Lec 11 DELHI

SULTANATE II
• Khilji Dynasty (1290-1320 A.D)
• First ruler was Jalaluddin Khilji (1290-1296 A.D)
• His notable event was is attack on Devgiri in
Deccan
• He was killed by his own nephew Alauddin Khilji
• Jalauddin gave his political view that India cannot
be an Islamic state because most of the population
is Hindu. He further said the willing support of the
state is their people
Alauddin Khilji (1296-1315 A.D)
• He was a great conqueror with imperial ambitions
• He defeated the main Rajputa rulers of Rajasthan,
most probably Hamir Deva of Ranthambor in 1301
• He sent his Wazir Malik Qafur for the Deccan
campaign, between 1308-1312 and he defeated
the following rulers –
• Yadavas of Devagiri
• Kakatiyas of Warrangal
• Hoysalas of Dwarsamudra
• Pandyas of Madurai
• Thus, Alauddin ruled over whole of North India and
parts of south India
 Measures Against Nobility

• No intermixing among nobles without Sultan’s

permission
• No marriage alliance among nobles without
Sultan’s permission
• He prohibited drinking parties
• He established spying system
• Confiscation of lands and religious endowments
 Market Reforms
• Being a great empire builder Alauddin had to maintain a
large army
• Since he could not paid them a higher salary, he ensure that
the soldiers get on the essential items at a cheaper rate, for
this he introduced market reforms, i.e. Shahna-i-Mandi
• Separate markets opened fir food grains, clothes, horses, etc.
• Each market was placed under an officer called ‘Shahna’
• Below the Shahna, there were officers called ‘Barids’ who
checked the prices, weighs, and measures and sent daily
report to the sultan
• The price and standard of each commodity was fixed,
weights and measures were standardized, no hoardings were
allowed, punishment was liable on breaking the market rule
• It is suggested that market reforms were applied only in Delhi,
but even other cities where the soldiers were stationed had
the market regulation
 Military Reforms
• He started the practice of maintaining a descriptive
role of the soldiers called ‘Chehra’
• He started the practice of ‘Dagh’ means branding
of horses
• He pensioned off the old soldiers and recruited
young ones
• He ordered frequent expeditions to keep the army
in readiness
• Amir Khusrau flourished under him too
• He built the famous Alai Darwaza in front of Qutub
Minar
Tughlaq Dynasty (1320-1412)
 Tughlaq Dynasty
Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq (1320-1325)
• He persued a policy of military imperialism and
dispatched his son Jauna khan to capture Warrangal
which was completed in 1321
• Jauna Khan probably murdered his father by erecting a
pavilion in Delhi from which Ghiyasuddin fell to death
Muhammad Bin Tughlaq (1325-1351)
• Original name was Jauna Khan
• He was one of the remarkable rulers of his age
• He deeply read religion and philosophy and had a
critical and open mind
• He used to converse not only with Muslim mystics but
also with the Hindu yogis and jaina saints
 Measures Taken By MBT
Shifting of capital from Delhi to Daulatabad
• Delhi was not safe from Mongol attacks
• South India was not getting controlled from Delhi
Introduction of token currency:
• There was world wide shortage of silver, so in place of metallic
currency he introduced token currency made of bronze
• He was inspired by Chinese and Iranian rulers who had
introduced similar currencies
• This currency had same value as the silver currency
• However there was no state control over minting this currency
and fake coins were minted and flooded in the market
• He had to withdraw these currencies and pay to the victims of
fake currencies
Military Expedition
• Khurasan Expedition (Afghanistan): he raised a large
army for a year for this expedition, but finally dropped
the idea
• Qurachill (Uttarakhand) and Kangra Expedition: He
undertook these two expeditions in the hilly areas
without training his soldiers in mountain warfare
Increased Land revenue:
• He increased the land tax in the Ganga-Yamuna doab
region to 50% of the produce.
• He was not in favour of Alauddin Khilji’s policy of trying to
reduce the Khuts and Muqaddams (headmen in the
villages) to the position of ordinary cultivators
• This led to the revolt by the rich peasants and fleeing of
small peasants out of the town problem started due to
over-assessment
• Famine took place atleast for 6 years, some relief
measures were taken by him
• He set up a separate department called diwan-i-amir-
kohi
• Area was divided into blocs headed by an official whose
job was to extend cultivation by giving loans to the
cultivators and to induce them to cultivate superior crops
• Wheat in place of barley, sugarcane in place of wheat,
grapes and dates in place of sugarcane, etc.
• Scheme was failed because of inexperience, dishonesty
of people and using of money for personal use
• Large amount of money could not be recovered
• MBT died meanwhile and Firuz shah wrote up the loans
• MBT was defeated by his own actions as well as by the
rise of Vijayanagar and Bahmani kingdoms in Deccan
 Firozshah Tughlaq (1351-1388)
• He abolished a number of taxes and retained only those
sanctioned by Quran
• He improved irrigation by building five canals in
Haryana-Delhi regions
• He extended agricultural loans called ‘Taquavi’
• He founded a number of city like Firozabad, Fatehabad,
Jaunpur and Hissar
• He established a hospital in Delhi for poors, called ‘Daru-
shifa’
• He opened a department of charity called ‘Diwan-i-
Khairat’
• He also started a new department of slaves called
‘Diwan-i-Bandagan
• He repaired Qutub Minar and added the last storey to it
• Negative measures taken by him
• He imposed Jaziyah on Brahmans
• He destroyed a number of Hindu temples including
the famous Jagannath temple and Jwalamukhi
temple
• He revived the Jagir system i.e. alloting the land and
land rights to the nobles
• He organized his army in a feudal manner
Syed Dynasty (1412-1451)
• This dynasty placed its descent from Prophet
Mohammed and ruled for a short span of time
• The first ruler was Khizr Khan (1414-1421)
• Second ruler was Mubarak Shah (1421-1424)
• Third ruler was Muhammad Shah (1434-1443)
followed by Alam Shah (1434-1451)
 Lodhi Dynasty (1451-1526)
• They were Afghans, not Turks
• Bhalol Lodhi laid the foundation of this empire in 1451
and ruled till 1489
• Sikander Lodhi (1489-1517)
• For the first time Agra was made capital in 1505
• He introduced standard measurement of yard called
Sikander-i-Gaj, later on it was used by Mughals too
• Ibrahim Lodhi (1517-1526)
• He fought with the Rajput ruler of Mewar, Rana Sanga
• He was opposed by two Afghan rulers –
• Daulat Khan of Punjab who invited Babur against him
• Muhammad Lodhi of Bihar – he was defeated by Babur
in 1st battle of Panipat and killed
 Administration
• It was military and aristocratic administration
• No rule of succession existed
• There was no clear-cut division of provincial
administration
• Position of Sultan was central to entire administration
Sultan
• The Turkish rulers declared themselves as the deputy of
Caliph of Baghdad. This attached a prestige and power
to the new Muslim rulers in India
• Some of the Sultans even secured a certificate from
Caliph, called ‘mansur’ or investiture – Iltutmish, MBT,
Ferozshah Tughlaq
• Some Sultans like Balban, Mubarak Khilji ignored the
Caliph and declared themselves as sovereign rulers
• Balban commented about himself that he was shadow
of god – Nasir-mir-ul-Momen
 Central Administration
Diwan-i-Wazarat
• Headed by Wazir (head of revenue) who was next to
the Sultan
• Under him, two officers were working –
(a) Mushrif-i-Mamlik – accounting general
(b) Mustauf-i-Mamalik – Auditing general
Diwan-i-Ariz
• Headed by officer called Ariz-i-Mamalik
• Started by Balban and developed by Alauddin Khilji
• He was head of the military but not Commander-in-
Chief(Sultan was chief)
• He used to recruit army personnel, equipped them and
made payments, etc.
Diwan-i-Rasalat
• Head of the public charity and religious department
was the Sadr-us-sudur. Being Rasul of Sultan he
received appeals and complaints from public and
redressed their grievances
• Qazi-ul-Qaza – headed by Qazi and was a judicial
department
• Diwan-i-Insha – dealt with the state
correspondence. All the correspondence, formal or
confidential between the ruler and the sovereigns of
other states and with his subordinate officials were
dealt by this department
• Barids: Band of intelligence and post department
 Provincial Administration
• Iqta System: the land of the empire was divided into
several large and small tracts called Iqta and assigned
these Iqtas to his soldiers, officers and nobles
• In the beginning, an Iqta was based upon salary. Later,
under Firoz Shah Tughlaq it became hereditary.
• Iqta means land or land revenue assigned to an
individual on certain conditions.
• Iqta was flourished under an officer called Muqti or wali
• It was further divided into Shiqs (dist. Administration)
headed by shiqdar
• Shiqs were further divided into Pargana which was
headed by Amil
• Village Administration: Khut (landowner), Muqaddam
(headmen) and Patwari (accountant)
 Taxes
• Taxes were imposed which were mentioned in Quran
Jaziah
• Tax imposed on non-Muslims which gave them status of Zimmi
• However, Brahmansa, children, women and poor were
exempted
Zakah
• This was imposed on rich Muslims who helped the poor
Muslims
• Rich Muslims had to pay 1/40th part of the produce which was
used to help poor ones
• Kharaj: it was tax levied on agrarian land owned by non-
Muslims
• Khum: khums are an Islamic tax applied on profits or a surplus
of income, "legitimate wealth which is mixed with some
illegitimate wealth," mines and minerals, precious stones,
treasure, "spoils of war" and land purchased by a non-believer
 Architecture
INDO-ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE
• How Indo-Islamic Architecture emerged in India
• In the 7th and 8th centuries CE, Islam spread towards Spain and India. Islam
came to India particularly with merchants, traders, holy men and
conquerors over a passage of 600 years
• The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture
in India. With the coming of Muslims to India, many new features and
techniques came to be introduced in buildings.
• By 8th C, Muslims had begun to construct in Sindh, Gujarat, etc. by 13th C
only a large scale building activity started taking place by Turkish state
established after the Turkish conquests of northern India
• By 12th C certain techniques and embellishments were prevalent and
popular in India like trabeation (use of beam), brackets and multiple pillars
to support a flat roof or a shallow dome. While arches were shaped in
wood and stone
• The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be
called the Indo-Islamic Architecture or Indo-Saracenic or the Indian
Architecture influenced by Islamic Art.
• The Indo-Islamic style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. It was a
combination of Islamic architecture elements to those of the Indian
architecture.
• Features of Indo-Islamic Architecture
• Use of Arch and Dome gained prominence
during these periods which is known as
‘Arcuade’ style of architecture replaced the
‘trabeate style’
• Uses of minars around mosque and mausoleums
• Mortar was used as connecting agent
• Avoided the use of human and animal figures
on the walls
• Spaciousness, massiveness and breadth unlike
hindu architecture which looks more congestive
• Use of calligraphy were replaced the sculptures
used in Hindu style of architecture
• Arbesque method was used for decoration –
use of geometrical vegetal ornamentation –
leafy structures
• Intricate ‘jali work’ in buildings – importance of
light and cooling effect
• Use of water tank in the premises of
constructions in the form of courtyard pools,
fountains and small drains. Three purposes were
there: - religious, cooling the premises and
decoration
• Difference between trabeate and arcuade styles
 Imperial Style
Slave Dynasty (1206-1290) AD
• Remodeling of existing Hindu structures:
Teachings from the Holy Quran and various
floral patterns are visible in the arches while
swastika, lotus, bells and other Hindu motifs
used largely by the sultans form parts of other
embellishments of the palaces.
• The ‘Qutb Complex’ comprising of a number of
historically significant monuments and buildings
is one of the foremost examples of Indo-Islamic
architecture. Some of the important
constructions of the complex include the ‘Qutb
Minar’, the ‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque’, the
‘Tomb of Iltutmish’, etc.
• ‘Qutb Minar’ - The 73 m (240 ft.) colossal tower
called ‘Qutb Minar’ made of red sandstone
and marble located within the complex stands
not only as the highest brick minaret in the
world but it is also as one of the most famous
tourist attractions in India.
• Construction of this UNESCO World Heritage Site
was initiated by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, the founder
of the Mamluk Dynasty in Delhi, in 1200 AD and
completed by his successor and son-in-law
Iltutmish in 1220 AD.
• This minaret was dedicated by Aibak to the
Muslim Sufi mystic saint and
• ‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque’ – Originally was a
Jaina temple, converted into a mosque. It is
regarded as the first mosque built in India;
• Its construction was delegated by Aibak, which
started in 1193 and completed in 1197.
• Twenty seven Hindu temples, shafts of which
adorn the inner and outer courtyard of this
Jami Masjid, were demolished to construct it.
• A provocative inscription etched over its
eastern gate justifies the presence of typical
Hindu embellishments in a Muslim mosque.
• Adhai-din-ka-Jhopra, Ajmer: Originally a
Sanskrita college, converted into a mosque by
Qutub-ud-din-Aibak
• Khalji Dynasty:
• Ruled from 1290-1320 AD and established a
Seljuk style of architecture
• Red sandstone was used in the construction
• Construction of ‘Arcuade’ style began from this
period
• Mortar began to use as a cementing agent
• Examples are Alai Darwaza by Alaud-din-Khilji
and Siri Fort, etc
• Khalji Dynasty:
• Ruled from 1290-1320 AD and established
a Seljuk style of architecture
• Red sandstone was used in the
construction
• Construction of ‘Arcuade’ style began
from this period
• Mortar began to use as a cementing
agent
• Examples are Alai Darwaza by Alaud-din-
Khilji and Siri Fort, etc
• ‘Alai Darwaza’ - Another brilliant example
of Indo-Islamic architecture is the
magnificent ‘Alai Darwaza’ within the
complex that forms the central gateway
from the southern side of the mosque.
• Built in 1311 AD by Ala-ud-din Khilji, the
second Khilji Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate,
the gateway built of red sandstone and
white marble stands as the first ever
structure in India that incorporated
principles of Islamic architecture, both in
its construction and decoration.
• Tughluq Dynasty
• Use of grey sandstone in the
construction of building
• They focused more on the strength of
the building, less emphasized on the
decoration, also marked as the crisis
period for architectures
• Combination of arch and lintel
method of entrance designs are used
• Introduces ‘batter system’ meaning
sloping walls to give more strength to
the building
• The fortified city of Tughlaqabad built
by emperor Ghiyas-ud-Din-Tughluq;
the medieval city of Delhi called
Jahanpanah and the ‘Adilabad Fort’
built by Muhammad bin Tughlaq, son
of Ghiyas- ud- Din Tughluq; and the
Ferozabad fort and palace
constructed by Firoz Shah Tughlug,
successor of Muhammad bin Tughlaq,
marks the architectural style of the
Tughlug dynasty.
• Lodhi Dynasty
• Tombs were commissioned in
the architecture by this time
• Introduction of double dome.
Reason of double dome
structure were to give strength
to the building and lower the
inner height of dome
• Tombs were hard and bare –
without lavish decorations
• Built in octagonal shape –
diameter of roughly 15m
supported by sloping
verandah
• Ex. Lodhi garden, Delhi, Agra
city established by Sikander
Lodhi