GS1 Final

INSIGHTSIAS
IA SIMPLIFYING IAS EXAM PREPARATION
INSTA SECURE SYNOPSIS

MAINS MISSION - 2022
GS- I
FEBRUARY 2022
www.insightsactivelearn.com | www.insightsonindia.com
NOTE: Please remember that following ‘answers’ are NOT ‘model answers’. They
are NOT synopsis too if we go by definition of the term. What we are providing is
content that both meets demand of the question and at the same time gives you
extra points in the form of background information.
Table of Contents
Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and Architecture from ancient to
modern times. ................................................................................................................................... 6
Megalithic Culture of India provides a fascinating glimpse into India’s prehistoric past. Highlighting
the importance of Megaliths, discuss steps needed to safeguard these fast-disappearing
monuments. (250 words)............................................................................................................... 6
Cave Paintings trigger the imagination, acting like a time machine across the memory lane of
human evolution. Discuss in context of prehistoric cave paintings in India. 150 words ................... 9
Analyze the various conditions that made it possible for the Indus Valley Civilization to grow and
flourish in the Indian subcontinent. (150 Words). ........................................................................ 11
In what ways do the discoveries made in Harappan civilization help us to understand its economy?
(250 Words) ................................................................................................................................ 13
Delineate the changes that were witnessed from early Vedic period to the later Vedic period in
the Indian society. (250 words) .................................................................................................... 14
Buddhism originated as an alternative tradition to the excessive importance given to rituals and
sacrifices in Vedic tradition. Examine. (250 words)....................................................................... 16
Discuss the short term and long-term cultural impact of Iranian and Macedonian invasions on
India. (250 words) ........................................................................................................................ 18
In general, Jain art broadly follows the contemporary style of Indian Buddhist and Hindu art,
though the iconography and the functional layout of temple buildings reflects specific Jain needs.
Examine. (250 words) .................................................................................................................. 20
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Assess the development of science and technology during the Gupta age. Can Gupta age be
considered as high watermark of scientific development in ancient India? Comment. (250 words)
.................................................................................................................................................... 22
Elaborate the contributions of Pallava rulers towards the growth and development of temple
architecture of India. (250 words) ................................................................................................ 23
Several walks of Indian life were greatly affected by the Turkish conquest. Throw light on its socio-
cultural impact. (250 words) ........................................................................................................ 25
Works of art give us an insight into how the society relates itself to its surroundings. Elaborate in
light of Harappan art. (250 words) ............................................................................................... 27
Even though Vijayanagara period is often claimed as the Golden Age of Telugu literature, an
equally great number of works were written in Tamil, Kannada and Sanskrit too. Discuss. (250
words) ......................................................................................................................................... 29
What is a Stupa? Discuss the main characteristics of a Stupa. Trace the development of Stupa
architecture during post-Mauryan age. (250 words) .................................................................... 32
Elaborate upon the various features of Nagara style of architecture. Also, throw light on various
sub-types and sub-schools of Nagara style. (250 words) .............................................................. 35
What were the factors and forces behind the rise of Bhakti movement in India? Throw light of
nature of Bhakti movement in south India. (250 words)............................................................... 38
The crafts of India have been part of its culture since time immemorial but the roots of these
crafts are on a decline. Substantial efforts are needed for their preservation. Comment. (250
words) ......................................................................................................................................... 42
Examine the reasons as to why the Indian handicrafts that had made the country famous,
collapsed under the colonial rule. (250 words) ............................................................................. 44
During the struggle for India’s Independence the artists from Bengal protested against British way
of art. They looked towards the eastern culture for their ideas, techniques and inspiration.
Elaborate. (250 words) ................................................................................................................ 47
Mughal painting is a style of miniature painting that developed in the northern Indian
subcontinent in the sixteenth century and is known for its sophisticated techniques and diverse
range of subjects and themes. Comment. (250 words) ................................................................ 48
Though separated by short distances, the pictorial styles that emerged and evolved in various sub-
schools of Rajput style of paintings were significantly diverse in terms of execution. Discuss. (250
words) ......................................................................................................................................... 52
Rukmini Devi Arundale catalyzed the renaissance of the Bharatanatyam dance form, to preserve
and popularize it and other Indian traditions. Elaborate. (250 words) .......................................... 57
The sculptural art of the Indus valley shows that artists of that time surely had fine artistic
sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Discuss. (250 words) ........................................................... 58
Gandhara School sculpture represents Greco-Buddhist art which is fine and realistic as the
sculptures display quite a sophisticated iconography in an advanced style. Elaborate. (250 words)
.................................................................................................................................................... 60
Puppetry is one of the most ancient forms of entertainment that combines all the elements of
performing arts as well as visual art such as painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama etc.
Elaborate. (250 words) ................................................................................................................ 62

Folk art forms of India are a manifestation of cultural diversity with regional specializations.
Discuss. (250 words) .................................................................................................................... 64
Several walks of Indian life were greatly affected by the Turkish conquest. Throw light on its socio-
cultural impact. (150 words, 10 marks) ........................................................................................ 66
The Mughal architecture evolved in a phased manner, reached its Zenith and attained its climax
under Shahjahan. Elaborate. (150 words, 10 marks) .................................................................... 67
The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors /contributions from different
parts of the country. ........................................................................................................................ 69
Enumerating the essential elements of Gandhi’s political and social philosophy, discuss his various
contributions as an important figure of Indian and world history. (250 words) ............................ 69
During the struggle for India’s Independence the artists from Bengal protested against British way
of art. They looked towards the eastern culture for their ideas, techniques and inspiration.
Elaborate. (250 words,15 marks) ................................................................................................. 71
Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India. ........................................................................ 74
In India, prejudices and differences and how they project onto politics co-exist alongside valuing
diversity. Alternative ideas, inclusionary narratives exist even if the corresponding politics does
not. Comment. (250 words) ......................................................................................................... 74
Has religion increased the social cohesiveness in Indian society? Argue (150 Words) ................... 77
Delineate the changes that were witnessed from early Vedic period to the later Vedic period in
the Indian society. (150 words) .................................................................................................... 78
Tribal languages are a treasure trove of knowledge about a region’s flora, fauna and medicinal
plants. However, when a language declines, that knowledge system is completely gone. Suggest
steps to safeguard these endangered languages. (250 words) ..................................................... 79
Role of women and women’s organization; population and associated issues, poverty and
developmental issues, ..................................................................................................................... 81
Gender norms and patriarchal attitudes continue to govern the reproductive rights and
contraception choices of women. Fostering better informed and healthier reproductive behaviour
among women must be the way forward to address this issue. (250 words, 15 marks) ................ 81
Effects of globalization on Indian society ......................................................................................... 83
Discuss the various implications of using digital currencies on Indian Society? (250 Words) ......... 83
Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism. ..................................................... 85
Has religion increased the social cohesiveness in Indian society? Argue (250 Words) ................... 85
The path to true inclusion of LGBTIA+ community begins with putting an end to violence and
harassment against them and beginning sensitization about them among the echelons of the
society. Discuss. (250 words) ....................................................................................................... 87


Indian culture will cover the salient aspects of Art Forms, Literature and
Architecture from ancient to modern times.
Megalithic Culture of India provides a fascinating glimpse into India’s prehistoric past.
Highlighting the importance of Megaliths, discuss steps needed to safeguard these
fast-disappearing monuments. (250 words)
Introduction
A megalith is a stone which is larger in size and has been used to construct a monument or a
structure. The monument or the structure has been constructed either alone or together with other
stones. Megalithic has been used to describe buildings built by people living in many different
periods from many parts of the world. The construction of this type of structures took place mainly
in the Neolithic and continued into the Chalcolithic Age, Bronze Age and Iron Age.
Body:

Important megalithic sites: Adichannalur, T. Narasipur, Jadigenahalli, Hallur, Chandravalli,

Brahmagiri and Maski etc.
Importance of Megaliths
 Megaliths are a vital element of landscape and for historical reasons they are a sui generis
monument, commemorating prehistorical cultures.
 Burial practices: Megaliths were constructed either as burial sites or commemorative (non-
sepulchral) memorials. This helps identify various communities and contact between them
by comparing burial practices.
 Socio-religious beliefs: Goods of daily use have been found in megaliths used as graves. This
reflects the belief of megalith people in life after death and belief in existence of soul.
 Economic life: Goods related to hunting are found more as compared to agriculture. This
signifies the fact that megalith people were hunter gatherers and did not practice advanced
agriculture. Evidences of seeds of rice, wheat, millet, Barley, Pea etc. have been found in
Megaliths.
 Polity: Fact that megalith construction required efforts of a group of people points towards
an organized polity. Also these were not built for commoners. They signify the emergence of
a ruling class.
 Technology: The range of iron artifacts recovered indicate that the megalithic people
practiced a wide range of occupations and included carpenters, cobblers, bamboo
craftsmen, lapidaries engaged in gemstone work, blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths,
proof of complex social organization.
 Megaliths find mention in Sangam literature and Buddhist work Manimeklai.
 At the same time, along with the remaining elements of the natural and cultural
environment, they create a unique image of place identity, attracting large numbers of
tourists.
steps needed to safeguard these fast-disappearing monuments
 Belying their historical significance, megalithic burial sites today are found in various states
of neglect.
 Governments should build megalithic parks to help preserve these fast-disappearing

monuments.
 The threats of encroachment and destruction should be warded off by classifying them as
monuments of importance by ASI and development of no-construction zones in 200m radius
of the monuments
 AMASR act should be implemented in true letter and spirit to safeguards these treasure
troves of history of our ancestors.
 Funds from CSR and schemes like Hamari Dharohar should be implemented.
 The local self-governments should be given the responsibility of developing eco-tourism

which could help their income as well as safeguard the monuments.

Conclusion:
Prehistoric Megaliths or large stone constructions dating before the advent of written history are
found in huge numbers in all parts of India. Their economy was primarily subsistent economy.
Value addition
Megalithic economy:
 Agriculture:
o It was agriculture was the basis of their economy. Megalith builders made it possible
for the introduction of the advance methods of agriculture on a large scale, based on
irrigation.
o Major crops: The archaeological evidence indicates the cultivation of Rice, Ragi,
Navane, Wheat, Kodo millet, Barley, Hyacinth bean, Horse gram, Black gram, Green
gram, Common pea, Pigeon pea, Grass pea, Jobs tears, Indian jujube, Goosefoot
(Fathen), Lentil, Cotton, etc. in the megalithic period of South India.
 Pastoralism:
o Animals like cattle, sheep/goat, dog, pig, horse, buffalo, fowl, ass, etc. were
domesticated on a large scale.
o The occurrence of the remains of domesticated pig and fowl suggests pig rearing and
poultry farming on a small scale at many of the sites.
 Hunting and gathering:
o Hunting was an additional source of the food supply.
o The equipment used for hunting were arrowheads, spears and javelins etc.
o The major animals hunted were Wild boar, Hyena, Barking deer, Sambar, Chital,
Nilgai, Peacock, Leopard, Tiger, Cheetah, Sloth bear, Wild hog, fowl, etc. The animals
are identified from their skeletal remains.
 Fishing:
o The archaeological evidence such as the skeletal remains of fish and the equipment
used for fishing like terracotta net sinkers from Takalghat and fish-hooks from Khapa
and Tangal show that Megalithic people also practiced fishing.
 Arts and crafts:
o The major activities were pottery making, lapidary, smithery, carpentry, basketry
and stone cutting etc.
o Major Metals: iron, copper, gold, silver etc.

o The archaeological evidence The major implements are axes, ploughshares, hoes,
sickles, spades, etc.
o Carpentry: axes, chisels, wedges, adzes, anvil, borers, hammer stones, etc. were the
major tools.

o Pottery: The major pottery of megalithic culture are black-and-red ware (BRW),
burnished black ware, red ware, micaccous red ware, grey ware, russet coated
painted ware (RCPW), etc.
o Other crafts: Bead making, Mat weaving, Stone cutting, Terracotta making, Rock
art, etc.
Cave Paintings trigger the imagination, acting like a time machine across the memory
lane of human evolution. Discuss in context of prehistoric cave paintings in India. 150
words
Introduction
In India Bhimbetka caves surrounded by the northern boundaries of Vindhya Mountain ranges near
Bhopal have more than 600 caves that have the oldest prehistoric paintings in India. These caves had
been used as a shelter by people from the earliest periods. There are paintings of all periods starting
from the Paleolithic era to the medieval era. The paintings turn out to be a mirror showing evolution
of humanity through time.
Body
Rock paintings in India
Upper Paleolithic
Prehistoric paintings have been found in many parts of the world. There is no proof if Lower
Paleolithic people ever produced any art objects. But by the Upper Paleolithic times we see a
proliferation of artistic activities.
 Around the world, the walls of many caves of this time are full of finely carved and painted
pictures of animals which the cave-dwellers hunted. The subjects of their drawings
were human figures, human activities, geometric designs and symbols.
 In India the earliest paintings have been reported from the Upper Paleolithic times.
 The paintings of the Upper Paleolithic phase are linear representations, in green and dark
red, of huge animal figures, such as Bisons, elephants, tigers, rhinos and boars besides stick-
like human figures.
 The rock shelters on banks of the River Suyal at Lakhudiyar, about twenty kilometers on
the Almora– Barechina road, bear these prehistoric paintings.
 The richest paintings are reported from the Vindhya ranges of Madhya Pradesh and their
Kaimurean extensions into Uttar Pradesh. These hill ranges are full of Paleolithic and
Mesolithic remains, and they are also full of forests, wild plants, fruits, streams and creeks,
thus a perfect place for Stone Age people to live.
 Bhimbetka : The themes of paintings found here are of great variety, ranging from mundane
events of daily life in those times to sacred and royal images. These include hunting,
dancing, music, horse and elephant riders, animal fighting, honey collection, decoration of
bodies, and other household scenes.
There is a superimposition of paintings in Bhimbetka from all the three periods.

Mesolithic Painting
 The largest number of paintings belong to Period II that covers the Mesolithic paintings.
During this period the themes multiply but the paintings are smaller in size.
 Hunting scenes predominate during this period. The hunting scenes depict people hunting in
groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed sticks, arrows and bows. In some paintings these
primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to catch animals. The hunters are
shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments.
 The hunting scenes depict people hunting in groups, armed with barbed spears, pointed
sticks, arrows and bows.
o In some paintings these primitive men are shown with traps and snares probably to
catch animals. The hunters are shown wearing simple clothes and ornaments.
 Sites: Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu

in Karnataka.
Chalcolithic Painting
 The paintings of this period reveal the association, contact, and mutual exchange of
requirements of the cave dwellers of this area with settled agricultural communities of the
Malwa plains.
 Many a time Chalcolithic ceramics and rock paintings bear common motifs, e.g., cross-
hatched squares, lattices.
 The artists of Bhimbetka used many colours, including various shades of white, yellow,
orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green and black.
 The paintings, though from the remote past, do not lack pictorial quality. Despite various
limitations such as acute working conditions, inadequate tools, materials, etc., there is a
charm of simple rendering of scenes of the environment in which the artists lived.
 The men shown in them appear adventurous and rejoicing in their lives. The animals are
shown more youthful and majestic than perhaps they actually were. The primitive artists
seem to possess an intrinsic passion for storytelling.
 In one of the scenes, a group of people have been shown hunting a bison. In the process,
some injured men are depicted lying scattered on the ground. In another scene, an animal is
shown in the agony of death and the men are depicted dancing.
It is interesting to note that at many rock-art sites often a new painting is painted on top of an older
painting. At Bhimbetka, in some places, there are as many as 20 layers of paintings, one on top of
another.
Significance of prehistoric paintings in India
 The way people lived in those times is difficult to surmise. It was only until scholars began to
discover the places where prehistoric people lived.
 Excavation at these places brought to light old tools, pottery, habitats, bones of ancient
human beings and animals, and drawings on cave walls.

 By piecing together the information deduced from these objects and the cave drawings,
scholars have constructed fairly accurate knowledge about what happened and how people
lived in prehistoric times.
 These prehistoric paintings help us to understand about early human beings, their lifestyle,
their food habits, their daily activities and, above all, they help us understand their mind—
the way they thought.
 Prehistoric period remains are a great witness to the evolution of human civilization,
through the numerous rock weapons, tools, ceramics and bones.
More than anything else, the rock paintings are the greatest wealth the primitive human beings of
this period left behind.
Conclusion
Prehistoric paintings are a lens through which Archeologists have been able to predict the evolution
of human kind with more accuracy. Various tools, objects and paintings tell us the type of social
background of the people. It helps in verifying the social Darwinism as well as the growth trajectory
of our ancestors. It is very important to preserve these sites, that have immense information stored
through means of paintings.
Analyze the various conditions that made it possible for the Indus Valley Civilization to
grow and flourish in the Indian subcontinent. (150 Words).
Difficulty level: Easy
Reference: NCERT
Why the question:
The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and mentioned as part of
Mission-2022 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question:
Write about various conditions prevailing during Indus Valley Civilization which led to its growth in
Indian Subcontinent.
Directive word:
Analyse – When asked to analyse, you must examine methodically the structure or nature of the
topic by separating it into component parts and present them in a summary.
Structure of the answer:
Introduction:
Provide basic details regarding IVC in a brief manner.
Body:
Highlight the various conditions that made IVC grow and flourish in the region.
1st mention about conditions which aided in its growth. E.g. Geographical factors, social, economic,
etc.
Try to substantiate your points with examples.
Briefly, mention theories on how these factors might be responsible for the decline of IVC in later
phases.
Conclusion:
Conclude with relevant closing statement by giving its present relevance.
Introduction
The Indus Valley Civilization was discovered in 1920–22 when two of its most important sites were
excavated. These were Harappa on the banks of the river Ravi and Mohenjodaro on the banks of the

Indus. It flourished around 2,500 BC, in the western part of South Asia, in contemporary Pakistan
and Western India.
Body
The Indus Valley Civilisation flourished in the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, in the
region around north Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, and more prominently in the areas around the
Indus river in Pakistan, for about 1,500 years between 3000 and 1500 BC. Its most glorious phase
was the 600-700 years between 2600 and 1900 BC, which saw the emergence of some of the most
modern and mature townships of that era, like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, and Rakhigarhi.
The various conditions that made it possible for the Indus Valley Civilization to grow and flourish in
the Indian subcontinent are
 The Harappan civilization did not appear all of a sudden. It developed gradually from earlier
Neolithic village cultures.
 There are plenty of geological and climatic studies that point to good rainfall patterns in that
area in those times.
 It is believed that the better technology to exploit the fertile plains of river Indus might
have resulted in increased agricultural production.
 The highly cultured Harappans understood cereal-growing skills, and wheat and barley were
their primary diet.
 This led to the production of larger surplus to feed and maintain non-agricultural people
such as artisans, administrators, etc.
 It also helped in the promotion of exchange or trading contacts with distant regions.
 It brought prosperity to the Harappan people and they were able to set up cities.
 The Indus Valley civilization was essentially an urban civilization, and people lived in well-
planned and well-built cities, which were also centres of commerce.
 Mohenjodaro and Harappa’s remains indicate great commercial cities-perfectly planned,

carefully constructed, and well cared about. They had large roadways and well-developed
drainage. The homes featured baked bricks and two or more stories.
 The ancient Indus systems of sewage and drainage developed and used in cities throughout
the Indus region were far more advanced than any found in contemporary urban sites in the
Middle East and even more efficient than those in many areas of Pakistan and India today.
 It is widely believed that the Harappan civilization was a peaceful one that did not engage in
any warfare, but there is not conclusive evidence to support this belief, and some
archaeologists consider it a pervasive myth.
 Harappans demonstrated advanced architecture with dockyards, granaries, warehouses,
brick platforms, and protective walls. These massive walls likely protected the Harappans
from floods and may have deterred military conflicts.
Conclusion

The decline and disintegration of the Indus Valley Civilisation are attributed to several reasons —
climatic, tectonic, and even social. There are varying degrees of evidence to support these.
In what ways do the discoveries made in Harappan civilization help us to understand

its economy? (250 Words)
Difficulty level: Moderate
Reference: NCERT
Why the question:
Write about various discoveries of Harappan Civilization and how they helped us to understand its
economy.
Introduction:
A brief about the Harappan Civilisation and its flourishing economy.
Body:
Enumerate various discoveries made and objects found and how they reflect different dimensions of
the economy. E.g.
Standardized bricks and weights and measure: Shows prevalence of centralized regulatory
apparatus
Town Planning: Shows importance given to planning in Harappan economy
Ports at Lothal: Shows the vibrant trade and commerce
Circular seals of Mesopotamia: Show its economy was connected with other civilization
Conclusion:
Conclude with the present relevance of the Harappan Economy.
Introduction
Harappan civilization forms an important landmark in the prehistory of the Indian subcontinent. The
Indus civilization takes its place with its contemporaries in Mesopotamia and Egypt as the earliest
civilizations in the Near East/South Asia. The civilization offers an excellent example to the modern
world in various ways. Their expertise in town planning, water management and harvesting systems
as well as drainage mechanism is unparalleled.
Body
Discoveries help in understanding the economy of Harappan civilization
Trade
 The importance of trade in the life of the Indus people is witnessed by the presence of
numerous seals, uniform script and regulated weights and measures in a wide area.
 The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc.
 Metal money was not used and trade was carried by barter system.
 They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.
 They had set up a trading colony in northern Afghanistan which evidently facilitated trade
with Central Asia.
 They also carried commerce with those in the land of the Tigris and the Euphrates.

 The Harappans carried on long distance trade in lapis lazuli; which may have contributed to
the social prestige of the ruling class.
Agriculture
 Most Harappan sites are located in semi-arid lands, where irrigation was probably required
for agriculture.
 Traces of canals have been found at the Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, but not
in Punjab or Sindh.
 Although the Harappans practised agriculture, animals were also reared on a large scale.
 Representations on seals and terracotta sculpture indicate that the bull was known, and
archaeologists extrapolate shows oxen were also used for ploughing.
Industry
 A large number of terracotta articles show that it was used by common people.
 Also, Harappans were good at metallurgy and producing alloys.
 There was specialization of tasks-Goldsmiths, bronze-smiths, brick-makers
 More copperartifacts don’t mean technological backwardness but it was their cultural
preference in all likelihood.
Pottery
 The Harappans used Red and Black pottery (Redware painted with black designs) and also
knew the use of Potter’s wheel with ease.
 It shows the expertise of Harappans in pottery making e.g. Glazed pottery (Harappa), incised
pottery, perforated pottery, etc.
Conclusion
Thus, the artefacts discovered reveals how the people in Indus valley civilization lived and carried
out their economy. The Indus people were a civilization that was built on the practice of trade with
other civilizations of the day.Apart from trade and industry, agriculture was the main occupation of
the Indus people.
Delineate the changes that were witnessed from early Vedic period to the later Vedic
period in the Indian society. (250 words)
Reference: Class 11th – T.N History (New Edition)
Why the question:
To write about the changes in the society from early Vedic age to later Vedic age.
Introduction:
Begin the giving a brief overview Vedic age and how fundamental changes are associated with it.
Body:

First, explain the changes associated with the society from early Vedic to later Vedic – women,
marriages, caste system, religion, sacrifices etc.
Next, mention certain elements of continuity as well.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising the major changes.
Introduction
The Vedic age is the period between 1500 to 600 BCE, as its reconstruction has been made
from Vedic text as the primary source. The Rig-Vedic age is dated between 1500-1000 BC and the
Aryans were confined to the Indus region. The Later Vedic age started in 1000 BC and spans till 600
BC. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains in
later Vedic period.
Body:
Background:
 The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The
head of the family was known as grahapathi.
 The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing.
Their wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North
India they began to practice agriculture.
 Condition of women: Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and
intellectual development.
o There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the
Rig Vedic period.
o Women could even attend the popular assemblies.
 There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
Elements of Change:
 Political life: Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period. Many jana or
tribes were amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period.
 The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like
Babylon.
 Social organisation: The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras)
or the Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period.
 Condition of women: They were considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women
also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common.
According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery.
 Religion: Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance. Prajapathi
(the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during
the Later Vedic period.
Conclusion:

With the social organisation deepening, there was also emergence of new religions such as
Buddhism and Jainism towards the end of Later Vedic period. Also, the authors of the Upanishads,
which is the essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true
knowledge (jnana) for peace and salvation.
Value addition
Elements of continuity:
 Economic condition: Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to
clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief
occupation.
 Social life: In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period.
 The women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
 The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include
Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
 Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate.
Buddhism originated as an alternative tradition to the excessive importance given to

rituals and sacrifices in Vedic tradition. Examine. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the ‘national language’ debate and to analysed the need for a national language.
Directive word:
Examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we must investigate the topic (content words) in detail, inspect
it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so
we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context regarding the rise and popularity of Buddhism.
Body:
In the first part, write about various how the emphasis on rituals and priestly domination played a
part in the reactionary forces leading to the origins of Buddhism.
Next, write about other factors such as – opposition to caste system, growth of trade and commerce,
teaching of buddha, use of common tongue etc being the reasons for the growth of Buddhism.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing about the impact of rise of Buddhism.
Introduction
Buddhism is a religion that was founded by Siddhartha Gautama (“the Buddha”) more than
2,500 years ago in India. With about 470 million followers, scholars consider Buddhism one of the
major world religions. The religion has historically been most prominent in East and Southeast Asia,
but its influence is growing in the West. Many Buddhist ideas and philosophies overlap with those of
other faiths.
Body

The primary cause for the rise of Jainism and Buddhism was the religious unrest in India in the 6th
century B.C. The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people. The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive.
However it took the social route due to the following factors.
Reasons for rise of Buddhism:
 Social cause: Caste system became rigid and it created inequality in the society. The
Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class, and both Buddha and Mahavira
belonged to Kshatriya origin.
 Religious unrest: Religious life in ancient India was originally very simple. But in the Later
Vedic period complex rituals and ceremonies began to dominate the practice of worship.
The complex rituals and sacrifices were not acceptable to the common people. It became
expensive and elaborate. Blind faith and superstitious beliefs confused the people.
 Economic cause: The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of
the Vaisyas. Now, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna system
did not allow this. Similarly, money-lending was imperative for traders, which was prohibited
in Vedas. Thus, merchant class extended the chief support to these new religions.
 Moreover, rise of agriculture raised demand for drought animals which were being sacrificed
for religious ceremonies. The principle of nonviolence, suited settled agrarian community
better which was brought by Buddhism.
 Brahminic supremacy: Priests considered themselves superior and others as inferiors. They
took advantage of knowing Sanskrit, and interpreted religion according to their convenience.
Whereas these new religions were open for all and preached in local language like Prakrit
and Pali, which found appeal to common masses.
Impact of Buddhism on Indian society
 Languages and Literature: Jaina contribution to Prakrit and Kannada l The language of Pali
and other local languages developed through the teachings of Buddhism.
 Art and Architecture: The stupas at Sanchi, Bharhut and Gaya, Jaina temples at Mount Abu
in Rajasthan in the domain of architecture are wonderful pieces of architecture. Buddhism
takes the credit for the chaityas and viharas in different parts of India.
 Philosophy: The concept of ahimsa was chief contribution. Later, it became one of the
cherished values of our nation.
 Political progress: Sabhas and samitis find its roots here. It had also promoted the spread of
Indian culture to other parts of Asia.
 Simple Religion: Its principles were very simple. It was easily followed by the people. It was
not complex like Vedic religion.
 Opposition to Caste System: Due to their opposition the complexity of caste system reduced
from the society.
Conclusion

Buddhism arose to suit the needs of a changing society, patronized by an emerging class and left an
indelible mark on India’s culture, architecture, philosophy and way of living. Some tenets of
Buddhism have been adopted by Hinduism in their long course of association and have become an
integrated part of the society. These religions also found their influence in neighboring countries and
helped India expand its footprint in these regions; paving way for a cultural connects to this day.
Discuss the short term and long-term cultural impact of Iranian and Macedonian
invasions on India. (250 words)
Reference: Indian Art and Culture by Nitin Singhania.
Why the question:
To write about the cultural impact of Iranian and Macedonian invasions.
Directive word:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you must debate on paper by going through the
details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You must give reasons for both for
and against arguments.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context regarding the Iranian and Macedonian invasions in ancient India.
Body:
First, write about the long term and short-term cultural impact of the Iranian invasions – influx of
foreign groups, religious impact, art and architecture, language and script etc.
Next, write about the long term and short-term cultural impact of the Macedonian invasions –
Civilisational contacts, history, coinage, art and architecture etc.
Conclusion:
Summarise the impact of invasions and how it affected contemporary political scenario.
Introduction
India had close relations with Persia (Iran) from very ancient times. Iranian contacts with India lasted
for about two centuries (516 to 326 B.C). Greek Invasion is traced back to 327 BC when Alexander
invaded North-West India.
Body
Persian invasion
 The Achaemenian rulers of Iran, who expanded their empire at the same time as the
Magadhan princes, took advantage of the political disunity on the northwest frontier.
 The Iranians invaded India in the 6th century B.C, when king Darius I ruled over Iran.
 He invaded India and occupied the territories in the North-Western Frontier Province, Sind
and Punjab in 516 B.C.
 These parts remained with the Iranian Empire till Alexander’s invasion of India..
Cultural impact of Iranian invasion
Short term
 India’s Political Weakness exposed: The Persian invasion and India’s defeat to
defend her frontiers exposed India’s political This weakness
encouraged the foreigners to invade the frontiers of India. The Iranians were followed
by the Greeks, the Sakas, the Kushans and the Huns.
 Encouragement to Trade: The mutual contacts helped in the growth of trade between the
two countries. The India Traders and merchants now reached distant places in the Vast
Persian Empire to dispose of their goods. Similarly, the Persian goods began to flow
smoothly into India.
 An Idea of Unified Empire: India learnt the necessity of a strong and united empire to repel
the foreign invasions. It was for the first time that the small, scattered and mutually
quarrelling states of India realized how essential it was to join hands together to meet the
common enemy.
Long term
 Settlement of Foreigners on Indian Soil: A large number of foreigners, the Greek the
Persians, Turks etc settled down in the North –Western parts of India. With the passage of
time they completely absorbed among the Indians.
 Impact on Art and Architecture: The Iranian art also influenced the Indian art. Ashoka,
followed the Iranian custom of preaching ideals by inscribing them on the stone pillars. The
Indians also learnt the art of polishing.
 Kharosthi Script: The Indians adopted the Kharosthi Script of Iran. It was written from right
to left.
 Interchange of Indo Persian culture: Indian Scholars and philosophers went to Persia and
exchanged their views freely with the intellectuals of that country. This contact brought
about a great change in the outlook of the people and bought the people closer.
Macedonian Invasion
 In the fourth century BC, under the leadership of Alexander of Macedonia, the Greeks
eventually destroyed the Iranian empire. From Iran he marched to India.
 The political condition of north-west India suited his plans. The area was parcelled out into
many independent monarchies and tribal republics, which were strongly wedded to the soil
and had a fierce dedication to the principality in which they lived.
 Among the rulers of these territories, two were well known: Ambhi, the prince of Taxila, and
Porus whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab.
 Following the conquest of Iran, Alexander moved on to Kabul, from where he marched to
India through the Khyber pass in 326 BC. When he reached the Jhelum, Alexander
encountered the first and the strongest resistance from Porus. Alexander defeated Porus.
Cultural impact of Macedonian invasion
Short term
 The immediate effect of Alexander’s invasion was that it encouraged political unification of
north India under the Mauryas.

 The system of small independent states came to an end.
 Alexander’s invasion had also paved the way for direct contact between India and Greece.
 The routes opened by him and his naval explorations increased the existing facilities for
trade between India and West Asia.
 His authority in the Indus valley was a short-lived one because of the expansion of Mauryan
Empire under Chandragupta Maurya.
Long term
 Founding of the Mauryan Dynasty: Alexander’s invasion had reduced the strength of the
various states as well as the warlike tribes of the Punjab, so
that it became quite easy for Chandragupta to subdue Otherwise, Chandragupta
Maurya had to face strong resistance from his Indian counter-parts.
 Promoting India’s Unity: One significant result of these petty state and warlike tribes being
crushed by Alexander was the task of establishing a strong empire became too easy.
 Relations with Western Countries: Alexander’s invasion opened four new routes between
India and Europe so that India could now have direct relations with the European countries.
The discovery of these routes also encouraged trade. Several Indian traders, artisans and
religious scholars went to other countries and some people came to India from other
countries. In this way, Indian contacts with Europe developed rapidly.
 Gave an account of Indian history: Megasthenes and other Greek writers have written a lot
about the contemporary Indian Their descriptions have proved valuable in this respect.
 Foundation of the Greek States: After Alexander’s departure, the Greek generals who
were left in India established their independent states on the North Western Frontier of
India. In this way, the Indians came in contact with the Greeks and both of them benefited
from each other.
 Greek Art: The Indians learnt from the Greeks the art of making beautiful idols and coins.
The Gandhara School of Art is a direct consequence
of the Greek The Indians also learnt a lot from the Greek astronomers. On the other
hand, the Indians greatly influenced the philosophy and several Greeks embraced the Hindu
faith.
Conclusion
Thus, both Iranian and Macedonian invasions had a long term impacts on Indian culture.
In general, Jain art broadly follows the contemporary style of Indian Buddhist and
Hindu art, though the iconography and the functional layout of temple buildings
reflects specific Jain needs. Examine. (250 words)
Difficulty level: Tough
Reference: Indian Art and Culture by Nitin Singhania.
Why the question:

To examine the similarities and differences between Jain art and Buddhist-Hindu art.
Directive word:
Examine – When asked to ‘Examine’, we must investigate the topic (content words) in detail, inspect
it, investigate it and establish the key facts and issues related to the topic in question. While doing so
we should explain why these facts and issues are important and their implications.
Introduction:
Start the answer by writing about origins of Jain art.
Body:
First, write about similarity in style, nature, planning, architecture etc between Jain art and Buddhist-
Hindu art. Cite examples to substantiate your points.
Next, write about how despite the similarities there are fundamental differences in the iconography
which emphasizes on a purely Jain form of art. Cite examples to substantiate.
Conclusion:
Summarise the overall nature of the Jain art.
Introduction
Jainism is a trans theistic religion prescribing non-violence toward all living beings; it originated in
the Indian subcontinent in the 6th century BCE. Jainism has influenced and contributed to many
artistic spheres in India, such as painting, sculpture, and architecture. Modern and medieval Jains
built many temples, especially in western India.
Body
Jain art similarities with Buddhist and Hindu art
 The earliest Jain monuments were temples based on the Brahmanical Hindu temple plan
and monasteries for Jain monks.
o For E.g. : The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in
o In the Deccan, some of the most architecturally important Jain sites can be found at
Ellora and Aihole. They resemble as well as are constructed alongside Hindu and
Buddhist temples due to patronage to various religions by the Kings.
 For the most part, artists in ancient India belonged to non-denominational guilds who were
prepared to lend their services to any patron, whether Hindu, Buddhist, or Jain.
 Many of the styles they used were a function of the time and place rather than the
particular religion. Therefore, Jain art from this period is stylistically similar to Hindu or
Buddhist art, although its themes and iconography are specifically Jain.
o g.: Karnataka has a rich heritage of Jain shrines and the Sravana Belagola, the
famous statue of the Gomateswara, the granite statue of Lord Bahubali which
stands eighteen metre, is the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 With some minor variations, the western style of Indian art endured throughout the 16th
century and into the 17th century.
 The rise in Islam contributed to the decline of Jain art but did not result in its total
elimination.
Unique features of Jain art

 Jain iconography mostly has a sage in sitting or standing meditative

posture without any clothes.
 Popular themes and icons in Jain art include the Tirthankaras (Jain saviors, or human
beings who achieved the ultimate spiritual salvation and served as role models for
society), yakshas and yakshinis (supernatural male and female guardian deities), and holy
symbols such as the lotus and the swastika, which symbolized peace and well-being.
 Ayagapata: Ayagapata is a type of votive slab or tablet associated with worship in Jainism.
o Many of these stone tablets, some dating back to the 1st century CE, were
discovered during excavations at ancient Jain sites such as Kankali Tila near
Mathura, India.
o These slabs are decorated with objects and designs central to Jain worship such as
the stupa, dharmacakra, and triratna, and were often used as offerings or for
worship.
 Most of the Jain paintings and illustrations depict historical events, known as Panch
Kalyanaka, from the life of the Tirthankaras.
o Eg: Rishabha, the first Tirthankara, is usually depicted in either the lotus position
or kayotsarga, the standing position. Each of the 24 tirthankaras have a unique
symbol.
Conclusion
Thus, from the examples of art and architecture it is evident that Jainism had a lot of similarities with
Hindu and Buddhist art. At the same time, they had a unique symbolism, iconography that depicted
Jain religion and their tirthankaras beautifully.
Assess the development of science and technology during the Gupta age. Can Gupta
age be considered as high watermark of scientific development in ancient India?
Comment. (250 words)
Reference: Indian art and culture – Nitin Singhania.
Why the question:
To write about development of science and technology during the Gupta age and the extent of its
development.
Directive word:
Comment– here we must express our knowledge and understanding of the issue and form an overall
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about different aspects of science and technology during Gupta age.
Body:
First, with examples, mention the progress of science and technology during the Gupta rulers –
Astronomy, Mathematics, Geometry, Medical science, Veterinary, Communication technology etc.

Next, compare the development during Gupta age vis-à-vis and determine the extent of development
of science and technology.
Conclusion:
Conclude by commenting on whether Gupta age be considered as high watermark of scientific
progress in ancient India.
Introduction
The Gupta period witnessed a tremendous progress in the field of art, science and literature and on
account of this it has been called “a golden age”. A few scholars even call this period a period of
renaissance.
Body
Science and Technology in Gupta period

 The Gupta period witnessed a brilliant activity in the sphere of mathematics, astronomy,
astrology and medicine.
 Aryabhatta was a great mathematician and astronomer. He wrote the book Aryabhatiya in
499 A.D.
 It deals with mathematics and astronomy. It explains scientifically the occurrence of solar
and lunar eclipses.
 Aryabhatta was the first to declare that the earth was spherical in shape and that it rotates
on its own axis.
 However, these views were rejected by later astronomers like Varahamihira and
Brahmagupta.
 Metallurgy had also made a wonderful progress during the Gupta period. The craftsmen
were efficient in the art of casting metal statues and pillars.
 The gigantic copper statue of Buddha, originally found at Sultanganj now kept at
Birmingham Museum, was about seven and a half feet height and nearly a ton weight.
 The Delhi Iron pillar of the Gupta period is still free from rust though completely exposed to
sun and rain for so many centuries. This shows the technological acumen of the Gupta era.
Conclusion
Therefore, the cultural progress witnessed during the Gupta period may be called the culmination of
Indian intellectual activities. It was a glorious period in the Indian sub-continent after the Mauryan
period and saw the development of science and technology along with literature in an exemplary
manner.
Elaborate the contributions of Pallava rulers towards the growth and development of
temple architecture of India. (250 words)
Why the question:

To write about contributions of Pallava kings to temple architecture.

Directive word:
Elaborate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the context. You must
be defining key terms wherever appropriate and substantiate with relevant associated facts.
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about Pallavas as patrons of temple architecutres.
Body:
First, mention that history of Dravidian style of Indian Architecture in the south began with the
Pallavas. It was a gradual evolution starting from the cave temples to the monolithic Rathas and
culminated in structural temples. Give examples of the same under various important Pallava rulers.
Next, mention about the sculptures associated with temple architecture.
Conclusion:
Conclude by mentioning about the glory of Pallava temples in the present day.
Introduction
The Pallava dynasty existed between the 3rd and 9th centuries CE, ruling a portion of what is today
Andhra Pradesh (early Pallavas) and Tamil Nadu (later Pallavas).The tradition of direct patronization
of the temples began with the Pallavas. Starting with rock-cut temples, Pallava sculptors later
graduated to free-standing structural shrines which inspired Chola temples of a later age.
Body
Perhaps no other empire has garnered appreciation for their contribution to rock-cut architecture as
Pallavas. Some of the monuments created by Pallavas during their rule through rock excavation have
garnered the worldwide admiration for its beauty and the skills displayed by the artists. Pallava
sculpture shows greater details of workmanship, lighter anatomy and more developed artistic
finishing.
They were the pioneers of South Indian art and architecture as they had introduced the stone
architecture in the Tamil country. Even as a building material, stone was not or rarely used here,
possibly because of its strong association with funerary customs. The fascination of carving whole
temples into the living rock which spread over India during the first millennium AD had not yet
seized the South by the end of the 6th century. Their contributions are still extant
because granite was used for building temples and carving sculptures.
Evolution of architecture of Pallavas
 Pallava architecture can be now sub-divided into two phases – the rock cut phase and the
structural phase.
 Rock cut phase:
o The rock cut phase lasted from the 610 to 668 AD and consisted of two groups of
monuments – the Mahendra group and the Mamalla group.
o The Mahendra groupis the name given to monuments constructed during the reign
of Mahendravarman I
 The monuments of this group are invariably pillared halls hewn out of
mountain faces.
 These pillared halls or mandapas follow the prototype of Jain temples of the
period.
 The best examples of Mahendra group of monuments are the cave temples
at Mandagapattu, Pallavaram and Mamandur.
o The second group of rock cut monuments belong to the Mamalla group .
 During this period free-standing monolithic shrines called rathas were

constructed alongside pillared halls.
 Some of the best examples of this style are the Pancha Rathas and Arjuna’s
Penance at Mahabalipuram.
o Free standing temples:
 The second phase of Pallava architecture is the structural phase when free-
standing shrines were constructed with stone and mortar brought in for
the purpose.
 The Rajasimha group encompasses the early structural temples of the

Pallavas when a lot of experimentation was carried out.
 The best examples of this period are the Shore Temple at

Mahabalipuram and the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple at
Kanchipuram both constructed by Narasimhavarman II who was
known as Rajasimha.
 The best example of the Nandivarman group of monuments is the Vaikunta

Perumal Temple at Kanchipuram.
Conclusion
During this period, Pallava architecture attained full maturity and provided the models upon which
the massive Brihadeeswarar Temple of the Cholas at Thanjavur and Gangaikonda Cholapuram and
various other architectural works of note were constructed.
The recent announcement of 11 ancient temples in Kancheepuram making it to the UNESCO’s

tentative list of world heritage sites opens an avenue for the region to be back on the tourism map.
This will ensure better care of the structures as the final honour brings with it international
recognition.
Several walks of Indian life were greatly affected by the Turkish conquest. Throw light
on its socio-cultural impact. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the socio-cultural impact of establishment of Delhi Sultanate.
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about establishment of Delhi Sultanate and its multitude of impact.
Body:
Write in detail about the impact of established of Delhi sultanate – Iqta System, changes in caste
system, emergence of privileged class in villages, urbanization, Sufi movement, introduction of
languages, new forms of art and architecture, emergence of new social evils etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarizing the overall socio-cultural impact.
Introduction
The establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the evolution of a powerful and
efficient administrative system. At its zenith the authority of Delhi Sultan had extended as far south
as Madurai. Although the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated, their administrative system made a
powerful impact on the Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal system of
administration.
Body
Background
 The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi
Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526.
 Five different dynasties – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis – ruled under the
Delhi Sultanate.
 The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
 The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph.
Socio-cultural impact of Turkish conquest on India

 Social-life: The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were
given high position in the government. The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected
people for which they were forced to pay a tax called jiziya.
 Local Administration: The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called They were
initially under the control of the nobles. But the governors of the provinces were called
the muqtis or walis. They were to maintain law and order and collect the land revenue. The
provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana.
 Economy: After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in
the land revenue administration. The lands were classified into three categories:
1. i) iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
2. ii) khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues
collected were spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
 iii) inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
1. iv) The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one
half of the produce.
 Art and Architecture: The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets and
decorations using the Arabic script. They used the skill of the Indian stone cutters. They also
added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand stones.

1. i) The most magnificent building of the 13th century was the Qutub Minar which
was founded by Aibek and completed by Iltutmish
2. ii) Later, Alauddin Khalji added an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai
Darwaza. The dome of this arch was built on scientific lines.
 Music: New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this
period. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a
new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems. The invention of sitar was also attributed to him.
 Urbanization: During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum.
A number of cities and towns had grown during this period. Lahore, Multan, Broach,
Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them.
Conclusion
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam. The Sultans considered themselves as
representatives of the Caliph. Not only they extended their rule over North India, but also they
penetrated into the Deccan and South India. Their rule in India resulted in far-reaching changes in
society, administration and cultural life.
Works of art give us an insight into how the society relates itself to its surroundings.
Elaborate in light of Harappan art. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about Harappan art and its relation with Harappan society.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about Harappan art.
Body:
Mention the major elements of Harappan art – Dancing girl of Harappa, Stone sculpture of Mohenjo-
Daro, Terracotta figures obtained all over from Harappan civilization, Bead, Copper sculptures. Link
as to how the above mentioned works of art give an insight in Harappan society.
Conclusion:
Summarize with respect to Harappan art.
Introduction
The arts of the Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) emerged during the second half of the third millennium
BCE. The forms of art found from various sites of the civilisation include sculptures, seals, pottery,
jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
Body

Art in Harappan Civilisation
 Stone Statues: Excellent examples of handling three-dimensional volumes, for example

male torso figure in red sandstone and bust of a bearded man in soapstone.
 Bronze Casting: Bronze statues were made using the ‘lost wax’ technique. Human as well as
animal figures were common examples: Dancing Girl Statue, buffalo with its uplifted head,
back and sweeping horns and the goat are of artistic merit.
 Terracotta: Compared to the stone and bronze statues the terracotta representations of
human form are crude in the Indus Valley. They are more realistic in Gujarat sites and
Kalibangan.
o Deities like bearded man, mother goddess and toy carts, animals were common.
 Seales and tablets: Made of steatite, and occasionally of agate, chert, copper, faience and
terracotta, with beautiful figures of animals, such as unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant,
bison, goat, buffalo. Rendering of animals in various moods is remarkable, for
example Pashupati Seal.
o Commonly used for commercial purposes but usage for amulets for identity cards.
o The standard Harappan seal was a square plaque 2×2 square inches, made from
steatite. Every seal is engraved in a pictographic script.
o Square or rectangular copper tablets, with an animal or a human figure on one side
and an inscription on the other, or an inscription on both sides have also been
found.
 Pottery: It consists chiefly of very fine wheel made wares, very few being hand-made. Plain
pottery is more common than painted ware.
o Plain pottery is generally of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip. It
includes knobbed ware, ornamented with rows of knobs.
o The black painted ware has a fine coating of red slip on which geometric and animal
designs are executed in glossy black paint.
o Polychrome pottery is rare and mainly comprises small vases decorated

with geometric patterns in red, black, and green, rarely white and yellow. Incised
ware is also rare and the incised decoration was confined to the bases of the pans,
always inside and to the dishes of offering stands.
o Perforated pottery includes a large hole at the bottom and small holes all over the
wall, and was probably used for straining beverages.
 Beads and Ornaments: Produced from every conceivable material ranging from precious
metals and gemstones to bone and baked clay, gold and semi-precious stones, copper
bracelets and beads, gold earrings and head ornaments, faience pendants and buttons, and
beads of steatite and gemstones.
o The beads are in varying shapes—disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped,

and segmented. Some beads were made of two or more stones cemented together,

some of stone with gold covers. Some were decorated by incising or painting and
some had designs etched onto them.
Significance of the art and insights on Harappan Society
 The sites of Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) like Harappa and Mohenjodaro showcase excellent
town planning as well, like houses, planned streets, public baths, drainage systems, storage
facilities, etc.
o Eg: The bath in Harappa shows the cleansing ritual of people.
 They tell how the Indus Valley people used stone in construction. The artists and craftsmen
of the Indus Valley were extremely skilled in a variety of crafts—metal casting, stone carving,
making and painting pottery and making terracotta images using simplified motifs of
animals, plants and birds.
 They had public and private wells at most of their sites and their houses were often
equipped with bathing areas and toilets. It shows the importance of cleanliness and hygiene.
 They were also technologically very advanced in pyrotechnics and metallurgy. Their
craftsmanship is evident in their beads, jewellery, pottery, seals as well as other artifacts
made of metals and their alloys.
 Their trade networks were also quite widespread. They had standardized weights and
measures.
 They often used standardized bricks in their architecture. Recent research has suggested
that Harappan people were probably the first ones to introduce silk and lost-wax casting
techniques.
 No large-scale weapons have been discovered from the Harappan sites which also suggests
that they did not indulge in warfare.
Conclusion
Their artistic versatility showed in the range of materials they used and the forms they made out of
it. The patterns, motives and designs found on the articles shows the creativity that existed and
judging from the excavated evidences, one can only conclude the people of Indus civilization were
indeed true art patrons.
Even though Vijayanagara period is often claimed as the Golden Age of Telugu
literature, an equally great number of works were written in Tamil, Kannada and
Sanskrit too. Discuss. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the progress of literature during Vijayanagara period.
Directive word:

Introduction:
Begin by write about the rich progress in literature during the Vijayanagar period.
Body:
In the first part, write the progress witnessed in Telugu – which makes its thee golden age for Telugu
literature. Mention important works, poets and patronage offered by the rulers.
Next, mention the important developments and works during the Vijayanagar period in Tamil,
Kannada and Sanskrit. Mention important works and poets of the same.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising Vijayanagara period witnessed flourishing of almost all languages in the
region.
Introduction
Vijayanagara literature was produced in the Vijayanagara Empire during a golden age of literature
in South India in general. The rulers patronised Kannada, Telugu, Sanskrit and Tamil scholars who
wrote in the Jain, Virashaiva and Vaishnava traditions. The period produced hundreds of works
on all aspects of Indian culture, religion, biographies, Prabhandas (stories), music, grammar,
poetics and medicine.
Body
Vijayanagara period is often claimed as the Golden Age of Telugu literature
 Bukka 1 was the patron of the work, Uttara- Harivamsam written by Nachana Somana;
under Tuluva Narasa, who was the regent to lmmadi Narasimha.
 Flourished Nandi Malayya and Ghante Singayya who wrote Varahapuranam and Narasimha
Puranam, and translated Krishna Misra’s Prabodhchandrodayam
 It is however the reign of Krishnadevaraya that attained celebrity in Telugu literature.
 It is generally believed that eight great poets “Ashtadiggjas” lived in his court.
 Himself the author of Amuktamalyada, he patronized a number of scholars though some of

the poets are chronologically far removed from the king.
 Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitra, Timmana, the author of Parijatapaharamam

and Dhurjati, the author of Kalahastimahatmyam, were definitely his contemporaries.
 Others like Ramarajabhushana, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra, Pingali Surana and Tenali

RamaKrishna, received recognition only after the time of Krishnadevaraya.
 Aliya Rama Raja’s wife, Tirumalamba, also known as Mohanangi, wrote the Mareechi
Parinayamu, a long poem in Telugu.
 The Rama-raajiyamu or Narapati-vijayamu, a poem in Telugu by Andugula Venkayya, was

written at the behest of Aliya Rama Raja.
 Following the same tradition, Aliya Rama Raja had also patronised many poets, including
Bhattu Murti, who became famous by name Rama Raja Bhushanudu, after his patron. He
wrote the Kaavya-alankaara Sangrahamu.

 Later, the poet wrote a long poem in Telugu, the Vasu Charitra, and dedicated it to Tirumala
Raya.
Vijayanagar period had equally great number of works were written in Tamil, Kannada and
Sanskrit too
Sanskrit
 During the reign of Bukka I, the Samhitas of all the four Vedas, and many of the Brahmanas
and the Aranyakas were commented upon by a group of scholars under the leadership of
Sayana.
 The epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata were also commented upon during the
period.
 Among the Advaita works, or commentaries, may be mentioned Vidyaraya’s

Vivaranaprameya- Sangraha, Panchadasi etc., and Sayana – Madhava’s Saravadarsana-
Sangraha.
 In legal literature, mention should be made of Parasara Madhaviya, a commentary on

Parasara Smriti.
 Gangadevi, the wife of Kumara Kampana, and daughter – in – law of Bukka I related her
husband’s conquest of Madura from the Sultans in her Madhuravijayam, Krishnadevaraya
wrote Jambavati Kalyana;
Kannada literature
 Most of the Kannada literature relates to jain and Vira saiva religious thought at a later
stage, Brahmanical literature was produced.
 Bhimakavi was a scholar in Telugu and Kannada, and translated Somnatha’s Basavapurana
into Kannada.
 Madhura wrote Dharmnathapurana on the fifteenth jainTirthankara.
 Chamarasa’s Prabhulinga-lila, Mahalingadeva’s Ekoltara Shalsthala, Jakkana’s

Nurondusthala, are the works on Vira ‘Saivism.
 Kumaravyasa was the author of ten Paravas of the Bharata in Kannada.
 Kuinara Valmiki author Ramajaya in Kannada.
 Among the Vaishnava writers, mention must be made of Purandaradasa, a contemporary of

Krishnadevaraya.
Tamil literature
 Svarupananda Desikar’s Sivaprakasa Perundirattu, and his pupils Taltuvarayar’s Knrundirattu
are anthologies relating to Saivite Philosophies. Arunagirinath’s Thiruppugal praises Muraga
(Kartikeya), and his seats particularly, Palani.
 Manavalamahamuni wrote commentaries on Ramanuja’s works.
 The Bharatam of Viluputturar gives the entire story of Mahabharata.

 There are a number of lexicons produced during this period, viz., Niganduchudamni, by
Manadalapurusha, a jain; Agaradinigandu by Chidambararevana Siddar, a Virasaiva; and
Kayadaram by Kayadara a Brahmin
Conclusion
The Vijayanagar kings patronized Sanskrit in general and also the Vernaculars in different regions of
their kingdom. Like the development in other fields, Vijayanagar rule witnessed enormous growth in
Literary works. There are a number of works written by the kings and queens of Vijayanagar that
have literary merit.
What is a Stupa? Discuss the main characteristics of a Stupa. Trace the development
of Stupa architecture during post-Mauryan age. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the characteristics of Stupa and its progress during post-Mauryan age.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by defining a Stupa.
Body:
First, draw a small representative diagram of a Stupa and mention the major features of that belong
in a Stupa and their significance.
Next, mention the progress in the construction of Stupa during the Post-Mauryan age in India with
examples.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising regarding Stupa architecture.
Introduction
The stupa (“stupa” is Sanskrit for heap) is an important form of Buddhist architecture, though it
predates Buddhism. It is generally considered to be a sepulchral monument—a place of burial or a
receptacle for religious objects. At its simplest, a stupa is a relic-filled mound-like or hemispheric
structure used for meditation. From the Vedic time onwards, stupas were used as burial mounds in
India.
In Buddhism, the earliest stupas contained portions of the Buddha’s ashes, and as a result, the stupa
began to be associated with the body of the Buddha. Adding the Buddha’s ashes to the mound of
dirt activated it with the energy of the Buddha himself.
Body:
Main characteristics of a Stupa

 The main structure of the Great Stupa consisted of a flattened hemispherical dome, called
an anda, placed atop a cylindrical base. Anda, represents the infinite dome of heaven and
signifies the cycle of birth, death and rebirth.
 The harmika, located at the summit of the anda, symbolized the zenith beyond life and
death (nirvana). Its resemblance to a sacrificial altar was of particular significance for the
attainment of nirvana required the sacrifice of the self and the world (what was below
needed to be sacrificed to reach the top).
 The parasol was always a distinguishing feature that implied royalty and dignity; it
symbolized the sacred Tree of Life or enlightenment.
 The three elements of the chattra at Sanchi represented the Three Jewels of Buddhism: the
Buddha, the Dharma (the Law), and the Sangha (the community of monks).
 Vedikas were repeated around the stupa and on the terrace on which the anda rested
(medhi level). They served to demarcate the boundary of the sacred precinct with the
secular world.
 The stupa is capped by a wooden railing that encircled a pradakshina patha
(circumambulatory walkway).
 Sanchi, Sarnath, Amaravati and Bharhut stupas are the oldest examples of Early Buddhist
stupa art. The Birth, Enlightenment, First Sermon and Great Departure are depicted using
various motifs in these stupas.
 The Jataka stories were depicted on the torans of Stupas. The Jataka stories are a method of
teaching Buddhists the lessons of karma, samsara and dharma. The overall structure of the
Jataka Tales is about the cycle of samsara that the Buddha had to experience before
reaching enlightenment.
Development of Stupa architecture during post-Mauryan age

 In the Post Mauryan period, stupas became larger and more decorative and wood and
brickwork were replaced by stone.
 Stupas were cylindrical drum shaped and octagon shaped pillars behind stupas without any
decorations were also found.
 Torans (gateways) was first used by the The torans were decorated with intricate figures
and the patterns.
 With the elaborations in stupa design, architects and sculptors had plenty of room to plan
elaborations and carve out images on the Torans.
 Jataka stories became part of stupa decoration. E.g.: In Bahrut, the tall images
of Yakshaand Yakshini along with narratives are found. In one narrative relief, depicting
Queen Mayadevi’s
 Stupa-I at Sanchi has upper as well as lower pradakshinapatha, four toranas depicting
jatakas. Advanced carving technique is used in these stupas.
 With the rise in the construction of stupas in various parts of the country, regional stylistic
variations also began to emerge.
Conclusion:
It is thus apparent that the stupa, which was conceived as a simple monument for the Buddha’s
corporeal relics, has over time transformed in its form and nomenclature and resulted in various
types of structures all over the world. In some regions, even supplementary structures like
monasteries have come up alongside stupas, fuelling the inception of new Buddhist orders and
sects. However, the core ideology of the stupa remains constant throughout each new development,
as does its symbolism and several crucial architectural features. These characteristics must,
therefore, be given due consideration and importance while designing any stupa project.
Value addition
Present Day Stupas:

 The core ideology of the stupa is retained in terms of architectural design across millennia,
and even to this day. However, the difference lies in the material used in the modern-day
stupa.
 For instance, the Sambodhi Chaithya is a stupa built with reinforced concrete on a platform
supported by two interlocking arches.
 Apart from this, stupa is also having access via Elevators.
 Patliputra karuna Stupa is having glass facade, along with void stupa concept so people can
see the holy relics along with ramp design for entrance instead of stairs which makes it
barrier free for everyone.
Elaborate upon the various features of Nagara style of architecture. Also, throw light
on various sub-types and sub-schools of Nagara style. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the Nagar style of architecture and its various sub types.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about Nagara style.
Body:
In the first part, write various features of Nagara style – its parts, nature of plan, type of tower etc.
Draw a small representative diagram of the same.
Next, mention sub classification based on type of shikhara – Rekha Prasad, Phamsana and Valabhi
and their features in brief. Give examples of the same.
Next, mention the various sub-schools of Nagara style – Odisha School, Chandel School and Solanki
School and their features in brief. Give examples of the same.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising.
Introduction
Nagara style is one of the styles of temple architecture. It is the temple construction style of North
India. Nagara style is associated with the land between the Himalayas and Vindhyas. The Nagara
style has its origin in the structural temples of the Guptas period The major example of the temple of
Nagara Style is Sun Temple at Modhera, Kandariya Mahadeva Temple at Khajuraho, Jagannath
Temple at Puri, etc.
Body

Various features of Nagara style of architecture
 The cruciform ground plan and curvilinear mountain-peak like tower are the two most
fundamental features of Nagara style.
 The temples of Nagara style generally have a square plan with a number of graduated
projections in the middle of each face which give the structure a cruciform shape in the
exterior.
 In Nagara style, the Shikhara remains the most prominent element of the temple and
the gateway is usually modest or even absent.
 In this style, temples have elaborated boundary, less emphasised.
 The entire temple is built on high stone platform called Jagati
 Generally, they do not have large enclosures and entrances.
 The temple has only one peak or shikhara above the Garbagriha.
 There was a Kalasha placed on the Shikara of a temple.
 Sikhara(the tower) slowly bending inwards and capped by a spheroid plate with ribs around
the edge (Amalaka) give the height.

 Temples of Nagara styles are categorized on the basis of the shape of the Shikhara. They are
– Rekha Prasad, Phamsana, and Valabhi.
Classification of Nagara style of temple architecture based on the style of Shikhara
 Rekha-Prasad or Latina: These temples are characterized by a simple Shikara with a square
base and inward curving walls that have a pointed top. Early medieval temples such as the
Sun Temple at Markhera in Madhya Pradesh (MP). The Sri Jagannath Temple of Odishahas
been constructed in the Rekha-Prasad Shikara style.
 Shekari: is a variation of the Latina where the Shikara comprises of a main Rekha-Prasad
Shikara and one or more rows of smaller steeples on both sides of the central spire.
Additionally, the base and corners also feature mini Shikaras.The Khajuraho Kandariya
Mahadev Temple is one of the most prominent temples built in this style.
 Bhumija: Another type of Nagara temple that evolved from the Latina style was the Bhumija
architecturedeveloped in Malwa under the Paramara dynasty. These temples have a flat
upward tapering projection comprising of a central Latina spire and miniature spires on the
quadrant formed by the tapering tower. These mini Shikaras carved out both horizontally as
well as vertically. The Udayeshwar Temple in MP is built in this style.
 Valabhi: style temples are rectangular in shape comprising of barrel-vaulted roofs. The
vaulted chamber roof has earned them the moniker wagon vaulted buildings/structures. Teli
Ka Mandir, a 9th Century temple at Gwaliorhas been built in this style.
 Phamsana: are shorter but broader structures comprising of roofs with numerous slabs
that rise upwards in a gentle slope on a straight inclinelike a pyramid meeting at a single
point over the mid-point of the building. The Jagmohan of Konark Temple is constructed in
the Phamsana mode.
Sub-schools of Nagara style of temple architecture
 Odisha School– The most prominent distinguishing feature is the Shikara (Deul) which rises
vertically before curving inwards at the top. The main type is square while the upper reaches
are circular. These temples have intricately carved exteriors and usually bare interiors.
Unlike Nagara temples of the north, most Odisha temples have boundary walls.
 Chandel School– Unlike Odishan style, these temples are conceived as a single unit and have
Shikaras that curved from bottom to top. There are a number of miniatures Shikaras rising
from the central tower and towers that gradually rise up to the main tower cap both the
porticos and halls.
 Solanki School– They are similar to the Chandel School except that they have carved ceilings
that appear like a true dome. The distinguishing feature of these temples is the minute and
intricate decorative motifs. Except for the central shrine, one can find carvings on both the
inner and outer sides of the walls.
Conclusion
Nagara style is seen from the Himalaya to the north of Bijapur district in the South, from the Punjab
in the west to Bengal to the east. Therefore, there are local variations and ramifications in the formal
development of the style in the different regions. However, the cruciform plan and the curvilinear
tower are common.

What were the factors and forces behind the rise of Bhakti movement in India? Throw
light of nature of Bhakti movement in south India. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about origins of Bhakti movement and its nature in south India.
Introduction:
Begin by defining bhakti movement of medieval in India.
Body:
First, mention the factors behind rise of Bhakti – orthodoxy of priests, caste system, oppression of
women, impact of Sufism, establishment of Turkish rule and role of Bhakti saints.
Next, mention the nature of bhakti movement in south India – the bhakti of Alvars and Nayanars,
Basavanna etc and their important features.
Conclusion:
Conclude by mentioning the impact of Bhakti movement.
Introduction
Bhakti was accepted as a means to attain moksha along with jnana and karma. The Bhakti
Movement originated in the seventh-century in Tamil, South India (now parts of Tamil Nadu and
Kerala), and spread northwards. It swept over east and north India from the 15th century onwards,
reached its peak between the 15th and 17th century CE. The Bhakti Saints moved against the
austerities propagated by the Buddhist and Jain schools and professed that ultimate devotion to god
was the means to salvation.
Body:
Factors that led to the Bhakti movement:
Political:
 It has been pointed out that as the popular bhakti movement could not take root in
Northern India before the Turkish conquest because the socio-religious milieu was
dominated by the Rajput-Brahman alliance which was hostile to any heterodox movement.
 The Turkish conquests brought the supremacy of this alliance to an end.

 The advent of Islam with the Turkish conquest also caused a setback to the power and
prestige commanded by the Brahmans.
 Thus, the way was paved for the growth of non-conformist movements, with anti-caste and
anti-Brahminical ideology.
 The Brahmans had always made the people believe that the images and idols in the temples
were not just the symbols of God but were gods themselves who possessed divine power
and who could be influenced by them (i.e. the Brahmans).
 The Turks deprived the Brahmans of their temple wealth and state patronage. Thus the
Brahmans suffered Both materially and ideologically.

 The non-conformist sect of the nathpanthis was perhaps the first to gain from the declining
power of the Rajput-Brahman alliance.
 This sect seems to have reached its peak in the beginning of the Sultanate period.
 The loss of power and influence by the Brahmans and the new political situation ultimately
created conditions for the rise of the popular monotheistic movements and other bhakti
movements in Northern India.
Socio-economic:
 It has been argued that the bhakti movements of medieval India represented sentiments of
the common people against feudal oppression.
 According to this viewpoint, elements of revolutionary opposition to feudalism can be found

in the poetry of the bhakti saints ranging from Kabir and Nanak to Chaitanya and Tulsidas.
 It is in this sense that sometimes the medieval bhakti movements are an as Indian
counterpart of the Protestant Reformation in Europe.
 However, there is nothing in the poetry of the bhakti saints to suggest that they represented
the class interests of the peasantry against the surplus-extracting feudal state.
 The Vaishnava bhakti saints broke away from orthodox Brahminical order only to the extent
that they believed in bhakti and religious equality.
 Normally, they continued to subscribe to many basic principles of orthodox Brahmanism.
 The more radical monotheistic saints rejected orthodox Brahminical religion altogether but
even they did not call for the overthrow of the state and the ruling class.
 For this reason, the bhakti movements cannot be regarded as Indian variant of European
Protestant Reformation which was a far greater social upheaval linked to the decline of
feudalism and the rise of capitalism
Religious:
 Evils in the Hindu Society: Hindu society was full of many social anomalies like rigidity of
caste system, irrelevant rituals and religious practices, blind faiths and social dogmas.
Common men in general had developed an adverse attitude towards these social evils and
were in need of a liberal form of religion where they could identify themselves with simple
religious practices.
 Complexity of religion: The high philosophy of the Vedas and Upanishads were very
complicated for the common people. They wanted a simple way of worship, simple religious
practices and simple social customs. Alternative was Bhakti marga—a simple way of
devotion to get salvation from worldly life.
 Role of Religious Reformers: The chief exponents of the movement were Shankara,
Ramanuja, Kabir, Nanak, Shri Chaitanya, Mirabai, Ramananda, Namdev, Nimbarka,
Madhava, Eknath, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tukaram, Vallabhacharya and Chandidas. They were the
propounders of Bhakti movement and gave a call to the people to worship in the simplest
possible way of devotion and love.

 Challenge from Rival Religion: the impact of the Muslim rule and Islam put dread in the
heart of Hindu masses. The Hindus had suffered a lot under some of the fanatic rulers. They
wanted some solace to heal their despairing hearts.
 Influence of Sufism: The Sufi saints of the Muslim community also inspired the movement.
Some similar chords in the two evoked resonance.
Nature of Bhakti movement in south India
 The Bhakti Movement was essentially founded in South India and later spread to the North
during the late medieval period.
 This Movement itself is a historical-spiritual phenomenon that crystallized in South India

during Late Antiquity.
 It was spearheaded by devotional mystics (later revered as Hindu saints) who extolled
devotion and love to God as the chief means of spiritual perfection.
 The Bhakti movement in South India was spearheaded by the sixty-three Nayanars (Shaivite
devotees) and the twelve Alvars (Vaishnavaite devotees), who disregarded the austerities
preached by Jainism and Buddhism but instead preached personal devotion to God as a
means of salvation.
 These saints, some of whom were also women, spoke and wrote in local languages like Tamil
and Telugu and travelled widely to spread their message of love and devotion to everyone,
irrespective of caste, colour and creed.
 The South Indian bhakti saints were critical of Buddhists and Jains who enjoyed a
privileged status at the courts of South Indian kings at that
time. They won over many adherents of Buddhism and Jainism both of which by now
had become rigid and formal religions.
Bhakti Saints from South India

 Shankaracharya, a great thinker, distinguished philosopher and leader of the Hindu
revivalist movement of the 9th century, who gave a new orientation to Hinduism.
 He was born in Kaladi (kerala) and propounded the Advaita (Monism) philosophy and
Nirgunabrahman (God without attributes)
 Ramanuja (1017-1137) who hailed from modern Andhra Pradesh. He was a great Vaishnava
teacher.
 He popularised the cult of devotion to a personal God and emphasized that salvation can be
achieved through the bhakti marga alone.
 He redefined the Vedanta philosophy by laying greater stress on devotional worship to a

personal God who constituted the supreme reality.
 Vallabhacharya was another prominent Vaishnava saint from the south. He advocated a
system of pure non-dualism. He glorified the intense love of Radha and Krishna.
 He advocated a universal religion that did not believe in distinctions of caste, creed, sex, or
nationality. He insisted on the complete identity of both soul and world with the supreme
spirit. Hiss philosophy was known as shuddhadvaita or pure nondualism.
 Madhvacharya, a Vaishnava saint from the south wrote as many as thirty-seven works on
Vaishnavism.
 His works mostly deal with the bhakti cult based on the concept of dualism (dvaita) as
distinct from the monistic philosophy of Shankaracharya
 Basavanna or Lord Basaveshwara was an Indian 12th-century statesman, philosopher, a

poet and Lingayats saint in the Shiva-focussed Bhakti movement and a social reformer in
Karnataka.
 He was a philosopher and a social reformer, who fought against social evils of his time such
as caste system and the ritual practices of Hinduism.
 His teachings were based on rational, progressive social thoughts. His teachings and
philosophy transcend all boundaries and address the universal and eternal.
 Akkamahadevi:During the 12th century CE, Akkamahadevi, also known as Akka or Mahadevi,
belonging to the southern region of Karnataka, established herself as an ardent devotee of
Shiva whom she addressed as Chennamallikarjuna.
Conclusion:
Bhakti cult was out-of-the-box thoughts on religion. It was mainly against the common religious
views, and most importantly, it was strongly against the caste system. With such long-lasting
impacts, the religious depression of the medieval society was set aside. The teachings acted as a
healing balm to the suppressed classes. A deep-rooted change came about to lay the foundations of
a liberal and composite Indian society.
Value addition
Salient features of the Bhakti movement:
 The Bhakti movement in many ways broke barriers of gender, class and caste.
 At the same time, it shattered stereotypes associated with the perception of spiritualism;
denounced orthodoxy and the rigid ritualistic practices of worship, and established a more
personal and informal connection between the devotee and the divine.
 During the Bhakti movement, the lower classes rose to a position of great importance.
 The Bhakti movement gave equal importance to men and women which gave way to the
importance of women in society.
 The Alvars and Nayanars initiated a movement of protest against the caste system and the
dominance of Brahmanas or at least attempted to reform the system. This is supported by
the fact that bhaktas or disciples hailed from diverse social backgrounds ranging from
Brahmanas to artisans and cultivators and even from castes considered “untouchable”
 Ramananda opposed the caste system and chose his disciples from all sections of society
irrespective of caste. His disciples included Kabir, a weaver; Ravidasa, he was a
cobbler; Sena, he was a barber; thus, emphasizing the equality among people of all
occupations and caste.
 Sant Kabir aided the common people to shed age-old superstitions and attain salvation
through Bhakti or pure devotion. He criticized all forms of worship of idols.
 Guru Nanak condemned caste difference and rituals like bathing in holy rivers. His idea of
religion was highly practical and strictly moral.
 Nathpanthis, Siddhars and Yogis condemned the ritual and other aspects of orthodox
religion and the social order, using simple, logical arguments. These groups became
particularly popular among “low” castes.
The crafts of India have been part of its culture since time immemorial but the roots
of these crafts are on a decline. Substantial efforts are needed for their preservation.
Comment. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the steps needed for preservation of crafts in India.
Directive word:
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Begin by write about the rich crafts of India since ancient age.
Body:
In the first part, write the declining crafts of India and the reasons therefor. Cite examples to
substantiate your points.
Next, mention the efforts and steps that are needed for the preservation of crafts in India –
protecting livelihoods, promotion, knowledge transfer etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward.
Introduction
Handicrafts are still today a vibrant aspect of Indian culture and society. Handicraft is rightly
described as craft of the people and in India it is not just an industry as the word is commonly
understood but is the aesthetic expression of the artisans which not only fulfils
the daily needs of the people but also satisfies their aesthetic desire. Crafts have been interwoven
with the culture of the people in India from the beginning of human history. Crafts have been an
integral part of daily life in villages, towns, courts and religious establishments.
There are approximately 70 lakh handicraft artisans in the country, which
includes 20 lakh artisans related to the carpet sector, practicing more than 500 types of crafts.
Body
Challenges faced by Handicrafts industry:
 Low productivity: The sector’s informal nature and the low education of most artisans
create issues such as:
o Unorganized production: As a largely unorganized sector, handicrafts faces

problems such as a paucity of professional infrastructure such as work sheds,
storage space, shipping and packing facilities.

o Low education: Many crafts require the entire household to participate in

production in some capacity. In many cases, crafts also serve as a seasonal source of
income for agricultural households.
o Outdated production methods: Artisans may also lack the financial capability to
upgrade technology in production, or undergo necessary training on a regular basis,
as would be available to them in a formal work setting. This compromises the quality
of their products and raises the cost of production.
 Inadequate inputs:There are three main issues:
o Lack of quality raw materials: Rural artisans often lack access to quality raw
materials. Due to the low volumes required, they have low bargaining power and are
forced to buy sub-standard materials at a higher price.
o Lack of funding: Craft producers suffer greatly from lack of working capital and
access to credit and loan facilities. Banks cite poor recovery rates, wrong utilization
of funds, lack of marketing facilities for finished products and lack of education on
part of the borrowers as reasons for the low proportion of loans made to artisans.
o Design inputs:Due to the breakdown of the historic artisan-consumer relationship,
and the increasing urbanization and globalization of markets for crafts, artisans have
difficulty understanding how to tailor their products to changing demands.
 Information asymmetry:Due to their low education, artisans often cannot identify potential
new markets for their products, nor do they understand the requirements for interacting
with these markets.
 Fragmented value chain:
o Lack of market linkages: While consumers of crafts products are increasingly

becoming urbanized, crafts continue to be sold through local markets; artisans have
few opportunities to reach new consumers through relevant retail platforms such as
department stores and shopping malls.
o Dominance of middlemen: Although middlemen are necessary to enable effective

market linkages, they often, if not always, exploit artisans by paying them a fraction
of their fair wages.
o Lack of aggregation:Crafts production typically takes places in scattered clusters in

rural areas, while markets are usually in urban centers. Currently, there is a lack of
organized systems to efficiently aggregate goods from small producers, carry out
quality checks, store approved goods in warehouses, and supply them to
wholesalers and retailers in urban areas.
 Impact of the pandemic: Hit hard by the lockdown imposed in the wake of COVID-19,
artistes across India suffered due to non-receipt of any orders since the outbreak of the
dreaded virus.
Way forward:
 All industrial policy aimed at promoting particular sectors aren’t without risks. But the
externality-generating attributes —employment, exports, social transformation —of the

apparel sector, India’s potential comparative advantage in it, and the narrow window of
opportunity, make the risk worth taking.
 Skill upgradation and development in handicraft sector is an excellent

approach for development of artisans, poverty reduction and providing income
generation which would also help in achievement of sustainable development goals.
 Access to economic independence through the handicraft sector can address the
livelihood issues and would lead to income generation in rural areas.
 In order to meet these challenges, a package for garments and made-ups sectors can be
provided.
 GI tags, Handloom India tagscan add credibility and protect the artisans from fake product
manufacturers.
 Women embroiderers are making ingenious versions of masks, while Kashmiri leather
artisans, normally fabricating bags and totes, have turned their hand to PPE outfits and
gloves.
 Since synthetic, stainless steel and glass surfaces have been found to carry the virus for
longer, it is an opportunity for artisans working in paper, brass, fibre, wood and resin. This
includes packaging – an area of huge potential growth.
 With online shopping gaining ground, the artistes must be taught with the help of the
government in training them to sell their goods through e-commerce platforms.
 NGOs, crafts cooperatives, designers, merchandisers, entrepreneurs and artisan families–

normally working in their own narrow silos – are brainstorming together in new
collaborations and discussions.
 Zoom, WhatsApp groups, and webinarsare pulsing with the word ‘crafts’ and ‘craftspeople’
in ways that haven’t happened for decades.
Examine the reasons as to why the Indian handicrafts that had made the country
famous, collapsed under the colonial rule. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the reasons for decline of Indian handicrafts under British rule.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving context about flourishing Indian handicrafts before arrival of British.
Body:

Write the reasons for collapse of handicrafts under colonial rule – introduction of British made goods
and ignorance of Indian Handicrafts Industries, policy of De-industrialization, transformed India to a
mere exporter of raw materials for the upcoming modern industries in Britain etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by summarising long term impact of ruining of Indian handicraft.
Introduction
The systemic ruin of Indian handicraft industries at the expense of Industrially revolutionizing
Britain in which political force was misused to cause economic misery via discriminatory taxation,
forceful coercion of artisans and market capturing via mercantalistic policies caused the demise of
traditional Handicraft industries. Paul Bairoch, the economic historian estimated that India’s share
of manufacturing output in the world was as high as 19.7% in 1800. In a span of 60 years, it
plummeted to 8.6% (in 1860) and to 1.4% in 1913.
Body
Reasons for collapse of Indian handicrafts during colonial rule
 Impact of Industrial Revolution: Machine made textile goods of Britain, did the great
damage to this Indian industry since 1750. Consequent upon industrial revolution in textile
industry there had been massive growth of British imports in India and the domination of
British cloth in the Indian market did the havoc; it created large scale unemployment as well
as unbelievable drop in wages among the spinners and weavers. Cotton industry, jute
handloom weaving of Bengal, woolen manufactures of Kashmir, silk manufacture of
Bengal, hand-paper industry, glass industry, lac, bangles, etc.
 Raw Material Shortage: The process of de-industrialization of India began with the gradual
disappearance of raw material for Indian artisans which was taken away to feed English
machines and consequently moving manufactured products from the list of India’s exports
and the remarkable growth of manufactures in the list of her imports mainly from Britain.
That is why it is said that Britain “inundated the very mother country of cotton with
cottons”, thereby eclipsing India’s traditional handicraft industries.
o For example the British exported raw materials, like cotton, indigo for the textile
industries in Lancashire. As a result, the prices of the raw materials soared high and
cost of the handicrafts increased.
 Discriminatory Taxation: C. Dutt held that the tariff policy pursued by the British
Government as the leading cause or ‘the first among equals’ towards the decay of
handicrafts. This tariff policy came to be known as ‘one-way free trade’ policy which
preached that what was good for England was considered to be good for India. To put her
manufacturing industries on a sound footing at home, England pursued the policy of
protection through the imposition of import duties. But for India, she preached the gospel of
free trade.
o g.: British manufacturers were levied an 85% tax for importing Indian hand woven
calico (chintz) and 44% for importing Indian muslin under the British Raj. On the
other hand, British textiles were only imposed with a 5% import tax in India.
 Loss of Native states: The main source or rather the entire source of demandfor the
products of these handicrafts came from the royal courts, and the urban aristocrats. With

the abolition of the royal court, one source of demand for the products of these crafts dried
up. The new ‘aristocracy’ preferred imported goods.
 Competition from machine-made goods: In terms of quality, though machine-made goods

could not compete in quality with the products of the urban weaver, in the matter of lower
priceand deep respect for goods bearing foreign trademark (i.e., change in tastes) he was
hopelessly beaten by machine-made goods.
 Price fixing and buyer monopolies:They bound local weaver into contracts and that made
them sell exclusively to British. The prices were low and exploitative and artisans could
recover only 80% cost of production. It pushed the artisans toward indebtedness and
eventual poverty.
 Coercing the artisans:The services and the labour of the craftsmen were hired at very low
wages. It was impossible for the craftsmen to adopt their traditional profession. So they
were force to abandon those crafts. The worst affected were the weavers of Bengal and
textile industry of Bengal was virtually closed. It was said that the thumbs of the weavers
were cut off. Actually it meant that thousands of weavers were made jobless due to closure
of weaving industry.
 Acceleration of ruin by railways: Introduction of railways opened a new era for the
transport system in India. But the railways served the political and economic interest of the
British to a larger extent. Through railways the machine products of Britain found it much
easier to enter into the rural India.
 No efforts to re-industrialise India:There was no attempt for growth of modern industry to

take the place of the cottage Industries. As a result, the handicraftsman and artisans had no
scope to find suitable employment according to their skill. Rather, they were compelled to
switch over to agriculture for employment.
The above mentioned factors point to the nature of British rule and their mercantilist policies which
caused the ruining of industries in India. However there are others factors as well that led to their
decline such as:
 No efforts were made to explore markets for products. India’s foreign trade was in the
hands of foreigners. This meant that the Indian artisans and producers were at the mercy of
foreign merchants so far as sales or demand propagation in overseas markets were
concerned.
 Guild organization in India was definitely very weak. Finally, she did not possess a class of
industrial entrepreneurs.
Conclusion
Though there are some internal factors the led to de-industrialization of India, but the Indian
economy had been systematically slaughtered by the British Government and in the process,
traditional handicraft industries slipped away to their demise and the process of de-industrialization
proved to be a process of pure immiseriation for the several million persons. The only bright side
to it was that the ruin coupled with other miseries heaped upon India led to the emergency of
economic nationalism India and economic critique becomes a potent weapon in the arsenal of the
nationalists.

During the struggle for India’s Independence the artists from Bengal protested against
British way of art. They looked towards the eastern culture for their ideas, techniques
and inspiration. Elaborate. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the emergence of nationalist school of painting art during the early twentieth century.
Introduction:
Begin by giving context that led to emergence of nationalist school of art.
Body:
Write about the artists of Bengal under the leadership Abanidranath Tagore and Nandalal Bose
protested against British by rejecting to paint in Western style. Instead, they visited Ajanta and
explored the possibilities of painting in Indian way by using natural, powder colours.
Next, write about the inspiration and influences they sought from east – Japanese artists, miniature
art, revivalist style etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by the summarising.
Introduction
Originating in Calcutta and Shantiniketan, the Bengal School of Art promoted a distinctly Indian
modernism which blossomed throughout India during the British Raj of the early 20th century.
Founded by Abanindranath Tagore, this movement was associated with Indian Nationalism more
specifically by the Swadeshi movement as a revolt against the tyranny of the British that posed a
threat to Indian sensibilities and to revive traditional art forms. The Bengal school of art paved the
way for the Progressive Artists Group which now constitutes a major portion of the Modern Indian
artists.
Body
Characteristic features of Bengal School of art
 Rooted in the pride of nationalism, the avant-garde movement transformed Indian art by
bringing ‘Swadeshi’ values to Indian Paintings.
 Bengal school in painting was called the Renaissance School as well as the Revivalist
School because this movement endeavoured for revival of the Indian ancient and medieval
traditions.
 Led by reformers and artists like E.B. Havell and Abanindranath Tagore, the Bengal School of
Art originated in erstwhile Calcutta and Santiniketan, but spread across the country as
a voice against western influence.
 By synthesizing folk art, Indian painting traditions, Hindu imagery, indigenous materials and
depictions of contemporary rural life, artists of the Bengal School of Art celebrate humanism
and bring a dynamic voice to Indian identity, freedom, and liberation.
 The paintings were Simple and standard paintings with attractive colour scheme technique.
Bright colours were not used in such paintings.

 The paintings were so evocative and that they bore the potential to draw the viewers right
into it immersing them in the story they told.
 Every painting was unique given the style factor and displayed immense creativity of the
painter.
 The very iconic painting ‘Bharat Mata’turned out to be a complete deviation from earlier
representations of India by other artists. Being gentle yet vulnerable and a subjugated
figure, this became a symbol of national movement.
 The Japanese influence of wash technique is apparent from the soft misty quality seen in the
paintings which became a trademark.
 The turned to the inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of the miniature paintings and
ancient art of mural paintings in Ajanta Caves. The paintings of Ajanta and Bagh, Mogul,
Rajput and Pahari miniatures provided the models.
 The continuity of earlier traditions was sought to be maintained by borrowing from legends
and classical literature like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Gita, and Puranas, the writings
of Kalidasa and Omar Khayyam.
 The above experiments called “avant garde” in artist’s parlance, led to the development of
the Bengal School of Art. Avant Garderefers to the people or works that are experimental or
innovative, particularly with respect to art, culture, and politics.
 One more immediate reason of rise of such artists was the widespread influence of the
Indian spiritual idea to west.
 The other artists of this group were Gaganendranath Tagore, Asit Kumar Haldar, M.A.R
Chughtai, Sunayani Devi (sister of Abanindranath Tagore), Kshitindranath Majumdar,
Nandalal Bose, Kalipada Ghoshal, Sughra Rababi and Sudhir Khastgir.
Conclusion
With the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s, the influence of the Bengal School began to
decline. But there is no doubt that the revolutionary movement fuelled artists to look for a distinct
Indian identity, and in that sense, the Bengal School was the harbinger of Modern Art in India. Till
date, the Government College of Art and Craft in Kolkata and the Viswa Bharati University in
Santiniketan continue to train students in the traditional styles of tempera and wash painting,
carrying forward the legacy of one of the most significant period in Indian art
Mughal painting is a style of miniature painting that developed in the northern Indian
subcontinent in the sixteenth century and is known for its sophisticated techniques
and diverse range of subjects and themes. Comment. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about development and evolution of miniature painting under Mughal rulers.
Directive word:

opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Mention the origin and gradual evolution of Mughal miniature painting.
Body:
First, mention that Mughal rulers further enriched the Indian painting. They introduced Persian court
culture into Indian paintings. Then give an account of contribution of different Mughal rulers. From
this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the most vital form of
art.
E.g Emperor Akbar patronised artists from Kashmir and Gujarat; Humayun brought two Persian
painters to his court. Mention Baburnama, Akbarnama, Abd-us-Samad Dasawanth and Basawan and
their works.
Conclusion:
Form a concise and a fair conclusion on the above issue, based on your discussion
Introduction
Mughal painting is the style of miniature painting that developed in the northern Indian subc
ontinent in the sixteenth century and continued till the mid–
nineteenth century. It is known for its sophisticated techniques and diverse range of subjects
and themes. The Mughal miniature painting inspired and resonated in subsequent schools and
styles of Indian painting, thereby, confirming a definite
position for the Mughal style within the Indian school of paintings
Body:
Mughal Paintings: Salient features
 The Mughal pictures were small in size, and hence are known as ‘miniature paintings’.
 Though the Mughal art absorbed the Indian atmosphere, it neither represented the Indian
emotions, nor the scenes from the daily life of the Indian.
 Hence, Mughal painting remained confined to the Mughal court and did not reach the
people.
 The Mughal rulers brought Persian painters with them. At the same time they patronized
Indian painters and the collaboration between these two schools of painters resulted in the
synthesis.
 Apart from Persian books of fables, themes from Mahabharata, Ramayana were also
selected.
 Indian scenes and landscapes came into vogue.
 Paintings were based upon close observation of nature with high aesthetic merit.
 Under Jahangir, the Mughal school paintings acquired greater charm, refinement and
dignity.
 The emperor Jahangir had a great fascination for nature and took delight in the portraiture
of birds, animals and flowers.
 Inspired by their overlord, the Mughal courtiers and the provincial officers started
patronizing the artists trained in the Mughal technique of painting.
 The artists who were employed in the Imperial Government were known as the first grade
artists. The works accomplished by these first grade artists is known as the Imperial Mughal
Painting.
 Artists available to the provinces were of inferior merit, thus, the works accomplished in the
provinces was known as ‘Popular Mughal’ or ‘Provincial Mughal’ painting, which possessed
all the important characteristics of the Imperial Mughal painting with some inferior quality.
Mughal paintings involved a diverse range of subjects and themes
Life and times of Mughal rulers:
 Mughal painting marks a unique blend of Persian and Indian ideas. Mughal painting was
essentially a court art, developed under the patronage of the ruling Mughal emperors and
began to decline when the rulers lost interest.
 The subjects treated were generally secular, revolving around themes like battles, court
scenes, receptions, legendary stories, hunting scenes, wildlife, portraits, and the likes.
 Imperial Mughal painting represents one of the most celebrated art forms of India. It arose
with remarkable rapidity in the mid-sixteenth century as a blending of three distinct
traditions:
o Court painting of Safavid Iran.
o Indigenous Indian devotional manuscript illumination.
o Indo-Persian or Sultanate painting, which is it is a hybrid of provincial Persian and

local Indian styles.
 The result of this merging resulted in paintings of unprecedented vitality, brilliant coloration,
and impossibly precise detail, is something dramatically more than the sum of its parts.
Contemporary social and political life of the people:
 Mughal Court paintings provide an insight into the life and times of rulers of the period.
These paintings also reflect the contemporary social and political condition of the people.
Social customs and courtly traditions are vividly depicted in these paintings.
 Mughal painting forms a dramatic episode in the history of India. Its aims and standpoint are
secular and realistic: it is interested in passing events and most typically in the exact
delineation of individual character in the portraiture of men and animals.
 It is dramatic rather than static, aristocratic more than surreal and academic rather than
vocational.
 After Mughal, there came “company paintings” in India. But they were not as realistic and
detailed as Mughal miniature paintings.
Conclusion
When the Mughal Empire was in decadence, various other schools of painting with Mughal influence
emerged in several regional courts, including the Rajput and Pahari paintings.
Value addition

Contributions of Mughal emperors to Painting:
Akbar:
 Akbar ordered the creation of many paintings and also paid close attention to the final
output of all these artworks.
 He was very particular about the details and the artistic elements involved.
 Akbar had an impressive number of painters in his court. Between 1560 and 1577, he
commissioned a number of massive painting projects.
 One of the earliest painting projects commissioned by Akbar was ‘Tutinama’ which literally
translates to ‘Tales of a Parrot.’ There is Hamzanama as well.
 Akbar and his successors brought revolutionary changes to painting and sensual illustrations.
 From this period book illumination or individual miniatures replaced wall painting as the
most vital form of art.
 Akbar also encouraged the art of making portraits.
Jahangir:
 Much like his father (Akbar), Jahangir too had an inclination toward arts, which proved
beneficial for the growth of Mughal art.
 The Mughal painting continued to grow under his reign.

 It is generally stated that during Jahangir’s time, the art of painting reached its climax and
with him departed its soul.
 Jahangir was not only interested in painting; he was also its keen judge. He established a
gallery of painting in his own garden.
 Since Jahangir was largely influenced by European painting, he ordered his painters to follow
the single point perspective used by European artists.
 This gave a whole new perspective to the Mughal painting.
 Jahangir even used European paintings that portrayed the images of Kings and Queens as
references and asked his painters to take a leaf out of these paintings.
 As a result, most of the Mughal paintings commissioned by Jahangir had finer brush strokes
and lighter colours.
 One of the major projects commissioned by him was the ‘Jahangirnama.’
 It was an autobiography of Jahangir and it consisted of several paintings that included

unusual themes, such as fights between spiders.
 Several individual portraits of Jahangir were also made by his painters.
 However, he also commissioned many paintings of birds, animals and flowers which were
portrayed in a realistic manner.
 Artists began to use vibrant colours such as peacock blue and red and were able to give three
dimensional effects to paintings
 Overall, the Mughal painting continued to flourish and also continued to evolve under
Jahangir’s rule.
Shahjahan:
 Though Mughal painting continued to expand during the reign of Shah Jahan, the paintings
that were displayed in the court became increasingly rigid and formal.
 However, he commissioned a large number of paintings meant to be his personal collection.
 These paintings were based on themes like gardens and pictures that gave great aesthetic
pleasure.
 He also ordered many works that portrayed lovers in intimate positions.
 One of the most important works produced during his reign was the ‘Padshanama.’
 This work was made to look lavish with generous volumes of gold plating.
 The ‘Padshanama,’ which narrated the achievements of the King, contained several paintings
of the courtiers and servants as well.
 The work was so elaborate that even servants were painted with amazing details that
provided a great individuality to each and every character.
 While the servants and courtiers were portrayed using the frontal view technique, the king
and other important dignitaries were portrayed by adhering to the rules of strict
metamodeling.
 During the reign of Shah Jahan, the aesthetics of Mughal painting were retained which
contributed to the growth and development of Mughal paintings.
 Many of the paintings produced under the leadership of Shah Jahan are now housed at
various museums around the world.
Though separated by short distances, the pictorial styles that emerged and evolved in
various sub-schools of Rajput style of paintings were significantly diverse in terms of
execution. Discuss. (250 words)
Reference: Indian art and culture – Nitin Singhania
Why the question: The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and
mentioned as part of Mission-2022 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question: To write about the main style and themes of Rajput (Rajasthani) School
and its main centers.
Directive:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you have to debate on paper by going through the
details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You have to give reasons for both for
Introduction:
Write in brief about aesthetics of Rajput paintings and their origins.
Body:

In the first part, write about the main style and themes that are depicted in the paintings. Elements
depicted, colors used, notable genre and any other important features.
Next, write about the major centers where it flourished – Mewar School, Bundi school and
Kishangarh school. Write about their important features.
Conclusion:
Conclude by highlighting their special place in the artistic history of India.
Introduction
The term ‘Rajasthani Schools of Painting’ pertains to the schools of painting that prevailed in the
princely kingdoms and thikanas of what roughly constitutes Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh
in the present time, such as Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar),
Malwa, Sirohi and other such principalities largely between the sixteenth and early nineteenth
centuries. Like the Mughal Emperors, the Rajput rulers were also lovers of art and gave their
patronage to miniature paintings.
Scholar Annand Coomaraswamy in 1916 coined the term ‘Rajput Paintings’ to refer to these as most
rulers and patrons of these kingdoms were Rajputs.
Body
Main features of Rajasthani School of paintings
 Each Rajputana kingdom had its own distinct style with a few common features.
 Unlike Mughal painting which is primarily secular, the art of painting in Central India,
Rajasthani and the Pahari region etc. is deeply rooted in the Indian traditions, taking
inspiration from Indian epics, religious texts like the Puranas, love poems in Sanskrit and
other Indian languages, Indian folk-lore and works on musical themes.
 The cults of Vaishnavism, Saivism and Shakti exercised tremendous influence on the
pictorial art of these places.
 Among these the cult of Krishna was the most popular one which inspired the patrons and
artists.
 The notion of ‘love’ was cherished as a religious theme, where a delightful synthesis of
sensuousness and mysticism was perceived
 The themes from the Ramayana., the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata, the Siva Purana, the
Naishadacarita, the Usha Aniruddha, the GitaGovinda of Jayadeva, the Rasamanjari of
Bhanudatta, the Amaru Sataka, the Rasikapriya of Kesavadasa, the Bihari Satasayee and
the Ragamala etc., provided a very rich field to the painter who with his artistic skill and
devotion made a significant contribution to the development of Indian painting.
 Apart from depicting stories from the Ramayana and the royal lifestyle of kings and queens,
Rajasthani miniature paintings often portrayed the legacy of present and past rulers.
 They also portrayed social values and the changes introduced by kings for the betterment of
society. The background of the paintings formed a special feature of the Rajasthani school.
 Colours used were often bold and contrasting in nature.
 Natural colours, extracted from plants, minerals, shells, gold, silver and precious stones,
were used.

 The preparation of colours itself would often take weeks and only fine brushes were used.
 The difficult art of miniature painting still exists in Rajasthan where the painters often use
paper, ivory and silk as their canvas.
 However, natural colours are no longer used as they have been replaced by artificial colours.
Various schools
The Malwa School
 It flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE and is most representative of the Hindu Rajput
courts.
 Its two-
dimensional simplistic language appears as a consummation of stylistic progressio
n from the Jain manuscripts to the Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings.
 Unlike the specificity of Rajasthani schools that emerged and flourished in precise territorial
kingdoms and courts of their respective kings, Malwa School defies a precise centre for its
origin and instead suggests a vast territory of Central India, where it got articulated with a
sporadic mention of few places, such as Mandu, Nusratgarh and Narsyang Sahar.
 Among the few early dated sets are an illustrated poetic text of Amaru Shatakadated 1652
CE and a Ragamala painting by Madho Das in 1680 CE.
Mewar school of painting
 Mewar is conjectured to be a significant early centre of painting in Rajasthan, from where,

hypothetically, one would have been able to formalise a continuous stylistic tradition of
painting—from pre-seventeenth century bold, indigenous styles to the subsequent refined
and finer style post Karan Singh’s contact with the Mughals.
 However, long wars with the Mughals have wiped out earliest examples.
 Therefore, the emergence of the Mewar School is widely associated with an early dated set
of Ragamala paintings painted at Chawed in 1605 by an artist named Narain.
 Sahibdin painted the Ragamala (1628), Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana (1648) and the Yuddha
Kanda of Ramayana (1652).
Bundi School of Painting
 A prolific and distinct school of painting flourished in Bundi in the seventeenth century,
which is remarkable for its unblemished colour sense and excellent formal design.
 Bundi Ragamala dated 1591, assigned to the earliest and formative phase of Bundi painting,
has been painted at Chinar in the reign of Bhai Singh (1585–1607), the Hada Rajput ruler.
 A distinct feature of Bundi and Kota School is a keen interest in the depiction of lush
vegetation; picturesque landscape with varied flora, wildlife and birds; hills and thick jungles;
and water bodies.
 Bundi artists had their own standards of feminine beauty—women are petite with round
faces, receding foreheads, sharp noses, full cheeks, sharply pencilled eyebrows and a
‘pinched’ waist.
Kota School of Painting:
 The accomplished tradition of painting at Bundi gave rise to one of the most outstanding
Rajasthani Schools, Kota, which excels in the depiction of hunting scenes and reflects an
exceptional excitement and obsession for animal chase.
 Kota paintings are characteristically spontaneous, calligraphic in execution and

emphasise on marked shading, especially, the double–lid eye.
 Artists of the Kota School excelled in rendering animals and combat.
Bikaner School of Painting
 Rao Bika Rathore established one of the most prominent kingdoms of Rajasthan, Bikaner, in
1488.
 During his regime, Anup Singh (1669–1698) instituted a library in Bikaner that became a
repository of manuscripts and paintings.
 As a result of long association with the Mughals, Bikaner developed a distinctive language of
painting that was influenced by the Mughal elegance and subdued colour palette.
 The custom of having portraits of artists is unique to the Bikaner School and most of them
are inscribed with information regarding their ancestry. They are referred to as Ustas or
Ustad.
 Accounts from the Bahis, royal archival day-to-day diaries, and numerous inscriptions on
Bikaner paintings make it one of the best documented schools of painting.
Kishangarh School of Painting
 Widely held among the most stylised of all Rajasthani miniatures, Kishangarh paintings are
distinguished by their exquisite sophistication and distinct facial type exemplified by arched
eyebrows, lotus petal shaped eyes slightly tinged with pink, having drooping eyelids, a sharp
slender nose and thin lips.
 A distinctive style of the state with a general tendency to elongate the human form, making
lavish use of green and penchant for depicting panoramic landscapes had evolved by the
early eighteenth century
 With the Pushtimargiya cult of Vallabhacharya, Krishna Lila themes became personal
favourites for the rulers of Kishangarh and represented a major portion of their court art.
 Savant Singh’s most celebrated and outstanding artist was Nihal Chand.
 Nihal Chand worked for Sawant Singh between 1735 and 1757, and composed paintings on
Sawant Singh’s poetry that portrayed the theme of divine lovers—Radha and Krishna, in
courtly surroundings, often appearing tiny in the vastness and minutiae of their panoramic
landscape settings.
 Kishangarh artists revelled in the depiction of vistas in accentuated colours.
Jodhpur School of Painting
 With the political presence of Mughals since the sixteenth century, influence of their visual
aesthetics made its way in the style of portraiture and depiction of court scenes, etc.
 However, the formidable indigenous folkish style was so widespread and deeply embedded
in culture that it resisted getting overpowered and prevailed in most illustrated sets of
paintings.
 One of the earliest sets painted in Pali is a Ragamala set by artist Virji in 1623.
 The last phase innovative of Jodhpur painting coincided with the reign of Man Singh (1803–
1843).
 Significant sets painted during his time are the Ramayana (1804), Dhola-Maru, Panchatantra
(1804) and Shiva Purana.
 Ramayana paintings are interesting as the artist has employed his understanding of Jodhpur
to depict Rama’s Ayodhya.
 Hence, one gets an inkling into the bazaars, lanes, gateways, etc., of Jodhpur during that
period.
 This is true for all schools, wherein, local architecture, costumes and cultural aspects get
interwoven with the stories of Krishna, Rama and others, and get depicted in paintings
Jaipur School of Painting
 The Jaipur School of painting originated in its former capital Amer, which was nearest of all
large Rajput states to Mughal capitals—Agra and Delhi.
 Jaipur School of paintings thrived under Sawai Jai Singh’s reign and emerged as a well-
defined independent school.
 Court records reveal that some Mughal painters were brought from Delhi to become a part
of his atelier.
 Artists during his reign painted sets based on Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda, Baramasa and
Ragamala, where the hero’s figure is in striking resemblance with the king.
 Portrait painting was also popular during his time.

 During Pratap Singh’s time, apart from royal portraits and representations of courtly pomp
and splendour, literary and religious themes, such as Gita Govinda, Ragamala, Bhagvata
Purana, etc., got renewed stimulus.
 As elsewhere, many copies were also produced by means of tracing and pouncing.
 By the early nineteenth century, there was a lavish use of gold.
 Jaipur preferred large size formats and produced life-size portraits.
Conclusion
The Rajasthani style of painting including that of Malwa, is marked by bold drawing, strong and
contrasting colours. The treatment of figures is flat without any attempt to show perspective in a
naturalistic manner. Sometimes the surface of the painting is divided into several compartments of
different colours in order to separate one scene from another. Mughal influence is seen in the
refining of drawing and some element of naturalism introduced in figures and trees. Each school of
painting has its distinct facial type, costume, landscape and colour scheme.

Rukmini Devi Arundale catalyzed the renaissance of the Bharatanatyam dance form,
to preserve and popularize it and other Indian traditions. Elaborate. (250 words)
Reference: Indian art and culture – Nitin Singhania
Why the question: The question is part of the static syllabus of General studies paper – 1 and
mentioned as part of Mission-2022 Secure timetable.
Key Demand of the question: To write about the contributions of Rukmini Devi Arundale toward
reviving and achieving global recognition to Bharatanatyam.
Directive:
Elaborate – Give a detailed account as to how and why it occurred, or what is the particular context.
You must be defining key terms where ever appropriate, and substantiate with relevant associated
facts.
Introduction:
Write a brief introduction about Rukmini Devi Arundale – as a person and a performer of
Bharatanatyam.
Body:
Mention about the status of Bharatanatyam in its original ‘sadhir’ style prevalent amongst the
temple dancers, the Devadasis and was considered a vulgar art.
Write about the role that Rukmini Devi Arundale played in popularizing the movement – Rukmini
Devi Arundale was also instrumental in modifying mainly the Pandanallur style of Bharata Natyam
and bringing it to the attention of the West. Rukmini Devi raised Bharata Natyam to a puritan art
form, by removing certain emotional elements evocative of the erotic, such as hip, neck, lip and chest
movements) from the Pandanallur style.
Next, write about the other contributions of Rukmini Devi.
Conclusion:
Write about Bharatanatyam in the present day due to the efforts of Rukmini Devi.
Introduction
Rukmini Devi, founder of Kalakshetra, is credited with giving Bharatanatyam makeover from
sensuous art form to more spiritual & devotional character. Her charismatic personality and
contribution to the renaissance of Indian Classical music attained her niche in the arena of Indian
culture. Rukmini Devi was also known for her efforts towards the protection of animal rights and
their welfare.
Body:
Her contribution to the performing arts industry is unmatchable and one cannot ignore the shackles
of caste and community she broke with it. The institute she founded, Kalakshetra, has gained
international recognition and become synonymous with all things “classical” in India.
Role of Rukmini Devi Arundale in Reviving Bharatanatyam:
 Honoured with the Padma Bhushan in 1956, Rukmini is best known for her visionary work in
the fields of dance, culture, and education that catalysed a renaissance in Indian classical
dance forms.
 Often Rukmini Devi is described as the one who saved the art of Bharatanatyam dance from
extinction. Some scholars also like to think that she appropriated the dance from the
hereditary dance community.

 She is the person who is credited for the renaissance of Bharatnatyam dance form and more
significantly making the dance which was primarily a forte of Devdasis, main stream and
respectable in the society.
 She was the first woman performer other than devadasi to perform bharatanatyam on
stage.
 The fact remains that a deep love for dance inspired her to go to its roots and study it with
diligence with gurus at a time when crucial changes were taking place in our society with
regard to temple dancers.
 Originally the dance form Bharatnatyam was known as Sadhir, practiced only by Devdasis
who with the advent of British Raj very widely maligned in the society. Thus, she not only
revived and resurrected the ancient dance form but also went on to reverse the negative
stereotypes associated with the female practitioners of Sadhir.
 By adopting a puritan approach, she eliminated the dance form of its shringaaror erotic
leanings and magnified the bhakti or devotional aspect, thereby making it more acceptable
to the mainstream of the society.
 She also introduced modern costumes, temple jewellery, set designs, lighting etc which we
know of the trademarks of the modern Bharatnatyam performances.
 Her unique contribution was to destroy what was crude and vulgar in the inherited
traditions of dance and to replace them with sophisticated and refined taste. In this, the
dance form received a new lease of life, going on to earn international approval.
 Other than conceiving and choreographing numerous bharatanatyam pieces, Rukmini

developed a unique curriculum to broaden the dance’s appeal, that included aesthetically
designed jewellery, costumes and stage scenarios.
 She indeed succeeded in giving dance and Bharatnatyam a place of pride in India’s national
narrative.
 Rukmini Devi “retained the positive aspects of the system and persuaded outstanding
musicians and dance gurus to join the faculty and created for them an ambiance devoid of
commercial considerations”.
Conclusion:
Rukmini played an instrumental role in transforming the dance form, giving it a new name, and
popularizing it all over the world as a respectable art form. While Kalakshetra was a major landmark
in her career as a dancer, her years as an MP were just as fruitful as she made sure Article 51 (G) of
the Constitution of India was included under Part IV, making it the fundamental duty of every citizen
to show kindness and compassion to all living beings.
The sculptural art of the Indus valley shows that artists of that time surely had fine
artistic sensibilities and a vivid imagination. Discuss. (250 words)
Why the question:


To write about sculptural art of Indus valley civilisation.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about rich art of Indus valley civilisation.
Body:
Mention the various features of Indus valley civilisation that exhibited fine artistry and imagination –
seals, bronze dancing girl, steatite images, copper sculptures etc. Elaborate upon their vivid features.
Conclusion:
Conclude by the summarising.
Introduction
Sculpture art is one of the most ancient art forms in India. Archaeological studies have confirmed
that Indians were familiar with sculptures about 4000 years before. A flourishing civilisation
emerged on the banks of river Indus in the second half of the third millennium BCE and spread
across larger parts of Western India. A marked feature if this civilisation was the vivid imagination
and artistic sensibilities.
Body
Sculpture art of Indus Valley Civilization:
 Sculpture representation started with knowledge of Terracotta Deities like bearded man,
mother goddess and toy carts, animals were common.
 Harappan sculptors were adept in chiselling of stones. E.g.: male torso figure in red
sandstone and bust of a bearded man in soapstone.
 Apart from sculpturing in terracotta and stone, ancient Indian artists were masters in bronze
sculpting as well.
 The Lost Wax Technique or the ‘Cire-Perdu’ process has been known from the time of the
Indus Valley Civilization itself. This process is in use even today.
 The statue of the Dancing Girl found from Mohenjo Daro is one of the finest examples of
Indus Valley art. It is a bronze statue showing remarkable achievements of the artists of the
Indus Valley. The figurine is about 4 inches tall. Datable to 2500 BC. It is said to be in the
tribhanga it is one of the oldest bronze sculpture. g.: Bronze dancing girl of Mohenjo-Daro,
bronze bull of Kalibangan etc.
 Bronze is an alloy of basically copper and tin. Sometimes zinc was also added although most
of the component is copper.
 The alloy-making process of mixing metals was known to the ancient Indians.
 Bronze sculptures and statuettes of various icons of Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism have
been found from various parts of India dating from the 2nd century CE to the 16th century
CE.
 Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes.

 The metal casting process was also used for making articles of daily use like utensils.
Conclusion
Their artistic versatility showed in the range of materials they used and the forms they made out of
it. The patterns, motives and designs found on the articles shows the creativity that existed and
judging from the excavated evidences, one can only conclude the people of Indus civilization were
indeed true art patrons.
Gandhara School sculpture represents Greco-Buddhist art which is fine and realistic as
the sculptures display quite a sophisticated iconography in an advanced style.
Elaborate. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about the various sophisticated features of Gandhara school of art.
Directive word:
Introduction:
In brief, write about the origins of Gandhara art and its evolution.
Body:
Write in detail about the features of Gandhara school of art. The regions they covered, the
patronage, the important characteristics of their sculpture, the material they used, influences on
them and type of images produced.
Next, comment further on the sophistication in the iconography of images produced. In detail
mention about the nature of predominance of religious art but there are evidences of secular art
especially images of natural motifs, various patterns of life etc. Cite examples to substantiate your
points.
Conclusion:
Summarize the nature of Gandhara art.
Introduction
Gandhara art, style of Buddhist visual art that developed in what is now northwestern Pakistan and
eastern Afghanistan between the 1st century BCE and the 7th century CE. The style, of Greco-Roman
origin, seems to have flourished largely during the Kushana dynasty and was contemporaneous with
an important but dissimilar school of Kushana art at Mathura.
Body
Gandhara art and Buddhism:
 The Gandharan craftsmen made a lasting contribution to Buddhist art in their composition
of the events of the Buddha’s life into set scenes.

 In its interpretation of Buddhist legends, the Gandhara school incorporated many motifs and
techniques from Classical Roman art, including vine scrolls, cherubs bearing garlands,
tritons, and centaurs. The basic iconography, however, remained Indian.
 The materials used for Gandhara sculpture were green phyllite and gray-blue mica
schist which in general, belong to an earlier phase, and stucco, which was used increasingly
after the 3rd century CE. The sculptures were originally painted and gilded.
 The Hellenistic influence was nowhere more dramatic than in Gandhara, a term now used to
describe the school of semi-classical sculptures of Pakistan and Afghanistan in the early
centuries of our era.
 In contrast with Mathura School, the Gandhara School images are known for
their anatomical accuracy, spatial depth, and foreshortening.
 The Gandhara school drew upon the anthropomorphic traditions of Roman religion and
represented the Buddha with a youthful Apollo-like face, dressed in garments resembling
those seen on Roman imperial statues.
 This style of art was closely associated with Mahayana Buddhism and hence the main theme
of this art was Lord Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
 The Buddha and Bodhisattva figures resemble the Greek God Apollo with broad shoulders, a
halo around the head. The physical features such as muscles, nails, hair have been done with
great detail.
 All early Bodhisattvas are shown in wearing turbans, jewelry, and muslin skirts, a costume
that was an adaptation of the actual dress of Kushan and Indian nobles.
 Thus, it can be conjectured that in idea and conception this style was Indian and in execution
it was foreign. One example of the Gandhara style of art is the Bamiyan Buddha statues.
 The Gandhara depiction of the seated Buddha was less successful.
Gandhara art and other religions:
 Although it was dominated by the themes of Lord Buddha, however, there were images on
other subjects also made such as the images of the Greek God Apollo and certain kings as
well.
 Although Buddhist imagery dominates the art of Gandhara, some Hindu deities such as
Skanda, the god of war, were also common.
 Early art from Gandhara often features motifs from Greco-Roman mythology and imperial
representations, as well as western architectural elements such as Corinthian capitals and
friezes of garland-bearing, cupid-like erotes.
 These characteristics make Gandharan works truly distinctive in the history of art.
 This river god is inspired by Roman prototypes, both in the rendering of the figure and in its
depiction as a male. Personifications of rivers in Indian culture are always female.
Conclusion

The schools of Gandhara and Mathura influenced each other, and the general trend was away from
a naturalistic conception and toward a more idealized, abstract image. Gandhara School of Art can
be said as an influence and culmination of both the Indian as well as foreign traditions due to its
strategic location.
Puppetry is one of the most ancient forms of entertainment that combines all the
elements of performing arts as well as visual art such as painting, sculpture, music,
dance, drama etc. Elaborate. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write puppetry as an art from which borrows and combines elements from other art forms.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Start with what Indian puppetry is and its diversity across Indian states.
Body:
Write in detail about how puppetry draws from painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama and other
visual arts. Cite examples to substantiate your points. The diverse forms of Indian puppetry and its
various types.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing about importance of puppetry as visual art.
Introduction
A puppet is one of the most remarkable and ingenious inventions of the man. Puppetry is a type of
narrative theatre; at the crossroads between bardic storytelling and theatre plays. Shows include live
music, narration and gestures taken from dance. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an
important place in traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet theatre are
mostly based on epics and legends. Puppets from different parts of the country have their own
identity. Regional styles of painting and sculpture are reflected in them.
Body:
Puppetry in India
 The earliest reference to the art of puppetry is found in Tamil classic

‘Silappadikaaram’ written around the 1st or 2nd century B.C.
 In Sanskrit terminology Puttalika and Puttika means ‘little sons’.
 Ancient Hindu philosophers have paid the greatest tribute to puppeteers. They have likened
God Almighty to a puppeteer and the entire universe to a puppet stage.
 Srimad Bhagavata, the great epic depicting the story of Lord Krishna in his childhood say
that with three strings-Satta, Raja and Tama, the God manipulates each object in the
universe as a marionette.

 Natyashastra, the masterly treatise on dramaturgy written sometime during 2nd century BC
to 2nd century AD., does not refer to the art of puppetry but the producer-cum-director of
the human theatre has been termed as ‘Sutradhar’ meaning the holder of strings.
 Stories adapted from puranic literature, local myths and legends usually form the content of
traditional puppet theatre in India which, in turn, imbibes elements of all creative
expressions like painting, sculpture, music, dance, drama, etc.
 For instance, theKathputli of Rajasthan is accompanied by a highly dramatised version of

the regional music. In Kundhei of Odisha, the music is drawn from the popular tunes of the
region and is sometimes influenced by the music of Odisha dance.
 Almost all types of puppets are found in India. Puppetry throughout the ages has held an
important place in traditional entertainment. Like traditional theatre, themes for puppet
theatre are mostly based on epics and legends.
 g.: In Tholu Bommalatta of AP, the music is dominantly influenced by the classical music of
the region and the theme of the puppet plays are drawn from the Ramayana, Mahabharata
and Puranas. Episodes enacted in Gombeyatta of Karnataka are usually based on Prasangas
of the Yakshagana plays. The music that accompanies is dramatic and beautifully blends folk
and classical elements.
 Puppets from different parts of the country have their own identity.
 g. In Thogalu Gombeyatta of Karnataka, the puppets however differ in size according to

their social status, for instance, large size for kings and religious characters and smaller size
for common people or servants.
 Regional styles of painting and sculpture are reflected in them.
 g.: the traditional glove puppet play is called Pavakoothu. It came into existence during the
18th century due to the influence of Kathakali, the famous classical dance-drama of Kerala,
on puppet performances. The face of the puppets are decorated with paints, small and thin
pieces of gilded tin, the feathers of the peacock, etc. The theme for Glove puppet plays in
Kerala is based on the episodes from either the Ramayana or the Mahabharata.
However, the art of puppetry is dying due to the following reasons:
 Lack of patronage in the modern age.
 Competition from Electronic media which is a preferred mode of entertainment. People find
it more appealing to watch mythological stories of Ramayan and Mahabharat on electronic
media rather than in Puppetry.
 Puppetry Art is usually confined to only devotional and mythological stories.
 With changing times, Puppetry does not take up modern social issues.
 Puppetry lacks modernization in terms of script, lighting, sound and other stage effects.
Conclusion:
Besides traditional puppetry, India is home to a lively contemporary scene. Independent India
opened up to artistic exchange, and new forms and techniques affected puppetry, introducing new
styles and giving origin to a refined urban puppet theatre. The birth of modern troupes and the
opening to the international scene created new contexts for traditional puppetry to
flourish. Several festivals organized in the last decades offer the stage to traditional troupes. So far
modernity threatened the very survival of traditional puppetry, but a more conscious use of
contemporary means and opportunities is actually the key to preserve this rich heritage of India.
Folk art forms of India are a manifestation of cultural diversity with regional
specializations. Discuss. (250 words)
Why the question:
To write about Harappan art and its relation with Harappan society.
Directive word:
Introduction:
Begin by giving a brief about folk art in India with examples.
Body:
Mention the major elements of folk art in India. Elaborate how they are manifestation of cultural
diversity as well as regional specializations. Substantiate with examples.
Conclusion:
Summarize with respect to folk art of India.
Introduction
India had always been known as the land that portrayed cultural and traditional vibrancy through its
conventional arts and crafts. The states and union territories sprawled across the country have their
own distinct cultural and traditional identities, and are displayed through various forms of art
prevalent there. Every region in India has its own style and pattern of art, which is known as folk
art. It consists of paintings, music, dance, drama, martial arts etc.
Body
The folk and tribal arts of India are very ethnic and simple, and yet colourful and vibrant enough to
speak volumes about the country’s rich heritage. Folk art generally reflects the creative energy
found in rural areas that acts as an undercurrent to the craftsmanship of the tribal people. They
are intertwined with the lifestyle and activities of the people. Every social event of their lives is
linked to one or the other folk art form, making it an imperative part of life.
 Folk Paintings:
o The rural folk paintings of India bear distinctive colourful designs, which are treated
with religious and mystical motifs.
o Some of the most famous folk paintings of India are the Madhubani paintings of
Bihar, Patachitra paintings from the state of Odisha, the Nirmal paintings of
Andhra Pradesh, Kangra painting from Himachal Pradesh and Warli paintings from
Maharashtra and other such folk art forms.

o Each school has its distinct style of colour combinations or figures and its features.
o Folk art is however not restricted only to paintings, but also stretches to other art
forms such as pottery, home decorations, ornaments, cloths-making, and so on.
o Folk paintings have a relationship with household ceremonies of marriage, birth;

worship/ reverence for nature; religious occasions and worships etc.
o Warli artists are animists living in the rugged part of the isolated Sahyadri range.
Their traditional art forms were in the past restricted to images of the mother-
goddess and can be traced back to the Neolithic period. Their Tarpa dance reflects
the cooperation of the villagers as they join hands and sway in quick circles to the
steady bass drone of a wind instrument called the tarpa.
 Folk Dances:
o The regional dances of India, such as the Bhangra dance of Punjab, the Dandiya of
Gujarat, the Bihu dance of Assam, etc, which project the cultural heritage of those
regions, are prominent contenders in the field of Indian folk art.
o These folk dances are performed by people to express their exhilaration on every
possible event or occasion, such as the arrival of seasons, the birth of a child,
weddings, festivals, etc.
 Folk Theatres:
o India has a longest and richest tradition in theatre going back to at least 5000 years.
o The origin of Indian theatre is closely related to ancient rituals and seasonal
festivities of the country.
o The actors of Bhand Pather in J&K are mainly from the farming community and the
impact of their way of living, ideals and sensitivity in the drama is discernible. Swang
in Haryana, where Religious stories and folk tales are enacted by a group of ten or
twelve persons in an open area or an open air theatre surrounded by the audience.
o Ramman: It is celebrated every year in Baisakh month (april) in the courtyard of the
temple of Bhumiyal Devta situated in Chamoli district, Uttarakhand. Jatra in
Bengal refers to the musical plays performed at fairs in honour of gods, or religious
rituals and ceremonies. Mudiyettu is a traditional ritual theatre and folk dance
drama from Kerala that enacts the mythological tale of a battle between the
goddess Kali and the demon Darika. The ritual is a part of the Bhagavathi or
bhadrakali cult.
Conclusion
The folk and tribal arts of India speak volumes about the country’s rich heritage. Art forms in India
have been exquisite and explicit. Local fairs, festivals, deities, heroes (warriors), myths and
legends play a vital role in these art forms. The Governments, as well as other societies and
associations, have therefore made all efforts to promote such art forms, which have become an
intrinsic part of India’s cultural identity.

Several walks of Indian life were greatly affected by the Turkish conquest. Throw light
on its socio-cultural impact. (150 words, 10 marks)
Introduction
The establishment and expansion of the Delhi Sultanate led to the evolution of a powerful and
efficient administrative system. At its zenith the authority of Delhi Sultan had extended as far south
as Madurai. Although the Delhi Sultanate had disintegrated, their administrative system made a
powerful impact on the Indian provincial kingdoms and later on the Mughal system of
administration.
Body
Background
 The Muslim invasions into India had ultimately resulted in the establishment of Delhi
Sultanate which existed from A.D. 1206 to 1526.
 Five different dynasties – the Slave, Khalji, Tughlaq, Sayyids and Lodis – ruled under the
Delhi Sultanate.
 The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam.
 The Sultans considered themselves as representatives of the Caliph.
Socio-cultural impact of Turkish conquest on India
 Social-life: The Muslim nobles occupied high offices and very rarely the Hindu nobles were
given high position in the government. The Hindus were considered zimmis or protected
people for which they were forced to pay a tax called jiziya.
 Local Administration: The provinces under the Delhi Sultanate were called iqtas. They were
initially under the control of the nobles. But the governors of the provinces were called
the muqtis or walis. They were to maintain law and order and collect the land revenue. The
provinces were divided into shiqs and the next division was pargana.
 Economy: After consolidating their position in India, the Delhi Sultans introduced reforms in
the land revenue administration. The lands were classified into three categories:
1. i) iqta land – lands assigned to officials as iqtas instead of payment for their services.
2. ii) khalisa land – land under the direct control of the Sultan and the revenues collected were
spent for the maintenance of royal court and royal household.
 iii) inam land – land assigned or granted to religious leaders or religious institutions.
1. iv) The peasantry paid one third of their produce as land revenue, and sometimes even one
half of the produce.
 Art and Architecture: The Turks introduced arches, domes, lofty towers or minarets and
decorations using the Arabic script. They used the skill of the Indian stone cutters. They also
added colour to their buildings by using marbles, red and yellow sand stones.
1. i) The most magnificent building of the 13th century was the Qutub Minar which was
founded by Aibek and completed by Iltutmish

2. ii) Later, Alauddin Khalji added an entrance to the Qutub Minar called Alai Darwaza. The
dome of this arch was built on scientific lines.
 Music: New musical instruments such as sarangi and rabab were introduced during this
period. Amir Khusrau introduced many new ragas such as ghora and sanam. He evolved a
new style of light music known as qwalis by blending the Hindu and Iranian
systems. The invention of sitar was also attributed to him.
 Urbanization: During the Sultanate period, the process of urbanization gained momentum.
A number of cities and towns had grown during this period. Lahore, Multan, Broach,
Anhilwara, Laknauti, Daulatabad, Delhi and Jaunpur were important among them.
Conclusion
The Delhi Sultanate was an Islamic state with its religion Islam. The Sultans considered themselves as
representatives of the Caliph. Not only they extended their rule over North India, but also they
penetrated into the Deccan and South India. Their rule in India resulted in far-reaching changes in
society, administration and cultural life.
The Mughal architecture evolved in a phased manner, reached its Zenith and attained
its climax under Shahjahan. Elaborate. (150 words, 10 marks)
Introduction
Mughal architecture, building style that flourished in northern and central India under the
patronage of the Mughal emperors from the mid-16th to the late 17th century. The Mughal period
marked a striking revival of Islamic architecture in northern India. Under the patronage of the
Mughal emperors, Persian, Turkish, Indian, and various provincial styles were fused to produce
works of unusual quality and refinement.
Body
Important Features of Mughal Architecture:
 Blend of Indian, Persian, and Turkish architectural style.
 Different types of buildings, such as majestic gates (entrances), forts, mausoleums, palaces,
mosques, sarais, etc.
 Building material: Mostly, red sandstone and white marble were used.
 Specific features such as the Charbagh style (garden layout) of the mausoleums, pronounced
bulbous domes, slender turrets at the corners, broad gateways, beautiful calligraphy,
arabesque, and geometric patterns on pillars and walls, and palace halls supported on
pillars.
 The arches, chhatri, and various styles of domes became hugely popular in the Indo-Islamic
architecture and were further developed under the Mughals.
 It became so widespread especially in north India that these can be seen further in the
colonial architecture of Indo-Sarcenic style.
Evolution of Mughal Architecture
 Babur

o Due to his short reign (1526-1530), most of which was spent in wars, Babur could
not leave any significant construction except the mosque of Kabuli Bagh at Panipat
and Jama Masjid at Sambhal near Delhi.
o Babur also built Ram Bagh, the first Mughal Garden in India (1528) in Charbagh
Style located in Agra.
 Humayun
o Humayun succeeded Babur, but throughout his reign, he was constantly embroiled
in a struggle with Sher Shah Suri.
o He laid the foundation of the city named Dinpanah but could not finish it.
o Humayun’s Tomb, also known as the precursor of the Taj Mahal was the first
imposing structure of the Mughals which was built by his widow Hamida Begum and
designed by Persian architect Mirak Mirza Ghiyas.
o The mausoleum built upon a raised platform is a mix of Indian and Persian artistry
using red sandstone and white marble.
o It has a Persian Charbagh style. The tomb was declared as a UNESCO World Heritage
Site in 1993.
o The Taj Mahal is the climax and therefore perhaps the most famous monument built
under the Charbagh layout.
 Sher Shah Suri (Sur Dynasty):
o He built the Quila-e-Quanah mosque of Old Fort in Delhi, Rohtas Fort in

Pakistan, Sher Shah Suri Masjid in Patna in Afghan-style
o He also built the famous Grand Trunk Road.
o His period saw the transition from Lodhi style to the Mughal style of architecture.
 Akbar:
o The reign of Akbar (1556-1605) witnessed immense developments in Mughal art and
architecture.
o He built the city of Fatehpur Sikri which was the first planned city of the Mughals
and served as his capital from 1571 to 1585.
o BulandDarwaza (1576, built to commemorate Akbar’s victory over Gujarat

kings), Jama Masjid, Diwan-i-aam, Diwan-i-khaas, Birbal’s house, Tomb of Saint
Salim Chisthi are some of the important monuments in Fatehpur Sikri.
o He also built the Govind Dev temple in Vrindavan.
 Jahangir:
o The prince had a special appreciation for the paintings over architecture.
o He built the tomb of Itimad-ud-Daula (father of his wife Nur Jahan) displaying the
world’s finest Pietra-dura works and completed Akbar’s tomb at Sikandra.

o He also built the famous Shalimar Bagh in Srinagar, Moti Masjid at Lahore.
 Shah Jahan:
o He immortalized himself as he built the Taj Mahal in the memory of his late wife,
Mumtaz Mahal.
o He is rightly called ‘the prince of builders’ as the Mughal architecture reached its
zenith under his reign.
o He built Shahjahanabad, the 7th city of Delhi, today is known as Old Delhi.
o He made extensive use of white marble as opposed to red sandstone which was
preferred by his predecessors.
o He also built the Jama Masjid in Delhi, Moti Masjid in the Agra Fort, and the Sheesh
Mahal in the Lahore Fort brilliantly using pietra dura and complex mirror work.
 Aurangzeb:
o He preferred simplicity over the grandeur and repaired more mosques than he built.
o Aurangzeb is also said to have destroyed numerous Hindu temples as well.
o A beautiful pearl mosque in the Red Fort, Delhi, and the Bibi ka Maqbara in
Aurangabad for his wife are only a few notable mentions in his long reign.
o Thus, overall the Mughal architecture saw a decline in the Aurangzeb’s reign.
Conclusion
Thus, stating the seemingly obvious, Mughal architecture developed into a one of a kind
architectural style which has withstood the test of time. It is appreciated widely by people all across
the world due to its distant features as discussed above. It is up to us architects of India to carry
forward and preserve our traditional styles of architecture and create something new that is looked
upon with pride by our future generations.
The Freedom Struggle – its various stages and important contributors

/contributions from different parts of the country.
Enumerating the essential elements of Gandhi’s political and social philosophy,
discuss his various contributions as an important figure of Indian and world history.
(250 words)
Introduction
Gandhiji was a thinker, writer, public intellectual, political activist, political theorist and, above all, a
philosopher who invented a new philosophical way of life. As a philosopher, he undoubtedly
deserves to be ranked alongside the Buddha and Socrates.

On January 30, 1948, the Father of the Nation’ was assassinated at Gandhi Smriti in the Birla House
during the evening prayers. January 30 is the day when Mahatma Gandhi was martyred and the
Government of India announced the day as Shaheed Diwas or Martyrs’ Day.
Body
Essential elements of Gandhi’s political philosophy and his valuable contributions
 Mahatma Gandhi successfully weaponized truth, satyagraha, and peace during India’s
struggle for independence.
 These ideals inspired great men across the world, including Martin Luther King Jr. and
Nelson Mandela. Their lives stand as a testament to their indomitable will and the courage
to practice the ideals.
 Mahatma Gandhi believed that the true test of life for the individual can be summarized in
two principles: self-discipline and self-restraint. In this relation, he observed: “A self-
indulgent man lives to eat; a self-restrained man eats to live.”
 Mahatma Gandhi saw his place among the weakest and the poorest. His notion of a just
and truthful politics was that in such an environment, the weakest should have the same
opportunities as the strongest.
 Gandhiji is a great example of simplicity and transparency. Gandhi’s simplicity was reflected
in his deeds and acts, but mostly in his mode of life.
 Mahatma Gandhi believed in the interrelated nature of human existence. He was interested
in the self-transformative nature of the citizens which seems important in the upholding of
the ethic of human action.
 Mahatma Gandhi gives ethical and political primacy to the two concepts of self-realization
and self-rule. For Gandhi, a self-realized and self-conscious community is a society of citizens
who reconcile the self-determination of the individual with the recognition of the shared
values in the community.
 The Gandhian technique of mobilising people has been successfully employed by many
oppressed societies around the world under the leadership of people like Martin Luther King
in the United States, Nelson Mandela in South Africa, and Aung San Suu Kyi in Myanmar,
which is an eloquent testimony to the continuing relevance of Mahatma Gandhi.
 Gandhi’s concept of basic education includes holding of creative activities like cleaning
surroundings, spreading communal unity, health education programme, addiction relief
programme etc. which can instil national, social, spiritual and cultural values among
children.
 Even if Gandhi is no more among us, his spirit has been with the great transformative
leaders of the 20th and 21st centuries like Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, Martin Luther King, Jr.,
Nelson Mandela, the Dalai Lama, Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Václav Havel and Pope Francis.
Conclusion
Martyrs’ Day is an occasion to remind us of the fact that thousands of brave soldiers, some
prominent, many obscure, had walked on the thorny path of resistance fighting for India’s freedom

in the epic struggle spearheaded by Mahatma Gandhi. As a global thinker with a transhistorical and
trans geographical influence, Gandhi was a moral and political leader who stayed out of the box.
During the struggle for India’s Independence the artists from Bengal protested against
British way of art. They looked towards the eastern culture for their ideas, techniques
and inspiration. Elaborate. (250 words,15 marks)
Introduction
Originating in Calcutta and Shantiniketan, the Bengal School of Art promoted a distinctly Indian
modernism which blossomed throughout India during the British Raj of the early 20th century.
Founded by Abanindranath Tagore, this movement was associated with Indian Nationalism more
specifically by the Swadeshi movement as a revolt against the tyranny of the British that posed a
threat to Indian sensibilities and to revive traditional art forms. The Bengal school of art paved the
way for the Progressive Artists Group which now constitutes a major portion of the Modern Indian
artists.
Body
Characteristic features of Bengal School of art

 Rooted in the pride of nationalism, the avant-garde movement transformed Indian art by
bringing ‘Swadeshi’ values to Indian Paintings.
 Bengal school in painting was called the Renaissance School as well as the Revivalist
School because this movement endeavoured for revival of the Indian ancient and medieval
traditions.
 Led by reformers and artists like E.B. Havell and Abanindranath Tagore, the Bengal School of
Art originated in erstwhile Calcutta and Santiniketan, but spread across the country as
a voice against western influence.
 By synthesizing folk art, Indian painting traditions, Hindu imagery, indigenous materials and
depictions of contemporary rural life, artists of the Bengal School of Art celebrate humanism
and bring a dynamic voice to Indian identity, freedom, and liberation.
 The paintings were Simple and standard paintings with attractive colour scheme technique.
Bright colours were not used in such paintings.
 The paintings were so evocative and that they bore the potential to draw the viewers right
into it immersing them in the story they told.
 Every painting was unique given the style factor and displayed immense creativity of the
painter.
 The very iconic painting ‘Bharat Mata’turned out to be a complete deviation from earlier
representations of India by other artists. Being gentle yet vulnerable and a subjugated
figure, this became a symbol of national movement.
 The Japanese influence of wash technique is apparent from the soft misty quality seen in the
paintings which became a trademark.

 The turned to the inspiration to medieval Indian traditions of the miniature paintings and
ancient art of mural paintings in Ajanta Caves. The paintings of Ajanta and Bagh, Mogul,
Rajput and Pahari miniatures provided the models.
 The continuity of earlier traditions was sought to be maintained by borrowing from legends
and classical literature like the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Gita, and Puranas, the writings
of Kalidasa and Omar Khayyam.
 The above experiments called “avant garde” in artist’s parlance, led to the development of
the Bengal School of Art. Avant Garderefers to the people or works that are experimental or
innovative, particularly with respect to art, culture, and politics.
 One more immediate reason of rise of such artists was the widespread influence of the
Indian spiritual idea to west.
 The other artists of this group were Gaganendranath Tagore, Asit Kumar Haldar, M.A.R
Chughtai, Sunayani Devi (sister of Abanindranath Tagore), Kshitindranath Majumdar,
Nandalal Bose, Kalipada Ghoshal, Sughra Rababi and Sudhir Khastgir.
Conclusion
With the spread of modernist ideas in the 1920s, the influence of the Bengal School began to
decline. But there is no doubt that the revolutionary movement fuelled artists to look for a distinct
Indian identity, and in that sense, the Bengal School was the harbinger of Modern Art in India. Till
date, the Government College of Art and Craft in Kolkata and the Viswa Bharati University in
Santiniketan continue to train students in the traditional styles of tempera and wash painting,
carrying forward the legacy of one of the most significant period in Indian art.


Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India.

In India, prejudices and differences and how they project onto politics co-exist
alongside valuing diversity. Alternative ideas, inclusionary narratives exist even if the
corresponding politics does not. Comment. (250 words)
Reference: Indian Express
Why the question:
Pew Research survey findings on religion and nationhood in India in July 2021 highlighted that
valuing religious diversity (84 per cent) is among the key attributes of being an Indian along with
respecting elders (88 per cent) and having an Indian ancestry (70 per cent). On the other hand, a
majority also believes that being a Hindu (56 per cent) and speaking Hindi (57 per cent) are
important. Among Hindus, the support is higher — for 64 per cent, being a Hindu and for 59 per cent
speaking Hindi is important for Indian-ness.
To write about how differences and diversity and inclusivity coexist in India.
Directive word:
opinion thereupon.
Introduction:
Begin by defining various attributes of diversity.
Body:
First, mention the various political narratives which bring out sharp distinctions in prejudices. Throw
light on homogenous tendencies which ignore diversity.
Next, write about how despite the above shortcomings how inclusion and diversity exist as
cornerstones of Indian society. Substantiate with examples.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward to achieve inclusivity by overcoming political differences.
Introduction
India is one of the most diverse lands found anywhere else in the world. From language to dressing-
style, the country has been hailed as one of the most complex amalgamation of various cultural
identities. The large number of different cultures, knitted together in such a close and perfect
manner, make India’s diversity one of the wonders of the world.
Pew Research survey findings on religion and nationhood in India in July 2021 highlighted that
valuing religious diversity (84 per cent) is among the key attributes of being an Indian along with
respecting elders (88 per cent) and having an Indian ancestry (70 per cent). On the other hand, a
majority also believes that being a Hindu (56 per cent) and speaking Hindi (57 per cent) are
important. Among Hindus, the support is higher — for 64 per cent, being a Hindu and for 59 per cent
speaking Hindi is important for Indian-ness.
Body
Homogenizing tendencies:
 Pew Research survey findings on religion and nationhood in India in July 2021 highlighted
that valuing religious diversity (84 per cent) is among the key attributes of being an Indian
along with respecting elders (88 per cent) and having an Indian ancestry (70 per cent).

 On the other hand, a majority also believes that being a Hindu (56 per cent) and speaking
Hindi (57 per cent) are important.
 Among Hindus, the support is higher — for 64 per cent, being a Hindu and for 59 per cent
speaking Hindi is important for Indianness.
Factors Leading to Unity amidst Diversity in India
 The entire country is governed by one single Constitution.Even, most of the states follow a
generalised scheme of 3-tier government structure, thus imparting uniformity in national
governance framework. Further, the Constitution guarantees certain fundamental rights to
all citizens regardless of their age, gender, class, caste, religion, etc.
 Religious co-existence:Religion tolerance is the unique feature of religions in India due to

which multiple religions co-exist in India. Freedom of religion and religious practice is
guaranteed by the Constitution itself. Moreover, there is no state religion and all religions
are given equal preference by the state.
 Inter-State mobility:The Constitution guarantees freedom to move throughout the territory

of India under Article 19 (1) (d), thus promoting a sense of unity and brotherhood among the
masses.
 Other factors such as uniform pattern of law, penal code, and administrative works(Eg. All
India services) too lead to uniformity in the criminal justice system, policy implementation
etc.
 Economic integration:The Constitution of India secures the freedom of Trade, Commerce

and Intercourse within the Territory of India under Article 301. Further, the Goods and
Service Tax (GST) have paved way for ‘one country, one tax, one national market’, thus
facilitating unity among different regions.
 Institution of pilgrimage and religious practices:In India, religion and spirituality have great
significance. From Badrinath and Kedarnath in the north to Rameshwaram in the south,
Jagannath Puri in the east to Dwaraka in the west the religious shrines and holy rivers are
spread throughout the length and breadth of the country. Closely related to them is the age-
old culture of pilgrimage, which has always moved people to various parts of the country
and fostered in them a sense of geo-cultural unity.
 Fairs and festivals:They also act as integrating factors as people from all parts of the country
celebrate them as per their own local customs. Eg. Diwali is celebrated throughout by
Hindus in the country, similarly Id and Christmas are celebrated by Muslims and Christians,
respectively. Celebration of inter-religious festivals is also seen in India.
 Climatic integration via monsoon:The flora and fauna in the entire Indian subcontinent,
agricultural practices, life of people, including their festivities revolve around the monsoon
season in India.
 Sports and Cinema:These are followed by millions in the country, thus, acting as a binding
force across the length and breadth of India.
Factors that threaten the unity:

Unfortunately, the peace and understanding among different communities has been endangered
lately. The biggest of these is the problem of communalism.
 Religious fundamentalism and communal fanaticism have raised their ugly heads which
vitiate the atmosphere of peace and tranquillity of the nation. The ugliest manifestation of
this trend is the occurrence of communal riots witha disconcerting frequency in some parts
of the country.
 There has been a steady rise in the number of communal incidents in India since
independence.
 People are being lynched on suspicious grounds.These communal elements and their
presence in society now are being used by political parties and politicians for their vested
interests.
 Sectarianism: Sectarianism poses another threat to national integration because it creates a

further gulf among various sects of the people belonging to the same religion. For example,
there is a tussle and strife between Sunnis and Shias of Muslim community on the one hand
and Kabir-panth and Gorakhpanth or Nirankaris and the Alkali Sikhs of the Sikh community
on the other hand.
 Casteism: More and more power is getting concentrated in the hands of the dominant
castes and the latter resent the attempts made by the lower castes to move up. This has
resulted in inter-caste rivalries and tensions. Reservation issue has further intensified the
differences between various castes
 Linguism: Controversy over ‘official language’ had triggered off serious law and order
problems in southern belts.
 Regionalism: Regionalism presents a serious threat to national integration. Cultural

diversity, economic and social disparities, religious and linguistic differences, economic
imbalances and uneven regional development are the root causes of the growth spurt of
regionalism. The recent attacks in Gujarat on migrants from other states shows that
regionalist feelings precede over the Indian feeling.
 Corruption and Illiteracy: Due to Indian diversity and previous traditions, politics is limited
to certain families carrying out the legacy. This has increased overall corruption in India and
due to nervousness of these politicians to look after poor and disabled in turn increased
illiteracy rate.
 Lack of Urbanization in Some states: Only because of diversity, still there are many states
with underdeveloped infrastructures where there is no electricity and no proper roads for
transportation. On the other hand, some states are developing with rapid pace to compete
with some of the biggest commercial cities in the world.
Conclusion
Despite the diversity in terms of race, religion, Language, caste and culture India is still a strong
nation tied together with integration and unity in both politico-geographic and cultural backgrounds.
Along with diversity and various such aspects, India is on its way of growth and development and it is
worth mentioning that it has one of the string and stable economies in the world.

Has religion increased the social cohesiveness in Indian society? Argue (150 Words)
Reference: India Today
Introduction
Social cohesion is defined as the willingness of members of a society to cooperate with each other in
order to survive and prosper. It involves building shared values and communities of interpretation,
reducing disparities in wealth and income, and generally enabling people to have a sense that they
are engaged in a common enterprise, facing shared challenges, and that they are members of the
same community.
Body
Religion as a source of social cohesion
 Religion gives people the opportunity to share common values, create a sense of unity and
foster a sense of community.
 Religious rituals, traditions, customs are not meaningless, but they contribute to social
cohesion.
 Religious diversity is not always a source of conflict or societal dysfunction, but it enriches
our life by discovering unity within diverse religious communities.
 Religious institutions serve a greater purpose for the betterment of humanity.

 Many faith communities encourage altruistic values such as compassion, kindness, and
mercy for the greater good of humanity.
 Common goals and adherence to altruistic values help them collaborate with one another in
constructing a healthy social environment.
 Moral philosophy emphasized by religious institutions establishes a sense of responsibility

that transcends beyond personal to social responsibility.
Religion as source of conflict
 Religion, for many, is a source of conflict on various levels; social, economic, and political.
 Throughout world history, humanity has suffered greatly in the name of nationality and
religion.
 There is a negative connotation with religion, because crusades, jihad, holy wars, or
violence are part of religious history.
 Religious extremists can contribute to conflict escalation. They see radical measures as
necessary to fulfilling God’s wishes.
 Many religions also have significant strains of evangelism, which can be conflictual. Believers
are called upon to spread the word of God and increase the numbers of the flock.
o For example, the effort to impose Christianity on subject peoples was an important
part of the conflict surrounding European colonization.
 Religious nationalists tend to view their religious traditions as so closely tied to their nation
or their land that any threat to one of these is a threat to one’s existence.

o Therefore, religious nationalists respond to threats to the religion by seeking a

political entity in which their faith is privileged at the expense of others.
Conclusion
Therefore, in part, the solution is to promote a heightened awareness of the positive peace building
and reconciliatory role religion has played in many conflict situations. More generally, fighting
ignorance can go a long way. Interfaith dialogue would be beneficial at all levels of religious
hierarchies and across all segments of religious communities. Where silence and misunderstanding
are all too common, learning about other religions would be a powerful step forward. Being
educated about other religions does not mean conversion but may facilitate understanding and
respect for other faiths. Communicating in a spirit of humility and engaging in self-criticism would
also be helpful.
Delineate the changes that were witnessed from early Vedic period to the later Vedic
period in the Indian society. (150 words)
Introduction
The Vedic age is the period between 1500 to 600 BCE, as its reconstruction has been made
from Vedic text as the primary source. The Rig-Vedic age is dated between 1500-1000 BC and the
Aryans were confined to the Indus region. The Later Vedic age started in 1000 BC and spans till 600
BC. The Satapatha Brahmana refers to the expansion of Aryans to the eastern Gangetic plains in
later Vedic period.
Body:
Background:
The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal. The basic unit of society was family or graham. The head of the
family was known as grahapathi.
The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing. Their
wealth was estimated in terms of their cattle. When they permanently settled in North India they
began to practice agriculture.
Condition of women: Women were given equal opportunities as men for their spiritual and
intellectual development.
There were women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period.
Women could even attend the popular assemblies.
There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent.
Elements of Change:
Political life: Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period. Many jana or tribes were
amalgamated to form janapadas or rashtras in the later Vedic period.
The Later Vedic people were familiar with the sea and they traded with countries like Babylon.
Social organisation: The four divisions of society (Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas and Sudras) or the
Varna system was thoroughly established during the Later Vedic period.
Condition of women: They were considered inferior and subordinate to men. Women also lost their
political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages had become common. According theAitreya
Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of misery.
Religion: Gods of the Early Vedic period like Indra and Agni lost their importance.Prajapathi (the
creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer) became prominent during the Later Vedic
period.
Conclusion:
With the social organisation deepening, there was also emergence of new religions such as Buddhism
and Jainism towards the end of Later Vedic period. Also, the authors of the Upanishads, which is the

essence of Hindu philosophy, turned away from the useless rituals and insisted on true knowledge
(jnana) for peace and salvation.
Value addition
Elements of continuity:
 Economic condition: Iron was used extensively in this period and this enabled the people to
clear forests and to bring more land under cultivation. Agriculture became the chief
occupation.
 Social life: In the family, the power of the father increased during the Later Vedic period.
 The women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.
 The king performed various rituals and sacrifices to strengthen his position. They include
Rajasuya (consecration ceremony), Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race).
 Sacrifices were still important and the rituals connected with them became more elaborate.
Tribal languages are a treasure trove of knowledge about a region’s flora, fauna and
medicinal plants. However, when a language declines, that knowledge system is
completely gone. Suggest steps to safeguard these endangered languages. (250
words)
Reference: Down to Earth
Why the question:
There are 7,000 living languages in the world and around 3,000 are considered as ‘endangered’. This
means that almost half of the planet’s current linguistic diversity is under threat. The situation in
India is alarming. Some 197 languages are in various stages of endangerment in our country, more
than any other country in the world.
To write about ways to safeguard endangered tribal languages in India.
Introduction:
Begin by giving a statistic regarding tribal languages in India and examples of endangered tribal
languages in India.
Body:
In the first part, rich repository of tribal languages and its various applications citing examples. Write
about the implications of decline of language systems.
Next, suggest measures to safeguard and protect these endangered tribal languages – Mother
Tongue Based Multi-Lingual Education, innovative, cultural and entertainment programmes, UNESCO
list of endangered languages etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward.
Introduction
According to UNESCO, any language that is spoken by less than 10,000 people is potentially
endangered. In India, after the 1971 census, Government decided to not include any language
spoken by less than 10,000 in the official list of languages. In India, therefore, all the languages that
are spoken by less than 10,000 people are treated by the state as not worthy of mention and treated
by the UNESCO as potentially endangered. According to the People’s Linguistic Survey of India

2013, around 220 languages has been lost in the last 50 years and 197 has been categorised
as Endangered.
Body
Endangered tribal languages
 Examples of such languages would be Wadari, Kolhati, Golla, Gisari.
 These are languages of nomadic people in Maharashtra, Karnataka and Telangana.
 Then there several tribal languages as well, such as Pauri, Korku, Haldi, Mavchi. In Assam,
there is Moran, Tangsa, Aiton.
 There seems to be about 250 languages that disappeared in the last 60 years.
 There used to be languages called Adhuni, Dichi, Ghallu, Helgo, Katagi.
 The Bolanguage in Andaman disappeared in 2010 and the Majhi language in Sikkim
disappeared in 2015.
Importance of tribal languages

 The primary need to conserve any language is to conserve the cultures associated with
them. This includes literature, food habits and lifestyle.
 As Noam Chomsky put it, “A language is not just words. It’s a culture, a tradition, a
unification of a community.”
 Tribal languages are fundamental to understand the world we live in, our origin, the roots
that we all came from and what humans are capable of.
 An experience of generations is preserved in indigenous languages. Languages serve as the

medium of transmitting cultures from one generation to the other.
 Many tribal areas still follow learning methods wherein the students are needed to repeat
the text after the teachers. This is how the transfer of knowledge takes place in these areas.
 Languages teach us values, respect for others, and respect for ourselves.
 With a dying language die thousands of stories, millions of lessons, and a lifetime of
experience. A language’s death is akin to erasing a part of our history.
 It is language that distinguishes one ethnic community from another. It is an important tool
for mapping out the geographical identity of the speaker particularly in a crisis situation.
Measures to safeguard these endangered languages
 Tribal languages should be endorsed through innovative, cultural and entertainment

programmes, suggest linguistic experts.
 For instance, a local community radio channel called ‘Asur Mobile Radio’ in Jharkhand
launched cultural programmes in the Asur language, which has only 7,000-8,000 speakers.
 There is a need to promote tribal languages as a medium of communication and education

in tribal-dominated districts. It can significantly reduce the communication gap and school
dropout rate.

 It is important to integrate indigenous knowledge systems alongside modern sciences in the

curriculum of schools.
 There is a need to create livelihood support for the speakers of the language. If they have
livelihood available within their language, nobody would want to switch from their language
to any other language.
 Digital media allows for their documentation in audio-visual formats now. Simply recording
audio or video of folk songs/folk tales in different languages can help preserve not just the
language/dialect but also the folk culture.
 In the same manner, the traditional knowledge about sustainable living, medicines, farming
and architecture that tribals store in their memories can also be documented for
preservation and dissemination
 There is a need to set up departments in central universities to study the dying languages
and work towards their promotion, introduction of these languages as school subjects in
areas where they are spoken, and schemes to mobilise communities to continue the
language traditions.
 The proposed language departments in central universities can set up libraries or museums
with audio and video material showing the oral traditions of these languages.
 Such documentation is expected to help preserve these tongues, and the audiotapes could
be used as teaching tools within the communities.
 Institutions like Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL) should take lead in studying and
preparing materials in as many minority and tribal languages as possible.
 It should be a special endeavour of CIIL to promote and document the endangered

languages of India, which are very much a part of India’s plural cultural heritage.
Conclusion
The Government of India launched Scheme for Protection and Preservation of Endangered
Languages (SPPEL) to document and archive the country’s languages that have become endangered
or likely to be endangered in the near future. It is high time for others to appreciate the important
contribution of tribal languages in enriching the world’s rich cultural and linguistic diversity. A
healthy nexus and coordination between voluntary organisations, linguists, and the government is a
must.
Role of women and women’s organization; population and associated issues,

poverty and developmental issues,
Gender norms and patriarchal attitudes continue to govern the reproductive rights
and contraception choices of women. Fostering better informed and healthier
reproductive behaviour among women must be the way forward to address this issue.
(250 words, 15 marks)
Introduction
Reproductive rights are legal rights and freedoms relating to reproduction and reproductive health
that vary amongst countries around the world. Women’s reproductive rights may include some or all
of the following: the right to legal and safe abortion; the right to birth control; freedom from
coerced sterilization and contraception; the right to access good-quality reproductive healthcare;
and the right to education and access in order to make free and informed reproductive choices.
However, the recognition of sexual and reproductive rights of women in the country still remains
negligible. The major barrier is women’s lack of agency. The absence of reproductive and sexual
rights has major and negative repercussions on women’s education, income and safety, leaving them
“unable to shape their own futures”.
Body
Key findings from fifth round of our National Family and Health Survey (NFHS-5) regarding
reproductive practices
 There has been a more than 10 percentage-point increase in the use of

contraception among currently married women aged 15-49 years: that is, from 53.5% in
2015-16 to 66.7% in 2019-20.
 A significant jump has been observed in the use of condoms, which rose from 5.6% to 9.5%.
 Female sterilization continues to be the most popular choice, with an adoption rate of
37.9% (NFHS-5), even many years after the inception of family planning as a concept in India.
Factors that affect reproductive rights and contraception choices of women
 Early marriage, pressure for early childbearing, lack of decision-making power within the
family, physical violence, and coercion in sexual and family relations lead to lower education
and in turn poor incomes for females.
 Continuous child-bearing due to lack of agency on her reproductive rights have made her
mostly a house-wife, thereby making her dependent on spouse for finances.
 Patriarchal mindsets and childbearing until requisite number of sons are born without
proper spacing between children makes her physically weak and threatens her life.
 The fear that educated women cannot be controlled by husband and his family further curbs
her education rights.
 Female sterilization is the most wide-spread method, with more than a third of India’s
sexually-active population opting for it, despite the lower cost and safer procedure of male
vasectomy.
 Reproductive rights in India are understood only in the context of selective issues like child
marriage, female foeticide, sex selection and menstrual health and hygiene issues
Measures needed
 A focus on the health needs of women, their nutritional status, the

risk of early marriage and child bearing is sensitive issue of concern and require urgent
attention if condition of women has to be improved.
 At the same time,

there is a need to provide health care information to the grass root level through
awareness programme in the large scale.

 There is a need for the proper legal framework to address and recognize the promotion and
protection of reproductive rights of women in India.
 There is a need to have access to appropriate, affordable and quality health care facilities
and related services for women. Health programmes should focus more on women’s health
including reproductive health.
 There is a urge to have legislation as Reproductive Rights (Protection) Act in order to

protect and promote reproductive rights of women and to look after all the issues of
reproductive health of women whether it is as regard to
providing medical facilities or creating awareness or having health policies and
programmes concerning women.
 Therefore, it is a need of the hour that sexual and reproductive health become a priority at
the policy level.
 Fostering better informed and healthier reproductive behaviour among the country’s
masses is a long-term endeavour that should not cease on account of a health emergency.
Conclusion
About 35 million women, girls and young people will need life-saving sexual and reproductive health
services this year, as well as services to address gender-based violence, in humanitarian settings.
Effects of globalization on Indian society

Discuss the various implications of using digital currencies on Indian Society? (250
Words)
Reference: Live Mint
Why the question:
The Reserve Bank of India will start issuing digital currency from 2022-23, a move that will provide an
impetus to India’s digital economy. A similar type of question was asked in UPSC Mains this year.
To explain about CBDC, the technology behind it, its potential benefits and challenges from the
societal point of view
Directive:
Discuss – This is an all-encompassing directive – you have to debate on paper by going through the
details of the issues concerned by examining each one of them. You have to give reasons for both for
Introduction:
Start by explaining the emerging concept of central bank digital currency (CBDC)
Body:
In the first part, in brief, write about the technology behind CBDC – Blockchain giving rise to secure
digital instruments.
Next, write about potential benefits that society can accrue from CBDC. financial inclusion, the
cashless society, decrease the cost of printing, expanding the digital economy and empowering
citizens, etc.
Next, write about potential challenges with regard to CBDC. User adoption, security, complexity,
domination by Chinese and Opportunity cost due to RBI’s reluctance, etc.
Conclusion:
Conclude with the way forward as to how India should step up to CBDC.
Introduction
A Central Bank Digital Currency (CBDC), or national digital currency, is simply the digital form of a
country’s fiat currency. Instead of printing paper currency or minting coins, the central bank issues
electronic tokens. This token value is backed by the full faith and credit of the government.
Body
Background
 The Reserve Bank of India is likely to soon kick off pilot projects to assess the viability of
using digital currency to make wholesale and retail payments to help calibrate its strategy
for introducing a full-scale central bank digital currency (CBDC).
 Union Finance Minister in the budget speech said the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) will launch
a central bank digital currency (CBDC) in 2022-23, marking the first official statement from
the Union government on the launch of much-awaited digital currency.
Implications of using digital currencies on Indian Society:
 An official digital currency would reduce the cost of currency management while enabling
real-time payments without any inter-bank settlement.
 India’s fairly high currency-to-GDP ratio holds out another benefit of CBDC — to the extent
large cash usage can be replaced by CBDC, the cost of printing, transporting and storing
paper currency can be substantially reduced.
 As the currency in digital form, it can provide an efficient way for financial transaction.
Further, digital currency also solves the challenges with Cash and coins. Cash and coins
require expenses in storage and have inherent security risks like the recent heist in the RBI
currency chest.
 There are about 3,000 privately issued cryptocurrencies in the world. According to IMF, the
key reason for considering national digital currency is to counter the growth of private forms
of digital money.
 There is a possibility of these companies going bankrupt without any protection. This will
create a loss for both investor and creditor. But the National Digital currency has
government backing in case of any financial crisis.
 As the state-backed digital currency can provide investor/consumer protection, the private
can confidently invest in the associated infrastructure without any doubts over its
regulation. This will improve the services to people.
 The national digital currency will be regulated by the RBI. So, there will be less volatility
compared to other digital currencies.
 Current RBI’s work on inflation targeting can be extended to national digital currency also.
Since India is planning to ban other cryptocurrencies, the RBI can better regulate digital and
fiat currency. Thus, upgrading to digital currency and balancing the macroeconomic stability.
 With the introduction of CBDC in a nation, its central bank would be able to keep a track of
the exact location of every unit of the currency, thereby curbing money laundering.

 Criminal activities can be easily spotted and ended such as terror funding, money
laundering, and so forth
Concerns posed:
 India is already facing many cyber security threats. With the advent of digital currency,
cyberattacks might increase and threaten digital theft like Mt Gox bankruptcy case.
 According to the Digital Empowerment Foundation in 2018 report, around 90% of India’s
population is digitally illiterate. So, without creating enough literary awareness introduction
of digital currency will create a host of new challenges to the Indian economy.
 Introduction of digital currency also creates various associated challenges in regulation,

tracking investment and purchase, taxing individuals, etc.
 The digital currency must collect certain basic information of an individual so that the person
can prove that he’s the holder of that digital currency. This basic information can be
sensitive ones such as the person’s identity, fingerprints etc.
Conclusion:
There are crucial decisions to be made about the design of the currency with regards to how it will
be issued, the degree of anonymity it will have, the kind of technology that is to be used, and so on.
There is no doubt that the introduction of National Digital currency prevents the various threats
associated with the private-owned cryptocurrencies and take India the next step as a digital
economy. But the government has to create necessary safeguards before rolling out. India needs to
move forward on introducing an official digital currency.
Social empowerment, communalism, regionalism & secularism.

Has religion increased the social cohesiveness in Indian society? Argue (250 Words)
Reference: India Today
Why the question:
There is debate about the use of religion for nation-building, including in school.
How religion act as a force of cohesiveness and solidarity, but at the same time it is divisive.
Introduction:
Start by defining social cohesion i.e. Social cohesion is the degree of social integration and inclusion
in communities and society at large, and the extent to which mutual solidarity finds expression itself
among individuals and communities.
Body:
In the first part, argue how religion acts as force of social cohesion e.g. Religions in India do not reject
the legacy of the past but absorb it, Religious customs and symbols help provide ethical teachings to
society.
Then go on to argue how religion is decisive in nature e.g. Religion can be used to justify terrorism
and violence, Religion as an institution that helps maintain patterns of social inequality.
Conclusion:
Conclude with a balanced argument about the nature of secularism and how it can be used in the
future to glue Indian society for overall progress.
Introduction

Social cohesion is defined as the willingness of members of a society to cooperate with each other in
order to survive and prosper. It involves building shared values and communities of interpretation,
reducing disparities in wealth and income, and generally enabling people to have a sense that they
are engaged in a common enterprise, facing shared challenges, and that they are members of the
same community.
Body
Religion as a source of social cohesion
 Religion gives people the opportunity to share common values, create a sense of unity and
foster a sense of community.
 Religious rituals, traditions, customs are not meaningless, but they contribute to social
cohesion.
 Religious diversity is not always a source of conflict or societal dysfunction, but it enriches
our life by discovering unity within diverse religious communities.
 Religious institutions serve a greater purpose for the betterment of humanity.
 Many faith communities encourage altruistic values such as compassion, kindness, and
mercy for the greater good of humanity.
 Common goals and adherence to altruistic values help them collaborate with one another in
constructing a healthy social environment.
 Moral philosophy emphasized by religious institutions establishes a sense of responsibility

that transcends beyond personal to social responsibility.
Religion as source of conflict
 Religion, for many, is a source of conflict on various levels; social, economic, and political.
 Throughout world history, humanity has suffered greatly in the name of nationality and
religion.
 There is a negative connotation with religion, because crusades, jihad, holy wars, or
violence are part of religious history.
 Religious extremists can contribute to conflict escalation. They see radical measures as
necessary to fulfilling God’s wishes.
 Many religions also have significant strains of evangelism, which can be conflictual. Believers
are called upon to spread the word of God and increase the numbers of the flock.
o For example, the effort to impose Christianity on subject peoples was an important
part of the conflict surrounding European colonization.
 Religious nationalists tend to view their religious traditions as so closely tied to their nation
or their land that any threat to one of these is a threat to one’s existence.
o Therefore, religious nationalists respond to threats to the religion by seeking a

political entity in which their faith is privileged at the expense of others.

Conclusion
Therefore, in part, the solution is to promote a heightened awareness of the positive peace building
and reconciliatory role religion has played in many conflict situations. More generally, fighting
ignorance can go a long way. Interfaith dialogue would be beneficial at all levels of religious
hierarchies and across all segments of religious communities. Where silence and misunderstanding
are all too common, learning about other religions would be a powerful step forward. Being
educated about other religions does not mean conversion but may facilitate understanding and
respect for other faiths. Communicating in a spirit of humility and engaging in self-criticism would
also be helpful.
The path to true inclusion of LGBTIA+ community begins with putting an end to
violence and harassment against them and beginning sensitization about them among
the echelons of the society. Discuss. (250 words)
Reference: New Indian Express
Why the question: In a welcome move, the Tamil Nadu government recently amended its police
conduct rules to bar harassment of LGBTQIA+ individuals and persons working to help them.
Key Demand of the question: To write about achieving inclusivity among for the LGBTQIA+
community.
Directive:
Introduction:
Begin about the giving context about the recent move by Tamil Nadu regarding LGBTQIA+
community.
Body:
First, write about the various issues face the LGBTQIA+ in various aspect such as employment,
housing, co-living, rights, harassment, lack of counselling.
Next, write about the importance of ending harassment and beginning sensitization with respect to
the LGBTQIA+ community.
Conclusion:
Conclude by writing a way forward to further streamline the community to achieve true inclusivity.
Introduction
The LGBTQIA+ community faces a lot of problems. The main problem is acceptance from people
outside the community. For the Indian LGBT community, a truly inclusive society remains a distant
dream. In urban India, where social media and corporate initiatives have created increasing
awareness of LGBT rights, the scenario looks more upbeat for gay men than for transgender people
or lesbian women. While urban LGBT voices that are heard through several online and real-world
platforms form an important part of LGBT activism, these expose only a small part of the diverse
challenges faced by the community.
The Tamil Nadu government recently amended its police conduct rules to bar harassment of
LGBTQIA+ individuals and persons working to help them.
Body

Background
 The Delhi High Court’s verdict in Naz Foundation vs Government of NCT of Delhi (2009) was
a landmark in the law of sexuality and equality jurisprudence in India.
 The court held that Section 377 offended the guarantee of equality enshrined in Article 14
of the Constitution, because it creates an unreasonable classification and targets
homosexuals as a class.
 In a retrograde step, the Supreme Court, in Suresh Kumar Koushal vs Naz Foundation
(2013), reinstated Section 377 to the IPC.
 However, the Supreme Court in Navtej Singh Johar & Ors. vs Union of India (2018) declared
that the application of Section 377 IPC to consensual homosexual behaviour was
“unconstitutional”.
 This Supreme Court judgment has been a great victory to the Indian individual in his quest
for identity and dignity.
Issues faced by LGBTQIA+ community in India
 No legal recognition of marriage: Same-sex marriages are not legally recognized in India
even though many countries like USA, UK have legalised it.
 Issue of rights: The rights enjoyed by opposite-sex couples are not enjoyed by same-sex
couples. They are prohibited from those rights. For example-
o The lack of a legal structure around their relationship became increasingly stark
when they tried to bring each other on as nominees in insurance and financial
plans, just as a married couples did.
 Lack of family support: Lack of communication between LGBT children and the parents
often leads to conflict in the family.
o Many LGBT youths are placed in foster care or end up in juvenile detention or on
the streets.
o Most often than not, LGBTQ children from poor families are abandoned. They end
up begging as there is no avenue for education or employment.
o In some parts, secret honour killings are planned so that the only way for a young
gay man to survive is to run away in the cover of the night to some city, with no
money or social support.
 Sanctioned rape: In other parts, lesbian women are subjected to family-sanctioned

corrective rapes, which are often perpetrated by their own family members.
o Village medics and babas often prescribe rape to cure lesbians of

homosexuality. Refusal to marry brings more physical abuse
 Education and health: The LGBTQ children are abandoned and marginalised, who end up
being isolated by the rest of the society. They are denied the fundamental right of education
as well as health.
Way Forward

 The LGTBQ community needs an anti-discrimination law that empowers them to build
productive lives and relationships irrespective of gender identity or sexual orientation and
place the onus to change on state and society and not the individual.
 Police must not harass sexual minorities. There must be changes to the police conduct
rules to provide for punishing erring police personnel in this regard.
 Government bodies, especially related to Health, and Law and Order need to be sensitised
and made aware about the changed position of law to ensure that the LGBTQ community
is not denied public services or harassed for their sexual orientation.
 Enumerating sexual orientation and gender identity in non-discrimination and anti-bullying

policies is an important step toward acknowledging diversity, protecting vulnerable
students.
 Training school staff empowers them to respond when they encounter abuse. Younger
generations of Indians will grow up knowing of criminalisation as a thing of the past, and
that will be a boon to their basic rights.
 In 2014, the Supreme Court issued a sweeping judgment in NALSA v. India, which held that
transgender people should be legally recognised according to their gender identity, enjoy all
fundamental rights, and receive special benefits in education and employment. This must
be implemented and enforced.
Conclusion
The queer and gender non-conforming people have found an ally in the court, but they would need
greater effort on the part of the authorities at various levels, if their rights are to be protected. In
any case, any change in law in terms of recognising same-sex relations or understanding self-
identification of gender must be complemented by an attitudinal change in society at large.
Government must sensitise the general public and officials, to reduce and finally eliminate the
stigma associated with LGBTQ+ community through the mass media and the official channels. School
and university students too should be sensitised about the diversity of sexuality to deconstruct the
myth of heteronormativity. Heteronormativity is the root cause of hetero-sexism and homophobia.



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INSIGHTSIAS

IA SIMPLIFYING IAS EXAM PREPARATION

INSTA SECURE SYNOPSIS

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Important megalithic sites: Adichannalur, T. Narasipur, Jadigenahalli, Hallur, Chandravalli,

 Megaliths find mention in Sangam literature and Buddhist work Manimeklai.

steps needed to safeguard these fast-disappearing monuments

 Governments should build megalithic parks to help preserve these fast-disappearing

 The local self-governments should be given the responsibility of developing eco-tourism

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 Hunting and gathering:

o Hunting was an additional source of the food supply.

 Arts and crafts:

o Major Metals: iron, copper, gold, silver etc.

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Rock paintings in India

There is a superimposition of paintings in Bhimbetka from all the three periods.

 Sites: Langhnaj in Gujarat, Bhimbetka and Adamgarh in Madhya Pradesh, SanganaKallu

Significance of prehistoric paintings in India

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 Mohenjodaro and Harappa’s remains indicate great commercial cities-perfectly planned,

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In what ways do the discoveries made in Harappan civilization help us to understand

Discoveries help in understanding the economy of Harappan civilization

 The Harappans carried on considerable trade in stone, metal, shell, etc.

 They practised navigation on the coast of the Arabian Sea.

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 Also, Harappans were good at metallurgy and producing alloys.

 There was specialization of tasks-Goldsmiths, bronze-smiths, brick-makers

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o Women could even attend the popular assemblies.

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 The women in the royal household enjoyed certain privileges.

Buddhism originated as an alternative tradition to the excessive importance given to

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Reasons for rise of Buddhism:

Impact of Buddhism on Indian society

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Cultural impact of Iranian invasion

Cultural impact of Macedonian invasion

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 The system of small independent states came to an end.

Key Demand of the question:

Jain art similarities with Buddhist and Hindu art

o For E.g. : The oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are to be found in

Unique features of Jain art

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 Jain iconography mostly has a sage in sitting or standing meditative

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Science and Technology in Gupta period

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To write about contributions of Pallava kings to temple architecture.

Evolution of architecture of Pallavas

 Rock cut phase: