FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, MANIPAL

ADVANCED LANDSCAPE DESIGN

LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
TIME SAVERS STANDARDS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
SHAMA VAZID

2016
CONTENTS
TOPIC 1: LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
1. What is landscape conservation
2. Need for landscape conservation
3. Design considerations
4. Urban development to suburban sprawl
5. Types of landscape conservation

5.1 Mountain landscape conservation

5.2 Riverine landscape conservation
5.3 Desert landscape conservation
5.4 Coastal landscape conservation
5.5 Tropical rainforest landscape conservation

TOPIC 2: TIME SAVERS STANDARDS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE- MATERIALS AND STANDARDS

1. Introduction to materials
2. Wood
3. Metal
4. Plastics and glass
5. Geotextiles
6. Soils and aggregates
7. Clay masonry
8. Concrete masonry
9. Stone
10. Mortar
11. Asphalt
12. Spatial standards
13. Energy and resource conservation
14. Outdoor accessibility
15. Hazards

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What is natural landscape?
A natural landscape is the original landscape that exists before it is acted upon by human culture.The natural
landscape and the cultural landscape are separate parts of the landscape. However, in the twenty-first century
landscapes that are totally untouched by human activity no longer exist, so that reference is sometimes now made
to degrees of naturalness within a landscape.

The natural and conservation

Matters are complicated by the fact that the words nature and natural have more than one meaning. On the one
hand there is the main dictionary meaning for nature: "The phenomena of the physical world collectively, including
plants, animals, the landscape, and other features and products of the earth, as opposed to humans or human
creations". On the other hand, there is the growing awareness, especially since Charles Darwin, of humanities
biological affinity with nature.
The dualism of the first definition has its roots is an "ancient concept", because early people viewed "nature, or the
nonhuman world […] as a divine Other, godlike in its separation from humans".In the West, Christianity's myth
of the fall, that is the expulsion of humankind from the Garden of Eden, where all creation lived in harmony, into an
imperfect world, has been the major influence. Cartesian dualism, from the seventeenth century on, further
reinforced this dualistic thinking about nature. With this dualism goes value judgement as to the superiority of the
natural over the artificial. Modern science, however, is moving towards a holistic view of nature.

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DESIGNING THE NATURAL LANDSCAPE –RICHARD L. AUSTIN
NATURAL LANDSCAPE

The natural landscape is comprised of ecologically placed species of plant

materials and is void of any formal human manipulation in the selection,
location or perpetuation of the vegetative compositions.

NATIVE LANDSCAPE

The native landscape is a planting composition with introduced materials

originally from another geographic or ecological locale that have transferred into
their new setting for a specific, ornamental purpose.

TYPES OF NATURAL SYSTEMS

Floodplain Forest -Coniferous Forest

-Alpine Forest -Deciduous Forest
-Woodland and Bushland -Grassland
-Tall Grass Praire -Mixed Grass Praire
-Semi Desert -Desert

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

The future health and survival of the natural landscape depends upon the design of an environment that is closely
linked to its vegetative condition prior to destruction . The conservation of the natural landscape is critical in areas
such as mine spoils, burned acreages, overused farmsteads or public wilderness to return them to their Pre-damage
condition.

MINESPOILS OVERGRAZING SOIL EROSION BURNED ACREAGES

1) Critical Vegetation

 If the project site has been severely damaged by fire , flooding or mechanical misuse the immediate
 Establishment of protective vegetation should be of highest priority.
 Introduced or ornamental plant species may not have the long term aesthetic effect desired for the project but
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  They may be the most practical choice for the immediate need.
 Select a plant species that is adaptable to the site environment and
which can be easily removed after other plants have been established.
 Avoid species that are subject to disease or damage from severe
climate.
 Use a plant type that will intercept and check the movements of water
or sand across the site.
 Support the use of plants with such features such as diversion terraces,
grade of stabilization structures or other Drainage ways to reverse The life forms of planets as they occur in their
natural habitat
especially severe conditions. Form 1: mosses and lichens
Form 2:shrub zone
Form 3: seedling tree zone
Form 4: understory zone
Form 5: overstorey zone

Temporary vegetation should be used on any damaged or denuded areas subject to

continuous abuse for six months or more prior to the establishment of permanent
vegetation.
 Soil netting may be used before planting operations begin in order
to stabilize the site. Grass seeds
are not inhibited with the use of
this soil netting and will eventually
decompose into needed organic matter.

 Soil improving species such as legumes should also be

Considered at the initial phase of the program to
Rebuild lost soil nitrogen and prepare conditions for future planting requirements.

2) Evaluating the Site

-The concept of site carrying capacity is useful in determining the quality of the natural landscape landscape. It
Is defined as the number of vegetative types per unit of project area that can be accommodated for any specific
Period of time.
- Future impacts upon the project must be analyzed such as runoff from agricultural areas may wash
Herbicides onto the project or an industrial facility may inject airborne pollutants.

3) Geology and Soils

-The geologic formations and kinds of soils that underlie an area play a very important role in determining how
The area may be designed and the limitations that must be placed on its use.
- Slope orientation is associated to plant selection by controlling the amount of moisture and light reaching the
Vegetative communities.
- Use soil improving species such as legumes to rebuild and improve the quality of severely damaged soil.
-An extensive soil analysis should be made to determine future nutrient requirements for plant growth. Some
Plants require acid soils, some alkaline while some are tolerant to a wide range of ph. extremely high pH may
Restrict the availability of nutrients while extremely low pH may release toxic substances that will limit plant
Growth.
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 4) Hydrology
- It is essential to have quantity and quality water resources in or available to the area as these will influence
Significantly the carrying capacity of the site and the management practice used.
- Certain plant species can be temporarily retained or installed to help trap winter snows to increase soil moisture
for spring planting operations.
- It is important for water to reach the lower levels of the site hence conifers should not be used as overstory
Because they trap more water than deciduous variety.

5) Climate
- Light and heat are two of the most important climate factors that are directly
available to the plant.
- The quality of light that will reach the understory will depend upon the density of
the canopy. Shade tolerant
Species should be planted under plants or trees with dense canopies.
- Reducing the density of the canopy will aid in the development of understory trees
and shrubs.

6) Biological Components
Existing Vegetative Spectrum :
-The type, species, location, size and density of existing vegetation have a tremendous
effect on the selection
of design materials and future carrying capacity of the site.
- In all cases, the plants should be related to their requirements for moisture, soil, light and association with
the successional stage.
- Specific events or stages of vegetative development should be noted :
1) Pioneer or invader Species : These plant types are usually the first to establish themselves on a disturbed
site. If extensive soil restoration is not possible these plants make excellent choices for an initial planting
program.
2) Transitional Species: These plants follow the pioneer varieties and will remain until a more dominant
material emerges.
3) Subclimax and Climax Species: These plants represent the final stage
in the successional process and require a more nutrient soil and a more
stable climate condition.
4) Adjacent Site Vegetation : The vegetation types on the opposite
areas of a project may indicate a direction for the establishment of new
vegetative communities.

Wildlife Considerations :
- It is important to consider the type, location and habitat of
the existing wildlife of a natural area as these species and
those that may be attracted to the finished site will influence
the overall carrying capacity .
-The primary objective should be to preserve a
representative segment of the project fauna and the habitat critical to its continued
existence.
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URBAN DEVELOPMENT TO SUBURBAN SPRAWL
The world has experienced unprecedented
urban growth in recent decades. In 2000,
about 47 percent of the world's
population lived in urban areas, about 2.8
billion.

Problems associated w/housing development :

1) Wilderness area and farmland adjacent to larger
cities has been converted to urban and suburban landscape.
2) Impacting habitat :
Fragmentation:
 Natural ecosystems have become increasingly fragmented by roads and developed areas.
 Decrease in patch size.
 Increased isolation of patches.
3) Increase in exotic species – cats & dogs. Conventional landscaping also favors horticulturally cultivated
exotic species to native plant species
4) Pollution of groundwater. Ground water pollution due to ―storm run-off .‖
5) Certain animals adapt to urban sprawl and lose their touch with their original habitat : Deer, Raccoons,
opossum, Canada Geese ,Peregrine Falcons, Freetail Bats etc.

Urban/Suburban Planning and conservation

In the past, no thought put into how areas would be developed in respect to ecology. However in recent years
there has been a shift in focus.
A ) Landscape ecology and urban planning :
– integration possibilities of ecological and aesthetic values into planning and management of
urban areas
– Simple plantings of native shrubs, wildflowers and grasses can attract birds and butterflies and
other animals, providing food and cover. In addition to bringing nature to your doorstep, many
Urban Conservation practices can help improve the quality of our lakes and streams by reducing
stormwater runoff.

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 B) Designing neighborhoods with conservation in mind:
1) Cluster subdivision
- Minimum open space requirements, minimum district size requirements, reduced lot size
requirements in certain circumstances and reduced yard requirements
- Typically, road frontage, lot size, setbacks, and other traditional subdivision regulations
are redefined to permit the developer to preserve ecologically sensitive areas, historical
sites, or other unique characteristics of the land being subdivided
2) Open space zoning
- New construction to be located on only a portion – (typically half ) of the parcel.
- Each must have a uniform road frontage.
- Equal lot areas with homes placed in the same.
- Location on each lot regardless of the parcel's
characteristics.
- All of the land is privately owned by the individual
homeowners.

Example:

Interpretive center that showcases the wildlife and habitat of the

region

Situated near the high point of the area, includes an overlook that
is linked to a trial system that passes through the site.

These clusters have lots that are sufficiently large to allow small
agricultural plots or additional open space.

Pedestrian paths and trials facilitate walking and cycling by linking

different neighborhoods and clusters…
& bicycling may be a viable alternative to driving in some situations if a
regional network of trails or bicycle-friendly roads exist, and distances
are not too long.
Points to keep in mind
-The amount of open space in a given community says little about the actual functioning
of the environment.
-Planned communities may harbor a system of natural areas that function no better than
the fragments found in unplanned, piecemeal suburban development.

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Infill Development
-Not designed for single use, low density, domination by automobiles &
highways – rather it creates neighborhoods & districts that have mixed use,
residents of mixed income and diversity, and it serves pedestrians & cyclists.

TYPES OF NATURAL LANDSCAPES

• MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
• RIVERINE LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
• DESERT LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
• COASTAL LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
• TROPICAL RAINFOREST LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE
 Formed by the tectonic plates on the Earth’s surface
pushing against each other.
 This causes the shape of the land to change.
 Land is pushed in a vertical direction which results in
formation of mountainous landscapes. GREEN HILLS, PALOUSE SOUTHERN AMERICA MOUNTAINSCAPE

RIVERINE LANDSCAPE
• These are formed by the natural movement of a water system such as
a river.
• This landscape includes all the ecosystems occurring in and around the
area of a river.
• Excellent for agricultural uses such as farming because the land is rich RIVER SHANNON, CARIBBEAN RIVER
and fertile. IRELAND LANDSCAPE

DESERT LANDSCAPE
• These landscapes receive not more than 25mm of rain per year.
• They cover about 1/3 rd of the Earths surface and are usually
uninhabitable.
• Because of the lack of rain, they have very little vegetation.
• Characterized by sand dunes, rock and gravel. THAR DESERT SAHARA DESERT

COASTAL LANDSCAPES
• These are shaped by the natural forces of the wind and waves.
• Features of coastal landscapes include
beaches, dunes, bays, splits and lagoons.
• This causes the shape of the land to
change.
• Land is pushed in a vertical direction
which results in formation of mountainous
landscapes.
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TROPICAL RAINFOREST LANDSCAPES
• Found near the equator, these landscapes are usually lush with dense forests.
• Receive lots of sunlight and rainfall (around 1500 mm per year)
• Abundance of sunlight and rain means that vegetation grown rapidly.
• These landscapes are very complex and highly productive. Home to a wide
variety of species of flora and fauna

MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

• NEED
• FLORA AND FAUNA
• CASE STUDY

MOUNTAIN LANDSCAPES
• These are formed by the tectonic plates on the Earth’s surface pushing against each other.
• This causes the shape of the land to change.
• Land is pushed in a vertical direction which results in formation of mountainous landscapes.
NEED FOR MOUNTAIN CONSERVATION

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 • These places where one can observe and understand the evolution of species and the efficient distribution of
organisms between similar environments from one mountain "island" to another, separated from each
other by thousands of kilometers.
• witness to the many different ways their inhabitants have lived in harmony with them, adapting to their
environment, using and manipulating the gifts of the earth and, often, striving to keep the environment as
healthy as possible.
• species and communities, which have adapted in various ways to their environment

FLORA AND FAUNA

• Flora differs according to the place where the mountains situated, normally the plants found are tall with
broad leaves
• Fauna adopted to the mountain region has thick fur

SOUTH MOUNTAIN
• South Mountain and the area that surrounds it was created millions of years ago when the land that was
derived from volcanoes and covered by oceans buckled and rose.
• Communities surrounding South Mountain have thrived off the fertile limestone agricultural lands, the
timber that fed the iron furnaces, the plentiful game and wildlife, and off the abundance of pure spring
water that is captured by the mountains permeable soils and released into the valleys.

NEED
• South Mountain’s land and heritage have given birth to a partnership to protect its ―sense of place.‖
• to encourage and promote the further appreciation and protection of the intrinsic geographic, geologic,
biologic and heritage resources and value of the South Mountain Landscape and the important connection
that these have to the quality of life and place in the region, its sustainability and to a strong economy.
• With its fertile farmlands, clean waterways, renowned trout streams and vast woodlands, the more than
400,000- acre South Mountain region is truly blessed, but it is a fragile environment that must be protected.

ISSUES
• No proper education for people about conserving the natural resources present in the south mountains
• Decline of cultural heritage and value of south mountains.

TECHNIQUES
• Engagement with Land Planning encourage and empower local governments and market forces to
embrace a vision of growth that is in balance with sustainable development and conservation of cultural and
natural resources.
• Promoting Local Agriculture maintain local farmer’s viability by promoting agri-tourism,
marketing local foods and working with farmers to preserve their lands through local land trusts.
• Conservation of Natural Resources
It is working to conserve lands that are critical to the communities drinking water supply, diversity of plants
and animals and forest health.
• Development of Business and Tourism growth of small businesses that revitalize local communities
and are based on the abundance of recreational and heritage tourism opportunities.
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 • Growing Recreational Opportunities working to grow new opportunities, as well as improve the
current recreation programs, with an emphasis on recreation that promotes the appreciation of the area’s
cultural and natural resources.
• Protecting Cultural Heritage

ORGANISATIONS
The partners in the South Mountain Conservation Landscape Initiative have a wide array of expertise, representing
state and local governments, non-profit organizations and educational institutions. They are working together to
protect the quality of life in the region and its sense of place.

GOALS
• advance land acquisition and protection in the South Mountain area
• improve the effectiveness of land use planning and regulation in the area
• enhance education, communication and information sharing and the public recognition, concern and interest
in protecting the South Mountain area

AUTHORITIES WORKING ON MOUNTAIN CONSERVATION

• Earth System Governance Project (ESGP)
• Global Environment Facility (GEF)
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
• International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)
• United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
• World Nature Organization (WNO)
• Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)

DESERT LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

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NEED FOR DESERT LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

Accommodates low to moderate human

More 1/5 of the earth’s land The extremes of heat and cold result in deserts being population.
is comprised of deserts. one of the most fragile ecosystems in the world.
Popular tourist destination

DESERT FLORA

 Deserts may seem to be hospitable to nothing, but in reality

supports various forms of life.
 The hardiest and most adaptable of species are often found in
desert habitats.
 Plants are adapted to store water in the stem.

DESERT FAUNA

 Mammals such as camels are adapted to store water in their humps.

 Desert Reptiles are suited to the dry, hot climate of the desert.
 Small rodents like gerbils to hedgehogs, are exclusively found in
the region.

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CASE STUDY
THAR DESERT LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

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 TECHNIQUES FOR CONSERVATION
MIXED FARMING
 Agriculture + Animal Husbandry
 Efficient utilization of biomass
 Increases soil fertility, vegetation,
 Reduces erosion.

MIXED CROPPING
 Sowing variety of crops in combination
 Products and refuse from one crop plant
help in the growth of the other crop plant
and vice-versa.
 Increase fertility

AGRO FORESTRY
 Planting Khejri trees (Prosopis Cineraria)
 Increases soil fertility
 Reduces soil erosion
 Does not compete with standing crop for moisture
 Other e.g Bordi shrub (Nummularia)

KHADIN SYSTEM
Water harvesting system
Earthen embankment built across the lower hill slopes
Harvest surface runoff water for agriculture

REHABILITATION OF GRAZING LANDS

 Identification of suitable perennial grasses
 Controlled grazing practices
 Fencing of protected areas
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DESERT LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION AGENCIES IN INDIA
 Bureau of Desert land Management
 Bureau of Land reclamation
 Foundation for Ecological Security, Gujarat
 NR Management Consultants India Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
 Ministry of Environment and Forests

RIVERINE LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

NEED
ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES
CASE STUDY

• These are formed by the natural movement of a water system such as a

river.
• This landscape includes all the ecosystems occurring in and around the
area of a river.
• Excellent for agricultural uses such as farming because the land is rich
and fertile.

NEED FOR RIVERINE LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

• Worldwide, rivers are the type of ecosystem most affected by humans.

• This high level of impact has a number of reasons.
• Rivers provide ecosystem goods and services that sustain human societies; therefore, the history of impacts
on rivers is as long as human history; dating from early civilizations, e.g., the Nile in ancient Egypt, the
Euphrates and Tigris in Mesopotamia, and the Yellow and Yangtze in China.
• Natural rivers have the capacity to harbor a large variety of habitats and species
• This is because they act as conduits for varying amounts of water in more or less unstable channels, making
them naturally dynamic.
• Human-related impacts on natural as well as artificial river flows or channels, therefore, result in immediate
ecosystem responses.
• Humans have only recently started restoring or rehabilitating impacted rivers
• This is vitally important because currently development emphasizes human requirements to the detriment
of natural ecological processes in rivers, thus causing deterioration of natural environments.

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 • Regardless of whether water is extracted, diverted, contained, or contaminated by humans, that use
compromises its value as a habitat for organisms.
• As a result, most freshwater taxa are affected by a combination of threat factors, and this vulnerability to
multiple interacting and often synergistic impacts puts freshwater biodiversity uniquely at risk among the
Earth’s biota.

Among the most visually striking types of river restoration worldwide are
channel reconstructions: projects that involve the creation of a new channel,
often in a new alignment and generally with a form and dimensions that are
different from those of the preproject channel.
• Many channel reconstruction
projects have the objective of creating a
stable, single-thread, meandering channel.
• Recreating meanders is a reasonable and obvious goal on rivers whose historical bends were lost to channel
straightening projects, as is well documented on many rivers and streams in Europe
• However, meanders have also been created in many channel reconstructions on rivers that were not
historically meandering, and in some cases irregularly sinuous channels have been reconstructed into
symmetrical meanders.
• In many cases, these meanders have subsequently washed out, and, even if they remain stable, they are
unlikely to provide the habitat that would naturally exist at the site
• Irregularly sinuous rivers with low stream power and low sediment supply can often be converted to
symmetrical meanders without washing out, but the ecological benefits of such conversions are
questionable.

Many river restoration projects target heavily canalized reaches, thereby involving the creation of a new
channel.
• Meandering channels are reasonably easy to construct and people find them attractive.
• Restoration of river ecosystems increasingly challenges ecological science because of the growing human
population and its mounting pressure on rivers, combined with the environmental adaptations required to
effectively respond to global changes in climate and hydrology.

There are five major tasks underpinning the success of this approach:
(1) transforming hydrologic data into a form that ecologists can use;
(2) making holistic quantitative predictions of how flow manipulations can change rivers, especially in situations with
few data;
(3) describing how river changes can affect rural users of rivers;
(4) informing and educating decision makers; and
(5) guiding monitoring and adaptive management .

CASE STUDY THE GANGA, INDIA RIVERINE LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

• From times immemorial, the Ganga has been India's river of faith, devotion and worship.
• However, the river is also a life-support system for the people of India.

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Importance:
• The densely populated Ganga basin is inhabited by 37 per cent of India's population.
• The entire Ganga basin system effectively drains eight states of India.
• About 47 per cent of the total irrigated area in India is located in the Ganga basin alone.
• It has been a major source of navigation and communication since ancient times.

EXPLOITATION
• In the recent past, there has been a swift increase in the urban areas
along the river Ganga.
• As a result the river is no longer only a source of water but is also a
channel, receiving and transporting urban wastes away from the towns.
• Today, one third of the country's urban population lives in the towns of
the Ganga basin.
• Out of the 2,300 towns in the country, 692 are located in this basin, and of
these, 100 are located along the river bank itself.
• It has been assessed that more than 80 per cent of the total pollution load
arises from domestic sources.
• Rampant deforestation resulting in topsoil erosion in the catchment area,
has increased silt deposits which, in turn, raise the river bed and lead to
devastating floods in the rainy season and stagnant flow in the dry
season.
• There are also about 100 identified major industries located directly on
the river, of which 68 are considered as grossly polluting.
Fifty-five of these industrial units have complied with the regulations and installed
effluent treatment plants (ETPs) and legal proceedings are in progress for the
remaining units

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The principal sources of pollution:
• Domestic and industrial wastes.
• Solid garbage thrown directly into the river.
• Non-point sources of pollution from agricultural run-off containing residues of harmful pesticides and fertilisers.
• Animal carcasses
• Defecation on the banks by the low-income people.
• Mass bathing and ritualistic practices.

THE GANGA ACTION PLAN

• The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), which is India's national body for monitoring environmental
pollution, undertook a comprehensive scientific survey in 1981-82 in order to classify river waters according
to their designated best uses.
• This report was the first systematic document that formed the basis of the Ganga Action Plan (GAP).
• It detailed land-use patterns, domestic and industrial pollution loads, fertiliser and pesticide use,
hydrological aspects and river classifications.
• The plan was formally launched on 14 June 1986.
• The main thrust was to intercept and divert the wastes from urban settlements away from the river.
• Treatment and economical use of waste, as a means of assisting resource recovery, were made an integral
part of the plan.
• This was one of largest endeavours, involving several hundred scientists, ever undertaken in the country
and was funded under the GAP.
• The GAP was only the first step in river water quality management.
• The studies had revealed that:
• 75 per cent of the pollution load was from untreated municipal sewage.
• 88 per cent of the municipal sewage was from the 25 Class I towns on the main river.
• Only a few of these cities had sewage treatment facilities
• All the industries accounted for only 25 per cent of the total pollution

OBJECTIVES

• The broad aim of the GAP was to reduce pollution and to clean the river and to restore water quality.
• This was considered as a feasible objective and because a unique and distinguishing feature of the Ganga
was its widespread use for ritualistic mass bathing.
• The other environmental benefits envisaged were improvements in fisheries, aquatic flora and fauna,
aesthetic quality, health issues and levels of contamination.
• The long-term objectives were to improve the environmental conditions along the river by suitably reducing
all the polluting influences at source.
• These included not only the creation of waste treatment facilities but also invoking remedial legislation to
control such non-point sources as agricultural run-off containing residues of fertilisers and pesticides, which
are harmful for the aquatic flora and fauna.

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APPLIED RESEARCH
Some of the prominent subjects were
• PC-based software modelling,
• sewage-fed pisciculture,
• conservation of fish in upper river reaches,
• bioconservation in Bihar,
• monitoring of pesticides,
• using treated sewage for irrigation, and
• rehabilitation of turtles.
Some of the ongoing research projects include
• land application of untreated sewage for tree plantations,
• aquaculture for sewage treatment,
• disinfection of treated sewage by ultra violet radiation, and
• disinfection of treated sewage by Gamma radiation.

FAILURE OF THE GAP

• The felling of trees has caused severe floods, and silt and mud now flow into the Ganga making the river
shallow so that boats can not ply in it as they did before.
• Sewage and pollution from cities, industries and factories and dead animals are also being thrown into the
Ganga.
• Ganga could not be cleaned but 34 other rivers have been taken up for cleaning with the same failed model
of ―GAP‖.
• It has become so infamous and stale that it needs to be done away with completely.
• A new plan with more real and practical objectives, concrete action plans is needed to restore the health of
the river Ganga.

CASE STUDY
Lake Tahoe Basin Management Unit Riverine Restoration Program
2003—2014

GOALS
Raise elevation of incised channels relative to the floodplain surface to restore hydrologic
connectively to the floodplain, increasing frequency and duration of floodplain inundation, and
groundwater levels.
• Resulting in reduced /attenuated peak flows and filtering of sediment and nutrients onto the floodplain.
• Resulting in increased plant available water, late in the summer.
• Resulting in transformation of floodplain vegetation and wildlife communities to wet meadow flora and
fauna.
Construct/reconstruct channels with appropriate geomorphology, gradient, sinuosity, and
structural components to provide dynamically resilient channels with high quality aquatic habitat
features.
• Resulting in overall reduction in stream channel erosion (and reducing fine sediment affecting Lake Tahoe
clarity).
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 • Providing high quality habitat for desired aquatic species, including potential future reintroduction of native
species, like Lahontan Cutthroat Trout.

TECHNIQUES FOR PROTECTING WATER QUALITY DURING CONSTRUCTION

This particular aspect of managing for risk and uncertainty is particularly important in the Tahoe Basin where there
are high standards for maintaining water quality when working around live water during implementation.
To avoid receiving water quality violation notices we have developed practices to significantly reduce the risk of
turbid water releases during construction

Stream crossings
• For many restoration projects that involve offline new channel construction, the highest risk to water quality
occurs while constructing stream crossings for temporary access roads.
• Planning for adequate diversion capacity is important, which will be discussed later. But we also recommend
the following techniques for easy/clean installation and removal of temporary culverts.
• At large crossings, with smooth, level channel substrate it can be effective to place the culvert into the
channel first, and then sand bag flows into the culvert. If the channel substrate allows for effectively
containing all flows into the culvert with sand bags, then road base material can be easily installed without
resulting in turbid water releases.
• Place a 1 foot layer of straw between filter fabric and road base sediment. This creates a 3‖ compacted
barrier to make it easier to remove the majority of road base fill when removing the stream crossing,
without tearing the filter fabric.
• Use highest tensile strength fabric available, so that when you then pull up the fabric (and any remaining
soil) no fine grained sediments escape into the stream channel bed.

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EFFECTIVENESS MONITORING RESULTS
Although specific restoration goals differed somewhat between projects, the following were the overall riverine
restoration program goals:
• Restoring hydrologic connectivity between stream channels and adjacent floodplains.
•
• Restoring dynamically resilient channel morphology
The two diagrams below provide a visual illustration of the desired outcome from riverine restoration efforts in
meadow systems.

COASTAL LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION

• NEED
• PRIMARY LANDSCAPE QUALITIES AND FEATURES
• KEY POLICY AND MANAGEMENT ISSUES

NEED FOR COASTAL CONSERVATION

• World's coastlines are one of its most important and intensively used areas but tourism, climate change and
development put enormous pressure on these vulnerable and ever-changing margins between land and sea.
Coastline has been shifting since the ice age as part of a natural process that has brought losses and gains to coastal
areas, but climate change and sea-level rise pose significant challenges for living with a changing coastline

KENFIQ BURROWS
Discrete landscape unit formed by the coastal sand dune deposits and its related vegetation. It includes the
intertidal zone between the low and high water.

NEED
Distinctive landscape form within the County Borough Area, it is already subject to a range of statutory
designations, including a Special Area of Conservation Site of Special Scientific Interest, National and Local
Nature Reserve and is included on the Register of Landscapes of Outstanding Historic Interest in Wales

PRIMARY LANDSCAPE QUALITIES AND FEATURES

• Ken fig forms an extensive dune system that overlies the Upper Carboniferous Limestone.
• Within the dune system are a number of ponds and water bodies, the most significant being Ken fig Pool
which lies close to the visitor center and car park.
• Its land form is a distinctive landscape unit, providing a unique foreground setting to the industrial and
transport communication corridors
• Inland its significance is reflected in a range of designations including Ken fig Pool and Dunes National and
Local Nature Reserve, Ken fig Site of Special Scientific Interest and Ken fig Burrows Special Area of
Conservation.

AUTHORITIES WORKING ON COASTAL CONSERVATION

• European Environment Agency (EEA)
• Partnerships in Environmental Management for the Seas of East Asia (PEMSEA)

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TROPICAL RAINFOREST LANDSCAPE CONSERVATION
• NEED
• ISSUES AND TECHNIQUES
• CASE STUDY

FEATURES AND CHARECTERISTICS :

• HOT AND WET THROUGHOUT THE YEAR
• WARM,WET FORESTS
• MIN. ANNUAL RAINFALL BETWEEN 175CM AND 200CM
• POOR SOILS DUE TO THE HEAVY RAINS.
• THE TEMPERATURE RANGES FROM 21°C TO 45°C .
• HIGH RELATIVE HUMIDITY.
• EQUATORIAL CLIMATE.
• THE TREES OF A TROPICAL RAINFOREST ARE SO
DENSELY PACKED THAT RAIN FALLING ON THE
CANOPY CAN TAKE AS LONG AS 10 MINUTES TO
REACH THE GROUND.

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 FOUR DISTINCTIVE STRATA :
- EMERGENTS
- CANOPY
- UNDERSTORY
- FOREST FLOOR
IN ADDITION EPIPHYTES AND LIANES
OCCUPY SEVERAL STRATA IN THE FOREST

WHY DO WE NEED TO CONSERVE TROPICAL RAINFORESTS??

• They provide a rich biodiversity of organisms. Rainforests contain over 30 million species of plants and
animals. More than half of the world’s estimated 10 million species of plants, animals and insects live in
these tropical rainforests.
• A typical 4-square mile radius in the Rain Forest contains :
- 400 Species of Birds
- 1,500 Flowering Plants
- 750 Species of Trees
Scientists believe that hundreds of species have yet to be discovered.
• Regulation of climate change. Ex: Amazonian forests contain over half of the Earth’s rainwater and
releases it back into the atmosphere.
• Help in preventing soil erosion. The soil is very poor in nutrients, which are actually stored in the
trees.
• Provide a home for indigenous people. People have lived here for thousands of years.
• Rainforest pharmacy. Over 25% of modern medicine comes from rainforest plants. More than 2000
tropical forest plants have been identified by Scientists to have anti-cancer properties.

ISSUES AND PROBLEMS :

1) DEFORESTATION AND HABITAT LOSS:
Tropical Rainforests once covered 14% of world land area .Now it only covers 7% because Rate of deforestation has
increased by 90% since mid 80s.14 million hectares destroyed annually and
15 million hectares degraded Animals live in the rainforest are losing their habitats due to deforestation because of
lack of carbon and water cycles that sustain animals on earth.

2) POLLUTION
The effects in living organisms may range from mild discomfort to serious diseases and excessive pollution leads to
diseases and Deaths of animals.

3) CLIMATE CHANGE
As temperatures continue to rise, animals will react by changing how they live, moving to new areas, or
disappearing because they can't find the type of home or food they need.
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4) HUMAN-ANIMAL CONFLICT
As human population extends to animal habitats, natural wildlife territory is displaced. The population density of
wildlife and humans overlaps increasing their interaction thus resulting in increased physical conflict.

5) POACHING
Depleting certain species of animals. This can also affect the food chain. If animals are missing from the ecosystem,
this can lead to an increased number of the animals that they prey on.

GENERAL TECHNIQUES TO CONSERVE TROPICAL RAINFORESTS:

1) FOREST RESTORATION AND AFFORESTATION
2) USE OF LEGUMINOUS PLANTS TO IMPROVE SOIL FERTILITY
3) AGRO-FORESTRY
4) EXPANSION OF BUFFER ZONES AND ESTABLISHMENTS OF CORRIDORS
5) EDUCATION AND INCLUSION OF LOCAL POPULATION
6) PROMOTION OF ECO-TOURISM

CASE STUDY
PAPUA NEW GUINEA
LOCATION OF CASE STUDY : SOUTH EAST ASIA
Salient Features:
• Papua New Guinea possesses one of the planet's largest remaining tropical rainforest. At least seventy-five
percent of its original forest cover is still standing, occupying vast, biologically rich tracts over 100,000
square miles in all.
• Provide the habitat for about 200 species of mammals, 20,000 species of plants, 1,500 species of trees and
750 species of birds, half of which are endemic to the island.
• The forests also constitute the home of the indigenous peoples, the Maisin. For the Maisin, forests provide
everything from food and medicinal plants, to materials for houses, canoes and tools.
• Forests and forest peoples are under threat due to large-scale logging activities and oil palm plantations.

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SUSTAINABLE CONSERVATION METHODS USED:
• Community-based sustainable forestry
• Training in sustainable forestry
• Fish farming
• Butterfly farming
• Eco-tourism
• Managed conserved areas
• Cottage industries: nut harvesting, tourist souvenir and tapa cloth production
• Greenpeace active in developing Maisin cloth and art markets in the USA
• Local log-processing industries are being established.
Processed timber is worth much more on the world market.
• Small logging operations are encouraged, owned by many different companies, who all have certified
sustainable management certificates

BIBLIOGRAPHY
 Indira Gandhi Centre for Human Ecology, Environmental and Population Studies at the University of
Rajasthan.
 Journal: The Environmentalist ,Volume 17, Issue 4 , pp 283-287

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 TIME SAVERS STANDARDS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
Materials and standards
INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALS IN LANDSCAPE ARCHITECTURE
 The elements of landscape composition are the visual qualities that people see and respond to when viewing
a space.
 Visual qualities can elicit many different emotions and feelings , the more positive the feelings, the more
likely one is to enjoy and use a space.
 Hard landscaping materials should be selected not only for their appearance but also for their ability to
withstand the use to which they are being put.
 The use of appropriate and good quality and durable materials will frequently reduce long term maintenance
cost whereas the use of inappropriate materials purely because it has low initial cost is often a false
economy
 Materials selected should enhance surrounding buildings, should be appropriate for the character of the
development( rural/urban ,modern/traditional) , should be suitable for the proposed use, and should be
durable under weather conditions

WOOD- PROPERTIES

SPECIAL PRODUCTS
• GLUE LAMINATED BEAMS
Glue laminated beams are large structural members composed of pieces of lumber that have been placed with the
grain running longitudinally, glued with adhesive, laminated, and if specified, bent into various shapes.
SECTIONS:

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WOOD SHINGLES AND SHAKES
There are three common types of shakes:
 Taper-split: Preferred for siding
 Straight split: Preferred for siding
 Hand split and resawed: Preferred for roofing SECTIONS

SPECIAL PRODUCTS
PLYWOOD
Construction plywood is used in exterior applications. Primarily manufactured from softwoods.
Pine: This is the most basic underlying material in exterior plywood.
Spruce: This material remains strong no matter how thinly it is sliced for plywood.
Mahogany: Mahogany tends to be free of any voids and pockets within its grains.
Oak: Tough, highly resistant to insects and fungi infection.
Cedar: Resistant to moisture, rot and insect infestation
Teak: Resistant to dry rot and insect infestation
Douglas fir: Designed to withstand high loads.
Birch: This is the strongest material out of them all, but must be surrounded by other veneers in order to be of any
use.
Maple: This is largely a decorative material to give it a nice-looking texture.

PARTICLEBOARD
Particleboard is sheet lumber consisting of wood chips or sawdust glues together under heat and pressure to form
1.2m x 2.5m panels
Particleboard is dimensionally stable and warp-resistant.

METAL

PROPERTIES OF METAL
The durability and recycling potential of metal makes it a very sustainable exterior material.
Metals can be recycled many times without compromising performance
Although metals weather well, some conditions do corrode them

METALS USED IN CONSTRUCTION

ALUMINIUM
Lightweight
Corrosion resistant
Manufactured in a wide variety of shapes
Addition of one or more alloying elements (copper, manganese, silicon, magnesium) can enhance strength,
malleability and impact resistance.
IRON AND STEEL
• If corrosion is to be minimized, cast iron should be alloyed with a corrosion resistant alloy or be protected
by either a galvanized, plated or asphalt surface coating.
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 • Carbon steels exhibit poor corrosion resistance but can be improved by incorporating copper as an alloying
element or by specifying a galvanized or other protective finish.
• High production costs
• Stainless steel will not corrode when placed in concrete masonry and its wash will not stain nearby
materials

COPPER AND COPPER ALLOYS

• Resistant to corrosion
• Easily welded, blazed or soldered
• Susceptible to attacks from most alkalis and acids
• Brass and bronze are some of the most important alloys of copper

PLASTICS AND GLASS

PROPERTIES OF PLASTIC
• Tensile strength: High tensile strength
• Toughness: Good impact resistance
• Stiffness: Comparable to wood
• Hardness: Good resistance to indentation
• Expansion and contraction: Thermal expansion is high
• Corrosion resistance: Highly resistant to corrosion and most chemicals
PLASTIC LUMBER
Plastic lumber is composed of virgin or waste plastic including HDPE, PVC, PP, ABS, PS and PLA
• Low maintenance
• Long life expectancy
• Various lengths
• No rotting
• No splintering
• No painting or staining
• Cuts, drills and secures just like wood
• Available in multiple profiles and colours
• Environmentally friendly
• Resistant to termites and fungus

PVC
• Weathering stability
• Versatility
• Fire protection
• Longevity
• Hygiene
• Eco-efficiency
• Recyclability
• Economical efficiency
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GLASS

PROPERTIES OF GLASS
 Chemical resistance: Resists most acids and susceptible to alkali attack
 Weight: Has a density of 2,500 kilograms per cubic meter
 Strength: Greater resistance to compression than tension
 Conductivity: Poor conductor of electricity, better thermal conductor
 Light transmission: Glass is relatively transparent to short wave infra-red but opaque to long-wave infra-
red.
 Temperature performance: Required additional substrates for better fire performance
GEOTEXTILES
 Geotextiles and their associated products (geogrids, composite drains,
 geo-cells, and grid or fiber soil reinforcement) allow landscape architects to improve the basic properties of
soils.
 Increasing bearing capacity,
 Facilitating drainage, decrease erosion,
 Preventing the intermixing of different soil types

FUNCTIONS OF GEO- TEXTILES

Separation: A major use of geotextiles is to separate materials. For ex: Subsoil can be prevented from migrating
into roadway base aggregate
Reinforcement: Geotextiles can be used to reinforce soils to improve bearing capacity, Fabrics can be used to bind
soil areas together to act as a unit to support foundations
Filtration (drainage): Fabric is used to filter fine soil particles out of coarser stone drainage media in
underdrains,
Surface protection (Erosion control): Geotextiles can be used effectively to reduce soil erosion by reducing the
velocity of surface runoff waters and securing surface soil particles in place .
THE TYPES OF GEOTEXTILE
In general, the vast majority of geotextiles are made from polypropylene or polyester formed into fabrics as
follows:
1. Woven monofilament
2. Woven multifilament
3. Woven slit-film monofilament
4. Woven slit-film multifilament
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 5. Nonwoven continuous filament heat bonded
6. Nonwoven continuous filament needle-punched
7. Nonwoven staple needle-punched
8. Nonwoven resin bonded
9. Other woven and nonwoven combinations
10. Knitted
RAW MATERIAL OF GEOTEXTILE
The four main polymer families most widely used as the raw material for geotextiles are:
1. Polyester
2. Polyamide
3. Polypropylene
1) Separation:
Geotextiles function to prevent mutual mixing between 2 layers of soil having different particle sizes or
different properties
2) Drainage :
The function of drainage is to gather water, which is not required functionally by the structure, such as rainwater or
surplus water in the soil, and discharge it
3) Reinforcement:
Due to their high soil fabric friction coefficient and high tensile strength, heavy grades of geotextiles are used to
reinforce earth structures allowing the use of local fill material.
4) Filtration:
Filtration involves the establishment of a stable interface between the drain and the surrounding soil. In all soils
water flow will induce the movement of fine particles. Initially a portion of this fraction will be halted at the filter
interface; some will be halted within the filter itself while the rest will pass into the drain.
5) Protection:
the form of rock beaching or mattress structures. Beneath these is placed a layer of geotextile to prevent leaching of
fine material. The geotextile is easily placed, even under water

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SOIL AND AGGREGATES
Physical and chemical properties of soils are important site determinants :
1. It influences the spatial allocation of land uses
2. The design and construction of structures
3. The selection of plant materials
2. Soil layers develop with different textures, mineral contents, and chemical makeup.
3. A soil profile is a vertical section through these horizons .
4. The extent to which a profile becomes well-developed is largely a function of climate
> 300 mm
Boulder size
Very coarse soils
Cobble size 80 - 300 mm

Coarse 20 - 80 mm
Gravel size (G)
Fine 4.75 - 20 mm

Coarse soils Coarse 2 - 4.75 mm

Sand size (S) Medium 0.425 - 2 mm

Fine 0.075 - 0.425 mm

Silt size (M) 0.002 - 0.075 mm

Fine soils
Clay size (C) < 0.002 mm

Indian Standard Soil Classification System (ISSCS), Source: BIS

TYPE ORIGIN

Residual Rock weathered in place-wacke, laterite, podzols, residual sands, clays, and
gravels

Cumulose Organic accumulations-peat, muck, swamp soils, muskeg, humus, bog soils

Transported:

Glacial Moraines, eskers, drumlins, kames-till, drift, boulder clay, glacial sands, and
gravels

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Alluvial Flood plains, deltas, bars-sedimentary clays and silts, alluvial sands and gravels

Aeolian Wind-borne deposits-blow sands, dune sands, loess, adobe

Colluvial Gravity deposits-cliff debris, talus, avalanches, masses of rock waste

Volcanic Volcanic deposits-Dakota bentonite, volclay, volcanic ash, lava

Fill Synthetic deposits-ranging from waste and rubbish to bult embankments

PROPERTIES RELATED TO SITE ENGINEERING AND LANDSCAPE CONSTRUCTION

1. Elasticity :
• Elasticity refers to the ability of soil to return to its original shape after being deformed by a load .
Conversely, it refers to the compatibility of a soil .
• In landscape construction, the relative elasticity of soils on a site may determine where heavy
equipment can be moved to avoid undesirable compaction of soils .
2.Plasticity

• Plasticity refers to the ability of soil to be deformed under pressure without cracking or crumbling
and to maintain a deformed shape after pressure is released .
• Plastic deformation is an important factor in road and foundation work and is more significant under
increasing loads .

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 3. Bearing Strength
• This relates to the ability of a soil to support a load without failure .
4. Drainage :
• Topographic features (degree of slope, etc .) influence the volume and rate of runoff .
• The steeper the slope the less water can be absorbed into the ground .
• 5. Erodibility :
• This refers to the extent to which a soil mass can withstand the forces of wind or water erosion .

• PROPERTIES RELATED TO HORTICULTURAL APPLICATIONS

1. Available Moisture and Adequate Drainage :

• The existence of soil moisture does not ensure that water will be available to plants
• Most plants cannot not survive if the soil is too wet, thus adequate water and drainage are crucial
to most plants .
2. Soil pH:

• This refers to the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil .

• Because all plants have specific tolerances for soil acidity or alkalinity, the pH tolerances for
proposed plants must be known before
• For most plants, the optimum pH level is 6.5 in mineral soils and 5 .8 in peats .
3. Colloidal Content:
• This refers to the amount of clay particles in a soil sample.
• A high clay content limits the permeability of the soil and affects the ability of plants to absorb
dissolved nutrients in solution .
4.Depth:
• Soil depth typically refers to depth to bedrock, to water table or to unweathered parent materials.
• Most plants need sufficient depth of soil to allow root growth.

• 5.Soils for Urban Planting:

• Soils for all urban plantings require special preparation to ensure long-term healthy growth of plant
materials .
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AGGREGATES
• Aggregates refer to granular including such natural materials as sand, gravel, and crushed stone to
manufactured materials such as slag, vermiculite, pumice and crushed brick, etc
CLAY MASONRY

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CONCRETE MASONRY

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COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH
It is measured as the amount of stress placed perpendicular to the loading plane
TEXTURES
1. Textures range from smooth to rough and uneven.
2. Open surface textures help to absorb sound
COLOURS
1. A wide range of colours are possible.
2. This is done by mixing pure mineral oxide pigments.
HOLLOW
 A block having one or more large holes or cavities.
 Solid material should be between 50 and 75 % of the total volume .
 The volume is calculated from the overall dimensions.
SOLID
 A block which has solid material not less than 75 percent of the total volume
 Volume calculated from the overall dimensions.

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SPECIAL UNITS
SPLIT FACE UNITS
1. Split-face blocks are solid or hollow units
2. They are split lengthwise to produce a rough texture .
3. Units are laid with the split face exposed.
2. FACED BLOCKS
Faced blocks are units with -
1. ceramic glazed
2. plastic
3. polished
4. ground faces .
3. DECORATIVE BLOCKS
 Manufactured in different forms.
 Bevelled face-shell recesses produce decorative effects.
CONCRETE PAVERS
1. Available in various shapes and sizes.
2. These pavers possess low absorption and high compressive strength characteristics.
3. Common colours are gray, red, brown.

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STONE MASONRY

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GRANITE
1. It is a hard, strong, durable, impervious, igneous rock
2. It has a fine-,medium-, or coarse-grained appearance .
3. Granite is very difficult to finish and the costs can be high
LIMESTONE
Limestone is chemically reactive and should not be used in :
1. Areas of industrial fumes, smoke, or acids
2. Areas where hard impacts may occur
3. Places where oil and grease may be in contact
MARBLE
1. Can be polished and is relatively expensive .
2. Marble is chemically reactive and should not be used in areas of :
• Industrial fumes

• Acids
• Air pollution

• Where severe weather can be expected

SANDSTONE
The gritty surface of sandstone serves well as a nonslip walking surface
SLATE
1. Cleaves easily into thin slabs .
2. The material is strong and durable, with high tensile strength
3. Typically available in colors of red, purple, green, black, and gray .

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TYPES OF FINISHES

AVAILABILITY OF FINISHES

40
MORTAR
1 . Mortars are produced in various types, each composed of a unique combination of
ingredients and used for a specific masonry task.
2 . Bond strength is the most important property of hardened mortar and is affected
as follows :
a) As the air content is increased, the bond strength decreases .
b) As the flow increases, the bond strength increases .
c) As the lapsed time between the spreading of mortar and the laying of units increases, the bond strength
decreases .
3 . Mortar is colored either by the use of colored aggregate or by pigments .

• Organic colors, such as Prussian blue, cadmium, lithopone, zinc chromate, and lead chromate should
be avoided because of their potential toxicity .
4 . The maximum permissible quantities of metallic oxide pigments are typically 10 to
15 percent of the cement content by weight . Carbon black should be limited to 2 to
3 percent of the cement content by weight .
ASPHALT PAVEMENT DESIGN
Asphalt pavements typically consist of layered asphalt-aggregate mixtures placed either directly on a subgrade or
improved subgrade, or on an aggregate base over a subgrade or improved subgrade, or on an existing pavement
made of concrete, brick, or stone.
Full-depth pavement design is commonly used in regions without frost, or on subgrades that are not susceptible to
frost action .
Aggregate Base design is most appropriate in regions of heavy frost, or on frost-susceptible subgrades.

41
• The aggregate of the various pavement layers supports the loads imposed on it while the asphalt cement
waterproofs and helps to bind everything together .
• The water tightness prevents moisture from entering and weakening the subgrade.

• For heavier loads and weaker subgrades thicker layers of asphalt mixtures and/or base and subbase
aggregates are required to distribute the loads and to prevent pavement failure .

• The top surface needs to be smooth, resistant to wear, distortion, and deterioration by weathering and
deicing chemicals .

• Stonger materials spread loads more widely than weaker materials

• Pavement and aggregate thickness depends on the strength of the subgrade
DESIGN FACTORS:
• The thickness of asphalt concrete for roads depends on three factors:
• Traffic weight and number of vehicles : The heavier and/or more numerous the load, the thicker the
pavement required .
• Subgrade support: weaker subgrades require stronger pavement design . The use of a strong aggregate
subbase to achieve desired strength is recommended rather than thicker and/or more layers of asphalt
concrete .

• Materials in the pavement structure : Hot-mix asphalt concrete gives more strength and the aggregate base
distributes loads better than a fulldepth design .
ASPHALT PAVEMENT DESIGN
BIKEPATHS AND WALKWAYS
These utilize a total asphalt concrete thickness of 75 to
100 mm in a full-depth or untreated aggregate base design .
GOLF CART PATHS
1. These require a softer surface to minimize golf shoe spike
wear.
2. The surface course should be a sand-asphalt mixture with an
asphalt content slightly higher than for normal highway
paving

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TENNIS COURTS
1. Tennis court surfaces require a high degree of smoothness with a maximum irregularity of 3 mm
over a 3-m distance.
2. This can be achieved with an asphalt concrete base course of 75 mm.
3. Base course can be covered either with sand-asphalt for the surface course or with proprietary
surfacing of 25 mm.
• If sand-asphalt is used, a latex paint of minimum thickness should be used no sooner than
30 days after construction .
4. Together it creates a minimal total thickness of 100 mm
5. Perimeter edging is usually necessary to prevent edge failures .
PLAYGROUNDS AND RECREATIONAL AREAS
1. Thickness designs should be the same as those used for tennis courts.
2. Asphalt concrete can serve as a base for
 Sealers
 Colour coats
 Resilient surface coatings
 Artificial turf
The asphalt concrete base can be moulded on a prepared sub grade to produce any desired gradient .
ASPHALT CURBS
1. These are available in various shapes.
2. Curbs can be sheared off/deformed under heavy loads.
3. Curbs should be back-filled with a solid granular material or well-compacted soil .
4. They must be installed on a solid, impervious pavement that will not erode/fail
Asphalt concrete berms are an alternative to
curbs

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STANDARDS AND GUIDELINES
• Spatial Standards

• Energy and Resource Conservation

• Outdoor Accessibility
I -SPATIAL STANDARDS
• 1.Minimal safety clearances (ergonomic/ legal)
•

• 2.Perceived user comfort (psychological/perceptual)

• 3.Ceremonial protocol (cultural/ritual)

• 4.Aesthetic choice (personal/cultural)

ERGONOMIC MEASUREMENTS-Minimum patio or deck space required for

exterior dining may be 40to60% greater than that which is minimally required for

interior dining.

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