BASIC ELECTRONICS

MODULE-1
Electronic Circuits
Power Supplies – Block diagram, Rectifiers, Reservoir and smoothing circuits, Full-wave
rectifiers, Bi-phase rectifier circuits, Bridge rectifier circuits, Voltage regulators, Output
resistance and voltage regulation, Voltage multipliers.
Amplifiers – Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency response,
Bandwidth, Phase shift, Negative feedback, Multi-stage amplifiers.
Operational amplifiers - Operational amplifier parameters, Operational amplifier
characteristics, Operational amplifier configurations, Operational amplifier circuits.
Oscillators – Positive feedback, Conditions for oscillation, Ladder network oscillator, Wein
bridge oscillator, Multivibrators, Single-stage astable oscillator, Crystal controlled oscillators.

Power Supplies:
Block diagram:

Fig 1:Block diagram of a d.c. power supply

Fig 2: Block diagram of a d.c. power supply showing principal components

1. The block diagram of a d.c. power supply is shown in Fig. 1.
2. A step-down transformer of appropriate turns ratio is used to convert high voltage mains
input to a low voltage.
3. The a.c. output from the transformer secondary is then rectified using conventional
silicon rectifier diodes to produce an unsmoothed (sometimes referred to as pulsating
d.c.) output.
4. Unsmoothed output is then smoothed and filtered before being applied to a circuit
which will regulate (or stabilize) the output voltage so that it remains relatively
constant in spite of variations in both load current and incoming mains voltage.
Fig.2. shows
1. The iron-cored step-down transformer feeds a rectifier arrangement (often based on a
bridge circuit).
2. The output of the rectifier is then applied to a high-value reservoir capacitor.
3. This capacitor stores a considerable amount of charge and is being constantly topped-
up by the rectifier arrangement. The capacitor also helps to smooth out the voltage
pulses produced by the rectifier.
4. Finally, a stabilizing circuit (often based on a series transistor regulator and a zener
diode voltage reference) provides a constant output voltage.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 1

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Rectifiers:
Rectifiers are electronic devices used to convert alternating current (a.c.) to direct current (d.c).

Half Wave Rectifiers:

Fig: A simple half-wave rectifier circuit

The simplest form of rectifier circuit makes use of a single diode and, since it operates on only
either positive or negative half-cycles of the supply, it is known as a half-wave rectifier.
Fig. shows a simple half-wave rectifier circuit. Mains voltage (220 to 240 V) is applied to the
primary of a step-down transformer (T1).
The secondary of T1 steps down the 240Vr.m.s. to 12Vr.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus
be 240/12 or 20:1).
Diode D1 will only allow the current to flow in the direction shown (i.e. from cathode to
anode).
During positive half-cycle:
During the positive half cycle of the input, the ideal diode ( D1 ) is forward biased and
operates as a closed switch as shown in the figure.

Fig:Half-wave rectifier circuit with D1 conducting (positive-going half-cycles of secondary voltage)

During negative half cycle:

During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased and acts as an open switch as
shown in the figure.
The source voltage is disconnected from the load. Hence no current flows through a circuit.
As no current flows through the load, the load voltage vo is zero.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 2

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Fig: half-wave rectifier with D1 not conducting (negative-going half-cycles of secondary voltage)

The waveforms for input voltage vi and output voltage vo are shown in the figure.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER WITH A RESERVOIR CAPACITOR:

Fig. shows half wave rectifier with a reservoir capacitor.

 The capacitor, C1, has been added to ensure that the output voltage remains at, or near,
the peak voltage even when the diode is not conducting.
 When the primary voltage is first applied to T1, the first positive half-cycle output from
the secondary will charge C1 to the peak value seen across RL. Hence C1 charges to
16.3 V at the peak of the positive half-cycle.
 Because C1 and RL are in parallel, the voltage across RL will be the same as that across
C1.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 3

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 The time required for C1 to charge to the maximum (peak) level is determined by the
charging circuit time constant (the series resistance multiplied by the capacitance
value).
 In this circuit, the series resistance comprises the secondary winding resistance together
with the forward resistance of the diode and the (minimal) resistance of the wiring and
connections.
 Hence C1 charges very rapidly as soon as D1 starts to conduct.
 The time required for C1 to discharge is determined by the capacitance value and the
load resistance, RL. During this time, D1 will be reverse biased and will thus be held in
its non-conducting state.
 As a consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL.
 C1 is referred to as a reservoir capacitor. It stores charge during the positive halfcycles
of secondary voltage and releases it during the negative half-cycles.

Half wave Rectifier with Smoothing Circuit:

1. RC Smoothing Circuit
RC smoothing circuit is as shown in the figure

This circuit employs two additional components, which act as a filter to remove the ripple. The
value of additional capacitor is chosen so that the component exhibits a negligible reactance at
the ripple frequency.
𝑋𝐶
√𝑅 2 + 𝑋𝐶2

2. LC Smoothing Circuit
LC smoothing circuit is as shown in the figure

This circuit employs two additional components, which act as a filter to remove the ripple.
At ripple frequency, L exhibits high inductive reactance while C exhibits a low value of
capacitive reactance. The combined effect reduces the amplitude of ripple, while having
negligible effect on the direct voltage

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 4

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Full-wave rectifiers:
The half-wave rectifier circuit is relatively inefficient as conduction takes place only on
alternate half-cycles. A better rectifier arrangement would make use of both positive and
negative half-cycles. These full-wave rectifier circuits offer a considerable improvement over
their half-wave rectifiers.

There are two basic forms of full-wave rectifier;

The bi-phase type and the bridge rectifier type.

Bi-phase rectifier circuits:

Fig. shows a simple bi-phase rectifier circuit.
Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of the step-down transformer (T1) which has
two identical secondary windings, each providing 12 V r.m.s. (the turns ratio of T1 will thus
be 240/12 or 20:1 for each secondary winding).

During positive half-cycle:

 On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly, point
B will be positive with respect to point C.
 In this condition D1 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with respect to its
cathode) while D2 will not allow conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to
its cathode).
 Thus D1 alone conducts on positive half-cycles.
 Fig shows the bi-phase rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by switches and D1 is
shown conducting on a positive half-cycle.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 5

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

During negative half cycle:

 On negative half-cycles, point C will be positive with respect to point B. Similarly,
point B will be positive with respect to point A.
 In this condition D2 will allow conduction (its anode will be positive with respect to its
cathode) while D1 will not allow conduction (its anode will be negative with respect to
its cathode).
 Thus D2 alone conducts on negative half-cycles.
 Fig. shows the bi-phase rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by switches and D2 is
shown conducting.

Bi-phase rectifier with reservoir capacitor:

Fig. shows Bi-phase rectifier with reservoir capacitor and how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can
be added to ensure that the output voltage remains at, or near, the peak voltage even when the
diodes are not conducting.

 In this circuit, C1 charges very rapidly as soon as either D1 or D2 starts to conduct.

 The time required for C1 to discharge is determined by the capacitance value and the
load resistance, RL.
 In practice, RL is very much larger than the resistance of the secondary circuit and
hence C1 takes an appreciable time to discharge.
 During this time, D1 and D2 will be reverse biased and held in a non-conducting state.
 As a consequence, the only discharge path for C1 is through RL.
 Fig. shows voltage waveforms for the bi-phase rectifier, with and without C1 present.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 6

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Bridge rectifier circuits:

A full-wave bridge rectifier arrangement is shown in Fig.
Mains voltage (240 V) is applied to the primary of a step-down transformer (T1).
The secondary winding provides 12 V r.m.s. (approximately 17 V peak) and has a turns ratio
of 20:1, as before.

During positive half-cycle:

 On positive half-cycles, point A will be positive with respect to point B.
 In this condition D1 and D2 will allow conduction while D3 and D4 will not allow
conduction.
 Fig. shows the bridge rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by four switches, D1 and
D2 are conducting on a positive half-cycle while D3 and D4 are not conducting.

During negative half cycle:

 On negative half-cycles, point B will be positive with respect to point A.
 In this condition D3 and D4 will allow conduction while D1 and D2 will not allow
conduction.
 Fig. shows the bridge rectifier circuit with the diodes replaced by four switches, D1 and
D2 are not conducting on a positive half-cycle while D3 and D4 conducting.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 7

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor:

Fig. shows Bridge rectifier with reservoir capacitor and how a reservoir capacitor (C1) can be
added to maintain the output voltage when the diodes are not conducting.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 8

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Voltage regulators:
 A simple voltage regulator is shown in Fig.
 RS is included to limit the zener current to a safe value when the load is disconnected.
 When a load (RL) is connected, the zener current (IZ) will fall as current is diverted into
the load resistance.
 The output voltage (VZ) will remain at the zener voltage until regulation fails at the
point at which the potential divider formed by RS and RL produces a lower output
voltage that is less than VZ.

The ratio of RS to RL is thus important. At the point at which the circuit just begins to fail to
regulate:
𝑅𝐿
𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁 ×
(𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝑆 )
where VIN is the unregulated input voltage.
Thus the maximum value for RS can be calculated from:
𝑽𝑰𝑵
𝑹𝑺(𝑴𝑨𝑿) = 𝑹𝑳 × ( − 𝟏)
𝑽𝒁
The power dissipated in the zener diode will be given by PZ = IZ × VZ, hence the minimum
value for RS can be determined from the off-load condition when:
𝑽𝑰𝑵 − 𝑽𝒁 𝑽𝑰𝑵 − 𝑽𝒁 (𝑽𝑰𝑵 − 𝑽𝒁 ) × 𝑽𝒁
𝑹𝑺(𝑴𝑰𝑵) = = =
𝑰𝒁 𝑷𝒁(𝑴𝑨𝑿) 𝑷𝒁(𝑴𝑨𝑿)
( 𝑽 )
𝒁

Thus:
𝑽𝑰𝑵 𝑽𝒁 − 𝑽𝒁 𝟐
𝑹𝑺(𝑴𝑰𝑵) =
𝑷𝒁(𝑴𝑨𝑿)

where PZ max. is the maximum rated power dissipation for the zener diode.

OUTPUT RESISTANCE AND VOLTAGE REGULATION:

Output resistance is defined as the change in output voltage divided by the corresponding
change in output current. Hence:
change in output voltage ∆𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻
𝑹𝑶𝑼𝑻 = =
change in output current ∆𝑰𝑶𝑼𝑻

where ∆𝑰𝑶𝑼𝑻 represents a small change in output (load) current and ∆𝑽𝑶𝑼𝑻 represents a
corresponding small change in output voltage.

The regulation of a power supply is given by the relationship:

change in output voltage

𝑹𝑶𝑼𝑻 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
change in line (input) current

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 9

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

VOLTAGE MULTIPLIERS:
VOLTAGE DOUBLER:
 A voltage doubler using this technique is shown in Fig.
 In this arrangement C1 will charge to the positive peak secondary voltage while C2 will
charge to the negative peak secondary voltage.
 Since the output is taken from C1 and C2 connected in series the resulting output
voltage is twice that produced by one diode alone.

VOLTAGE TRIPLER:
Figure shows the circuit diagram of voltage tripler

 C1 charges to positive peak secondary voltage, while C2 and C3 charges to twice the
positive peak secondary voltage.
 The result is that the output voltage is the sum of the voltages across C1 and C3 which
is 3 times the voltage that would be produced by a single diode.
 The ladder arrangement can be easily extended to provide even higher voltages but the
efficiency of the circuit becomes increasingly impaired and high order voltage
multipliers of this type are only suitable for providing relatively small currents.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 10

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Amplifiers – Types of amplifiers, Gain, Input and output resistance, Frequency response,
Bandwidth, Phase shift, Negative feedback, Multi-stage amplifiers.

Types of amplifiers:
1. a.c. coupled amplifiers: In a.c. coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled together in such
a way that d.c. levels are isolated and only the a.c. components of a signal are transferred
from stage to stage.
2. d.c. coupled amplifiers: In d.c. (or direct) coupled amplifiers, stages are coupled
together in such a way that stages are not isolated to d.c. potentials. Both a.c. and d.c.
signal components are transferred from stage to stage.
3. Large-signal amplifiers: Large-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for appreciable
voltage and/or current levels (typically from 1 V to 100 V or more).
4. Small-signal amplifiers: Small-signal amplifiers are designed to cater for low-level
signals (normally less than 1 V and often much smaller). Small-signal amplifiers have
to be specially designed to combat the effects of noise.
5. Audio frequency amplifiers: Audio frequency amplifiers operate in the band of
frequencies that is normally associated with audio signals (e.g. 20 Hz to 20 kHz).
6. Wideband amplifiers: Wideband amplifiers are capable of amplifying a very wide
range of frequencies, typically from a few tens of hertz to several megahertz.
7. Radiofrequency amplifiers: Radiofrequency amplifiers operate in the band of
frequencies that is normally associated with radio signals (e.g. from 100 kHz to over 1
GHz).
8. Low-noise amplifiers: Low-noise amplifiers are designed so that they contribute
negligible noise (signal disturbance) to the signal being amplified. These amplifiers are
usually designed for use with very small signal levels (usually less than 10 mV or so).

Gain:

Fig: Block diagram for an amplifier showing input and output voltages and currents

Gain is simply the ratio of output voltage to the input voltage, output current to the input
current, or output power to input power. These three ratios give, respectively, the voltage gain,
current gain, and power gain.

𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡
Current gain, 𝐴𝑖 = 𝐼𝑖𝑛

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 11

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡
Power gain, 𝐴𝑝 = 𝑃𝑖𝑛

Problem 1:
An amplifier produces an output voltage of 2 V for an input of 50 mV. If the input and output
currents in this condition are, respectively, 4 mA and 200 mA, determine:
(a)the voltage gain, (b)current gain, and (c)power gain.

Solution:
(a) The voltage gain is calculated from:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 2𝑣
Voltage gain, 𝐴𝑣 = = = 40
𝑉𝑖𝑛 50𝑚𝑣

(b) The current gain is calculated from:

𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 200𝑚𝐴
Current gain, 𝐴𝑖 = = = 50
𝐼𝑖𝑛 4𝐴
(c) The power gain is calculated from:
𝑃𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐼𝑜𝑢𝑡 ×𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Power gain, 𝐴𝑝 = = = 𝐴𝑖 × 𝐴𝑣 = 50 × 40 = 2000
𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑖𝑛 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛

Input and output resistance:

Input resistance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and it is expressed in ohms.
Output resistance is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to short-circuit output current
and is measured in ohms.
Fig. shows how the input and output resistances are ‘seen’ looking into the input and output
terminals, respectively.

Fig: Input and output resistances ‘seen’ looking into the input and output terminals, respectively

Frequency response:
The frequency response characteristics for various types of amplifier are shown in Fig.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 12

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Fig: Frequency response and bandwidth (output power plotted against frequency)

The frequency response of an amplifier is usually specified in terms of the upper and lower
cut-off frequencies of the amplifier. These frequencies are those at which the output power
has dropped to 50% (otherwise known as the −3 dB points) or where the voltage gain has
dropped to 70.7% of its mid-band value.

Figs show how the bandwidth can be expressed in terms of either power or voltage (the cut-off
frequencies, f1 and f2, and bandwidth are identical).

Frequency response and bandwidth Frequency response and bandwidth

(output power plotted against frequency) (output voltage plotted against frequency)

Bandwidth:
The bandwidth of an amplifier is usually taken as the difference between the upper and lower
cut-off frequencies (i.e. f2 - f1).
The bandwidth of an amplifier must be sufficient to accommodate the range of frequencies
present within the signals that it is to be presented with.

Phase shift:
Phase shift is the phase angle between the input and output signal voltages measured in degrees.
The measurement is usually carried out in the mid-band where, for most amplifiers, the phase
shift remains relatively constant.
Note also that conventional single-stage transistor amplifiers provide phase shifts of either 180°
or 360°.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 13

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Negative feedback:

Fig: Amplifier with negative feedback applied

The above Fig. shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with negative feedback applied.
In this circuit, the proportion of the output voltage fed back to the input is given by β and the
overall voltage gain will be given by:
𝑉
Overall gain, 𝐺 = 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑖𝑛

`
Now 𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 (by applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law) (note that the amplifier’s
input voltage has been reduced by applying negative feedback) thus:
`
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
`
And 𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (note that Av is the internal gain of the amplifier)

Hence:
` `
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑉
Overall gain, 𝐺 = = ` +𝛽𝑉 = ` +𝛽(𝐴 ×𝑉 ` = ` (1+𝛽𝐴 ) = (1+𝛽𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑖𝑛 ) 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉 𝑉)

𝐴𝑉
∴ Overall gain, 𝐺 =
(1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 )
Hence, the overall gain with negative feedback applied will be less than the gain without
feedback.

Problem:
An amplifier with negative feedback applied has an open-loop voltage gain of 50, and one-
tenth of its output is fed back to the input (i.e. β = 0.1). Determine the overall voltage gain with
negative feedback applied.

Solution:
𝐴𝑉 50 50
𝐺= = = = 8.33
(1 + 𝛽𝐴𝑉 ) 1 + (0.1 × 50) 6

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 14

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Multi-stage amplifiers:
The overall gain of an amplifier with several stages (i.e. a multi-stage amplifier) is simply the
product of the individual voltage gains.
Hence:
AV = AV1 × AV2 × AV3, etc.

Signals can be coupled between the individual stages of a multi-stage amplifier using one of a
number of different methods
1. R–C Coupling
2. L–C Coupling
3. Transformer Coupling
4. Direct Coupling

1. R–C Coupling Multi-stage amplifier:

In this coupling method, the stages are coupled together using capacitors having a low
reactance at the signal frequency and resistors (which also provide a means of connecting the
supply).

2. L–C Coupling Multi-stage amplifier:

In this method, the inductors have a high reactance at the signal frequency. This type of
coupling is generally only used in RF and high-frequency amplifiers.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 15

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3. Transformer Coupling Multi-stage amplifier:

In this coupling method, the stages are coupled together using transformer.

 Gain achieved is higher.

 There will be no power loss in collector and base resistors.
 Efficient in operation.

4. Direct Coupling Multi-stage amplifier:

In this coupling method, the stages are coupled directly from one stage to another.

 The circuit cost is low because of the absence of expensive coupling components.
 Used where dc levels present on signals must be preserved.

Operational amplifier:
 The symbol for an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.
 The device has two inputs and one output and no common connection.
 In Fig., one of the inputs is marked ‘−’ and the other is marked ‘+’.
 The ‘+’ sign indicates zero phase shift while the ‘−’ sign indicates 180° phase shift.
 Since 180° phase shift produces an inverted waveform, the ‘−’ input is often referred
to as the inverting input. Similarly, the ‘+’ input is known as the non-inverting input.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 16

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Operational amplifier parameters:

1. Open-loop voltage gain
2. Closed-loop voltage gain
3. Input resistance
4. Output resistance
5. Input offset voltage
6. Full-power bandwidth
7. Slew rate

Open-loop voltage gain:

The open-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
to input voltage measured with no feedback applied.

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐴𝑉(𝑂𝐿) =
𝑉𝐼𝑁
where AV(OL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under open-loop conditions. Typically greater than 100,000.

The open-loop voltage gain is often expressed in decibels (dB) rather than as a ratio. In this
case:

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐴𝑉(𝑂𝐿) = 20 log10
𝑉𝐼𝑁

Closed-loop voltage gain:

The closed-loop voltage gain of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of output voltage
to input voltage measured with a small proportion of the output fed-back to the input (i.e. with
feedback applied).

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝐴𝑉(𝐶𝐿) =
𝑉𝐼𝑁
where AV(CL) is the open-loop voltage gain, VOUT and VIN are the output and input voltages,
respectively, under closed-loop conditions.

Input resistance:

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 17

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

The input resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of input voltage to input
current expressed in ohms.
𝑉𝐼𝑁
𝑅𝐼𝑁 =
𝐼𝐼𝑁
where RIN is the input resistance (in ohms), VIN is the input voltage (in volts) and IIN is the
input current (in amps). In practice values range from about 2MΩ for common bipolar types
to over 1012 Ω for FET and CMOS devices.

Output resistance:
The output resistance of an operational amplifier is defined as the ratio of open-circuit output
voltage to short-circuit output current expressed in ohms.
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇(𝑂𝐶)
𝑅𝑂𝑈𝑇 =
𝐼𝑂𝑈𝑇(𝑆𝐶)
Typical values of output resistance range from less than 10 Ω to around 100 Ω, depending
upon the configuration and amount of feedback employed.

Input offset voltage:

An ideal operational amplifier would provide zero output voltage when 0 V difference is
applied to its inputs. In practice, due to imperfect internal balance, there may be some small
voltage present at the output.
The voltage that must be applied differentially to the operational amplifier input in order to
make the output voltage exactly zero is known as the input offset voltage.
Typical values of input offset voltage range from 1 Mv to 15 mV.

Full-power bandwidth:
The full-power bandwidth for an operational amplifier is equivalent to the frequency at which
the maximum undistorted peak output voltage swing falls to 0.707 of its low-frequency (d.c.)
value (the sinusoidal input voltage remaining constant).
Typical full-power bandwidths range from 10 kHz to over 1 MHz for some high-speed devices.

Slew rate:
Slew rate is the rate of change of output voltage with time, when a rectangular step input voltage
is applied.
∆𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇
𝑆𝐿𝐸𝑊 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 =
∆𝑡
where ∆𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 is the change in output voltage (in volts) and ∆𝑡 is the corresponding interval of
time (in seconds).
Slew rate is measured in V/s (or V/μs) and typical values range from 0.2 V/μs to over 20 V/μs.
Operational amplifier characteristics:

Characteristics for an ‘ideal’ operational amplifier are:

(a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinite).
(b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinite).
(c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
(d) Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
(e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.

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(f) Input offset should be as small as possible.

Operational amplifier configurations:

The three basic configurations for operational voltage amplifiers are
1. Inverting Amplifier
2. Non-Inverting Amplifier
3. Differential Amplifier

1. Inverting Amplifier:
An Inverting Amplifier configuration using an operational amplifier is as shown in Fig.

Output voltage
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = − 𝑉
𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝐼𝑁

Closed-loop gain for inverting amplifier is given by:

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑉(𝐶𝐿) = =−
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐼𝑁

2. Non-Inverting Amplifier:
An non-Inverting Amplifier configuration using an operational amplifier is as shown in Fig.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 19

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Output voltage
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = (1 + )𝑉
𝑅𝐼𝑁 𝐼𝑁

Closed-loop gain for inverting amplifier is given by:

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑉(𝐶𝐿) = = 1+
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐼𝑁

3. Differential Amplifier:
A differential Amplifier configuration using an operational amplifier is as shown in Fig.

Output voltage
𝑅𝐹
𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = (𝑉 − 𝑉1 )
𝑅𝐼𝑁 2

Closed-loop gain for inverting amplifier is given by:

𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 𝑅𝐹
𝐴𝑉(𝐶𝐿) = =
𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑅𝐼𝑁

Operational amplifier circuits:

Operational amplifiers have a number of other uses, including voltage followers,
differentiators, integrators, comparators, and summing amplifiers.

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Voltage followers:
A voltage follower using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.
 This circuit is essentially an inverting amplifier in which 100% of the output is fed back
to the input.
 The result is an amplifier that has a voltage gain of 1 (i.e. unity), a very high input
resistance, and a very high output resistance.
 This stage is often referred to as a buffer and is used for matching a high-impedance
circuit to a low-impedance circuit.
 Typical input and output waveforms for a voltage follower are shown in Fig.
 Notice how the input and output waveforms are both in-phase (they rise and fall
together) and that they are identical in amplitude.

Output voltage: 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝐼𝑁

Differentiators:
 A differentiator using an operational amplifier is as shown in Fig.
 A differentiator produces an output voltage that is equivalent to the rate of change of
its input.
 Typical input and output waveforms for a differentiator are shown in Fig.
 Notice how the square wave input is converted to a train of short duration pulses at the
output. Note also that the output waveform is inverted because the signal has been
applied to the inverting input of the operational amplifier.

𝑑𝑉
Output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −𝑅𝐹 × 𝐶 ( 𝑑𝑥𝐼𝑁 )
Integrators:
 An integrator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 21

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

 This circuit provides the opposite function to that of a differentiator in that its output is
equivalent to the area under the graph of the input function rather than its rate of change.
 If the input voltage remains constant (and is other than 0 V) the output voltage will
ramp up or down according to the polarity of the input.
 The longer the input voltage remains at a particular value the larger the value of output
voltage (of either polarity) will be produced.
 Typical input and output waveforms for an integrator are shown in Fig. Notice how the
square wave input is converted to a wave that has a triangular shape. Once again, note
that the output waveform is inverted.

1
Output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = − 𝑅 ∫ 𝑉𝐼𝑁 𝑑𝑡
𝐹 ×𝐶

Comparators:
 A comparator using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.
 Since no negative feedback has been applied, this circuit uses the maximum gain of the
operational amplifier.
 The output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will thus rise to the maximum
possible value whenever the voltage present at the non-inverting input exceeds that
present at the inverting input.
 Conversely, the output voltage produced by the operational amplifier will fall to the
minimum possible value whenever the voltage present at the inverting input exceeds
that present at the non-inverting input.

Summing amplifiers:
 A summing amplifier using an operational amplifier is shown in Fig.

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS

 This circuit produces an output that is the sum of its two input voltages.
 However, since the operational amplifier is connected in inverting mode, the output
voltage is given by:
 VOUT = – (V1 + V2)
 where V1 and V2 are the input voltages (note that all of the resistors used in the circuit
have the same value).
 Typical input and output waveforms for a summing amplifier are shown in Fig.

Output voltage 𝑉𝑂𝑈𝑇 = −(𝑉1 + 𝑉2 )

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Positive feedback:
Fig. shows the block diagram of an amplifier stage with positive feedback applied.

Note that the amplifier provides a phase shift of 180° and the feedback network provides a
further 180°.
Thus, the overall phase shift is 0°. The overall voltage gain, G, is given by:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Overall gain, 𝐺 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛

By applying Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

`
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 + 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
Thus:
`
𝑉𝑖𝑛 = 𝑉𝑖𝑛 − 𝛽𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
And
`
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐴𝑉 × 𝑉𝑖𝑛
Where Av is the internal gain of the amplifier
Hence:
` `
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑉
Overall gain, 𝐺 = = ` −𝛽𝑉 = ` ` ) = ` = (1−𝛽𝐴
𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑉𝑖𝑛 −𝛽(𝐴𝑉 ×𝑉𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑖𝑛 (1−𝛽𝐴𝑉 ) 𝑉)

𝐴𝑉
∴ Overall gain, 𝐺 =
(1 − 𝛽𝐴𝑉 )

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 24

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Oscillators:

Conditions for oscillation

From the foregoing we can deduce that the conditions for oscillation are:
(a) The feedback must be positive (i.e. the signal fed back must arrive back in-phase with the
signal at the input);
(b) The overall loop voltage gain must be greater than 1 (i.e. the amplifier’s gain must be
sufficient to overcome the losses associated with any frequency selective feedback network).

Ladder network oscillator:

A simple phase-shift oscillator based on a three stage C–R ladder network is shown in Fig.

TR1 operates as a conventional common-emitter amplifier stage with R1 and R2 providing base
bias potential and R3 and C1 providing emitter stabilization.
The total phase shift provided by the C–R ladder network (connected between collector and
base) is 180° at the frequency of oscillation.
The transistor provides the other 180° phase shift in order to realize an overall phase shift of
360° or 0°.
The frequency of oscillation of the circuit shown in Fig. is given by:
1
𝑓=
2𝜋√6𝑅𝐶
The loss associated with the ladder network is 29, thus the amplifier must provide a gain of at
least 29 in order for the circuit to oscillate. In practice this is easily achieved with a single
transistor.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 25

 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Wien bridge oscillator:

A Wien bridge network is as shown in the figure

This network provides a phase shift which varies with frequency.

The input signal is applied to A and B while the output is taken from C and D. At one particular
frequency, the phase shift produced by the network will be exactly zero (i.e. the input and
output signals will be in-phase).
If we connect the network to an amplifier producing 0° phase shift which has sufficient gain to
overcome the losses of the Wien bridge, oscillation will result.
The minimum amplifier gain required to sustain oscillation is given by:
𝐶1 𝑅2
𝐴𝑉 = 1 + +
𝐶2 𝑅1
In most cases, C1 = C 2 and R1 = R2, hence the minimum amplifier gain will be 3.
The frequency at which the phase shift will be zero is given by:
1
𝑓=
2𝜋√𝐶1 𝐶2 𝑅1 𝑅2
When R1 = R2 and C1 = C2 the frequency at which the phase shift will be zero will be given
by:
1 1
𝑓= =
2𝜋√𝐶 2 𝑅 2 2𝜋𝐶𝑅
where R = R1 = R2 and C = C1 = C 2.

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS

Multivibrators:
 Multivibrators are a family of oscillator circuits that produce output waveforms
consisting of one or more rectangular pulses.
 The term ‘multivibrator’ simply originates from the fact that this type of waveform is
rich in harmonics (i.e. ‘multiple vibrations’).
 Multivibrators use regenerative (i.e. positive) feedback; the active devices present
within the oscillator circuit being operated as switches, being alternately cut-off and
driven into saturation.
The principal types of multivibrator are:
(a) astable multivibrators that provide a continuous train of pulses (these are sometimes also
referred to as free-running multivibrators);
(b) monostable multivibrators that produce a single output pulse (they have one stable state
and are thus sometimes also referred to as ‘one-shot’);
(c) bistable multivibrators that have two stable states and require a trigger pulse or control
signal to change from one state to another.

Single-stage astable oscillator:

A simple form of astable oscillator that produces a square wave output can be built using just
one operational amplifier, as shown in Fig

 The circuit employs positive feedback with the output fed back to the non-inverting
input via the potential divider formed by R1 and R2.
 This circuit can make a very simple square wave source with a frequency that can be
made adjustable by replacing R with a variable or preset resistor.
 Assume that C is initially uncharged and the voltage at the inverting input is slightly
less than the voltage at the non-inverting input. The output voltage will rise rapidly to
+VCC and the voltage at the inverting input will begin to rise exponentially as capacitor
C charges through R.
 Eventually the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes the
voltage at the inverting input to exceed that present at the non-inverting input. At this
point, the output voltage will rapidly fall to −VCC. Capacitor C will then start to charge
in the other direction and the voltage at the inverting input will begin to fall
exponentially.
 Eventually, the voltage at the inverting input will have reached a value that causes the
voltage at the inverting input to be less than that present at the non-inverting input. At

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 BASIC ELECTRONICS

this point, the output voltage will rise rapidly to +VCC once again and the cycle will
continue indefinitely.
 The upper threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum positive value for the voltage at the
inverting input) will be given by:
𝑅2
𝑉𝑈𝑇 = 𝑉𝐶𝐶 × ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2
 The lower threshold voltage (i.e. the maximum negative value for the voltage at the
inverting input) will be given by:
𝑅2
𝑉𝐿𝑇 = −𝑉𝐶𝐶 × ( )
𝑅1 + 𝑅2

Crystal controlled oscillators:

 A requirement of some oscillators is that they accurately maintain an exact frequency
of oscillation. In such cases, a quartz crystal can be used as the frequency-determining
element.
 The quartz crystal vibrates whenever a potential difference is applied across its faces
(this phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect).
 The frequency ofoscillation is determined by the crystal’s ‘cut’ and physical size.
 Most quartz crystals can be expected to stabilize the frequency of oscillation of a circuit
to within a few parts in a million.
 Crystals can be manufactured for operation in fundamental mode over a frequency
range extending from 100 kHz to around 20 MHz and for overtone operation from 20
MHz to well over 100 MHz.
 Fig. 9.12 shows a simple crystal oscillator circuit in which the crystal provides feedback
from the drain to the source of a junction gate FET.

Mr. Mahendra S. Naik, Dept of ECE, PESITM, Shivamogga 28