CE 228

I NTRODUCTION TO O PEN
C HANNEL F LOW

Riddhi Singh
Email: riddhi@civil.iitb.ac.in
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW:
INTRODUCTION

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An ‘open channel’ is a waterway, canal or conduit in
which a liquid flows with a free surface

• Also called as ‘free surface’ flow

• In closed conduits (tunnels or storm sewers) free-surface may or may not
be present 3
An ‘open channel’ is a waterway, canal or conduit in
which a liquid flows with a free surface
Open channel flow Closed conduit flow
Natural or man-made? Can be either Typically man made
Pressure on top Atmospheric hence called free Generally greater than
surface flow; water-air interface atmospheric, if becomes
exists atmospheric, flow becomes
open channel
Driving force Gravity Pressure difference
Applicable Froude number Reynolds number
dimensionless number
Volume of flow Generally quite large: depth can Not as much as open
be 10s of m in rivers channel flows
Compressibility effects Non-existent May be present
Surface tension effects May exist for thin sheet flow Non-existent
Temporal variation Can be steady or unsteady Can be steady or unsteady
Spatial variation Very common Less common
Flow cross-section Unknown (flow depth is not Known, fixed by pipe
known in advance) geometry 4
Classification of open channel flows
Open Channel
Flow

Steady Unsteady

Uniform Varied Uniform Varied

Gradually Rapidly Gradually Rapidly

• Steady vs. unsteady flow: At any point change 𝜕𝑽/𝜕𝑡 = 0, etc; local acceleration is zero
– We can sometimes transform unsteady flow to steady flow by changing the coordinate system to a
moving reference: example when a surge wave moves in a smooth channel, from the point of view of
observer on ground, flow is unsteady. But if we change the coordinate system to move with velocity of
surge wave, flow can be treated as steady. Note however that the wave shape should remain the same
as it propagates.
• Uniform vs. nonuniform/varied flow: Flow is uniform when at every point within the flow field
at a given instant, the velocity (or other fluid variables) are the same in magnitude and
direction,𝜕𝒗/𝜕𝑠 = 0, at constant t; convective acceleration is zero
– Sometimes we may allow a nonuniform velocity distribution at a channel section, but flow is considered
uniform as long as the velocity in the direction of flow along a channel remains the same

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Classification of open channel flows…
• Steady uniform flow: total derivative of velocity is 0, i.e.,𝑑𝑽/𝑑𝑡 = 0 as both 𝜕𝑽/𝜕𝑡
and 𝜕𝑽/𝜕𝑥 are 0
– Recall that in this case, we can allow flow to be nonuniform at a certain
section (allowing variation in y and z components) as long as the variation
along the direction of flow is 0
• If flow is considered to be 2 or 3 dimensional, the partial derivatives of all velocity
components should be 0.
• Is open channel flow laminar or turbulent?
– Recall that flow is laminar when viscous forces dominate the inertial forces, or
Reynolds number (VD/υ) is small
– In open channels, the characteristic length, D, is usually the hydraulic depth or
hydraulic radius (more on that later)
– Transition from laminar to turbulent occurs at 600
– Let’s take a typical example:V= 0.01 m/s, D = 1 m, what do you get?
– Laminar flow in open channels is extremely rare!
• Prismatic channels: same cross section and bottom slope throughout
• Non-prismatic channels: varying cross section and bottom slope 6
 V
Open channel flows and the Froude number 𝑔𝑦
• Froude number distinguishes critical, subcritical and supercritical flows in open
channels
• The denominator in the Froude number is the wave celerity
• Any small disturbance on the surface of water travels in either directions at
the speed of wave
• So depending upon the velocity of the water itself (V), a small disturbance may or
may not travel upstream, thus differentiating flows into sub or super critical
• 𝑔𝑦 is thus called the ‘critical velocity’

Subcritical flow Supercritical flow

V < 𝑔𝑦 V > 𝑔𝑦
𝐹𝑟 < 1 𝐹𝑟 > 1
A disturbance can travel A disturbance cannot travel upstream
upstream
Downstream control Upstream control (more on this later…)

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Terminology…
• Channel Section: A cross section taken normal to the direction of flow (B-B)
• Depth of flow section, d: the depth of flow normal to the direction of flow
• Top width, B: is the width of the channel section at the free surface
• Flow area, A: cross sectional area of flow normal to the direction of flow
• Wetter perimeter, P: length of line of intersection of channel wetted surface with
the cross-sectional plane normal to the flow direction
• Depth of flow, y: vertical distance of the lowest point of the channel section from
the free surface
• Stage, Z: elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above a specified
datum
• Hydraulic radius, R: Ratio of flow area to wetted perimeter: 𝑅 = 𝐴/𝑃
• Hydraulic depth, D: Ratio of flow area to top width: 𝐷 = 𝐴/𝐵

𝐵 𝐵

𝑦 𝑑 𝐴 𝑃

𝑍
𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑚 8
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 − 𝐵
Velocity distribution in open channel flows

Shear stress acting on the sides of channel causes the velocity at a cross section in a channel to
vary
At every boundary, the no-slip condition is applicable, so velocity must be zero
Secondary currents cause maximum velocity to occur slightly below the free surface 9
Velocity distribution in open channel flows

𝑦 𝑣𝑠 The profile is roughly

logarithmic or power-law up to
the maximum velocity point.
0.2𝑦𝑜
𝑣0.2

Average velocity 𝑣𝑎𝑣 occurs at a

0.6𝑦𝑜
0.8𝑦𝑜

𝑣0.6 level of 0.6𝑦𝑜 from the free

𝑦𝑜 surface for shallow channels.
𝑣0.8

For deeper channels:

𝑣 𝑣0.2 + 𝑣0.8
𝑣𝑎𝑣 =
Typical velocity profile at a cross-section 2
normal to the direction of flow. Also, 𝑣𝑠 = 𝑘𝑣𝑎𝑣 , with 𝑘 varying
between 0.8 and 0.95.

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Energy coefficient for open channels
• Due to velocity variation at a cross-section the mean velocity head and the
velocity head computed by using the mean velocity are not necessarily the
same:
𝑉2 𝑉𝑚2
≠
2𝑔 𝑚 2𝑔
• The energy coefficient is used to express the mean velocity head in terms
of the velocity head using the mean velocity:
𝑉2 𝑉𝑚2
=𝛼
2𝑔 𝑚 2𝑔
• How to find 𝛼? 𝐵

1
• Note: 𝑉𝑚 = ‫𝐴𝑑𝑣 𝐴׬‬
𝐴 𝐴 𝑃
• Also: 𝑄 = ‫𝐴 𝑚𝑉 = 𝐴𝑑𝑣 𝐴׬‬

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 − 𝐵 11
Energy coefficient for open channels…
• Mass of liquid flowing through 𝑑𝐴 per unit time is dm = ρ𝑉𝑑𝐴
1 1 1
• Kinetic energy flowing through 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑚𝑉 2 = ρ𝑉𝑑𝐴𝑉 2 = ρ𝑉 3 𝑑𝐴
2 2 2
1 1
• Kinetic energy flowing through 𝐴 = ‫ ׬‬2 ρ𝑉 3 𝑑𝐴 = 2 ρ ‫ 𝑉 ׬‬3 𝑑𝐴
• Kinetic energy head in terms of mean velocity:
2
𝑉𝑚
𝛼 𝐵
2𝑔
• To convert energy head to total energy, multiply by
weight of water flowing through total area:
𝑃
𝛾𝑉𝑚 ‫𝐴𝑑 ׬‬ 𝑑𝐴
• Thus, total kinetic energy in terms of 𝑉𝑚 is:
2
𝑉𝑚 ρ𝑉𝑚3
𝛾𝑉𝑚 ‫𝛼 × 𝐴𝑑 ׬‬ = 𝛼 ‫𝐴𝑑 ׬‬ 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 − 𝐵
2𝑔 2

‫ 𝑉 ׬‬3 𝑑𝐴
• On comparison, 𝛼= 3 𝑑𝐴
𝑉𝑚 ‫׬‬
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Energy coefficient: flood plain
‫ 𝑉 ׬‬3 𝑑𝐴
• 𝛼=𝑉 3
𝑚 ‫𝐴𝑑 ׬‬

𝑉13 𝐴1 +𝑉23 𝐴2 +𝑉33 𝐴3

• 𝛼= 𝑉 3 𝐴 +𝐴 +𝐴
𝑚 1 2 3

𝑉1 𝐴1 +𝑉2 𝐴2 +𝑉3 𝐴3 𝑉13 𝐴1 +𝑉23 𝐴2 +𝑉33 𝐴3 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3 2

• 𝑉𝑚 = 𝐴1 +𝐴2 +𝐴3
→𝛼= 𝑉1 𝐴1 +𝑉2 𝐴2 +𝑉3 𝐴3 3

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Momentum coefficient for open channels
• Momentum coefficient is used to account for momentum transfer when
nonuniform velocity exists at a channel cross-section
• The momentum coefficient is used to express the momentum transferred
(per unit time) through a channel cross section as a function of the
momentum transferred (per unit time) using mean velocity
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑚
= 𝛽 𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉𝑚
• How to find 𝛽?

𝐴 𝑃

𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 − 𝐵
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Momentum coefficient for open channels…

• Mass of liquid flowing through 𝑑𝐴 per unit time is dm = ρ𝑉𝑑𝐴

• Momentum transferred per unit time through 𝑑𝐴 = 𝑑𝑚𝑉=ρ𝑉𝑑𝐴𝑉 =
ρ𝑉 2 𝑑𝐴
• Momentum transferred per unit time through 𝐴 = ‫ ׬‬ρ𝑉 2 𝑑𝐴 = ρ ‫ 𝑉 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴
• Momentum transferred per unit time in terms of
mean velocity: 𝛽 × 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝐵
𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝛽 × ρ𝑉𝑚 ‫= 𝑚𝑉 × 𝐴𝑑 ׬‬
𝛽ρ𝑉𝑚2 ‫𝐴𝑑 ׬‬ 𝑃
𝑑𝐴
‫ 𝑉 ׬‬2 𝑑𝐴
• On comparison, 𝛽= 2 ‫𝐴𝑑 ׬‬
𝑉𝑚
𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐵 − 𝐵

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How to obtain 𝛼 and 𝛽 ?
• For uniform velocity distribution, both are 1
• Any other variation both are greater than 1
• The greater the variation of velocity distribution, the higher the values
• Theoretical values of 𝛼 and 𝛽 can be obtained from knowledge of velocity
distribution (generally power law or logarithmic)
• For turbulent flow in straight channels with rectangular, trapezoidal, or
circular cross-section, 𝛼 < 1.15 and may be neglected.

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PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN
CHANNELS

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Different conditions of flow in open channels…

1. Static condition: 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑦 = 𝜌𝑔𝑦; density is

generally assumed constant except when 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑦∆𝐴
depth is so high that large pressures result in
increases in density (think lakes and oceans)

𝑝∆𝐴
2. Horizontal parallel flow: no acceleration in any
direction, flow velocity is parallel to channel
bottom, uniform flow: hydrostatic pressure 𝑉 𝑦
distribution (same as 1)

3. Parallel flow in sloping channels

4. Curvilinear flow

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Parallel flow in sloping channels
Conditions:
1. No acceleration in the flow direction 𝑦
𝑑
2. Flow velocity is uniform at a channel
cross-section 𝜃
3. Flow velocity is parallel to channel
bottom 𝑑= 𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
As flow velocity is parallel to the channel
bottom, there is no acceleration in the direction
along the column length. 𝑝∆𝐴 = 𝛾𝑑∆𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑑
→ 𝑝 = 𝛾𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃= 𝛾𝑦𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
Pressure distribution is not hydrostatic even
when acceleration in the direction of flow is
zero.
𝑝∆𝐴 𝑊 = 𝛾𝑑∆𝐴
For small slopes: 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃~1, and 𝑑~𝑦. Hence, 𝑝~𝛾𝑑~𝛾𝑦

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Curvilinear flow
Forces acting in the vertical direction on a column of liquid with cross-sectional
area ∆𝐴, with radius of curvature, 𝑟 and flow velocity, 𝑉:
𝑉2
Mass of liquid column: ρ𝑦𝑠 ∆𝐴; Centrifugal acceleration:
𝑅
𝑉2 𝑉2
Centrifugal force: ρ𝑦𝑠 ∆𝐴 ; Pressure head due to centrifugal force:𝑦𝑎 = 𝑦𝑠
𝑅 𝑔𝑅
𝑉2
Total pressure: 𝑦𝑠 1 ± ; positive for concave and negative for convex
𝑔𝑅

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