = − 2 ⋅
a b a
(xvi) The normal at point P on an ellipse with foci S , S1 is the internal bisector of
∠ SPS1.
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20
Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the locus of a point in a plane which moves in the plane
in such a way that the ratio of its distance from a fixed point in the
same plane to its distance from a fixed line is always constant, which is
always greater than unity.
The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is directrix and
the ratio is the eccentricity.
Transverse and Conjugate Axes

(i) The line through the foci of the hyperbola is called its transverse
axis.
(ii) The line through the centre and perpendicular to the transverse
axis of the hyperbola is called its conjugate axis.
x2 y2
Hyperbola of the Form − =1
a2 b2
Y
L′ L
P
S1 A1
X' A S
X
O
L′1 l' l L1
Y'
(i) Centre : O( 0, 0)
(ii) Foci : S ( ae, 0), S1( − ae, 0)
(iii) Vertices : A( a , 0), A1 ( − a , 0)
a ′ a
(iv) Equation of directrices l : x = ,l : x = −
e e
2 b2
(v) Length of latusrectum : LL 1 = L ′ L ′1 =
a
(vi) Length of transverse axis : 2a
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(vii) Length of conjugate axis : 2b

2
 b
(viii) Eccentricity e = 1 +  
 a
or b2 = a 2( e2 − 1)
(ix) Distance between foci = 2ae
2a
e
 b2 
(xi) Coordinates of ends of latusrectum =  ± ae, ± 
 a
(xii) Focal radii|SP | =|ex1 − a| and|S1 P| =|ex1 + a|
x2 y2
Conjugate Hyperbola – + =1
a2 b2
(i) Centre : O( 0, 0) Y
S
(ii) Foci : S ( 0, be), S1 ( 0, − be) L1 L
P
(iii) Vertices : A ( 0, b), A1( 0, − b) A
l
(iv) Equation of directrices
b b X' X
l : y = ,l ′ : y = − O
e e l'
A1
(v) Length of latusrectum :
L'1 L'
2a 2 S1
LL1 = L ′ L1 ′ =
b Y'
(vi) Length of transverse axis : 2b.

(vii) Length of conjugate axis : 2a.
2
 a
(viii) Eccentricity e = 1 +  
 b
(ix) Distance between foci = 2be
2b
e
 a2 
(xi) Coordinates of ends of latusrectum =  ± , ± be
 b 
(xii) Focal radii|SP | =|ey1 − b| and|S1P| =|ey1 + b|
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Hyperbola 211
Focal Distance of a Point
The distance of a point on the hyperbola from the focus is called its
focal distance.
The difference of the focal distances of any point on a hyperbola is
constant and is equal to the length of transverse axis of the hyperbola
i.e.
|S1P − SP| = 2a
where, S and S1 are the foci and P is any point on the hyperbola
x2 y2
− = 1.
a 2 b2
Equation of Hyperbola in Different Forms

(i) If the centre of the hyperbola is (h , k) and the directions of the
axes are parallel to the coordinate axes, then the equation of the
hyperbola, whose transverse and conjugate axes are 2a and 2b is
( x − h )2 ( y − k)2
− = 1.
a2 b2
(ii) If a point P ( x , y ) moves in the plane of two perpendicular
straight lines a1 x + b1 y + c1 = 0 and b1x − a1 y + c2 = 0 in such a
way that
2 2
a x + b y + c  b x − a y + c 
 1 1 1  1 1 2
 a1 + b1 
2 2  a1 + b1 
2 2
 
− =1
a2 b2
Then, the locus of P is hyperbola whose transverse axis lies
along b1x − a1 y + c2 = 0 and conjugate axis along the line
a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0. The length of transverse and conjugate axes
are 2a and 2b, respectively.
Parametric Equations
x2 y2
(i) Parametric equations of the hyperbola − = 1 are
a2 b2
x = a sec θ , y = b tan θ
or x = a cosh θ , y = b sinh θ
 eθ + e− θ   eθ − e− θ 
(ii) The equations x = a   , y= b  are also the
 2   2 
parametric equations of the hyperbola.
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Tangent Equation of Hyperbola

(i) Point Form The equation of the tangent to the hyperbola
x2 y2 xx yy
− = 1 at ( x1 , y1 ) is 21 − 21 = 1 or T = 0.
a 2 b2 a b
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the tangent to the
x2 y2 x y
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 at ( a sec θ , b tan θ ) is sec θ − tan θ = 1.
a b a b
(iii) Slope Form The equation of the tangents of slope m to the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 are given by y = mx ± a 2m 2 − b2 .
a b
The coordinates of the point of contact are
 a 2m b2 
± ,± .
 a m −b
2 2 2
a m −b 
2 2 2

(iv) The tangent at the points P ( a sec θ1 , b tan θ1 ) and
Q ( a sec θ 2 , b tan θ 2 ) intersect at the point
  θ1 − θ 2   θ1 − θ 2  
 a cos   b sin  
  2   2 
,
  θ1 + θ 2   θ + θ2  
 cos   cos  1 
 2   2  
(v) Two tangents drawn from P are real and distinct, coincident or
imaginary according as the roots of the equation
m 2 ( h 2 − a 2 ) − 2khm + k2 + b2 = 0 are real and distinct,
coincident or imaginary.
(vi) The line y = mx + c touches the hyperbola, if c2 = a 2m 2 − b2 and
 a 2m b2 
the point of contacts  ± , ±  , where c = a 2m 2 − b2 .
 c c
(vii) Maximum two tangents can be drawn from a point to a
hyperbola.
(viii) The combined equation of the pairs of tangent drawn from a
x2 y2
point P ( x1 , y1 ) lying outside the hyperbola S ≡ 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
SS1 = T 2.
2
 x2 y2   x2 y2   xx yy 
i.e.  2 − 2 − 1  12 − 12 − 1 =  12 − 21 − 1
a b  a b  a b 
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Hyperbola 213
Equation of Chord
(i) Equations of chord joining two points P ( a sec θ1 , b tan θ1 )
x2 y2
and Q( a sec θ 2 , b tan θ 2 ) on the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
b tan θ 2 − b tan θ1
y − b tan θ1 = ⋅ ( x − a sec θ1 )
a sec θ 2 − a sec θ1
x  θ − θ2  y  θ1 + θ 2   θ1 + θ 2 
or cos  1  − sin   = cos  
a  2  b  2   2 
(ii) Equations of chord of contact of tangents drawn from a point
x2 y2 xx yy
( x1 , y1 ) to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is 21 − 21 = 1 or T = 0.
a b a b
x2 y2
(iii) The equation of the chord of the hyperbola − = 1 bisected
a2 b2
at point ( x1 , y1 ) is given by
xx1 yy1 x12 y12
− − 1 = − −1
a2 b2 a 2 b2
or T = S1
Director Circle
The locus of the point of intersection of perpendicular tangents to the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, is called a director circle. The equation of
a b
director circle is x 2 + y 2 = a 2 − b2.
Y
P (h , k )
90°
X' X
C
Y'
2
x y2
Note Director circle of hyperbola − = 1 is exist only when a2 > b2 .
a2 b2
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Normal Equation of Hyperbola

(i) Point Form The equation of the normal to the hyperbola
x2 y2 a 2x b2 y
− = 1 is + = a 2 + b2.
a 2 b2 x1 y1
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the normal at
x2 y2
( a sec θ , b tan θ ) to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is
a b
ax cos θ + by cot θ = a 2 + b2.
(iii) Slope Form The equation of the normal of slope m to the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 are given by
a b
m( a 2 + b2 )
y = mx m
a 2 − b2m 2
The coordinates of the point of contact are
 a2 b2m 
± ,m .
 a 2 − b2m 2 a 2 − b2m 2 

x2 y2
(iv) The line y = mx + c will be normal to the hyperbola − = 1, if
a2 b2
m 2 ( a 2 + b2 )2
c2 =
a 2 − b2m 2
(v) Maximum four normals can be drawn from a point ( x1 , y1 ) to the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1.
a b
Conormal Points
Points on the hyperbola, the normals at which passes through a given
point are called conormal points.
(i) The sum of the eccentric angles of conormal points is an odd
multiple of π.
(ii) If θ1 , θ 2 , θ3 and θ 4 are eccentric angles of four points on the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, then the normal at which they are
a b
concurrent, then
(a) ∑ cos(θ1 + θ2 ) = 0 (b) ∑ sin(θ1 + θ2 ) = 0
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Hyperbola 215
(iii) If θ1 , θ 2 and θ3 are the eccentric angles of three points on the
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, such that
a b
sin(θ1 + θ 2 ) + sin(θ 2 + θ3 ) + sin(θ3 + θ1 ) = 0.
Then, the normals at these points are concurrent.
(iv) If the normals at four points P ( x1 , y1 ), Q( x2 , y2 ), R( x3 , y3 ) and
x2 y2
S ( x4 , y4 ) on the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 are concurrent, then
a b
1 1 1 1
( x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 )  + + +  =4
 x1 x2 x3 x4 
1 1 1 1
and ( y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 )  + + +  = 4.
 1
y y 2 y3 y 4
Conjugate Points and Conjugate Lines

(i) Two points are said to be conjugate points with respect to a
hyperbola, if each lies on the polar of the other.
(ii) Two lines are said to be conjugate lines with respect to a
x2 y2
hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, if each passes through the pole of the
a b
other.
Diameter and Conjugate Diameter

(i) Diameter The locus of the mid-points of a system of parallel
chords of a hyperbola is called a diameter.
The equation of the diameter bisecting a system of parallel chords
x2 y2 b2
of slope m to the hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1 is y = 2 x
a b a m
(ii) Conjugate Diameter The diameters of a hyperbola are said
to be conjugate diameter, if each bisect the chords parallel to the
other.
b2
The diameters y = m1x and y = m2x are conjugate, if m1m2 = 2 .
a
Note If a pair of diameters is conjugate with respect to a hyperbola, they are
conjugate with respect to its conjugate hyperbola also.
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Asymptote
An asymptote to a curve is a straight line, at a finite distance from the
origin, to which the tangent to a curve tends as the point of contact
goes to infinity.
Y Asymptotes
B x2 y2
— =1
a2 b2
X' X
A' C A
B'
R
x2 y2
Y' – + =1
a2 b2
x2 y2
(i) The equation of two asymptotes of the hyperbola − = 1 are
a2 b2
b x y
y=± x or ± = 0
a a b
(ii) The combined equation of the asymptotes of the hyperbola
x2 y2 x2 y2
2
− 2
= 1 is 2
− = 0.
a b a b2
(iii) When b = a, i.e. the asymptotes of rectangular hyperbola
x 2 − y 2 = a 2 are y = ± x which are at right angle.
(iv) A hyperbola and its conjugate hyperbola have the same
asymptotes.
(v) The equation of the pair of asymptotes differ the hyperbola and
the conjugate hyperbola by the same constant only i.e.
Hyperbola – Asymptotes = Asymptotes – Conjugate hyperbola
(vi) The asymptotes pass through the centre of the hyperbola.
(vii) The bisectors of angle between the asymptotes of hyperbola
x2 y2
− = 1 are the coordinate axes.
a 2 b2
x2 y2  b
(viii) The angle between the asymptotes of − = 1 is 2 tan−1  
a 2
b 2  a
or 2 sec−1( e).
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Hyperbola 217
Rectangular Hyperbola
A hyperbola whose asymptotes include a right angle is said to be
rectangular hyperbola or we can say that, if the lengths of transverse
and conjugate axes of any hyperbola be equal, then it is said to be a
rectangular hyperbola.
x2 y2
i.e. In a hyperbola 2 − 2 = 1, if b = a, then it said to be rectangular
a b
hyperbola. The eccentricity of a rectangular hyperbola is always 2.
Rectangular Hyperbola of the Form x 2 − y 2 = a 2

(i) Asymptotes are perpendicular lines i.e. x ± y = 0
(ii) Eccentricity e = 2
(iii) Centre ( 0, 0)
(iv) Foci ( ± 2 a , 0)
(v) Vertices A( a , 0) and A1 ( − a , 0)
Y
L' L
A1 A
X' X
S1 S
O
L'1 l' l L1
Y'
a
(vi) Equation of directrices x = ±
2
(vii) Length of latusrectum = 2a
(viii) Parametric form x = a sec θ , y = a tan θ
(ix) Equation of tangent, x sec θ − y tan θ = a
x y
(x) Equation of normal, + = 2a
sec θ tan θ
Rectangular Hyperbola of the Form xy = c 2

(i) Asymptotes are perpendicular lines i.e. x = 0 and y = 0
(ii) Eccentricity e = 2
(iii) Centre ( 0, 0)
(iv) Foci S ( 2c, 2c), S1 ( − 2c, − 2c)
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(v) Vertices A ( c, c), A1( − c, − c)

Y
S
A
X' X
A1
S1
Y'
(vi) Equations of directrices x + y = ± 2 c
(vii) Length of latusrectum = 2 2 c
c
(viii) Parametric form x = ct , y =
t
Equation of Tangent of Rectangular Hyperbola xy = c2

(i) Point Form The equation of tangent at ( x1 , y1 ) to the
x y
rectangular hyperbola is xy1 + yx1 = 2c2 or + = 2.
x1 y1
 c
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of tangent at  ct ,  to the
 t
x
hyperbola is + yt = 2c.
t
 c  c
(iii) Tangent at P  ct1 ,  and Q  ct2 ,  to the rectangular
 t1   t2 
 2ct1t2 2c 
hyperbola intersect at  , .
 t1 + t2 t1 + t2 
(iv) The equation of the chord of contact of tangents drawn from a
point ( x1 , y1 ) to the rectangular hyperbola is xy1 + yx1 = 2c2.
Normal Equation of Rectangular Hyperbola xy = c2

(i) Point Form The equation of the normal at ( x1 , y1 ) to the
rectangular hyperbola is xx1 − yy1 = x12 − y12.
 c
(ii) Parametric Form The equation of the normal at  ct ,  to the
 t
rectangular hyperbola xy = c2 is xt3 − yt − ct 4 + c = 0.
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Hyperbola 219
 c
(iii) The equation of the normal at  ct ,  is a fourth degree equation
 t
in t. So, in general maximum four normals can be drawn from a
point to the hyperbola xy = c2.
Important Results about Hyperbola

x2 y2
(i) The point ( x1 , y1) lies outside, on or inside the hyperbola − =1
a2 b2
x12 y12
according as − − 1 < , = or > 0
a 2 b2
(ii) The equation of the chord of the hyperbola xy = c 2 whose mid-point is
( x1 , y1) is
xy1 + yx1 = 2x1y1 or T = S1
(iii) Equation of the chord joining t1 , t2 on xy = t2 is
x + yt1t2 = c(t1 + t2 )
(iv) If a triangle is inscribed in a rectangular hyperbola, then its orthocentre
lies on the hyperbola.
(v) Any straight line parallel to an asymptotes of a hyperbola intersects the
hyperbola at only one point.
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21
Limits, Continuity
& Differentiability
Limit
Let y = f ( x ) be a function of x. If at x = a,f ( x ) takes indeterminate form
0 ∞ ∞ 0
 , , ∞ − ∞ , 0 × ∞ , 1 , 0 and ∞  , then we consider the values of the
0
0 ∞ 
function at the points which are very near to a. If these values tend to
a definite unique number as x tends to a, then the unique number, so
obtained is called the limit of f ( x ) at x = a and we write it as lim f ( x ).
x→a
Left Hand and Right Hand Limits

If values of the function, at the points which are very near to the left of
a, tends to a definite unique number, then the unique number so
obtained is called the left hand limit of f ( x ) at x = a. We write it as
f ( a − 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( a − h )
x → a− h → 0+
Similarly, right hand limit is written as

f ( a + 0) = lim f ( x ) = lim f ( a + h )
x → a+ h → 0+
Existence of Limit
lim f ( x ) exists, if
x→a
(i) lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) both exist
x → a− x → a+
(ii) lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )

x → a− x → a+
Uniqueness of Limit
If lim f ( x ) exists, then it is unique, i.e. there cannot be two distinct
x→a
numbers l1 and l2 such that when x tends to a, the function f ( x ) tends
to both l1 and l2.
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Limits, Continuity & Differentiability 221

Fundamental Theorems on Limits
If f ( x ) and g( x ) are two functions of x such that lim f ( x ) and lim g( x )
x→a x→a
both exist, then
(i) lim [ f ( x ) ± g( x )] = lim f ( x ) ± lim g( x )
x→a x→a x→a
(ii) lim [kf ( x )] = k lim f ( x ), where k is a fixed real number.

x→a x→a
(iii) lim [ f ( x ) g( x )] = lim f ( x ) lim g( x )

x→a x→a x→a
lim f ( x )
f(x) x → a
(iv) lim = , provided lim g( x ) ≠ 0
x→a g( x ) lim g( x ) x→a
x→a
lim g ( x )
(v) lim [ f ( x )] g ( x ) =  lim f ( x )
x→ a
x→a x → a 
(vi) lim ( gof ) ( x ) = lim g[ f ( x )] = g  lim f ( x )

x→a x→a x → a 
(vii) lim log f ( x ) = log  lim f ( x ) , provided lim f ( x ) > 0.

x→a x → a  x→a
lim f ( x )
(viii) lim e f ( x ) = ex → a
x→a
(ix) If f ( x ) ≤ g( x ) for every x excluding a, then lim f ( x ) ≤ lim g( x ).

x→a x→a
(x) lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x )
x→a x→a
1
(xi) If lim f ( x ) = + ∞ or − ∞ , then lim =0
x→a x→a f(x)
Important Results on Limits

1. Algebraic Limits
xn − an
(i) lim = na n −1, n ∈ Q
x→ a x−a
(1 + x )n − 1
(ii) lim = n , n ∈Q
x→ 0 x
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2. Trigonometric Limits
sin x x
(i) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 sin x
tan x x
(ii) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 tan x
sin−1 x x
(iii) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 sin−1 x
tan−1 x x
(iv) lim = 1 = lim
x→ 0 x x → 0 tan−1 x
sin x ° π
(v) lim =
x→ 0 x 180
(vi) lim cos x = 1
x→ 0
sin( x − a )
(vii) lim =1
x→ a x−a
tan( x − a )
(viii) lim =1
x→ a x−a
(ix) lim sin−1 x = sin−1 a ,|a|≤ 1
x→ a
(x) lim cos−1 x = cos−1 a ,|a|≤ 1

x→ a
(xi) lim tan−1 x = tan−1 a , − ∞ < a < ∞

x→ a
sin x cos x
(xii) lim = lim =0
x→ ∞ x x→ ∞ x
1
sin
x
(xiii) lim =1
x→ ∞ 1
x
1 − cos x
(xiv) lim =0
x→0 x
(where, x is measured in radian)
3. Exponential Limits
ex − 1
(i) lim =1
x→ 0 x
ax − 1
(ii) lim = loge a, a > 0
x→ 0 x
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e λx − 1
(iii) lim = λ, where ( λ ≠ 0).
x→ 0 x
 0, 0≤ a < 1

1, a=1

(iv) lim a x = 
x→ ∞
∞ , a>1

does not exist, a< 0
4. Logarithmic Limits
loge (1 + x )
(i) lim =1
x→ 0 x
(ii) lim loge x = 1
x→ e
loge (1 − x )
(iii) lim = −1
x→ 0 x
loga (1 + x )
(iv) lim = loga e, a > 0, ≠ 1
x→ 0 x
5. Limits of the Form lim ( f ( x )) g ( x )

x →a
lim φ ( x ) log f ( x )
If lim f(x) exists and positive, then lim [ f ( x )]φ ( x ) = ex → a
x→a x→a
6. Limits of the Form 1∞

To evaluate the exponential form 1∞ , we use following results.
f (x )
lim
If lim f ( x ) = lim g( x ) = 0, then, lim { 1 + f ( x )}1/ g ( x ) = ex → a g ( x )
x→ a x→ a x→ a
Or If lim f ( x ) = 1 and lim g ( x ) = ∞ ,

x→ a x→ a
lim { f ( x ) − 1} g ( x )
Then, lim { f ( x )} g(x )
= lim { 1 + f ( x ) − 1} g ( x ) = ex→ a
x→ a x→a
Particular Cases
1 x
 1
(i) lim (1 + x ) x = e (ii) lim 1 +  = e
x→ 0 x→ ∞  x
1 x
 λ
(iii) lim (1 + λx ) x = eλ (iv) lim 1 +  = eλ
x→ 0 x→ ∞  x
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Methods of Evaluating Limits

1. Determinate Forms (Limits by Direct Substitution)
To find lim f ( x ), we substitute x = a in the function. If the value comes
x→a
out to be a definite value, then it is the limit.
Thus, lim f ( x ) = f ( a ) provided it exists.
x→a
2. Indeterminate Forms
While evaluating lim f ( x ), if direct substitution of x = a leads to one of
x→a
0 ∞
the following form ; ; ∞ − ∞ ; 0 × ∞ ; 1∞ , 00 and ∞ 0, then these limits
0 ∞
can be determined by using L’ Hospital’s rule or by some other method
given below.
(i) Limits by Factorisation
f(x) 0
If lim attains form, then x − a must be a factor of numerator
x→a g( x ) 0
and denominator which can be cancelled out.
(ii) Limits by Rationalisation
f(x) 0 ∞
If lim attains form or form and either f ( x ) or g( x ) or both
x→a g( x ) 0 ∞
involve expression consisting of square root, then this can be evaluated
by rationalising.
(iii) Limits by Substitution
In order to evaluate lim f ( x ), we may substitute x = a + h

x→a
(or x = a − h), so that x → a changes to h → 0.
Thus, lim f ( x ) = lim f ( a ± h )
x→a h→0
(iv) Limits when x → ∞

f(x) ∞
If lim is of the form and both f ( x ) and g( x ) are polynomial of x.
x→∞ g( x ) ∞
Then, we divide numerator and denominator by the highest power of x
1 1 1
and put 0 for , 2 , 3 , etc.
x x x
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Note If m and n are positive integers and a0 , b0 ≠ 0 are real numbers, then
 a0
 b , if m = n
 0
a0 x m + a1 x m−1 + K + am − 1 x + am  0, if m < n
lim =
x → ∞ b x n + b x n − 1 + ... + b
n − 1 x + bn 
0 1
if m > n, a0 b0 > 0
 ∞,

 − ∞, if m > n, a0 b0 < 0.
(v) L’Hospital’s Rule

If f ( x ) and g( x ) be two functions of x such that
(i) lim f ( x ) = lim g( x ) = 0
x→ a x→ a
(ii) both are continuous at x = a.
(iii) both are differentiable at x = a.
(iv) f ′ ( x ) and g′ ( x ) are continuous at the point x = a , then
f(x) f ′ (x)
lim = lim .
x → a g( x ) x → a g′ ( x )
Above rule is also applicable, if lim f ( x ) = ∞ and lim g( x ) = ∞.

x→ a x→ a
f′ ( x) 0 ∞
Note If lim assumes the indeterminate form or and f ′ ( x ), g′ ( x )
x→ a g′ ( x ) 0 ∞
satisfy all the condition embeded in L’Hospital’s rule, then we can repeat
f′ ( x) f′ ( x) f′ ′ ( x)
the application of this rule on to get lim i.e. lim .
g′ ( x ) x→ a g′ ( x ) x→ a g′ ′ ( x )
Limit Using Expansions

Many limits can be evaluated very easily by applying expansion of
expressions involving in it. Some of the standard expansions are
(i) (1 + x )n = 1 + n C1x + n C2x 2 + ... + n Cn x n , n ∈ N , x ∈ R
n( n − 1) 2
(ii) (1 + x )n = 1 + nx + x + ... ∞ , − 1 < x < 1, n ∈ Q
2!
x x 2 x3
(iii) ex = 1 + + + + ... ∞ , x ∈ R
1! 2! 3!
( x loge a )2
(iv) a x = ex log a = 1 + x loge a + + ... ∞ , x ∈ R, a > 0, a ≠ 1
2!
x 2 x3 x 4
(v) loge (1 + x ) = x − + − + ... ∞ , − 1 < x ≤ 1
2 3 4
x 2 x3
(vi) loge (1 − x ) = − x − − − ... ∞ , − 1 ≤ x < 1
2 3
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x3 x5
(vii) sin x = x − + − ... ∞ , x ∈ R
3! 5!
x2 x4
(viii) cos x = 1 − + − ... ∞ , x ∈ R
2! 4!
x3 2 5
(ix) tan x = x + + x +...
3 15
x3 9x5
(x) sin−1 x = x + + +...
3! 5!
x3 x5 x7
(xi) tan−1 x = x − + − +...
3 5 7

1 − cos m x m 2
(i) lim = 2
x → 0 1 − cos n x n
cos ax − cos bx a 2 – b2
(ii) lim =
x→ 0 cos cx − cos dx c2 – d 2
cos mx − cos nx n 2 − m2
(iii) lim =
x→ 0 x2 2
p p
sin mx  m
(iv) lim = 
x→ 0 ( nx ) p  n
p
tan p mx
 m
(v) lim = 
x→ 0 tan nx  n 
p
xa − ax 1 − log a
(vi) lim =
x→ a x −a
x a
1 + log a
(1 + x )m − 1 m
(vii) lim =
x→ 0 (1 + x )n − 1 n
(1 + bx )m − 1 mb
(viii) lim =
x→ 0 (1 + ax ) − 1 n
na
bx
 a
(ix) lim (1 + ax ) b / x = lim 1 +  = eab
x→ 0 x→ ∞  x
(x) lim ( x n + y n )1/ n = y, ( 0 < x < y )
n→ ∞
(xi) lim (cos x + a sin bx )1/ x = eab

x→ 0
xn
(xii) lim = 0, ∀ n
x→ ∞ ex
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m
 x
(xiii) lim  cos  = 1
m→ ∞  m
x x x x sin x
(xiv) lim cos cos cos … cos n =
n→ ∞ 2 4 8 2 x
Sandwich Theorem
Let f ( x ), g ( x ) and h ( x ) be real functions such that
f ( x ) ≤ g ( x ) ≤ h( x ) , ∀ x ∈ (α , β ) − { a }
If lim f ( x ) = l = lim h( x ),
x→a x→a
then lim g ( x ) = l
x→a
y = h(x)
y = g(x)
y = f(x)
x=α x=a x=β
y = h (x)
y = g (x)
y = f (x)
X
O a
Continuity
If the graph of a function has no break or gap, then it is continuous. A
function which is not continuous is called a discontinuous function.
e.g. f ( x ) = sin x is continuous, as its graph has no break or gap.
Y
3π 2π
–π/2 π2
X' X
–π O π/2
–2π –3π
2
Y'
1
While f ( x ) = is discontinuous at x = 0.
x
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X' X
O
1
f ( x) = x
Y'
Continuity of a Function at a Point

Let f be a real function and a be a point in the domain of f. We say f is
continuous at a, if lim f ( x ) = f ( a ).
x→a
i.e. lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) = f ( a )
x → a− x → a+
Thus, f ( x ) is continuous at x = a, if lim f ( x ) exists and equals to f ( a ).
x→a
Note If a function is not continuous at x = a, then it is said to be discontinuous
at x = a.
Continuity of a Function in an Interval

(i) A function f ( x ) is said to be continuous in an open interval ( a , b),
if f ( x ) is continuous at every point of the interval.
(ii) A function f ( x ) is said to be continuous in a closed interval [a , b],
if f ( x ) is continuous in ( a , b). In addition, f ( x ) is continuous at
x = a from right and f ( x ) is continuous at x = b from left.
Note A real function f is said to be continuous in its domain, if it is continuous
at every point of its domain.
Discontinuity of a Function
A function f ( x ) can be discontinuous at a point x = a in any one of the
following ways.
(i) f ( a ) is not defined.
(ii) LHL and RHL both exist but unequal i.e.
lim f ( x ) ≠ lim f ( x )
x → a− x → a+
(iii) Either lim f ( x ) or lim f ( x ) or both non-existing or infinite.

x → a− x → a+
(iv) LHL and RHL both exist and equal but not equal to f ( a ),
i.e. lim f ( x ) = lim f ( x ) ≠ f ( a )
x → a− x → a+
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Types of Discontinuity
1. Removable Discontinuity
If lim f ( x ) exists and either it is not equal to f ( a ) or f ( a ) is not
x→a
defined, then the function f ( x ) is said to have a removable
discontinuity (missing point discontinuity) of x = a.
This discontinuity can be removed by suitably defining the function at
x = a.
2. Non-removable discontinuity
Non-removable discontinuity is of following two types
(i) Discontinuity of first kind
If lim f ( x ) and lim f ( x ) both exist but are not equal, then the
x → a− x → a+
function f ( x ) is said to have a non-removable discontinuity of first kind
at x = a.
Note In this case, we also say that f ( x ) has jump discontinuity at x = a and
we defind lim f ( x ) − lim f ( x ) = jump of the function at x = a.

x → a− x→ a+
(ii) Discontinuity of second kind

If at least one of the limits lim f ( x ) or lim f ( x ) does not exist or at
x → a− x → a+
least one of these is ∞ or − ∞, then the function f ( x ) is said to have a
non-removable discontinuity of second kind at x = a.

(i) If f ( x ) is continuous and g ( x ) is discontinuous at x = a, then the product
function φ ( x ) = f ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a.
(ii) If f ( x ) and g ( x ) both are discontinuous at x = a, then the product function
φ ( x ) = f ( x ) ⋅ g ( x ) is not necessarily be discontinuous at x = a.
(iii) There are some functions which are continuous only at one point.
 + x , if x ∈Q  x , if x ∈Q
e.g. f ( x ) =  and g ( x ) =  are both continuous only at
− x , if x ∉Q 0 , if x ∉Q
x = 0.
Fundamental Theorems of Continuity

(i) If f and g are continuous functions, then
(a) f ± g and fg are continuous.
(b) cf is continuous, where c is a constant.
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f
(c) is continuous at those points, where g( x ) ≠ 0.
g
(ii) If g is continuous at a point a and f is continuous at g( a ), then fog
is continuous at a.
(iii) If f is continuous in [a , b] , then it is bounded in [a , b] i.e. there
exist m and M such that
m ≤ f ( x ) ≤ M , ∀ x ∈ [a , b],
where m and M are called minimum and maximum values of
f ( x ) respectively in the interval [a , b].
(iv) If f is continuous in its domain, then| f| is also continuous in its
domain.
(v) If f is continuous at a and f ( a ) ≠ 0, then there exists an open
interval ( a − δ , a + δ ) such that for all x ∈( a − δ , a + δ ), f ( x ) has the
same sign as f ( a ).
(vi) If f is a continuous function defined on [a , b] such that f ( a ) and
f ( b) are of opposite sign, then there exists atleast one solution of
the equation f ( x ) = 0 in the open interval ( a , b).
(vii) If f is continuous on [a , b] and maps [a , b] into [a , b], then for
some x ∈[a , b], we have f ( x ) = x.
1
(viii) If f is continuous in domain D, then is also continuous in
f
D − { x : f ( x ) = 0}.
Differentiability
If the curve has no break point and no sharp edge, then it is
differentiable.
Differentiability (or Derivability) of a Function at a Point

The function f ( x ) is differentiable at a point P iff there exists a unique
tangent at point P.
In other words, f ( x ) is differentiable at a point P iff the curve does not
have P as a corner point i.e. the function is not differentiable at those
points on which function has holes or sharp edges.
If the shape of curve is any of the following forms,
A
A
A
(i) (ii) (iii)
then the function is not differentiable at point A.
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Mathematically A function f ( x ) is said to be differentiable at a point
f(x) − f(a)
a in its domain, if lim exist finitely
x→a x−a
f(x) − f(a) f(x) − f(a)
or if lim = lim
x → a− x−a x → a+ x−a
i.e. Left Hand Derivative (LHD) = Right Hand Derivative (RHD)
or Lf ′ ( a ) = Rf ′ ( a )
Differentiability of a Function in an Interval

(i) A function f ( x ) is said to be differentiable in an interval ( a , b), if
f ( x ) is differentiable at every point of this interval ( a , b).
(ii) A function f ( x ) is said to be differentiable in a closed interval
[a , b], if f ( x ) is differentiable in ( a , b), in addition f ( x ) is
differentiable at x = a from right and at x = b from left.
Note A real function f is said to be differentiable if it is differentiable at
every point of its domain.
Fundamental Theorems of Differentiability

(i) The sum, difference, product and quotient of two differentiable
function, provided it is defined, is differential.
(ii) The composition of differential function is a differential
function.
(iii) If f ( x ) and g( x ) both are not differential function, then the sum
function f ( x ) + g( x ) and the product function f ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) can be
differential function.
Relation between Continuity and Differentiability

(i) If a function f ( x ) is differentiable at x = a, then f ( x ) is necessarily
continuous at x = a but the converse is not necessary true, i.e. if
a function is continuous at x = a, then it is not necessary that f is
differentiable at x = a
(ii) If f is not continuous at x = a, then f is not differential at x = a.
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Continuity and Differentiability of Different Functions

Continuity and
Function Curve Domain and Range
Differentiability
Domain = R,
Identity f (x) = x
Range = ] − ∞ , ∞ [ = R
Domain = R,
Constant f (x) = c Range = {c}, where
c → constant Continuous and
Differentiable
f (x) = everywhere
a0 + a1x + a2 x2
Polynomial + K + an x n , where Domain = R

a0, a1, ..., an are
real numbers and
n ∈ N.
Domain = [0, ∞), Continuous and

Square Root f (x) = x differentiable in
Range = [0, ∞)
(0, ∞)
Domain = R,
Greatest integer f (x) = [x]
Range = I
Other than
Domain = R, integral values it
Least integer f (x) = (x)
Range = I is continuous
and differentiable
Domain = R,
Fractional part f (x) = {x} = x − [x]
Range = [0, 1)
| x|
f (x) =
x Continuous and
Domain = R, differentiable
Signum −1, x < 0
=  0, x = 0 Range = {− 1, 0, 1} everywhere
except at x = 0
 1, x > 0

Domain = R,
Exponential f (x) = ax , a > 0, a ≠ 1
Range = ] 0, ∞ [ Continuous and
differentiable in
f (x) = log a x; x, a > 0 Domain = (0, ∞), their domain
Logarithmic and a ≠ 1 Range = R
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Continuity and
Functions Curve Domain and Range
Differentiability
Domain = R,
sine y = sin x
Range = [ − 1, 1]
Domain = R,
cosine y = cos x
Range = [ − 1, 1]
Domain
π
tangent y = tan x = R − (2n + 1) | n ∈ Z ,
 2 
Range = R Continuous and
differentiable in
Domain = R − {nπ | n ∈ Z} their domain
cosecant y = cosec x
Range = {− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Domain
π
secant y = sec x = R − (2n + 1) | n ∈ Z ,
 2 
Range = (− ∞, − 1] ∪ [1, ∞)
Domain = R − {nπ | n ∈ Z},
cotangent y = cot x
Range = R
Domain = [− 1, 1],
y = sin−1 x π π
Arc sine Range =  − , 
 2 2 
Domain = [− 1, 1],
Arc cosine y = cos −1 x
Range = [0, π]
Domain = R,
y = tan−1x π π
Arc tangent Range =  − , 
 2 2 Continuous and
differentiable in
Domain = (− ∞, 1] ∪ [1, ∞), their domain
y = cosec −1x π π
Arc cosecant Range =  ,  − {0}
2 2
Domain = (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞),
y = sec −1 x π
Arc secant Range = [0, π] −  
2 
Domain = R,
Arc cotangent y = cot −1 x
Range = (0, π)
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22
Derivatives
Derivative or Differential Coefficient
The rate of change of a quantity y with respect to another quantity x is
called the derivative or differential coefficient of y with respect to x.
Differentiation
The process of finding derivative of a function is called differentiation.
Differentiation using First Principle

Let f ( x ) is a function, differentiable at every point on the real number
line, then its derivative is given by
d f ( x + δx ) − f ( x )
f ′ (x) = f ( x ) = lim
dx δx → 0 δx
Derivatives of Standard Functions

d
(i) ( x n ) = nx n − 1 , n ∈ R
dx
d
(ii) ( k) = 0, where k is constant.
dx
d x
(iii) ( e ) = ex
dx
d
(iv) ( a x ) = a x loge a, where a > 0, a ≠ 1
dx
d 1
(v) (loge x ) = , x > 0
dx x
d 1 1
(vi) (loga x ) = (loga e) = , x> 0
dx x x loge a
d
(vii) (sin x ) = cos x
dx
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Derivatives 235
d
(viii) (cos x ) = − sin x
dx
d π
(ix) (tan x ) = sec2 x , x ≠ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
dx 2
d
(x) (cot x ) = − cos ec2 x , x ≠ nπ, n ∈ I
dx
d π
(xi) (sec x ) = sec x tan x , x ≠ ( 2n + 1) , n ∈ I
dx 2
d
(xii) (cos ec x ) = − cos ec x cot x , x ≠ n π , n ∈ I
dx
d 1
(xiii) (sin−1 x ) = ,− 1< x < 1
dx 1 − x2
d 1
(xiv) (cos−1 x ) = − , − 1< x < 1
dx 1 − x2
d 1
(xv) (tan−1 x ) =
dx 1 + x2
d 1
(xvi) (cot−1 x ) = −
dx 1 + x2
d 1
(xvii) (sec−1 x ) = ,|x|> 1
dx |x| x 2 − 1
d 1
(xviii) (cos ec−1x ) = − ,|x|> 1
dx |x| x 2 − 1
d
(xix) (sinh x ) = cos h x
dx
d
(xx) (cosh x ) = sin h x
dx
d
(xxi) (tanh x ) = sec h 2x
dx
d
(xxii) (coth x ) = − cos ech 2x
dx
d
(xxiii) (sec h x ) = − sec h x tan h x
dx
d
(xxiv) (cos ech x ) = − cos ech x cot h x
dx
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d
(xxv) (sinh−1 x ) = 1 / ( x 2 + 1)
dx
d
(xxvi) (cosh−1 x ) = 1 / ( x 2 − 1), x > 1
dx
d
(xxvii) (tanh−1 x ) = 1 / (1 − x 2 ),|x|< 1
dx
d
(xxviii) (cot h−1 x ) = 1 / (1 − x 2 ),|x| > 1
dx
d
(xxix) (sec h−1x ) = − 1 / x (1 − x 2 ), x ∈( 0, 1)
dx
d
(xxx) (cos ech−1x ) = − 1/|x| (1 + x 2 ), x ≠ 0
dx
Fundamental Rules for Derivatives

d d
(i) { cf ( x )} = c f ( x ), where c is a constant.
dx dx
d d d
(ii) { f ( x ) ± g( x )} = f(x) ± g( x ) [sum and difference rule]
dx dx dx
d d d
(iii) { f ( x ) g( x )} = f ( x ) g( x ) + g( x ) f(x)
dx dx dx
[leibnitz product rule or product rule]
Generalisation If u1 , u 2 , u3 , ... , u n are functions of x, then
d  du 
( u1 u 2 u3 ... u n ) =  1  [u 2u3 ... u n ]
dx  dx 
 du   du 
+ u1  2  [u3 ... u n ] + u1u 2  3 
 dx   dx 
 du 
[u 4u5K u n ] + K + [u1u 2 ... u n − 1 ]  n 
 dx 
d d
g( x ) f(x) − f(x) g( x )
d  f ( x ) dx dx
(iv)  = [quotient rule]
dx  g( x ) { g( x )} 2
d d
(v) If f ( x ) = φ ( x ), then f ( ax + b) = a φ ( ax + b)
dx dx
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Derivatives 237
Derivatives of Different Types of Function

1. Derivatives of Composite Functions (Chain Rule)
If f and g are differentiable functions in their domain, then fog is also
differentiable
Also, ( fog)′ ( x ) = f ′ { g( x )} g ′ ( x )
dy dy du
More easily, if y = f ( u ) and u = g( x ), then = × .
dx du dx
Extension of Chain Rule
If y is a function of u , u is a function of v and v is a function of x. Then,
dy dy du dv
= × × .
dx du dv dx
2. Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

Sometimes, it becomes very tedious to differentiate inverse
trigonometric function. It can be made easy by using trigonometrical
transformations and standard substitution.
Some Standard Substitution
S. No. Expression Substitution
(i) a −x
2 2
x = a sinθ or a cos θ
(ii) a + x
2 2
x = a tanθ or a cot θ
(iii) x2 − a2 x = a sec θ or a cosec θ
(iv) a−x a+ x x = a cos 2θ
or
a+ x a−x
(v) a2 − x2 a2 + x2 x2 = a2 cos 2θ
or
a + x
2 2
a −x 2 2
(vi) x −α x = α cos2 θ + β sin2 θ

or (x − α) (x − β)
β−x
(vii) a sin x + b cos x a = r cos α, b = r sinα
3. Derivatives of Implicit Functions

dy
To find of a function f ( x , y ) = 0, which can not be expressed in the
dx
form y = φ ( x ), we differentiate both sides of the given relation
dy
with respect to x and collect the terms containing at one side and
dx
dy
find .
dx
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4. Derivatives of Parametric Functions

If the given function is of the form x = f ( t ), y = g( t ), where t is
parameter, then
 dy  d
  g( t )
dy  dt  g′ ( t )
= = dt =
dx  dx  f ( t) f ′ ( t)
d
 
 dt  dt
Derivative of a Function with Respect to

Another Function
If y = f ( x ) and z = g( x ), then the differentiation of y with respect to z is
dy
dy dx f ′ (x)
= =
dz dz g ′ ( x )
dx
Logarithmic Differentiation
(i) If a function is the product or quotient of functions such as
f ( x ) f2( x ) f3 ( x )...
y = f1( x ) f2( x )... fn ( x ) or 1 , we first take logarithm
g1( x ) g2( x ) g3 ( x )...
and then differentiate it.
(ii) If a function is in the form of [ f ( x )] g ( x ) , we first take logarithm
and then differentiate it.
Note If { f ( x )} g( y ) = { g ( y )} f( x ), then
dy g ( y ) f ′ ( x )  f ( x )log g( y ) − g ( y )
= ⋅
dx f ( x ) g ′ ( y )  g ( y )log f ( x ) − f ( x ) 
Differentiation of Infinite Series

Sometimes, the function is given in the form of an infinite series, e.g.
y= f(x) + f ( x ) +... ∞ , then the process to find the derivative of such
infinite series is called differentiation of infinite series.
e.g. Suppose y = log x + log x + log x +... ∞
Then, y = log x + y ⇒ y 2 = log x + y

Now, differentiate it by usual method.
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Derivatives 239
Note
... ∞ dy y 2f ′ ( x )
(i) If y = f ( x ){ f( x )} , then =
dx f ( x ){1 − y log f ( x )}
dy f′ ( x)
(ii) If y = f ( x ) + f( x) + f ( x ) + K ∞ , then =
dx 2 y − 1
Differentiation of a Determinant
p q r
If y = u v w , where all elements of determinant are differentiable
l m n
functions of x, then
dp dq dr p q r p q r
dy dx dx dx du dv dw
= u v w + + u v w
dx dx dx dx dl dm dn
l m n l m n
dx dx dx
Successive Differentiations
If the function y = f ( x ) is differentiated with respect to x, then the
dy
result or f ′ ( x ), so obtained, is a function of x (may be a constant).
dx
dy
Hence, can again be differentiated with respect to x.
dx
dy
The differential coefficient of with respect to x is written as
dx
2
d  dy  d y d2y
  = or f ′ ′ ( x ). Again, the differential coefficient of with
dx  dx  dx 2 dx 2
respect to x is written as
d  d 2 y  d3 y
  = or f ′ ′ ′ ( x ) …
dx  dx 2  dx3
dy d 2 y d3 y
Here, , , , K are respectively known as first, second,
dx dx 2 dx3
third, … order differential coefficients of y with respect to x. These
are alternatively denoted by f ′ ( x ), f ′ ′ ( x ), f ′ ′ ′ ( x ),K or y1 , y2 , y3 ,K ,
respectively.
dy d 2y
2
dy dθ
but 2 ≠ dθ2
d y 2
Note =
dx dx dx d x
dθ dθ 2
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nth Derivative of Some Functions

dn  nπ 
(i) [sin ( ax + b)] = a n sin  + ax + b
dx n  2 
dn  nπ 
(ii) [cos( ax + b)] = a n cos  + ax + b
dx n  2 
dn m!
(iii) ( ax + b)m = a n ( ax + b)m − n
dx n
( m − n )!
dn ( −1)n −1( n − 1)! a n
(iv) [log( ax + b)] =
dx n ( ax + b)n
dn
(v) ( eax ) = a n eax
dx n
dn
(vi) ( a x ) = a x (log a )n
dx n
dn
(vii) (a) [eax sin( bx + c)] = r n eax sin ( bx + c + nφ )
dx n
dn
(b) [eax cos ( bx + c)] = r n eax cos( bx + c + nφ )
dx n
 b
where, r = a 2 + b2 and φ = tan−1  
 a
Partial Differentiation
The partial differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) with respect to x is the
ordinary differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) when y is regarded as a
∂f
constant. It is written as or fx .
∂x
∂f f(x + h , y) − f(x, y)
Thus, = lim
∂x h → 0 h
∂f
Similarly, the differential coefficient of f ( x , y ) with respect to y is
∂y
∂f f ( x , y + k) − f ( x , y )
or fy , where = lim
∂y k → 0 k
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Derivatives 241
e.g. If z = f ( x , y ) = x 4 + y 4 + 3xy 2 + x 2 y + x + 2 y,
∂z ∂f
then or or fx = 4x3 + 3 y 2 + 2xy + 1
∂x ∂x
[here, y is consider as constant]
∂z ∂f
and or or fy = 4 y3 + 6xy + x 2 + 2 [here, x is consider as constant]
∂y ∂y
Higher Partial Derivatives

∂f ∂f
Let f ( x , y ) be a function of two variables such that , both exist.
∂x ∂y
∂f ∂2 f
(i) The partial derivative of w.r.t. x is denoted by 2 or fxx .
∂x ∂x
∂f ∂2 f
(ii) The partial derivative of w.r.t. y is denoted by 2 or fyy .
∂y ∂y
∂f ∂2 f
(iii) The partial derivative of w.r.t. y is denoted by or fxy .
∂x ∂y ∂x
∂f ∂2 f
(iv) The partial derivative of w.r.t. x is denoted by or fyx .
∂y ∂x ∂y
Euler’s Theorem on Homogeneous Function

If f ( x , y ) is a homogeneous function of x , y of degree n, then
∂f ∂f
x +y = nf
∂x ∂y
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23
Application of
Derivatives
Derivatives as the Rate of Change
If a variable quantity y is some function of time t i.e. y = f ( t ), then
small change in time ∆t have a corresponding change ∆y in y.
∆y
Thus, the average rate of change = .
∆t
When limit ∆t → 0 is applied, the rate of change becomes
instantaneous and we get the rate of change with respect to t at any
∆y dy
instant y, i.e. lim = .
∆t→ 0 ∆t dt
dy
Similarly, the differential coefficient of y with respect to x i.e. is
dx
nothing but the rate of change of y relative to x.
Derivative as the Rate of Change of Two Variables

Let two variables are varying with respect to another variable t, i.e.
y = f ( t ) and x = g ( t ).
Then, rate of change of y with respect to x is given by
dy dy / dt dy dy dt
= or = ×
dx dx / dt dx dt dx
dy
Note is positive, if y increases as x increases and is negative, if y
dx
decreases as x increases.
Marginal Cost
Marginal cost represents the instantaneous rate of change of the total
cost with respect to the number of items produced at an instant. If C ( x )
represents the cost function for x units produced, then marginal cost,
denoted by MC, is given by
d
MC = { C( x )}.
dx
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Application of Derivatives 243

Marginal Revenue
Marginal revenue represents the rate of change of total revenue with
respect to the number of items sold at an instant. If R ( x ) represents
the revenue function for x units sold, then marginal revenue, denoted
by MR, is given by
d
MR = { R( x )}.
dx
Note Total cost = Fixed cost + Variable cost i.e. C( x ) = f (c ) + v( x ).
Tangents and Normals

A tangent is a straight line, which touches the curve y = f ( x ) at a point.
A normal is a straight line perpendicular to a tangent to the curve
y = f ( x ) intersecting at the point of contact.
Slope of Tangent and Normal

(i) If the tangent at P is perpendicular to X-axis or parallel to
π  dy 
Y -axis, then θ = ⇒ tan θ = ∞ ⇒   = ∞.
2  dx  P
(ii) If the tangent at P is perpendicular to Y -axis or parallel to

 dy 
X-axis, then θ = 0 ⇒ tanθ = 0 ⇒   = 0.
 dx  P
−1
(iii) Slope of the normal at P =
Slope of the tangent at P
−1  dx 
= =− 
 dy   dy  P
 
 dx  P
 dy 
(iv) If   = 0, then normal at ( x , y ) is parallel to Y-axis and
 dx  P
perpendicular to X-axis.
 dy 
(v) If   = ∞, then normal at ( x , y ) is parallel to X-axis and
 dx  P
perpendicular to Y-axis.
Equation of Tangents and Normals

The derivative of the curve y = f ( x ) is f ′ ( x ) which represents the slope
of tangent and equation of the tangent to the curve at P is
dy
Y − y= ( X − x ), where ( x , y ) is an arbitrary point on the tangent.
dx
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y = f(x)
Y
Tangent
Normal
P (x, y)
θ
X
O A S B
The equation of normal at ( x , y ) to the curve is

dx
Y − y=− (X − x)
dy
 dy 
(i) If   = 0, then the equations of the tangent and normal at
 dx  ( x , y )
( x , y ) are (Y − y ) = 0 and ( X − x ) = 0, respectively.
 dy 
(ii) If   = ± ∞ , then the equation of the tangent and normal
 dx  ( x , y )
at ( x , y ) are ( X − x ) = 0 and (Y − y ) = 0, respectively.
Length of Tangent and Normal

2
 dy 
y 1+  
 dx 
(i) Length of tangent, PA = y cosec θ =
 dy 
 
 dx 
y = f(x)
Y
Tangent
Normal
P (x, y)
θ
X
O A S B
2
 dy 
(ii) Length of normal, PB = y sec θ = y 1 +  
 dx 
y
(iii) Length of subtangent, AS = y cot θ =
( dy / dx )
 dy 
(iv) Length of subnormal, BS = y tan θ = y  
 dx 
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Angle of Intersection of Two Curves
Let y = f1( x ) and y = f2( x ) be the two curves, meeting at some point
P ( x1 , y1 ), then
The angle between the two curves at P ( x1 , y1 ) = the angle between the
tangents to the curves at P ( x1 , y1 ).
y = f2 (x)
Y m1 m2
θ
P ( x1 , y 1 )
f1(x)
X
O
The other angle between the tangents is (180 − θ ). Generally, the

smaller of these two angles is taken to be the angle of intersection.
∴ The angle of intersection of two curves is given by
m1 − m2
tanθ =
1 + m1m2
 df   df 
where, m1 =  1  and m2 =  2 
 dx  ( x  dx  ( x
1 , y1 ) 1 , y1 )
π  df   df2 
(i) If θ = , m1m2 = −1 ⇒  1    = −1
2  dx  ( x , y )  dx  ( x , y )
1 1 1 1
such curves are called orthogonal curves.

 df   df 
(ii) If θ = 0, m1 = m2 ⇒  1  =  2
 dx  ( x  dx  ( x
1 , y1 ) 1 , y1 )
such curves are tangential at ( x1 , y1 ).
Rolle’s Theorem
Let f be a real function defined in the closed interval [a , b], such that
(i) f is continuous in the closed interval [a , b].
(ii) f ( x ) is differentiable in the open interval ( a , b).
(iii) f ( a ) = f ( b)
Then, there is some point c in the open interval ( a , b), such that
f ′ ( c) = 0.
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Geometrically
Under the assumptions of Rolle’s theorem, the graph of f ( x ) starts at
point ( a , f ( a )) and ends at point ( b, f ( b)) as shown in figures.
Y
Y
)) f(a) = f(b)
, f(a (b, f (b)) (a, f(a))
(b, f (b))
(a
c2
f(a)=f(b) X
O a c1 b
a b X
O c
The conclusion is that there is atleast one point c between a and b,

such that the tangent to the graph at ( c, f ( c)) is parallel to the X-axis.
Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem

Between any two roots of a polynomial f ( x ), there is always a root of its
derivative f ′ ( x ).
Lagrange’s Mean Value Theorem

Let f be a real function, continuous on the closed interval [a , b] and
differentiable in the open interval ( a , b). Then, there is atleast one
point c in the open interval ( a , b), such that
f ( b) − f ( a )
f ′ ( c) =
b− a
Geometrically For any chord of the curve y = f ( x ), there is a point on
the graph, where the tangent is parallel to this chord.
Y
X
O a c b
Remarks In the particular case, when f ( a ) = f ( b),

f ( b) − f ( a )
the expression becomes zero,
b− a
i.e. when f ( a ) = f ( b), f ′ ( c) = 0 for some c in ( a , b), Thus, the Rolle’s
theorem becomes a particular case of the Lagrange’s mean value
theorem.
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Approximations and Errors

1. Let y = f ( x ) be a given function and ∆x denotes a small
increment in x, corresponding which y increases by ∆y. Then, for
small increments, we assume that
∆y dy
≈ [symbol ≈ stands for ‘‘approximately equal to’’]
∆x dx
dy
∴ ∆y = ∆x
dx
For approximations of y, ∆y ≈ dy
 dy 
Then, dy =   ∆x
 dx 
 dy 
Thus, y + ∆y = f ( x + ∆x ) = f ( x ) +   ∆x
 dx 
2. Let ∆x be the error in the measurement of independent variable
x and ∆y is corresponding error in the measurement of
dependent variable y.
 dy 
Then, ∆y =   ∆x
 dx 
∆y = Absolute error in measurement of y
∆y
= Relative error in measurement of y
y
∆y
× 100 = Percentage error in measurement of y
y
Increasing Function Y
(Non-decreasing Function)
A function f is called an increasing function in X′ X
domain D, if x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≤ f ( x2 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈D.
Y′
Strictly Increasing Function
f ( x ) is said to be strictly increasing in D, if for every x1 , x2 ∈ D ; x1 < x2
⇒ f ( x1 ) < f ( x2 ).
Y
X′ X
Y′
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Decreasing Function (Non-increasing Function)

A function f is called a decreasing function in domain D,
if x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) ≥ f ( x1 ), ∀ x1 , x2 ∈ D.
Y
X′ X
Y′
Strictly Decreasing Function

f ( x ) is said to be strictly decreasing in D,
if for every x1 , x2 ∈ D , x1 < x2 ⇒ f ( x1 ) > f ( x2 ).
Y
X' X
O
Y'

(i) A function f ( x ) is said to be increasing (decreasing) at point x 0 , if there is
an interval ( x 0 − h , x 0 + h) containing x 0 , such that f ( x ) is increasing
(decreasing) on ( x 0 − h , x 0 + h).
(ii) A function f ( x ) is said to be increasing on [ a , b], if it is increasing on ( a , b)
and it is also increasing at x = a and x = b.
(iii) Let f be a differentiable real function defined on an open interval ( a , b).
(a) If f ′ ( x ) > 0 for all x ∈( a , b), then f ( x ) is strictly increasing on ( a , b).
(b) If f ′ ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈( a , b), then f ( x ) is strictly decreasing on ( a , b).
(iv) Let f be a function defined on ( a , b).
(a) If f ′ ( x ) > 0 for all x ∈( a , b) except for a finite number of points, where
f ′ ( x ) = 0, then f ( x ) is increasing on ( a , b).
(b) If f ′ ( x ) < 0 for all x ∈( a , b) except for a finite number of points, where
f ′ ( x ) = 0, then f ( x ) is decreasing on ( a , b).
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Monotonic Function
If a function is either increasing or decreasing on an interval ( a , b),
then it is said to be a monotonic function.
Note If a function is increasing in some interval I1 and decreasing in some
interval I2 , then that function is not monotonic function.
Properties of Monotonic Functions

(i) If f ( x ) is strictly increasing (decreasing) function on an interval
[a , b], then f −1 exist and also a strictly increasing (decreasing)
function.
(ii) If f ( x ) and g( x ) are strictly increasing (or decreasing) function on
[a , b], then gof ( x ) and fog ( x ) (provided they exists) is strictly
increasing function on [a , b].
(iii) If one of the two functions f ( x ) and g( x ) is strictly increasing and
other a strictly decreasing, then gof ( x ) and fog( x ) (provided they
exists) is strictly decreasing on [a , b].
(iv) If f ( x ) is continuous on [a , b], and differentiable on (a, b) such
that ( f ′ ( c) > 0) for each c ∈( a , b) is strictly increasing function on
[a , b].
(v) If f ( x ) is continuous on [a , b] such that f ′ ( c) < 0 for each c∈( a , b),
then f ( x ) is strictly decreasing function on [a , b].
Maxima and Minima of Functions

Local Maximum (Maxima) A function y = f ( x ) is said to have a local
maximum at a point x = a. If f ( x ) ≤ f ( a ) for all x ∈ ( a − h , a + h ), where
h is very small positive quantity.
Y
a X
O a–h a+h
The point x = a is called a point of local maximum of the function

f ( x ) and f ( a ) is known as the local maximum value of f ( x ) at x = a.
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Local Minimum (Minima) A function Y

y = f ( x ) is said to have a local
minimum at a point x = a, if f ( x ) ≥ f ( a )
for all x ∈ ( a − h , a + h ), where h is very
small positive quantity.
The point x = a is called a point of a X
O a–h a+h
local minimum of the function f ( x ) and
f ( a ) is known as the local minimum
value of f ( x ) at x = a.
Note Extreme value A function f ( x ) is said to have an extreme value in
domain, if there exists a point c in interval such that f (c ) is either a local
maximum value or local minimum value in the interval.
Properties of Maxima and Minima

(i) If f ( x ) is continuous function in its domain, then atleast one
maxima and one minima must lie between two different values
of x on which functional values are equal.
(ii) Maxima and minima occur alternately, i.e., between two
maxima there is one minima and vice-versa.
(iii) If f ( x ) → ∞ as x → a or b and f ′( x ) = 0 only for one value of x (sayc)
between a and b, then f ( c) is necessarily the minimum and the
least value.
(iv) If f ( x ) → − ∞ as x → a or b and f ′ ( c) = 0 only for one value of
x( say c) between a and b, then f ( c) is necessarily the maximum
and the greatest value.
Critical Points of a Function

Points where a function f ( x ) is not differentiable and points where its
derivative (differentiable coefficient) is zero are called the critical
points of the function f ( x ).
Maximum and minimum values of a function f ( x ) can occur only at
critical points. However, this does not mean that the function will have
maximum or minimum values at all critical points. Thus, the points
where maximum or minimum value occurs are necessarily critical
points but a function may or may not have maximum or minimum
value at a critical point.
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(i) If f ( x ) be a differentiable functions, then f ′( x ) vanishes at every local
maximum and at every local minimum.
(ii) The converse of above is not true, i.e. every point at which f ′( x ) vanishes
need not be a local maximum or minimum. e.g. if f ( x ) = x 3 , then f ′ ( 0) = 0,
but at x = 0 the function has neither maxima nor minima. In general these
points are point of inflection.
(iii) A function may attain an extreme value at a point without being
derivable at that point. e.g. f ( x ) = | x | has a minima at x = 0 but f ′( 0) does
not exist.
(iv) A function f ( x ) can has several local maximum and local minimum values
in an interval. Thus, the maximum and minimum values of f ( x ) defined
above are not necessarily the greatest and the least values of f ( x ) in a
given interval.
(v) A local value at some point may even be greater than a local values at
some other point.
Methods to Find a Local Maximum and

Local Minimum
1. First Derivative Test
Let f ( x ) be a differentiable function on an interval I and a ∈ I .
Then,
(i) Point a is a local maximum of f ( x ), if
(a) f ′ ( a ) = 0
(b) f ′ ( x ) > 0, if x ∈ ( a − h , a ) and f ′ ( x ) < 0, if x ∈ ( a , a + h ),where h
is a small positive quantity.
(ii) Point a is a local minimum of f ( x ), if
(a) f ′ ( a ) = 0
(b) f ′ ( a ) < 0, if x ∈ ( a − h , a )and f ′ ( x ) > 0, if x ∈ ( a , a + h ),where
h is a small positive quantity.
(iii) If f ′ ( a ) = 0 but f ′ ( x ) does not changes sign in ( a − h , a + h ), for
any positive quantity h, then x = a is neither a point of local
minimum nor a point of local maximum.
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2. Second Derivative Test

Let f ( x ) be a differentiable function on an interval I. Let a ∈ I is such
that f ′′( x ) is continuous at x = a. Then,
(i) x = a is a point of local maximum, if f ′ ( a ) = 0 and f ′′( a ) < 0.
(ii) x = a is a point of local minimum, if f ′ ( a ) = 0 and f ′′( a ) > 0.
(iii) If f ′ ( a ) = f ′′( a ) = 0, but f ′′ ′ ( a ) ≠ 0, if exists, then x = a is neither
a point of local maximum nor a point of local minimum and is
called point of inflection.
(iv) If f ′ ( a ) = f ′′( a ) = f ′′′( a ) = 0 and f iv( a ) < 0, then it is a local
maximum. And if f iv ( a ) > 0, then it is a local minimum.
3. nth Derivative Test

Let f be a differentiable function on an interval I and let a be an
interior point of I such that
f ′ ( a ) = f ′′( a ) = f ′′′( a ) = ... = f n −1( a ) = 0 and f n ( a ) exists and is
non-zero.
(i) If n is even and f n ( a ) < 0 ⇒ x = a is a point of local maximum.
(ii) If n is even and f n ( a ) > 0 ⇒ x = a is a point of local minimum.
(iii) If n is odd, then x = a is neither a point of local maximum nor a
point of local minimum.
Concept of Global Maximum/Minimum

Let y = f ( x ) be a given function with domain D.
Let [a , b] ⊆ D, then global maximum/minimum of f ( x ) in [a , b] is
basically the greatest/least value of f ( x ) in [a , b].
Global maxima/minima in [a , b] would always occur at critical points of
f ( x ) with in [a , b] or at end points of the interval.
Global Maximum/Minimum in [ a, b]
In order to find the global maximum and minimum of f ( x ) in [a , b], find
out all critical points c1 , c2 ,... , cn of f ( x ) in [a , b] (i.e., all points at which
f ′ ( x ) = 0) or f ′ ( x ) not exists and let f ( c1 ), f ( c2 ) ,... , f ( cn ) be the values of
the function at these points.
Then, M1 → Global maxima or greatest value.
and M 2 → Global minima or least value.
where M1 = max { f ( a ), f ( c1 ), f ( c2 ) ,... , f ( cn ), f ( b)}
and M 2 = min { f ( a ), f ( c1 ), f ( c2 ) ,... , f ( cn ), f ( b)}
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Then, M1 is the greatest value or global maxima in [a , b] and M 2 is
the least value or global minima in [a , b].

(i) To Find Range of a Continuous Function Let f ( x ) be a continuous
function on [ a , b], such that its least value in [ a , b] is m and the greatest
value in [ a , b] is M. Then, range of value of f ( x ) for x ∈[ a , b] is [m, M].
(ii) To Check for the Injectivity of a Function A strictly monotonic
function is always one-one (injective).
Hence, a function f ( x ) is one-one in the interval [ a , b], if
f ′ ( x ) > 0 , ∀ x ∈[ a , b] or f ′ ( x ) < 0 , ∀ x ∈[ a , b].
(iii) The points at which a function attains either the local maximum value or
local minimum value are known as the extreme points or turning
points and both local maximum and local minimum values are called the
extreme values of f ( x ).
Thus, a function attains an extreme value at x = a, if f ( a) is either a local
maximum value or a local minimum value. Consequently at an extreme
point ‘a’,f ( x ) − f ( a) keeps the same sign for all values of x in a deleted nbd
of a.
(iv) A necessary condition for f ( a) to be an extreme value of a function f ( x ) is
that f ′( a) = 0 in case it exists. It is not sufficient. i.e. f ′ ( a) = 0 does not
necessarily imply that x = a is an extreme point. There are functions for
which the derivatives vanish at a point but do not have an extreme value.
e.g. the function f ( x ) = x 3 , f ′ ( 0) = 0 but at x = 0 the function does not
attain an extreme value.
(v) Geometrically the above condition means that the tangent to the curve
y = f ( x ) at a point where the ordinate is maximum or minimum is parallel
to the X-axis.
(vi) All x , for whichf ′ ( x ) = 0, do not give us the extreme values. The values of x
for whichf ′ ( x ) = 0 are called stationary values or critical values of x and
the corresponding values of f ( x ) are called stationary or turning values of
f ( x ).
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24
Indefinite Integrals
Let f ( x ) be a function. Then, the collection of all its primitives is called
the indefinite integral (or anti-derivative) of f ( x ) and is denoted by
∫ f ( x )dx. Integration as an inverse process of differentiation.
d
If
dx
{ φ ( x )} = f ( x ), then ∫ f ( x ) dx = φ ( x ) + C , where C is called the
constant of integration or arbitrary constant.

Symbols f ( x ) → Integrand
f ( x )dx → Element of integration
∫ → Sign of integral
φ ( x ) → Anti-derivative or primitive or integral of function f ( x )
The process of finding functions whose derivative is given, is called
anti-differentiation or integration.
Note The derivative of function is unique but integral of a function is not unique.
Some Standard Integral Formulae

Derivatives Indefinite Integrals
d  x n+1  xn + 1
 = x ,n ≠ −1 ∫x dx = + C, n ≠ − 1
n
(i)  n
dx  n + 1 n+1
d 1 1
(ii)
dx
(log e x) =
x ∫ x dx = log e | x| + C
d x
(e ) = e x ∫e dx = e x + C
x
(iii)
dx
d  ax  ax
 = a , a > 0, a ≠ 1 ∫a dx = +C
x x
(iv) 
dx  log e a  log e a
d
(v)
dx
(− cos x) = sin x ∫ sin x dx = − cos x + C
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Indefinite Integrals 255

Derivatives Indefinite Integrals
d
(vi)
dx
(sin x) = cos x ∫ cos x dx = sin x + C
d
(vii)
dx
(tan x) = sec2 x ∫ sec2 x dx = tan x + C
d
(viii)
dx
(− cot x) = cosec2 x ∫ cosec2 x dx = − cot x + C
d
(ix)
dx
(sec x) = sec x tan x ∫ sec x tan x dx = sec x + C
d
(x)
dx
(− cosec x) = cosec x cot x ∫ cosec x cot x dx = − cosec x + C
(xi)
d
(log sin x) = cot x ∫ cot x dx = log|sin x| + C
dx = − log|cosec x| + C
(xii)
d
(− log cos x) = tan x ∫ tan x dx = − log|cos x| + C
dx
= log|sec x|+ C
(xiii)
d
dx
[log (sec x + tan x)] = sec x ∫ sec x dx = log|sec x + tan x| + C
π x
= log tan  +  + C
 4 2
(xiv)
d
dx
[log (cosec x − cot x)] ∫ cosec x dx = log = cosec x
x
|cosec x − cot x| + C = log tan +C
2
sin− 1   = dx = sin−1   + C
d x 1 1 x
(xv) dx  a a −x
2 2 ∫ a −x
2 2  a
−1 −1
cos −1   = ∫ dx = cos −1   + C
d x x
(xvi) dx  a a −x
2 2 ∫ a −x
2 2  a
d  1 tan−1 x 1 1 1
tan−1   + C
x
(xvii)  = ∫ a2 dx =
dx a a  a2 + x2 + x2 a  a
 1 cot −1 x −1 −1
cot −1   + C
d 1 x
(xviii)  = ∫ a2 dx =
dx a a  a2 + x2 + x2 a  a
d 1 −1 x  1
sec −1   + C
1 1 x
 sec = ∫x dx =
(xix) dx  a a  x x2 − a2 x −a
2 2 a  a
d  1 cosec −1 x −1 −1
cosec −1   + C
1 x
 = ∫x dx =
(xx) dx a a  x x2 − a2  a
x −a
2 2 a
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Geometrical Interpretation of Indefinite Integral

d
If { φ ( x )} = f ( x ), then Y
dx
∫ f ( x ) dx = φ ( x ) + C. For different
values of C, we get different y= x+2
functions, differing only by a y= x+1
constant. The graphs of these
y= x
functions give us an infinite family
of curves such that at the points on y= x–1
these curves with the same X′ O X
x-coordinate, the tangents are
parallel as they have the same Y′
slope φ′ ( x ) = f ( x ).
1
Consider the integral of ,
2 x
1
i.e. ∫ 2 x dx = x + C , C ∈ R
Above figure shows some members of the family of curves given by
y = x + C for different C ∈ R.
Properties of Integration
d
dx ∫
(i) { f ( x )dx } = f ( x )
(ii) ∫ k ⋅ f ( x )dx = k∫ f ( x )dx

(iii) ∫ { f1( x ) ± f2( x ) ± f3 ( x ) ± K ± fn ( x )} dx
= ∫ f1( x ) dx ± ∫ f2( x ) dx ± ∫ f3 ( x ) dx ± K ± ∫ fn ( x ) dx
Comparison between Differentiation and Integration

(i) Both differentiation and integration are linear operator on
d d d
functions as { af ( x ) ± bg( x )} = a { f ( x )} ± b { g( x )}
dx dx dx
and ∫ [a ⋅ f ( x ) ± b ⋅ g( x )]dx = a ∫ f ( x )dx ± b∫ g( x )dx.
(ii) All functions are not differentiable, similarly there are some
function which are not integrable.
1 1
e.g. Let f ( x ) = and g( x ) = .
x−1 x−4
Then, f ( x ) is not differentiable at x = 1 and g( x ) is not integrable
at x = 4
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(iii) Integral of a function is always discussed in an interval but
derivative of a function can be discussed in a interval as well as
at a point.
(iv) Geometrically derivative of a function represents slope of the
tangent to the graph of function at the point. On the other hand,
integral of a function represents an infinite family of curves
placed parallel to each other having parallel tangents at points
of intersection of the curves with a line parallel to Y -axis.
Method of Integration
Some integrals are not in standard form, to reduce them into standard
forms, we use the following methods
1. Integration by Substitution
For integral ∫ f ′ { g( x )} g′ ( x ) dx, we create a new variable t = g( x ), so
dt
that g′ ( x ) = or g′ ( x )dx = dt.
dx
Hence, ∫ f ′ { g( x )} g′ ( x )dx = ∫ f ′ ( t )dt = f ( t ) + C = f { g( x )} + C
Note
{ f ( x )} n + 1
∫ {f ( x )} ⋅ f ′ ( x )dx = + C, n ≠ − 1
n
(i)
n+1
f′ ( x)
(ii) ∫ f( x)
dx = log| f ( x )| + C, f ( x ) ≠ 0
Basic Formulae Using Method of Substitution

1
If ∫ f ( x ) dx = φ ( x ) + C , then ∫ f ( ax + b)dx = a φ ( ax + b) + C.
1 ( ax + b)n + 1
∫ ( ax + b) dx = ⋅ + C, n ≠ − 1
n
(i)
a n +1
1 1
(ii) ∫ ax + b dx = a log|ax + b| + C
1 ax + b
∫e
ax + b
(iii) edx = +C
a
1 a bx + c
(iv) ∫ a bx + c dx = ⋅ + C , a > 0 and a ≠ 1
b log a
1
(v) ∫ sin ( ax + b) dx = − cos ( ax + b) + C
a
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1
(vi) ∫ cos ( ax + b)dx = a sin ( ax + b) + C
1
∫ sec ( ax + b)dx = tan ( ax + b) + C
2
(vii)
a
1
∫ cosec ( ax + b)dx = − a cot( ax + b) + C
2
(viii)
1
(ix) ∫ sec ( ax + b) tan( ax + b) dx = a sec ( ax + b) + C
1
(x) ∫ cosec ( ax + b) cot( ax + b)dx = − a cosec ( ax + b) + C
1
(xi) ∫ tan ( ax + b) dx = − a log|cos ( ax + b)| + C
1
(xii) ∫ cot ( ax + b) dx = a log|sin( ax + b)| + C
1
(xiii) ∫ sec ( ax + b) dx = a log|sec ( ax + b) + tan ( ax + b)| + C
1
(xiv) ∫ cosec ( ax + b) dx = a log| cosec ( ax + b) − cot ( ax + b)| + C
Trigonometric Identities, Used for Conversion of
Integrals into the Standard Integrable Forms
1 − cos 2nx
(i) sin2 nx =
2
1 + cos 2nx
(ii) cos nx =
2
2
nx nx
(iii) sin nx = 2 sin cos
2 2
3 1
(iv) sin3 nx = sin nx − sin 3 nx
4 4
3 1
(v) cos nx = cos nx + cos 3nx
3
4 4
(vi) tan2 nx = sec2 nx − 1
(vii) cot2 nx = cosec2 nx − 1
(viii) 2 sin A cos B = sin ( A + B) + sin ( A − B)
2 cos A sin B = sin ( A + B) − sin ( A − B)
2 cos A cos B = cos ( A + B) + cos ( A − B)
2 sin A sin B = cos ( A − B) − cos ( A + B)
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Standard Substitutions
S.No. Functions Substitution
1 x = a tan θ or a cot θ or a sinh θ

(i) (a2 + x2 ), x2 + a2 ,
x + a2
2
(ii) 1 x = a sin θ or a cos θ

(a2 − x2 ), a2 − x2 ,
a − x2
2
(iii) (x ± x2 ± a2 )n expression inside the bracket = t
(iv) 2x 2x a2 − x2 x = a tanθ
, ,
a −x
2 2
a +x2 2
a +x
2 2
(v) 1 x+a
(n ∈ N, n >1) =t
1−
1
1+
1
x+b
(x + a) n (x + b) n
(vi) 1 x = a sec θ or a cosec θ

(x2 − a2 ), x2 − a2 ,
x −a
2 2
or a cosh θ
(vii) a−x a+ x x = a cos 2 θ

or
a+ x a−x
(viii) x −α x = α cos2 θ + β sin2 θ
or (x − α)(β − x)
β−x
(ix) 2ax − x2 x = a (1 − cos θ)
(x) x a+ x x = a tan2 θ or a cot2 θ

, , x(a + x),
a+ x x
(xi) x a−x 1 x = a sin2 θ or a cos2 θ
; , x (a − x),
a−x x x(a − x)
(xii) x x−a 1 x = a sec2 θ or acosec2 θ

; , x(x − a),
x−a x x(x − a)
Special Integrals
1 1 x
∫ x 2 + a 2 dx = a tan
−1
(i) +C
a
1 1 a+x 1  x
(ii) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = 2a log a − x +C=
a
tanh−1   + C
 a
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dx 1 x−a 1  x
(iii) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = 2a log x + a +C= −
a
coth−1   + C
 a
dx x x
(iv) ∫ a −x
2 2
= sin−1
a
+ C = − cos−1 + c
a
dx  x
(v) ∫ x −a
2
= log|x + x 2 − a 2| + C = cosh−1   + C
2  a
dx  x
(vi) ∫ x +a
2
= log|x + x 2 + a 2| + C = sinh−1   + C
2  a
Important Forms to be Converted into Special Integrals

1 1
(i) Form I ∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx or ∫ ax + bx + c
2
dx
Express ax 2 + bx + c as sum or difference of two squares.

For this write
 b 4ac − b2 
2
ax 2 + bx + c = a  x +  + 
 2a  4a 2 
px + q px + q
(ii) Form II ∫ 2 dx or ∫ dx
ax + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
d
Put px + q = λ ⋅ ( ax 2 + bx + c) + µ .
dx
Now, find values of λ and µ and then integrate it.
P( x)
(iii) Form III ∫ ax + bx + c
2
dx, when P ( x ) is a polynomial of
degree 2 or more carry out the dimension and express in the

P( x) R( x )
form = Q( x ) + , where R( x ) is a linear
ax 2 + bx + c ax 2 + bx + c
expression or constant, then integral reduces to the forms
discussed earlier.
Note If degree of the numerator of the integrand is equal to or greater than
that of denominator divide the numerator by the denominator until the
degree of the remainder is less than that of denominator i.e.
Numerator Remainder
= Quotient +
Denominator Denominator
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dx dx dx
(iv) Form IV ∫ a + b sin2 x , ∫ a + b cos2 x , ∫ a sin2 x + b cos2 x ,
dx dx
∫ a sin2 x + b cos2 x + c , ∫ ( a sin x + b cos x )2
To evaluate the above type of integrals, we proceed as follows
(a) Divide numerator and denominator by cos2 x.
(b) Replace sec2 x , if any in denominator by 1 + tan2 x.
(c) Put tan x = t ⇒ sec2 x dx = dt
dx dx dx
(v) Form V ∫
a + b sin x ∫ a + b cos x ∫ a sin x + b cos x
, , ,
dx
∫ a sin x + b cos x + c
To evaluate the above type of integrals, we proceed as follows
x x
2 tan 1 − tan2
(a) Put sin x = 2 and cos x = 2
2 x 2 x
1 + tan 1 + tan
2 2
2 x 2 x
(b) Replace 1 + tan by sec .
2 2
x 1 2 x
(c) Put tan = t ⇒ sec dx = dt
2 2 2
a sin x + b cos x
(vi) Form VI ∫ dx,
c sin x + d cos x
Write numerator
= λ (differentiation of denominator) + µ (denominator)
i.e. a sin x + b cos x = λ ( c cos x − d sin x ) + µ( c sin x + d cos x )
a sin x + b cos x c cos x − d sin x
∫ c sin x + d cos x dx = λ ∫ c sin x + d cos x dx
c sin x + d cos x
+µ ∫ dx
c sin x + d cos x
= λ log| c sin x + d cos x| + µx + C
a sin x + b cos x + c
(vii) Form VII ∫ dx
p sin x + q cos x + r
Write numerator = λ (differentiation of denominator)
+ µ(denominator) + γ
i.e. a sin x + b cos x + c = λ ( p cos x − q sin x )
+ µ ( p sin x + q cos x + r ) + γ
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a sin x + b cos x + c p cos x − q sin x

∴ ∫ p sin x + q cos x + r
dx = λ ∫
p sin x + q cos x + r
dx
p sin x + q cos x + r 1
+ µ∫ dx + γ ∫ dx
p sin x + q cos x + r p sin x + q cos x + r
= λ log| p sin x + q cos x + r|
1
+ µx + γ ∫ p sin x + q cos x + r
dx
x2 + 1 x2 − 1
(viii) Form VIII ∫ dx , ∫ x 4 + λx 2 + 1dx ,
x + λx + 1
4 2
1 x2
∫ x + λx + 1
4 2
dx, ∫ 4
x + λx 2 + 1
dx
To evaluate this type of integrals we proceed as follows:

(a) Divide numerator and denominator by x 2.
(b) Express the denominator of integrands in the form of
2
 1
x +  ± k .
2
 x
 1  1
(c) Introduce d  x +  or d  x −  or both in numerator.
 x  x
1 1
(d) Put x + = t or x − = t as the case may be.
x x
1 1
(e) Integral reduced to the form of ∫ dx or ∫ dx.
x2 + a2 x2 − a2
dx
(ix) Form IX ∫ tan x dx , ∫ cot x dx , ∫ sin4 x + cos4 x
To evaluate this type of integrals
put tan x = t 2 ⇒ sec2 x dx = 2t dt
⇒ Then do same as in Form VIII.
2. Integration by Parts
This method is used to integrate the product of two functions.
If f ( x ) and g( x ) be two integrable functions, then
d 
∫ f (Ix ) ⋅ g(IIx ) dx = f ( x ) ∫ g( x ) dx − ∫  dx f ( x ) ∫ g( x ) dx dx
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(i) We use the following preferential order for taking the first
function.
Inverse → Logarithm → Algebraic → Trigonometric →
Exponential. In short, we write it ILATE.
(ii) If one of the function is not directly integrable, then we take it as
the first function.
(iii) If only one function is there, e.g. ∫ log x dx or ∫ sin−1 x dx etc.
then 1 (unity) can be taken as second function.

(iv) If both the functions are directly integrable, then the first
function is chosen in such a way that its derivative vanishes
easily or the function obtained in integral sign is easily
integrable.
Note
(i) Integration by parts is not applicable to product of functions in all cases
e.g. ∫ x sin x dx
(ii) Normally, if any function is a polynomial in x, then we take it as the first
function.
Integral of the Form ∫ e x { f ( x ) + f ′ ( x )} dx
∫e { f ( x ) + f ′ ( x )} dx = ∫ eII f ( x )dx + ∫e f ′ ( x )dx

x x x
I
= f ( x )∫ ex dx − ∫ { f ′ ( x )∫ ex dx } dx + ∫ ex f ′ ( x )dx
= f ( x )ex − ∫ f ′ ( x )ex dx + ∫e f ′ ( x )dx

x
= ex ⋅ f ( x ) + C
Note ∫ { xf ′ ( x ) + f ( x )} dx = xf ( x ) + C.
Integral of the Form ∫ e ax sin(bx + c) dx or ∫ e ax cos(bx + c) dx
eax
∫ e sin ( bx + c) dx = { a sin ( bx + c) − b cos ( bx + c)} + k
ax
(i)
a 2 + b2
eax
(ii) ∫ eax cos( bx + c)dx = { a cos ( bx + c) + b sin ( bx + c)} + k
a 2 + b2
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Some More Special Integral based on Integration by Parts

1
(i) ∫ x 2 + a 2 dx = x x 2 + a 2 + a 2 log|x + x 2 + a 2| + C
2  
1  x
(ii) ∫ a 2 − x 2 dx = x a 2 − x 2 + a 2 sin−1    + C
2  a 
1
(iii) ∫ x 2 − a 2 dx = x x 2 − a 2 − a 2 log|x + x 2 − a 2| + C
2  
Important Forms to be converted into special Integrals

Form I ∫ ax 2 + bx + c dx
Express ax 2 + bx + c as sum or difference of two squares. For this write

 b
2
4ac − b2   b
2
ax 2 + bx + c = a  x +  +  or a   x +  ± k2,
 2a  4a 2   2a 
4ac − b2
where k2 =
4a 2
Form II ∫ ( px + q ) ax 2 + bx + c dx
d 
Put px + q = A ( ax 2 + bx + c) + B = A( 2ax + b) + B
 dx 
Now, find the values of A and B and then integrate it.
3. Integration by Partial Fractions

P( x)
Sometimes, an integral of the form ∫ Q( x ) dx, where P( x ) and Q( x ) are
polynomials in x and Q ( x ) ≠ 0, also Q ( x ) has only linear and quadratic
factors. For solving such types of integrals, we use the partial
fractions.
Partial Fraction Decomposition
f(x)
(i) If f ( x ) and g( x ) are two polynomials, then defines a rational
g( x )
f(x)
algebraic function of x. If degree of f ( x ) < degree of g( x ), then
g( x )
is called a proper rational function.
f(x)
(ii) If degree of f ( x ) ≥ degree of g( x ), then is called an improper
g( x )
rational function.
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f(x)
(iii) If is an improper rational function, then we divide f ( x ) by
g( x )
g( x ) and convert it into a proper rational function as
f(x) h( x )
= φ (x) + .
g( x ) g( x )
f (x)
(iv) Any proper rational function can be expressed as the sum of
g (x)
rational functions each having a simple factor of g ( x ). Each such
fraction is called a partial fraction and the process of obtaining
f (x)
them, is called the resolution or decomposition of into
g (x)
partial fraction.
S.No. Type of proper rational function Partial fraction
(i) px + q A B
,a≠ b +
(x − a)(x − b) x−a x−b
(ii) px2 + qx + r A
+
B
+
C
,a≠ b≠ c
(x − a)(x − b)(x − c) x−a x−b x−c
(iii) px + q A B C
+ +
(x − a) 3
x − a (x − a)2 (x − a)3
(iv) px2 + qx + r A
+
B
+
C
(x − a) (x − b)
2 x − a (x − a)2 (x − b)
(v) px2 + qx + r A Bx + C
, where +
(x − a)(x + bx + c)
2 x − a x2 + bx + c
x2 + bx + c cannot be factorised.
(vi) px 3 + qx2 + rx + s Ax + B Cx + D
, where +
(x + ax + b)(x + cx + d)
2 2 x2 + ax + b x2 + cx + d
(x2 + ax + b) and (x2 + cx + d)
can not be factorised.
Shortcut for Finding Values of A, B and C etc.

f(x)
Suppose rational function in the form of .
g( x )
Case I When g( x ) is expressible as the product of non-repeated linear
factors.
Let g( x ) = ( x − a1 )( x − a2 )( x − a3 )K ( x − an ),
f(x) A1 A2 A3 An
then = + + + ... +
g( x ) x − a 1 x − a 2 x − a 3 x − an
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f ( a1 )
Now, A1 =
( a1 − a2 )( a1 − a3 )( a1 − a4 )...( a1 − an )
f ( a2 )
A2 = …
( a2 − a1 )( a2 − a3 )( a2 − a4 )...( a2 − an )
f ( an )
An =
( an − a1 )( an − a2 )( an − a3 )...( an − an −1 )
Trick To find Ap, put x = a p in numerator and denominator after
deleting the factor ( x − a p ).
Case II When g( x ) is expressible as product of repeated linear factors.
Let g( x ) = ( x − a )k( x − a1 )( x − a2 )K ( x − an ),
f(x) A1 A2 Ak B1 B2
then = + + ... + + +
g( x ) x − a ( x − a )2
(x − a)k
( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 )
Bn
+K +
( x − a )n
Here, all the constant cannot be calculated by using the method in
Case I. However, B1 , B 2 , B3 , K , Bn can be found using the same
method i.e. shortcut can be applied only in the case of non-repeated
linear factors.
Integration of Irrational Algebraic Function
Irrational function of the form of ( ax + b)1/ n and x can be evaluated by
substitution ( ax + b) = t n , thus
 t n − b  nt n − 1
∫ f { x , ( ax + b) } dx = ∫ f  a , t a dt.
1/ n
dx
(i) ∫ , substitute Cx + D = t 2, then the given
( Ax + B) Cx + D
2 dt
integral reduces into ∫ .
At 2 − AD + BC
dx
(ii) ∫ ( Ax 2 + B) Cx + D
, substitute Cx + D = t 2, then the given
2C dt
integral reduces into ∫ .
At − 2DAt 2 + ( AD 2 + BC 2 )
4
dx 1
(iii) ∫ ( x − k)rAx + Bx + C
2
, substitute x − k = , then the given
t
r −1
t
integral reduces into ∫ dt.
At + Bt + C
2
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1 1
(iv) ∫ ( Ax 2 + B) Cx + D
2
dx , substitute x= ,
t
then the given
−t
integral reduces into ∫ dt.
( A + Bt ) C + Dt 2
2
Again substitute C + Dt 2 = u 2, then it reduces into the form

1
∫ u 2 ± a 2 du.
ax 2 + bx + c
(v) ∫ ( dx + e) fx 2 + gx + h
dx
Here, we write
d
ax 2 + bx + c = A1 ( dx + e)
( fx 2 + gx + h ) + B1 ( dx + e) + C1
dx
where, A 1, B1 and C1 are constants.
Integrals of the Type x m ( a + bx n ) p , p ≠ 0

Case I If p ∈ N (natural number) we expand the integral using
binomial theorem and integrate it.
Case II If p ∈ negative integer and m and n are rational numbers
put x = t k, where k is the LCM of denominator of m and n.
m+1
Case III If is an integer and p is rational number, we put
n
( a + bx ) = t , where k is the denominator of the fraction p.
n k
m+ p
Case IV If is an integer and p is a rational number, we put
n
a + bx n
, where k is the denominator of the fraction p.
xn
Integration of Hyperbolic Functions

(i) ∫ sinh x dx = cosh x + C
(ii) ∫ cosh x dx = sinh x + C
∫ sech x dx = tanh x + C
2
(iii)
∫ cosech x dx = − coth x + C
2
(iv)
(v) ∫ sech x tanh x dx = − sech x + C

(vi) ∫ cosech x coth x dx = − cosech x + C
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Important Results of Integration

(i) (a) Anti-derivative of signum exists in that interval in which x = 0 is not
included.
(b) Anti-derivative of odd function is always even and of even function is
always odd.
x n e ax n
(ii) If In = ∫ x n e ax dx , then In = − In −1
a a
(iii) (a) ∫ (log x ) dx = x log x − x + C
1 (log x )2 (log x )3
(b) ∫ dx = log(log x ) + log x + + +...
log x 2( 2!) 3( 3!)
a cos x + b sin x ac + bd ad − bc
(iv) ∫ c cos x + d sin x dx = c 2 + d 2 x + c 2 + d 2 log| c cos x + d sin x |+k
sinn x 1 sinn − 1 x n − 1 sinn − 2 x
(v) ∫ m
cos x
dx = ⋅
m − 1 cos m −1
− ∫
x m − 1 cosm −2 x
dx
ax
(vi) (a) ∫ a x cos (bx + c) dx = [(log a) cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c)] + k
(log a)2 + b2
ax
(b) ∫ a x sin (bx + c) dx = [(log a)sin (bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)] + k
(log a)2 + b2
xe ax
(vii) (a) ∫ xe ax cos(bx + c) dx = [ a cos(bx + c) + b sin(bx + c)]
a2 + b2
e ax
− [( a2 − b2 ) cos (bx + c) + 2ab sin (bx + c)] + k
( a2 + b2 )2
xe ax
(b) ∫ xe ax sin (bx + c) dx = [ a sin(bx + c) − b cos(bx + c)]
a2 + b2
e ax
− [( a2 − b2 )sin(bx + c) − 2ab cos(bx + c)] + k
( a + b2 )2
2
− cos x ⋅ sinn − 1 x n −1
sinn −2 x dx
n ∫
(viii) (a) sinn x dx = +
n
sin x ⋅ cosn − 1 x n −1
(b) ∫ cosn x dx = cosn −2 x dx
n ∫
+
n
n −1
tan x
(c) ∫ tan
n
x dx = − ∫ tann − 2 x dx
n −1
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25
Definite Integrals
Let f ( x ) be a function defined on the interval [a , b] and F ( x ) be its
b
anti-derivative. Then, ∫ f ( x ) dx = F ( b) − F ( a ) is defined as the
a
definite integral of f ( x ) from x = a to x = b.
The numbers a and b are called upper and lower limits of integration,
respectively.
Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

There is a connection between indefinite integral and definite integral
is known as fundamental theorem of calculus.
First Fundamental Theorem
Let f be a continuous function defined on the closed interval [a , b] and
x
let A( x ) be the area of function i.e. A( x ) = ∫ f ( x )dx. Then, A′ ( x ) = f ( x )
a
for all x ∈ [a , b].
Second Fundamental Theorem
Let f be a continuous function defined on the closed integral [a , b] and
F be an anti-derivative of f. Then,
b
∫a f ( x )dx = [F( x )]a = F( b) – F( a ).
b
Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution

Consider a definite integral of the following form
b
∫ a f [ g( x )] ⋅ g ′ ( x ) dx
Step I Substitute g( x ) = t ⇒ g ′ ( x ) dx = dt
Step II Find the limits of integration in new system of variable
i. e. , the lower limit is g( a ) and the upper limit is g( b) and
g ( b)
the new integral will be ∫ g ( a ) f ( t) dt.
Step III Evaluate the integral, so obtained by usual method.
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Properties of Definite Integral

b b
1. ∫ a f ( x ) dx = ∫ a f ( t) dt
b a
2. ∫ a f ( x ) dx = − ∫ b f ( x ) dx
a
3. ∫ a f ( x ) dx = 0
b c b
4. ∫ a f ( x ) dx = ∫ a f ( x ) dx + ∫ c f ( x ) dx, where a < c < b
Generalisation
If a < c1 < c2 < K < cn − 1 < cn < b, then
b c1 c2 c3
∫ a f ( x ) dx = ∫ a f ( x ) dx + ∫
c1
f ( x ) dx + ∫c 2
f ( x ) dx
cn b
+K + ∫c n −1
f ( x ) dx + ∫c
n
f ( x ) dx
a a
5. ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx = ∫ 0 f ( a − x ) dx
a f(x) a
Deduction ∫ dx =
0 f(x) + f(a − x) 2
b b
6. ∫ a f ( x ) dx = ∫ a f ( a + b − x ) dx
b f(x) b− a
Deduction ∫ a f ( x ) + f ( a + b − x ) dx = 2
2a a a
7. ∫0 f ( x ) dx = ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx + ∫ 0 f ( 2a − x ) dx
a a a
8. ∫ − a f ( x ) dx = ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx + ∫ 0 f ( − x ) dx
 2 a f ( x ) dx if, f ( 2a − x ) = f ( x )
2a  ∫
9. ∫0 f ( x ) dx =  0
 0, if f ( 2a − x ) = − f ( x )

 0, if f ( a + x ) = − f ( b − x )
b 
10. ∫a f ( x ) dx =  a + b
 2 2 f ( x ) dx , if f ( a + x ) = f ( b − x )
 ∫a
 2 a f ( x ) dx , if f ( x ) is even i. e. f ( − x ) = f ( x )
a  ∫
11. ∫− a f ( x ) dx =  0
 0, if f ( x ) is odd i. e. f ( − x ) = − f ( x )

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Definite Integrals 271

b 1
12. If ∫ f ( x ) dx = ( b − a ) ∫ f [( b − a )x + a ] dx
a 0
13. If f ( x ) is periodic function with period T [i.e. f ( x + T ) = f ( x )].

a +T
Then, ∫ f ( x ) dx is independent of a.
a
nT T
(a) ∫ f ( x )dx = n ∫ f ( x )dx , n ∈ I
0 0
a + nT T
(b) ∫ f ( x ) dx = n ∫ f ( x ) dx , n ∈ I
a 0
a + nT nT T
(c) ∫ f ( x )dx = ∫ mT f ( x ) dx = ( n − m ) ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx , m , n ∈ I
a + mT
b + mT b
(d) ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫a f ( x ) dx , n ∈ I
a + mT
a + nT a
(e) ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫0 f ( x ) dx
nT
14. Leibnitz Rule for Differentiation under Integral Sign

If φ ( x ) and ψ ( x ) are defined on [a , b] and differentiable at point
x ∈( a , b) and f ( t ) is continuous, then
d  ψ (x )
f ( t ) dt = f [ψ( x )] ⋅
d d
dx   ∫ φ ( x ) 
 dx
ψ( x ) − f [φ ( x )] ⋅
dx
φ ( x ).
b
15. If f ( x ) ≥ 0 on the interval [a , b], then ∫ f ( x ) ≥ 0.
a
b b
16. If f ( x ) ≤ φ ( x ) for x ∈ [a , b], then ∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ ∫a φ ( x ) dx.
a
17. If at every point x of an interval [a , b] the inequalities

g( x ) ≤ f ( x ) ≤ h( x )
are fulfilled, then
b b b
∫a g( x ) dx ≤ ∫a f ( x ) dx ≤ ∫a h( x ) dx.
b b
18.|∫ f ( x ) dx|≤ ∫a | f ( x )| dx
a
19. If m is the least value and M is the greatest value of the

function f ( x ) on the interval [a , b] (estimation of an integral),
then
b
m ( b − a ) ≤ ∫ f ( x ) dx ≤ M ( b − a ).
a
20. If f is continuous on [a , b], then there exists a number c in [a , b]

at which
1 b
f ( c) =
(b − a) ∫ a
f ( x ) dx
is called the mean value of the function f ( x )on the interval [a , b].
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21. If f 2 ( x ) and g2 ( x ) are integrable on [a , b], then

1/ 2 1/ 2
|∫ f ( x ) g ( x ) dx |≤  ∫ f 2 ( x )dx  b g2 ( x )dx
b b
a  a  ∫ a 
x
22. If f ( t ) is an odd function, then φ ( x ) = ∫ f ( t ) dt is an even
a
function.
x
23. If f ( t ) is an even function, then φ ( x ) = ∫ 0 f ( t)dt is an odd
function.
x
24. If f ( t ) is an even function, then for non-zero a, ∫ f ( t ) dt is not
a
necessarily an odd function. It will be an odd function, if
a
∫ f ( t) dt = 0.
0
∞
25. If f ( x ) is continuous on [a , ∞ ), then ∫ a f ( x ) dx is called an
∞ b
improper integral and is defined as ∫ f ( x ) dx = lim ∫ a f ( x ) dx.
a b→ ∞
b b
26. ∫ − ∞ f ( x ) dx = alim
→−∞ ∫a
f ( x ) dx and
∞ b ∞
∫ − ∞ f ( x ) dx = ∫ − ∞ f ( x ) dx + ∫b f ( x ) dx
∞
27. Geometrically, for f ( x ) > 0, the improper integral ∫ f ( x ) dx
a
gives area of the figure bounded by the curve y = f ( x ), the

axis and the straight line x = a.
Integral Function
Let f ( x ) be a continuous function defined on [a , b], then a function φ ( x )
x
defined by φ ( x ) = ∫ f ( t ) dt , x ∈ [a , b] is called the integral function of the
a
function f.
Properties of Integral Function

(i) The integral function of an integrable function is continuous.
(ii) If φ ( x ) is the integral function of continuous function, then
φ ( x ) is derivable and φ ′ ( x ) = f ( x ), ∀ x ∈[a , b].
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Definite Integrals 273

Walli’s Formula
π/ 2 π/ 2
∫0 sinn x dx = ∫0 cosn x dx
 n −1 n − 3 n − 5 2
 ⋅ ⋅ K , when n is odd.
= n n−2 n−4 3
n −1 n − 3 n − 5 3 1 π
 ⋅ ⋅ K ⋅ ⋅ , when n is even.
 n n−2 n−4 4 2 2
Some Important Deduction

π/ 2
(v) ∫0 sinm x cosn x dx
[( m − 1) ( m − 3) K 2 or 1] [( n − 1) ( n − 3) K 2 or 1]
=
[( m + n ) ( m + n − 2) K 2 or 1]
π
On multiplying the above by , when both m and n are even.
2
π /2 ( 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1) ( 2) 2
(a) ∫ sin6x cos3 x dx = =
0 9 ⋅ 7 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1 63
π /2 ( 7 ⋅ 5 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1) π 7π
(b) ∫ sin x cos x dx =
8 2
⋅ =
0 10 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 2 2 512
(vi) Particular case when m or n = 1
π/ 2
π/ 2  sinm + 1 x  1
(a) ∫ sinm x cos x dx =   =
 m + 1 0 m+1
0
π/ 2
π/ 2  − cosm + 1 x  1
(b) ∫ cos x sin x dx = 
m
 =
 m + 1 0 m+1
0
Summation of Series by Definite Integral

Let f ( x ) be a continuous function in [a , b] and h be the length of n
equal subintervals, then
n
h ∑ f ( a + rh )
b
∫ a f ( x ) dx = nlim
→∞
r= 0
where, nh = b − a
Now, put a = 0, b = 1
1
∴ nh = 1 − 0 = 1 or h =
n
n −1
1 r
∑
1
∴ ∫0 f ( x ) dx = lim
n→∞ n r=0
f 
 n
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Method Express the given series in the form of

1 r
lim
n→∞
∑ f 
n  n
r 1 1
Replace
n
by x and
n
by dx and the limit of the sum is ∫ 0 f ( x ) dx.
pn
Note 1  r β
lim
n→ ∞
∑ n f  n = ∫α f ( x )dx
r =1
r
where, α = lim
= 0 (as r = 1)
n n→ ∞
r
and β = lim = p (as r = pn)
n→ ∞ n
The method to evaluate the integral, as limit of the sum of an infinite

series is known as integration by first principle.

π /2 sin x n
π π /2 cosn x
(i) (a) ∫ dx = = ∫ dx
0 sin x + cos x
n n
4 0 sin x + cosn x
n
π /2 tann x π π /2 dx
(b) ∫ dx = = ∫
0 1 + tan n x 4 0 1 + tan n x
π /2 dx π π /2 cotn x
(c) ∫
4 ∫ 0 1 + cotn x
= = dx
0 1 + cotn x
π /2 tann x π π /2 cotn x
(d) ∫ dx = = ∫ dx
0 tan x + cot x
n n
4 0 tan x + cotn x
n
π /2 secn x π π /2 cosecn x
(e) ∫ dx = = ∫ dx where, n ∈ R
0 sec x + cosec x
n n
4 0 sec x + cosecn x
n
n n
π /2 a sin x
ππ /2 a cos x
(ii) ∫0 a sin n x
+a cos n x
dx = ∫
n
+ a cos x
dx =
40
a sin n x
π /2 π /2 π
(iii) (a) ∫ log sin x dx = ∫ log cos x dx = − log 2
0 0 2
π /2 π /2
(b) ∫ log tan x dx = ∫ log cot x dx = 0
0 0
π /2 π /2 π
(c) ∫ log sec x dx = ∫ log cosec x dx = log 2
0 0 2
∞ − ax b ∞ − ax a
(iv) (a) ∫ e sin bx dx = (b) ∫ e cos bx dx =
0 a2 + b2 0 a2 + b2
∞ − ax n!
(c) ∫ e x n dx = n
0 a +1
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26
Applications of
Integrals
The space occupied by the curve along with the axis, under the given
condition is called area of bounded region.
(i) The area bounded by the curve y = F ( x ) above the X-axis and
between the lines x = a , x = b is given by
Y
y = F(x)
y
x=a x=b
X′ dx X
O
Y′
b b
∫ a y dx = ∫ a F( x ) dx
(ii) If the curve between the lines x = a , x = b lies below the X-axis,
then the required area is given by
Y
dx
X′ X
O
x = a −y x=b
Y′ y = F(x)
b b b
|∫ ( − y ) dx| =|− ∫ a y dx| =|− ∫ a F( x ) dx|
a
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(iii) The area bounded by the curve x = F ( y ) right to the Y -axis and
between the lines y = c, y = d is given by
d d
∫c x dy = ∫c F ( y ) dy
y=d
x
dy
x = F(y)
y=c
X' X
O
Y'
(iv) If the curve between the lines y = c, y = d left to the Y -axis,

then the area is given by
Y
y=d
x = F(y) –x
dy
y=c
X' X
Y'
d d d
|∫ ( − x ) dy| =|− ∫c x dy| =|− ∫c F ( y ) dy|
c
(v) Area bounded by two curves y = F ( x ) and y = G ( x ) between

x = a and x = b is given by
Y
y = F(x)
y = G(x)
X′ O x=a x=b X
Y′
b
∫a { F ( x ) − G( x )} dx
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Applications of Integrals 277

(vi) Area bounded by two curves x = F ( y ) and x = G( y ) between
y = c and y = d is given by
Y
y=d
x = F(y)
x = G(y)
y=c
X' O
X
Y'
d
∫c [F ( y ) − G( y )] dy
(vii) If F ( x ) ≥ G ( x ) in [a , c] and F ( x ) ≤ G ( x ) in [c, d ], where a < c < b,

then area of the region bounded by the curves is given as
Y y = F (x ) y = G (x )
X′ X
O a c b
Y′
c b
Area = ∫ { F ( x ) − G( x )} dx + ∫ { G ( x ) − F ( x )} dx
a c
Area of Curves Given by Polar Equations

Let f (θ ) be a continuous function, θ ∈(α, β), then the area bounded by
the curve r = f (θ) and radius α , β (α < β ) is
1 β
A = ∫ r 2d θ
2 α
Area of Curves Given by Parametric Curves

Let x = φ ( t ) and y = ψ ( t ) be two parametric curves, then area bounded
by the curve, X-axis and ordinates x = φ ( t1 ), x = ψ ( t2 ) is
t = t2  dx 
A =|∫ y ×   dt|
t = t1  dt 
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Curve Sketching
1. Symmetry
(i) If powers of y in an equation of curve are all even, then curve
is symmetrical about X-axis.
(ii) If powers of x in an equation of curve are all even, then curve
is symmetrical about Y -axis.
(iii) When x is replaced by –x and y is replaced by –y, then curve is
symmetrical in opposite quadrant.
(iv) If x and y are interchanged and equation of curve remains
unchanged, then curve is symmetrical about line y = x.
2. Nature of Origin
(i) If point (0, 0) satisfies the equation, then curve passes
through origin.
(ii) If curve passes through origin, then equate lowest degree
term to zero and get equation of tangent. If there are two
tangents, then origin is a double point.
3. Point of Intersection with Axes

(i) Put y = 0 and get intersection with X-axis, put x = 0 and get
intersection with Y -axis.
(ii) Now, find equation of tangent at this point i.e. shift origin to
the point of intersection and equate the lowest degree term to
zero.
(iii) Find regions where curve does not exists i.e. curve will not
exit for those values of variable when makes the other
imaginary or not defined.
4. Asymptotes
(i) Equate coefficient of highest power of x to get asymptote
parallel to X-axis.
(ii) Similarly equate coefficient of highest power of y to get
asymptote parallel to Y -axis.
dy
5. The Sign of
dx
dy
Find points at which vanishes or becomes infinite. It gives us the
dx
points where tangent is parallel or perpendicular to the X-axis.
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6. Points of Inflexion
d2y d 2x
Put 2
= 0 or = 0 and solve the resulting equation. If some point
dx dy 2
of inflexion is there, then locate it exactly.
Taking in consideration of all above information, we draw an
approximate shape of the curve.
Shapes of Some Curves

S.No. Equation Curve
O
(i) ay 2 = x 3 (Semi-cubical parabola) X′ X
Y′
(ii) y = x 3 (Cubical parabola) X′ X

O
Y′
(2a, 0)
(iii) (x2 + 4 a2 ) y = 8 a 3
X′ X
O
Y′
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S.No. Equation Curve
Y
x
=
y
y
=
–x
(iv) ay 2 = x2 (a − x) X′ O
X
(a, 0)
Y′
Y
x
=
y
(v) a 2 y 2 = x2 (a2 − x2 ) X′ X
O
y
=
–x
Y′
Intersection Area of shaded

S.No. Equation Graph
points region
If α,β > 0, α > β, α Y
(i)
then area p2 log   sq units
β
bounded by the
curve xy = p2 , —
X' X
X-axis and
ordinate x=β x=α
x = α, x = β
Y'
Area between the O (0,0), 2(b 3 /2
−a 3 /2
) Y y = c2 x2
(ii)
curvey = c2 x2 ,  a  y=b b
A , a , 3c B c ,b
Y-axis and line  c 
sq units a
y = a, y = b  b  y=a A c ,a
B , b
 c  X' X
(0, 0) O
Y'
(iii) y = k cos 3x , when k Y
π sq units
π 0≤ x ≤ , 3
∀ 0≤ x ≤ ,
6 6
then
π X' X
0 ≤ 3x ≤ (0, 0) O π,
2 30
Y'
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points region
(iv) f (x, y); x2 = 4ay, O (0,0 ) 16

(ab) sq units Y
x2=4ay A(4a2/3b1/3 ,
y = 4bx
2
A (4a2 / 3 b1 / 3, 3
4a1/3b2/3)
4a1 / 3b2 / 3)
X' X
(0, 0)O
y2=4bx
Y'
(v) f (x, y) ; O(0,0), A(a, a), (i) For x ≥ 0, y ≥ 0 Y
B (a, − a) π 2
x2 + y 2 ≤ 2ax Area = a2  −  A(a, a)
 4 3
and y 2 ≥ ax sq units
X' X
(ii) For x ≥ 0, (0, 0)O
π 2
Area = 2 a2  − 
 4 3 B(a, –a)
sq units Y'
(vi) Area bounded by A (a, 2 a), 8 2

a sq units Y y2 = 4ax
the parabola 3
B (a, − 2a) A(a, 2a)
y 2 = 4ax and its
(a, 0)
latus rectum X' X
x=a
B(a, –2a)
x=a
Y'
8
(vii) Area bounded by A( b− a,2 ab ), ab (a + b) Y
3
the curves B( b − a, −2 ab) A(b – a, 2 ab)
y 2 = 4a (x + a) sq units
and A'(b, 0)
y 2 = 4b (b − x) X' X
B' (0, 0)
(–a, 0)
B (b – a, – 2 ab)
Y'
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points region
(viii) Common area Area of region Y

between  1 PQRS
x2 y2 ± ,
1
+ 2 = 2 2  = 4 × Area of
2  a2 + b2 P M Q
b a a b OLQM
and X' X
tan −1  
4 a L
x2 y2 1  ab  b
2
+ 2 = 2 2 ±
1

O R S
a b a b (0, 0)
a2 + b2  sq units
Y'
(ix) f (x, y) ; A (a, 0), ( π − 2) Y

ab ⋅
x2 y2 B (0, b) 4
+ ≤ 1, sq units B (0 , b )
a2 b2 (–a, 0)
x y A' A (a, 0)
+ ≥1 X' X
a b (0, 0)
2
x y2
or 2 + 2 ≤ 1
a b
x y Y'
≤ +
a b
(x) f (x, y) ; B(0, 0), 1 m3

⋅
ax2 ≤ y ≤ mx  m m2  6 a2 Y 2
A ,  A m, m
∴y = ax , y = mx
2
a a  sq units a a
X' X
B (0, 0 )
Y'
(xi) f (x, y) ; y2 = 4ax O (0, 0), 8a2 Y

sq units
and y =| mx | A  2 ,  3m
4a 4a 3
m m A 4a , 4a
m2 m
X' X
O
(0, 0)
Y'
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Volume and Surface Area

If we revolve any plane curve along any line, then solid so generated is
called solid of revolution.
1. Volume of Solid Revolution

(i) The volume of the solid generated by revolution of the area
bounded by the curve y = f ( x ), X-axis and the ordinates
b
x = a , x = b is ∫ πy 2dx, it is being given that f ( x ) is a continuous
a
function in the interval ( a , b).

(ii) The volume of the solid generated by revolution of the area
bounded by the curve x = g( y ), the axis of Y and two abscissae
d
y = c and y = d is ∫c πx 2dy , it is being given that g( y ) is a
continuous function in the interval ( c, d ).
2. Surface Area of Solid Revolution

(i) The surface area of the solid generated by revolution of the area
bounded by the curve y = f ( x ), X-axis and the ordinates
b   dy  
2
x = a , x = b is 2π ∫a y 1 +    dx , it is being given that f ( x )
  dx  

is a continuous function in the interval ( a , b).
(ii) The surface area of the solid generated by revolution of the

area bounded by the curve x = f ( y ),Y -axis and y = c, y = d is
d   dx  2
2π ∫ x 1 +    dy, it is being given that f ( y ) is a
c
  dy  
continuous function in the interval ( c, d ).
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27
Differential
Equations
Differential Equation
An equation that involves an independent variable, dependent variable
and differential coefficients of dependent variable with respect to the
independent variable is called a differential equation.
 d 2 y  dy 
3
e.g. (i) x 2  2  + x3   = 7x 2 y 2
 dx   dx 
(ii) ( x 2 + y 2 ) dx = ( x 2 − y 2 ) dy
Order and Degree of a Differential Equation

The order of a differential equation is the order of the highest
derivative occuring in the equation. The order of a differential equation
is always a positive integer.
The degree of a differential equation is the exponent of the derivative
of the highest order in the equation, when the equation is a polynomial
in derivatives, i.e. in y ′ , y ′′ , y ′′′ etc.
e.g. The order and degree of a differential equation
2 3
 d3 y   d 2 y
 3  + 2  2  + 3 y = 0 are 3 and 2 respectively.
 dx   dx 
Note If the differential equation is not a polynomial equation in derivatives,
then its degree is not defined.
dy  dy 
e.g. Degree of + cos   = 0 is not defined,
dx  dx 
dy  
dy
as + cos   = 0 is not a polynomial in derivatives.
dx  dx 
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Differential Equations 285
Linear and Non-Linear Differential Equations

A differential equation is said to be linear, if the dependent variable
and all of its derivatives occuring in the first power and there are no
product of these.
A linear equation of nth order can be written in the form
dn y dn − 1y dn − 2y dy
P0 + P1 n −1
+ P2 + K + Pn − 1 + Pn y = Q
dx n
dx dx n − 2 dx
where, P0 , P1 , P2 , K , Pn − 1, Pn and Q must be either constants or
functions of x only.
A linear differential equation is always of the first degree but every
differential equation of the first degree need not be linear.
2
d2y  dy  d2y dy
e.g. The equations +   + xy = 0, x +y + y = x3
dx 2  dx  dx 2
dx
2
 dy  d y
and   + y = 0 are not linear.
 dx  dx 2
Solution of Differential Equations

A solution of a differential equation is a relation between the variables,
of the equation not involving the differential coefficients, such that it
satisfy the given differential equation (i.e., from which the given
differential equation can be derived).
d2y
e.g. y = A cos x + B sin x is a solution of + y = 0, because it satisfy
dx 2
this equation.
1. General Solution
If the solution of the differential equation contains as many
independent arbitrary constants as the order of the differential
equation, then it is called the general solution or the complete integral
of the differential equation.
d2y
e.g. The general solution of + y = 0 is y = A cos x + B sin x because
dx 2
it contains two arbitrary constants A and B, which is equal to the order
of the equation.
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2. Particular Solution
Solution obtained by giving particular values to the arbitrary constants
in the general solution is called a particular solution. e.g. In the
previous example, if A = B = 1, then y = cos x + sin x is a particular
d2y
solution of the differential equation + y = 0.
dx 2
Solution of a differential equation is also called its primitive.
Formation of Differential Equation

Suppose we have an equation f ( x , y , c1 , c2 ,.... , cn ) = 0, where c1 , c2 ,... cn
are n arbitrary constants.
Then, to form a differential equation differentiate the equation
successively n times to get n equations.
Eliminate the arbitrary constants from the ( n + 1) equations (the given
equation and the n equations obtained above), which leads to the
required differential equations.
Solutions of Differential Equations of the

First Order and First Degree
A differential equation of first degree and first order can be solved if
they belong to any of the following standard forms.
1. Equation of the form
f ( f1( x , y )) d( f1( x , y )) + φ( f2( x , y ))d( f2( x , y )) +... = 0
If the differential equation can be written as f [ f1( x , y )]d { f1( x , y )} + φ
[ f2 ( x , y )] d { f2 ( x , y )} + ... = 0, then each term can be integrated
separately.
For this, remember the following results
(i) x dy + y dx = d ( xy ) (ii) dx + dy = d( x + y )
x dy − ydx  y ydx − x dy  x
(iii) =d  (iv) = d 
x 2  x y 2  y
2xy dx − x dy
2  x2  2xy dy − y 2 dx  y2 
(v) = d   (vi) = d 
y2  y x2  x
2xy 2 dx − 2x 2 y dy  x2  2x 2 y dy − 2xy 2 dx  y2 
(vii) 4
= d 2 (viii) 4
= d 2
y y  x x 
x dy + y dx y dx − x dy  x
(ix) = d (log xy ) (x) = d  log 
xy xy  y
x dy − y dx  y dx + dy
(xi) = d  log  (xii) = d (log ( x + y ))
xy  x x+ y
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x dx + y dy xdy − ydx  y
(xiii) = d  log x 2 + y 2  (xiv) = d  tan−1 
x2 + y2   x2 + y2  x
y dx − x dy  x xdy + ydx  −1
(xv) = d  tan−1  (xvi) = d 
x +y 2 2  y x y2 2  xy 
ye dx − e dy
x x e x
xe dy − e y dx
y  ey
(xvii) = d  (xviii) = d 
y2  y x2  x
xdx + ydy
(xix) = d( x 2 + y 2 )
x2 + y2
(xx) x m − 1 ⋅ y n − 1 ( mydx + nx dy ) = d( x m y n )
xdy − ydx 1 x + y
(xxi) = d  log 
x −y
2 2
2 x − y
f ′ (x , y) d [ f ( x , y )]1 − n
(xxii) =
[ f ( x , y )]n 1− n
dx dy  1 1
(xxiii) − = d − 
x2 y2  y x
2. Equations in which the Variables are Separable

If the equation can be reduced into the form f ( x ) dx = g( y ), we say that
the variables have been separated. On integrating this reduced form
solution of given equation is obtained, which is ∫ f ( x ) dx = ∫ g( y ) dy + C,
where C is an arbitrary constant.
3. Differential Equation Reducible to Variables Separable Form

dy
A differential equation of the form = f ( ax + by + c)
dx
can be reduced to variables separable form by substituting
dy dz
ax + by + c = z ⇒ a + b =
dx dx
The given equation becomes
1  dz  dz
 − a = f ( z ) ⇒ = a + b f(z )
b  dx  dx
dz
⇒ = dx
a + bf ( z )
Hence, the variables are separated in terms of z and x.
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4. Homogeneous Differential Equation

A differential equation of the form
dy f ( x , y )
=
dx g( x , y )
where, f ( x , y ) and g( x , y ) are homogeneous function of same degree is
called a homogeneous differential equation.
dy  y dx  x
This equation can be reduced to the form = F   or = G .
dx  x dy  y
dy  y
To solve = F   , we put y = vx
dx  x
dy dv
⇒ =v+x .
dx dx
Then, the given equation reduces to
dv
v+x = F( v)
dx
dv
⇒ x = F( v) − v
dx
which is invariable separable form and so it can be solved in the usual
manner.
dx  x
Similarly, to solve = G   , we put x = vy.
dy  y
Note A function f ( x, y ) is said to be homogeneous function of degree n, if
f (λx, λy ) = λ n f ( x, y ).
5. Differential Equations Reducible to Homogeneous Form

The differential equation of the form
dy a1x + b1 y + c1 a b
= , where a1b2 − a2b1 ≠ 0, i. e. 1 ≠ 1 ...(i)
dx a2x + b2 y + c2 a2 b2
can be reduced to homogeneous form by substituting
x = X + h and y = Y + k
dY a X + b1Y + ( a1h + b1k + c1 )
∴ = 1 ...(ii)
dX a2X + b2Y + ( a2h + b2k + c2 )
For finding h and k, put a1h + b1k + c1 = 0 and a2h + b2k + c2 = 0.
On solving, we get
h k 1
= =
b1c2 − b2c1 c1a2 − c2a1 a1b2 − a2b1
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b1c2 − b2c1 c a − c2a1
⇒ h= and k = 1 2
a1b2 − a2b1 a1b2 − a2b1
dY a X + b1Y
Then, Eq. (ii) reduces to = 1 , which is a homogeneous
dX a2X + b2Y
form and can be solved easily.
6. Linear Differential Equation
A linear differential equation of the first order can be either of the
following forms
dy
(i) + Py = Q , where P and Q are the functions of x or constants.
dx
dx
(ii) + Rx = S , where R and S are the functions of y or constants.
dy
dy
Consider the differential Eq. (i) i.e. + Py = Q
dx
For this now, integrating factor (IF) = e ∫
P dx
and solution is ye∫ = ∫ Qe ∫

P dx P dx
dx + C
i.e. y (IF) = ∫ Q (IF) dx + C
dx
Similarly, for the second differential equation + Rx = S , the
dy
integrating factor, IF = e ∫
R dy
and the general solution is
x ⋅ e∫ = ∫ S ⋅ e∫
Rdy Rdy
dy + C
i.e. x (IF) = ∫ S ( IF ) dy + C
7. Differential Equation Reducible to the Linear Form

dy
Equation of the form f ′ ( y ) + f ( y )P = Q, where P and Q are
dx
functions of x only or constants, can be reduced to linear form by
substituting
dy du
i.e. f( y) = u ⇒ f ′ ( y) = =
dx dx
du
This will reduce the given equation to + uP = Q,
dx
which is in linear differential equation form and can be solved in the
usual manner.
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8. Bernoulli’s Equation
dy
An equation of the form + Py = Qy n ( n ≠ 0, 1), where P and Q are
dx
functions of x only or constants, is called Bernoulli’s equation.
It is easy to reduce the above equation into linear form as below
Dividing both the sides by y n , we get
dy
y− n + Py − n + 1 = Q
dx
Put y− n + 1 = z
dy dz
⇒ ( − n + 1) y − n =
dx dx
Then, the equation reduces to
1 dz dz
+ Pz = Q ⇒ + (1 − n ) Pz = Q (1 − n )
1 − n dx dx
which is linear differential equation in z and can be solved in the usual
manner.
Orthogonal Trajectory
Any curve, which cuts every member of a given family of curves at
right angle, is called an orthogonal trajectory of the family.
Procedure for Finding the Orthogonal Trajectory

(i) Let f ( x , y , c) = 0 be the equation of the given family of curves,
where ‘c’ is a parameter.
(ii) Differentiate f = 0, with respect to ‘x’ and eliminate c to form a
differential equation.
 − dx   dy 
(iii) Substitute   in place of   in the above differential
 dy   dx 
equation. This will give the differential equation of the
orthogonal trajectories.
(iv) By solving this differential equation, we get the required
orthogonal trajectories.
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28
Vectors
A vector has direction and magnitude both but scalar has only
magnitude. e.g. Vector quantities are displacement, velocity,
acceleration, etc. and scalar quantities are length, mass, time, etc.
Characteristics of a Vector
(i) Magnitude The length of the vector AB or a is called the
magnitude of AB or a and it is represented as AB or a .
(ii) Sense The direction of a line segment from its initial point to
its terminal point is called its sense.
e.g. The sense of AB is from A to B and that of BA is from B to A.
initial point Terminal point
A B
(iii) Support The line of infinite length of which the line segment
AB is a part, is called the support of the vector AB.
A B
Support
Types of Vectors
(i) Zero or Null Vector A vector whose initial and terminal
points are coincident is called zero or null vector. It is denoted
by 0.
(ii) Unit Vector A vector whose magnitude is unity i.e., 1 unit is
called a unit vector. The unit vector in the direction of n is given
n
by and it is denoted by n.
$
|n|
(iii) Free Vector If the initial point of a vector is not specified, then
it is said to be a free vector.
(iv) Like and Unlike Vectors Vectors are said to be like when
they have the same direction and unlike when they have
opposite direction.
(v) Collinear or Parallel Vectors Vectors having the same or
parallel supports are called collinear vectors.
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(vi) Equal Vectors Two vectors a and b are said to be equal, written
as a = b, if they have same length and same direction.
(vii) Negative Vector A vector having the same magnitude as that
of a given vector a and the direction opposite to that of a is called
the negative vector a and it is denoted by − a.
(viii) Coinitial Vectors Vectors having same initial point are
called coinitial vectors.
(ix) Coterminus Vectors Vectors having the same terminal point
are called coterminus vectors.
(x) Localised Vectors A vector which is drawn parallel to a given
vector through a specified point in space is called localised
vector.
(xi) Coplanar Vectors A system of vectors is said to be coplanar,
if their supports are parallel to the same plane. Otherwise they
are called non-coplanar vectors.
(xii) Reciprocal of a Vector A vector having the same direction as
that of a given vector but magnitude equal to the reciprocal of
the given vector is known as the reciprocal of a and it is denoted
1
by a −1, i.e. if|a| = a , then|a−1| = .
a
Addition of Vectors
Triangle Law of Vector Addition
Let a and b be any two vectors. From the terminal point of a, vector b
is drawn. Then, the vector from the initial point O of a to the terminal
point B of b is called the sum of vectors a and b and is denoted by
a + b. This is called the triangle law of addition of vectors.
B
a+b
O A
a
Note When the sides of a triangle are taken in order, then the resultant will be
AB + BC + CA = 0
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Vectors 293
Parallelogram Law of Vector Addition
Let a and b be any two vectors. From the initial point of a, vector b is
drawn and parallelogram OACB is completed with OA and OB as
adjacent sides. The diagonal of the parallelogram through the common
vertex represents the vector OC and it is defined as the sum of a and b.
This is called the parallelogram law of vector addition.
B C
a+b
b
b
O a A
The sum of two vectors is also called their resultant and the process of
addition as composition.
Properties of Vector Addition

Let a, b and c are three vectors.
(i) a + b = b + a (commutative)
(ii) a + ( b + c) = (a + b ) + c (associative)
(iii) a + 0 = a (additive identity)
(iv) a + ( − a) = 0 (additive inverse)
Note The bisector of the angle between two non-collinear vectors a and b is
given by
$ ) or λ  a ± b  .
λ (a$ + b
 a b
Difference (Subtraction) of Vectors

If a and b are any two vectors, then their difference a − b is defined as
a + ( − b ). In the given figure the vector AB′ is said to represent the
difference of a and b.
B
a+ b
b
O A
a
–b
a–b
B′
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Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar

Let a be a given vector and λ be a scalar. Then, the product of the
vector a by the scalar λ is λ a and is called the multiplication of vector
by the scalar.
(i) |λ a| =|λ||a|, where λ be a scalar.
(ii) λ 0 = 0
(iii) m ( −a) = − m a = − ( m a)
(iv) ( − m ) ( −a) = m a
(v) m ( n a) = mn a = n( m a)
(vi) ( m + n ) a = m a + n a
(vii) m (a + b ) = m a + m b
Position Vector of a Point

The position vector of a point P with respect to a fixed point say O, is
the vector OP. The fixed point is called the origin.
Let PQ be any vector. We have,
PQ = PO + OQ = − OP + OQ = OQ − OP
= Position vector of Q − Position vector of P.
P Q
O (origin)
i.e. PQ = PV of Q − PV of P
Collinear Points
Let A, B and C be any three points.
Points A, B, C are collinear ⇔ AB, BC are collinear vectors
⇔ AB = λBC for some non-zero scalar λ.
Components of a Vector
1. In Two-dimension Let P ( x , y ) be any point in a plane and O be
the origin. Let $i and $j be the unit vectors along X and Y -axes,
then the component of vector P is OP = xi$ + y$j.
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Vectors 295
2. In Three-dimension Let P ( x , y , z ) be any point is a space
$ be the unit vectors along X , Y
and O be the origin. Let $i, $j and k
and Z-axes, then the component of vector P is OP = xi$ + y$j + zk $.
Vector Joining Two Points

Let P1 ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are any two points, then the vector
joining P1 and P2 is the vector P1P2 .
P2 (x2, y2, z2)
Y
^
j
P1 (x1, y1, z1)
X
^ O ^i
k
Z
The position vectors of P1 and P2 with respect to the origin O are
$ and OP = x i$ + y $j + z k
OP = x i$ + y $j + z k $
1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
Then, the component form of P1P2 is

$ ) − ( x $i + y $j + z k
P1P2 = ( x2$i + y2$j + z 2k $
1 1 1 )
= ( x − x ) i$ + ( y − y ) $j + ( z − z ) k $
2 1 2 1 2 1
Here, vector component of P1P2 are ( x2 − x1 ) i, $

$ ( y − y )$j and ( z − z )k
2 1 2 1
along X-axis, Y -axis and Z-axis respectively.
Its magnitude is|P1P2| = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z 2 − z1 )2
Section Formulae
Let A and B be two points with position vectors a and b, respectively
and OP = r.
A
(i) Internal division Let P be a point
dividing AB internally in the ratio m : n. m
Then, position vector of P is a P
m OB + n OA
OP = r n
(m + n )
O B
mb + na b
i.e. r=
m+n
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(ii) The position vector of the mid-point of P

a+b
a and b is .
2 n
(iii) External division Let P be a point m
O B
b
dividing AB externally in the ratio m : n.
Then, position vector of P is a
mOB − nOA
OP = A
m−n
mb − na
i.e. r= .
m−n
Position Vector of Different

Centre of a Triangle
(i) If a, b , c be PV’s of the vertices A, B, C of a ∆ABC respectively,
a+ b+ c
then the PV of the centroid G of the triangle is .
3
( BC ) a + (CA)b + ( AB)c
(ii) The PV of incentre of ∆ABC is
BC + CA + AB
(iii) The PV of orthocentre of ∆ABC is
a(tan A) + b(tan B) + c (tan C )
tan A + tan B + tan C
Linear Combination of Vectors

Let a, b , c,K be vectors and x , y , z , … be scalars, then the expression
x a + y b + z c + … is called a linear combination of vectors a, b , c, … .
Collinearity of Three Points

The necessary and sufficient condition that three points with PV’s
a, b , c are collinear, if there exist three scalars x, y, z not all zero such
that x a + y b + z c = 0 ⇒ x + y + z = 0.
Coplanarity of Four Points

The necessary and sufficient condition that four points with PV’s
a, b , c and d are coplanar, if there exist scalar x, y, z and t not all zero,
such that x a + y b + z c + t d = 0 ⇔ x + y + z + t = 0.
If r = x a + y b + z c ...
then, the vector r is said to be a linear combination of vectors
a, b , c, . . . .
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Vectors 297
Linearly and Dependent and Independent

System of Vectors
(i) The system of vectors a, b , c, … is said to be linearly
dependent, if there exists some scalars x, y, z, … not all zero,
such that x a + y b + z c + ... = 0.
(ii) The system of vectors a, b , c,K is said to be linearly
independent, if x a + y b + z c + t d = 0 ⇒ x = y = z = t …= 0.

(i) Two non-zero, non-collinear vectors a and b are linearly independent.
(ii) Three non-zero, non-coplanar vectors a, b and c are linearly independent.
(iii) More than three vectors are always linearly dependent.
Scalar or Dot Product of Two Vectors

If a and b are two non-zero vectors, then the scalar or dot product of a
and b is denoted by a ⋅ b and is defined as a ⋅ b =|a||b| cosθ, where θ
is the angle between the two vectors and 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.
θ
a
(i) Angle between two like vectors is 0 and angle between two
unlike vectors is π.
(ii) If either a or b is the null vector, then scalar product of the vector
is zero.
(iii) If a and b are two unit vectors, then a ⋅ b = cosθ.
(iv) The scalar product is commutative
i.e. a⋅ b = b ⋅a
$ $
(v) If i , j and k are mutually perpendicular unit vectors i$ , $j and k,
$ $
then
$ ⋅k
$i ⋅ i$ = $j ⋅ $j = k $ =1
and $ =k
i$ ⋅ $j = $j ⋅ k $ ⋅ $i = 0
(vi) The scalar product of vectors is distributive over vector addition.
(a) a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c (left distributive)
(b) ( b + c) ⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a (right distributive)
(vii) ( ma) ⋅ ( b ) = m (a ⋅ b ) = a ⋅ ( mb ), where m is any scalar.
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$ , then|a|2 = a ⋅ a = a 2 + a 2 + a 2
(viii) If a = a1i$ + a2$j + a3 k 1 2 3
or|a| = a12 + a22 + a32

(ix) Angle between Two Vectors If θ is angle between two
non-zero vectors, a, b, then we have
a ⋅ b =|a||b| cosθ
a⋅ b
or cos θ =
|a||b|
$ and b = b i$ + b $j + b k
If a = a1$i + a2$j + a3 k $
1 2 3
Then, the angle θ between a and b is given by

a⋅ b a1b1 + a2b2 + a3 b3
cos θ = =
|a||b| a1 + a22 + a32 b12 + b22 + b32
2
Condition of perpendicularity a ⋅ b = 0 ⇔ a ⊥ b , a and b

being non-zero vectors.
(x) Projection and Component of a Vector on a Line
a⋅b
The projection of a on b = a ⋅ b$ =
| b|
a⋅b
The projection of b on a = b ⋅ a$ = ,
|a|
B
a
(0 < θ < 90°)
θ
l
A C
b
Components of a along and perpendicular to b are
a⋅b a⋅b
⋅ b and a − ⋅b
|b| |b|2
(xi) Work done by a Force The work done by a force is a scalar
quantity equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and
the resolved part of the displacement.
∴ F ⋅ S = dot products of force and displacement.
Suppose F1 , F2 , ... , Fn are n forces acted on a particle, then
during the displacement S of the particle, the separate forces to
quantities of work F1 ⋅ S , F2 ⋅ S , ... , Fn ⋅ S.
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Vectors 299
n n
The total work done is ∑ Fi ⋅ S = ∑ S ⋅ Fi = S ⋅ R
i =1 i =1
Here, system of forces were replaced by its resultant R.
Important Results of Dot Product

(i) (a + b ) ⋅ (a − b ) =|a|2 −|b|2
(ii) |a + b|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 + 2 (a ⋅b )
(iii) |a − b|2 =|a|2 +|b|2 − 2 (a ⋅ b )
(iv) |a + b|2 +|a − b|2 = 2 (|a|2 +|b|2 )
and |a + b | 2 −|a − b|2 = 4 (a ⋅ b )
1
or a ⋅ b = [|a + b|2 −|a − b|2 ]
4
(v) If|a + b|=|a| +|b|, then a is parallel to b.
(vi) If|a + b| =|a − b|, then a is perpendicular to b.
(vii) (a ⋅ b )2 ≤|a|2|b|2
Vector or Cross Product of Two Vectors

The vector product of the vectors a and b is denoted by a × b and it is
defined as
a × b = (|a|| b|sin θ ) n
$ = ab sin θ n
$ …(i)
b
a×b
θ
a
where, a =|a|, b =|b|, θ is the angle between the vectors a and b and n
$
is a unit vector which is perpendicular to both a and b.
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Important Results of Cross Product

(i) Let a = a1i$ + a2 $j + a3k$ and b = b1i$ + b2 $j + b3k$
$i $j k$
Then, a × b = a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
(ii) If a = b or if a is parallel to b, then sinθ = 0 and so a × b = 0.

(iii) The direction of a × b is regarded positive, if the rotation from a to b
appears to be anti-clockwise.
(iv) a × b is perpendicular to the plane, which contains both a andb. Thus, the
unit vector perpendicular to both a and b or to the plane containing is
a ×b a ×b
given by n$ = = .
| a × b | ab sin θ
(v) Vector product of two parallel or collinear vectors is zero.
(vi) If a × b = 0, then a = 0 or b = 0 or a and b are parallel or collinear.
(vii) Vector Product of Two Perpendicular Vectors
If θ = 90 °, then sinθ = 1, i.e. a × b = ( ab) n$ or | a × b | = | abn$ | = ab
[Q a = a and b = b]
(viii) Vector Product of Two Unit Vectors If a and b are unit vectors, then
a = | a | = 1, b = |b | = 1
∴ a × b = ab sinθ ⋅ n$ = (sinθ) ⋅ n$
(ix) Vector Product is not Commutative The two vector products a × b and
b × a are equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
i.e. b × a = − a ×b …(i)
(x) Distributive Law For any three vectors a , b , c
a × (b + c) = ( a × b) + ( a × c)
(xi) Area of a Triangle and Parallelogram
1 1
(a) The area of a ∆ABC is equal to | AB × AC | or | BC × BA|
2 2
1
or | CB × CA|.
2
(b) The area of a ∆ABC with vertices having PV’s a , b , c respectively, is
1 / 2 | a × b + b × c + c × a |.
(c) The points whose PV’s a , b and c are collinear, if and only if
a × b + b × c + c × a = 0.
(d) The area of a parallelogram with adjacent sides a and b is | a × b|.
Contd. ...
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Vectors 301
1
(e) The area of a parallelogram with diagonals a and b is | a × b |.
2
1
(f) The area of a quadrilateral ABCD is equal to | AC × BD |.
2
(xii) Vector Moment of a Force about a Point The vector moment of
torque M of a force F about the point O is the vector whose magnitude is
equal to the product of F and the perpendicular distance of the point O
from the line of action of F.
r ×F
O
θ 90°
A F
N
∴ M =r ×F
where, r is the position vector of A referred to O.
(a) The moment of forceF about O is independent of the choice of point A
on the line of action of F.
(b) If several forces are acting through the same point A, then the vector
sum of the moments of the separate forces about a point O is equal to
the moment of their resultant force about O.
(xiii) The Moment of a Force about a Line Let F be F
a force acting at a point A, O be any point on the
A
given line l and a be the unit vector along the
line, then moment of F about the line l is a scalar
given by (OA × F) ⋅ a . O a
l
(xiv) Moment of a Couple

(a) Two equal and unlike parallel forces whose lines of action are different
is said to constitute a couple.
(b) Let P and Q be any two points on the lines of action of the forces
− F and F, respectively.
O F
P N
The moment of the couple = PQ × F

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Scalar Triple Product

If a, b and c are three vectors, then (a × b ) ⋅ c is called scalar triple
product and is denoted by [a b c].
∴ [a b c] = (a × b ) ⋅ c
Geometrical Interpretation of Scalar Triple Product

The scalar triple product (a × b ) ⋅ c represents the volume of a
parallelopiped whose coterminus edges are represented by a, b and c
which form a right handed system of vectors.
Expression of the scalar triple product (a × b ) ⋅ c in terms of
components
$ , b = a i$ + b $j + c k
a = a1i$ + b1$j + c1k $
2 2 2
and c = a i$ + b $j + c k$ is
3 3 3
a1 b1 c1
[a b c] = a2 b2 c2
a3 b3 b3
Properties of Scalar Triple Product

(i) The scalar triple product is independent of the positions of dot
and cross i.e. (a × b ) ⋅ c = a ⋅ ( b × c).
(ii) The scalar triple product of three vectors is unaltered so long as
the cyclic order of the vectors remains unchanged.
i.e. (a × b ) ⋅ c = ( b × c) ⋅ a = ( c × a) ⋅ b
or [a b c] = [b c a] = [c a b ].
(iii) The scalar triple product changes in sign but not in magnitude,
when the cyclic order is changed.
i.e. [a b c] = − [a c b ]
(iv) The scalar triple product vanishes, if any two of its vectors are
equal.
i.e. [a a b ] = 0, [a b a] = 0 and [b a a] = 0.
(v) The scalar triple product vanishes, if any two of its vectors are
parallel or collinear.
(vi) For any scalar x , [x a b c] = x [a b c].
Also, [x a yb zc] = xyz [a b c].
(vii) For any vectors a, b , c, d; [a + b c d ] = [a c d ] + [b c d ]
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Vectors 303
$ is 1,
(viii) The scalar triple product of cyclic components $i , $j and k
i.e.[i j k] = 1.
a⋅c b⋅c
(ix) (a × b ) ⋅ ( c × d ) =
a⋅d b⋅d
a⋅u b⋅u c⋅ u
(x) [a b c] [u v w ] = a ⋅ v b ⋅ v c ⋅ v
a⋅ w b ⋅ w c⋅ w
(xi) Three non-zero vectors a, b and c are coplanar, if and only if

[a b c] = 0.
(xii) Four points A, B, C, D with position vectors a, b , c, d respectively
are coplanar, if and only if [ AB AC AD ] = 0.
i.e. if and only if [b − a c − a d − a] = 0.
(xiii) Volume of parallelopiped with three coterminus edges a, b and
c is|[a b c]|.
(xiv) Volume of prism on a triangular base with three coterminus
1
edges a, b and c is |[a b c]|.
2
(xv) Volume of a tetrahedron with three coterminus edges a, b and
1
c is |[a b c]|.
6
(xvi) If a, b, c and d are position vectors of vertices of a tetrahedron,
then
1
Volume = |[b − a c − a d − a]|.
6
Vector Triple Product

If a, b , c be any three vectors, then (a × b ) × c and a × ( b × c) are known
as vector triple product.
∴ a × ( b × c) = (a ⋅c)b − (a ⋅ b ) c
and (a × b ) × c = (a ⋅c)b − ( b ⋅ c) a
(i) The vector r = a × ( b × c) is perpendicular to a and lies in the plane
b and c.
(ii) a × ( b × c) ≠ (a × b ) × c, the cross product of vectors is not
associative.
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(iii) a × ( b × c) = (a × b ) × c, if and only if

b⋅ c
(a ⋅ c)b − (a ⋅ b )c = (a ⋅ c)b − ( b ⋅ c) a, i.e. c = a
a⋅ b
or vectors a and c are collinear.
Reciprocal System of Vectors

Let a, b and c be three non-coplanar vectors and let
b× c c× a a× b
a′ = , b′ = , c′ =
[a b c] [a b c] [a b c]
Then, a′ , b ′ and c ′ are said to form a reciprocal system of a, b and c.
Properties of Reciprocal System

(i) a ⋅ a′ = b ⋅ b ′ = c ⋅ c ′ = 1
(ii) a ⋅ b ′ = a ⋅ c ′ = 0, b ⋅ a′ = b ⋅ c′ = 0, c ⋅ a′ = c ⋅ b ′ = 0
1
(iii) [a′ b ′ c ′ ][a b c] = 1 ⇒ [a′ b ′ c′ ] =
[a b c]
b′ × c ′ c ′ × a′ a′ × b ′
(iv) a = , b= , c=
[a′ b ′ c ′ ] [a′ b ′ c ′ ] [a′ b ′ c ′ ]
Thus, a, b , c is reciprocal to the system a′ , b ′ , c′.
(v) The orthonormal vector triad i, j, k form self reciprocal system.
(vi) If a, b , c are a system of non-coplanar vectors and a′ , b ′ , c′ are
the reciprocal system of vectors, then any vector r can be
expressed as r = ( r ⋅ a′ )a + ( r ⋅ b ′ )b + ( r ⋅ c′ ) c.
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29
Three Dimensional
Geometry
Coordinate System
The three mutually perpendicular lines in a space which divides the
space into eight parts and if these perpendicular lines are the
coordinate axes, then it is said to be a coordinate system.
y=0 Z
X'
Y'
x=0
z=0
Y
X
Z' O (0, 0, 0)
Note The coordinates of any point on the X , Y and Z-axes will be the form
(x, 0, 0), (0, y, 0) and (0, 0, z ) respectively.
Sign Convention
Octant Coordinate x y z
OXYZ + + +
OX ′ YZ − + +
OXY ′ Z + − +
OXYZ′ + + −
OX ′ Y ′ Z − – +
OX ′ YZ ′ − + −
OXY ′ Z ′ + – −
OX ′ Y ′ Z ′ − − –
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Distance between Two Points

Let P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) be two given points. Then, distance
between these points is given by
PQ = ( x2 − x1 )2 + ( y2 − y1 )2 + ( z 2 − z1 )2
The distance of a point P ( x , y , z ) from origin O is
OP = x 2 + y 2 + z 2
Section Formulae
(i) The coordinates of any point, which divides the join of points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the ratio m : n internally are
 mx2 + nx1 my2 + ny1 mz 2 + nz1 
 , , 
 m+n m+n m+n 
(ii) The coordinates of any point, which divides the join of points
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) in the ratio m : n externally are
 mx2 − nx1 my2 − ny1 mz 2 − mz1 
 , , 
 m−n m−n m−n 
(iii) The coordinates of mid-point of P and Q are
 x1 + x2 y1 + y2 z1 + z 2 
 , , 
 2 2 2 
(iv) Coordinates of the centroid of a triangle formed with vertices
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), Q ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and R ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) are
 x1 + x2 + x3 y1 + y2 + y3 z1 + z 2 + z3 
 , , 
 3 3 3 
(v) Centroid of a Tetrahedron
If ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) and ( x4 , y4 , z 4 ) are the vertices
of a tetrahedron, then its centroid G is given by
 x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 y1 + y2 + y3 + y4 z1 + z 2 + z3 + z 4 
 , , .
 4 4 4 
Area of Triangle
If the vertices of a triangle be A( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C( x3 , y3 , z3 ),
then
Area of ∆ABC = ∆ xy
2
+ ∆ yz
2
+ ∆ zx
2
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Three Dimensional Geometry 307

y1 z1 1 x1 z1 1 x1 y1 1
1 1 1
where, ∆ yz = y2 z 2 1 , ∆ xz = x2 z 2 1 and ∆ xy = x2 y2 1
2 2 2
y3 z3 1 x3 z3 1 x3 y3 1
Direction Cosines
If a directed line segment OP makes angle α , β and γ with OX , OY and
OZ respectively, then cos α , cos β and cos γ are called direction cosines
of OP and it is represented by l , m , n.
i.e. l = cosα
m = cosβ
and n = cos γ
Z
C
P(x, y, z)
γ →
r
O β
α Y
B
A
X
If OP = r, then coordinates of OP are ( lr , mr , nr )
(i) If l , m , n are direction cosines of a vector r, then
(a) r =|r|( l$i + m$j + nk$ ) ⇒ r$ = l$i + m$j + nk$
(b) l 2 + m 2 + n 2 = 1
(c) Projections of r on the coordinate axes are
l|r|, m|r|, n|r|
sum of the squares of projections
(d) |r| =
of r on the coordinate axes
(ii) If P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are two points, such that the
direction cosines of PQ are l , m , n. Then,
x2 − x1 = l|PQ|, y2 − y1 = m|PQ|, z 2 − z1 = n|PQ|
These are projections of PQ on X , Y and Z-axes, respectively.
(iii) If l , m , n are direction cosines of a vector r and a , b, c are three
l m n
numbers, such that = = . Then, we say that a, b and c are
a b c
the direction ratios of r which are proportional to l , m , n.
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a b
Also, we have l = ± ,m = ± ,
a +b +c
2 2 2
a + b2 + c2
2
c
n=±
a 2 + b2 + c2
(iv) If θ is the angle between two lines having direction cosines
l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n 2, then cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n 2
l m n
(a) Lines are parallel, if 1 = 1 = 1 .
l2 m2 n 2
(b) Lines are perpendicular, if l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n 2 = 0.
(v) If θ is the angle between two lines whose direction ratios are
proportional to a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 respectively, then the angle
θ between them is given by
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
cosθ = .
a1 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
2
a1 b1 c1
Lines are parallel, if = = .
a2 b2 c2
Lines are perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.
(vi) The projection of the line segment joining points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) to the line having direction cosines l , m , n is
|( x2 − x1 ) l + ( y2 − y1 ) m + ( z 2 − z1 )n|.
(vii) The direction ratio of the line passing through points P ( x1 , y1 , z1 )
and Q( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) are proportional to x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z 2 − z1.
Then, direction cosines of PQ are
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
, ,
|PQ| |PQ| |PQ|
Angle between Two Intersecting Lines

If l1 , m1 , n1 and l2 , m2 , n 2 are the direction cosines of two given lines,
then the angle θ between them is given by
cosθ = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n 2
 1
(i) The angle between any two diagonals of a cube is cos− 1   .
 3
(ii) The angle between a diagonal of a cube and the diagonal of a face
 2
of the cube is cos− 1   .
 3
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Line in Space
A line (or straight line) is a curve such that all the points on the
line segment joining any two points of it lies on it.
A line can be determined uniquely, if
(i) its direction and the coordinates of a point on it are known.
(ii) it passes through two given points.
1. Equation of a Line Passing through a given Point and
Parallel to a given Vector
Vector Equation Equation of a line passing through a point
with position vector a and parallel to vector b is r = a + λ b,
where λ is a parameter.
Cartesian Equation Equation of a line passing through a
fixed point A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and having direction ratios a , b, c is given
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
by = = , it is also called the symmetrically
a b c
form of a line.
2. Equation of Line Passing through Two given Points
Vector Equation A line passing through two given points
having position vectors a and b is r = a + λ ( b − a) , where λ is a
parameter.
Cartesian Equation Equation of a straight line joining two
fixed points A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) is given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
3. Perpendicular Distance of a Point from a Line
Vector form The length of the perpendicular from a point
→
P(α ) on the line
2
→ 
→  (α − a) ⋅ b 
r = a + λb is given by |α − a|2 −  
 |b| 
Cartesian Form The length of the perpendicular from a
point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) on the line
x−a y−b z−c
= = is given by
l m n
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{( a − x1 )2 + ( b − y1 )2 + ( c − z1 )2 } − {( a − x1 ) l
+ ( b − y1 ) m + ( c − z1 ) n } 2
where, l , m , n are direction cosines of the line.
Skew Lines
Two straight lines in space are said to be skew lines, if they are neither
parallel nor intersecting. Thus, skew-lines are such pair of lines which
are non-coplanar.
Shortest Distance
If l1 and l2 are two skew lines, then a line perpendicular to each of
lines l1 and l2 is known as the line of shortest distance.
P
If the line of shortest distance intersects the lines l1 and l1
l2 at P and Q respectively, then the distance PQ between
points P and Q is known as the shortest distance
l2
between l1 and l2. Q
Vector Form
(i) The shortest distance between lines r = a1 + λb1 and
r = a2 + µb 2 is given by
( b1 × b 2 ) ⋅ (a2 − a1 )
d=
|b1 × b 2|
(ii) The shortest distance between parallel lines
r = a1 + λb and r = a2 + µb is given by
(a2 − a1 ) × b
d=
|b|
(iii) Two lines r = a1 + λb1 and r = a2 + µb 2 are intersecting, when
( b1 × b 2 ) ⋅ (a2 − a1 ) = 0.
Cartesian Form
(i) The shortest distance between the lines
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
= =
a1 b1 c1
x − x2 y − y 2 z − z 2
and = = is given by
a2 b2 c2
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x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
a1 b1 c1
a2 b2 c2
d=
( a1b2 − a2b1 ) + ( b1c2 − b2c1 ) + ( c1a2 − c2a1 )2
2 2
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y1 z − z1
(ii) Two lines = = and = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
are intersecting, when
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
a1 b1 c1 =0
a2 b2 c2

Since, X , Y and Z-axes pass through the origin and have direction cosines
(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1), respectively. Therefore, their equations are
x −0 y −0 z−0
X-axis : = = or y = 0 , z = 0
1 0 0
x −0 y −0 z−0
Y-axis : = = or x = 0 , z = 0
0 1 0
x −0 y −0 z−0
Z-axis : = = or x = 0, y = 0
0 0 1
Plane
A plane is a surface such that, if two points are taken on it, a straight
line joining them lies wholly on the surface. A straight line, which is
perpendicular to every line lying on a plane is called a normal to the
plane.
General Equation of the Plane

The general equation of the first degree in x , y , z always represents a
plane. Hence, the general equation of the plane is ax + by + cz + d = 0.
The coefficient of x, y and z in the cartesian equation of a plane are the
direction ratios of normal to the plane.
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Equation of Plane in Normal Form

O
Vector Form
d r
The equation of plane having normal unit
vector n$ to the plane is r ⋅ n
$ = d, where d is
the perpendicular distance of the plane from N P
origin and r in the position vector of any point
P on the plane and n $ is the unit normal
vector.
Cartesian Form
The equation of a plane, which is at a distance p from origin and the
direction cosines of the normal from the origin to the plane are l , m , n
is given by lx + my + nz = p.
Note The coordinates of foot of perpendicular N from the origin on the plane
are (lp , mp , np ).
Equation of the Plane Passing Through a

Fixed Point
Vector Form
The vector equation of a plane passing through a given point A with
position vector a and perpendicular to a given vector n is ( r − a) n = 0 .
Cartesian Form
The equation of a plane passing through a given point ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) is
given by a( x − x1 ) + b ( y − y1 ) + c ( z − z1 ) = 0
where, a , b, c are direction ratios of normal to the plane.
Intercept Form
The intercept form of equation of plane represented in the form of
x y z
+ + =1
a b c
where, a , b and c are intercepts on X , Y and Z-axes, respectively.
Note There is no vector form of plane in intercept form.
For x intercept Put y = 0, z = 0 in the equation of the plane and
obtain the value of x. Similarly, we can determine for other intercepts.
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Equation of Plane Passing Through Three
Non-collinear Points
Vector Form
The equation of plane passing through three non-collinear points A, B
and C with position vectors a, b and c is
( r − a) [( b − a) × ( c − a)] = 0
→
where, r is the position vector of any point P on the plane.
Cartesian Form
The cartesian equation of a plane passing through three non-collinear
points A ( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and C ( x3 , y3 , z3 ) is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 
 
x − x y2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0.
 2 1

 
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1
where, P ( x , y , z ) be any point on the plane.
Equation of Plane Passing Through the

Intersection of Two given Planes
Vector Form
The equation of plane passing through the intersection of the planes
r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d2 is r ⋅ ( n1 + λ n2 ) = d1 + λ d2 , where λ is a
scalar.
Cartesian Form
The carteian equation of plane passing through the intersection of two
planes a1x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 and a2 x + b2 y + c2z − d2 = 0
is ( a1 x + b1 y + c1 z − d1 ) + λ ( a2 x + b2 y + c2 z − d2 ) = 0
or x ( a1 + λ a2 ) + y ( b1 + λ b2 ) + z ( c1 + λ c2 ) = d1 + λ d2, where λ ∈ R.
Equation of a Plane Parallel to a Given Plane

Vector Form
The vector equation of a plane parallel to the given plane r. n = d1 is
r ⋅ n = d 2.
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Cartesian Form
The cartesian equation of a plane parallel to the given plane
ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 is ax + by + cz + d2 = 0.
Important Results
(i) Equation of a plane passing through the point A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
parallel to two given lines with direction ratios
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
a1 , b1 , c1 and a2 , b2 , c2 is a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
(ii) Equation of a plane passing through two points A( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and
B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ) and parallel to a line with direction ratios a , b, c is
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1 = 0.
a b c
(iii) Four points A( x1 , y1 , z1 ), B ( x2 , y2 , z 2 ), C( x3 , y3 , z3 ) and
D( x4 , y4 , z 4 ) are coplanar if and only if
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
x3 − x1 y3 − y1 z3 − z1 = 0.
x4 − x1 y4 − y1 z 4 − z1
Condition for Coplanarity of Two Lines

Vector Form
→ →
Two lines r = a1 + λ b1 and r = a2 + µ b 2 are coplanar or intersecting if
(a2 − a1 ) ⋅ ( b1 × b 2 ) = 0 i.e (a2 − a1 ) is perpendicular to (b1 × b 2 ).
Cartesian Form
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 x − x2 y − y 2 z − z 2
The lines = = and = =
a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
x2 − x1 y2 − y1 z 2 − z1
are coplanar if a1 b1 c1 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
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Angle between Two Planes

The angle between two planes is defined as the angle between their
normals.
Vector Form
If n1 and n2 are normals to the planes, and θ be the angle between the
planes r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r. n2 = d2.
n1 ⋅ n2
Then, cos θ =
n1 n2
C
θ θ
A
B
Cartesian Form
The angle between the two planes
a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2z + d2 = 0 is
a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2

cosθ =
a12 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
Parallelism and Perpendicularity of Two Planes

Two planes are parallel or perpendicular according as their normals
are parallel or perpendicular.
Vector Form
Two planes r ⋅ n1 = d1 and r ⋅ n2 = d2 are parallel, if n1 = λ n2 for some
scalar and perpendicular, if n1 ⋅ n2 = 0 .
Cartesian Form
The planes a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0 and a2x + b2 y + c2z + d2 = 0 are
a b c
parallel, if 1 = 1 = 1 and perpendicular, if a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 = 0.
a2 b2 c2
Note The equation of plane parallel to a given plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
given by ax + by + cz + k = 0, where k may be determined from given
conditions.
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Distance of a Point From a Plane

Vector Form
Let the equation of plane be r ⋅ n = d. The perpendicular distance from
a point P whose position vector is a, to the plane is
|a ⋅ n − d|
|n|
|d|
Note The length of perpendicular from origin to the plane r ⋅ n = d is .
|n|
Cartesian Form
The perpendicular distance of a point P(x1, y1, z1)
P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane
ax + by + cz + d 
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is 1 1 1
. ax + by + cz + d =0
 a + b + c2 
2 2
If the plane is given in normal form lx + my + nz = p. Then, the

distance of the point P ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) from the plane is|lx1 + my1 + nz1 − p|.
Note The length of perpendicular from origin to the plane
|d|
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is .
a + b2 + c2
2
Distance between Two Parallel Planes

If ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and ax + by + cz + d2 = 0 be equation of two
parallel planes. Then, the distance between them is
 d2 − d1 
 2 
 a +b +c 
2 2
Angle between a Line and a Plane

The angle between a line and plane is the complement of the angle
between the line and normal to the plane.
Vector Form
If the equation of a line is r = a + λ b and plane is r ⋅ n = d, then the
angle between the line and normal is
n⋅b
cos θ =
n b
and the angle between the line and plane is
n⋅b
sin φ = [Q φ = 90°−θ ]
|n||b|
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Cartesian Form
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1
The angle between a line = = and normal to the
a1 b1 c1
plane a2x + b2 y + c2z + d2 = 0 is
a1 a2 + b1 b2 + c1 c2
cos θ =
a1 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
2
and the angle between a line and the plane is

a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2
sin φ = [Q φ = 90° − θ]
a1 + b12 + c12 a22 + b22 + c22
2
Bisectors of Angles between Two Planes

The bisector planes of the angles between the planes
a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 = 0, a2x + b2 y + c2z + d2 = 0 is
a1x + b1 y + c1z + d1 a x + b2 y + c2z + d2
=± 2
Σ a12
Σ a22
One of these planes will bisect the acute angle and the other obtuse
angle between the given plane.
(i) If a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 < 0, then origin lies is in acute angle and the
acute angle bisector is obtained by taking positive sign in the
above equation. The obtuse angle bisector is obtained by taking
negative sign in the above equation.
(ii) If a1a2 + b1b2 + c1c2 > 0, then origin lies in obtuse angle and the
obtuse angle bisector is obtained by taking positive sign in above
equation. Acute angle bisector is obtained by taking negative
sign.

(i) The image or reflection (x , y , z) of a point ( x1 , y1 , z1) in a plane
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 − 2( ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d)
= = =
a b c a2 + b2 + c2
(ii) The foot ( x , y , z) of a point (x1 , y1 , z1) in a plane ax + by + cz + d = 0 is
given by
x − x1 y − y1 z − z1 − ( ax1 + by1 + cz1 + d)
= = =
a b c a2 + b2 + c2
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Sphere
A sphere is the locus of a point which moves in a space, such a way
that its distance from a fixed point always remains constant.
General Equation of the Sphere

Vector Form
P
The vector equation of a sphere of radius a and centre a
having position vector c is|r − c| = a. The vector equation
r
→ C
of sphere of radius a with centre at the origin, is| r|= a.
Cartesian Form
The equation of the sphere with centre ( a , b, c) and radius r is
( x − a )2 + ( y − b)2 + ( z − c)2 = r 2 ...(i)
the equation of a sphere with centre at origin and radius r is
x 2 + y 2 + z 2 = r 2.
In generally, we can write as x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0.
Here, its centre is ( − u , − v , − w) and radius = u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d

(i) The general equation of second degree in x , y , z is
ax 2 + by 2 + cz 2 + 2hxy + 2kyz + 2lzx + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
represents a sphere, if
(a) a = b = c ( ≠ 0) (b) h = k = l = 0
Then, the equation becomes
ax 2 + ay 2 + az2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0 …(i)
To find its centre and radius first we make the coefficients of x 2 , y 2 and z 2
each unity by dividing throughout by a.
2u 2v 2w d
Thus, we have x 2 + y 2 + z2 + x+ y+ z+ =0 …(ii)
a a a a
 −u −v −w
∴ Centre is  , , 
 a a a 
u2 v 2 w 2 d u 2 + v 2 + w 2 − ad
and radius = 2
+ 2+ 2 − = .
a a a a | a|
(ii) Any sphere concentric with the sphere
x 2 + y 2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + d = 0
is x 2 + y 2 + z2 + 2ux + 2vy + 2wz + k = 0
Contd. …
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(iii) Since, r2 = u2 + v 2 + w 2 − d, therefore, the Eq. (ii) represents a real sphere, if

u2 + v 2 + w 2 − d > 0.
(iv) The equation of a sphere on the line joining two points ( x1 , y1 , z1) and
( x2 , y2 , z2 ) as a diameter is
( x − x1) ( x − x2 ) + ( y − y1) ( y − y2 ) + ( z − z1) ( z − z2 ) = 0.
(v) The equation of a sphere passing through four non-coplanar
points (x1, y1, z1), (x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ) and (x 4 , y 4 , z4 ) is
x 2 + y 2 + z2 x y z 1
x12 + y12 + z12 x1 y1 z1 1
x22 + y22 + z22 x2 y2 z2 1 = 0 .
x32 + y32 + z32 x3 y3 z3 1
x 24 + y 24 + z24 x4 y4 z4 1
Condition for Tangent Plane to a Sphere

We know that plane touch the sphere, if the perpendicular distance
from centre to the sphere is equal to the radius.
Vector Form
c n − d
The plane r ⋅ n = d touches the sphere the r − c = a, if = a.
n
Cartesian Form
The plane lx + my + nz = p will touch the sphere x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2ux
+ 2vy + 2 wz + d = 0, if
|lu + mv + nw + p|
= u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d
l +m +n
2 2 2
or ( lu + mv + nw + p)2 = ( u 2 + v 2 + w2 − d ) ( l 2 + m 2 + n 2 )
Plane Section of a Sphere

Consider a sphere intersected by a plane. The set of points common to
both sphere and plane is called a plane section of a sphere.
In ∆CNP , NP 2 = CP 2 − CN 2 = r 2 − p2 [∴ NP = r 2 − p2 ]
Hence, the locus of P is a circle whose centre is at
the point N , the foot of the perpendicular from the
centre of the sphere to the plane. C
p r
The section of sphere by a plane through its centre
is called a great circle. The centre and radius of a N P
great circle are the same as those of the sphere.
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Statistics
Statistics is the Science of collection, organisation, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of the numerical data.
Useful Terms
1. Primary and Secondary Data The data collected by the
investigator himself is known as the primary data, while the
data which are not originally collected but rather obtained from
some sources is known as secondary data.
2. Variable or Variate A characteristics that varies in
magnitude from observation to observation. e.g. weight, height,
income, age, etc are variables.
3. Grouped and Ungrouped Data The data which is organised
into several groups is called grouped data where as ungrouped
data is present in original form, i.e. it is just a list of numbers.
4. Class-Intervals The groups which used to condense the data
are called classes or class-intervals.
5. Limit of the Class The starting and ending values of each
class are called Lower and Upper limits, respectively.
6. Class Size or Class Width The difference between upper and
lower boundary of a class is called size of the class.
7. Class Marks The class marks of a class is given by
Lower limit + Upper limit
.
2
8. Frequency The number of times an observation occurs in the
given data, is called the frequency of the observation.
9. Frequency Distribution It is a tabular summary of data
showing the frequency of observations.
10. Discrete Frequency Distribution A frequency distribution
is called a discrete frequency distribution, if data are presented
in such a way that exact value of the data are clearly shown.
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Statistics 321
11. Continuous Frequency Distribution A frequency
distribution in which data are arranged in classes (or groups)
which are not exactly measurable.
12. Cumulative Frequency Distribution In this type of
distribution, the frequencies of each class intervals are added
successively from top to bottom or from bottom to top.
A cumulative frequency distribution is of two types
(i) Less than cummulative frequency distribution In
this frequencies are added successively from top to bottom
and we represent the cumulative number of observation less
than or equal to the class frequency to which it relates.
(ii) More than cummulative frequency distribution In
this frequencies are added successively from bottom to top
and we represent the cummulative number of observation
greater than or equal to the class frequency to which it
relates.
Graphical Representation of
Frequency Distributions
(i) Bar Diagrams In bar diagrams, only the length of the bars
are taken into consideration. To draw a bar diagram, we first
mark equal lengths for the different classes on the horizontal
axis, i.e. on X-axis.
On each of these lengths on the horizontal axis, we erect
(vertical) a rectangle whose heights are proportional to the
frequency of the class.
Y
40
30
Frequency
Bikes
Cars
20
Scooters
Bus
10
0 X
Registered vehicles
(ii) Histogram To draw the histogram of a given continuous

frequency distribution, we first mark off all the class intervals
along X-axis on a suitable scale. On each of these class intervals
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on the horizontal axis, we erect (vertical) a rectangle whose

height is proportional to the frequency of that particular class,
so that the area of the rectangle is proportional to the frequency
of the class.
Y
50
40
30
Frequency
20
10
0 X
10 20 30 40 50 60
Class interval
If however the classes are of unequal width, then the height of
the rectangles will be proportional to the ratio of the frequencies
to the width of the classes.
(iii) Pie Diagrams Pie diagrams are used to represent a relative
frequency distribution. A pie diagram consists of a circle divided
into as many sectors as there are classes in a frequency
distribution. The area of each sector is proportional to the
relative frequency of the class.
Now, we make angles at the centre proportional to the relative
frequencies. And in order to get the angles of the desired sectors,
we divide 360° in the proportion of the various relative
frequencies, i.e.
 Frequency 
Central angle =   × 360°
Total frequency
Cars
120° Bus
60°
105° 75° rs
te
Bikes oo
Sc
The above pie diagram represent an illustration of types of

vehicles and their share in the total number of vehicles of a city.
(iv) Frequency Polygon To draw the frequency polygon of an
ungrouped frequency distribution, we plot the points with
abscissae as the variate values and the ordinate as the
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Statistics 323
corresponding frequencies. These plotted points are joined by
straight lines to obtain the frequency polygon.
Y
14 D
12
Number of students
10
8 B
C
6
4 E G
F
2
A H
0 X
25.5 30.5 35.5 40.5 45.5 50.5 55.5 60.5 65.5
Weights (in kg)
(v) Cumulative Frequency Curve (Ogive) The curve given by

the graphical representation of cummulative frequency
distribution is called on ogive or commulative frequency curve.
There are two methods of constructing an ogive, (i) ‘less than’
type ogive (ii) ‘more than’ type ogive.
60 60
‘More than’ ogive
50 50
Cumulative frequency
Cumulative frequency
‘Less than’ ogive

40 40
30 30
20 20
10 10
O O
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Upper limits Lower limits
Measures of Central Tendency

A single value which describes the characteristic of the entire data is
known as the average. Generally, average value of a distribution lies in
the middle part of the distribution, such type of values are known as
measures of central tendency.
The following are the five measures of central tendency
1. Arithmetic Mean 2. Geometric Mean 3. Harmonic Mean
4. Median 5. Mode
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1. Arithmetic Mean
The arithmetic mean (or simple mean) of a set of observations is
obtained by dividing the sum of the values of observations by the
number of observations.
(i) Arithmetic Mean for Unclassified (Ungrouped or Raw)
Data If there are n observations, x1 , x2 , x3 , K , xn , then their
arithmetic mean
n
x1 + x2 + K + xn
∑ xi
i =1
A or x = =
n n
(ii) Arithmetic Mean for Discrete Frequency Distribution
or Ungrouped Frequency Distribution Let f1 , f2 , K , fn
be corresponding frequencies of x1 , x2 ,. .. , xn . Then, arithmetic
mean
n
x1 f1 + x2 f2 + K + xn fn
∑ xi fi
i =1
A= =
f1 + f2 + K + fn n
∑ fi
i =1
(iii) Arithmetic Mean for Classified (Grouped) Data or

Grouped Frequency Distribution For a classified data,
we take the class marks x1 , x2 , K , xn of the classes, then
arithmetic mean by
n
∑ xi fi
i =1
(a) From Direct Method A = n
∑ fi
i =1
(b) From Shortcut Method Or Deviation Method

 n 
 ∑ fi di 
A = A1 +  i =1n  h
 
 ∑ fi 
 i =1 
where, A1 = assumed mean, di = deviation = xi − A1
h = width of interval
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Statistics 325
n
∑ fi u i
i =1
(c) Step Deviation Method is x = A 1 + n
×h
∑ fi
i =1
where, A1 = assumed mean
xi − A 1
u i = step deviation = and h = width of interval.
h
(iv) Combined Mean If A1, A 2 ,... , A r are means of n1 , n 2 ,... , n r
observations respectively, then arithmetic mean of the
combined group is called the combined mean of the
observation
r
n 1A 1 + n 2A 2 + K + n r A r ∑ ni A i
i =1
A= =
n1 + n 2 +K + n r r
∑ ni
i =1
(v) Weighted Arithmetic Mean If w1 , w2 ,... , wn are the

weights assigned to the values x1 , x2 ,... , xn respectively, then the
weighted arithmetic mean is
n
∑ wi xi
i =1
Aw = n
∑ wi
i =1
Properties of Arithmetic Mean

(i) Mean is dependent of change of origin and change of scale.
(ii) Algebraic sum of the deviations of a set of values from their
arithmetic mean is zero.
(iii) The sum of the squares of the deviations of a set of values is
minimum when taken from mean.
2. Geometric Mean
(i) If x1 , x2 ,... , xn be n positive observations, then their geometric
mean is defined as
G = n x1 x2 K xn
 log x1 + log x2 + K + log xn 
or G = antilog  
 n
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(ii) Let f1 , f2 ,... , fn be the corresponding frequencies of positive

observations x1 , x2 ,... , xn , then geometric mean is defined as
1
G = ( x1f1 x2f2K xnfn ) N
1 
or G = antilog  ( f1 log x1 + f2 log x2 + K + fn log xn ,
 N 
n
where N = ∑ fi
i =1
3. Harmonic Mean (HM)

The harmonic mean of n non-zero observations x1 , x2 , ... , xn is
defined as
n n
HM = = n
1 1 1 1
+
x1 x2
+ ... +
xn ∑x
i =1 i
If their corresponding frequencies are f1 , f2 , ... , fn respectively, then

n
f1 + f2 + ... + fn
∑ fi
i =1
HM = =
 f1 f f  n
f
 + 2 + ...+ n 
 x1 x2 xn 
∑ xi
i =1 i
4. Median
The median of a distribution is the value of the middle observation,
when the observations are arranged in ascending or descending order.
(i) Median for Simple Distribution or Raw Data

Firstly, arrange the data in ascending or descending order and then
find the number of observations n.
 n + 1
(a) If n is odd, then   th term is the median.
 2 
 n
(b) If n is even, then there are two middle terms namely   th and
 2
n 
 + 1 th terms.
2 
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Statistics 327
 n n 
Hence, Median = Mean of   th and  + 1 th observations
 2 2 
1  n  n  
=   th +  + 1 th of observations
2  2  2  
(ii) Median for Unclassified (Ungrouped) Frequency

Distribution
n
N
(i) Firstly, find
2
, where N = ∑ fi .
i =1
(ii) Find the cumulative frequency which is equal to or just greater

N
than .
2
(iii) Take the value of variable corresponding to cummulative
frequency obtained in step (ii).
(iv) This value of the variable is the required median.
(iii) Median for Classified (Grouped) Data

or Grouped Frequency Distribution
If in a continuous distribution, the total frequency be N , then the class
whose cumulative frequency is either equal to N/2 or is just greater
than N/2 is called median class.
For a continuous distribution, median
N
−C
Md = l + 2 ×h
f
where, l = lower limit of the median class
f = frequency of the median class
n
N = total frequency = ∑ fi
i =1
C = cumulative frequency of the class just before the median
class
h = length of the median class
Note The intersection point of less than ogive and more than ogive is the
median.
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Quartiles
The median divides the distribution in two equal parts. Similarly, quartiles
divide the distribution in four equal parts.
Q1 Q2 = Md Q3
Quartiles for a continuous distribution is given by

N
−C
Q1 ( first quartile) = l + 4 ×h
f
N
−C
Similarly, Q2 (second quartile) = l + 2 × h = median,
f
3N
−C
Q3 ( third quartile) = l + 4 ×h
f
where, N = total frequency
l = lower limit of the quartile class
f = frequency of the quartile class
C = the cumulative frequency corresponding to the class just
before the quartile class
h = the length of the quartile class.
5. Mode
The mode ( M O ) of a distribution is the value at the point about which
the observations tend to be most heavily concentrated. It is generally
the value of the variable which appears to occur most frequently in the
distribution.
(i) Mode for a Simple Data or Raw Data

The value which is repeated maximum number of times, is the
required mode.
e.g. Mode of the data 70, 80, 90, 96, 70, 96, 96, 90 is 96 as 96 occurs
maximum number of times.
(ii) Mode for Unclassified (Ungrouped) Frequency

Distribution
Mode is the value of the variate corresponding to the maximum
frequency.
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Statistics 329
(iii) Mode for Classified (Grouped) Distribution or
Grouped Frequency Distribution
The class having the maximum frequency is called the modal class
and the middle point of the modal class is called the crude mode.
The class just before the modal class is called pre-modal class and the
class after the modal class is called the post-modal class.
Mode for classified data (Continuous Distribution) is given by
f0 − f1
MO = l + ×h
2 f0 − f1 − f2
where, l = lower limit of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the modal class
f1 = frequency of the pre-modal class
f2 = frequency of the post-modal class
h = length of the class interval
Relation between Mean, Median and Mode

(i) Mean − Mode = 3 (Mean − Median)
(ii) Mode = 3 Median − 2 Mean
Symmetric and Anti-symmetric Distribution

A distribution is symmetric, if the
frequencies are symmetrically distributed
on both sides of the centre point of the
frequency curve. In this, frequency curve is
bell shaped.
In symmetrical distribution,
Mean = Median = Mode, i.e. A = M d = MO A = Md = MO
A distribution which is not symmetric is called anti-symmetric

(or skew-symmetric).
Measure of Dispersion
The degree to which numerical data tend to spread about an average
value is called the dispersion of the data. The four measure of
dispersion are
1. Range 2. Mean deviation
3. Standard deviation 4. Root mean square deviation
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1. Range
The difference between the highest and the lowest observation of a
data is called its range.
i.e. Range = X max − X min
X max − X min
∴ The coefficient of range =
X max + X min
It is widely used in statistical series relating to quality control in
production.
(i) Inter quartile range = Q3 − Q1
Q3 − Q1
(ii) Semi-inter quartile range (Quartile deviation) =
2
Q3 − Q1
and coefficient of quartile deviation =
Q3 + Q1
2. Mean Deviation (MD)
The arithmetic mean of the absolute deviations of the values of the
variable from a measure of their average (mean, median, mode) is
called Mean Deviation (MD). It is denoted by δ.
n
∑ |xi − x|
i =1
(i) For simple (raw) distribution δ =
n
where, n = number of terms, x = A or M d or MO
n
∑ fi |xi − x|
i =1
(ii) For unclassified frequency distribution δ = n
∑ fi
n i =1
∑ fi |xi − x|
i =1
(iii) For classified distribution δ = n
∑ fi
i =1
where, xi is the class mark of the interval.

Note The mean deviation is the least when measured from the median.
Coefficient of Mean Deviation

It is the ratio of MD and the average from which the deviation is
measured.
δ δMd δ MO
Thus, the coefficient of MD = A or or
A Md MO
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Statistics 331
Limitations of Mean Deviation
(i) If the data is more scattered or the degree of variability is very
high, then the median is not a valid representative.
(ii) The sum of the deviations from the mean is more than the sum of
the deviations from the median.
(iii) The mean deviation is calculated on the basis of absolute values
of the deviations and so cannot be subjected to further algebraic
treatment.
3. Standard Deviation and Variance
Standard deviation is the square root of the arithmetic mean of the
squares of deviations of the terms from their AM and it is denoted by σ.
The square of standard deviation is called the variance and it is
denoted by the symbol σ 2.
(i) For simple distribution
n
∑ ( xi − x )2 1 n n 
2
i =1
n ∑ xi −  ∑ xi 
2
σ= =
n n i =1  i =1 
where, n is a number of observations and x is mean.
(ii) For discrete frequency distribution
n
∑ f ( xi − x )2 1 n n 
2
i =1
N ∑ fi xi −  ∑ fi xi 
2
σ= =
N N i =1  i =1 
2
1 n n 
N ∑ fi di −  ∑ fi di 
2
Shortcut Method σ =
N i =1  i =1 
where, di = deviation from assumed mean = xi − A and A = assumed
mean
(iii) For continuous frequency distribution
n
∑ fi ( xi − x )2
i =1
σ=
N
where, xi is class mark of the interval.
2
h n n 
Shortcut Method σ =
N
N ∑ fi u i2 −  ∑ fi u i 
i =1 i =1
xi − A
where, u i = , A = assumed mean and h = width of the class
h
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Standard Deviation of the Combined Series

If n1, n 2 are the sizes, X1 , X 2 are the means and σ1 , σ 2 are the standard
deviation of the series, then the standard deviation of the combined
series is
n1(σ12 + d12 ) + n 2(σ 22 + d22 )
σ=
n1 + n 2
where, d1 = X1 − X , d2 = X 2 − X
n1X + n 2X 2
and X = .
n1 + n 2
Effects of Average and Dispersion on

Change of origin and Scale
Change of origin Change of scale
Mean Dependent Dependent
Median Dependent Dependent
Mode Dependent Dependent
Standard Deviation Not dependent Dependent
Variance Not dependent Dependent
Note (i) Change origin means either subtract or add in observations.

(ii) Change of scale means either multiply or divide in observations.

(i) The ratio of SD ( σ) and the AM ( x ) is called the coefficient of standard
 σ
deviation   .
x
 σ
(ii) The percentage form of coefficient of SD i. e.   × 100 is called
x
coefficient of variation.
(iii) The distribution for which the coefficient of variation is less is more
consistent.
n2 − 1
(iv) Standard deviation of first n natural numbers is .
12
(v) Standard deviation is independent of change of origin, but it is depend
on change of scale.
2
(vi) Quartile deviation = Standard deviation
3
4
(vii) Mean deviation = Standard deviation
5
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Statistics 333
4. Root Mean Square Deviation (RMS)

The square root of the AM of squares of the deviations from an
assumed mean is called the root mean square deviation.
Thus,
(i) For simple (discrete) distribution
S=
∑ ( x − A′ )2 , where A′ = assumed mean
n
(ii) For frequency distribution
S=
∑ f ( x − A′ )2
∑f
Note If A′ = A (mean), then S = σ

(i) The RMS deviation is the least when measured from AM.
(ii) σ 2 + A2 =
∑ f x2 .
∑f
∑x
2
(iii) For discrete distribution, if f = 1, then σ + A

2 2
.=
n
(iv) The mean deviation about the mean is less than or equal to the SD. i. e.
MD ≤ σ.
Correlation
The tendency of simultaneous variation between two variables is called
correlation (or covariation). It denotes the degree of inter-dependence
between variables.
Types of Correlation
1. Perfect Correlation
If the two variables vary in such a manner that their ratio is always
constant, then the correlation is said to be perfect.
2. Positive or Direct Correlation
If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an increase or
decrease in the other, then the correlation is said to be positive.
3. Negative or Indirect Correlation
If an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to a decrease or
increase in the other, then correlation is said to be negative.
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Covariance
Let ( xi , yi ), i = 1, 2, 3, K , n be a bivariate distribution, where
x1 , x2 ,K , xn are the values of variable x and y1 , y2 , K , yn those of y,
then the cov ( x , y ) is given by
n
1
(i) cov ( x , y ) =
n
∑ ( xi − x )( yi − y )
i =1
where, x and y are mean of variables x and y.

1 n 1 n  1 n 
(ii) cov ( x , y ) = ∑ xi yi −  n ∑ xi   n ∑ yi 
n i =1  i =1   i =1 
Karl Pearson’s Coefficient of Correlation

Karl Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is based on the products of the
deviations from the average of the respective variables and their
respective standard deviations.
The correlation coefficient r( x , y ) between the variables x and y is given
cov( x , y ) cov ( x , y )
r( x , y ) = or
var ( x ) var ( y ) σ xσ y
n
∑ ( xi − x ) ( yi − y )
i =1
=
n n
∑ ( xi − x )2 ∑ ( yi − y )2
i =1 i =1
n n
n ∑ xi ∑ yi
∑ xi yi − i =1
n
i =1
i =1
=
2 2
n  n 
 ∑ xi   ∑ yi 
n
  n
 
∑ xi − i =1 ∑ yi − i =1
2 2
i =1 n i =1 n
n n n
n ∑ xi yi − ∑ xi ∑ yi
i =1 i =1 i =1
=
2 2
n   n n n 
n ∑ xi −  ∑ xi  n ∑ yi −  ∑ y i 
2 2
i =1  i =1  i =1  i =1 
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Statistics 335
Properties of Correlation
(i) − 1 ≤ r ≤ 1
(ii) If r = 1, then coefficient of correlation is perfectly positive.
(iii) If r = − 1, then correlation is perfectly negative.
(iv) The coefficient of correlation is independent of the change of
origin and scale.
(v) Correlation coefficient has no unit and it is a pure number.
(vi) If − 1 < r < 1, it indicates the degree of linear relationship
between x and y, whereas its sign tells about the direction of
relationship.
(vii) If x and y are two independent variables, then r = 0
(viii) If r = 0, x and y are said to be uncorrelated. It does not imply
that the two variates are independent.
(ix) If x and y are random variables and a , b, c and d are any
numbers such that a ≠ 0, c ≠ 0, then
|ac|
r( ax + b, cy + d ) = r( x , y ).
ac
(x) Probable Error and Standard Error If r is the
correlation coefficient in a sample of n pairs of observations,
1 − r2
then it standard error is given by .
n
And the probable error of correlation coefficient is given by
1 − r2
( 0.6745)  .
 n 
Rank Correlation (Spearman’s)

Let d be the difference between paired ranks and n be the number of
items ranked. The coefficient of rank correlation is given by
(i) When ranks are not repeated
n
6 ∑ d2
i =1
r =1−
n( n 2 − 1)
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(ii) When ranks are repeated If n ranks are repeated

m1 , m2 ,..... , mr times, then rank correlation is given by
n 1 r 
6 ∑ d 2 + ∑ ( mi − mi )
3
12
r = 1 − i =1 i =1 
n( n 2 − 1)
(a) The rank correlation coefficient lies between − 1 and 1.
(b) If two variables are correlated, then points in the scatter
diagram generally cluster around a curve which we call the
curve of regression.
Regression
Regression helps to estimate or predict the unknown value of one
variable from the known values of the other related variables.
Lines of Regression
A line of regression is the straight line which gives the best fit in the
least square sense to the given sets of data.
Regression coefficient of y on x and x on y

The regression coefficient shows that with a unit change in the value of
x (or y) variable, what will be the average change in the value of y (or
x) variable.
It is denoted by byx (or bxy ).
σ y cov ( x , y )
byx = r =
σx σ 2x
σ x cov ( x , y )
and bxy = r =
σy σ 2y
Regression Analysis
Regression Equation Regression equations are the algebraic
formulation of regression lines.
(i) Line of regression of y on x is
σy
y− y =r (x − x )
σx
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Statistics 337
(ii) Line of regression of x on y is
σ
x − x = r x ( y − y)
σy
(iii) Angle between two regression lines is given by
 1 − r 2   σ x σ y    1 − r2 
θ = tan−1    2   = tan−1 
2 
 r   σ x + σ y    bxy + byx 
π
(a) If r = 0, i.e. θ = , then two regression lines are
2
perpendicular to each other.
(b) If r = 1 or − 1, i.e. θ = 0, then two regression lines coincide.
Properties of the Regression Coefficients

(i) Both regression coefficients and r have the same sign.
(ii) Coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean between the
regression coefficients.
(iii) 0 <|bxy byx|≤ 1, if r ≠ 0 i.e. if|bxy|> 1, then|byx|< 1
(iv) Regression coefficients are independent of the change of origin
but not of scale.
(v) If two regression coefficient have different sign, then r = 0.
(vi) Arithmetic mean of the regression coefficients is greater than
the correlation coefficient.
byx + bxy
i.e. ≥ r.
2
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31
Mathematical
Reasoning
In mathematical language, there are two kinds of reasoning—inductive
and deductive. Here, we will discuss some fundamentals of deductive
reasoning.
Statement (Proposition)
A statement is an assertive sentence which is either true or false but
not both. Statements are denoted by the small letters i.e. p, q , r ... etc.
e.g. p : A triangle has four sides.
Note
(i) A true statement is known as a valid statement and a false statement
is known as an invalid statement.
(ii) Imperative, exclamatory, interrogative, optative sentences are not
statements.
1. Simple Statement
A statement which cannot be broken into two or more statements is
called a simple statement.
e.g. p : 2 is a real number.
2. Open Statement
A sentence which contains one or more variable such that when certain
values are given to the variable it becomes a statement, is called an
open statement.
e.g. p : ‘He is a great man’ is an open statement because in this
statement, he can be replaced by any person.
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Mathematical Reasoning 339

3. Compound Statement
If two or more simple statements are combined by the use of words
such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘if... then, ‘if and only if ’, then the resulting
statement is called a compound statement.
e.g. Roses are red and sky is blue.
Note Individual statements of a compound statement are called component
statements.
Elementary Logical Connectives or

Logical Operators
(i) Negation A statement which is formed by changing the truth
value of a given statement by using the word like ‘no’, ‘not' is
called negation of given statement. If p is a statement, then
negation of p is denoted by ~ p.
(ii) Conjunction A compound statement formed by two simple
statements p and q using connective ‘and’ is called the
conjunction of p and q and it is represented by p ∧ q.
(iii) Disjunction A compound statement formed by two simple
statements p and q using connectives ‘or’ is called the
disjunction of p and q and it is represented by p ∨ q.
(iv) Conditional Statement (Implication) Two simple
statements p and q connected by the phrase, if L then, is called
conditional statement of p L q and it is denoted by p ⇒ q.
(v) Biconditional Statement (Bi-implication) The two simple
statements p and q connected by the phrase, ‘if and only if’ is
called biconditional statement. It is denoted by p ⇔ q.
Truth Value and Truth Table

A statement can be either ‘true’ or ‘false’ which is called truth value of
a statement and it is represented by the symbols T and F, respectively.
A truth table is a summary of truth values of the compound
statement for all possible truth values of its component statements.
Logical Equivalent Statements

Two compound statements say, S1 ( p, q , r ) and S 2( p, q , r ,.... ), are said to
be logically equivalent if they have the same truth values for all
logically possibilities. If statements S1 and S 2 are logically equivalent,
then we write
S1( p, q , r... ) = S 2( p, q , r ,... )
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Table for Basic Logical Connections

Number of rows = 22 = 4
~(p ⇔ q ) ≡
~ (p ^ q ) ~ (p ⇒ q) ( p^ ~ q ) ∨
p q ~p ~q p ∧q p ∨q p ⇒ q p ⇔ q
≡ ~p ∨~ q ≡ p^ ~ q
(~ p^ q )
T T F F T T T T F F F
T F F T F T F F T T T
F T T F F T T F T F T
F F T T F F T T T F F
Tautology and Contradiction

The compound statement which are true for every value of their
components are called tautology.
The compound statements which are false for every value of their
components are called contradiction (or fallacy).
Truth Table
p q p ⇒q q ⇒p Tautology Contradiction
(p ⇒ q ) ∨ (q ⇒ p ) ~ {(p ⇒ q ) ∨ (q ⇒ p )}
T T T T T F
T F F T T F
F T T F T F
F F T T T F
Laws of Algebra of Statements

(i) Idempotent Laws
(a) p ∨ p ≡ p (b) p ∧ p ≡ p
(ii) Associative Laws
(a) ( p ∨ q ) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ ( q ∨ r ) (b) ( p ∧ q ) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ ( q ∧ r )
(iii) Commutative Laws
(a) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p (b) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p
(iv) Distributive Laws
(a) p ∨ ( q ∧ r ) ≡ ( p ∨ q ) ∧ ( p ∨ r )
(b) p ∧ ( q ∨ r ) ≡ ( p ∧ q ) ∨ ( p ∧ r )
(v) De-Morgan’s Laws
(a) ~ ( p ∨ q ) ≡ (~ p) ∧ (~ q ) (b) ~ ( p ∧ q ) ≡ (~ p) ∨ (~ q )
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Mathematical Reasoning 341

(vi) Identity Laws
(a) p ∧ F ≡ F (b) p ∧ T ≡ p
(c) p ∨ T ≡ T (d) p ∨ F ≡ p
(vii) Complement Laws
(a) p ∨ (~ p) = T (b) p ∧ (~ p) ≡ F
(viii) Involution Laws
(a) ~ (~ p) ≡ p ~ T ≡ F (b) ~ (~ P ) ≡ P

(i) (a) If p is false, then ~ p is true. (b) If p is true, then~ p is false.
(ii) The number of rows in truth table is depend on the number of statements.
(iii) (a) The converse of p ⇒ q is q ⇒ p. (b) The inverse of p ⇒ q is ~ p ⇒ ~ q.
(iv) The contrapositive of p ⇒ q is ~ q ⇒ ~ p.
(v) A statement which is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is a
contingency.
Quantifiers
Quantifiers are phrases like, ‘‘There exists’’ and ‘‘For all’’
(i) The symbol ‘∀’ stands ‘for all values of ’.
This is known as universal quantifier.
(ii) The symbol ‘∃’ stands for ‘there exists’.
This is known as existential quantifier.
Quantified Statement
An open statement with a quantifier becomes a quantified statement.
e.g. x 4 > 0, ∀x ∈ R is a quantified statemet. Its truth value is T.
Negation of a Quantified Statement

(i) ~ { p ( x ) is true, ∀ x ∈ A} = { ∃ x ∈ A such that (s.t.) ~ p ( x ) is true}
(ii) ~ { ∃ x ∈ A : p ( x ) is true} = {~ p ( x ) is true, ∀ x ∈ A}
Validity of Statements
Validity of a statement means checking whether the statement is valid
(true) or not. This depends upon which of the connectives and
quantifiers used in the statement.
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1. Validity of Statement with ‘AND’

If p and q are two mathematical statements, then in order to show
that the statement ‘ p ^ q’ is true, the steps are as follow
Step I Show that the statement p is true.
Step II Show that the statement q is true.
2. Validity of Statements with ‘OR’

that the compound statement ‘ p or q ’ is true, one must consider the
following.
Case I Assume that p is false, show that q must be true.
Or
Case II Assume that q is false, show that p must be true.
3. Validity of Statements with ‘If-then’

that the compound statement, ‘if p then q’ is true, one must consider
the following.
Case I Assume that pis true, show that q must be true (direct method).
CaseII Assume that q is false, show that p must be false
(contrapositive method).
4. Validity of the Statement with ‘If and only if ’

In order to prove that of the statement ‘ p if and only if q ’ is true, the
steps are as follow
Step I Show that, if p is true, then q is true.
Step II Show that, if q is true, then p is true.
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Linear Programming Problem (LPP) 343
32
Linear Programming
Problem (LPP)
Linear programming problem is one that is concerned with finding the
maximum or minimum value of a linear function of several variables,
subject to conditions that the variables are non-negative and satisfy a
set of linear inequalities.
Note: Variables are sometimes called decision variables.
Objective Function
The linear function which is to be optimised (maximised/minimised) is
called an objective function.
Constraints
The system of linear inequations under which the objective function is
to be optimised is called constraints.
Non-negative Restrictions
All the variables considered for making decisions assume non-negative
values.
Optimal Value
The maximum or minimum value of an objective function is known as
the optimal value of LPP.
Mathematical Description of a General Linear

Programming Problem
A general LPP can be stated as (Max/Min)
Z = c1x1 + c2x2 + ... + cn xn (Objective function) subject to constraints
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 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn (≤ = ≥ )b1 

 a x + a x + ... + a x ( ≤ = ≥ )b 
 21 1 22 2 2n n 2
 
 ..................... .................... 
 ... .................. .................... 
am 1 x1 + am 2 x2 + ... + am n xn (≤ = ≥ ) bm and the non-negative restrictions
x1 , x2 ,..., xn ≥ 0 where all a11 , a12 ,..., amn ; b1 , b2 ,..., bm ; c1 , c2 ,..., cn
are constants and x1 , x2 ,..., xn are variables.
Some Basic Definitions

(i) Feasible Region The common region determined by all the
constraints including non-negative constraints is called the
feasible region (or solution region)
(ii) Feasible Solution of a LPP A set of values of the variables
x1 , x2 ,..., xn satisfying the constraints and non-negative
restrictions of a LPP is called a feasible solution of the LPP.
or Points within and on the boundary of the feasible region
represent feasible solutions of the constraints.
(iii) Optimal Solution of a LPP A feasible solution of a LPP is
said to be optimal (or optimum), if it also optimises the objective
function of the problem.
(iv) Extreme Point Theorem An optimum solution of a LPP, if it
exists, occurs at one of the extreme points (i.e. corner points) of
the feasible region.
Note If two corner points of the feasible region are optimal solutions of same
type, then any point on the line segment joining these two points is also an
optimal solution of the same type.
Solution of Simultaneous Linear Inequations

The solution set of a system of simultaneous linear inequations is the
region containing the points ( x , y ) which satisfy all the inequations of
the given system simultaneously.
To draw the graph of the simultaneous linear inequations, we find the
region of the xy-plane, common to all the portions comprising the
solution sets of the given inequations. If there is no region common to
all the solutions of the given inequations, we say that the solution set
of the system of inequations is empty.
Note The solution set of simultaneous linear inequations may be an empty set
or it may be the region bounded by the straight lines corresponding to given
linear inequations or it may be an unbounded region with straight line
boundaries.
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Linear Programming Problem (LPP) 345

Working Rule to Draw the Graph of an Inequation
(i) Consider the constraint ax + by ≤ c, where a 2 + b2 ≠ 0 and c > 0.
Firstly, draw the straight line ax + by = c. For this find two
convenient points satisyfying this equation and then join them.
This straight line divides the xy-plane in two parts. The
inequation ax + by ≤ c will represent that part of the xy-plane in
which the origin lies.
(ii) Again, consider the constraint ax + by ≥ c, where a 2 + b2 ≠ 0
and c > 0.
Draw the straight line ax + by = c by joining any two points on it.
This straight line divides the xy-plane in two parts. The
inequation ax + by ≥ c will represent that part of the xy-plane,
in which the origin does not lie.
Graphical Method of Solving a Linear

Programming Problem
This method of solving a LPP is based on the principle of extreme point
theorem, referred as corner point method.
The method comprises of the following steps
(i) Consider each constraints as an equation.
(ii) Plot the graph of each equation each of these will geometrically
represent a straight line.
(iii) Find the feasible region.
(iv) Determine the vertices (corner points) of the feasible region.
(v) Find the values of the objective function at each of the extreme
points.
(vi) (a) If region is bounded, then maximum (say M) or minimum
(say m) value out of these values obtained in point (v), is the
required maximum or minimum value of the objective
function.
(b) If region is unbounded, then maximum (say M) or minimum
(say m) value out of these values obtained in point (v) may
or may not be required maximum or minimum value of the
objective function. In this case, we go to next point.
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(vii) Suppose the given objective function is ax + by , then for

maximum value draw the graph of inequality ax + by > M and
for minimum value draw the graph of ax + by < m. If open half
plane obtained by these inequalities has no point in common
with the feasible region obtained in point (iv), then M or m is the
required maximum or minimum value. Otherwise, objective
function has no maximum or no minimum value.
Different Types of Linear Programming Problems

(i) Diet Problems In these types of problem, we have to find the
amount of different kinds of constituents/ nutrients which
should be included in a diet, so as to minimise the cost of the
desired diet.
(ii) Manufacturing Problems In these types of problem, we
have to find the number of units of different product which
should be produced and sold by a firm when each product
requires a fixed manpower, machine hours, etc in order to make
maximum profit.
(iii) Transportation Problems In these types of problem, we
have to determine a transportation schedule in order to find the
minimum cost of transporting a product from plants/factories
situated at different locations to different markets.
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33
Elementary
Arithmetic-I
Number System
Number A number tells us how many times a unit is contained in a
given quantity.
Numeral A group of figures (digits), representing a number, is
called a numeral.
Face Value and Place Value of the Digits

In a numeral, the face value of a digit is the value.
In a numeral, the place value of a digit changes according to the
change of its place.
e.g. In the numeral 576432, the face value of 6 is 6 and the place value
of 6 is 6000.
Types of Number System

(i) Binary Number System (Base-2) It represents numerical
values using two digits usually ‘0’ and ‘1’. This system is used
internally by computers and electronics.
For binary systems, as we move left to the decimal point number
gets 2 times bigger and as we move right to the decimal every
number gets 2 times smaller.
e.g. 1011101
. = 1 × 2 3 + 0 × 22 + 1 × 21 + 1 × 20 + 1 × 2−1
+ 0 × 2−2 + 1 × 2−3
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5
Binary number 0 1 10 11 100 101
(ii) Octal Number System (Base-8) It represents numerical

values using 8 digits from ‘0’ to ‘7’.
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As we move left to the decimal point number gets 8 times bigger

and as we move right to the decimal point number gets 8 times
smaller.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Octal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 10 11 12
(iii) Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16) Every numerical

value in this system is represented by decimal numbers 0 to 9
and letters ( A, B, C, D, E, F ) in place of number 10 to 15. As we
move left to decimal number gets 16 times bigger and as we
move right to the decimal numbers gets smaller by 16.
Decimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
number
(iv) Roman Number System Roman Numerals and their

corresponding Indo-Arabic numerals
Roman numerals I V X L C D M
Indo-Arabic numerals 1 5 10 50 100 500 1000
(v) Decimal Number System Numeric values are represented

by using digits from ‘0’ to ‘9’.
Classification of Numbers in
Decimal Number System
Real Number
Rational Number Irrational Number
Integer Non-Integer Rational Number
Positive Integer Negative Integer Whole Number Natural Number
Natural Numbers Numbers starting from 1, having no fraction

part, which we use in counting the objects, denoted by N.
N = { 1, 2, 3, K }
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Elementary Arithmetic-I 349

Whole Numbers The system of Natural numbers along with
number 0, is called whole number (W ).
W = { 0, 1, 2, 3, K }
Different Types of Natural Number

(i) Even Number A number, which is multiple of 2 is called an
even number.
(ii) Odd Number A number, which is not a multiple of 2 is called
an odd number.
(iii) Prime Number The number which can be divided only by
itself and 1 is called prime number.
e.g. 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ...
(iv) Composite Number The number which can be divided by a
number other than 1 and the number itself is called composite
number.
(v) Consecutive Number A series of numbers in which each
number is greater by 1 than the number which precedes it.
Method to Determine a Given Number is Prime or Not
Step I Find a new number larger than the approximate square
root of given number.
Step II Test whether the new number is divisible by any prime
number.
Step III If the new number is not divisible by any of the prime
number, then given number is a prime number otherwise
it is composite number.
Division on Numbers (Division Algorithm)

Let ‘a’ and ‘b’ be two integers such that b ≠ 0 on dividing ‘ a ’ by ‘ b’.
Let ‘ q ’ be the quotient and ‘ r ’ the remainder, then the relationship
between a, b, q and r is a = bq + r.
or in general, we have
Dividend = Divisor × Quotient + Remainder
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Test of Divisibility on a Natural Number

(i) Divisibility by 2 A number is divisible by 2, if digit on unit
place is 0, 2, 4, 6, 8.
(ii) Divisibility by 3 If the sum of the digits of a number is
divisible by 3, then the number is divisible by 3.
(iii) Divisibility by 4 If the last two digits of a number is divisible
by 4 or the last two digits are ‘00’, then the number is divisible
by 4.
(iv) Divisibility by 5 A given number is divisible by 5, if 0 or 5
comes at unit place.
(v) Divisibility by 6 If a given number is divisible by 2 and 3,
then it is divisible by 6.
(vi) Divisibility by 7
(a) If a number is formed by repeating a digit six times, the
number is divisible by 7, 11 and 13. e.g. 666666.
(b) If a number is formed by repeating a two-digit number three
times, the number is divisible by 7. e.g. 676767.
(c) If a number is formed by repeating a three-digit number two
times, the number is divisible by 7, 11 and 13. e.g. 453453.
(vii) Divisibility by 8 If the last 3 digits of a number is divisible
by 8 or the numbers ends with ‘000’, then it is divisible by 8.
(viii) Divisibility by 9 If the sum of the digits of a number is
divisible by 9, then the number is divisible by 9.
(ix) Divisibility by 10 If ‘0’ comes at unit place of a number, then
it is divisible by 10.
(x) Divisibility by 11 A given number is divisible by 11, if the
difference between the sum of the digits in odd places and the
sum of the digits in the even places is either 0 or a multiple by 11.
(xi) Divisibility by 12 If a given number is divisible by 4 and 3,
then it is divisible by 12.
(xii) Divisibility by 25 When the number formed by last two
digits is divisible by 25.
(xiii) Divisibility by 27 When the sum of the digit of the number is
divisible by 27.
(xiv) Divisibility by 125 When the number formed by last three
digits is divisible by 125.
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Important Results on Divisibility
1. If N is a composite number of the form a p ⋅ bq ⋅ cr ... , where a , b
and c are primes, then the number of divisors of N is given by
( p + 1) ( q + 1) (r + 1)... .
2. The sum of the divisors of N is given by
( a p + 1 − 1) ( bq + 1 − 1) ( cr + 1 − 1)
S= ⋅ ⋅
a−1 b−1 c−1
Important Results of Natural Numbers

n( n + 1)
(i) The sum of first n natural numbers =
2
n
n( n + 1)
i.e. ∑ r=
2
r =1
(ii) The sum of the squares of first n natural numbers

n
n( n + 1) ( 2n + 1)
∑r2 = 6
r =1
(iii) The sum of the cubes of first n natural numbers

2 2
n
 n( n + 1)  n 
∑ r3 =  2  =  ∑ r
r =1 r =1
(iv) The sum of first n odd numbers

(1 + 3 + 5 + 7 +K + upto n terms) = n 2
(v) The sum of first n even numbers
(2 + 4 + 6 + K + upto n terms) = n( n + 1)
(vi) The sum of the square of first n odd numbers
n
(12 + 32 + 52 + K + upto n terms) = ( 4n 2 − 1)
3
(vii) The sum of the square of first n even numbers
2n( n + 1)( 2n + 1)
(22 + 42 + 62 + K + upto n terms) =
3
(viii) The sum of n terms of the series
1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + K + (1 + 2 + 3 + K + n )
1
= n( n + 1)( n + 2)
6
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(i) The product of any n consecutive numbers is divisible by n!.
(ii) The product of any two consecutive odd or even numbers increased by 1
is a perfect square.
e.g. (i) 11 × 13 + 1 = 144 = 122 (ii) 12 × 14 + 1 = 169 = (13) 2
(iii) The difference between the squares of two consecutive numbers is equal
to the sum of those consecutive numbers.
152 − 142 = 15 + 14 = 29
Rule to Determine the Digit at Unit Place

Rule 1. For odd numbers When there is an odd digit at the unit
place of the base (except 5), multiplying the number itself until you get
1 in the unit place.
(K1)n = (K1) (K3)4n = (K1)
(K7) = (K1)
4n
(K9)2n = (K1)
Rule 2. For even numbers When there is an even digit at unit place
of the base, multiplying the number by itself until you get 6 in the unit
place.
(...2)4n = (...6) (K6)n = (K6)
(K4)2n = (K6) (K8)4n = (K6)
Rule 3. 1, 5, 6 at unit’s place. If there is 1, 5 or 6 at the unit place of
base, then any times of its multiplication, it will get the same digit in
unit place.
(... 1)n = (... 1)
(... 5)n = (... 5)
(... 6)n = (... 6)
Integers
Any number having sign ‘+’ ve or ‘–’ ve without having any fractional
part is called integer (including zero).
I or Z = {K ,− 3, − 2, − 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,K }

(i) If n is a natural number, then the number of integers between − n and n
is 2n − 1.
(ii) If n and m are natural numbers such that n < m, then numbers of integers
between n and m is m − n − 1.
(iii) If n and m are natural number, then number of integers between − n and
m is m + n − 1.
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Rational Numbers
p
A number which can be written in the form of , where p, q ∈ Z and
q
q ≠ 0, is called rational number. A rational number can be expressed as
decimal based, on which rational number are of two types :
(i) Terminating If the prime factors of denominator contains no
factor other than 2 and 5, it is terminating.
(ii) Non-terminating Recurring If the prime factors of
denominator contains factor other than 2 and 5, is
non-terminating recurring rational number.
Rational Number between Two Rational Numbers

If a and b are two distinct rational numbers such that a < b, then
n rational numbers between a and b, may be
b− a
ai = a + × i, where i = 1, 2, 3, K , n.
n +1
Irrational Number
An irrational number is a non-terminating, non-recurring decimal,
which cannot be written in the form of p / q, is called irrational number.

(i) The number x , x is not a perfect square, is an irrational number and
x + y is also irrational.
(ii) π is an irrational number.
(iii) 0 is not an irrational number.
(iv) Sum, difference, product and quotient of two irrational numbers may be
rational or irrational.
(v) Sum, difference, product and quotient of one rational and other irrational
number is always irrational.
(vi) If a and b are two distinct rational numbers, then for a < b, n irrational
numbers between a and b may be
b−a
ai = a + 2 × i, where i = 1, 2, 3,K , n.
2(n + 1)
Real Number
Any number, which is either rational or irrational is called real
number and it is denoted by the symbol R.
i.e. R = {Set of all rational and irrational numbers}
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Properties of Real Numbers

(i) Commutative property of addition
a+ b= b+ a
(ii) Commutative property of multiplication
a ⋅ b = b⋅ a
(iii) Associative property of addition
a + ( b + c) = ( a + b) + c
(iv) Associative property of multiplication
a ⋅ ( b ⋅ c) = ( a ⋅ b) ⋅ c
(v) Left distributive property
a ⋅ ( b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c
(vi) Right distributive property
( b + c) ⋅ a = b ⋅ a + c ⋅ a
(vii) Additive identity property
a+ 0= a
(viii) Multiplicative identity property
a ⋅1 = a
(ix) Additive inverse property
a + (− a) = 0
(x) Multiplicative inverse property
 1
a⋅  =1
 a
Note Here, a cannot be 0.
(xi) Zero property a ⋅ 0 = 0
Complex Numbers
If a and b are two real numbers, then the number ( a + ib) is called the
complex number and it is denoted by the symbol C.
i.e. C = { a + ib, a , b ∈ R }
Here, a is called real part and b is called imaginary part.
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Fraction
Fraction A fraction is a number representing ratio or division of two
natural numbers.
Types of Fractions
(i) Proper Fraction A fraction, having numerator smaller than
2 5 3
the denominator. e.g. , , .
3 8 7
(ii) Improper Fraction A fraction, having numerator greater
2 2 5 9
than or equal to denominator. e.g. , , , .
2 1 3 6
(iii) Like Fractions Fractions having same value in denominator.
2 6 11 7
e.g. , , , .
5 5 5 5
(iv) Unlike Fractions Fractions having different values in
2 2 2 2
denominator. e.g. , , , .
3 5 11 13
(v) Equivalent Fraction Fractions representing the same ratio
3 6 9 12
or numbers are called equivalent fraction. e.g. = = = .
5 10 15 20
(vi) Mixed Fraction It consists of two parts, an integer and a
1 1
fraction. e.g. 2 , 5 .
3 4
(vii) Decimal Fraction A fraction having 10 or power of 10 in the
5 2 61
denominator. e.g. , , .
100 10 1000
(viii) Vulgar/Common Fraction Fraction having denominator
7 5
other than 10 (or power of 10). e.g. , .
3 6
(ix) Complex Fraction A fraction, in which numerator and
7/ 3 2/ 7
denominator, both are fractions. e.g. , .
2/ 5 5/ 6
Comparison of Fractions
Fraction can be compared by any of the given method.
(i) LCM Method By taking LCM of all the denominators in the
given fraction, then comparing their numerators by making
their denominators equal.
(ii) Decimal Method By converting fractional numbers into their
corresponding decimal numbers, which can be easily compared.
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a
(iii) Cross-multiplication Method If we have two fractions
b
c
and , then cross-multiply the fraction. i.e. we get ad and bc.
d
The fraction, whose numerator after cross-multiplication gives
the greater value is greater.
a c
i.e. If ad > bc, then > .
b d
Ascending/Descending Orders in Fraction

Rule 1. When numerator and denominator of the fractions increase
by a constant value, then the last fraction is the greatest fraction.
x x + a x + 2a x + na
i.e. , , ,K , .
y y + b y + 2b y + nb
x + na
Then, is greatest, if a ≥ b.
y + nb
Rule 2. In above case, consider a , then is greatest.
b y y + nb
a x x + na
(ii) If < , then is smallest.
b y y + nb
a x
(iii) If = , all values are equal.
b y
Rule 3. For arranging fractions in ascending/descending order
Step I Compare first two numbers.
Step II Compare the third number with the one obtained in Step I
(larger/smaller depending upon ascending/descending
order).
Step III Repeat Step II until the last term.
Power and Index

If a number a is multiplied by itself n times, then product is called nth
power of a and is written as a n . In a n , a is called the base and n is the
index.
(i) If a is a rational number and m is a positive integer, then
a m = a × a × K × a( m times) or a m = a × a × a × K × a
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(ii) If a is a non-zero rational number and m is a positive integer,
then
a − m = a −1 × a −1 × a −1 × ... × a −1( m times)
m
1 1 1  1
= × × K × (m times) =  
a a a  a
(iii) If a and b are non-zero rational numbers and m is a positive
integer such that a m = b, then we may write b1/ m = a.
b1/ m may also be written as m b (mth root of b).
(iv) Let a be a non-zero rational number and p/ q be a positive
rational number, then a p/ q may be defined as
a p/ q = ( a p )1/ q read as ‘qth root of the pth power of a’.
q
or a p/ q = ( a1/ q ) p = ( a ) p read as ‘ pth power of qth root of a’.
(v) If a is a non-zero rational number, then for positive rational
exponent p / q, then number a − p/ q may be defined as
p/ q
1  1
a− p/ q
= =   . We say a − p/ q is reciprocal of a p/ q on
a p/q  a
( p / q )th power of the reciprocal of a.
(vi) Laws of Exponents If a and b are positive rational numbers
and m and n are rational exponents (positive or negative), then
Rule 1. a m × a n = a m + n Rule 2. a m ÷ a n = a m − n
Rule 3. ( a m )n = a m × n Rule 4. a m bm = ( a ⋅ b)m
Rule 5. a 0 = 1 Rule 6. ( a / b)m = a m / bm
Rule 7. a − m = 1 / a m Rule 8. ( a / b)− m = ( b / a )m
(vii) Exponential Radical Forms If y is a positive rational
number and q is a positive integer, then y1/ q = x, or x = q y
denotes the positive real qth root of y.
(a) The form y1/ q is called exponential form. The number y is
called the base and 1 / q is called its exponent.
(b) The form q y is called the radical form. The number q is
called the index of the radical and y is called the radicand.
The index of the radical is always taken positive.
Note (i) A number written in exponential form can also be expressed in radical
form and vice-versa.
(ii) If a number expressed in exponential form has a negative exponent,
then first the exponent must be changed to positive by taking the
reciprocal of the base.
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Surds
Irrational root of a rational number is called a surd.
If n is a positive integer and a is a positive rational number, which
cannot be expressed as the nth power of some rational number, then
the irrational number, n a or a1/ n that is the positive nth root of a, is
called surd or a radical. The symbol n is called the radical sign, n
is called the order of the surd (or radical) and a is called the
3
radicand. Hence, 2 is not a surd as 2 is not a rational number.
However, 7 is a surd as 7 is a rational number and square root of 7 is
not a rational number.
64 is not a surd as though 64 is a rational number but 64 = 8, which
is not an irrational number.
∴ 6
12 is a surd of order 6.
Properties of Surds
1. Every surd is a real number. However, every real number is not
a surd.
2. A surd of order 2 is called a quadratic surd or square root. Hence,
4
7 , 25 , are quadratic surds.
7
3. A surd of order 3 is called a cubic surd or cubic root. Hence,
3
2 , 33 5 , 3 2 / 5 are cubic surds.
4. A surd of order 4 is called a biquadratic surd.
7
Hence, 4 5 , 2 4 7 , 4 4
are biquadratic surds.
5
5. A surd containing only one term is called a monomial surd.
Hence, − 2 3 5 , 34 7 are monomial surds.
6. If n a is surd, then ( n a )n = a.
7. If n a and n b are surds, then n a × n
b= n
ab
n
a a
8. If n a and n b are surds, then =n n
b b
n
9. If a is a surd and m is a positive integer, then
m n
a = n m
a = mn
a.
n n mn
10. If p
a is a surd and m is a positive integer, then ap = a pm
(index of the radical and the exponent of the radical are
multiplied by same positive integer m).
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11. A surd which has a rational factor other than unity, the other
factor being irrational is called a mixed surd.
2
Thus, 2 3 , 7 3 2 , 4 7 are mixed surds.
3
12. A surd which has unity as its rational factor, the other factor
being rational, is called a pure surd.
Thus, 10 , 3 4 , 5 7 are pure surds.
13. Two surds of same order can be compared by just comparing
their radicands. If n a and n b are surds, then n a > n b, if a > b
and n a < n
b, if a < b.
14. If two surds are not of same order, then to compare them they
must first be reduced to same order.
Let n a and m b are surds such that m ≠ n.
Let LCM of m and n be p. Then, to compare them both must be
reduced to pth order.
15. Surds having same irrational factor are called similar or like
surds.
4 1
Thus, 3 2 , 2, − 2 2, − 2 are similar surds (each has same
3 3
irrational factor of 2).
16. Only like surds can be added or subtracted. If x n a and y n a are
surds, then x n a + y n a = (x + y) n a
and x n a − y n a = (x − y) n a.
17. Product of a surd with a rational number is again a surd.
n
18. If p and q are rational numbers and a is a surd, then
p × ( q n a ) = pq n a .
19. Surds of same order can be multiplied as follows
n
a×nb= n a × b (radicands get multiplied and order remains
same).
Also, p n a × q n
b = p× q n
a × b (rational factor of first gets
multiplied by rational factor of second. Radicand of first gets
multiplied by radicand of second. Order remains same).
20. If n a is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest rationalising
a n −1 .
n
factor is
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n
21. If a p is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest rationalising
an − p.
n
factor is
n
22. If a pbq is a surd in simplest form, then its simplest
a n − pbn − q .
n
rationalising factor is
23. A surd containing only two distinct terms is called a binomial
surd. Hence, 2 + 3 , 2 3 + 3 2 , 7 + 3 are binomial surds.
24. Two binomial surds are said to be conjugates of each other, if
they differ only in sign (+ or –) connecting them.
Thus, 2 2 + 3 3 and 2 2 − 3 3 are conjugates of each other.
25. Rationalising factor of a binomial surd is its conjugate.
e.g. Rationalising factor of a b + c d is a b − c d .
26. Surds containing three distinct terms is called a trinomial
surd. Hence, 7 + 2 + 3 3 , 7 − 2 + 3 are trinomial surds.
Some Useful Results

(i) ( a ) = a
2
(ii) ( a b )2 = a × a × b
1 a 1 a− b
(iii) = (iv) =
a a a+ b a −b
1 a+ b a + b a + b + 2 ab
(v) = (vi) =
a− b a −b a− b a −b
a − b a + b − 2 ab a+ b a − b 2( a + b)
(vii) = (viii) + =
a+ b a −b a− b a+ b a −b
General Formulae Used for Solving Product

(i) ( x ± y )2 = x 2 ± 2xy + y 2
(ii) ( x + y )( x − y ) = x 2 − y 2
(iii) ( x + y )3 = x3 + 3x 2 y + 3xy 2 + y3
(iv) ( x − y )3 = x3 − y3 − 3xy ( x − y ) = x3 − y3 + 3xy 2 − 3x 2 y
(v) ( x + y + z )2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2 yz + 2xz
(vi) x3 + y3 = ( x + y )( x 2 + y 2 − xy )
(vii) x3 − y3 = ( x − y )3 + 3xy ( x − y ) = ( x − y )( x 2 + y 2 + xy )
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(viii) ( x + a )( x + b) = x 2 + ( a + b)x + ab
(ix) ( x3 + y3 + z3 − 3xyz ) = ( x + y + z ) ( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx )
If x + y + z = 0 ⇔ x3 + y3 + z3 = 3xyz
(x) x 4 + x 2 y 2 + y 4 = ( x 2 + xy + y 2 )( x 2 − xy + y 2 )
(xi) x3 + y3 + z3 = ( x + y + z )3 − 3( x + y )( y + z )( x + z )
(xii) ( x + y )( y + z )( z + x ) = ( x + y + z )( xy + yz + zx ) − xyz
(xiii) ( x − y )2 + ( y − z )2 + ( z − x )2 = 2( x 2 + y 2 + z 2 − xy − yz − zx )
(xiv) a + b = ( a − b)2 + 4ab
(xv) a − b = ( a + b)2 − 4ab
HCF and LCM

Factor and Multiple
Factor A number which can divide a given number exactly, is called
a factor of that number.
Multiple A number which is divisible by a given number, is called
multiple of that number.
HCF (Highest Common Factor)

HCF of two or more numbers is the greatest number, which divides all
the given numbers exactly.
1. Prime Factorization Method

Break the given numbers into their prime factor, the product of the
prime factors, common to all numbers gives the HCF.
2. Division Method
Step I Divide the larger number by smaller number.
Step II Take remainder (as obtained in Step I) as divisor and the
last divisor as the dividend.
Step III Repeat Step II until 0 is obtained as remainder. The last
divisor will be the required HCF.
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1. HCF of More than Two Numbers

First, find the HCF of first two numbers by any of the two methods.
Next, find HCF of the third number and previously found HCF.
Similarly, it can be done for any number of numbers.
2. HCF of Decimals
Step I First make the same number of decimal places in all the
given numbers.
Step II Remove the decimals as if they are integers, thus obtain
the HCF of obtained integers.
Step III Place as many decimal places in the obtained HCF as
there are decimal places in each of the numbers.
3. HCF of Fractions
HCF of fractions, after expressing them in their lowest form
HCF of numerator
=
LCM of denominator
LCM (Least Common Multiple)

The least number which is exactly divisible by two or more given
numbers is called LCM of those numbers.
Factorization Method to Find LCM

Step I Find prime factors of each of the given number.
Step II Find the product of all the prime factors which appears
greatest number of times in the prime factorization of any
given numbers. The product is the required LCM.
1. LCM of Decimals
Step I Make the same number of decimal places in all the given
numbers.
Step II Remove the decimal and consider the numbers as integer.
Step III Find LCM of obtained integers.
Step IV Mark as many decimal places as there are decimal places
in each of the number.
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2. LCM of Fractions
LCM of the fraction numbers, after expressing them in their lowest
LCM of numerator
form = .
HCF of denominator

(i) For two numbers a and b, HCF × LCM = a × b.
a ×b × c
(ii) For three numbers a, b, c; LCM = .
(HCF)2
(iii) For n numbers a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 ,... , an
a × a × a × K × an
LCM = 1 2 3 n − 1 .
(HCF)
(iv) If x is a factor of y, then HCF = x and LCM = y
(v) To obtain the greatest number that divide x , y and z leaving remainders
p, q and r, we will find the HCF of ( x − p), ( y − q) and ( z − r).
(vi) To obtain the lowest number, which when divided by x , y and z leaving
remainder p , q and r respectively, then
( x − p) = ( y − q) = ( z − r) = k (say).
Required number = (LCM of x , y and z) − k
Simplification
In mathematical expression, which consists of several operations.
Then, operations should be performed in the order of each of the letter
of ‘BODMAS’.
B → Brackets ( ), { }, [ ]
O → Of of
D → Division ÷
M → Multiplication ×
A → Addition +
S → Subtraction −
Note Brackets must be removed in the order of ( ) , { } and [ ].
Quicker Methods
(i) For addition/subtraction of mixed fraction.
Step I Add/subtract integer part only.
Step II Add/subtract fraction part only.
Step III Add both the results.
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(ii) For subtraction of a whole number and fraction.

Step I Subtract 1 from the whole number.
Step II In the fraction number, subtract numerator from the
denominator and write in numerator.
Step III Add both the results.
23
e.g.Consider mixed fraction 6 −
25
Step I 6 − 1 = 5
25 − 23 2
Step II =
25 25
2 2
Step III 5 + =5
25 25
Average
Average is the ratio of the sum of the distributed data among different
objects divided by number of data.
Sum of data
i.e. Average =
Number of data
and Sum of data = Average × Number of data
Combined Average
(i) If x and y is the average of objects m and n respectively, then the
mx + ny
combined average of the data =
m+n
(ii) If x , y and z are the average of objects m, n and p respectively,
then combined average of the data
mx + ny + pz
=
m+n+ p
Important Results on Average

(i) When the same value x is added to each element of the data,
then new average = original average + x
(ii) When the same value x is subtracted from each element of the
data, then new average = original average − x
(iii) When the same value x is multiplied to each element of data,
then new average = original average × x
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(iv) When one element, x is removed from the data, then
Sum of data − x
New average =
Number of elements − 1
(v) When one element x is added to the data, then
Sum of data + x
New average =
Number of elements + 1
(vi) When one of the data is wrongly taken, then
New average
Number of data × Incorrect average − Incorrect value
 
 + Correct value
=
Number of data
(vii) When more than one value is wrongly taken,
Correct average
Number of data × Incorrect average − Sum of incorrect data
 
 + Sum of correct data 
=
Number of data
n +1
(viii) The average of first n natural numbers =
2
(ix) If a person travels half of the distance at x km/h and rest of the
distance at y km/h, then average speed during whole journey
2xy
=
x+ y
(x) If the average age of m boys is x and the average age of n boys out
of them is y, then the average age of the rest of the boys is
mx − ny
.
m−n
Ratio and Proportion

Ratio
Ratio is the relation between one quantity and another quantity, given
that both quantity must be of the same kind and same unit, denoted by
x : y , read as ‘x ’ is to ‘y’
where, x is called antecedent and y is called consequent.
Note If antecedent and consequent of a ratio is multiplied/divided by the same
number, then ratio remains same.
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Compositions of Ratios
(i) Compound Ratio Ratio obtained by multiplying together the
antecedents of different ratios to get a new antecedent and
consequents to get a new consequents is called compound ratio.
i.e., for a : b, c : d , e : f , compound ratio = ace : bdf
(ii) Duplicate Ratio For x : y , duplicate ratio = x 2 : y 2
(iii) Triplicate Ratio For x : y , triplicate ratio = x3 : y3
(iv) Subduplicate Ratio For x : y, subduplicate ratio = x : y
(v) Subtriplicate Ratio For x : y, subtriplicate ratio = x1/ 3 : y1/ 3
(vi) Inverse Ratio/Reciprocal Ratio
For x : y, inverse ratio = y : x
Types of Ratios
For a ratio x : y,
(i) if x = y, then ratio is of equality.
(ii) if x > y , then ratio is of greater inequality.
(iii) if x < y , then ratio is of lesser inequality.

(i) If ratio between first and second quantity is a : b and the ratio
between second and third quantity is c : d, then ratio among
first, second and third quantity is
ac : bc : bd
(ii) If the ratio between first and second quantity is a : b, ratio
between second and third quantity is c : d and the ratio between
third and fourth quantity is e : f , then ratio among first, second,
third and fourth quantity is
ace : bce : bde : bdf
(iii) To divide n things between two objects in the ratio x : y : z, then
x y
First object share = × n; Second object share = ×n
x+ y x+ y
Proportion
When the ratio of two quantities is same as the ratio of two other
quantities, then these quantities are said to be in proportion. i.e.
If a : b = c : d, then a, b, c and d are in proportions, where a and d are
called extremes and b and c are called means. And a : b = c : d is
denoted by a : b :: c : d or ad = bc ⇒ Product of means = Product of
extremes
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1. Continued Proportion
(i) Quantities a , b and c are called continued proportion, if
a b
a : b = b : c i.e. = .
b c
‘b’ is called mean proportional of a and c and b = ac
b2
and c is called third proportional of a and b and c =
a
(ii) Quantities a , b, c, d and e are called in continued proportion, if
a b c d
a : b = b : c = c : d = d : e i.e. = = = .
b c d e
2. Direct Proportion
Two quantities are said to be in direct proportion, if by increasing or
decreasing one of the quantities, the other increases or decreases,
respectively to the same extent.
3. Indirect Proportion
Two quantities are said to be in indirect proportion, if by increasing or
decreasing one of the quantities, the other decreases or increases,
respectively to the same extent.

(i) Invertendo If a : b :: c : d, then b : a : : d : c
(ii) Alternendo If a : b : : c : d, then a : c : : b : d
(iii) Componendo If a : b : : c : d, then ( a + b) : b :: ( c + d ) : d
(iv) Dividendo If a : b : : c : d, then ( a − b) : b :: ( c − d ) : d
(v) Componendo and Dividendo If a : b : : c : d, then
( a + b) : ( a − b) : : ( c + d ) : ( c − d )
a c e
(vi) If = = = K , then each ratio is equal to
b d f
a + c + e +K pa + qc + re + K
(a) (b)
b + d + f +K pb + qd + rf + K
1/ n
 pa n + qcn + ren + K 
(c)  n 
 pb + qd + rf + K
n n
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34
Elementary
Arithmetic-II
Time and Work
Each person has different capabilities to do any work. If a person has
lot of capability to do a work, then he takes less time to do that work
and if a person has less capability to do a work, then he takes more
time to do that work.
∴ A person take a time to do any work
1
∝
Capability of person to do that work
Important Points Related to Work are

(i) Work is considered as whole or 1.
(ii) Time and work are always indirectly proportional.
(iii) Men and work are directly proportional to each other.
(iv) Men and time are inversely proportional to each other.
(v) Ratio between the wages is equally divided between the work
done in a day by men.
(vi) It is assumed that the person works at uniform rate until and
unless specified.
(vii) Unit of time is either days or hours.
Fundamental Formula
If M1 person can do W1 works in D1 days and M 2 persons can do W 2
work in D2 days, when M1 works T1 hour with efficiency of E1 and M 2
works T2 hour with efficiency of E2, then
M1D1T1E1W 2 = M 2D2T2E2W1
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Elementary Arithmetic-II 369

Let X , Y and Z are persons who are assigned a particular job. Working
alone ‘ X ’ completes the job in ‘ x ’ days / hours, ‘ Y ’ completes the job in
‘ y ’ days/hours and ‘ Z ’ completes the job in ‘z’ days / hours, then
1
(i) One day’s/hour’s work done by X = .Similarly, one day’s/hour’s
x
1 1
work done by ‘ Y ’ and ‘ Z ’ be and , respectively.
y z
n n n
(ii) In n days/hours, work completed by x , y and z are , and .
x y z
(iii) If X and Y are working together, then work completed in one
1 1 x+ y
day/hour by them = + =
x y xy
or Number of days to complete the work by X and Y together
xy
=
x+ y
(iv) Similarly, if X , Y and Z are working together, then work
xy + yz + zx
completed in one day/hour =
xyz
xyz
or Number of days to complete the work =
xy + yz + zx
(v) If X and Y are working together and complete the work in m
days, X can complete the work in x days working alone, then
xm
number of days to complete by Y, Y =
x−m
(vi) If X and Y are working together and complete the job in m days.
If X takes a days more than m and Y takes b days more than m,
completing the job alone, then m 2 = ab
(vii) If A completes p / q part of the work in a days, then time taken by
him to complete the remaining part of the work
a  p
= 1 −  .
p/ q  q
(viii) If m men can do 1/n of a work in a days, then the number of men
nma
p required to complete the work in b days, is p = .
b
(ix) If X men or Y women can do a piece of work in a days, then m
1
men or n women can do the same work in .
m n
+
X ×a Y ×a
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Speed, Time and Distance

Distance Length of the path covered by an object.
Speed Distance travelled by an object in unit time,
Distance
i.e. Speed =
Time
or Distance = Time × Speed
Average Speed Ratio of the total distance and the total time taken
by the object to cover that distance,
Total distance covered
i.e. Average speed =
Total time taken
l If the speed of a body is changed in the ratio a : b, then ratio of the
time taken to cover the same distance is b : a.
l Conversion of speed
5 18
1 km/h = m/s, 1 m/s = km/h
18 5
(i) If an object covers a distance of x km/h and he covers the same
distance at y km/h, then average speed during whole of the
2xy
journey = and if the total time taken for the complete
x+ y
2× t× x× y
journey is t, then distance covered by an object =
x+ y
(ii) If an object starts from point P and goes to Q at a speed of x km/h
in time t1 and returns to P from Q in time t2 at the speed y km/h,
xy
then distance between P and Q = ( t1 + t2 )
x+ y
(iii) If an object starts at a point (say P) at a speed x km/h at
particular time (say p am) and another object starts at the same
point with speed y km/h at time (say q am), then
Meeting point’s distance from starting point
x × y × Difference in starting time x × y ×|q − p|
= =
Difference of speed |x − y|
Now, suppose first object reaches its destiny (say Q) at time
p1 am/pm and second object reaches Q at q1 am/pm, then first
and second object will meet at
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= First’s starting time
(Time taken by I) (II reaching time − I reaching time)
+
Sum of time taken by I and II
( p1 − p)( q1 − p1 )
= p+
( p1 − p)( q1 − q )
(iv) If two objects X and Y, starts from point P at speed x and y
respectively ( y > x ), Y reaches at point Q and returns and meet X
at point say R, then
 x 
Distance travelled by X = 2 × d ×  
 x + y
 y 
and distance travelled by Y = 2 × d ×  
 x + y
where, d = Distance between P and Q.
(v) If P and Q are two points on a straight line, an object A starts from P
and reaches at Q in time t1 and object B starts from Q and reaches
at P in time t2, then
Speed of A : Speed of B = t2 : t1
Problems Based on Trains

(i) When two trains are moving with velocities x and y km/h
respectively, then relative speed will be
(a) ( x − y ) km/h, if they are moving in same direction.
(b) ( x + y ) km/h, if they are moving in opposite direction.
(ii) When a train passes a platform, then to calculate time to pass
the platform, we should consider distance as the sum of length of
train and the length of the platform.
(i) Suppose a train A of length l1 and train B of length l2, are moving
at speed of x km/h and y km/h respectively, then
(a) If lengths l1 and l2 are negligible, then time take to cross each
other is negligible.
l + l2
(b) If B is stationary, then time taken by A to cross B = 1
x
(c) If A and B are moving in same direction, then time taken to
cross each other is given by
l1 + l2
|x − y|
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(d) If A and B are moving in opposite direction, then time taken

to cross each other is given by
l1 + l2
x+ y
(e) Time taken by train A to cross a telegraph post or a
stationary man is given by
l1
x
(f) Time taken by train A to cross a bridge/railway station of
length l is given by
l1 + l
x
(g) Time taken by train A to cross a walking man (walking at
speed z km/h), is given by
l1
, if man is walking in same direction.
x−z
l1
and , if man is walking in opposite direction.
x+z
(ii) Suppose, two trains A and B starting from P and Q, with speed x
and y respectively, meet at a point R. Between P and Q,
difference of the distances travelled by A and B be d km, then
x+ y
distance between P and Q = d × .
|x − y|
(iii) If a train passes a man/pole, standing on the platform in t1 time
and passes the platform in t2 time, then
d
Length of train = × t1
|t1 − t2|
where, d = Length of the platform
(iv) Suppose, there are two trains A and B are of length l1 and l2
respectively, if time taken by them to cross each other be t1,
when moving in same direction and t2 when moving in opposite
direction, then
 l + l2   1 1 
Speed of faster train =  1  + 
 2   t1 t2 
 l + l2   1 1 
and speed of slower train =  1   − 
 2   t1 t2 
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(v) If a train overtakes two objects a and b moving with speed x and
y km/h, respectively and time taken by train to cross a and b be
t1 and t2 respectively, then
( x − y ) × t1 × t2
Length of the train =
t1 − t2
(vi) If two trains A and B are moving from P to Q and Q to P

respectively and after meeting at point R, time taken by them to
complete the journey be t1 and t2 respectively, then
t1
Speed of train B = Speed of train A ×
t2
t2
and speed of train A = speed of train B × .
t1
Boats and Streams

Still Water When the speed of the water in the stream or river is ‘0’,
it is called still water. It has no impact on boat or swimmer.
Moving Water If the water in the river or stream is flowing, it is
called moving water. It affects the speed of the boat/swimmer.
Downstream When the boat/swimmer moves in the direction of
stream/river, it is called downstream.
Upstream When the boat /swimmer moves against stream/river, it
is called upstream.
Let the speed of the boat/river in still water is x km/h and speed of
water in stream is y km/h, then
(i) (a) Speed in downstream = ( x + y ) km/h
Speed in upstream = ( x − y ) km/h
(b) Speed in downstream > speed in still water
and speed in upstream < speed in still water.
1
(ii) x = (Speed in upstream + Speed in downstream)
2
1
and y = (Speed in downstream − Speed in upstream)
2
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(iii) When the downstream distance is equal to upstream distance,

then
( x + y )( x − y )
(a) Average speed during whole journey =
x
x×d
(b) Time taken to cover the whole journey =
( x − y )( x + y )
where, d is the total distance.
t( x + y )( x − y )
(c) The distance between the two places =
2x
where, t = time taken to cover the whole journey
(iv) If the boat/swimmer cover a distance in t1 time and returns the
same distance in t2 time, then
y( t1 + t2 ) x( t2 − t1 )
x= and y = ,
( t2 − t1 ) ( t1 + t2 )
where, x = Speed of boat/river in still water
and y = Speed of flowing water.
Pipes and Cisterns

Cistern A vessal, which is used to store water, is called cistern, it is
connected by two pipes.
Inlet A pipe connected to cistern, which is used to fill the cistern is
called inlet.
Outlet A pipe connected to cistern, which is used to empty the
cistern, is called outlet.
Leak A hole in the cistern, through which water flows out of the
cistern.
(i) Suppose three pipes A, B and C takes a , b and c time
respectively to fill/empty the cistern, then
1
(a) The part of the cistern filled/emptied by pipe A in 1 h = ,
a
similar for pipe B and C.
n
(b) Part of the cistern, filled/emptied by pipe A in n hour = ,
a
similar for pipe B and C.
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(c) If pipe A and B both are working as inlet pipe, then part of
1 1 a+b
the cistern, filled by A and B, both in 1 h = + =
a b ab
(d) If pipes A, B and C are all working as inlet, then part of the
1 1 1 ab + bc + ca
cistern, filled by A, B and C in 1 h = + + =
a b c abc
abc
or the time taken to fill the cistern completely =
ab + bc + ca
(e) If the cistern is full and pipe A and B working as an outlet,
1 1 a+b
the part of the cistern emptied in 1 h = + =
a b ab
ab
or the time taken to empty the cistern =
a+b
(f) If the cistern is full and pipes A, B and C working together as
an outlet, then the part of the cistern emptied in 1 h
1 1 1 ab + bc + ca
= + + =
a b c abc
abc
or the time taken to empty the cistern =
ab + bc + ca
(g) If pipe A is working as inlet and B as outlet, then the part of
the cistern filled (if b > a ) when both are opened
1 1 b− a ab
= − = or the time taken to fill the tank =
a b ab b− a
(h) If the cistern is empty and pipes A and B are working as inlet
and C as outlet, then part of the cistern filled in 1 h
1 1 1 bc + ca − ab
= + − =
a b c abc
abc
or time taken to fill the tank =
bc + ca − ab
(ii) If only pipe A is working as inlet, which fills it in time a and
because of a leak in the cistern, takes x units of time more to fill
the cistern. Now, if the cistern is fall, then the time taken to
 a
empty the cistern due to leak is given by a 1 +  .
 x
(iii) If A and B are working together to fill the tank, takes x units of
time. When A works alone takes y units of time more than x and
when B works alone takes z units of time more than x , then
x 2 = yz
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Clock
Clocks consists of two arms, longer arm which shows minute is called
minute hand and shorter arm which shows hour is called hour hand.
Dial
Dial of a clock is a circle, whose circumference is divided into 12 equal
parts called ‘hour space’. Each hour space is further divided into
5 parts, called ‘minute space’.

(i) The minute hand is 12 times faster than hour hand.
(ii) In an hour, the minute hand covers 60 min spaces, while hour
hand covers 5 min spaces. So, in an hour, the minute hand gains
55 min space.
55
(iii) Minutes space gained by minute hand in 1 min = .
60
(iv) In 1 h, minute hand covers 360°, so in one minute it covers 6°.
360°
(v) In 1 h, hour hand covers = 30°, so in one minute, hour hand
12
 1
covers (1/2)°. So, in 1 min, the minute hand gains  5  °.
 2
(vi) In 1 h, both the hands coincide once, but in 12 h, they coincide 11
times.
(vii) Two hands are at right angle, when they are 15 min space apart,
this happens two times in an hour, but 22 times in 12 h.
(viii) Two hands are in opposite direction when they are 30 min space
apart, this happens one time in an hour and 11 times in 12 h.
(ix) If both hands start together from the same position, both will
5
coincide after 65 min.
11
(x) Slow Clock A clock in which both hands coincide at an
5
interval more than 65 min, is called slow clock.
11
(xi) Fast Clock A clock in which both hands coincide at an interval
5
less than 65 min, is called fast clock.
11
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(xii) Angle between the hour hand and minute hand at time xx : yy, is
given by
(a) If hour hand is behind minute hand, then angle
 
− xx × 30 °
11
=  yy ×
 2 
(b) If minute hand is behind hour hand, then angle
 11
=  xx × 30 − yy ×  °
 2
(xiii) If hour hand and minute hand coincide at xx : yy , then
60
yy = × xx
11
(xiv) Between x and ( x + 1) O’clock, the two hands will coincide at
 60
5 × x ×   min past x.
 55
 5
 x − 65 
(xv) For a slow clock, total time lost in n hours = n × 60  11  min
 x 
 
where, x is the time in which the hands of slow clock coincide.
(xvi) For a past clock, total time gained in n hours
 5 
 65 − x
= n × 60  11  min where, x is the time in which the hands
 x 
 
of the fast clock coincide.
Calendar
Calendar is a measure of time having day as the smallest unit.
Ordinary Year A year having 365 days, is called ordinary year.
Leap Year A year having 366 days, is called leap year.
Odd Days Number of days more than the complete numbers of weeks
in a given period is called odd days.
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Important Points Related to Calendar

(i) Every year, except a centurial year is leap year, if it is divisible
by 4.
(ii) Every 4th century is a leap year. A centurial year is a leap year,
if it is divisible by 400.
(iii) An ordinary year have only one odd day.
(iv) A leap year have only two odd days.
(v) 100 yr = 76 ordinary years + 24 leap years
(vi) 100 yr i.e. 1 century contains
76 + 24 × 2 = 76 + 48 odd days
= 124 odd days
= 17 weeks + 5 odd days
So, 100 yr have 5 odd days.
(vii) 200 yr contain 5 × 2 odd days = 1 week + 3 odd days
So, 200 yr contain 3 odd days.
Similarly, 300 yr contain 1 odd day
400 yr contain 5 × 4 + 1 odd day = 21 odd days = 3 week
i.e. 400 yr contain no odd days
(viii) Last day of a century can not be either Tuesday, Thursday or
Saturday.
(ix) The first day of a century must be either Monday, Tuesday,
Thursday or Saturday.
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35
Elementary
Arithmetic III
Percentage
The word ‘per cent’, means ‘per hundred’ or ‘out of hundred’, symbol %
is used to express percentage.
1. To convert a fraction into percentage, multiply the fraction by
100.
x x 
If fraction = , then its percentage =  × 100 %.
y y 
2. Percentage can be converted into fraction, by dividing the
percentage by 100.
If percentage is a%, then its fraction will be a/100.
3. To convert decimal into percentage, multiply it by 100.
4. To convert percentage into decimal, divide it by 100.
5. x% of y = y % of x

x 
1. To express x as a percentage of y percentage =  × 100 %
y 
y
2. If x% of a number is y, then the number is × 100.
x
3. If a quantity is increased, then
 increase in quantity 
Percentage increases = ( x %) =  × 100 %
 original quantity 
 100 + x 
and new quantity =   × original quantity.
 100 
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4. If a quantity is decreased, then

 decrease in quantity 
Percentage decrease = ( x %) =  × 100 %
 original quantity 
 100 − x 
and new quantity =   × original quantity.
 100 
5. If a quantity x is r % more than another quantity y, then y is less

 r 
than x by  × 100 %.
 100 + r 
6. If a quantity x is r % less than another quantity y, then y is more

 r 
than x by  × 100 %.
 100 − r 
7. If two quantities are x% and y% more than a third quantity,
 100 + x 
then the first is  × 100 % of the second.
 100 + y 
x
8. If a quantity x is x% of z and y is y% of z, then x is × 100% of y.
y
9. If a quantity is first increased by x% and then decreased by y%,
 xy 
then there percentage change in the quantity =  x − y − %
 100
(increase, if percentage is +ve and decrease, if percentage is –ve).
10. If a quantity is first increased by x%, and second by y% , then
 xy 
final increase percentage is  x + y +  %.
 100
11. If x% of a quantity is taken by the first person, y % is taken by
second and z% of the remaining is taken by the third person and
quantity p is left, then total quantity in the beginning was
p × 100 × 100 × 100
(100 − x )(100 − y )(100 − z )
12. If we have initial quantity A and x% of the quantity is added to
it, then y% is added, then z% is added and final quantity
becomes B, then
B × 100 × 100 × 100
A=
(100 + x )(100 + y )(100 + z )
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Elementary Arithmetic-III 381

Formulae Related to Population
(i) If the population of a town is A. Suppose, in first year, it
increases by x%, in second year by y% and in third year by z%,
then population after 3 yr
A × (100 + x )(100 + y )(100 + z )
=
100 × 100 × 100
(ii) In the above case, if the population ‘A’ “decreases” in third year,
then population after 3 yr
A × (100 + x )(100 + y )(100 − z )
=
100 × 100 × 100
1. Formulae Related to Commodity

(i) If the price of a commodity increases by x%, then to keep the
expenses same, decrease in the consumption will be
 x 
 × 100 %.
 100 + x 
(ii) If the price of a commodity decreases by x%, then to keep the
expenses same, increases in the consumption will be
 x 
 × 100 %.
 100 − x 
(iii) If the price of the commodity is increased by x%, such that the
customer buy n units less for ` y, then increased price of the
xy xy
commodity is and original price was per unit.
100n (100 + x )n
(iv) If the price of the commodity is decreased by x%, such that the
customer buy n units more for ` y, then decreased price is
 xy  xy
`  per unit and original price was ` per unit.
 100n  (100 − x )n
(v) If the sides of triangle, rectangle, square, rhombus (or any
2-dimensional figure) are increased by x%, then percentage
 x2 
increase in the area of the figure will be  2x +  %.
 100
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2. Formulae Related to Marks

(i) If in an examination, pass percentage is x% and a candidate
scoring y marks fails by z marks, then maximum marks in the
100( y + z )
examination is .
x
(ii) In an examination, if a candidate scoring x% fails by a marks
and another candidate scoring y% gets b marks more than the
minimum marks required to pass. Then, maximum marks in the
100( a + b)
examination will be .
y−x
Profit, Loss and Discount

Some Basic Terms
(i) Cost Price (CP) The price paid by a customer or shopkeeper
to purchase an article.
(ii) Selling Price (SP) The price at which a shopkeeper sells an
article.
(iii) Overhead Charges Money spent on the article for
transporting, handling, installation after purchasing it.
(iv) Marked Price (MP) The printed or original price of an
article.
(v) Discount Amount deducted from the marked price.
(vi) Net Price Amount paid by the customers to purchase an
article after deducing the discount.
(vii) Gross Profit The total profit without deducing tax.
(viii) Net Profit Profit after deducing tax.

(i) The gain (profit) or loss per cent is calculated on cost price.
(ii) Overhead charges should be included in the cost price.
(iii) Discount is always calculated on Marked Price (MP).
(iv) Discount series x %, y % and z %,…, x %, z %, y %,K or z %, x %, y %,K
any combination will give the same Selling Price (SP).
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1. Gain (Profit) = SP − CP
2. Loss = CP − SP
 Amount of profit / loss 
3. Profit / Loss% =  × 100 %
 CP 
4. If profit is x%, then
100 + x 100
SP = × CP and CP = × SP
100 100 + x
5. If loss is y%, then
100 − y 100
SP = × CP and CP = × SP
100 100 − y
6. (i) When there are two successive profits of x1 % and x2 %, then
 xx 
resultant profit will be  x1 + x2 + 1 2  %.
 100 
(ii) If there is a profit of x% and loss of y% in a transaction, then
 xy 
profit or loss will be  x − y −  %.
 100
If it is +ve, then there is profit and if it is –ve, then there will
be loss.
(iii) If there are two successive loss of x% and y%, then resultant
 xy 
loss will be  x + y −  %.
 100
(iv) If the same article is sold at successive profits
x1 %, x2 %, x3 %,K and successive losses y1 %, y2 %,..., then CP
will be
 100 100 100 100 
SP ×  × × ... × × × ...
 100 + x1 100 + x2 100 − y1 100 − y2 
Dishonest Dealer
(i) If a shopkeeper sells an article at its cost price but cheats the
customer by using false weight, then percentage gain
True weight − False weight
= × 100%
False weight
Error
or percentage gain = × 100%
True weight − Error
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(ii) If a shopkeeper uses A g in place of 1 kg (1000 g) to sell his goods

and bears a loss of y%, then his actual gain/loss is
 100
(100 − y )   − 100.
 A 
If it is +ve, then there is profit and if it is –ve, then there is loss.
(iii) If a shopkeeper uses A g in place of 1 kg (1000 g) and gains a profit
 100
of x%, then his actual profit/loss is (100 + x )   − 100.
 A 
If it is +ve, then there is a profit and if it is –ve, then there is a
loss.
(iv) If a shopkeeper sells an objects with a profit x% and uses a
weight to measure it which is l% less than its original weight,
x+l
then total profit = × 100%.
100 − l
False Weight
If a shopkeeper sells a substance at its cost price but uses an incorrect
weight (by mistake weighing more than that marked on it), then
percentage loss will be
Error
Pecentage loss = × 100%
True value + Error
(i) If d1 %, d2 %, d3 %,K are the successive discounts given on an
article, then
 100 − d1   100 − d2   100 − d3 
SP = MP ×   × ×  × ...
 100   100   100 
(ii) If discount offered are d1 % and d2 % respectively, then net
 dd 
discount will be  d1 + d2 − 1 2  %.
 100 
(iii) If two items are sold at same SP, one at a loss of x% and other at
2
x2  x
a gain of x%, then there is a loss of % or   %.
100  10
(iv) If CP of two items is same, if one is sold with a loss x% and other
is sold with a gain of x%, then there is no loss or no gain.
(v) If a man purchases x items for ` y and sell y items for ` x, then
x2 − y2
profit or loss (depending upon +ve or –ve sign) is × 100% .
y2
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(vi) If cost price of x articles is equal to the selling price of y articles,
x− y
then profit/loss is × 100%.
y
(vii) If a shopkeeper gains a profit of x1 % on an article, if he sells it
` R more, then he makes a profit of x2%, then
R × 100
CP = ` .
x2 − x1
(viii) If a shopkeeper sells an article at a loss of y%, if he sells it ` ‘R’
more, he would make profit x%, then
R(100 + x )
SP =
x+ y
(ix) If a shopkeeper sells an article at ` R, at a loss of x%, then to gain
x%, the
 100 + x 
SP =   × R.
 100 − x 
(x) If CP and SP of an article is reduced by same amount (say R) and
profit is increased from x1 % to x2 %, then
x ×R
Actual CP = 2 .
x2 − x1
Transaction in Part
(i) If m part of a consignment is sold at x1 % profit, n part is sold at
x2 % profit and l part at x3 % profit and overall profit is ` R, then
R × 100
value of total consignment = .
mx1 + nx2 + lx3
(ii) If a man purchases a certain number of articles at R1 and the
same number at R2 and after mixing them together, he sells
them at R3 , then gain or loss
 2R1R2 
(according +ve or –ve sign) =  − 1 × 100%.
 R3 ( R1 + R2 ) 
(iii) If a shopkeeper marks an article at x% above its cost price and
gives purchasers as discount of d%, then the profit/loss
 dx 
(depending upon +ve or –ve sign) is  x − d −  %.
 100
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(iv) If a person buys two articles at total cost of ` R and sells one at a
loss of y% and other at a profit of x%, then
CP of both × y
Cost of one article = .
x+ y
CP of both × x
Cost of second article = .
x+ y
(v) When each of the two articles is sold at same price and a profit of
x% is on first and a loss of y% is on second, then gain or loss
(depending upon +ve or –ve sign) is
100 ( x − y ) − 2xy
.
(100 + x ) + (100 − y )
(vi) If a discount of d1%, the shopkeeper makes a profit of x1% and if
the discount is d2%, then profit
 100 − d2 
x2% = (100 + x1 )   − 100%.
 100 − d1 
Simple Interest
Some Basic Terms
(i) Interest ( I ) Interest is the amount of money which is paid by
the borrower to the lender for the use of the money lent.
(ii) Principal ( P ) The money borrowed by the borrower from the
lender.
(iii) Rate of Interest (R) The money paid by the borrower to the
lender for 1 yr use of ` 100 is called rate of interest per annum.
(iv) Time (T ) The duration for which the money is borrowed by the
borrower.
(v) Amount (A) Principal together with the amount of interest is
called amount.
(vi) Simple Interest (SI) If the interest is calculated on the
original sum (principal) for any period of time, is called simple
interest.
P × R×T SI × 100
1. SI = 2. R =
100 P ×T
SI × 100
3. T = 4. A = P + SI
P×R
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 T × R A × 100
5. A = P 1 +  6. P =
 100  100 + TR
7. If rate of interest is R1 % for T1 years, R2 % for next T2 years, R3 %
for next T3 years and so on and the total interest is SI, then
principal amount is
SI × 100
P= .
R1T1 + R2T2 + R3T3 + K
8. When the sum of money (principal) become n times in T years,
then rate of interest is given by
100 ( n − 1)
R= %per annum.
T
9. The annual payment that will discharge a debt of ` A in T years
100 A
at the rate of interest R% per annum is .
RT (T − 1)
100T +
2
10. If a sum of amounts to ` A1 in T1 years and ` A 2 in T2 years at
simple interest, then rate of interest is given by
100 ( A 2 − A1 )
R=
A1T2 − A 2T1
11. If a sum of amounts to ` A1 at rate R1 % per annum and ` A 2 at
rate R2 % per annum for the same duration, then time is
100 ( A2 − A1 )
T =
A1R2 − A2R1
12. If a sum is put at simple interest at the rate R1 %, for T years to
obtain simple interest SI1 ,if it had been put at rate R2 % for same
years, then simple interest is SI2, then the sum was
(SI2 − SI1 ) × 100
P= .
T × ( R2 − R1 )
13. If a sum of ` P is lent on simple interest in n parts such that the
interest on first part at R1 % for T1 years, interest on second part
at R2% for T2 years, interest on third part at R3 % for T3 years and
so on being equal, then the ratio in which the sum was divided in
1 1 1 1
n parts, is given by : : : ... :
R1T1 R2T2 R3T3 Rn Tn
14. If a sum of ` P is lent on simple interest in n parts such that the
amount of first part lent at R1 % for T1 years, the amount of
second part lent at R2 % for T2 years, the amount of third part
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lent at R3 % for T3 years and so on, being same. Then, the ratio in
which the sum was divided in n parts, is given by
1 1 1 1
: : : ... : .
100 + R1T1 100 + R2T2 100 + R3T3 100 + Rn Tn
Compound Interest
Money is said to be lent at Compound Interest (CI), if the
interest at the end of year or a fixed period of time is not paid by the
borrower to the lender, it is added to the principal and thus the
amount obtained becomes the new principal for the next period and
so on.

(i) For 1 yr, compound interest is equal to the simple interest.
(ii) Compound interest for more than one year is always greater than the
simple interest.
(iii) The amount of the previous year becomes the principal for the successive
year.
(iv) The difference between two consecutive amounts is the interest on the
preceeding amount.

If R is the rate of interest per annum, T is the duration in years, A is
the amount and P is the principal.
1. (i) If interest is compounded annually, then
T
 R  A
(a) A = P 1 +  (b) P =
 100  R 
T
1 + 
 100
(ii) If the interest is compounded half-yearly, then
2T
 R / 2
A = P 1 +  .
 100 
(iii) If the interest is compounded quaterly, then
4T
 R / 4
A = P 1 +  .
 100 
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(iv) If the rate of interest is R1 %, R2 %, R3 %, respectively for I, II
 R  R  R 
and III years, then A = P 1 + 1  1 + 2  1 + 3 .
 100  100  100
2. Compound Interest, CI = A − P
3. If interest is compounded annually and time is in fraction of
p
years, say n years, then
q
 p 
R
R   q 
n

A = P 1 +   1 + .
 100  100 
 
4. If a sum becomes x times in y years at compound interest, then
after ny years it will be ( x )n times.
5. If a certain sum becomes n times in T years, then rate of interest
is R = 100[( n )1/ T − 1].
6. Relation between SI and CI,
R×T
SI = × CI
 R 
T 
100 1 +  − 1
 100 
7. Difference between CI and SI,
 100 + R  T RT 
CI – SI = P   − − 1
 100  100 
8. Annual instalment, compounded annually is given by
T
P  100 
instalment = =P  .
 R 
T  100 + R 
1 + 
 100
9. If the difference between CI and SI for 2 yr at rate R% is ` x, on a
2
 100
certain sum of money, then sum is given by P = x   .
 R 
10. If the difference between CI and SI on a certain sum (principal)
for 3 yr at rate of interest R%, is ` x, then the sum is given by
x(100)3
P= .
R 2( 300 + R )
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11. If a certain sum becomes ` A1 in n years and ` A 2 in ( n + 1) years

at compound interest, then
( A 2 − A1 ) × 100
(i) rate of interest, R = %.
A1
n
A
(ii) sum = A1  1 
 A2 
12. If a certain sum becomes ` A1 in T1 years at compound interest,
( A1 )T2/ T1
then after T2 years, the amount will be A2 = ` , where
( P )T2/ T1 − 1
P is the principal.
13. If the compound rate of interest is R1 % for first T1 years, R2 % for
next T2 years, R3 % for next T3 years and so on, then
T1 T2 T3
 R   R   R 
A = P 1 + 1  1 + 2  1 + 3  ... .
 100  100  100
14. If certain sum at compound interest becomes x times in n1 year
and y times in n 2 year, then x1/ n1 = y1/ n 2 .
Growth and Depreciation

Some Basic Terms
(i) Growth Increase in price of an article or quantity with
respect to time, is called growth or appreciation.
(ii) Depreciation Decrease in price of an article or quantity with
respect to time, is called depreciation.
(iii) Rate of Growth/Depreciation ( R ) The rate at which the
price of an article or quantity increases/decreases is called the
rate of growth/depreciation.
(iv) Original Value ( P ) The price of an article/quantity at
beginning of the period is called original value.
(v) Final Value (A) Price of an article/quantity at the end of the
period is called final value.

(i) Appreciated value is always greater than the original value.
(ii) Depreciated value is always less than the original value.
(iii) The same item may growth in one year and depreciate in another year.
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1. If original value is P and final value is A, rate of
growth/depreciation is R% per annum and time period is
T years.
(i) For growth
T
 R 
(a) A = P 1 +  (b) increase = A − P
 100
(ii) For depreciation
T
 R 
(a) A = P 1 −  (b) decrease = P − A
 100
p
2. If time is in fraction of year, say n , then
q
 p 
n  × R
 R 
1 + q 
(i) For growth A = P 1 + 
 100  100 
 
 
 p 
n  × R
 R 
1 − q 
(ii) For depreciation A = P 1 − 
 100  100 
 
 
3. If there is increase of R1 % in T1 years, decrease of R2 % in next
T2 years and an increase of R3 % in next T3 years, then
T1 T2 T3
 R   R2   R3 
A = P 1 + 1  1 −  1 +  .
 100  100  100
4. (i) If A > P , there is an increase.
(ii) If A < P , there is a decrease.
Applications
1. Population If there is an increase/decrease of R% per annum
in the population, then
(i) population after n years will be
n
 R 
A = P 1 +  , P = Present population.
 100
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P
(ii) population n years ago will be A = n
 R 
1 + 
 100
Note If population decreases with the rate of R %, then negative sign will
be used in place of positive sign in the above mentioned formulae.
2. Old Wooden Objects If Old wooden objects decays at a
constant rate of R% per annum, then after n years, its value will
be
n
 R 
A = P 1 −  , P = Present value
 100
Partnership
Partnership is an association of two or more persons who put their
money together to carry out on a certain business. These persons are
called partners.
(i) Active or Working Partners Partners who actively
participate in managing the process of the business.
(ii) Sleeping Partners Partners who only invest their money in
the business and do not actively participate in it.
Types of Partnership
1. Simple Partnership If partners of the business invest their
money/capital in the business for same duration of time, the
partnership is called simple partnership.
In this case, the profit/loss is divided in the ratio of their
investment.
(i) If two partners P and Q invest their money in a business,
then investment of P : investment of Q = profit/loss of P :
profit/loss of Q.
(ii) If there are three partners P , Q and R to invest, then
Investment of P : Investment of Q : Investment of R
= Profit/loss of P : Profit/loss of Q : Profit/loss of R.
2. Compound Partnership If the partners of the business invest
their money for different duration of time, then it is called
compound partnership.
In this case, the profit/loss is divided in the ratio of their
equivalent investment for a unit of time.
Equivalent investment = Investment × Number of Units of time
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(i) If two partners P and Q invest amount of ` x1 and ` x2 ,
respectively for time t1 and t2 (units), then their profit/loss
will be in the ratio.
Profit/Loss of P : Profit/Loss of Q = x1t1 : x2t2.
(ii) If 3 partners P, Q and R invest their money of ` x1 , ` x2 and
` x3 for time t1 , t2 and t3 (units) respectively, then their
profit/loss will be in the ratio.
Profit/Loss of P : Profit/Loss of Q : Profit/Loss of
R = x1t1 : x2 t2 : x3 t3
Similarly, for more partners, profit/loss can be calculated.
Share and Debenture

Some Basic Terms
(i) Capital Total amount of money required to start or expand a
company.
(ii) Share Capital is divided into smaller units, which are called
share.
(iii) Face Value/Nominal Value (FV) The original value issued
by a company for a share.
or It is the printed value of the share.
(iv) Market Value (MV) The value at which a share is available
in the share market, depending on market value. Three types of
shares are available.
(a) Share at Par If MV = FV, the share is said to be at par.
(b) Share at Premium If FV < MV, then the share is said to be
‘above par’ or ‘at premium’.
(c) Share at Discount If FV > MV, then the share is said to be
‘below par’ or ‘at discount’.
(v) Stock Total face value of the shares held by a shareholder.
Stock = FV × Number of shares
(vi) Investment Total amount of money paid by a shareholder to
the shares.
Investment = MV × Number of shares
(vii) Proceeds If a shareholder sells his shares, then total amount
of money, obtained after selling the shares, is called proceeds.
Proceeds = MV × Number of shares
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(viii) Dividend Shareholder are entitled to the profit of the

company subject to certain legal compliance, this profit is called
dividend.
Rate of Dividend
Dividend = Stock ×
100
(ix) Return Per cent This is the actual earning per cent of the
investor.
Dividend
Return% = × 100%
Investment
(x) Debenture Company can obtain loans from public at fixed
percentage of interest; the small unit of the loan granted by the
public is called debenture.
(xi) Broker Shares, stocks and debentures are sold or purchased
through a person, called broker.
(xii) Brokerage Amount paid to the broker for selling or
purchasing of shares is called brokerage.

(i) Dividend on share is calculated on its face value.
(ii) Interest on debenture is calculated on face value of debenture.
(iii) Same rules and formulae used for shares can be applied to debenture.
(iv) Brokerage is calculated on market value of share or debentures.

1. When the stock is at premium sale, then
MV = 100 + Premium
2. When the stock is at discount sale, then
MV = 100 − Discount
Stock Investment
3. Number of shares = =
FV MV
Total dividend
=
Dividend per share
4. Income per share = Rate of dividend × FV
5. Total income = Income per share × Number of share
Rate of brokerage
6. Brokerage on 1 share = MV ×
100
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Rate of brokerage
7. Total brokerage paid = Investment ×
100
 Rate of brokerage
8. Purchase value for one share = MV 1 + 
 100 
 Rate of brokerage
9. Sale value for 1 share = MV 1 − 
 100 
Total income × 100
10. Rate of interest on the investment =
Total investment
Dividend % × FV
11. Rate of interest on the investment =
 1 + Rate of brokerage
MV  
 100 
Investment × 100 Investment × 100
12. Amount of stock = =
MV Rate per cent
Amount of stock × Rate per cent
13. Annual income =
100
Investment × Rate per cent
=
MV
Amount of stock × MV
14. Investment =
100
Alligation or Mixture
1. When two or more types of quantities of things are mixed, a
mixture is produced.
2. Alligation is a rule that enables us to find.
(a) The proportion in which two or more ingrediants of the given
prices must be mixed to produce a mixture at a given price.
Note The cost price of unit quantity of the mixture is called the mean
price.
(b) The mean price of the mixture when the prices of the
ingrediants and the proportions in which they are mixed is
known.
3. Rule of alligation
Quantity of cheaper ingrediant CP of dearer − Mean price
=
Quantity of dearer ingrediant Mean price − CP of cheaper
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Quicker Method The above rule can be represented as under

CP of a unit quantity of CP of a unit quantity of
cheaper ingrediant (C) dearer ingrediant (D)
Mean price (M)
(D − M ) (M − C)
Quantity of cheaper : Quantity of dearer = ( D − M ) : ( M − C )
4. Mean price
Quantity of cheaper × CP of cheaper 
 
 + Quantity of dearer × CP of dearer 
=
Quantity of cheaper + Quantity of dearer
5. Two vessels of equal size are full with mixtures of liquids A and
B in the ratios a1 : b1 and a2 : b2 respectively. The contents of both
vessels are emptied into a single large vessel. Then,
 a1 a2 
 + 
Quantity of liquid A  a1 + b1 a2 + b2 
=
Quantity of liquid B  b1 b2 
 + 
 a1 + b1 a2 + b2 
6. Three vessels of size equal are full with mixtures of liquids A, B

and C in the ratios a1 : b1 ; a2 : b2 and a3 : b3 , respectively. The
contents of all three vessels are emptied into a single large
vessel. Then,
 a1 a2 a3 
 + + 
Quantity of liquid A  a1 + b1 a2 + b2 a3 + b3 
=
Quantity of liquid B  b1 b2 b3 
 + + 
 a1 + b1 a2 + b2 a3 + b3 
Note The above result can be extended to any number of vessels.
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7. Two vessels of capacities c1 and c2 have mixtures of liquids A
and B in the ratio a1 : b1 and a2 : b2, respectively. The contents of
both vessels are emptied into a single large vessel. Then,
 a1c1 a2c2 
 + 
Quantity of liquid A  a1 + b1 a2 + b2 
=
Quantity of liquid B  b1c1 b2c2 
 + 
 a1 + b1 a2 + b2 
8. Three vessels of capacities c1 , c2 and c3 are full with mixtures of

liquids A and B in the ratio a1 : b1 , a2 : b2 and a3 : b3 , respectively.
The contents of these vessels are emptied into a single large
vessel. Then,
 a1c1 a2c2 a3 c3 
 + + 
Quantity of liquid A  a1 + b1 a2 + b2 a3 + b3 
=
Quantity of liquid B  b1c1 b2c2 bc 
 + + 3 3 
 a1 + b1 a2 + b2 a3 + b3 
Note The above result can be extended to any number of vessels.
9. A given m gram of sugar solution has x% sugar in it. It is desired
to increase the sugar content to y%. Then,
m( y − x )
Quantity of sugar to be added = g
100 − y
10. A vessel contains x litre of liquid A. From this vessel, y litre
( y < x ) are withdrawn and replaced by y litre another liquid B.
Next y litre of this mixture is withdrawn and replaced by y litre
of liquid B. This operation is repeated n times.
Quantity of liquid A left after nth operation
Then,
Quantity of liquid A initially present
n n
 x − y  y
=  or 1 − 
 x   x
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36
Elementary Algebra
Polynomial
An expression of the form a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 +...+ an −1x + an ,
where a0 , a1 ,... , an are real numbers and n is a non-negative integer, is
called a polynomial in the variable x. Polynomial in the variable x are
usually denoted by f ( x ), g ( x ) and h( x ) etc.
Thus, f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 + ... + an −1x + an .
(i) If a0 ≠ 0, then n is called the degree of the polynomial f ( x ); it is
written as deg f ( x ) = n.
(ii) a0x n , a1x n −1 , a2x n − 2 ,... , an −1x, an are called the terms of the
polynomial f ( x ); an is called the constant term.
(iii) a0 , a1 , a2 ,... , an −1 , an are called the coefficients of the polynomial
f ( x ).
(iv) If a0 ≠ 0, then a0x n is called the leading term and a0 is called
the leading coefficient of the polynomial.
(v) If all the coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 ,... , an −1 , an are zero, then f ( x ) is
called a zero polynomial. It is denoted by the symbol 0. The
degree of the zero polynomial is never defined.
Degree of a Polynomial
(i) In One Variable The highest power of the variable is called
the degree of the polynomial.
(ii) In Two Variables The sum of the powers of the variables in
each term is obtained and the highest sum, so obtained is the
degree of that polynomial.
Types of Polynomials
(i) Constant Polynomial A polynomial having degree zero.
(ii) Linear Polynomial A polynomial having degree one.
(iii) Quadratic Polynomial A polynomial having degree two.
(iv) Cubic Polynomial A polynomial having degree three.
(v) Biquadratic Polynomial A polynomial having degree four.
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Elementary Algebra 399

Fundamental Operations on Polynomial
(i) Addition of Polynomials To calculate the addition of two
or more polynomials, we collect different groups of like powers
together and add the coefficients of like terms.
(ii) Subtraction of Polynomials To find the subtraction of two
or more polynomials, we collect different groups of like powers
together and subtract the coefficient of like terms.
(iii) Multiplication of Polynomials Two polynomials can be
multiplied by applying distributive law and simplifying the like
terms.
(iv) Division of Polynomials When a polynomial p ( x ) is
divided by a polynomial q( x ) ≠ 0, we get two polynomials g( x ) and
r( x ) such that
p ( x ) = q( x )g( x ) + r( x )
Synthetic Division Method (Horner’s Method)

This method is to find the quotient and the remainder when a
polynomial is divided by a binomial.
Rule for Synthetic Division

1. First complete the given polynomial f ( x ) by adding the missing
term with zero coefficients.
2. Write the successive coefficients a0 , a1 , a2 ,... , an of the
polynomial f ( x ).
3. If we want to divide the polynomial by x − h, then write h in the
left corner.
4. In third row write b0 below a0, where b0 = a0 and then multiply b0
by h to get the product hb0.
5. Adding hb0 to a1, we get b1. Similarly by adding hb1 to a2, we get
b2 and so on
h a0 a1 a2 ……… an
+ hb0 + hb1 ………
b0 b1 b2 ………
6. Repeat this till you get last term which is remainder R.

If R = 0, then h is the root of the polynomial f ( x ) = 0 and the
equation can be reduced by one dimension.
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Factorisation of Polynomials
(i) ( x − a )2 = x 2 − 2xa + a 2
(ii) ( x + a )2 = x 2 + 2xa + a 2
(iii) ( x + a )3 = x3 + 3x 2a + 3a 2x + a3
(iv) ( x − a )3 = x3 − 3x 2a + 3a 2x − a3
(v) ( x + y + z )2 = x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2xy + 2 yz + 2zx
(vi) ( w + x + y + z )2 = w2 + x 2 + y 2 + z 2 + 2w( x + y + z )
+ 2x( y + z ) + 2 yz
(vii) a + b + c − 3abc = ( a + b + c) ⋅ ( a + b + c − ab − bc − ca )
3 3 3 2 2 2
(viii) If a + b + c = 0 ⇒ a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc
Some Special Products

(i) ( x − a )( x + a ) = x 2 − a 2
(ii) ( x − a )( x 2 + xa + a 2 ) = x3 − a3
(iii) ( x + a )( x 2 − xa + a 2 ) = x3 + a3
(iv) ( x − a )( x + a )( x 2 + a 2 ) = x 4 − a 4
(v) ( x 2 + xa + a 2 )( x 2 − xa + a 2 ) = x 4 + x 2a 2 + a 4
(vi) If n is a natural number, then
( x − a )( x n − 1 + x n − 2a + x n − 3 a 2 + K + a n − 1 ) = x n − a n
(vii) If n is an even natural number, then
( x + a )( x n − 1 − x n − 2a + x n − 3 a 2 − K − a n − 1 ) = x n − a n
(viii) If n is an odd natural number, then,
( x + a )( x n − 1 − x n − 2a + x n − 3 a 2 − K + a n − 1 ) = x n + a n

1. x + a = ( x + a) − 2xa = ( x − a)2 + 2xa 2. x 3 + a3 = ( x + a)3 − 3xa( x + a)
2 2 2
3. x 3 − a3 = ( x − a)3 + 3xa( x − a) 4. ( x + a)2 = ( x − a)2 + 4 xa

5. ( x − a) = ( x + a) − 4 xa
2 2
6. ( x + a)2 + ( x − a)2 = 2( x 2 + a2 )
7. ( x + a)2 − ( x − a)2 = 4 xa 8. ( x + a)3 + ( x − a)3 = 2x ( x 2 + 3a2 )

2
1  1
9. ( x + a)3 − ( x − a)3 = 2a( 3x 2 + a2 ) 10. x 2 + = x +  − 2
x2  x
Contd. …
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2 2 2
1  1  1  1
11. x 2 + = x −  + 2 12.  x −  =  x +  − 4
x2  x  x  x
2 2
 1  1 1  1
13.  x +  =  x −  + 4 14. x + =  x2 + 2  + 2
 x  x x  x 
2 2
1  1  1  1  1
15. x − =  x2 + 2  − 2 16.  x +  +  x −  = 2  x 2 + 2 
x  x   x   x   x 
2 2 3
 1  1 1  1  1
17.  x +  −  x −  = 4 18. x 3 + = x +  − 3 x + 
 x   x x 3  x   x
3
1  1  1
19. x 3 − = x −  + 3 x − 
x 3  x   x
Value of a Polynomial f ( x ) at x = α
Let f ( x ) = a0x n + a1x n −1 + a2x n − 2 +...+ an be a polynomial in x and α be
a real number, then the real number
a0α n + a1α n −1 + a2α n − 2 +...+ an is called the value of f ( x ) at x = α.
Thus, if f ( x ) is a polynomial in x and α is a real number, then the value
obtained by replacing x by α in f(x) is called the value of f ( x ) at x = α. It
is denoted by f(α ).
Remainder Theorem
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree ≥ 1 and a be any real number such
that, if p ( x ) is divided by a polynomial of the form ( x − a ), then the
remainder is p ( a ).
Factor Theorem
If p ( x ) is a polynomial in x of degree ≥ 1 and a be any real number such
that p ( a ) = 0, then ( x − a ) is a factor of p ( x ).
Zeroes/Roots of a Polynomial
A real number α is a zero of the polynomial p ( x ), if and only if f(α ) = 0.
If p ( x ) is a polynomial of order n, such that
p ( x ) = a0x + a1x n − 1 + a2x n − 2 + K + an − 1x + an = 0,
where a0 , a1 , a2 , K , an ∈ R and p ( x ) have roots α1 , α 2 , α3 , K , α n , then
(i) Sum of roots
a
α1 + α 2 + K + α n = ( − 1)1 1
a0
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(ii) Sum of product of two roots at a time,

a2
α1α 2 + α1α3 + K = ( − 1)2
a0
(iii) Sum of product of three roots at a time,
a3
α1α 2 α3 + α 2α3α 4 + K = ( − 1)3
a0
(iv) Product of all roots
an
α1α 2 α3K α n = ( − 1)n
a0
Number of Zeroes of a Polynomial

(i) A quadratic polynomial can have atmost 2 zeroes.
(ii) A cubic polynomial can have atmost 3 zeroes.
(iii) A polynomial of degree ( n > 1) can have atmost n zeroes.

(i) If a polynomial p ( x ) is divided by ( ax − b), then remainder is p (b /a).
(ii) If a polynomial p ( x ) is divided by ( ax + b), then remainder is p ( − b /a).
(iii) If a polynomial p ( x ) is divided by (b − ax ), then remainder is p (b /a).
(iv) The set of polynomials has closure, commutative and associative
properties under addition as well as multiplication.
Note Subtraction is not commutative in the set of polynomials.
(v) 0 is the identity element under addition.
(vi) 1is the identity element under multiplication.
(vii) Every polynomial has an additive and multiplicative inverse.
HCF of Monomials
To find the HCF of two or more monomials, we multiply the HCF of
the numerical coefficients of the monomials by the highest power of
each of the letters common to both the polynomials.
LCM of Monomials
To find the LCM of two monomials, we multiply the LCM of the
numerical coefficient of the monomials by all the factors raised to the
highest power which it has in either of the given polynomials.
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Product of polynomials
(i) LCM of two polynomials =
HCF of polynomials
Product of polynomials
(ii) HCF of two polynomials =
LCM of polynomials
(iii) For any two polynomials p ( x ) and q( x );
p ( x ) × q ( x ) = [HCF of p( x ) and q ( x )] × [LCM of p ( x ) and q( x )]
Linear Equations
(i) Equation A statement of equality of two algebraic expressions
involving two or more unknown variable, is called equation.
(ii) Linear Equation An equation involving the variables in
maximum of order 1 is called a linear equation. Graph of linear
equation is a straight line.
Linear equation in one variable is of the form ax + b = 0.
Linear equation in two variables is of the form ax + by + c = 0.
(iii) Solution of an Equation A particular set of values of the
variables, which when substituted for the variables in the
equation makes the two sides of the equation equal, is called the
solution of an equation.
(iv) Simultaneous Linear Equation A set of linear equation in
two variables is said to form a system of simultaneous linear
equation, if both equations have same solution.
(v) Consistency of Simultaneous Linear Equation If a
system of simultaneous linear equation has atleast one solution,
then the system of linear equation is called consistent.
(vi) Inconsistency of Simultaneous Linear Equation If a
system of simultaneous linear equation has no solution, then
the system of linear equation is called inconsistent.
Solving Linear Equation of One Variable

1. Rules for Solving a Linear Equation
(a) Same quantity can be added/subtracted both sides of an
equation without changing the equality.
(b) Both the sides of an equation, can be multiplied/divided by
the same non-zero number, without changing the quantity.
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2. Steps for Solving Linear Equation

Step I Obtain the linear equation and do cross-multiplication, if
necessary.
Step II Transpose the terms involving the variables on the left
hand side and those not involving the variables to the
right hand side.
Step III Simplify the two sides to obtain the equation of the form
ax = b.
b
Step IV Find the value of x as x = .
a
Solving Linear Equation of Two Variables

1. Elimination by Substitution
Step I Find the value of one variable (say y) in terms of another
variable (say x).
Step II Substitute this value in another equation to obtain the
value of another variable (say x).
Step III Substituting this obtained value of variable (x) in the first
equation, the value of first variable to be obtained.
2. Elimination by Equating the Coefficient

Step I Multiply the equations by suitable non-zero constants so to
make the coefficients of one of the variable same.
Step II Add or subtract the equations obtained, to eliminate one of
the variable.
Step III Solve the linear equation in one variable obtained step II
and get the value of one variable.
Step IV Substitute the value of the variable obtained in above step
in any of the given equations and find the second value.
3. Cross-multiplication Method
Step I Consider the system of simultaneous linear equations, in
two variables x and y.
i.e. a1x + b1 y + c1 = 0
and a2x + b2 y + c2 = 0
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Step II Now, cross-multiply the terms, according to the arrow,
given below.
b1 c1 c1 a1 a1 b1
b2 c2 c2 a2 a2 b2
Step III Now, find the value of x and y according to the following
relation
x y 1
= =
b1c2 − b2c1 c1a2 − c2a1 a1b2 − a2b1
which gives
b1c2 − b2c1
x=
a1b2 − a2b1
c1a2 − c2a1
and y=
a1b2 − a2b1
4. Graphical Method
When we draw the graph of each of the two equations, we have the
following possibilities.
(a) If two lines intersect at one point, then it has a unique solution
and point of intersection gives the solution.
(b) If two lines are parallel, then it has no solution.
(c) If two lines are coincide, then it has infinite solutions.
Solution for Linear Equation in Two Variables

When two linear equations a1x + b1 y = c1 and a2x + b2 y = c2 are given
a1 b1
Case I If ≠ , then the system is consistent with unique
a2 b2
solution.
a1 b1 c1
Case II If = ≠ , then the system is inconsistent with no
a2 b2 c2
solution.
a1 b1 c1
Case III If = = , then the system is consistent (dependent),
a2 b2 c2
with infinitely many solutions.
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Rational Expression
f(x)
If f ( x ) and g( x ) are two polynomials and g( x ) ≠ 0, then quotient is
g( x )
called a rational expression.
Every polynomial is a rational expression but every rational expression
f(x)
is not a polynomial. is said to be in lowest form, if f ( x ) and g( x )
g( x )
have no common factor.
Properties of Rational Expression

f(x) p (x)
(i) Addition Addition of and is defined as
g( x ) r( x )
f ( x ) p ( x ) f ( x ) ⋅ r( x ) + p ( x ) ⋅ g( x )
+ =
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) ⋅ r( x )
f(x) p (x)
(ii) Subtraction When we subtract from , then
g( x ) r( x )
p ( x ) f ( x ) p ( x ) ⋅ g( x ) − f ( x ) ⋅ r( x )
− =
r( x ) g( x ) r( x ) ⋅ g( x )
f(x) p (x)
(iii) Multiplication When and are multiplied, then
g( x ) r( x )
f(x) p (x) f(x) ⋅ p (x)
as × =
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) ⋅ r( x )
f(x) p (x)
(iv) Division When is divided by , we get it as
g( x ) r( x )
f ( x ) p ( x ) f ( x ) r( x )
÷ = ⋅
g( x ) r( x ) g( x ) p ( x )
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37
Logarithms
If a is a positive real number other than 1 and a x = m , then x is called
the logarithm of m to the base a, written as loga m. In loga m , m
should be always positive.
(i) If m < 0, then loga m will be imaginary and if m = 0, then
loga m will be meaningless.
(ii) loga m exists only, if m , a > 0 and a ≠ 1.
Types of Logarithms
1. Natural (or Napier) Logarithms The logarithm with base ‘ e ’
( e = 2 .718) is called natural logarithms.
e.g. loge x , loge 25 etc.
Note The another way of loge x can be represented as ln.
2. Common (or Brigg’s) Logarithms The logarithm with base 10 is
called common logarithm.
e.g. log10 x , log10 75 etc.
Note In a logarithmic expression when the base is not mentioned,
it is taken as 10.
Characteristic and Mantissa of a Logarithm

The logarithm of positive real number n consists of two parts.
(i) The integral part is known as the characteristic. It is always
an integer positive, negative or zero.
(ii) The decimal part is called as the mantissa. The mantissa is
never negative and is always less than one.
Method to Find the Characteristic

Case I When number is greater than 1.
The characteristic is one less than the number of digits in
the left of decimal point in the given number.
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Number (x) : 6.125 61.321 725.132

Number of digits in
: 1 2 3
the integral part of x
Characteristic of log x : 1− 1 = 0 2−1= 1 3−1= 2
Case II When number is less than 1.

The characteristic of the logarithm of a positive number less
than 1 is negative and is numerically greater by 1 than the
number of zeroes between the decimal sign and the first
significant figure of the number.
e.g.
Number (x) : 0.7684 0.06712 0.00031
Number of zeroes
: 0 1 3
after the decimal point
− (0 + 1) − (1 + 1) − (3 + 1)
Characteristic of log x :
= −1 = 1 = −2 = 2 = −4 = 4
Note In place of −1 or −2 etc., we use 1 (one bar) and 2 (two bar) etc.
Properties of Logarithms
(i) A negative number can never be expressed as the power of 10,
mantissa should always be kept positive. Hence, whenever
characteristic is negative, minus sign is placed above the
characteristic and not to its left to show that the mantissa is
always positive.
(ii) Mantissa of the logarithm of all the numbers having same digits
in the same order will be the same, irrespective of the position of
the decimal point.
Anti logarithm
The positive number a is called the anti logarithm of a number b, if a is
anti logarithm of b, then we write a = antilog b.
So, a = antilog b ⇔ log a = b.
Important Results on Logarithms

(i) a log a x = x ; a ≠ 0, ≠ ± 1, x > 0
(ii) a logb x = x logb a ; a > 0, b > 0, ≠ 1, x > 0
(iii) loga a = 1, loga 1 = 0; a > 0, ≠ 1
1
(iv) loga x = ; x , a > 0, ≠ 1
logx a
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Logarithms 409
logb x
(v) loga x = loga b × logb x = ; a , b > 0, ≠ 1, x > 0
logb a
(vi) For m , n > 0, a > 0 and a ≠ 1
(a) loga ( mn ) = loga m + loga n
 m
(b) loga   = loga m − loga n
 n
(c) loga ( m )n = n loga m
(vii) For x > 0, a > 0, ≠ 1
1
(a) loga n ( x ) = loga x
n
m
(b) loga n x m = loga x
n
(viii) For x > y > 0
(a) loga x > loga y , if a > 1
(b) loga x < loga y , if 0 < a < 1
(ix) If a > 1, then
(a) loga x > p ⇒ x > a p
(b) 0 < loga x p ⇒ 0 < x < a p
(b) 0 < loga x 0 ⇔ x > 1, a > 1 or 0 < x < 1, 0 < a < 1
(b) loga x < 0 ⇔ x > 1, 0 < a < 1 or 0 < x < 1, a > 1
(xii) (a) logb a → − ∞ , if b > 1 and a → 0+
(b) logb a → ∞ , if b > 1 and a → ∞
(c) logb a → ∞ , if 0 1
0<b<1
(1, 0) (1, 0)
X' X X' X
O O
Y' Y'
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38
Geometry
Point
A fine dot on paper or a location on plane is called point. Point has no
length, breadth or thickness.
Line
A line is defined as a line of points that extends infinitely in both
directions.
P Q
Line Segment
A line segment is a part of line that is bounded by two distinct end
points and contains every point on the line between its end points.
A B
Ray
If a line segment is extended to unlimited length on one of the end
points, then it is called a ray.
A B

(i) A line contains infinite points.
(ii) Infinite lines can pass through a point.
(iii) Two distinct lines in a plane cannot have more than one point common.
Angle
If two rays are drawn in different directions from y
a common initial point, then they are said to form Ra
an angle. Angle
O
(i) An angle of 90° is a right angle and an Ray
angle less than 90° is an acute angle.
(ii) An angle between 90° and 180° is an obtuse angle.
(iii) An angle between 180° and 360° is a reflex angle.
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Geometry 411
(iv) The sum of all angles on one side of a straight line AB at a point
O by any number of lines joining the line AB at O is 180°.
(v) When any number of straight lines joining at a point, then the
sum of all the angles around that point is 360° which is called as
complete angle.
(vi) Two angles whose sum is 90° are said to be complementary to
each other and two angles whose sum is 180° are said to be
supplementary to each other.
Intersecting Lines
When two straight lines intersect each other, then vertically opposite
angles are equal.
l2
1
2 O 4
3
l1
i.e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 3, ∠ 2 = ∠ 4
Parallel Lines
When a straight line XY cuts two parallel lines l1 and l2 as shown in
the figure, the line XY is called the transversal line.
X
2 1
l2
3 4
6 5
l1
7 8
Y
The following are the relationships between various angles that are
formed.
(i) Alternate angles are equal.
i. e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 7,∠ 2 = ∠ 8, [alternate exterior angles]
∠ 3 = ∠ 5 and ∠ 4 = ∠ 6. [alternate interior angles]
(ii) Corresponding angles are equal.
i. e. ∠ 1 = ∠ 5, ∠ 2 = ∠ 6, ∠ 3 = ∠ 7 and ∠ 4 = ∠ 8.
(iii) Sum of interior angles on the same side of the transversal line is
equal to 180°.
i. e. ∠ 3 + ∠ 6 = 180° and ∠4 + ∠5 = 180°
This is also known as cointerior angles.
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(iv) Sum of exterior angles on the same side of the transversal is

equal to 180°.
i.e. ∠ 1 + ∠ 8 = 180° and ∠ 2 + ∠ 7 = 180°.
This is also known as coexterior angles.
Triangles
A figure bounded by three line segments in a plane is called a triangle.
It has three vertices, three sides and three angles.
A
B C
(i) Acute Triangle A triangle having all angles are acute, is

called an acute triangle.
(ii) Obtuse Triangle A triangle having one angle of a triangle is
obtuse, is called an obtuse triangle.
(iii) Scalene Triangle A triangle having all the sides are of
different lengths is called a scalene triangle. i.e. AB ≠ BC ≠ AC.
(iv) Isosceles Triangle A triangle having two opposite sides or
two opposite angles are equal, is called an isosceles triangle.
(v) Equilateral Triangle A triangle having all sides or its each
angle is 60° are equal, is called an equilateral triangle.
A
60°
60° 60°
B C
i.e. AB = BC = AC
or ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°
(vi) Right Angled Triangle A triangle A

H
Perpendicular
having one of the angles measures 90° is yp

o te
called a right angled triangle. The side n us
opposite to the right angle is called its e
hypotenuse and the remaining two sides are
called as perpendicular and base. B Base C
Here, AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2
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Geometry 413
Important Properties of Triangles
(i) Sum of the three angles of a triangle is 180°.
(ii) Sides opposite to equal angles are equal and vice-versa
(iii) In an isosceles right angled triangle one angle is 90° and other
two angles are 45° each.
(iv) The exterior angle of a triangle (at each vertex) is equal to the
sum of the two opposite interior angles (exterior angle is the
angle formed at any vertex, by one side and the extended portion
of the second side at that vertex) ∠Z = ∠X + ∠Y .
Y Z
(v) Side opposite to the greatest angle is the longest side and
vice-versa.
Also, side oppest to the smallest angle is the smallest side and
vice-versa.
(vi) If the sides are arranged in the ascending order of their
measurement, then the angles opposite to the side ( in the same
order) will also be in ascending order ( i. e. greater angles has
greater side opposite to it). If the sides are arranged in descending
order of their measurement, then the angles opposite to the side
in the same order will also be in descending order
( i. e. smaller angle has smaller side opposite to it).
(vii) There can be only one right angle or only one obtuse angle in any
triangle.
Different Centre of a Triangle

1. Circumcentre
The three perpendicular bisectors of the sides of A
a triangle meet at a point is called circumcentre
of the triangle. The circumcentre of a triangle is R
equidistant from its vertices and the distance of S
circumcentre from each of the three vertices is R R
called circumradius (R) of the triangle. The
B C
circle passes through all the three vertices of the
triangle is called circumcircle.
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2. Incentre and Excentre

∠A
If I is the centre, then ∠BIC = 90° + .
2
The internal bisectors of the three angles of a triangle meet at a point
is called incentre (I) of the triangle. Incentre is equidistant from the
three sides of the triangle. i.e. the perpendicular’s drawn from the
incentre to the three sides are equal in length and this length is called
the inradius of the triangle.
A
F r r E
I
r
B D C
The circle drawn with incentre as centre and touches all three sides on
the inside is called incircle. The point of intersection of two external
angle bisectors and one internal angle bisector is called an excentre.
Any triangle has three excentres, one opposite to each vertex.
3. Orthocentre
The perpendicular is drawn from a vertex to the opposite side is called
an altitude. The three altitudes meet at a point is called orthocentre.
A
B C
4. Centroid
Median is the line joining the mid-point of a side to the opposite
vertex. The three medians of a triangle meet at a point is called the
centroid G. Centroid divides the median in the ratio 2 : 1.
A
E
F G
C
B D
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Geometry 415
Important Points about Centres of Triangles
(i) In a right angled triangle, the vertex where the right angle is
formed ( i. e. the vertex opposite to the hypotenuse) is the
orthocentre.
(ii) In an obtuse angled triangle, the orthocentre lies outside the
triangle.
(iii) Centroid divides each of the medians in the ratio 2 : 1, the part of
the median towards the vertex being twice in length to the part
towards the side.
(iv) In a right angled triangle, the length of the median drawn to the
hypotenuse is equal to half the hypotenuse. This median is also
the circumradius and the mid-point of the hypotenuse is the
circumcentre. In an obtuse angled triangle, the circumcentre
lies outside the triangle.
(v) In an isosceles triangle, centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre
and incentre all lie on the median to the base.
(vi) In an equilateral triangle, centroid, orthocentre, circumcentre
and incentre all coincide.
(vii) The ratio of circumradius and inradius of an equilateral triangle
is 2 : 1.
Congruency of Triangles
Two triangles that are identical in all respects are said to be congruent
and it is denoted by the symbol ≅. In two congruent triangles,
(i) the corresponding sides are equal.
(ii) the corresponding angles are equal.
Two triangles will be congruent, if atleast one of the following
conditions is satisfied.
(i) Three sides of one triangle are respectively equal to the three
sides of the second triangle. (SSS)
(ii) Two sides and the included angle of one triangle are respectively
equal to two sides and the included angle of the second triangle.
(SAS)
(iii) Two angles and the included side of a triangle are respectively
equal to two angles and the corresponding side of the second
triangle. (ASA) or (AAS)
(iv) Two right angled triangles are congruent, if the hypotenuse and
one side of one triangle are respectively equal to the hypotenuse
and one side of the second right angled triangle. (RHS)
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Similarity of Triangles
Two triangles are said to be similar, if they are alike in shape only and
it is denoted by the symbol (~). The corresponding angles of two similar
triangles are equal but the corresponding sides are only in proportional
but not equal. Two triangles are similar, if
(i) the three angles of one triangle are respectively equal to the
three angles of the second triangle. (AAA) or (AA)
(ii) two sides of one triangle are proportional to two sides of the
other and the included angles are equal. (SAS)
(iii) the corresponding sides of two triangles are in the same ratio,
then triangles are similar. (SSS)
Some Important Theorems

1. Pythagoras Theorem In ∆ABC, if ∠B = 90°, then
AC 2 = AB2 + BC 2.
A
90°
C B
2. In ∆ABC, if AD is the angle bisector intersecting BC at D, then

AB BD
= .
AC DC
A
B D C
3. If D and E divide AB and AC in the ratio m : n respectively, then
m
DE = BC.
m+n
4. Mid-point Theorem The line segment A
joining mid-points of two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side and equal to
half of it. D E
1
i.e. BC|| DE and DE = BC B C
2
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Geometry 417
5. In ∆ABC, if D and E are the points on AB and AC, respectively
AD AE
such that DE is parallel to BC, then = .
AB AC
6. In ∆ABC, if AD is the median from A to side BC meeting BC at
its mid-point D, then 2 ( AD 2 + BD 2 ) = AB2 + AC 2. This is called
the Apollonius theorem.
7. The ratio of areas of two similar triangles is equal to the ratio of
the squares of any two corresponding sides.
8. The areas of two similar triangles are in the ratio of the squares
of corresponding altitudes.
of the corresponding medians.
of the corresponding angle bisector segments.
11. If the areas of two similar triangles are equal, then the triangle
are congruent and vice-versa.
Quadrilaterals
A plane closed figured bounded by four segments is called
quadrilateral.
A
B D
1. The sum of four angles of a quadrilateral is equal to 360°.

2. If the four vertices of a quadrilateral lie on the circumference of
a circle i.e. if the quadrilateral can be inscribed in a circle) it is
called a cyclic quadrilateral. In a cyclic quadrilateral,
the sum of opposite angles is 180°
i.e. A + C = 180° and B + D = 180°.
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Parallelogram
A quadrilateral having opposite sides are A B
parallel is called a parallelogram. In a
parallelogram,
(i) opposite sides are equal.
(ii) opposite angles are equal. D C
E
(iii) each diagonal divides the
parallelogram into two congruent triangles.
(iv) sum of any two adjacent angles is 180°.
(v) the diagonals bisect each other.
Rhombus
A parallelogram is a rhombus in which every pair of adjacent sides are
equal (all four sides of a rhombus are equal).
A B
D C
E
Since, a parallelogram is a rhombus, all the properties of a

parallelogram apply to a rhombus. Further, in a rhombus, the
diagonals are perpendicular to each other.
Rectangle
A parallelogram is a rectangle in which each of the angles is equal to
90°. The diagonals of a rectangle are equal.
A B
90°
D C
A rectangle is also a special type of parallelogram and hence all

properties of a parallelogram apply to rectangles also.
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Geometry 419
Square
A rectangle is a square in which all four sides are equal (a rhombus in
which all four angles are equal, all are right angles).
A B
D C
Hence, the diagonals are equal and they bisect at right angles.
Trapezium
If one pair of opposite sides of a quadrilateral are parallel, then it is
called a trapezium.
D A
P Q
C E F B
In the figure, side AD is parallel to BC. Any trapezium is said to be an

isosceles trapezium, if CD = AB.

(i) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the consecutive
sides of a rectangle is a rhombus and vice-versa.
(ii) The figure formed by joining the mid-points of the pairs of consecutive
sides of a quadrilateral is a parallelogram.
(iii) The quadrilateral formed by joining the mid-points of the sides of a
square, is a square.
(iv) Two parallelograms on the same base and between the same parallel
lines have equal areas.
(v) One parallelogram and one rectangle on the same base and between
same parallel lines have equal areas.
(vi) Two triangles on the same base and between the same parallel lines have
equal areas.
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Polygon
Any figure bounded by three or more line segments is called a polygon.
A regular polygon is one in which all sides are equal and all angles are
equal. A regular polygon can be inscribed in a circle.
The name of polygons with three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine and
ten sides are respectively triangle, quadrilateral, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, octagon, nonagon and decagon.
Convex Polygon
In a convex polygon, a line segment between two points on the
boundary never goes outside the polygon.
D
F G
E C
A B
Concave Polygon
In a concave polygon, a line segment between two points on the
boundary goes outside the polygon.
Or
In concave polygon atleast one of the interior angle is more than 180°.
D
E F C
G
A
(i) The sum of all the angles in a convex polygon is ( 2n − 4)90°.

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Geometry 421
360°
(ii) Exterior angle of a regular polygon is .
n
 360° 
(iii) Interior angle of a regular polygon is 180° − 
 n 
n( n − 3)
(iv) Number of diagonals of a convex polygon with sides is .
2
Circles
A circle is a set of points which lie in a plane which area at a constant
distance from a fixed point in the plane.
1. Radius Radius is the shortest distance between the centre of
the circle and a point on the circumference of the circle.
2. Chord A chord is a line joining two points on the circumference
of a circle.
3. Diameter Diameter is the largest chord of a circle.
4. Secant A secant is a line intersecting a circle in two distinct
points.
5. If two chords APB and CPD intersect at P, then
PA ⋅ PB = PC ⋅ PD.
D B
A P C
6. Tangent A line that touches the circle at only one point is called
a tangent to the circle (RR ′ is a tangent touching the circle at R).
P Y
90° A X
R
O
Q
Y'
R'
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7. A tangent is perpendicular to the radius drawn at the point of

tangency (RR ′ ⊥ OR) i. e. at R.
8. Two tangents can be drawn to the circle from any point outside
the circle and these two tangents are equal in length ( in figure
X is the external point and the two tangents XY and XY ′ are
equal.)
9. One and only one circle passes through any three given
non-collinear points.
10. Two circles are said to touch each other, if a common tangent can
be drawn touching both the circles at the same point. This is
called the point of contact of the two circles. When two circles
touch each other, then the point of contact and the centres of the
two circles are collinear.
11. If two circles touch internally, then the distance between two
centres is equal to the difference of their radii.
12. If two circles touch externally, then the distance between two
centres is equal to the sum of their radii.
13. A common tangent drawn to two circles is called a direct
common tangent, if the tangent cuts the line passing through
the centres not between the two circles but on one side of the
circles.
Direct common tangent
Com
m
tang on
e nt
14. The maximum number of common tangents that can be drawn

for two non-intersecting circles is four. The number of common
tangents that can be drawn for two intersecting circle is 2.
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Geometry 423
Arc and Sector
An arc is a segment of a circle. In the figure, ACB is called minor arc
and ADB is called major arc. In general, when we say it is an arc AB,
we refer to the minor arc. The closed figure AOBCA is called the
sector. ∠AOB is called the angle of the sector.
X
Y
D
O
B
A
C
(i) Angles in the same segment are equal. In the figure,
∠AXB = ∠AYB.
(ii) The angle subtended by an arc at the centre is double the angle
subtended by the arc in the remaining part of the circle. In the
figure, ∠AOB = 2 × ∠AXB = 2 × ∠AYB.
Some Important Theorems

1. If two arcs of a circle are congruent, then the corresponding
chords are equal.
2. The perpendicular from the centre of a circle to a chord bisects
the chord.
3. The line joining the centre to the mid-point of a chord is
perpendicular to the chord.
4. Chords which are equidistant from the corresponding centres
are equal.
5. Equal chords of a circle are equidistant from the centre.
6. The angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
7. Alternate Segment Theorem The segment opposite to the
angle formed by the chord of a circle with the tangent to a point
is called alternate segment for that angle, i.e. ∠ BAT = ∠ ADB.
D B
P A T
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(i) In a ∆ABC, if E and F are the points on AB and AC, respectively and EF is
AE AF
parallel to BC, then = .
AB AC
A
E F
B C
(ii) In a ∆ABC, if AD is the median, then AB2 + AC2 = 2( AD2 + BD2 ).

A
B D C
(iii) In parallelogram, rectangle, rhombus and square, the diagonals bisect

each other.
(iv) If two circles touch each other internally, then the distance between the
two centres is equal to the difference in the radii of the two circles.
(v) If PAB is a secant to a circle intersecting the circle at A and B and PT is a
tangent segment, then PA × PB = PT 2 .
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39
Mensuration
Perimeter and Area of Plane Figure
Plane Figure A figure enclosed by three or more sides or by a
circular boundary.
Perimeter Total length of the sides of a plane figure.
Area Space covered by a plane figure.
Triangle
For any triangle having sides a, b and c, then A
Perimeter = a + b + c = 2 s b
c
1 h
Area = Base × Height = ( a × h )
2
B a C
or Area = s( s − a )( s − b)( s − c), it is called
Heron’s formula.
a+ b+ c
where, s = = semi-perimeter of the triangle.
2
Different Types of Triangles

(i) Right Angled Triangle A
Perimeter = b + d + h d
h
1
Area = ( b × h )
2
C
B b
Hypotenuse = d = h 2 + b2
(ii) Equilateral Triangle A
Perimeter = 3a
a a
3
Altitude = Height ( h ) = a h
2
3 2 B a C
Area = a
4
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(iii) Isosceles Triangle A

Perimeter = a + 2b
4b2 − a 2 b b
Altitude = Height (h) = h
2
a
Area = 4b2 − a 2 B
a
C
4
(iv) Isosceles Right Triangle A
Perimeter = 2a + 2a
b
Hypotenuse (b) = 2a a
1 2
Area = a
2 B C
a
(v) Triangle having Two Sides a

B C
and One Angle γ
β
Perimeter = a + b + c c
b
α
1 1 1
Area = ab sin γ = bc sin α = ac sin β A
2 2 2
B
(vi) Acute Angled Triangle
Perimeter = a + b + c c
a
h
2
bh b  a 2 + b2 − c2 
Area = = a2 −   A C
2 2  2b  b
B
(vii) Obtuse Angled Triangle
Perimeter = a + b + c
c h
2 a
bh h c − a − b
2 2 2
Area = = a2 −  
2 2  2b  A
b C
D
Quadrilateral
Perimeter = AB + BC + CD + DA A
h1 h2
1
Area = ( h1 + h2 )BD
2 B
C
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Mensuration 427
Different Types of Quadrilaterals
(i) Rectangle A l D
Let l = length, b = breadth
Perimeter = 2( l + b)
b b
Area = l × b
Diagonal, AC = BD = l 2 + b2
B l C
(ii) Rectangular Path

Let w be the width of the path.
Perimeter of outer path
= 2 [( l + 2w) + ( b + 2w)] b
Area of outer rectangle l
= ( l + 2w)( b + 2w) w
Area of path = ( l + 2w)( b + 2w) − lb

(iii) Square A a B
Perimeter = 4a
Diagonal AC = BD = 2a = 2 × Area a a
Area = a 2
1 1 1
Area = ( AC )( BD ) = ( AC )2 = ( BD )2 D a C
2 2 2
A D
(iv) Parallelogram
d1
Perimeter = 2( a + b) h
d2
b
Area = a × h
Also, d12 + d22 = 2( a 2 + b2 ) or B a C
Area = 2 s( s − a )( s − b)( s − d )
a+ b+ d
where, s =
2
(v) Rhombus
Perimeter of rhombus = 4a A a D
d1
Area of rhombus = a × h d2
a h a
1
Area of rhombus = d1 d2
2
B a C
Also, d12 + d22 = 4a 2
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(vi) Trapezium A a B
Let a and b are the length of the
parallel sides and h = height h
1
Area = ( a + b) × h D b C
2
Area of trapezium, when the lengths A a B
of parallel and non-parallel sides are
given c h d
a+b
= s( s − k)( s − c)( s − d ) D b
C
k
k+ c+ d
where, k = ( b − a ) and s =
2
Perpendicular distance (h) between the two parallel sides
2
= s( s − k)( s − c)( s − d )
k
(vii) Trapezoid
D
A
h1 h2
B C
a b c
( h1 + h2 )b + ah1 + ch2
Area =
2
A trapezoid can also be divided into two triangles. The area of
each of these triangles is calculated and the result added to find
the area of trapezoid.
Circle
Let radius of circle = r, diameter = d r
Perimeter = 2πr = πd (Q d = 2 r) O
Area = πr 2
(i) Semi-circle
36
Perimeter = ( π + 2)r = πr + d = r
7 r
1
Area = πr 2 A O B
2
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Mensuration 429
(ii) Quarter Circle
π  B
Perimeter =  + 2 r
2 
r
1
Area = πr 2 O A
4
(iii) Sector of a Circle
2πr A
Length of the arc AB = θ r
360°
θ
2πrθ O r
Perimeter of the sector AOB = 2r + B
360°
πr 2
Area of the sector AOB = θ
360°
1
Area of the sector AOB = × arc AB × r
2
(iv) Segment of a Circle
A
Minor
segment
θ
B
O
Major
segment
r 2  θπ 
Area of minor segment =  − sin θ
2 180° 
r 2 ( 360° − θ )n 
Area of major segment = + sin θ
2  180° 
Concentric Circles
Perimeter = 2π (r1 + r2) r2
Area of the shaded region r1
= π (r22 − r12 )
= π (r2 + r1 )(r2 − r1 )
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(i) Path Around a Garden/Verandah Around a Room
Area of the verandah
l
= 2 (Width of verandah) × [Length d
b
+ Breadth of room + 2 (Width of verandah)]
= 2 × d × [l + b + 2d ]
(ii) If area of the verandah is A and the width of the verandah is d,
then area of the ‘square shaped’ garden/room is given by
2
 A − 4d 2 
Area of garden/room =  
 4d 
(iii) If area of a rectangle is A and the ratio of its sides is a : b, then
First side = Area × Ratio = A × ( a : b)
Second side = Area × Inverse ratio = A × (b : a)
(iv) Regular Polygon
1
Area of a regular polygon = × Number of sides
2
× Radius of the inscribed circle
3 3
(a) Area of regular hexagon = × (Side)2
2
(b) Area of regular octagon = 2 ( 2 + 1 )(Side)2
(v) If the area of the square is A, then area of the circle formed by
4A
the same perimeter = .
π
(vi) If all the measuring sides of a plane figure, is
increased/decreased by x%, then
(a) Its perimeter increases/decreases by x %.
 x2   x2 
(b) Its area increases or decreases by  2x +  % or  2x −  %.
 100  100
(vii) Area of room = Length × Breadth
(viii) Area of 4 walls of a room = 2(Length + Breadth) × Height
a
(ix) Radius of incircle of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ =
2 3
a
(x) Radius of circumcircle of an equilateral triangle of side ‘a’ =
3
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Mensuration 431
(xi) Angle inscribed by minute hand in 60 min = 360°
(xii) Angle inscribed by hour hand in 12 h = 360°
(xiii) Angle inscribed by minute hand in 1 min = 6°
(xiv) Distance moved by a wheel in one revolution = Circumference of
the wheel = 2πr, where r is the radius of a circle
(xv) If the length of a square/rectangle is increased by x% and the
breadth is decreased by y%, the net effect on the area is given by
 xy 
Net effect = x − y − %
 100
(xvi) If the side of a square/rectangle/triangle is doubled the area is
increased by 300%, i.e. the area becomes four times of itself.
(xvii) If the radius of a circle is decreased by x %, the net effect on the
 x2   x2 
area is  −  %, i.e. the area is decreased by   %.
 100  100
(xviii) If a floor of dimensions ( l × b) is to be covered by a carpet of width
 lb
w metre the length of the carpet is   m.
 w
(xix) If a floor of dimensions ( l × b) m is to be covered by a carpet of
width w metre at the rate ` X per metre, then the total amount
 Xlb
required is `  .
 w 
(xx) If a room of dimensions ( l × b)m is to be paved with square tiles,
then
(a) the side of the square tile = HCF of l and b
l×b
(b) the number of tiles required =
(HCF of l and b)2
(xxi) If the sides of a rectangular field of area x sq m are in the ratio
m n
m:n, then the sides are given by x ⋅ and x ⋅ .
n m
(xxii) If the side of a regular polygon is a and the polygon has n sides,
n  π 
then the area of the polygon is  cot    a 2 sq units.
 4  n
(xxiii) Area of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2r 2 and the
side of a square inscribed in a circle of radius r is 2r.
(xxiv) The area of the largest triangle inscribed in a semi-circle of
radius r is r 2.
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(xxv) The number of diagonals of a regular polygon of n sides is

n ( n − 3)
given by .
2
(xxvi) (a) If a square hall x metre long is surrounded by a verandah (on
the outside of the hall) d metre wide, the area of the
verandah is given by 4d ( x + d ) sq m.
(b) If the verandah is made inside the hall, then area of
verandah is given by 4d ( x − d ) sq m.
Surface Area and Volume of Solid Figure

Surface Area Area covered by the outer surface of a solid.
Volume Amount of space occupied by a solid.

(i) The capacity of a container is equal to its volume.
(ii) The volume of the material in a hollow body is equal to the difference
between the external volume and internal volume.
(iii) To find the cost of polishing/covering/painting of a solid, firstly we will
have to find its exposed surface area and then multiply it by unit cost.
(iv) To find the quantity of a substance continued in a solid, we find its
volume.
(v) Volume of water accumulated on a roof after rain
= Surface area of roof × Rain falls
Solid Figure
The objects which occupy space (i.e. they have three dimensions) are
called solids.
1. Cuboid (Parallelopiped)
A figure which is surrounded by six rectangular surfaces is called
cuboid.
h
b
l
Lateral surface area = 2( l + b)h
Total surface area = 2( lb + bh + lh )
Volume = lbh
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Mensuration 433
Length of the diagonal = l 2 + b2 + h 2
Area of base / top × Area of side face
Volume =
× Area of other side face
2. Cube
A cuboid whose length, breadth and height are same is called a cube.
a
a
Let side of a cube be a.

Lateral surface area = 4a 2
Total surface area = 6a 2
Volume = a3
Length of the diagonal = 3a
Edge of a cube = 3 Volume
3. Right Circular Cylinder

A right circular cylinder is considered as a solid generated by the
revolution of a rectangle about one of its sides.
Curved surface area = 2πrh = πdh
Total surface area = 2πrh + 2πr 2 h
d 
= 2πr(r + h ) = π d  + h r
2 
Volume = πr 2h = 0.7854 d 2h
4. Hollow Cylinder
Curved surface area = 2π ( R + r )h
Total surface area = 2π ( R + r )( h + R − r )
Volume = πh ( R 2 − r 2 )
or Volume of material = π( R 2 − r 2 )h
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5. Right Circular Cone

A right circular cone is a solid generated by revolving of a right angled
triangle through one of its sides (other than hypotenuse) containing
the right angle as axis.
l
h
Curved surface area = πrl

Total surface area = πrl + πr 2 = π( l + r )
1 2
Volume = πr h
3
Slant height, l = h 2 + r 2
6. Frustum of Right Circular Cone

If a right circular cone is cut off by a plane parallel to its base, then the
portion of the cone between the cutting plane and the base of the cone
is called a frustum of the cone.
r1
h l
r2
Slant height = l = h 2 + (r2 − r1 )2

Curved surface area = π(r1 + r2 )l
Total surface area = π[(r1 + r2 )l + r12 + r22 ]
πh 2
Volume = (r1 + r22 + r1r2 )
3
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Mensuration 435
7. Sphere
A sphere is a solid generated by the revolution of a
semi-circle about its diameter.
Surface area = 4πr 2 = π d 2
d
4 3 π 3 r
Volume = πr = d
3 6
8. Hemisphere
A plane passing through the centre of a sphere, divides the sphere into
two equal parts. Each part is called a hemisphere.
Curved surface area = 2πr 2

Total surface area = 2πr 2 + πr 2 = 3πr 2
2
Volume = πr3
3
9. Hollow Sphere (Shell)

The solid enclosed between two concentric spheres is called a hollow
sphere.
r2 r1
d
d D
r2
4
Volume of the material = π(r23 − r13 )
3
π
= ( D3 − d 3 )
6
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10. Frustum of a Sphere

πd 2 2 2 2
Volume = { 3 ( a 2 − d1 ) + 3 ( a 2 − d2 ) + d2 − 2d1d2 + d1 }
6
πd 2 2
= ( 3r1 + 3r2 + d 2 ), where d = d2 − d1
6
Y
A
B
a r1
r2
a X
X' L M
d1
d2
Y'
Curved surface area = 2 π a (d2 − d1 ) = 2πad

2 2
Total surface area = 2π ad + ( πr1 + πr2 )
2 2
= π ( 2ad + r1 + r2 )
11. Tours (Solid Ring)

Tours is a solid revolution of three dimensions obtained when a circle
is rotated about an axis lying in its plane but not intersecting the
circle. e.g. A cycle tubes, rings, tennikoit ring, bangles, life belt.
If radius of the circle which rotates is r and a is the distance between
centre of the surface of circle and the axis of revolution, then
Curved surface area of tours = 2πr × 2 πa = 4π 2 ra
Volume of the tours = πr 2 × 2πa = 2π 2r 2a
Area of the ring around the top of the hemispherical vessel = π (R 2 − r 2 )
Total surface area of a hemispherical vessel = 3 π (R 2 + r 2 )
where, R = Outer radius, r = Inner radius
12. Right Prism

A right prism is a prism in which the joining edges and faces are
perpendicular to the base faces.
Lateral surface area = Perimeter of base × Height
Whole surface area = Lateral surface area + 2 × Area of base
Volume = Area of base × Height
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Mensuration 437
(i) Triangular Prism
A three sided prism having parallel bases and in
equilateral triangle. Lateral surface area = 3ah
3 2
Total surface area = 3ah + a h
4 a
3 2
Volume = a ×h
4
(ii) Pentagonal Prism
Surface area of pentagonal = 3a 2
h
Lateral surface area = 5a × h = 5ah
Total surface area = 5ah + 2 3a 2
a
Volume = 3a 2 × h = 3a 2h
(iii) Hexagonal Prism
3 3 2
Surface area of hexagonal = a = 2.5981 a 2
2
h
Lateral surface area = 6a × h = 6ah
3 3 2
Total surface area = 6ah + a
2
a
3 3 2
Volume = a h = 2.5981a 2h
2
13. Pyramid
It is a structure whose outer surfaces are triangular and converge to
a single point at the top.
1
Lateral surface area = × Perimeter of base × Slant height
2
Total surface area = Lateral surface area + Area of base
1
Volume = × Area of base × Height
3
(i) Triangular Pyramid
1
Lateral surface area = ( 3a ) × s s
h
2
3
= as
2
3 3 2
Total surface area = as + a a
2 4
1 3 2 3 2
Volume = × a ×h= a h
3 4 12
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(ii) Square Pyramid

1
Lateral surface area = × 4a × s = 2as
2 s
h
Total surface area = 2as + a 2
1 a 2h
Volume = × h × a2 =
3 3
a
(iii) Pentagonal Pyramid
1 5
Lateral surface area = × 5a × s = as
2 2
5 s
Total surface area = as + 3a 2
2
1 1 2
Volume = × 3a = 2
a h
3 3
a
(iv) Hexagonal Pyramid
1
Lateral surface area = × 6a × s = 3as
2 s
3 3 2
Total surface area = 3as + a h
2
3 2
Volume = a h a
2

(i) If a cuboid has length, breadth and height be a, b and c, each of
thickness d, then capacity = ( a − 2d )( b − 2d )( c − 2d )
Volume of material = abc − [( a − 2d )( b − 2d )( c − 2d )]
(ii) If three cubes of sides a, b and c are melted and a new cube is
formed of side x, then x = 3 a3 + b3 + c3 .
(iii) Volume of water released by a pipe
= Rate of flow × Area of cross section × Time
(iv) If a solid is transformed into a number of small identical solids,
then
Volume of large solid
Number of small solids =
Volume of small solid
(v) Change in the Dimensions
(a) Cuboid If length, breadth and height of a cuboid is
increased by
x%, y% and z% respectively, then increase is volume
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Mensuration 439
 xy + yz + zx xyz 
is given by x + y + z + +  %.
 100 (100 )2 
(b) Cube If the sides of the cube are changed by x%, then
 3x 2 x3 
change in the volume is given by 3x + + %
 100 (100)2 
 x 
3 
or  1 +  − 1 × 100%.
 100 
(c) Sphere If the radius of a sphere is changed by x%, then

change in its volume is given by
 3x 2 x3   x 
3 
 3x + + 2
% or   1 +  − 1 × 100%.
 100 100   100 
(d) Cylinder If height of a cylinder is changed by x%, then

change in its volume = x%.
(e) If height and radius are changed by x% and y% respectively,
then change in its volume is given by
 x 2 + 2xy x2 y 
2x + y + +  %.
 100 (100)2 
(f) If height and radius are changed by x%, then change in the
volume is given by
 3x 2 x3 
3x + +  %.
 100 (100)2 
(g) If the length, breadth and height of cuboid are made x, y

and z times respectively, its volume is increased by
( xyz − 1) × 100%.
(h) If the sides and diagonal of a cuboid are given, then the total
surface area in terms of diagonal and sides is given by
Total surface area = (Sum of the sides) 2− (Diagonal) 2.
(i) If the side of a cube is increased by x%, then surface area is

 x2 
increased by 2x +  %.
 100
(j) If each side of a cube is doubled, its volume becomes 8 times.

i.e. Volume is increased by 700%.
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Some Great Mathematicians

& Their Contributions
Archimedes
The greatest mathematicians of ancient era, Archimedes made
phenomenal contribution in the field of Mathematics. His works
include integral calculus studies and finding various computation
techniques to determine volume and area of several shapes including
the conic section.
Euclid
Euclid, the ‘father of Geometry’, wrote the book ,"Euclid’s Elements",
that is considered to be the greatest piece of historical works in
Mathematics. The book is divided into 13 parts and in it, Euclid has
discussed in details about geometry (what is now called Euclidean
geometry). His contributions are also famous in the fields of spherical
geometry, conic sections and number theory.
Aryabhatta
Aryabhatta, the greatest Indian mathematician of ancient era, has
been famous for his mathematical works and theorems on
astronomical bodies that have been found to be very accurate in terms
of modern calculations. “Aryabhatiya”, his only work to have survived
has given the world innumerable theorems and research subjects. His
two other major contributions are the introduction of zero to the world
and calculating the approximate value of pie. His works are also
spread in fields like include algebra, arithmetic, trigonometry,
quadratic equations and the sine table.
Ramanujan
Srinivasa Ramanujan Iyengar, the greatest Indian mathematician of
20 th century, contributed immensely in fields like number theory,
mathematical analysis, string theory and crystallography.
His genius has been admired by some greatest contemporary
mathematicians of his time. He is hailed to be one of the most famous
mathematicians in the field of number theory. Although he lived for a
short span of 32 yr, he compiled nearly 3900 phenomenal results that
leave even the best mathematical brains of today in sheer awe and
wonder!
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Some Great Mathematicians 441

Brahmagupta
He gave four methods of multiplication. He gave the following formula,
used in GP series a + ar + ar 2 + ar3 + . . . + ar n −1 = ( ar n −1 ) ÷ (r ). He gave
the following formulae : Area of a cyclic quadrilateral with side
a , b, c and d is ( s − a )( s − b)( s − c)( s − d ), where 2 s = a + b + c + d.
Rene Descartes
The French philosopher and mathematician, Rene Descartes was
famous for his method of expressing geometric shapes in the form of
algebraic equation. It was because of Rene Descartes that we got
introduced to the beautiful branch of coordinate geometry. The
Cartesian coordinates, in fact, refer to his name. Besides this Rene
made valuable contributions in the field of optics and energy
conservation.
Leonhard Euler
Euler, a Swiss mathematician and physicists is widely acclaimed for
his contributions in the field of function notation. His mathematical
genius has been proved by his contribution in the fields of infinitesimal
calculus and graph theory. His mathematical works and research in
optics, mechanics, fluid dynamics have been hailed to be very
influential.
Fibonacci
Leonardo of Pisa, the greatest European Italian mathematician,
popularly known as Fibonacci, was the first mathematician to
introduce Hindu - Arabic system in Europe, that is the positional
system of using ten digits with a decimal point and zero. He is popular
for using Fibonacci number sequence, that is, 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, ... in
the book authored by him, known as Book of Calculation, the Liber
Abaci.
Carl F. Gauss M
Carl F. Gauss, a German mathematician, known as Princeps
mathematicorum meaning, “the Prince of Mathematicians” or “the
foremost of mathematicians” was a child prodigy and a genius. Even as
a teenager, he is believed to have made remarkable mathematical
contributions. Carl F. Gauss made path breaking contributions in
fields like set theory, statistics, differential analysis, geophysics,
electrostatics, number theory and astronomy. He proved the
fundamental theorem of Algebra and made various contribution in
number theory.
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Sir Isaac Newton

Sir Isaac Newton was one of the greatest mathematician and physicist,
the world has ever produced. His contributions in mathematics are
spread in almost every field.
However, he developed Calculus, both differential and integral, that
are still the most important aspects of higher Mathematics. Using
Calculus, he made it easier to find the area bounded by closed curves.
In Physics, his most famous and world changing contribution was the
discovery of existence of gravitation force in our surrounding.
Blaise Pascal
Blaise Pascal, French philosopher, mathematician and physicist,
contributed in several areas of Mathematics, but he is widely known
for Pascal’s triangle. He invented the first mechanical adding machine
in the year 1642.
The unit of atmospheric pressure, Pascal (Pa) has been named in his
honor. He also made contributions in the field of computer and the
programming language pascal was named after him, in 1972.
Pythagoras
The Greek mathematician and philosopher, known as the ‘father of
numbers’, is famous for the discovery of Pythagorean theorem formula,
which states that in a right angled triangle, the square of the
hypotenuse (z), is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two
sides, x and y that is x 2 + y 2 = z 2.
Benjamin Banneker
A child prodigy, a watch designer and a mathematician, Bannerker
discovered many puzzles in fields of trigonometry. He was a genius in
logarithms and used them extensively in trigonometry. He is still
regarded as the most popular black mathematician.
John Von Neumann
The Hungarian-American mathematician, physicist, John made
valuable contribution in several fields like set theory, functional
analysis, quantum mechanics, ergodic theory, continuous geometry
and statistics.
His operator theory in mechanics is still regarded as one of his most
pioneering works. He was also a key figure in the development of game
theory.
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Joseph Fourier
The Fourier’s law and Fourier transform are named after him. He is
also accredited with the discovery of the green house effect. He is
popular for discovering Fourier series and its uses in determining the
application of real life examples in heat transfer and vibrations.
Sophie Germain
Especially known for her work on ‘Fermat’s Last Theorem’, Sophie was
one of the initiators of the elasticity theory and also contributed to
number theory and philosophy. She was regarded as ‘the
revolutionary mathematician’ of her times.
Amalie Emmy Noether
She gave path breaking theorems in algebra field. The most popular,
“Noether’s Theorem” connects symmetry and conservation laws in
Physics. She also made valuable contributions to the theories of
algebraic invariants and number fields.
Albert Einstein
The scientific world was amused by the Einstein’s theory of relativity.
Although Albert Einstein was physicist, his applied mathematical
theorems to reach to apt conclusions. Known as “father of Physics”, he
can be best described as a mathematical physicist. He also won the
Nobel Prize in 1921 for his contributions to Physics and the discovery
of law of photoelectric effect.
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Appendix 1
Table of Symbols
Symbol Reference
= equal to
≠ not equal to
≡ identity
~− approximately equal to
≅ congruent to
→ approaches, ray
∝ proportional to
< less than
>| not less than
> greater than
|> not greater than
≤ less than or equal to
≥ greater than or equal to
<< much less than
>> much greater than
∞ infinity
σ or ∑ sigma
% percentage
+ plus, positive
− minus, negative
± plus or minus
a×b
123 123
multiplication
a⋅ b
a÷b division
a/b
∴ therefore
Q since
— line segment
∠ acute angle
⊥ perpendicular
|| parallel
triangle
rectangle
square
log b a logarithm (to base b)
log10 a common logarithm
loge a or ln a natural logarithm
∧ conjunction (and)
∨ disjunction (or)
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Symbol Reference
⇒, ⇔ implication
negation, equivalence
~
relation
∃, ∀ quantifier
{} set
empty set, void set,
φ
null set
P( A ) power set
∈, ∉ belongs to/does not belong to
⊆, ⊇ subset
⊂, ⊃ proper subset
∪, U union
∩, I intersection
A ′, A complement
∅ empty set
A×B cartesian product
A−B difference set
A∆ B symmetric difference
n( A ), # ( A ) cardinality
n! factorial
() small bracket
{} semi bracket
[] large bracket
closed interval, least
[a, b ]
common multiple
open interval,
( a, b ) greatest common
divisor
[a, b ), ( a, b ] interval open at one
end
 n
  or nC r binomial coefficient
 
r 
[ x] integer part
{ x} fractional part
(x) least integer
| x| absolute value
| z| modulus
z conjugate
i imaginary
Re (z) real part
Im (z) imaginary part
arg (z) or amp (z) argument
multiplicative inverse
z− 1 or reciprocal
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Symbol Reference
ω,ω 2 cube roots of unity
→
AB directed line segment
→
| AB|,| AB| length
square root
n nth root
Σ, ∑ summation
Π, ∏ product
π pi
aRb a relation to b
R −1 inverse relation
f : x→ y function, mapping
f :S → T function, mapping
x→ h limit
fog composition
inverse function,
f −1
inverse mapping
df dy derivative, derived
f ′, , y′ ,
dx dx function
f ′′, f ′′′, … , f ( n),
123
d 2f d nf higher derivative
2
, …,
dx dx n
y ′′, y ′′′, … , y( n),
123
d 2y d ny higher derivative
2
, …,
dx dx n
∂f ∂f
fx , fy , f1, f2, , partial derivative
∂x ∂y
fxx, fxy , …, f11, f12, higher order partial
derivative
∂ 2f ∂ 2f
123
…, , ,…
∂x 2
∂x ∂y
⋅⋅ rate of change
x&, x
indefinite integral,
∫ anti-derivative
b
∫a definite integral
| a| magnitude of a
a⋅ b scalar product
a×b vector product
a ⋅ (b × c ), [ a b c ] scalar triple product
a × (b × c) vector triple product
[ ] or ( ) or || || matrix
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Symbol Reference
diag ( a11, a22..., ann ) diagonal matrix
I identity matrix
A conjugate matrix
A θ or A * transpose conjugate
adj ( A ) adjoint
M ij minor
C ij cofactor
ρ( A ) rank of matrix
AT , A t , A ′ transpose matrix
A −1 inverse matrix
| A| determinant
G, O or (G,O ) group
R, + , × or
123
( R, + ×, ) ring
E( X ) expected value
σ standard deviation
Var ( X ) or σ 2 variance
Cov ( X , Y ) covariance
P( A) probability
P ( A / B) conditional probability
Appendix 2
Table of Greek Letters
Name Capital Lower case Name Capital Lower case
Alpha A α Nu N ν
Beta B β Xi Ξ ξ
Gamma Γ γ Omicron Ο ο
Delta ∆ δ Pi Π π
Epsilon E ε Rho Ρ ρ
Zeta Z ζ Sigma Σ σ
Eta E η Tau Τ τ
Theta Θ θ Upsilon ϒ υ
Iota Ι ι Phi φ φ
Kappa Κ κ Chi X χ
Lambda Λ λ Psi Ψ ψ
Mu M µ Omega Ω ω
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Appendix 3
Table of Roman Numerals
The basic values are I = 1, V = 5, X = 10, L = 50, C = 100, D = 500 and
M = 1000.
If smaller numbers follow larger numbers, then the numbers are
added, but if a smaller number comes before a larger number it is
subtracted, so CM is 900 and MC is 1100.
Number Roman Number Roman Number Roman Number Roman

1 I 49 XLIX 16 XVI 200 CC
2 II 50 L 17 XVII 300 CCC
3 III 51 LI 18 XVIII 400 CD
4 IV 55 LV 19 XIX 500 D
5 V 60 LX 20 XX 600 DC
6 VI 70 LXX 21 XXI 700 DCC
7 VII 80 LXXX 22 XXII 800 DCCC
8 VIII 90 XC 23 XXIII 900 CM
9 IX 95 XCV 24 XXIV 1000 M
10 X 99 XCIX 25 XXV 1100 MC
11 XI 100 C 30 XXX 1500 MD
12 XII 101 CI 35 XXXV 1900 MCM
13 XIII 105 CV 40 XL 2000 MM
14 XIV 110 CX 45 XLV 2009 MMIX
15 XV 150 CL
Appendix 4
Conversion of Units
Conversion of Length
10 millimetres (mms) = 1 centimetre (cm)
10 centimetres = 1 decimetre (dm)
10 decimetres = 1 metre (m)
10 metres = 1 decametre (dam)
10 decametres = 1 hectometre (hm)
10 hectometres = 1 kilometre (km)
Conversion of Area
100 square millimetres = 1 square centimetre
100 square centimetres = 1 square decimetre
100 square decimetres = 1 square metre
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100 square metres = 1 square decametre
100 square decametres = 1 square hectometre
100 square hectometres = 1 square kilometre
1 hectare = 10000 square metres
Conversion of Volume
1000 cubic millimetres = 1 cubic centimetre
1000 cubic centimetres = 1 cubic decimetre
1000 cubic decimetres = 1 cubic metre
1000 cubic metres = 1 cubic decametre
1000 cubic decametres = 1 cubic hectometre
1000 cubic hectometres = 1 cubic kilometre
Conversion of Capacity
10 millilitres = 1 centilitre
10 centilitres = 1 decilitre
10 decilitres = 1 litre
10 litres = 1 decalitre
10 decalitres = 1 hectolitre
10 hectolitres = 1 kilolitre
Conversion of Weight
10 milligrams = 1 centigram
10 centigrams = 1 decigram
10 decigrams = 1 gram (g)
10 grams = 1 decagram
10 decagrams = 1 hectogram
10 hectograms = 1 kilogram (kg)
100 kilograms = 1 quintal
10 quintals or 1000 kg = 1 metric tonn.
Conversion of Time
60 seconds = 1 minute
60 minutes = 1 hour
24 hours = 1 day
7 days = 1 week
15 days = 1 fortnight
28, 29, 30 or 31 days = 1 month
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12 months = 1 year
365 days = 1 year
366 days = 1 leap year
10 years = decade
25 years = silver jubilee
50 years = golden jubilee
60 years = diamond jubilee
75 years = radium jubilee or platinum jubilee
100 years = century
1000 years = 10 centuries or 1 millenium
Equivalents of Units
Units of Lengths
12 inches = 1 feet (ft) = 0.348 metres
3 feet = 1 yard (d)
1 yard = 0.9144 metres
22 yards = 1 chain
1 kilometre = 0.621 mile or 103 metres
1 mile = 1.6093 kilometres or 1760 yards
1 inche = 2.54 centimetres
1 hectare = 2.471 acres
Units of Area
1 square feet = 144 square inches
= 0.0929 square metres
1 square metre = 1.196 square yards
1 square yard = 0.836 square metres
1 square kilometre = 0.3861 square miles
= 1000 hectares
1 square mile = 2.59 square kilometres
= 640 acres
1 acre = 4840 square yards
= 4046.86 square metres
100 square metres = 1 acre
100 acres = 1 hectare = 1000 square metres
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Appendix 5
Expansion of Some Useful Series
x x2 xn
(i) ex = 1 + + +…+ +… (for all x)
1! 2! n!
x x2 x3 xn
(ii) e− x = 1 − + − + ... + ( −1)n (for all x)
1! 2! 3! x!
x3 x5 x7 x 2n + 1
(iii) sin x = x − + − + … + ( −1)n +… (for all x)
3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
(iv) cos x = 1 − + − + … + ( −1)n +… (for all x)
2! 4! 6! ( 2n )!
x3 2 5
(v) tan x = x + + x + ... (for all x)
3 15
x3 x5 x7 x 2n + 1
(vi) sinh x = x + + + +…+ +… (for all x)
3! 5! 7! ( 2n + 1)!
x2 x4 x6 x 2n
(vii) cosh x = 1 ( + x ) + + + +…+ +… (for all x)
2! 4! 6! ( 2n )!
x 2 x3 x 4 xn
(viii) ln(1 + x ) = x − + − + … + ( −1)n + 1 +… ( −1 < x ≤ 1)
2 3 4 n
 x 2 x3 xn 
(ix) ln(1 − x ) = −  x + + + ... + + ... ( −1 ≤ x < 1)
 2 3 n 
x3 x5 x7 x 2n + 1
(x) tan−1 x = x − + − + … + ( −1)n + 1 + … ( −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
3 5 7 2n + 1
1 x3 1 × 3 x5 1 × 3 × 5 x7
(xi) sin−1 x = x + ⋅ + ⋅ + ⋅ +…
2 3 2× 4 5 2× 4× 6 7
 2n  x 2n + 1
+   2n + … ( −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
 n  2 ( 2n + 1)
x3
(xii) cos−1 x = x − +L ( −1 ≤ x ≤ 1)
6
α α(α − 1) 2
(xiii) (1 + x )α = 1 + x + x +L
1! 2!
α(α − 1) … (α − n + 1) n
+ x +L
n!
( −1 < x < 1)
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Appendix 6
Derivatives of Different Functions
dy dy
y y
dx dx
xn nx n−1 cosh x sinh x
du dv
u + v + tanh x sech2 x
dx dx
u
dv
+ v
du cosech x − cosech x coth x
uv
dx dx sech x – sech x tanh x
1  du
− u 
u dv 1
v coth−1 x
v v 2  dx dx  1 − x2
1
ax a sinh−1 x
( x 2 + 1)
1
sin x cos x cosh−1 x
( x 2 − 1)
1
cos x − sin x tanh−1 x
x2 − 1
1
−
tan x sec 2 x cosech−1 x
x (1 + x 2 )
1
−
cosec x − cosec x cot x sech−1x
x (1 − x 2 )
1
sec x sec x tan x coth−1x − 2
x −1
cot x − cosec 2 x
1
1
cot −1 x −
sin −1
x 1 + x2
(1 − x 2 )
1
−
cos −1 x 1
(1 − x 2 )
sec −1 x
1 x ( x 2 − 1)
tan−1 x
1 + x2
e x
ex 1
−
cosec −1 x
e −x – e −x x ( x 2 − 1)
a x
a x log a 1
log x
sinh x cosh x x
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Appendix 7
Integrals of Different Functions
y ∫ y dx y ∫ y dx
1 1
sin2 x x − sin2 x + C
x n +1 2 4
x n + C for n ≠ − 1
n+ 1 1 1
x + sin2 x + C
cos 2 x
2 4
dv du sec x + C
∫
u uv − v dx + C sec x tan x
dx dx cosec x cot x − cosec x + C
1
ln| x| + C cosec 2 x − cot x + C
x
f ′( x )
ln| f( x )| + C sec 2 x tan x + C
f( x )
1
ln|ln x| + C sin−1 x x sin−1 x + (1 − x 2 ) + C
x ln x
ln x x ln x − x + C cos −1 x x cos −1 x − (1 − x 2 ) + C
ln x 1 1
(ln x )2 + C tan−1 x x tan−1 x − ln(1 + x 2 ) +C
x 2 2
1
ex ex + C cot −1 x x cot −1 x + ln(1 + x 2 ) +C
2
1 ax
e ax e +C sinh x cosh x + C
a
ax
ax +C cosh x sinh x + C
ln a
a +1
x  ln x − 1  C ,
 +
x a ln x a + 1 a + 1 tanh x ln cosh x + C
for a ≠ − 1 coth x ln|sinh x| + C

1
sin x − cos x + C cosech x ln|tanh x| + C
2
cos x sin x + C sech x 2 tan−1 e x + C
tan x − ln|cos x| + C sinh−1 x x sinh−1 x − ( x 2 + 1) + C
cot x ln|sin x| + C cosh−1 x x cosh−1 x − ( x 2 − 1) + C
1
sec x ln( sec x + tan x ) + C tanh−1 x x tanh−1 x + ln(1 − x 2 ) + C
2
1
cosec x ln(cosecx − cot x ) + C coth−1 x x coth−1 x + ln( x 2 − 1) + C
2
1 1 x x
tan−1 + C − (a2 − x2 ) + C
x2 + a2 a a (a2 − x2 )
1 x 1 x
sinh−1 +C cosh−1 +C
(a2 + x2 ) a ( x2 − a2 ) a
1 1 a 1 1 a
− sin−1 + C − sinh−1 + C
x ( x2 − a2 ) a x x ( x2 + a2 ) a x
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y ∫ y dx y ∫ y dx
1 x
− a 2 cos −1
1 x 2 a
sin−1 +C (a2 − x2 )
(a2 − x2 ) a 1
+ x (a2 − x2 ) + C
2
1 1 a− x 1 2 x
ln + C, a cosh−1
x2 − a2 2a a + x 2 a
( x2 − a2 )
for| x| < a, a > 0 +
1
x ( x2 − a2 ) + C
2
1 x−a 1 2 x
ln +C a sinh−1
2a x+ a 2 a
( x2 + a2 )
1
for| x| > a, a > 0 + x ( x2 + a2 ) + C
x 2
(a + x2 )
2
(a2 + x2 ) + C
Note Where, C is the constant of integration.
Reduction Formulae
For a positive integer
sinn −1 ax cos ax n − 1
∫ sin ax dx = − ∫ sin
n −2
(i) n
+ ax dx
na n
cosn −1 ax sin ax n − 1
∫ cos ax dx = +
n ∫
cosn − 2 ax dx
n
(ii)
na
1
(iii) When n > 1, ∫ tann ax dx = tann −1 ax − ∫ tann − 2 ax dx
a( n − 1)
1 n ax n n −1 ax
∫x e dx = x e − ∫ x e dx
n ax
(iv)
a a
∫ (ln x ) dx = x(ln x )n − n ∫ (ln x )n −1 dx
n
(v)

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ARIHANT PRAKASHAN, (SERIES) MEERUT

Arihant Prakashan (Series), Meerut

All disputes subject to Meerut (UP) jurisdiction only.

Administrative & Production Offices

Sales & Support Offices

Published by Arihant Publications (India) Ltd.

The objectives of publishing this handbook are :

7. Binomial Theorem and ! Random Variable

14. Inverse Trigonometric ! Equation of Tangent

16. Straight Line 166-175 19. Ellipse 200-208

! Normal Equation of 24. Indefinite

28. Vectors 291-304 31. Mathematical

! Surds 36. Elementary

Methods for Describing a Set

(ii) Singleton Set A set containing a single element.

Subset and Superset

Universal Set (U)

Sets and Relations 3

Laws of Union of Sets

Sets and Relations 5

4. Complement of a Set A' U

Important Points to be Remembered

Results on Number of Elements in Sets

Equality of Ordered Pairs

Cartesian (or Cross) Product of Sets

Sets and Relations 7

Domain, Codomain and Range of a Relation

Sets and Relations 9

Important Results on Relation

Domain, Codomain and Range of a Function

Functions and Binary Operations 11

Number of One-One Functions

(ii) Graphically If any line parallel to X-axis cuts the graph of

(iii) Monotonically If the function is neither strictly increasing

Functions and Binary Operations 13

i.e. Range = Codomain

Number of Onto (or Surjective) Functions

Number of Bijective Functions

Real Valued and Real Functions

Functions and Binary Operations 15

Standard Real Functions and their Graphs

Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ )

Functions and Binary Operations 17

6. Square Root Function

7. Modulus (or Absolute Value) Function

Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = [0, ∞ ).

Functions and Binary Operations 19

where, [x ] represents the greatest integer less than or equal to x. In

Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = I , the set of integers.

10. Least Integer Function/Ceiling

Thus, (3.578) = 4, (0.87) = 1, (4) = 4, ( − 8.239) = − 8, ( − 0.7) = 0

11. Fractional Part Function

Functions and Binary Operations 21

12. Exponential Function

Domain of f ( x ) = R and Range of f ( x ) = ( 0, ∞ )

13. Logarithmic Function

Domain of f ( x ) = ( 0, ∞ ) and Range of f ( x ) = R

Operations on Real Functions

Composition of Two Functions