DECLARATION

We hereby declare that the project entitled is AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR

CORRECTOR submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirement for the award of the degree
in BSc Degree in Electrical and Computer Engineering(Power Engineering),Wolaita Sodo
University, is a record of our own work carried out by us during the academic year 2020/21
under the supervision and guidance of Mr MEBRATEHEN NIGUSE, Department of
Electrical and Computer Engineering, College of Engineering. The extent and source of
information are derived from the existing literature and have been indicated through the
project at the appropriate places. The matter embodied in this work is original and has not
been submitted for the award of any other degree, either in this or any other University.
S/No. STUDENT NAME ID SIGNATURE
1. Biniam Alemayehu Eng/R/0907/09 ------------------
2. Temesgen kasahun Eng/R/0706/09 ------------------
3. Binyam workneh Eng/R/0969/09 ------------------
4. Mihiret Belay Eng/R/ 0637/09 ------------------
5. Eyerusalem Samuel Eng/R/0736/09 -------------------

Place:
Date:

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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that Project Report entitled “AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR
CORRECTER” that is submitted by this group members in partial fulfilment of the
requirement for the fulfilment of semester project in the degree BSC in ELECTRICAL AND
COMPUTER ENGINEERING (Power Engineering) of Wolaita Sodo University, is a record
of the candidate own work carried out by him under my own supervision. The matter
embodies in thesis is original and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree.

Advisor Sign

Department Head Sign

Place:
Date:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We grateful to the god, without his blessing and mercy; this thesis would not have been
possible. We like to thank our family members for their constant support and encouragement.

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Foremost, we would like to express our sincere gratitude to my advisor “Mr
MEBRATEHEN NIGUSE,”, for the continuous support of my ‘AUTOMATIC POWER
FACTOR CORRECTER’, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and immense knowledge.
His/her guidance helped us in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. Without him,
we could not have written this thesis. We would like to express gratitude to our head of the
department, Electrical and Computer Engineering “Ass pro DEGU MENA”, who helped us
to finalize my thesis. Lastly, we offer our regards to the faculty and all of those who
supported us in any respect during the completion of the project.

Abstract
Low power is poor electrical efficiency. It results in excess heating since the current flow
through electrical system components is higher than necessary. The excess heating then can
lead to damage or shortening the life of the appliances. Low power factor also results in low-
voltage conditions which can lead to slow operation of appliances and dimming of lights.

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When the power factor is low, the electrical utility provides higher apparent power which
means that the utility will use larger distribution system devices. And the utility will pass the
higher expenses through higher utility bills. In the present technological revolution power is
very precious. So we need to find out the causes of power loss and improve the power system.
Due to industrialization the use of inductive load increases and hence power system losses its
efficiency. So we need to improve the power factor with a suitable method. . Whenever we
are thinking about any programmable devices then the embedded technology comes into force
front. The embedded is now a day very much popular and most the product are developed
with Microcontroller based embedded technology. Automatic power factor correction device
reads power factor from line voltage and line current by determining the delay in the arrival of
the current signal with respect to voltage signal with the help of power factor transducer high
accuracy by using an internal timer. This time values are then calibrated as DC voltage output
and corresponding power factor. Then the values are displayed in the 2X16 LCD modules.
Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to the industries, power systems
and also households to make them stable and due to that the system becomes stable and
efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus increases. The use of microcontroller reduces
the costs become more efficient.
Key Words: Assemble language, capacitor bank, microcontroller kit, switch driver,
transducer

TABLE OF CONTENT
Table of Contents
DECLARATION.........................................................................................................................i
CERTIFICATION......................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT...........................................................................................................iii
Abstract......................................................................................................................................iv
iv
TABLE OF CONTENT..............................................................................................................v
LIST OF FIGURE....................................................................................................................vii
LIST OF TABLE.....................................................................................................................viii
CHAPTER ONE.........................................................................................................................1
1.1INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................1
1.1.1 BACKGROUND.......................................................................................................1
1.1.2Power theory...............................................................................................................1
1.1.3Complex power...........................................................................................................2
1.1.4 Power quality.............................................................................................................3
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM....................................................................................6
1.3 OBJECTIVE.................................................................................................................7
1.3.1 General Objective.................................................................................................7
1.3.2 Specific objective..................................................................................................7
1.3.3 RESERCH METHODOLOGY............................................................................7
1.3.4 Expected outcome.................................................................................................8
1.3.5 Feasibility of the project............................................................................................8
1.3.5 Significant of the project............................................................................................8
CHAPTER-TWO......................................................................................................................10
2.1 THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW....................................................................10
2.1 POWER FACTOR..........................................................................................................12
2.2 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION...............................................................................13
2.4 Power Factor capacitor...................................................................................................17
2.5 Power factor Harmonics.................................................................................................20
2.6 Fixed Versus Automatic Capacitors...............................................................................21
CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................................23
METHODOLOGY AND OVERALL SYSTEM DESIGN......................................................23
3.1 METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................23
3.1.1 SYSTEM DISCRIPTION AND OVERALL OPERATION...................................24
...............................................................................................................................................24
3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN.........................................................................................................25
3.2.1 CAPACITOR SIZING.............................................................................................25
3.2.2 PROTECTION FOR CAPACITOR BANK............................................................28
3.2.3 POWER FACTOR TRANSDUCERS.....................................................................29

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 3.2.4 ARDUINO UNO MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA328.....................................34
3.2.5 RELAY DRIVER....................................................................................................36
3.2.6 ELECTRO MAGNETIC RELAY...........................................................................36
3.2.6 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)...................................................................37

LIST OF FIGURE
Figure2.1 Phaser diagram.........................................................................................................13
Figure2.2 Show pure resistive load circuit...............................................................................18
Figure2.3The waveform for pure resistive load, Voltage and current are in phase..................18
Figure 2.4 Show pure inductive load circuit.............................................................................19

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Figure2.5The wave form for pure inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90°C..........19
Figure2.6 Show pure capacitive load circuit.............................................................................19
Figure2.7The wave form for pure capacitive load, current leads the voltage by 90°C............20
Figure3.1 Block diagram of overall project..............................................................................24
Figure3.2Grounded Wye-Connected Banks.............................................................................25
Figure3.3Ungrounded Wye-Connected Bank...........................................................................26
Figure3.4 Delta-connected Banks.............................................................................................27
Figure3.5capacitor bank protection box...................................................................................28
Figure3.6 Overall capacitor bank protection............................................................................29
Figure3.7 Single-Phase power factor Transducers...................................................................30
Figure3.8Two- element, single-phase power factor transducer................................................31
Figure3.9Three-Phase Watt Transducer...................................................................................31
Figure3.10Power factor transducer...........................................................................................32
Figure3.11Block diagram of power factor transducer..............................................................32
Figure3.12 Pin configuration of power factor transducer.........................................................34
Figure3.13 Reference graph for power factor transducer output..............................................34
Figure3.14Arduino microcontroller..........................................................................................35
Figure3.15 Electro-magnetic relay............................................................................................37
Figure3.16LCD display.............................................................................................................37

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 LIST OF TABLE
Table2.1 Inductive Load..........................................................................................................16
Table3.1 Specification of power factor transducer..................................................................33

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Acronym and Symbols
AC – Alternative current
A/D – Analog to digital
Amp - Ampere
APFC - adaptive power factor controller
C – Capacitance
CKT – Circuit
CT – Current transformer
DC – Direct current
GND – Ground
Hz - Hertz
I – current
IC – Capacitor current
Icp – Per phase Capacitor current
IL – Load current
IM - induction motor
KV – Kilo-Volt
KVA - kilovolt-amperes
KVAH - kilovolt-ampere-hours.
KVAR - kilovolt-amperes reactive.
KW – kilo-watt
KWh - in kilowatt-hours
LCD – Liquid crystal display
MA – Mill-Ampere
MHz – Mega-Hertz
Ms – Mill-Second
NC - Normally closes
NO - Normally open
P - Real Power
Pave – Average power
PFC- Power factor corrector
PLC - programmable logic controller.
PWM – Pulse width modulation
Q – Reactive power
R – Resister
RAM – Random access memory
RMS – Root mean square
S – Apparent power
SAG - sloped air-gap
SCB – Series capacitor bank
USB – Universal serial bus
V – Voltage
VAR - volt-ampere reactive

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VIN – Input voltage
Vph – Phase voltage
Vrms– The root mean square voltage
XC – Capacitive reactance
φ – “Phi” the phase difference between voltage and current

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 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 BACKGROUND
The power factor of an ac electric power system is defined as the ratio of the real power to the
apparent power, and is a number between 0 and 1. Real power is the capacity of the electric
load for performing work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current
and voltage of the electric load. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or
due to a non-linear load that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the
apparent power can be greater than the real power. Low-power-factor loads increase losses in
a power distribution system and result in increased energy costs. In a purely resistive ac
circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase; changing polarity at the same instant in
each cycle Circuits containing purely resistive heating elements such as filament lamps and
cooking stoves have a power factor of 1.0. Circuits containing inductive or capacitive
elements such as lamp ballasts and motors often have a power factor below 1.0 .
Over the last few years, the interest in reactive power compensation has been growing, mainly
because of the way in which energy supplier charge a customer for reactive power. Moreover,
the energy price is growing, what force the industry plants and individual customers to
minimize energy consumption, including reactive power. The aim is to minimize reactive
power flow in supplying and distribution systems, eliminate or minimize the charge for
reactive power as well as aspire to active energy limitation, in result, reducing fare for
electrical energy. In the matter of fact, the energy providers want them customers to
compensate reactive power. There are few solutions, that allow handle the problem of reactive
power compensation. One of them is reactive power compensator basing on power capacitors.
This is the most popular compensating device, mainly because of economical reasons, they
are relatively cheap comparing with i.e. active filters or compensation by means of electric
motors. That is one of the reasons, for which proposed the thesis topic “Design of automatic
power factor corrector”.
1.1.2 Power theory
Active Power
“Power is a measure of energy per unit time. Power therefore gives the rate of energy
consumption or production. The units for power are generally watts (W). For example, the
watt rating of an appliance gives the rate at which it uses energy. The total amount of energy
consumed by this appliance is the wattage multiplied by the amount of time during which it

xi
was used; this energy can be expressed in units of watt-hours (or, more commonly, kilowatt-
hours).The power dissipated by a circuit element whether an appliance or simply a wire is
given by the product of its resistance and the square of the current through it: P=I R. The term
2

“dissipated” indicates that the electric energy is being converted to heat. This heat may be part
of the appliance’s intended function (as in any electric heating device), or it may be
considered a loss (as in the resistive heating of transmission lines); the physical process is the
same. Another, more general way of calculating power is as the product of current and
voltage: P=IV. For a resistive element, we can apply Ohm’s law (P=I.V) to see that the
formulas P=I2R and P=I.V amount to the same thing:”
1.1.3Complex power
“Applying the simple formula P=I.V becomes more problematic when voltage and
current are changing over time, as they do in a.c. systems. In the most concise but abstract
notation, power, current, and voltage are all complex quantities, and the equation for power
becomes: S=I*V Where S is the apparent power and the asterisk denotes the complex
conjugate of the current I, meaning that for purposes of calculation, the sign (positive or
negative) of its imaginary component is to be reversed. All this ought to make very little sense
without a more detailed discussion of complex quantities and their representation by phasors.
In the interest of developing a conceptual understanding of A.C power, let us postpone the
elegant mathematics and begin by considering power, voltage, and current straightforwardly
as real quantities that vary in time. In the fundamental and correct way to interpret the
statement P=I*V when I and V vary in time is as a statement of instantaneous conditions.
Regardless of all the complexities to be encountered, it is always true that the instantaneous
power is equal to the instantaneous product of current and voltage. In other words, at any
instant, the power equals the voltage times the current at that instant. This is expressed by
writing each variable as a function of time, P (t) = I (t)* V (t)
Where t is the same throughout the equation (i.e. the same instant). “However,
instantaneous power as such is usually not very interesting to us. In power systems, we
generally need to know about power transmitted or consumed on a time scale much greater
than 1/60 of a second. Therefore, we need an expression for power as averaged over entire
cycles of alternating current and voltage. Consider first the case of a purely resistive load.
Voltage and current are in phase; they are oscillating simultaneously. The average power (the
average product of voltage and current) can be obtained by taking the averages (rms values)
of each and then multiplying them together. Thus, Pave = Irms *Vrms (in resistive case)

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But now consider a load with reactance. The relative timing of voltage and current has been
shifted; their maxima no longer coincide. In fact, one quantity is sometimes negative when the
other is positive. As a result, the instantaneous power transmitted or consumed (the product of
voltage and current) is sometimes negative. We can interpret the negative instantaneous
power as saying that power flows “backwards” along the transmission line, or out of the load
and back into the generator
Reactive power
“Finally, we also specify what we might intuitively think of as the difference between
apparent and real power, namely, reactive power [6]. Reactive power is the component of
power that oscillates back and forth through the lines, being exchanged between electric and
magnetic fields and not getting dissipated . It is denoted by the symbol Q, and its magnitude is
given by” Q = Irms *Vrms* sinφ

Again, note how the equation converges for the resistive case where φ =0 and sin sinφ=0, as
there will be no reactive power at all. Reactive power is measured in VAR (also written Var
or VAr), for volt-ampere reactive. We can represent power as a vector in the complex plane:
namely, and arrow of length S (apparent power) that makes an angle f with the real axis. The
angle φ is the same as the phase difference between voltage and current.”
1.1.4 Power quality
Nonlinear loads
There are more and more energy consumers that use devices with nonlinear current voltage
characteristics, what affects the power quality delivered by the energy supplier. This type of
device connected to the network is generating the higher order harmonics, which in turn, are
main reason of supplying voltage distortion. The harmonics has been the most disturbing
distortion in the electric systems, and the problem still is not solved since the problem is being
gained.
The power quality parameters are worst because of:
 Nonlinear loads
 Electromagnetic immunity of devices on electromagnetic distortions is smaller
 Electromagnetic ecology
The main point of the power quality improving is to understand the problem by the energy
customers and suppliers. In order describe the sources of the power distortion, it is necessary
to determine which parameters of the power decide about the quality.

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Main sources of power distortions
The characteristic thing about the energy is that its quality strictly depends on the end user.
The factors that affect the power quality the most are: faults in power system, substations
mains, as well as switching on and off the loads of the high power. Moreover, installation of
the big amount of nonlinear loads such as lighting, electronic devices in the vicinity of the
nonlinear, high power electric drive has negative consequences. We can distinguish three
groups of harmonics sources in the power system .
 Arc devices such as arc furnace, welding machines etc.
 Devices with electromagnetic cores such as transformers, electric motors or
generators
 Electronic and power electronic devices
The energy consumers are using more electrical devices, which converts the energy. This
devices, very often consist of capacitors, filters, rectifiers. The state of the art computers, TV,
and lighting also affects the phase currents. The nonlinear loads produce higher order
harmonic, especially the 3rd, 5th, 7th etc. The harmonics of the currents cause some problems
in the mains while the voltage drop across the line impedance distorts the voltage.
Influence of the non linear loads on the power quality parameters
The nonlinear loads having electronic inputs, converts the delivered energy into the same type
of energy, but with different parameters than the one in the feeder. This type of power
conversion allows controlling the conversion of the energy in order to obtain the other type of
energy, i.e. the mechanical one. It concerns the electric motors, lighting and heating. All the
energy saving systems basing on the semi-conductors (diodes, thyristors etc.) allows for the
energy savings; on the other hand they launch distortions to the electric grid. The nonlinear
loads are being used more often in many locations. In the ideal supplying system, the current
and voltage waveform is strictly sinusoidal. In case, where there are the nonlinear loads in the
system the waveforms are distorted. As a result of the nonlinear loads, one may have a
problem with the increase of the RMS current of the capacitors for the reactive power
compensation. The devices that are prone to the harmonics are, among other things,
transformers. The harmonic presence makes the power losses of the transformer core bigger
 Higher supplying power
 Higher power losses of transmission line
 malfunction of protection

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  overheating of transformers and motors
 malfunction of capacitors for reactive power compensation
 Increase of the current in neutral conductor
 Disturbances for sensitive devices
 Shorter life expectancy of the insulation
Devices for reactive power compensation
In the most cases, PFC is used for economic reasons. Using compensating device, one can
save on electricity bill as well as keep certain grid parameters determined by the energy
provider . Power factor correction gives even more profits, than only savings. Compensating
“unnecessary” reactive power the current carrying capacity of an existing network can be
sufficient to send more active power through it, maintaining the same ratings of the apparatus
within the supplying and distribution system. PFC also allows decreasing transmission losses
and limits voltage drops. Generally, reliability of the network gets better. But one should be
aware, that compensating device connected to the mains can also have negative consequences
like:
 Transient generation
 Higher order harmonics generation
 Long lasting voltage rise
 Gain of higher order harmonics
 Voltage drops, outages and Overvoltage of short duration
 Other kind of distortions
All of this can be caused for few reasons, such as resonance phenomenon, mistakes in design,
use of unsuitable equipment, wrong exploitation. But despite of all negative consequences,
there are also positive ones, which will definitely improve energy quality. These are as
follows:
 Limitation of reactive power
 Adjustment of a voltage at receivers (burden) terminals
 Higher order harmonic filtration
 Phase voltage symmetrisation
 Limitation of voltage swing and flickering
Bearing above in mind, before one decides, what kind of compensating device will be used in
particular case; there is a few factors and conditions that has to be taken under consideration,
such as:
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  Rating of the mains, that is: voltage, frequency, and it`s real value
(measurement)
 Demand on inductive reactive power taking into account the aim of
compensation
 Presence of higher order harmonics of a current and voltage
 Short circuit parameters at the capacitor bank future location
 Ambient conditions
 Place of installation
Compensating devices can be classified into four groups:
 Power capacitor based compensators
 Power electronics compensators and active filters
 Hybrid compensation systems (power capacitors and power electronics based)
 Synchronous machines
1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
All current will cause losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a power factor
of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power factor of 0.5
will result in much higher losses in the supply system. A poor power factor can be the result
of either a significant phase difference between the voltage and current at the load terminals,
or it can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform. Poor
load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an induction
motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace. A distorted current
waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched mode power supply,
discharge lighting or other electronic load. A poor power factor due to an inductive load can
be improved by the addition of power factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a
distorted current waveform requires a change in equipment design or expensive harmonic
filters to gain an appreciable improvement. Many inverters are quoted as having a power
factor of better than 0.95 when in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The
figure of 0.95 is based on the Cosine of the angle between the voltage and current but does not
take into account that the current waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to
increased losses on the supply. Electrical power generators are design to produce quality,
reliable and stable power to consumers. It came to light that most of the loads in commercial
use are inductive loads that produce inductive reactance and if not immediately checked,
contributes to low power factor thereby increasing the amount of electrical energy that flows

xvi
through the electrical network from the generating station, example of industrial and
commercial loads are (inductive motors, furnaces, arc welding machines, etc.) and (air
conditions, washing machines, deep freezers, refrigerators heaters, etc.) respectively.
Attempts are made over the years to improve the low factor close to unity using capacitors
banks to generate capacitive reactance to compensate for the inductive reactance. Switching
on and off of the capacitor banks for the compensation also produces harmonics in the
system .Therefore the need for improving the power factor using microcontroller to do the
switching of the capacitor banks on/off the system and also eliminate harmonic effect in the
system.
1.3 OBJECTIVE
1.3.1 General Objective
The main objective of the proposed system is, in order to compensate the reactive power for
BODIT WIN WATER FACTORY by switching on and off the capacitor bank through
electromagnetic relay using Micro-controller and to provide an automatically controlled
power factor correction unit that will bring the power factor near to 0.99 and have sufficient
capacity for future PFC requirements or expansion.
1.3.2 Specific objective
In order to size the desired capacitor bank.
In order to select power factor transducer.
 To program the microcontroller that will switch the capacitor bank base from the
data of the power factor transducer.
 In order to select appropriate relay and relay driver.
1.3.3 RESERCH METHODOLOGY
The methodologies of this thesis include:
 Literature review: A number of published ideas about power factor correction,
capacitor bank sizing, switching in books, papers, articles, Transactions,
journals, note lectures, materials have been reviewed.
 Data collection: Data has been collected from Bodit Win water factory offices
regarding about it’s power factor correction in accordance to their parameters
and ratings.
 Modelling: The aforementioned collected data have been analysed and
organized to make suitable for modelling and improving power factor.

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  Power factor corrector: an embedded system used to enhance the power factor
to the desired value.
1.3.4 Expected outcome
The expected outcome of this project is to measuring the power factor value and to improve
power factor using capacitor bank and reduce current draw by the load using microcontroller
and proper algorithm to turn on capacitor automatically, determine and trigger sufficient
switching of capacitor in order to compensate excessive reactive components, thus bringing
power factor near to unity and remove harmonics in the system there by improving the
efficiency of the system and reducing the electricity bill.
1.3.5 Feasibility of the project
Power Factor Correction is an energy saving technology that is used to improve the operating
efficiency of electrical power systems. Applied correctly, Power Factor Correction can reduce
electricity costs, increase energy efficiency and reduce carbon footprints. The primary benefit
of power factor correction is the elimination of charges related to reactive power-
consumption. If the utility is adding a power factor penalty or billing for apparent power,
reduction in reactive power will net savings. The amount of savings seen will depend on the
size, configuration, and operation of the power system. Typically, the costs for correction are
paid back inside of one year, and after that, the savings will reduce operating costs. In
addition, power factor correction will improve the overall performance of the power system
which can increase switchgear, starter, and motor life. The bottom line is protection,
efficiency, and savings. Environmental benefit to reduced power consumption means less
greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel depletion by power. It is shown that the specific
costs of the distributing and compensation elements as well as those of the electrical energy
and power losses have a decisive influence on the achievable overall economic saving. After
formulating an objective function representing this overall saving, taking the power factor into
account. A generalized the designer to know whether the power factor correction is feasible
under any circumstances. The most suitable degree of reactive power compensation can be
directly found. The results obtained from the optimal compensation power factor to changes
in system parameters such as the specific energy loss cost and the annual rate of interest and
depreciation.
1.3.5 Significant of the project
Significant of the project is to improve system voltages, thus enable maintaining rated voltage
to motors, pumps and other equipment. The voltage drop in supply conductors is a resistive

xviii
 loss, and wastes power heating the conductors. Improving the power factor, especially at the
motor terminals, can improve the efficiency by reducing the line current and the line losses.

SCOPE OF THE PROJECT

 The aim of this thesis is to develop thorough and effective methods to improve and correct
power factor produced by the inductive loads in the factory. we have used PROTEUS for
schematic diagram and Arduino software for coding assembly languages to observe the
characteristics of improved and original power factor influence on the factor.
 Operation of capacitor bank and Developed by microcontroller (ATMEGA 328P)
Compiled by Arduino software.

LIMITATION OF THE PROJECT

 Cost, must consider life time costs not just initial
 Cost differential decreasing with time
 It is very difficult to achieve desired power factor due to complexity of design and longer
repair time

xix
 CHAPTER-TWO
THEORY AND LITERATURE REVIEW
Though correction of power factor is very old practice, we have considered the work done in
recent years in our Thesis. Many of the authors below have suggested and prescribe many
ways of power factor correction but this work concentrates on .We have considered the work
done in the previous years, starting from 1988. Proposed a continuing effort to develop an
effective, reliable, and inexpensive adaptive power factor controller (APFC). The APFC was
able to compensate adaptively the reactive power of rapidly varying loads without adding
harmonics or transients to the power system. Based on thousands of hours of field operation,
the APFC had substantially modified to improve its reliability and effectiveness. Proposed the
speed and power factor of an adjustable speed slip power recovery drive were controlled in
order to optimize the operation. This was accomplished by means of a variable voltage
variable-frequencies power converter. The function of the digital controller of the power
converter was to provide the online speed and power factor regulation. reports a laboratory
model of a microcomputer-based power factor controller (PFC) for compensating the reactive
power of rapidly varying loads by switching capacitors sized in a binary ratio, with the help of
zero voltage static switches. Four types of control strategies were tried, viz.
1. Unity step control method
2. Binary search method
3. Successive approximation method and
4. Look-up table method.
Features like,
 Independent control of current in each phase,
 Reactive current sensing and capacitor switching in one cycle,
 Zero voltage switching of static switches to prevent the occurrence of
transients and harmonics.
 Switch failure detection logic and their display are all incorporated in the
software programming.
Investigates the use of variable inductance (the inductance varies with current), which
provides adequate harmonic reduction. Three types of inductors are investigated: an inductor
with a fixed air- gap operating with a saturated core, a swinging inductor which has a stepped

xx
gap and a novel inductor construction with a sloped air-gap (SAG). Results are presented for a
200 W power supply and it is shown that the SAG inductor has the best performance in terms
of harmonic response and size. Proposed a detailed analysis of the ripple current of an
electrolytic capacitor in a boost type power factor control circuit. The ripple current was
divided into two components, namely the low-frequency and the high-frequency components.
The root-mean-square value of the capacitor current was derived for both components. In
proposed the programming of micro-controller for power factor correction that described the
design and development of a three-phase power factor corrector using (Programmable
Interface Microcontroller) chip. This involved sensing and measuring the power factor value
from the load using PIC and sensors, then using proper algorithm to determine and trigger
sufficient switching capacitors in order to compensate excessive reactive components, thus
withdraw PF near to unity .Proposed a new integrated power quality device-power factor
controller (PFC) for power distribution system and industrial power circuit applications. A
PFC integrated breaker-switched capacitor banks into a compact design with low cost sensing
elements and an intelligent control unit. The device provided more accurate voltage control
and power factor correction than traditional shunt capacitor bank installations. Proposed a
power factor controller (PFC) for a three-phase induction motor (IM) utilized the
programmable logic controller (PLC). It focused on the implementation of a laboratory model
for a PLC based PFC to improve the power factor of a three-phase induction motor. During
the online process a set of capacitors sized in a binary ratio would be switched on or off with
the help of zero voltage static switches according to a control strategy to obtain a pre specified
power factor. This control strategy relied on a look-up table and an expert system. Proposed
an innovative converter topology that improved the performance of a switched reluctance
motor drive, aimed to equip home appliances. It was based on a modified C dump converter
configuration, where the energy recovery stage acted as an active power factor controller for
off-line operation. Proposed a general description of new functions integrated in the medium
voltage switchboard to meet the power quality challenge. They described circuit breakers with
magnetic actuators that were easy to justify economically and gave low cost power quality
solutions. introduces a single-phase digital power-factor correction (PFC) control approach
that requires no input voltage sensing or explicit current-loop compensation, yet results in
low-harmonic operation over a universal input voltage range and loads ranging from high-
power operation in continuous conduction mode down to the near-zero load. The controller is
based on low-resolution A/D converters and digital pulse width modulator, requires no

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microcontroller or DSP programming, and is well suited for a simple, low-cost integrated
circuit realization, or as a hardware description language core suitable for integration with
other power control and power management functions. proposed a novel compensator, where
in-phase and quadrature components of the supply current are vector-controlled.
Implementation of this compensator in a power electronic system operating with a very poor
power factor (and hence high THD) shows that the system then draws a leading current. A
conventional power electronic system with one of the traditional static VAR compensators
and the conventional power electronic system incorporated with the proposed compensator
are simulated and the simulation results are obtained. It is shown that the proposed method
offers only 0.7% THD, which also implies that the power factor is improved. Shuffling
presents an intelligent power factor compensation controller that can perform power factor
correction without exciting harmonic resonance under varying demand conditions. Practical
and robust control algorithms are proposed for the purpose of easy implementation in a micro-
controller. In addition, the controller relies on common low cost sensing devices and does not
require additional measurements. As a result, the proposed controller can be constructed as a
retrofitting device to replace existing power factor correction controllers with little effort.
2.1 POWER FACTOR
Power factor is an energy concept that is related to power flow in electrical systems. To
understand power factor, it is helpful to understand three different types of power in electrical
systems. Real Power is the power that is actually converted into useful work for creating heat,
light and motion. Real power is measured in kilowatts (KW) and is totalized by the electric
billing meter in kilo watt hours (KWh) . An example of real power is the useful work that
directly turns the shaft of a motor. Reactive Power is the power used to sustain the
electromagnetic field in inductive and capacitive equipment. It is the non- working power
component. Reactive power is measured in kilovolt-amperes reactive (KVAR). Reactive
power does not appear on the customer billing statement. Total Power or Apparent power is
the combination of real power and reactive power. Total power is measured in kilovolt-
amperes (KVA) and is totalized by the electric billing meter in kilovolt-ampere-hours
(kVAH). Power factor (PF) is defined as the ratio of real power to total power, and is
expressed as a percentage (%) .
Power factor = Real Power (kWh) /Total Power (kVAH) x 100

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 P
PF= *100
S
Or Power factor cos ϕ is defined as the ratio between the Active component IR and the total
value of the current I; ϕ is the phase angle between the voltage and the current.

Figure2.1 Phaser diagram

2.2 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION
Power factor correction is the process of compensating for the lagging current by creating a
leading current by connecting capacitors to the supply. A sufficient capacitance can be
connected so that the power factor is adjusted to be as close to unity as possible.
Power factor correction (PFC) is a system of counteracting the undesirable effects of electric
loads that create a power factor that is less than one. Power factor correction may be applied
either by an electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the
transmission network or, correction may be installed by individual electrical customers to
reduce the costs charged to them by their electricity service provider .An electrical load that
operates on alternating current requires apparent power, which consists of real power and
reactive power. Real power is the power actually consumed by the load. Reactive power is
repeatedly demanded by the load and returned to the power source, and it is the cyclical effect
that occurs when alternating current passes through a load that contains a reactive component.
The presence of reactive power causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, so
the electric load has a power factor of less than one. The reactive power increases the current
flowing between the power source and the load, which increases the power losses through
transmission and distribution lines. This results in operational and financial losses for power

xxiii
companies. Therefore, power companies require their customers, especially those with large
loads, to maintain their power factors above a specified amount especially around ally 0.90 or
higher, or be subject to additional charges. Electrical engineers involved with the generation,
transmission, distribution and consumption of electrical power have an interest in the power
factor of loads because power factors affect efficiencies and costs for both the electrical
power industry and the consumers. In addition to the increased operating costs, reactive power
can require the use of wiring, switches, circuit breakers, transformers and transmission lines
with higher current capacities. Power factor correction attempts to adjust the power factor of
an AC load or an AC power transmission system to unity through various methods. Simple
methods include switching in or out banks of capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the
inductive or capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect of
motor loads may be offset by locally connected capacitors. It is also possible to effect power
factor correction with an unloaded synchronous motor connect across the supply. The power
factor of the motor is varied by adjusting the field excitation and be made to behave like a
capacitor when over excited. Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in addition to the
original AC current. There are two types of PFCs, Passive and Active.
Passive PFC
The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter: it is possible to design a
filter that passes current only at line frequency 50Hz. This filter reduces the harmonic current,
which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear load. At this point the power
factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors as required. This filter
requires large-value high-current inductors, however, which are bulky and expensive. A
passive PFC requires an inductor larger than the inductor in an active PFC, but costs less. This
is a simple way of correcting the nonlinearity of a load is by using capacitor banks. It is not as
effective as active PFC. Passive PFCs are typically more power efficient than active PFCs.
Active PFC
An "active power factor corrector" (active PFC) is a power electronic system that controls the
amount of power drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as close as possible to
unity. In most applications, the active PFC controls the input current of the load so that the
current waveform is proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a sine wave). The purpose
of making the power factor as close to unity (1) as possible is to make the load circuitry that is
power factor corrected appear purely resistive (apparent power equal to real power). In this
case, the voltage and current are in phase and the reactive power consumption is zero. This
enables the most efficient delivery of electrical power from the power company to the

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consumer. Some types of active PFC are: Boost, Buck and Buck-boost. Active power factor
correctors can be single-stage or multi-stage. Active PFC is the most effective and can
produce a PFC of 0.99 (99%).

Advantages of Power Factor Correction

There are several advantages in utilizing power factor correction capacitors. These include:
 Reduced demand charges
 Increased load carrying capabilities in existing circuits
 Improved voltage
 Reduced power system loses
The disadvantages of a low power factor
The load draws greater current for the same value of the useful power. A simple example
showing the current required by a single phase electric motor is given below:
Supply voltage = 240Volts single phase
Motor input = 10KW
Power factor = 0.65

Current (I1) = (Power (KW) / Volts (V) x P.F) = (10000 / 240 x0.65) = 64.1Amps.

If the power factor of the motor is increased to 0.9 the current drawn by the motor.

Current (I2) = (Power (KW) / Volts (V) x P.F) = (10000 / 240 x0.9) = 46.3 Amp.

Thus, as the power factor decreases the current required for the same value of active, or
useful, power increases. The result is that the capacity of the equipment, like the switchgear,
cables, transformers, etc., will have to be increased to cater for the higher current in the
circuit. All this adds to the cost. Further, the greater current causes increased power loss or I R
2

losses in the circuits. Also due to higher current, the conductor temperature rises and hence
the life of the insulation is reduced. Also, with the increased current the voltage drop
increases; thereby the voltage at the supply point is reduced. For different loads it causes
voltage drop resulting in: a. Lower output of the illumination system. Less current is drawn by
the heating devices so that the operating temperature drops. This results in increased
consumption for the same rise of temperature. The induction motors slow down and therefore
draw more current to produce a fixed torque for the loads.
The advantages of an improved power factor
Higher power factors result in: a) Reduction in system losses, and the losses in the cables,
lines, and feeder circuits and therefore lower cable sizes could be opted for. b) Improved
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system voltages, thus enable maintaining rated voltage to motors, pumps and other equipment.
The voltage drop in supply conductors is a resistive loss, and wastes power heating the
conductors. Improving the power factor, especially at the motor terminals, can improve the
efficiency by reducing the line current and the line losses. c) Improved voltage regulation. d)
Increased system capacity, by release of KVA capacity of transformers and cables for the
same KW, thus permitting additional loading without immediate expansion.
Power Factor and Electrical Loads
In general, electrical systems are made up of three components: resistors, inductors and
capacitors. Inductive equipment requires an electromagnetic field to operate. Because of this,
inductive loads require both real and reactive power to operate. The power factor of inductive
loads is referred to as lagging, or less than 100%, based upon our power factor ratio.
In most commercial and industrial facilities, a majority of the electrical equipment acts as a
resistor or an inductor. Resistive loads include incandescent lights, baseboard heaters and
cooking ovens. Inductive loads include fluorescent lights, AC induction motors, arc welders
and transformers.
Table2.1 Inductive Load

Load Power factor (%)

Induction motor 70-90
Small adjustable drive 90-98
Flourcent light, Magnetic ballast and 70-80 and 90-95
Electronic ballast
Arc welder 35-80

Capacitor
A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component
used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices .
When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means of

xxvi
construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage
current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance. Capacitors are
widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating
current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in the resonant
circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for
stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes. Capacitors also require
reactive power to operate. However, capacitors and inductors have an opposite effect on
reactive power. The power factors for capacitors are leading. Therefore capacitors are
installed to counteract the effect of reactive power used by inductive equipment.
2.4 Power Factor capacitor
Power factor capacitors may conveniently be switched on and off with individual motors.
This assures that the capacitor is energized only during the times when the motor is energized
when you need power factor correction. For this type of application, typically a Fixed
Capacitor Bank is used. This is the simplest and most economical form of power factor
correction. Depending on the manner in which you connect the capacitor, you may or may not
need to include fuses Harmonics will reduce the life of power factor capacitors. Whenever
there are harmonic producing loads on the power system, the capacitor bank should include
capacitor protection reactors that will detune‖ the capacitor bank to a frequency where no
harmonic energy exists. Instead of the capacitor protection reactor we intend using a
microcontroller to detune the capacitor bank to a frequency where no harmonics energy can
exist thereby improving the correction of Power factor.
Uses of Automatic Power Factor Capacitors
When the load conditions and power factor in a facility change frequently, the demand for
power factor improving capacitors also changes frequently. In order to assure that the proper
amount of power factor capacitor KVAr are always connected to the system (without over-
correcting), an Automatic Type Capacitor System should be used for applications involving
multiple loads. A microcontroller automatic compensation system is formed by:
 Some sensors detecting current and voltage signals;
 An intelligent unit that compares the measured power factor with the desired
one and operates the connection and disconnection of the capacitor banks
with the necessary reactive power (power factor regulator);
 An electric power board comprising switching and protection devices;
 Some capacitor banks.
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Power Factor in Resistor, Inductance and capacitance circuit
In a purely resistive AC circuit, voltage and current waveforms are in phase, changing
polarity at the same instant in each cycle. Where reactive loads are present, such as with
capacitors or inductors, energy storage in the loads result in a time difference between the
current and voltage waveforms. This stored energy returns to the source and is not available to
do work at that load. A circuit with low power factor will have a higher current to transfer a
given quality of real power than a circuit with a high power factor. In order to get the current
reading with the oscilloscope for the diagram for pure resistive, capacitive and inductive loads
below. A resistor with a negligible value was introduced in the circuit and the current value
was measured across it. This assumption was made using ohms law:
Ohms law: V=IR but R‘s value is negligible therefore V=I, This assumption was used to get
the waveform for current I.

Figure2.2 Show pure resistive load circuit

xxviii
 Figure2.3The waveform for pure resistive load, Voltage and current are in phase.

Figure 2.4 Show pure inductive load circuit.

Figure2.5The wave form for pure inductive load, the current lags the voltage by 90°C.

xxix
 Figure2.6 Show pure capacitive load circuit.

Figure2.7The wave form for pure capacitive load, current leads the voltage by 90°C.
2.5 Power factor Harmonics
Harmonics are sinusoidal voltages or currents having frequencies that are whole multiples of
the frequency at which the supply system is designed to operate (e.g. 50Hz or 60 Hz). E.g. a
250 Hz sine wave signal, superposed onto the fundamental 50 Hz mains frequency, will be
designated as the 5th harmonic or as the harmonic of 5th order (5 x 50 Hz). Any signal
component having a frequency which is not an integer multiple of the fundamental frequency
is designated as an interharmonic component or referred to more simply as an interharmonic.
Harmonics and interharmonics are basically the result of modern developments in electricity
utilization and the use of electronic power conditioning modules. Using switching power
supplies to control loads and to reduce power consumption results in unwanted frequencies

xxx
superimposed on the supply voltage. The presence of voltage at other frequencies is, as far as
possible, to be avoided.
Potential Sources of Harmonics
 Switched mode power supplies: Dimmers, Current Regulators, Frequency
Converters
 Voltage source inverters with pulse width modulated converters.
 Low power consumption lamps.
 Electrical arc-furnaces.
 Arc welding machines.
 Induction motors with irregular magnetizing current associated with saturation
of the iron.
 All equipment with built-in switching devices or with internal loads with non-
linear voltage/current characteristics.
Effects of Harmonics on Mains supplies
 Distortion of main supply voltage, unwanted currents flowing in the supply
network generate additional energy losses.
 Defective operation of regulating devices, disturbed operation of florescent
lamps, television receivers or other equipment.
 Malfunction of ripple control and other mains signalling systems, protective
relays and, possibly, other of control systems.
 Additional losses in capacitors and rotating machines.
 Additional acoustic noise from motors and other apparatus, reducing the
efficiency of motors.
 Telephone interference.
 High harmonic amplitudes may not only cause malfunctions, additional losses
and overheating, but also overload the power distribution network and overheat
the neutral conductor and cause it to burn out.
For the purpose of harmonic current limitation, equipment is classified as follows:
Class A: Balanced three-phase equipment;
 Household appliances excluding equipment identified as Class D;
 Tools excluding portable tools;
 Dimmers for incandescent lamps;
 Audio equipment;

xxxi
  Equipment not specified in one of the three other classes shall be considered
as Class A equipment.
Class B: Portable tools.
Class C: Lighting equipment.
Class D: Equipment having a specified power < 600W of the following types:
 Personal computers and personal monitors;
 Television receivers.
2.6 Fixed Versus Automatic Capacitors
Fixed capacitor banks are always on at all times, regardless of the load in the facility, while an
automatic capacitor bank varies the amount of correction supplied to an electrical system. An
automatic capacitor is much more expensive per kVAR than a fixed system. 100 kVAR of
fixed capacitors will save as much power factor penalties as a 100 kVAR automatic capacitor.
Generally, when a capacitor is connected to a system there is a reduction in amperage on the
system. This reduction in amperage reduces the voltage drop across a load, which results in a
higher voltage in the system. If 100 kVAR is connected to a 1000 KVA transformer, there is
approximately a ¾% voltage rise on the system (if there are no other loads on the system).
The more kVAR connected, the higher the voltage rise. This voltage rise is counter acted by
the increase of load in the facility. Typically, in the night and on weekends, utility voltage are
higher than normal, and facilities that are not normally loaded during these times, could
experience a higher than normal voltage rise if too much capacitance is connected to their
system. Based on this, generally limit fixed capacitors to 10% to 15% fixed kVAR to KVA of
load size.

xxxii
 CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY AND OVERALL SYSTEM DESIGN
3.1 METHODOLOGY
The first thing that the proponents did was to gather information related and needed to the
project. For the project, the proponents studied Power Factor, Power Triangle (True Power,
Apparent Power and Reactive Power), Reactive Components (Resistive, Capacitive and
Inductive), Capacitor Bank, Microcontroller, Assembly Language, power factor transducer,
Power Savers and the different ways how to correct the Power Factor specialists. An
individual low power factored appliance might not severely affect a households’ electrical
consumption. All household appliances together will have no that much effect except

xxxiii
inductive load. Since the main task of the project is to correct power factor of
inductive loads for BODIT WIN WATER FACTORY, the studied what methods to use in
order to achieve this. So we considered that microcontroller since the power factor must be
corrected automatically. After finding out and deciding which method to use in correcting the
power factor, the studied which possible circuits to use in correcting the power factor. The
module manually corrects the power factor and corrects it one load at a time.
In large industrial plants where many motors are generally in use or, when the main reason for
power factor is to obtain lower electricity bills, then centralized compensation is far more
practical and economical than individual motor compensation. In this instance, large banks or
racks of capacitors are installed at the main incoming distribution boards of the plant and are
sub-divided into steps which are automatically switched in or out depending on specific load
requirements by means of an automatic control system, improving the overall power factor of
the network. By calculating capacitor kVAR size requirements for power factor correction the
following information must be known beforehand.
a) The average plant power factor
b) The maximum running load of the plant in Kw
Generally an automatic power factor system consists of:
 Capacitor bank with protection
 Power factor transducer
 Microcontroller
 Switch and switching driver
3.1.1 SYSTEM DISCRIPTION AND OVERALL OPERATION
Automatic Power Factor correction device is developed basing on a micro controller power
factor transducer. The voltage and current sampled is step down to supply the power factor
transducer. The output of power factor transducer is pure DC; this output varies with respect
to the current distortion. The V and I sample signals are feed to the micro controller in order
to measure the arrival of V and I result. This value is calibrated as phase angle and
corresponding power factor. The values are displayed in the LCD modules after converting
suitably. The capacitor banks are switched as per the calibration in steps”.
The block diagram mainly consist of a microcontroller, power factor transducer, relay
circuit, capacitor, voltage and current measurement unit and inductive load.
 50 Hz AC supply is connected to the capacitor start induction load
 Current transformer and potential transformer are used to reduce current and
voltage level for power factor transducer.
 power factor transducer measures true phase angle delivered to a load
and converts that measurement to a DC voltage or current signal
proportional to the power measured.`
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  The measured voltage and current signal are given to pin of microcontroller.
 Microcontroller calculate the power factor of measured value, depends up on
error it will send signal to the relay.
 LCD display is used to display power factor value of the line continuously.
 When the relay energized by microcontroller it connect capacitor parallel
with load, when relay de energized it disconnect the capacitor from
the line.

INDUCTION
AC SUPPLAY MOTOR

CT
PT
SWITCH
CAPACITOR

MICRO- SWITCHING
PF TRANSDUCER CONTROLLER DRIVE

LCD
Figure3.8 Block diagram of overall project
3.2 SYSTEM DESIGN
3.2.1 CAPACITOR SIZING
Customer of electric power wants to increase his power factor to 0.9 to avoid paying power
factor penalties that are being charged by the electrical utility. Calculate how much reactive
power compensation / power factor correction they need to install to raise the power factor to
0.9.
Capacitor bank configuration
There are different types of capacitor bank configuration:
Grounded Wye-Connected Banks
Grounded wye capacitor banks are composed of series and parallel-connected capacitor units
per phase and provide a low impedance path to ground. Figure shows typical bank

xxxv
arrangements.
Advantages of the grounded capacitor banks include:
 Its low-impedance path to ground provides inherent self-protection for
lightning surge currents and gives some protection from surge voltages. Banks
can be operated without surge arresters taking advantage of the capability of
the capacitors to absorb the surge.
 Offer a low impedance path for high frequency currents and so they can be
used as filters in systems with high harmonic content. However, caution shall
be taken to avoid resonance between the SCB and the system.
 Reduced transient recovery voltages for circuit breakers and other switching
equipment.
Some drawbacks for grounded wye SCB are:
 Increased interference on telecom circuits due to harmonic circulation.
 Circulation of inrush currents and harmonics may cause disoperation and/or
over operation on protective relays and fuses.
 Phase series reactors are required to reduce voltages appearing on the CT
secondary due to the effect of high frequency, high amplitude currents.

Figure3.9Grounded Wye-Connected Banks

When a capacitor bank becomes too large, making the
parallel energy of a series group too great (above 4650 kvar)
for the capacitor units or fuses, the bank may be split into two
wye sections. The characteristics of the grounded double wye
are similar to a grounded single wye bank. The two neutrals
should be directly connected with single connection with
ground.
Ungrounded Wye-Connected Banks
Typical bank arrangements of ungrounded Wye SCB are shown in Figure. Ungrounded wye
banks do not permit zero sequence currents, third harmonic currents, or large capacitor
discharge currents during system ground faults to flow. (Phase-to-phase faults may still occur

xxxvi
and will result in large discharge currents). Other advantage is that overvoltage appearing at
the CT secondary’s is not as high as in the case of grounded banks. However, the neutral
should be insulated for full line voltage because it is momentarily at phase potential when the
bank is switched or when one capacitor unit fails in a bank configured with a single group of
units. For banks above 15kV this may be expensive.

Figure3.10Ungrounded Wye-Connected Bank

H Configuration
Some larger banks use an H configuration in each phase with a current transformer connected
between the two legs to compare the current down each leg. As long as all capacitors are
normal, no current will flow through the current transformer. If a capacitor fuse operates,
some current will flow through the current transformer. This bridge connection can be very
sensitive. This arrangement is used on large banks with many capacitor units in parallel.
Delta-connected Banks
Delta-connected banks are generally used at distributions voltages and are configured with a
single series group of capacitors rated at line-to-line voltage. With only one series group of
units no overvoltage occurs across the remaining capacitor units from the isolation of a
faulted capacitor unit. Therefore, unbalance detection is not required for protection. A delta-
connected bank of capacitors is usually applied to voltage classes of 2400 volts or less.

Figure3.11 Delta-connected Banks

In a three phase system, to supply the same reactive power, the star connection requires a
capacitor with a capacitance three times higher than the delta connected capacitor. In addition,

xxxvii
the capacitor with the star connection results to be subjected to a voltage√3 lower and flows
through by a current √3 higher than a capacitor inserted and delta connected.

For Three Phase STAR Connection

Capacity of the capacitor bank: C=Qc/ (2πFrUr2)

Rated current of the components: IRC = 2πFrCUr / √3

Line current: I = IRC
Three Phase Delta Connection
Capacity of the capacitor bank: C = Qc / (2πFrUr2.3)
Rated current of the components: IRC = 2πFrCUr
Line current: I = IRC / √3
Where,
Ur = rated voltage, which the capacitor must withstand indefinitely;
Fr = rated frequency
Qc = generally expressed in kVAR (reactive power of the capacitor bank).
Why PF improvement capacitors are in Delta connected? Not in Star?
Capacitor banks in PFC Units are connected in Delta because sums of stored KVARs are
required in parallel across a three phase network to improve the power angle on the load. The
summations of KVARs are done in electrical stepping sequences via the PFC Unit controller
depending on the number of capacitor banks in the PFC Unit. Draw the equivalent circuit of a
delta connected capacitor. You will find that for the same cell capacitance (C), delta
connection will give 1.5C between any two lines, whereas if they are star connected, you
would only get 0.5C between any two lines.
3.2.2 PROTECTION FOR CAPACITOR BANK
Capacitor fuse
Delta connected banks can be used in two different arrangements. An “in line" or, "group
fuse" method of the circuit. The second method uses “branch" or "individual fuses” of the
circuit. Three phase capacitors use fuses in the line because they are connected delta
internally. Normally branch fuses are used for single-phase capacitors connected delta.
However, on the smaller banks mentioned above, the single phase capacitors could be
connected delta and fused outside the delta (In the line.) On small banks that have only one
capacitor per phase, this should be the method of choice when the neutral of the capacitor
bank is not grounded. When the bank has higher kVAR ratings and units are placed in

xxxviii
parallel, the in line fusing becomes large, and may not coordinate with the tank rupture curve
of the capacitor and the upstream coordination may not be possible. The ratings of fuses are:

120.5Kvar / 380V = 315.8 * 1.5 = 473.68

(It is a normal industry practice to use a 1.5 factor for medium voltage applications for current
limiting fuse selection).

Figure3.12capacitor bank protection box

Circuit Breaker
The circuit breaker should be sized no less than 135% of the rated capacitor current:
Rated Capacitor Current = (1000 x kVAR) / (sqrt (3) x Voltage) Amps
Where: Voltage = line to line voltage KVAr = 3 phase kVAR rating of capacitor (Nameplate
rating).
For 723.3 kVAR capacitor, 380 V systems:
723.3∗1000
Rated Capacitor Current = =1100.24.Amps
1.73∗280
The breaker shall be rated to carry the = 1100.24A x 135% or 1485.3A continuously in its
operating environment. In this case therefore a 1000A 100% rated breaker will be required as
a minimum.
Contactors for capacitors switching
An automatic power factor correction system consists of several capacitor banks of identical
or different ratings (several steps), energized separately according to the value of the power

xxxix
factor to be corrected. An electronic device automatically determines the power of the steps to
be energized and activates the relevant contactors. The inrush current peak, in the case of
automatic correction, depends on the power of the steps already on duty, and can reach 100
times the nominal current of the step to be energized.

I1 = Q / sqrt (3) * V

I1 = 361500 / 380 * 1.73 = 549.89A

The contactor operating currents Ie
Ie = 549.89A x1.43 = 786.3477A
The selected contactors’ that have contact capacity of 800A. In our case of splitting capacitor
banks in to two equal banks we use two contactors both have the same contact capacity I.e.
800 A.

Figure3.13 Overall capacitor bank protection

3.2.3 POWER FACTOR TRANSDUCERS
A power factor transducer measures true electrical power phase angle difference delivered to
a load and converts that measurement to a DC voltage or current signal proportional to the
power measured. To measure phase angle, the power factor transducer must monitor both the
voltage and current in a circuit. Further, it must be able to accurately determine the phase
relationship between the voltage and current. This is the angle by which the current leads or
lags the voltage. This measurement is very important to accurately determine true power. The
power factor transducer must also measure the power in each of the branches of the circuit.
Your house, apartment, or small office is wired in what is often referred to as the Edison
system. This is a three-wire, single- phase system with two power lines and a neutral. The
power factor transducer must measure the power in each of the power lines or mains. This
circuit requires a two-element, voltage and current transducer. The outputs of the two
transducers or multipliers are summed so that the output signal of the entire power factor
transducer represents total power. Analog power factor transducers including Hall Effect
provide good accuracy even with distorted wave shapes, discontinuity, or where there is poor
frequency regulation.
xl
Single-Phase power factor Transducers
The most common application for a power factor transducer is monitoring a single-phase load
such as a heater element or small motor. This requires a single element watt transducer
connected directly between the power line and the load as illustrated below.

Figure3.14 Single-Phase power factor Transducers

The single-phase power factor transducer shown above has a single multiplier or element
inside the electronics package. Often the combined loads of an entire house, apartment, or
office are monitored with a power factor transducer. This requires a two-element model with
current transformers. The two- element, single-phase power factor transducer is connected as
shown below.

Figure3.15Two- element, single-phase power factor transducer

The two-element power factor transducer shown above has two multipliers inside the
electronics package. The output of these two multipliers is summed to obtain the total power.
The output signal of this power factor transducer thus represents the total power being used.
Three-Phase power factor Transducer

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Most motors in industry are three-phase, three-wire motors. These require two- element watt
transducers. Do not attempt to save money and use a single element transducer—it will not
provide correct or useful information. Smaller three-phase motors may be connected directly
to the power factor transducer. Larger three-phase motors will require the use of current
and/or potential transformers.

Figure3.16Three-Phase Watt Transducer

Power factor transducers are polarity sensitive. They sense not only the power but also the
direction in which it is flowing. Should a current transformer be installed backwards, the watt
transducer will sense this as reverse power flow and provide an output reversed in polarity, a
negative output. Watt transducers are also phase sensitive. If a current transformer is installed
on the wrong phase line, the watt transducer will interpret this as a 120-degree phase angle
shift and give the wrong result.

Selection of power factor transducer

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 Figure3.17Power factor transducer
With the known electrical load parameter prospective, we select the desired power factor or
phase angle transducer LTPFU. These transducers require an auxiliary power supply and offer
a highly accurate method of the phase angle of the input. They have a full four quadrate
capability. The output is a linear function of the phase angle between the two inputs (which
can be current or voltage), the circuit can also be used as power factor transducer only added a
cos ӫ circuit. Output amplifier provides constant current and voltage output. Output is
unaffected by load resistance provided it is within the specific range.

Figure3.18Block diagram of power factor transducer

Table3.2 Specification of power factor transducer

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MODEL
Current input/ range 0.5ampAc and 10-200% of rated input
Current input over range capability 200% of rated input continuous
Current input burden < 0.2VAper element
Voltage input and range 120V 240V
Input powered range 100-135V Ac 200-264V Ac
Voltage input burden per element Less than 0.5 V Less than 0.1V
Auxiliary powered range 0-120% rated input
Sustained voltage input over range 150% of rated input with out damage
Rated output 4-12-20 mAmp Dc and 0-5V
Accuracy +0.01power factor
Output calibration 0.5-1-0.5 power factor
External calibration adjustment Zero:+1% minimum
Response time Less than 400 mill second
Output ripple 0.3% peak to peak max
Isolation 500V Ac output to case
Surge withstand capability IEEE472/ANSIC 37.90.1
Insulation resistance > 10 megohm/500VAc/input/output/power
Operating temperature -20oC to +60oC
Operating humidity 0-90% operating humidity
Temperature effect +500 PPM/oC of span
External magnetic field < 0.2% at 400AT/m
Influence of input voltage < 1% span
Influence of input current < 2% span
Low current detection < 4% rated current
Wight 100g
Shock < 0.2% after 50G
Vibration < 0.2% after 16.7HZ
Auxiliary powered burden < 5% VA

Pin configuration of power factor transducer

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 Figure3.19 Pin configuration of power factor transducer

Figure3.20 Reference graph for power factor transducer output

3.2.4 ARDUINO UNO MICROCONTROLLER ATMEGA328

The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328 (datasheet). It has 14
digital input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz
crystal oscillator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button. It
contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with an AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.

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 Figure3.21Arduino microcontroller

Specification of Arduino
Microcontroller: ATmega328
Operating Voltage: 5V
Input Voltage (recommended): 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits): 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins: 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins: 6
DC Current per I/O Pin: 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin: 50 mA
Flash Memory: 32 KB (ATmega328) of which 0.5 KB used by boot loader
SRAM: 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM: 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed: 16MHz.
Power of Arduino
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply.
The power source is selected automatically. External (non-USB) power can come either from
an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a
2.1mm centre-positive plug into the board's power jack. Leads from a battery can be inserted
in the GND and VIN pin headers of the POWER connector. The board can operate on an
external supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V, however, the 5V pin may
supply less than five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage
regulator may overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.
In our project we use microcontroller especially for measuring the power factor transducer
output (voltage or current) and displaying the measured value in the form of the current power
factor value (lagging or leading) and energizing the relay driver. The microcontroller energize
the relay driver only the measured power factor value is less than 0.95.If the measured power
factor value greater than 0.95 the microcontroller de-energize the relay driver.

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3.2.5 RELAY DRIVER
The relay driver is 2N3904.The relay used here having the specification as follows,
Coil voltage=12Vdc
Contact capacity=230V, 7A
The above specification indicates that the coil requires 12V dc and 200mA current dc. The
Microcontroller can’t supply more than 10mA current. So driver section is very much
required. 2N3904 has a typical maximum output current of 500mA under normal conditions
of temperature.
3.2.6 ELECTRO MAGNETIC RELAY
These are varying much reliable devices and widely used on field. The operating frequency of
these devices are minimum 10-20ms.That is 50Hz – 100Hz.The relay which is used here can
care 25mA currents continuously. The electromagnetic relay operates on the principle
magnetism. When the base voltage appears at the relay driver section, the driver transistor
will be driver transistor will be driven into saturation and allow flowing current in the coil of
the relay, Which in turn create a magnetic field and the magnetic force produced due to that
will act against the spring tension and close the contact coil. Whenever the base voltage is
withdrawn the transistor goes to cutoff .So no current flow in the coil of the relay. Hence the
magnetic field disappears so the contact point breaks automatically due to spring tension.
Those contact points are isolated from the low voltage supply, so a high voltage switching is
possible by the help of electromagnetic relays. The electromagnetic relays normally having 2
contact points. Named as normally closes (NC) , normally open (NO). Normally closed points
will so a short CKT path when the relay is off. Normally open points will so a short CKT path
when the relay is energized.

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 Figure3.22 Electro-magnetic relay

3.2.6 LCD (LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY)

LCD panel consists of two patterned glass panels in which crystal is filled under vacuum. The
thickness of glass varies according to end use. Most of the LCD modules have glass thickness
in the range of 0.70 to 1.1mm. Normally these liquid crystal molecules are placed between
glass plates to form a spiral stair case to twist the twist the light. Light entering the top plate
twist 900 before entering the bottom plate. Hence the LCDs are also called as optical
switches. These LCD cannot display any information directly. These act as an interface
between electronics and electronics circuit to give a visual output. The values are displayed in
the 2x16 LCD modules after converting suitably. The liquid crystal display (LCD), as the
name suggests is a technology based on the use of liquid crystal. It is a transparent material
but after applying voltage it becomes opaque. This property is the fundamental operating
principle of LCDs.

Figure3.23LCD display

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.

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