Unit 2

Solar Photovoltaic System

Syllabus
Operating Principle of Photovoltaic cell concepts, Photo-cell materials,
Cell module array, Series and parallel connections, Maximum power point
tracking, study of standalone system with battery and AC or DC load,
hybrid systems (diesel-PV, wind-PV, Biomass-Diesel system) Applications
,Introduction, Principle and operation of fuel cells, classification and types
of fuel cell. Fuel for fuel cells, Application of fuel cells.
How Does Solar Work
The amount of sunlight that strikes
the earth's surface in an hour is
enough to handle the entire world's
energy consumption for a full year.
Solar technologies convert sunlight
into electrical energy either through
photovoltaic (PV) panels or through
mirrors that concentrate solar
radiation. This energy can be used
to generate electricity or be stored
in batteries or thermal storage.
Introduction
• Solar energy is directly converted to electric power
• System is more convenient and compact compared to
thermal methods of solar energy conversion
• It uses energy of visible and infrared regions of the solar
radiations for conversion into electric power
Photovoltaics Technologies
• Crystalline Silicon
• Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)
• Copper Indium Gallium Diselenide (CIGS)
• Perovskites
• Multijunction (III-V)
• Organic
Applications Of PV Cells
• Solar street lighting system
• Solar water heating system
• Solar space heating system
• Stand alone type solar PV system
• Solar PV grid connected system
• Solar PV water pumping system
• Hybrid solar PV system
PV materials and devices
convert sunlight into electrical
energy.
A single PV device is known as a cell.
An individual PV cell is usually small,
typically producing about 1 or 2 watts
of power.
To boost the power output of PV
cells, they are connected together in
chains to form larger units known as
modules or panels.
Modules can be used individually, or
several can be connected to form
arrays.
Silicon is, by far, the most common
semiconductor material used in solar cells,
representing approximately 95% modules sold
today. It is also the second most abundant
material on Earth (after oxygen) and the most
common semiconductor used in computer
chips. Crystalline silicon cells are made of
silicon atoms connected to one another to
form a crystal lattice. This lattice provides an
organized structure that makes conversion of
light into electricity more efficient.
Solar cells made out of silicon currently
provide a combination of high efficiency, low
cost, and long lifetime. Modules are expected
to last for 25 years or more, still producing
more than 80% of their original power after
this time.
Thin-film Photovoltaics
A thin-film solar cell is made by depositing one or more thin layers of PV material on a supporting
material such as glass, plastic, or metal. There are two main types of thin-film PV
semiconductors in the market today: cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium
diselenide (CIGS). Both materials can be deposited directly onto either the front or back of the
module surface.

Perovskite Photovoltaics
Perovskite solar cells are a type of thin-film cell and are named after their characteristic crystal
structure. Perovskite cells are built with layers of materials that are printed, coated, or vacuum-
deposited onto an underlying support layer, known as the substrate. They are typically easy to
assemble and can reach efficiencies similar to crystalline silicon. In the lab, perovskite solar cell
efficiencies have improved faster than any other PV material, from 3% in 2009 to over 25% in
2020. To be commercially viable, perovskite PV cells have to become stable enough to survive 20
years outdoors, so researchers are working on making them more durable and developing large-
scale, low-cost manufacturing techniques.
Organic Photovoltaics
Organic PV, or OPV, cells are composed of carbon-rich (organic) compounds and can be tailored
to enhance a specific function of the PV cell, such as bandgap, transparency, or colour. OPV
cells are currently only about half as efficient as crystalline silicon cells and have shorter
operating lifetimes, but could be less expensive to manufacture in high volumes. They can also
be applied to a variety of supporting materials, such as flexible plastic, making OPV able to
serve a wide variety of uses.

Quantum Dots
Quantum dot solar cells conduct electricity through tiny particles of different semiconductor
materials just a few nanometres wide, called quantum dots. Quantum dots provide a new way to
process semiconductor materials, but it is difficult to create an electrical connection between
them, so they’re currently not very efficient. However, they are easy to make into solar cells.
They can be deposited onto a substrate using a spin-coat method, a spray, or roll-to-roll printers
like the ones used to print newspapers.
Quantum dots come in various sizes and their bandgap is customizable, enabling them to
collect light that’s difficult to capture and to be paired with other semiconductors, like
perovskites, to optimize the performance of a multijunction solar cell
Multijunction Photovoltaics
Another strategy to improve PV cell efficiency is layering multiple semiconductors to
make multijunction solar cells. These cells are essentially stacks of different semiconductor
materials, as opposed to single-junction cells, which have only one semiconductor. Each layer
has a different bandgap, so they each absorb a different part of the solar spectrum, making
greater use of sunlight than single-junction cells. Multijunction solar cells can reach record
efficiency levels because the light that doesn’t get absorbed by the first semiconductor layer is
captured by a layer beneath it.
Multijunction solar cells have demonstrated efficiencies higher than 45%, but they’re costly and
difficult to manufacture, so they’re reserved for space exploration. The military is using III-V solar
cells in drones, and researchers are exploring other uses for them where high efficiency is key.
Concentration Photovoltaics
Concentration PV, also known as CPV, focuses sunlight onto a solar cell by using a mirror or
lens. By focusing sunlight onto a small area, less PV material is required. PV materials become
more efficient as the light becomes more concentrated, so the highest overall efficiencies are
obtained with CPV cells and modules. However, more expensive materials, manufacturing
techniques, and ability to track the movement of the sun are required, so demonstrating the
necessary cost advantage over today's high-volume silicon modules has become challenging.
The top four most commonly used materials for solar panels:
Crystalline silicon (C-Si) : The lifespan of crystalline silicon
cells is more than 25 years without deterioration making it ideal
for industrial solar power generation. It yields an energy
conversion efficiency of up to 22%, the highest of all the
currently mass-produced panels.
Amorphous silicon (a-Si) : Amorphous silicon is silicon
without a crystalline structure. It is used to create a thin-film
solar cell and is commonly found in smaller solar panels such as
those on calculators or to power private homes. Amorphous
silicon solar panels only achieve an efficiency of around 7%
Gallium arsenide (GaAs) : It’s a compound mixture of gallium
and arsenic. It’s highly effective as a semiconductor and
produces a high energy yield for a small amount of material. It
has a bandgap of 1.49 eV, which is better than silicon. there are
two main drawbacks: firstly, gallium is rarer than gold and is
costly, and secondly arsenic is poisonous creating safety issues
when manufacturing the solar cells.
Organometallics (soluble platinum): soluble platinum, which
is a metal conjugated polymer, containing polymers with band-
gaps ranging between 1.4 to 3.0eV. This could be a solar cell
material of the future. It is lightweight, relatively cheap to
produce, and it’s an efficient semiconductor.
Semiconductors:-
• These are in between conductor and insulator. They have four
or five electrons only. But when certain impurities are
introduced their conductivity increases.
N doped semiconductor (Donor impurity):-
• When Si is doped by phosphorous they cannot form a lattice by
sharing all the electrons because phosphorous has five
electrons but silicon has only four. Hence one of the atoms of p
will not be able to share and this will remain as free electron.
P Doped semiconductor (Acceptor impurity):-
In this silicon is doped with Boron. Boron has three electrons. There
will be deficiency of one electron thereby creating a net positive
charge. This positive charge is called a ‘hole’. Impurity in this case is
called an acceptor impurity. Semiconductor is called P-type
semiconductor.
* An important property of PV semiconductors is the bandgap,
which indicates what wavelength of light the material can absorb
and convert to electrical energy. If the semiconductors bandgap
matches with the wavelengths of the light shining on the PV cell,
then that cell can efficiently make use of all the available energy
Working of PV Cell
Typically, a silicon PV cell contains two
layers. The top layer consists of a thin
sheet of phosphorus-doped (negatively
charged or n-type) silicon. Underneath
this sheet is a thicker layer of boron-
doped (positively charged or p-type)
silicon. A unique characteristic of these
two layers is that a positive-
negative (PN) junction is created when
these two materials are in contact. A PN
junction is actually an electric field that
is capable of creating an electrical
potential when sunlight shines on the
PV cell.
When sunlight hits the PV cell, some of the
electrons in the p-type silicon layer will be
stimulated to move across the PN junction to
the n-type silicon layer, causing the p-type
layer to have a higher voltage potential than
the n-type layer. This creates an electric
current flow when the PV cell is connected to a
load. The voltage potential created by a typical
silicon PV cell is about 1 to 2 volts DC under
open-circuit, no-load conditions. The power of
a PV cell depends on the intensity of the solar
radiation, the surface area of the PV cell, and
its overall efficiency.
Types of PV Power Systems
• Photovoltaic power systems can be classified as
follows:
• Stand-alone
• Hybrid
• Grid connected
Solar photovoltaic system
• Major components of system
are
• Photovotaic array
• Inverter
• Energy storage
• System charge control
• Balance system components
Photovotaic array
Typical silicon cell can produce upto 1 to 2 V and upto 6Amp i.e. equivalent to3 W power.
 Invertor
• It is used to convert Dc input to AC output. In large grid
systems transformers are used.
Energy storage
• Batteries are used for storage of energy.
• The main qualities of Any battery:-
• Ability to withstand several charge and discharge cycles
• Low self discharge rate
• Need to have very little or no maintenance
System charge control
• These are the devices to ensure that charging and discharging of
batteries are done within prescribed time.
• Overcharging of batteries is avoided.
Balance of system and components
• To keep system in proper working condition:-
• Blocking diode:- When there is no sunshine during night, current will
flow in reverse direction i.e. from battery to arrays. This can damage
arrays. So to avoid this reverse flow blocking diodes are used.

Voltage regulators:- To ensure voltage fluctuations are kept

within acceptable value
Hybrid Solar photovoltaic system
Maximum Power Point Tracking
MPPT stands for Maximum Power Point Tracker. It is a circuit (typically a DC to DC
converter) employed in the majority of modern photovoltaic inverters. Its function is to
maximize the energy available from the connected solar module arrays at any time during
its operation. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) is a feature built into all grid tied
solar inverters.
A solar panel will generate different voltages depending on the conditions that the panel is
exposed to.
Conditions that affect the voltage in a solar panel include:
 The amount of light shining on the panel.
 The load that the solar panel is pushing its electricity into.
 The temperature of the panel.
So as you can see, throughout the day, as the weather changes, the voltage produced by the
solar panel will be constantly shifting.
Maximum Power Point Tracking Technique
A PV Panel consists of several photovoltaic cells in series and parallel connections. Series
connections are responsible for increasing the voltage of the module whereas the parallel
connection is responsible for increasing the current in the array.

A charge controller, also known as a charge regulator, limits the electrical current rate
added to or drawn from solar batteries. Their goal is to maintain the highest state of
charge in the batteries without overcharging them. However, the solar system voltage and
current can change suddenly due to variable irradiance, so the charge controller needs to
respond quickly to adapt.

Maximum power point or peak power voltage is the voltage that PV panels produce
maximum power. When charging batteries, maximum power varies by numerous factors,
including solar radiation, the wire run length, the battery’s state of charge, and ambient
and panel temperatures.
MPPT or Maximum Power Point Tracking is algorithm that included in charge controllers used
for extracting maximum available power from PV module under certain conditions. The voltage at
which PV module can produce maximum power is called maximum power point (or peak power
voltage). Maximum power varies with solar radiation, ambient temperature and solar
cell temperature.
The major principle of MPPT is to extract the maximum available power from PV module by
making them operate at the most efficient voltage (maximum power point). MPPT checks output
of PV module, compares it to battery voltage then fixes what is the best power that PV module can
produce to charge the battery and converts it to the best voltage to get maximum current into
battery. It can also supply power to a DC load, which is connected directly to the battery.
MPPT is most effective under these conditions
Cold weather, cloudy or hazy days: Normally, PV module works better at cold temperatures and
MPPT is utilized to extract maximum power available from them. When battery is deeply
discharged: MPPT can extract more current and charge the battery if the state of charge in the
battery is lowers.
A MPPT solar charge controller is the charge controller embedded with MPPT algorithm to
maximize the amount of current going into the battery from PV module
Main features of MPPT solar charge controller
 In any applications which PV module is energy source, MPPT solar charge controller is used to
correct for detecting the variations in the current-voltage characteristics of solar cell and shown by I-
V curve.
 MPPT solar charge controller is necessary for any solar power systems need to extract maximum
power from PV module; it forces PV module to operate at voltage close to maximum power point to
draw maximum available power.
 MPPT solar charge controller allows users to use PV module with a higher voltage output than
operating voltage of battery system. For example, if PV module has to be placed far away from
charge controller and battery, its wire size must be very large to reduce voltage drop. With a MPPT
solar charge controller, users can wire PV module for 24 or 48 V (depending on charge controller and
PV modules) and bring power into 12 or 24 V battery system. This means it reduces the wire size
needed while retaining full output of PV module.
 MPPT solar charge controller reduces complexity of system while output of system is with high
efficiency. Additionally, it can be applied to use with more energy sources. Since PV output power is
used to control DC-DC converter directly.
 MPPT solar charge controller can be applied to other renewable energy sources such as small water
turbines, wind-power turbines, etc.
In the example below, the blue line shows a
solar panel voltage of 30V corresponding to a
Current of about 6.2A. The green line shows a
Voltage of 35V corresponds to a current of 5A.

Finding the Maximum Power Point In the

example above the MPP is somewhere between
where the blue line touches the red line and
where the green line touches it. In fact (due to
calculus for the tech heads amongst you) the
MPP is always on the "bendiest" part of the
curve. About 33V on the example above.
So the job of a Maximum Power Point Tracker is to
always operate the inverter on that MPP. For the
example above that would be about 33V and 6A.
The MPPT forces the solar inverter to work at 33V
by varying the resistance of the inverter input using
power electronics. The higher the resistance, the
higher the voltage across the solar panel.
Remember that the voltage that the solar panel
would like to work at is moving all the time as the
temperature and solar irradiation changes. So the
MPPT has to constantly adjust its settings to keep
the solar panel at its MPP. It is chasing a
constantly moving target.
FUEL CELL
Qualified Fuel Cell Vehicles in Indian Market
•2008–2015 - Honda FCX Clarity.
•2013–2017 - Hyundai Tucson/ix35 Fuel Cell.
•2015–2020 - Toyota Mirai.
•2016 - Honda Clarity Fuel Cell.
•2018 - Hyundai Nexo.
•2020 - Toyota Mirai II.
•2022 - Toyota Mirai (On 16th March Nitin Gadkari launched green
hydrogen based Advanced FCEV (The car is launched as part of the
Toyota Kirloskar Motor TKM Pilot Project with the International
center for Automotive Technology ICAT
Introduction
Sir William Robert Grove Swansea, United Kingdom In 1842, Grove
developed the first fuel cell (which he called the gas voltaic battery),
which produced electrical energy by combining hydrogen and oxygen.
Fuel cell is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy
of a fuel and oxidant directly into the low voltage DC electrical energy.

The potential of a single fuel cell is typically around 0.7-0.8 V, and it is

too small for practical applications therefore many individual fuel cells
are electrically connected together to form a fuel cell stack.
A fuel cell produces electricity through a chemical
reaction, but without combustion. It converts hydrogen
and oxygen into water, and in the process also creates
electricity. It’s an electro-chemical energy conversion
device that produces electricity, water, and heat.
Fuel cells operates much like a battery, except they
don’t require electrical recharging. A battery stores all
of its chemicals inside and coverts the chemicals into
electricity. Once those chemicals run out, the battery
dies. A fuel cell, on the other hand, receives the
chemicals it uses from the outside; therefore, it won’t
run out. Fuel cells can generate power almost
indefinitely, as long as they have fuel to use.
 The reactions that produce electricity happen at the
electrodes. Every fuel cell has two electrodes, one positive,
called the anode, and one negative, called the cathode.
These are separated by an electrolyte barrier. Fuel goes to
the anode side, while oxygen (or just air) goes to the
cathode side. When both of these chemicals hit the
electrolyte barrier, they react, split off their electrons, and
create an electric current. A chemical catalyst speeds up the
reactions.
Hydrogen molecules are delivered to the anode side of the
fuel cell. Electrons are stripped from the molecules and
forced to travel through a circuit, producing electricity. The
leftover protons pass through the fuel cell and are
recombined with the lost electrons on the cathode side,
producing water molecules.
Types of Fuel Cells
 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC)
 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC)
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC)
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC)
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
 Reversible Fuel Cells
Alkaline Fuel Cells
Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel
cell technologies developed, and they were the first
type widely used in the U.S. space program to
produce electrical energy and water on-board
spacecraft. These fuel cells use a solution of
potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and
can use a variety of non-precious metals as a
catalyst at the anode and cathode.
AFCs operate at temperatures between 100°C
and250°C (212°F and 482°F). However, newer
AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of
roughly 23°C to 70°C (74°F to 158°F)
Thus net reaction of a fuel cell in which
hydrogen and oxygen supplied produces
water, electrical energy and heat.
Ideal e.m.f. produced by single fuel cell is
1.23 V.
The expected life of a fuel cell is 10,000 to
40,000 hours.
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC)
Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells—
also called proton exchange membrane fuel
cells—deliver high power density and offer the
advantages of low weight and volume
compared with other fuel cells. PEM fuel cells use
a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous
carbon electrodes containing a platinum or
platinum alloy catalyst. They need only
hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to
operate. They are typically fuelled with pure
hydrogen supplied from storage tanks.
PEM fuel cells operate at relatively PEM fuel cells are used primarily for
low temperatures, around 80°C transportation applications and some
(176°F). Low-temperature operation stationary applications. Due to their fast
allows them to start quickly (less start-up time and favourable power-to-
warm-up time) and results in less weight ratio, PEM fuel cells are
wear on system components, particularly suitable for use in passenger
resulting in better durability. vehicles, such as cars and buses.
However, it requires that a noble-
metal catalyst (typically platinum)
be used to separate the hydrogen's
electrons and protons, adding to
system cost.
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)
A solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) is a device that converts gaseous fuels (hydrogen,
natural gas, gasified coal) via an electro-chemical process directly into electricity.
 SOFCs are over 60% efficient (conversion of fuel to electricity) making them the
most efficient fuel cell currently being developed
 Electrolyte : Solid ceramic oxide (Zirconium dioxide)
 Operating temperature range is of 650-1000 C.
 Due to high temperature range no catalyst is required.
 Negative electrode is made of porous nickel and positive electrode uses metal
oxide.
 There are no liquids that cause safety and environmental problems.
Advantages of fuel cells over conventional power plant
 Quite in operation and less polluting
 Efficiency of energy conversion is higher
 No cooling water is required
 Heat generated can be rejected directly to atmosphere(isothermal)
 By use of series-parallel combination of fuel cells, output power rating at
any voltage and current can be obtained
 Capacity can be increased as demand grows
 Space requirement is much less
 It has long life.
 Advantages of Fuel Cell
 It has very high conversion efficiency
 It can be installed nearby load point, thereby reducing requirement of
transmission lines
 It is noiseless and can operate quietly because of no moving parts
 Fuel cells are non-polluting
 Requiring no cooling to condense the discharge
 Require lesser time for installation and operation
 Limitations of fuel cell
 Capital cost is high
 Heavy corrosion of electrodes cause low lifespan
 Degradation of electrodes and electrolyte reduces performance of fuel cell
Applications of fuel cell
 Fuel cell can provide power at remote and inaccessible areas
 Can be used for propulsion of vehicles, spacecraft and submarine.
 Ideally suitable for electric car
 Emergency and critical supply such as hospital can be met by fuel cell
Thank You