Modelling of Grid connected Single Phase Two

Stage Full Bridge Converter for Photovoltaic

Application
by
Manish Patil

Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering, Electronics,

Computers and Systems
in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master Course in Electrical Energy Conversion and Power Systems
at the
UNIVERSIDAD DE OVIEDO
July 2017
c Universidad de Oviedo 2017. All rights reserved.

Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Certified by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jorge Garcia Garcia
Associate Professor
Thesis Supervisor
Certified by . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cristina Gonzalez Moran
Associate Professor
Thesis Supervisor
2
 Modelling of Grid connected Single Phase Two Stage Full
Bridge Converter for Photovoltaic Application
by
Manish Patil

Submitted to the Department of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Computers and

Systems
on July 21, 2017, in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of
Master Course in Electrical Energy Conversion and Power Systems

Abstract
This Master thesis presents modelling of Single phase two stage grid connected full
bridge inverter. The whole system includes the PV modules, a boost converter and a
full bridge Inverter. Reference datasheet of Monocristalline Silicon SLK72M6L have
been used for the photovoltaic array. PV modules were made up of a number of PV
cells connected in series and parallel.
One array consists of six PV panel. Then two arrays are connected in paral-
lel. These PV arrays are used for generating electricity in PV generation systems.
Thereafter, PV array have been simulated under varying environmental condition
like varying irradiance, temperature and partial shading conditions. PV array evalu-
ated by varying number of series, parallel array and by physical parameters like Rsh
(shunt) and Rse (series) resistance. I-V and P-V operating curves studied closely
under open loop of PV array. Observed open circuit current and voltage are around
9.02 A and 44.5 V respectively.
In the second part, circuit have been designed such that it delivers constant and
step up DC voltage to load. Open loop boost converter has been studied by using
constant DC voltage source and observed output voltage and current for boost con-
verter. Thereafter, our study have been progressed by coupling PV array with boost
converter. The characteristics of I-V and P-V curves of photovoltaic module coupled
with boost converter were tuned by means of simulations to achieve Maximum Power
Point (MPP) with optimal voltage and current Vmpp and Impp respectively. To
achieve MPP, MPPT algorithm has been used.
In this system, output voltage of boost converter have been observed around 400
V to charge the DC link. In third model, full bridge inverter have been simulated in
open loop to achieve required power at load. LCL filter has been designed at load
side and achieved maximum power transfer. When power at input and output were
made almost equal, load has been replaced with grid. Simulated open loop model
has been replaced with closed loop model. Grid angle for phase lock loop have been
used for alpha beta and D Q conversion. Finally it has been verified. By means of

3
step by step simulation, power loss for grid connected two stage full bridge inverter
have been calculated. Finally full bridge inverter has been designed with parameter
almost similar to Ingecon@Sunlite 5TL model (transformer less).

Thesis Supervisor: Jorge Garcia Garcia

Title: Associate Professor

Thesis Supervisor: Cristina Gonzalez Moran

Title: Associate Professor

4
Acknowledgments

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to all the people who helped me in many
ways throughout my Master candidature at University of Oviedo. I would like to pay
my greatest gratitude and appreciation to my supervisors, Dr Jorge Garcia Garcia
and Dr Cristina Gonzalez Moran of University of Oviedo, for their generous technical
support provided while troubleshooting the thesis project.

Special thanks go to Dr Pablo Arboleya, Dr Pablo Garcia for providing me oppor-

tunity to pursue postgraduate studies at University of Oviedo. My supervisors dedi-
cation, patience, knowledge and experience could not have been surpassed. I admire
their guidance towards growing me up academically and personally over last few years.

The personal and administrative support provided by LEMUR group, Dr Islam, Bas-
sam at various stages of my Master thesis degree are acknowledged with gratitude.
Timely personal and technical assistance received from Major Umesh & Sujay, co-
operate to commission the experimental setup of my master thesis within short period
of time. I am very much thankful to them. Thanks also go to my colleagues Umer,
Saikot for their valuable input to my research work.

Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents, my sister Swati and rest of
family for their unconditional love and continuous support. I would not have been
able to complete Thesis without them.

5
6
Contents

1 Introduction 17
1.1 Statement of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Research Objectives and Methodologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.3 Outline of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

2 Literature Review 19
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Solar Photovoltaic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Types of Photovoltaic cell and Equivalent circuit of a PV cell 20
2.3 Power Converters for Integrating PV Systems to the Grid . . . . . . . 22
2.4 The Modulation Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.5 Operation and control of VSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.1 Basic Operation of a VSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.2 Control Systems in a VSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.6 Grid-Connected PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3 System Description and Modelling of Grid Connected Photovoltaic

System 29
3.1 Array Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.1 Model of Photovoltaic Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.1.2 Curves IV Characteristics of PV Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 MPPT Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 Perturbation & Observation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

7
 3.3 DC-DC Boost Converter Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3.1 Mode 1:Operation of the Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.3.2 Mode 2:Operation of the Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4 Modulation Technique of Single Phase Full Bridge VSC . . . . . . . . 37
3.5 LCL Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 DC-link Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.7 Control system in VSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4 Simulation of Grid Connected Photovoltaic System Using Matlab /

Simulink 49
4.1 Simulation of Photovoltaic Array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.2 Simulation Model of Boost Converter with MPPT Controller . . . . . 50
4.3 Simulation of Full Bridge and grid connected Inverter with SPWM . . 51

5 Simulation Result 55
5.0.1 Simulation of PV with variation in Temperature & Irradiance 55
5.0.2 E↵ect of Change in Irradiance for Photovoltaic output Power,
Voltage, Current, DC-link voltage & Active-Reactive Power . 56

6 Conclusion & Future Work 61

6.1 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
6.2 Future work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

A 63
A.1 Boost Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
A.1.1 Selection of Inductor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
A.1.2 Selection of Input Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
A.1.3 Selection of output Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

B 67
B.1 LCL Filter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
B.1.1 Basic Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

8
 B.1.2 Designing Procedure for 5 kVA Single-Phase VSC . . . . . . . 69

C 71
C.0.1 Selection DC-link Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

D 73
D.1 Data Sheet SLK72M6L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

9
10
List of Figures

2-1 shows Equivalent circuit of a solar cell and PV device [3]. . . . . . . . 22

2-2 Basic structure of Single-phase VSC[30]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2-3 Shows Generation of PWM switching pulses[30]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2-4 shows Output voltage of a H-Bridge of a VSC that uses unipolar-
SPWM technique [30]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2-5 shows Output voltage of a H-Bridge of a VSC that uses bipolar-SPWM
technique [30]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2-6 shows Grid connected VSC with LCL filter and PV System [30]. . . . 27

3-1 I-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature & irradiance
[31] [38] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3-2 P-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature & irradiance
[31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3-3 Flow chart for P& O [8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3-4 Principle of P& O [8] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3-5 Circuit diagram of boost converter (mode 1) [32]. . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3-6 Circuit diagram of boost converter (mode 2)[32]. . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3-7 Wave form of boost converters operation[32]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3-8 Output current for S1, S2 ON; S3, S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2 [32]. . . . . 39
3-9 Unipolar PWM generator [12]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3-10 Output Voltage Waveform [32]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3-11 shows Waveform for SPWM with Unipolar voltage switching [25]. . . 40

11
3-12 shows Carrier and Reference Waveform for SPWM with Unipolar volt-
age switching [25]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3-13 shows LCL filter [30]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3-14 shows Schematic VSI including voltage and current control loop [43]. 42
3-15 shows Current control loop [43]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3-16 shows DC Voltage control loop [43]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3-17 shows MATLAB/SIMULINK results for real and imaginary phase wave-
forms [36]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3-18 shows Grid angle Calculation [36]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3-19 shows Construction of the imaginary Orthogonal Circuit Variables [41]. 45
3-20 shows Real Circuit and its Imaginary Orthogonal Circuit [41]. . . . . 46
3-21 shows DQ transformation using constructed Imaginary Orthogonal Cir-
cuit Variable for fixed fundamental frequency application [41]. . . . . 47

4-1 shows Simulink block of the photovoltaic array [31]. . . . . . . . . . . 49

4-2 shows I-V characteristic model [9]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4-3 shows Simulink model of the photovoltaic system with MPPT con-
troller & boost converter [31]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4-4 shows Simulink model of the Full Bridge VSC [31]. . . . . . . . . . . 52
4-5 shows Fundamental Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4-6 shows Simulink model Single Phase Two stage Full Bridge VSC [31]. . 54

5-1 I-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature but varying
irradiance [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
5-2 P-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature but varying
irradiance [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5-3 I-V Characteristic of a PV array under a fixed irradiance but varying
Temperatures [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
5-4 P-V Characteristic of a PV array under a fixed irradiance but varying
Temperatures [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5-5 shows Step change in the Photovoltaic Power Output [31] . . . . . . . 57

12
5-6 shows Step change in the Photovoltaic PV array Output Voltage [31] 58
5-7 shows Step change in the Photovoltaic PV array Output Current [31] 58
5-8 shows PV array current Ipv reaches steady state after 0.002 s [31] . . 58
5-9 shows Step change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter Grid Cur-
rent [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5-10 shows Step change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter Grid Volt-
age [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5-11 shows change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter DC link Voltage
[31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
5-12 shows change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter for Active-
Reactive Power [31] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

D-1 shows Data Sheet SLK72M6L. [19]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

D-2 shows Data Sheet SLK72M6L. [19]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

13
14
List of Tables

3.1 Technical Characteristics for SILIKEN SLK72M6L . . . . . . . . . . 32

B.1 Specifications of the VSC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

B.2 LCL designed Filter Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

15
 Glossary

VSI Voltage source inverter.

PLL Phase lock loop.
PCC Point of Common Coupling .
PV Photovoltaic .
MPPT Maximum Power Point Controller .
PI Proportional and integral.
PWM Pulse width modulation.
LV Low Voltage .
IGBT Insulated gate bipolar transistor .
PWM Pulse Width Modulation.
SVPWM Space vector PWM.
LCL Inductor capacitor inductor.
THD Total harmonic distortion.
PCB Printed circuit board.
ADC Analogue to digital converter.
LEMUR Laboratory for enhanced microgrid unbalance Research.
TCP/IP Transmission control protocol/Internet protocol.
Ts Sampling time.
Tsw Switching time.
P Active power.
Q Reactive power.
Vg Grid voltage.
fg Grid frequency.
fsw Switching frequency.
Pn Rated power.
Vdc DC bus voltage.
L1 Inverter inductor.
L2 Grid inductor.
Cf Filter capacitor.

16
Chapter 1

Introduction

1.1 Statement of the Problem

This Thesis is basically for LV (Low Voltage) power grid to minimise dependency and
the usage of rapidly depleting fossil fuel resources such as coal, and natural gas. It also
helps to reduce pollution of fossil fuel based electricity generation and to reduce global
warming. Thesis, included simulated technology related regarding single phase grid
connected photovoltaic system. Control loop has been used for current and voltage
to protect converter if current exceed to some predefined boundary. Integrator has
been used to get zero steady state error.

1.2 Research Objectives and Methodologies

Research studies presented in this Thesis focus on grid connected single phase two
stage photovoltaic system. E↵ect of temperature and irradiance on PV and IV curve
has been discussed. Variation of irradiance on DC-link voltage, grid voltage, grid cur-
rent and active and reactive power have been observed. Open loop simulation for PV
array, boost converter & full bridge inverter have been started. After having required
open loop result, PV array have been synchronised with boost converter including
MPPT controller. Dynamic behaviour of grid connected two stage photovoltaic sys-
tem, inner faster current loop and outer voltage control loop have been designed. A

17
simulation model of a PV system representing the dynamic behaviour of an actual
PV system connected to an LV power grid. Therefore, the dynamic behaviour of all
the physical components and all control loops should be accurately modelled. Data
sheet for Siliken PV panel given in appendix D.1 and IngeconSun 5TL model have
been refered to design simulation model [39].

1.3 Outline of the Thesis

Chapters brief description included in this section. Chapter 2, literature review has
been included description regarding solar photovoltaic energy, power converter for
integrating PV system to grid, modulation technique, operation and control of VSC
and overview of grid connected PV system. Chapter 3 is about system description
and modelling of grid connected photovoltaic system. It includes topology and array
modelling of photovoltaic system, MPPT algorithm, DC-DC boost converter, volt-
age source converter, modulation technique, PWM switching, LCL filter & DC link
capacitor.
Chapter 4, discussion has been included Simulink model for grid connected pho-
tovoltaic system. It includes current and voltage equation photo voltaic array, boost
converter with MPPT controller, full bridge inverter with SPWM and simulation of
grid connected PV system. Chapter 5 has been covered simulation result regarding
photovoltaic array, boost converter with MPPT controller, full bridge inverter with
SPWM and grid connected photovoltaic system. Finally in chapter 6, conclusion and
future work regarding Thesis has been summarised.

18
Chapter 2

Literature Review

2.1 Introduction
In most of power generating plants, fossils fuels are main source of energy to generate
electricity. Till 19th century energy has been created largely by burning hydrocarbon,
oil, coal and natural gas. It produces huge carbon emissions. Emission of greenhouse
gases, limited coal resources, environmental distortion, rising prices of fossils fuels and
scarcity of foreign exchanges reserves responsible for developing new energy economy.
However, energy generation from renewable sources like wind, solar, hydro, biomass,
tidal, geothermal, wave, bio-fuels & bagasse does not a↵ect the environment that
adversely. Government and electric utility around world has introduced subsidies
and significant change in their traditional policies to allow investors to integrate
their own renewable power generating systems to electric power grid to promote
sustainable energy technologies. Further, commercially attractive rebates, grants and
credit schemes will continue to make significant changes to the traditional electrical
power grid.
Electrical power generated from a PV system solely depends on factors such as
solar irradiance and ambient temperature. These factors are subjected to sudden
or slow variations, resulting in changes in the output power. As PV systems are
interfaced to LV power grids through power electronic converters (inverters) and as no
mechanical inertia is involved, changes in power flow can take place in relatively short

19
periods. Such changes can cause rapid voltage fluctuations at the point of common
coupling (PCC) of a PV system and can lead to overvoltage, under-voltage and/or
flicker problems. Further, switching frequency and low-order harmonic levels may
increase with the addition of PV systems to LV power grids, possibly deteriorating
the quality of power supply.
Simulation studies can be performed to investigate the terminal characteristics
of a PV system under di↵erent operating conditions and to analyse how LV power
grids will behave when multiple PV units are integrated. In order, to perform such
simulation studies, the development of accurate simulation models of PV systems is
necessary. A detailed simulation model of a PV system that represents the dynamic
behaviour of all the physical components of a grid-connected PV system and the
associated control loops are essential to investigate the dynamic behaviour of a single
or multiple grid-connected PV system under di↵erent operating conditions.

2.2 Solar Photovoltaic Energy

All photovoltaic (PV) cells consist of two or more thin layers of semi-conducting
material. It is mostly silicon. Electrical charges are generated, when semiconductor
exposed to sunlight. It produces direct current when multiple cells are connected.

2.2.1 Types of Photovoltaic cell and Equivalent circuit of a

PV cell

PV panels are of di↵erent types like monocrystalline, polycrystalline, thick-film silicon

[39]. Monocrystalline cells sliced from a single crystalline crystal of silicon. It is
typically converting around 15 % of sun’s energy into electricity. Manufacturing
process is slightly complicated so cost is high. Polycrystalline cells cut from an ingot
of melted and recrystallized silicon. The ingots are then saw cut into very thin wafers.
Then it assembled into complete cells. They are cheaper than monocrystalline. But
less efficient as they converting 12 % of suns energy into electricity. In thin-film

20
silicon panels silicon is deposited in continuous process onto base material giving
fine grained, sparkling appearance. Then it is encapsulated in transparent insulating
polymer with tempered glass cover and then bound into metal framed module. In
this case, monocrystalline panel SLK72M6L of SILIKEN has been used D.1 [38] [39].
A panel is 72 series cells. The peak power is between 285 Wp to 310 Wp.

The equivalent circuit of PV cell is shown in figure 2-1 b. Internal losses of current
in model has been ignored. A diode is connected in anti-parallel with current source.
When PV cell exposed to sunlight DC current is generated is denoted by I. By using
Kirchho↵ law output current, I can be obtained by equation 2.1,

V +IRs
I = Iph ID = Iph Isat [e Vt 1] (2.1)

In case of short circuit situation, the equation presented in 2.1 can be rewritten
as:
Isc = Iph ID (2.2)

where
Isc : Short circuit current (A)
Iph : Photo current (A)
ID : Diode current (A)
Isat : Saturation current (A)
Vt : Thermal voltage (v)
Rs : Series resistance (Ohm)
V : Terminal voltage (V)
I : Output current (A)

21
 Figure 2-1: shows Equivalent circuit of a solar cell and PV device [3].

2.3 Power Converters for Integrating PV Systems

to the Grid

Power converter system is used to convert DC power from PV array to AC power.

DC-DC power conversion stages have been avoided with careful selection of the PV
array to closely match with the required DC voltage needed for inverter. This may
not be always possible with small capacity PV installations which may need to boost
the output voltage of the PV array. For integrating to grid in such situation, DC-DC
boost converter has been used to boost the output voltage of the PV array as suitable
for integrating to the grid. However, grid connected inverters are carefully designed
to mitigate the problems with DC current injection, islanding, flicker and harmonics.
Further converters can be classified as per the commutation process used in the
design. It can be as either line commutated converters or force commutated convert-
ers. Based on voltage and current waveforms at their DC-links, DC-AC converter
can further be classified as voltage source converters or current source converters
(CSC). In a VSC, DC-link terminals are connected in parallel with a relatively large
capacitor. And polarity of the DC-link current of the converter determined direction
of average power flow. In a CSC, DC-link terminals are connected in series with a
relatively large reactor. And the polarity DC-link voltage of the converter determined

22
direction of average power flow.
To control the power flow through a CSC, it should be designed from fully con-
trollable bipolar power electronic switches. The power flow of a VSC can be fully
controlled if the converter is made of reverse conducting power electronic switches
IGBT or MOSFET. These switches basically used for low power converter applica-
tion. That is reason VSC converter become most widely used type power electronics
converter to interfaces low power PV system to grid.
In this dissertation, single phase two stage DC-DC-AC converter has been used.
DC-AC inverter in single phase full bridge transformer less inverter is usually preferred
for relatively small domestic rooftop PV installations.

2.4 The Modulation Techniques

Single phase voltage source converter has been used for H bridge bipolar or unipolar
modulation method. By controlling the magnitude and the angle of voltage at the
output of the H-bridge, v, of the VSC with respect to the grid side voltage, vg , amount
of power injected or absorbed has been controlled. Basic structure of Single-phase
VSC has been shown in figure 2-2.

Figure 2-2: Basic structure of Single-phase VSC[30].

To generate a desired voltage at the output of the H-bridge, Sinusoidal pulse-width

modulation (SPWM) techniques has been used. There are two SPWM technique
bipolar-SPWM and unipolar-SPWM used in VSCs. The magnitude of modulation

23
signal(m) is proportional to magnitude, phase angle and frequency of voltage that
should be generated at the output of the H-bridge. Sinusoidal signal is compare
with high frequency triangular signal using relational operator to get pulse-width
modulated switch-ON and switch-OFF pattern. It is shown in figure 2-3 a and b.
The switching pattern is then applied to the power electronic switches of the H-bridge
shown in figure 2-4 and figure 2-5. The current injected by the VSC to the grid is
highly distorted. Filtering mechanism has been used in order minimise the distortion
in current.

Figure 2-3: Shows Generation of PWM switching pulses[30].

Figure 2-4: shows Output voltage of a H-Bridge of a VSC that uses unipolar-SPWM
technique [30].

The advantage of unipolar modulation is that it has high efficiency up to 98 %

24
Figure 2-5: shows Output voltage of a H-Bridge of a VSC that uses bipolar-SPWM
technique [30].

due to reduced losses during zero voltage states and low losses in the output filter.
The advantage of bipolar modulation is that there is no switching harmonics, very
low leakage current and EMI

Disadvantage of bipolar modulation is lower efficiency up to 96.5 % due to reactive

power exchange between Ldc and Cpv during freewheeling. Disadvantage of unipolar
modulation is switching harmonics, high leakage current and EMI [29].

Other technique which is largely used in power electronics is space vector Pulse
width modulation (SVPWM). Space vector PWM control scheme for three-phase
PWM inverter in PV generation system discussed in Jiyong Li et al. [34]. From
Vdc input voltage of the inverter, we can calculate each state voltage. Once voltage
in reference frame is determined, duration period T1 and T2 time for each vector in
each PWM cycle has been calculated. Low total harmonic distortion (THD), constant
switching frequency, well-defined output harmonic spectrum, optimum switching pat-
tern and excellent dc-link voltage utilization are advantages with SVPWM. In Q. Zeng
et al. [6] explained drawbacks for SVPWM [31].

25
2.5 Operation and control of VSC

2.5.1 Basic Operation of a VSC

To reduce ripple in output current, VSC is integrated to grid via. coupling inductor.
It also minimises the e↵ect of the PWM switching voltage developed at the output
of a VSC. To improve limited capability of attenuating switching current ripple of
VSC, LCL filters often used in grid-connected VSCs. LCL filter which shown in figure
2-6, attenuates high frequency switching ripple current of VSC. LCL filter design also
a↵ect dynamic performance of control system of grid connected VSC. While designing
LCL filter accuracy should be high. In detail procedure of LCL filter also explain in
appendix B.

2.5.2 Control Systems in a VSC

Based on control method, VSC can be classified as either voltage or current controlled.
By adjusting the phase angle and the magnitude of the output voltage of the VSC
relative to the PCC voltage, real and reactive power output are controlled. Due to lack
of close loop to control its output current, there is no over current protection in VSC.
But in case of current-controlled VSC the output current of the VSC is controlled. The
control of the active and reactive power outputs is achieved by controlling the output
current. By adjusting the magnitude and phase angle of the output voltage of the VSC
with respect to the grid voltage, current has been controlled. In a current controlled
VSC, the closed-loop current controller and grid synchronisation mechanism are the
two main control systems being used to integrate PV systems to the grid.

2.6 Grid-Connected PV System

Grid synchronization is mechanism, where VSC has been synchronize to grid. This
mechanism also used for generating an accurate current reference signal to inject the
desired amount of active and reactive power to grid. Method choose for synchro-
nization depending on application and type of current controller used. One of the

26
 Figure 2-6: shows Grid connected VSC with LCL filter and PV System [30].

simplest grid synchronization method is voltage zero crossing detection. Dynamic

performance of voltage zero crossing detection is quite low because it fails in the
presence of harmonics in the grid because of multiple zero crossings [40] [7]. For a
single-phase VSC, synchronous reference frame based PLL (s-PLL) has been used [7]
[4]. In this method, the peak value of the measured grid voltage can be obtained
easily.

27
28
Chapter 3

System Description and Modelling

of Grid Connected Photovoltaic
System

3.1 Array Modelling of Photovoltaic Systems

In this chapter simulation studies of the power converter is conducted in Simulink

platform. Di↵erent operational scenarios are discussed with their simulation results
to support the design objective of the system. The first part of this chapter defines the
key parts of the simulation model and the second part deals with simulation results.

3.1.1 Model of Photovoltaic Module

Equivalent circuit of solar cell with one diode and some equation has been discussed
in chapter 2. Equation which responsible for output current I and diode current Id ,
discussed in chapter 2. In this chapter, equation and mathematical equivalent circuit
has been derived for photovoltaic array.
The topologies are characterized to calculate several unknowns. It classified with
respect to total number of unknowns. Normally the single diode model is known
as five parameter model. And other one double diode is known as seven-parameter

29
model. Both model based three characteristic points of the current-voltage (I-V)
curve i.e. open-circuit condition, short-circuit condition, and MPP [26] [37]. Five
characteristics has been considered midway between MPP and open-circuit condition,
at one-half of the open circuit condition [18]. For these models, mathematical-based
equation has been used and cannot be used directly in a circuit simulator. Considering
the environmental conditions (ECs), mathematical models of a PV cell has been
derived. While designing model, parameters has been used usually available in Siliken
SLK72M6L manufacturers PV module datasheet [38].
Correct value of the parameters Rs , Rp , Isat , Iph under the actual ECs are not
available at all in the datasheets of the PV modules. This parameter can be used in
equation 3.2, after determining correct value of above parameter. Under standard test
condition short-circuit current (Isc ), open-circuit voltage (Voc ), voltage and current
in MPP (Vmpp & Impp ), maximum power (PM P P ), coefficients ( Isc ) (temperature
coefficient for the short circuit current) and ( Voc ) (temperature coefficient for the
open circuit voltage) these parameters are defined. Diode current can be neglected
and can be very small in comparison with Isc . Photo current Iph is equal to Isc current
can be expressed as each irradiation as cell temperature as,

V +IRs
I = Iph ID = Iph Isat [e Vt 1] (3.1)

Iph (Ga , T ) = Iscs ⇤ (Ga/Gas) ⇤ [1 + Isc ⇤ (T Ts )] (3.2)

Iscs : Short Circuit Current in Standard Test Conditions (STC)

Ga : Irradiance (W/m2 )
T : Cell Temperature (K)
Gas : Standard Irradiance (1000 W/m2 )
Ts : Standard Cell Temperature (298 K)
Isc : Short circuit current coefficient with temperature (1/K)
T is cell temperature obtained from weather condition. N OCT normal operation
cell temperature get by using the following expression:

30
 Ga
T = (Top ) + (N OCT (Tn )) ⇤ ( ) (3.3)
Gan

where Top : Operating Ambient Temperature (K)

Tn : Operating Normal Temperature (293 K)
Tn : Normal Irradiance (800 W/m2 )
In the open circuit situation, open circuit voltage can be calculated using equation
3.4.

Voc (T ) = Vocs + Voc (T Ts ) (3.4)

where,
Voc : Open Circuit Voltage (V)
Vocs : Open Circuit Voltage in STC (V)
Voc : Open Circuit Voltage Coefficient with Temperature (V/K)

Voc (T )
ID (Ga , T ) = Iph (Ga , T ) = Isat (Ga , T ) ⇤ [e Vt (T ) 1] (3.5)

T
Vt (T ) = A ⇤ K ⇤ (3.6)
q

Where equation 3.6 is the thermal temperature (V ), A the diode ideality factor,
q the charge of an electron and k the Bolztman constant. With equations 3.1 to 3.6
the operating point for each pair of irradiance Ga and room temperature Top can be
determined, once A and Rs are known.
Manufacturer of the solar module gives another parameter needed to model the
solar cells. The datasheet which gives the electrical characteristics is calculated under
standard test condition STC when the temperature T is 25 and the irradiance G is
1000 W/m2 .
Matlab Simulink I-V model has been constructed using all equation. Technical
characteristics sheet provided by manufacturer for monocrystalline SLK72M6L SI-
LIKEN panel given in table 3.1. Panel has series of 72 cells. The peak power per

31
 Table 3.1: Technical Characteristics for SILIKEN SLK72M6L

Parameter Value
Short circuit current Isc (A) 9.02
Open circuit voltage Voc 44.5
Current at maximum power point Imp 8.51
Voltage at maximum power point Vmp 35.8
Number of cells in series ns 6
05
Temperature coefficient of Isc 1.9780*10
05
Temperature coefficient of Voc -5.8608*10
Pmax (Wp) 305

panel 305 (W p) per panel, short circuit current coefficient, open circuit voltage co-
efficient with temperature and other parameter of panel measured in Standard Test
Condition (STC) given in table 3.1. For this experiment, 12 panel i.e. six set of
two array connected in parallel. In this case, array voltage and current have been
calculated from equation 3.1. This array voltage has been used as input to boost
converter.

3.1.2 Curves IV Characteristics of PV Array

The current to voltage characteristic of a solar array is non-linear, which makes it

difficult to determine the MPP. The Figure 3-1 & 3-2 gives the characteristic I-V and
P-V curve respectively for fixed level of solar irradiation and temperature.

Figure 3-1: I-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature & irradiance
[31] [38]

The characteristic I-V curve 3-1 shows that there are two regions in the curve: one
is the current source region and another is the voltage source region. In the voltage

32
Figure 3-2: P-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature & irradiance
[31]

source region (in the right side of the curve), the internal impedance is low and in the
current source region (in the left side of the curve), the impedance is high. Irradiance
& temperature plays an important role in predicting the I-V characteristic and e↵ects
of both factors should be considered while designing the PV system. Whereas the
irradiance a↵ects the output current, temperature mainly a↵ects the terminal voltage
[5] [30].

3.2 MPPT Algorithm

Nonlinear solar cell I-V characteristic changes with irradiation and temperature. It is
difficult to track unique point for the maximum power (PM P P ). With help of optimal
voltage Vmpp and the optimal current Impp , maximum power (PM P P ) has been located.
MPPT draws maximum power from the solar array regardless of weather or variations
in load conditions. There are diverse MPPT algorithms that have been manufacturing
for PV systems [9] [27].
Because of the simplicity in the algorithm, perturb and observe (P&O) method
has been identified as a simple MPPT algorithm. It needs only one sensor. The
P&O method has been identified as a slow tracking algorithm compared to other
available MPPT. In the occurrence of rapid variations of the environmental conditions,
it fails sometimes [8]. P&O method is not working properly in case of continuous
oscillations around the MPP. Other MPPT algorithm is the incremental conductance

33
(InC) method. As compared to P&O method, the InC method tracks the MPP quickly
and accurately [11]. InC method is working properly in case of continuous oscillations
around the MPP as compared to P&O method. It requires output current and voltage
feedback of the PV array needed to implement. The InC method is accurate, less
complex and easily implementable MPPT algorithm.
In P&O or InC method, firstly output voltage and current of PV module has
been measured. Then control parameter needs to be increased or decreased, once
PV power has been observed. Reference signal (voltage and current) or duty ratio
as controller for switching signal has been used for DC/DC converter. P&O MPPT
algorithm used in this thesis, does not require previous knowledge of the PV module
characteristics. DC-link capacitor has been calculated correctly to work MPPT al-
gorithm correctly. Switching frequency and step size has also been selected properly
as it a↵ecting algorithm. In section 3.2.1, searching algorithm, their flow chart and
theory has been discussed.

3.2.1 Perturbation & Observation

Figure 3-3: Flow chart for P& O [8]

34
 Perturb & Observe algorithm flow chart has given in the figure 3-3. It states that
when the operating voltage of the PV panel is perturbed by a small increment and if
the resulting change in power P is positive, then direction of MPP followed. Or else
keep on perturbing in the same direction. If P is negative, then direction of MPP not
followed. The sign of perturbation supplied must be changed in this case.

In this algorithm, voltage for PV array has been used as sensor. So, the cost
of implementation is less and hence easy to implement. The time complexity of this
algorithm is very less. By reaching very close to the MPP it does not stop at the MPP
and keeps on perturbing in both the directions. When the algorithm has reached very
close to the MPP and appropriate error limit has been set or can used a wait function.
It ends up increasing the time complexity of the algorithm.

Figure 3-4: Principle of P& O [8]

In figure 3-4, on the left of the MPP, while incrementing the PV voltage, power of
the PV increases. By decrementing the PV voltage, the power of the PV decreases.
On the right of MPP, incrementing the voltage decreases the power and decrementing
the voltage increases the power. To extract the maximum power from the PV module,
MPPT controller has been implemented. Detail explaination regarding Incremental
& Conductance method explained in reference [22] [8].

35
3.3 DC-DC Boost Converter Operation

Output voltage of boost converter is always greater than input voltage so it is also
called step up converter. Boost converter has high efficiency only for reasonable gains
and for low power values.

3.3.1 Mode 1:Operation of the Boost Converter

Inductor gets charged through the DC source i.e. PV panel and stores the energy,
when switch is closed as shown in figure 3-5. Inductor charges linearly because output
DC source is constant due to large C. The diode blocks the flowing current and so
the load current remains constant. Current is being supplied to load due to the
discharging of the capacitor. Selection of input capacitor, inductor, output capacitor
and load resistor explain in appendix A.1.

Figure 3-5: Circuit diagram of boost converter (mode 1) [32].

3.3.2 Mode 2:Operation of the Boost Converter

In mode 2, figure 3-6 the switch is open. So, the diode becomes short circuited. The
energy stored in the inductor gets discharged through opposite polarities. Discharging
of inductor charge the capacitor. Throughout the operation, the load current remains
constant. Boost converter works properly because output C is very large. Due to large
C, variations in current ripples do not a↵ect output voltage. Figure 3-7 shows the
waveforms for a boost converter.

36
 Figure 3-6: Circuit diagram of boost converter (mode 2)[32].

3.4 Modulation Technique of Single Phase Full Bridge

VSC

Figure 3-8 & 3-10 shows a simplified circuit diagram and output Voltage Waveform
of a Single-Phase H Bridge inverter. The logic behind the switching of the devices is
given below,

When S1 and S2 are turned on +Vdc is obtained at the output

When S3 and S4 are turned on -Vdc is obtained at the output
When S1 and S3 or S2 and S4 are turned on together zero voltage is obtained at the
output
Output voltage level changes between either 0 to -Vdc or from 0 to +Vdc in unipolar
switching scheme. Advantage of unipolar scheme is that, it has the e↵ect of doubling
the switching frequency as far as the output harmonics are concerned. Using bipolar
or unipolar modulation schemes, an AC output voltages Vab has been adjusted. In
thesis, unipolar modulation has been included for H Bridge inverter. In unipolar
scheme, the triangular carrier waveform is compared with two reference signals which
are positive and negative signal. The basic idea to produce SPWM with Unipolar
voltage switching is shown in figure 3-9. Output voltage switching characteristics
for unipolar switching shown in figure 3-11. Figure 3-12 shows the sine wave and
triangular wave control signals respectively. Detail explanation regarding unipolar
voltage switching signal is given in reference [12] [28] [17].

37
 Figure 3-7: Wave form of boost converters operation[32].

3.5 LCL Filter

The values of the inductors and the capacitor of the LCL filter of the PV system
3 3
shown in figure 3-13 were determined as Li = 3 ⇤ 10 H, Lg = 1.5 ⇤ 10 H and
6
Cf = 2.6 ⇤ 10 F, by following the design guidelines established in [1]. Resistances
of inductances Lf c and Lf g are assumed as Rf c = 0.5 Ohm. The total inductance of
the designed LCL filter is less than 0.1 pu (using a base - Sb = 5e4 kVA, Vb = 230 V)
and the resonant frequency, fres , is 10.7 kHz; less than 0.5fsw . A damping resistor
Rd = 1.5 Ohm, calculated as one third of the impedance of Cf at fres , is added in
series with Cf to improve the stability of the current controller [21]. Detail design for
LCL filter explain in appendix B.

38
 Figure 3-8: Output current for S1, S2 ON; S3, S4 OFF for t1 < t < t2 [32].

Figure 3-9: Unipolar PWM generator [12].

3.6 DC-link Capacitor

The output capacitance of a power converter is a vigorous part of the overall system.
It maintains the output voltage. It a↵ects stability of the regulator. The component
parameters are part of the feedback control loop. Using DC link capacitor value,
reference d and q axis current has been designed. These references has been used for
further PWM signal. The output capacitance determines the position the dominant
pole. It therefore a↵ects the stability boost converter. Output voltage ripple of the
converter has been a↵ected by output capacitor. The output voltage peak-to-peak
ripple Vdc given by equation 3.7.

P
Vdc = (3.7)
(Cdc ⇤ Vdc ⇤ !)

Practically, it is impossible to reduce DC-link voltage ripple to zero. Ideally in

simulation zero ripple has been observed for large capacitor value. There is always

39
 Figure 3-10: Output Voltage Waveform [32].

Figure 3-11: shows Waveform for SPWM with Unipolar voltage switching [25].

voltage ripple in DC link voltage of single phase VSC. It calculated to limit peak-peak
ripple of DC-link voltage. V dc is average 5 or 2 % of V dcavg . An excessively large
capacitor at the DC-link can reduce the DC-link voltage ripple almost to zero as per
3.7. But that is practically impossible and there is a limitation to the size of Cdc .
Hence there is a voltage ripple in the DC-link voltage of a single-phase VSC. The
capacitance of the DC-link capacitor of a single-phase VSC has been determined to
limit the peak-peak ripple of the DC-link voltage. The detailed design procedure of
the DC link capacitor described in appendix A.1.2. Vdcavg = 400 V, Vdc =0.05 * 400
=20 V. Selected Cdc =2.5 mF.

3.7 Control system in VSC

Grid synchronization is important feature of grid side converter control. Synchroniza-

tion algorithm can detect the phase angle of grid voltage to synchronize the delivered

40
Figure 3-12: shows Carrier and Reference Waveform for SPWM with Unipolar voltage
switching [25].

Figure 3-13: shows LCL filter [30].

power. This method is used to synchronize the inverter output current with the grid
voltage, to obtain a unity power factor. It has been developed to create a current
reference that consists of active and reactive components.
The design of the control system for the inverter has been divided into current
controller, DC voltage controller and grid synchronization. A schematic block diagram
of the controller is shown in figure 3-14. Current controller control AC current injected
into the grid and voltage controller control DC voltage. The single-phase feedback
current loop is used to regulate the grid current. The current controller loop and the
model as shown in figure 3-15.
Stationary reference frame component alpha has been created by delaying grid
voltage/current component using integer delay block in Simulink. And orthogonal
component beta has been created by further delaying alpha component. Grid angle
is calculated as shown in figure 3-18. Grid angle has been used in park transformation

41
 Figure 3-14: shows Schematic VSI including voltage and current control loop [43].

for calculation of DQ rotating reference frame component [43]. Figure 3-17 shows the
two orthogonal stationary component waveforms formed in the single-phase system.
It has been observed that V is e↵ective after 0.025 sec which represents a quarter-
cycle delay from V↵ .

DC-link film capacitor producing significant double line frequency ripple. Low
pass filter with 100 Hz cut o↵ frequency has been used to filter Vdcmsr . LPF min-
imises ripple. Error between measured and reference DC linked voltage has been pass
through PI to get Id reference current. Error between Idref and Idact has been again
passed through PI to get Vdref d-axis voltage. Vdqref dq-axis voltage has been further
used as feed forwarder. After final addition, Vdq(total) passed through Inverse Park

42
 Figure 3-15: shows Current control loop [43].

Figure 3-16: shows DC Voltage control loop [43].

transformation block i.e. DQ-↵ block. V ↵ is real part of this voltage has been used
for Unipolar SPWM. The feed-forward signal employed while generating SPWM to
minimize drawback of slow dynamic response of cascade control.
In thesis PI with pole zero cancellation has been designed in a DQ synchronous
frame. It can achieve zero steady state error at the fundamental frequency. It also im-
proves its dynamic response. But this method is not readily applicable to single-phase
power converters because there is only one phase variable. AB to DQ transformation
needs at least two orthogonal variables which do not have in case of single phase
power converter. Imaginary orthogonal circuit concept has been introduced to get
other variable. The imaginary Orthogonal Circuit has the same circuit components
and parameters e.g. power switches, inductors and capacitors. Imaginary circuit vari-
able like inductor current and capacitor voltage maintain 90 phase shift with respect
to their counterparts in Real circuit.
1
So, for simulation, 4
cycle delay method has been used. Stationary reference frame
have been constructed using delay method explain in figure 3-19. And then this alpha
and beta has been used as real and imaginary signal respectively to convert it into

43
Figure 3-17: shows MATLAB/SIMULINK results for real and imaginary phase wave-
forms [36].

Figure 3-18: shows Grid angle Calculation [36].

complex variable. This complex signal has been used to get grid angle and magnitude.
This grid angle has been used further for alpha-beta stationary reference signal to
rotating DQ reference signal. Grid angle has also been used in Park transformation
and Inverse Park tranaformation. At the fundamental frequency, controller can be
designed and easily implemented in the rotating DQ frame to achieve a theoretically
infinite control loop gain.

In coming section, discusion has been regarding construction of Imaginary Or-

thogonal circuit, controller design for the single-phase power converters in the DQ
rotating frame and final conversion of control signal from the rotating frame to the
stationary frame for the Real Circuit. Real circuit and its imaginary circuits shown
in figure 3-20.

44
Figure 3-19: shows Construction of the imaginary Orthogonal Circuit Variables [41].

Construction of Imaginary Orthogonal Circuit Variables

Imaginary Orthogonal Circuit does not physically exist; orthogonal Circuit variables
can be constructed by using the Real Circuit variables. Imaginary Orthogonal circuit
variable and the real Circuit variables has fixed 90 phase shift. Imaginary signal,
delay by quarter cycle using integer delay block in Matlab Simulink as shown in
figure 3-19. Real & Imaginary circuit variable is denoted by alpha & beta component
respectively.

Figure 3-21 shows that Imaginary Orthogonal Circuit is estimated from the Real
Circuit and it introduces the dynamics of a quarter cycle delay in this construction
process. In result shows that delay does not a↵ect the control accuracy in steady
state. It has guaranteed zero steady state error. As compared to conventional ap-
proach, dynamic response of the control is still much faster. In case of unknown or
variable fundamental frequency application, phase lock loop can be used to track the
line frequency. In case of Imaginary Orthogonal Circuit, PLL dynamics need to be
included.

DQ rotating frame for controller design is like that of DC-DC converters. Imag-
inary Circuit variables are build using the Real Circuit variables. Complex real and
imaginary block has been used in Matlab Simulink. Then complex to magnitude-
angle block, grid angle has been calculated which used in DQ transformation block.
Then, the variables in the RI stationary frame are transformed into the DQ rotating
frame. Then voltage and/or current signal designed in the rotating DQ frame has

45
 Figure 3-20: shows Real Circuit and its Imaginary Orthogonal Circuit [41].

been converted to real and imaginary stationary frame. For this conversion, inverse
transformation matrix has been used. Imaginary frame signal has been discarded.
Real signal as reference signal has been used for Unipolar modulation scheme. Trian-
gular signal has been used as carrier signal. Frequency of triangular signal is around
10 Khz.

46
Figure 3-21: shows DQ transformation using constructed Imaginary Orthogonal Cir-
cuit Variable for fixed fundamental frequency application [41].

47
48
Chapter 4

Simulation of Grid Connected

Photovoltaic System Using Matlab
/ Simulink

4.1 Simulation of Photovoltaic Array

MATLAB based model shown in figure 4-1.

Figure 4-1: shows Simulink block of the photovoltaic array [31].

This initial set up is used to obtain I-V, P-V curve. Then same model has been
used to obtain I-V and P-V curve by keeping irradiance or temperature constant. Ef-
fect on curve using both conditions has been observed. P-V model has been attached
to boost as well as Single phase full bridge inverter. Best value of Rs and Rp has

49
 Figure 4-2: shows I-V characteristic model [9].

been calculated to get maximum power point of PV. Model of photovoltaic array has
been implemented given in figure 4-2. Matlab Simulink model uses control current
source. Initially specified value of irradiance and temperature has been used. Six
panel in series has been used and set of six panel connected in parallel. So total 12
panel has been used. This has internal series cell around 72 per panel. In this number
of series and parallel set are denoted by ns and nm. Current I used for controlled
current source. Controlled current source using best value of Rs nad Rp for boost
converter has been used. Rs and Rp is the intrinsic series and shunt resistance re-
spectively. Value for Rs is very small and Rp is of very high value [3]. Irradiance and
temperature has been used as input for solar array to get output voltage and current.

4.2 Simulation Model of Boost Converter with MPPT

Controller
In boost converter model, output of photovoltaic array has been used as input for
boost converter. Boost converter can be used as switching mode regulators to convert
an unregulated dc voltage to a regulated dc output voltage. It is achieved by using
PWM at fixed frequency and IGBT. To maximize efficiency, the minimum oscillator
frequency should be about 100 times longer than the transistor switching time. The
switching loss in the transistor is limitation. The transistor switching loss increases
with the switching frequency. It decreases the efficiency as well. High frequency

50
operation is limited due to core loss. The PWM control signal for the dc converter is
used to get required output. Initially for open loop, pulse generator has been used to
control duty cycle. And in case of close loop boost converter, MPPT algorithm has
been used. Figure 4-3 shows PV array boost converter with MPPT algorithm.

Figure 4-3: shows Simulink model of the photovoltaic system with MPPT controller
& boost converter [31].

By tracking maximum power, efficiency for PV system has been increases at dif-
ferent environmental condition. MPPT has been used to extract the maximum power
from the solar PV module and transfer that to the load. That will achieve by con-
trolling duty cycle. In this case load impedance seen by source is varied which match
point of peak power with source. MPPT is not a mechanical tracking system that
physically moves panel. It is a fully electronic system that varies the electrical oper-
ating point of the modules to deliver maximum available power.

4.3 Simulation of Full Bridge and grid connected

Inverter with SPWM
Initially full bridge inverter has been tested in open loop. Power at input is equal
to power at output has been checked using simple pulse generator. To reduced dis-
tortion factor and lower order harmonics, width of each pulse is varied in proportion

51
 Figure 4-4: shows Simulink model of the Full Bridge VSC [31].

to the amplitude of a sine wave and is evaluated at the centre of the same pulse.
The frequency of reference signal determines the inverter output frequency and its
peak amplitude reference signal. Then it controls the modulation index m and Vrms
output voltage Vo . Carrier frequency control number of pulses per half cycle. In
PWM switching technique, DC input voltage is usually constant in magnitude. And
produced output AC voltage where magnitude and frequency can be controlled. Fre-
quency for trianguler wave is same as switching frequency and is kept constant.
Switching frequency of triangular wave controls speed at which the inverter switches
are turned o↵ and on. Modulation ratio ma is used to control duty cycle of one of
inverter switches. Duty cycle control based on comparison of reference (Vcontrol ) and
triangular carrier signal (Vtri ). The various frequency triangular carriers with di↵er-
ent amplitude modulation ratio SPWM signal had been programmed and tested in
single phase inverter. The two switches are never o↵ at the same time which results
to avoid output voltage fluctuation between ± V2dc .
Because of Unipolar switching, output voltage level changes between either 0 to -
Vdc or from 0 to +Vdc , this scheme has the e↵ect of doubling the switching frequency as
far as the output harmonics are concerned, compared to the bipolar switching scheme.
To generate an AC waveform in single-phase inverter, the switches S1, S2 ON or S3,
S4 on for respective period to get alternate positive as well as negative voltage. Two

52
switches in same leg should not be turn on at same time. Final sinusoidal fundamental
component as shown in figure 4-5. The load voltage is calculated by

Figure 4-5: shows Fundamental Component

Vo = Vdc For Period 0 < ⇥ < ⇡

Vo = Vdc For Period 0 < ⇥ < ⇡
The resulting output voltage has a fundamental alternating component. To avoid
short circuit, blanking time (dead time) across the DC bus has been introdused. The
blanking time introduces low order harmonics to the voltage of the output. That
is very difficult to filter out. The n-th harmonic of the output voltage is given by
Fourier analysis 4.1 [35].

cos(n↵)
Vn = 4 ⇤ Vdc (4.1)
n⇤⇡
n=1,2,3....
Where
↵: The blanking time along with the scale of each harmonic rests on it.
The angle ↵ decides magnitude of the harmonic. Harmonic has been reduced by
PWM technique. High frequency signal has been used to reduce number of filter.
The resulting output voltage include fundamental alternating component. Voltage
includes high frequency harmonics. The harmonics can be filtered with LCL filter
or by implementing appropriate modulation techniques. The instantaneous inductive
load current is given in 4.2 [35].

Vdc Vdc ⇡⇤R ⇤R

( !⇤L )
iload ( ) = (1 + tanh( ))e f or0 < <⇡ (4.2)
R R 2⇤!

Vdc Vdc ⇡⇤R (

( ⇡)⇤R
)
iload ( ) = (1 + tanh( ))e !⇤L f or0 < < 2⇡ (4.3)
R R 2⇤!
53
Figure 4-6 shows complete diagram for single stage Full bridge VSC.

Figure 4-6: shows Simulink model Single Phase Two stage Full Bridge VSC [31].

54
Chapter 5

Simulation Result

5.0.1 Simulation of PV with variation in Temperature & Ir-

radiance

Figure 5-1: I-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature but varying
irradiance [31]

The I-V & P-V curves shown in figure 5-1 & 5-2 respectively for various irradiance
but a fixed temperature (25 ). It has been observed that the open circuit voltage
decreases with increase in irradiance at a fixed temperature. Moreover, from the I-V
& P-V curves shown in figure 5-3 & 5-4 respectively at a fixed irradiance at 1000
W/m2 , it has been observed that the open circuit voltage decreases with increase in
temperature. From the I-V curve shown in figure 5-1, short circuit current has been
increases with increase in irradiance at a fixed temperature.

55
Figure 5-2: P-V characteristic of a solar array for a fixed temperature but varying
irradiance [31]

Figure 5-3: I-V Characteristic of a PV array under a fixed irradiance but varying
Temperatures [31]

5.0.2 E↵ect of Change in Irradiance for Photovoltaic output

Power, Voltage, Current, DC-link voltage & Active-
Reactive Power

The simulation is run at 0.6s. At the beginning, the irradiation is set at G=1000
W/m2 and at t=0.3 s a step change of irradiation to 600 W/m2 is performed. The
output power of the PV varies from 3.947 kW to 2.383 kW as shown in figure 5-5.
Though there is a variation of the irradiance, PV array operates at maximum power.
Figure 5-6 shows step change in output voltage of PV array with respect to change
in irradiance. The output voltage oscillates around the maximum power due to P&O
algorithm. Figure 5-7 shows step change in output current of PV array with respect
to change in irradiance. The PV array current Ipv reaches steady state after 0.002 s
shown in figure 5-8. Moreover, the current oscillates around the MPP. The current

56
Figure 5-4: P-V Characteristic of a PV array under a fixed irradiance but varying
Temperatures [31]

Figure 5-5: shows Step change in the Photovoltaic Power Output [31]

drops from 17.02 A to 10.41 A with respect to irradiance at 0.3s. At 600 W/m2
irradiances, current 10.41 A which is the maximum current of the PV array. Maximum
power almost track instantly by MPPT.
Figure 5-10 & 5-9 shows step change in grid voltage & current respectively of
Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter with respect to change in irradiance. Figure 5-11 &
5-12 shows change in DC link voltage & Active-Reactive power respectively of Single
Phase Full Bridge Inverter with respect to change in irradiance.

57
Figure 5-6: shows Step change in the Photovoltaic PV array Output Voltage [31]

Figure 5-7: shows Step change in the Photovoltaic PV array Output Current [31]

Figure 5-8: shows PV array current Ipv reaches steady state after 0.002 s [31]

58
Figure 5-9: shows Step change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter Grid Current
[31]

Figure 5-10: shows Step change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter Grid Voltage
[31]

Figure 5-11: shows change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter DC link Voltage
[31]

59
Figure 5-12: shows change in the Single Phase Full Bridge Inverter for Active-Reactive
Power [31]

60
Chapter 6

Conclusion & Future Work

6.1 Conclusion
With help of PV & IV curve shown in simulation, characteristics for voltage, current,
power has been verified and is the same as the characteristics given from the data
sheet. PV models output voltage & current vary with respect to change in irradiance
or temperature. Maximum power has been achieved irrespective of operation condi-
tion with help of Perturb & observe algorithm which can track maximum power point
of the PV array.
Whole single phase two stage full bridge grid connected DC-DC-AC inverter with
maximum point has been analysed and simulated. Finally, DC voltage generated by
PV array could produce AC sinusoidal current at output of inverter. Finally, PV
power decides, amplitude of current. SPWM (sinusoidal pulse width modulation)
unipolar technique and designed LCL filter has been used to get grid voltage and
current with less harmonics and distortion. To control DC link voltage and current,
current and voltage control loop has been used.

6.2 Future work

Following are the future scope of work:
⇤ Extensive simulation of the Single phase two stage grid connected photovoltaic

61
system should be done. To keep the boost converter output voltage constant, Perturb
and observation MPPT controller has been used. The fast-inner current loop with a
slower outer voltage loop are designed with help of LCL filter to eliminate harmonic.
For further improvement, this method can be used.
⇤ Single phase grid connected system can be used as a basic guideline when de-
signing the grid connected PV inverters and their controls 50Hz and 240V point of
common coupling (PCC) voltage.
⇤ With better control on active and reactive power, research on power management
can also be conducted for future work.
⇤ More advance voltage control techniques and operating and coordination strate-
gies developed with help of Thesis can be evaluated by carrying out simulation stud-
ies on PV systems integrated to three-phase four wire systems and to Distributed
resources (DR) for further development.
⇤ When PV system is integrated with a battery storage system, power curtailing
may not be necessary in certain situations. In future, it is beneficial to integrate
developed PV system with a battery storage systems.

62
Appendix A

A.1 Boost Converter

A.1.1 Selection of Inductor

The inductor determines the stability of the current sensor loop and the inductor
current ripple. The peak-to-peak inductor ripple current is inversely proportional
to the inductor value. There are two ways to calculate current ripple. To calculate
inductor, IL has been assumed to 5 % of the rated input current of the DC-DC
boost converter.

Assumed IL =0.51 for Best Result

Then Ldc has been calculated using below formula:

Vpv (Vdcavg Vpv )

LDC = (A.1)
IL fdc Vdcavg

Vdcavg = 400V Average DC-link voltage and

fdc = 10KHz Switching frequency of the DC-DC boost converter.
Vpv = 215 V Input voltage to the DC-DC boost converter i.e. PV array voltage.
IL = 0.51 Current ripple
Here PV system is operated at the rated capacity. Further, the rated capacity of the
DC-DC boost converter is 5 KW.
Calculated value of Ldc = 19.49 mH using equation A.1.
Best Selected value Ldc = 19 mH

63
A.1.2 Selection of Input Capacitor

Decoupling of the PV array or DC from AC side dynamics accomplished due imple-

mented control techniques nor due to large capacitor. Large value of capacitor allows
PV array to be decoupled from AC side. The capacitor Cpv was mainly utilised to
minimise the switching frequency ripple current that is drawn from the PV array and
switching frequency ripple voltage as well. That why smaller value of capacitor has
been used. Equation has been used to calculate Cpv .

Vpv D
Cpv = 2
(A.2)
4 ⇤ Vpv fdc Ldc
215
D=1 400
= 0.4625 Duty cycle of the DC-DC boost converter,
Vpv = 215 V Average voltage across the PV array,
Vpv =20 V Assume Switching ripple voltage of the PV array,
Ldc =19 ⇤ 10 3 H
fdc =10 kHz.
Calculated Cpv =0.621 µF implemented in PV system in order to limit Vpv .
Selected Best Value Cpv =0.584 µF

A.1.3 Selection of output Capacitor

Equation A.3 has been used for selection of boost converter output capacitor. It de-
pends on minimum ripple voltage. This output capacitor acts as DC link capacitor.

Since,
Pin = 215 ⇤ 17.02 = 3659.3W = Pout
Pout 3659.3
Iout = Vout
= 400
= 9.14825 A
Vload 400
Rload = Iout
= 9.14825
= 44 Ohm

Vload D 400 ⇤ 0.46

CDC = = = 21.02µF (A.3)
fs Rload Vload 10 ⇤ 103 ⇤ 44 ⇤ 20

CDC has been selected of higher value. So CDC = 2.5mF

64
 where Vload : output voltage of the boost converter
Vload : output ripple voltage
Due to variation in temperature and irradiance, output voltage of PV array also
varies. DC link capacitor is installed between the PV and the inverter to compensate
the variation of the output voltage of the PV. Proper selection of DC link capacitor
reduces voltage ripple and o↵er energy storage for short period of time.

65
66
Appendix B

B.1 LCL Filter

In LCL filter includes two inductors and capacitor connected in parallel i.e. per phase.
In above LCL filter Rf and Lg are grid side resistor and Inductor respectively. And
Ri and Li is inverter side inductor. In this Cf is parallel capacitor and Rd is resistor
for passive damping [15].

B.1.1 Basic Equation

The voltage at the output of the VSC, the voltage across Cf and Rd and the grid
voltage are v, vc and vg respectively. The output current of the VSC and the current
injected to the grid by the VSC are i and ig respectively. The grid voltage appears as
a short circuit for all the harmonic voltages created by the VSC as grid voltage. It is
assumed as a pure sinusoid at fundamental frequency, 0 f 0 . The harmonic number is
denoted by “\nh00 .

(ig (s)) Rd ⇤ C f s + 1
GLCL (s) = = (B.1)
v(s) As + Bs2 + Cs + D
3

Where A = Lf c ⇤ Lf g ⇤ Cf
B= (Lf c Rf g + Lf g Rf c + (Lf c + Lf g ) ⇤ Rd ) ⇤ Cf
C = (Rf g Rf c + Rf c Rd + Rf g Rd )Cf + Lf c + Lf g
D = Rf c + Rf g

67
 After neglecting resistance of each inductor,
(ig (s))
GLCL (s) = v(s)

Rd ⇤ C f s + 1
GLCL (s) = (B.2)
s(Lf c ⇤ Lf g ⇤ Cf s2 + (Lf c + Lf g ) ⇤ Rd ⇤ Cf s + Lf c + Lf g )

Further, if damping resistance is neglected;

ig (s) 1
GLCL (s) = = (B.3)
v(s) s(Lf c ⇤ Lf g ⇤ Cf s2 + Lf c + Lf g )

Equation B.3 can be presented as follows,

ig (s) 1
= (B.4)
v(s) s(Lf c ⇤ Lf g ⇤ Cf s2 + Lf c + Lf g )

Where

2 1
ZLC = Lf g ⇤Cf

and
2 Lf c +Lf g
!res = Lf c ⇤Lf g ⇤Cf

LCL filter has been designed to reduce switching ripple in grid current. In below
procedure, relationship between the converter side current and voltage has been de-
rived. There are two ways to design LCL filter any frequency. In first, assume filter
capacitance should be with very small impedance. Capacitor acts as short circuit as
frequency is higher than switching frequency of VSC, fsw .

i(s) 1
= (B.5)
v(s) sLf c

From equation B.3 and B.4;

ig (s) Z2
= 2 LC 2 (B.6)
i(s) S + !res

In other way, it has been derived in equation B.6. Grid voltage considered as short

68
 Table B.1: Specifications of the VSC

Parameter Value
Pr 5.4 KW
Vr 230
Vdc 400
f 50 Hz
fsw 25 KHz

circuit for harmonics. So, frequency is higher than switching frequency of VSC, fsw .

ig (s) Z2
= 2 LC 2 (B.7)
i(s) S + ZLC
It has been proved while analysing the performance of a designed LCL filter.
Defining base quantities for the VSC system.

Vr2
Zb = (B.8)
Pr2

1
Cb = (B.9)
! ⇤ Zb
Detail design procedure & constraints of LCL Filter explained in reference [24]
[23] [13] [2] [30].

B.1.2 Designing Procedure for 5 kVA Single-Phase VSC

Base values can be calculated as Zb = 9.8 and Cb = 325 F by using B.8 and B.9
respectively. The peak switching ripple current, ip through Lf c to a given value can
be obtained from B.10 [14] [10] to limit Lf c inductance. VSC has been modulated
with sinusoidal unipolar PWM and with the modulation index, ‘m’ is 0.5 < m < 1.
Then only equation B.10 will be valid.

Vdc
Lf c = (B.10)
16 ⇤ fsw ip
Lf c can be calculated as 300 µH using B.10. Switching ripple current attenuated
to 10 % of the rated peak current of the VSC i.e. 10%*33=3.3 A.

69
 Table B.2: LCL designed Filter Parameters

Parameter Value
Lf c 3 mH
Lf g 1.5 mH
Cf 2.6µF
Rd 1.5 ohm
f 50 Hz
fsw 25 KHz

Cf < 16.25µF as per constraint 1 given in Section [30]. Change of 0 r0 is not

significant when Cf > 2µF , detail explanation gven in [30]. Though capacitance of
Cf increased beyond 2µF , there will not be much reduction in the size of Lf g . So,
the Selected Cf = 2.6µF for designing the filter, to calculate value r. Lf g = 150µH
[30].
The resonant frequency of the LCL filter, fref is 10 kHz. The total inductance of
the LCL filter is 0.015 pu, if Lf c = 300µH and Lf g = 150µH and Cf = 2µF . This is
how constraints 2 and 3 are satisfied explained in [30]. Rd damping resistor is chosen
as one third of the impedance of the filter capacitor at 25 kHz. LCL designed filter
parameters for best result are given in table B.2. In detailed design for LCL filter has
been explain in [30] [15].

70
Appendix C

C.0.1 Selection DC-link Capacitor

Stored energy in Capacitor is given by below equation.

P
e(t) = ⇤ Sin(2!t) (C.1)
2⇤!

The di↵erence in the maximum and the minimum energy stored in Cdc , emax that
is the energy di↵erence when (2!t)= ⇡2 and (2!t)= - ⇡2 is given by

P
emax = (C.2)
!

The maximum and the minimum energy stored in Cdc causes the maximum and the
minimum voltages at Cdc since the voltage across a capacitor is proportional to the
stored energy in the capacitor. Therefore emax can be written in terms of the
maximum and the minimum DC-link voltages that are Vdcmin and Vdcmax respectively
as given in
1 2 2
emax = ⇤ Cdc ⇤ (Vdcmax Vdcmin ) (C.3)
2
An expression for the peak-peak 100 Hz DC-link voltage ripple, Vdc , can be derived
as given in (C.6) from (C.2) and (C.3). Equation (C.5), is the average DC-link voltage
of the VSC.
Vdc = Vdcmax Vdcmin (C.4)
(Vdcmax + Vdcmin )
Vdcavg = (C.5)
2
71
 P
Vdc = (C.6)
(Cdc ⇤ Vdc ⇤ !)
The capacitor at the DC-link should be large to reduce the DC-link voltage ripple
almost to zero as per (C.6). Practically it is not possible and there is a limitation
to the size of Cdc . But voltage ripple at DClink voltage of a single-phase VSC has
been controlled. The Vdc is 5 % of Vdcavg i.e. 20 V. With reference to value given
in table B.1, Cdc calculated 2.2 mF. Cdc selected best value 2.5 mF. Detailed design
procedure for DC-link capacitor has been explained in [30] [42] [16] [20] [33].

72
Appendix D

D.1 Data Sheet SLK72M6L

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Figure D-2: shows Data Sheet SLK72M6L. [19].

74
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