Tulku Thondup Rinpoche

BUDDHIST CIVILIZATION
IN TIBET
B y Tulku Thondup
Published by Maha Siddha Nyingmapa Center,
U.S.A. — 1982 1
 B U D D H IS T C IV ILIZA T IO N IN TIBET

Table of Contents
Preface................................................................................................ uii
Key Political and Religious Figures in Tibetan History.............................. ix
Key Figures in the Nyingmapa Tradition.............................................. xiii
Key Figures in the Kagyudpa Tradition.................................................. xu
Key Figures in the Sakyapa Tradition.................................................. xuii
Key Figures in the Gelugpa Tradition.................................................... xix
Map o f India ....................................................................................... xxi
Map o f Tibet (showing major monasteries)......................... ................ xxii

I — The Development of Buddhism in Tibet

Introduction ......................................................................................... 3

I. Nyingmapa (the Ancient) S c h o o l................................................. 7

The Transmission of the Nyingmapa Teachings........................ 13
1. Long Transmission of Canons................................................14
2. Short Transmission of Discovered Dharma Treasures......... .15
The Nyingmapa Scriptures........................................................ .17
Nyingmapa Doctrine...................................................................19
Important Nyingmapa Monasteries and Institutions.................. .23

Tibetan Buddhist School Which Resulted From The

Later Spread o f the Doctrine ............................................................... 24

II. Kagyudpa School....................................................................... 25

Kagyudpa Doctrine.................................................................... 31
HI. Sakyapa S ch ool......................................................................... 33
Sakyapa Doctrine....................................................................... 35
IV. Gelugpa School.......................................................................... 37
Gelugpa Monasteries.................................................................. 39
Gelugpa Doctrine....................................................................... 41
V. Some Other Tibetan Buddhist Schools...................................... 43
1. Kadampa School................................................................... 43
2. Zhi-Ched-Pa and Chod Schools............................................. 43
1) Pho-Chod......................................................................... 43
2) M o-Chod.......................................................................... 44
3. Jonangpa S ch oo l.................................................................. 44
 II — The S c o p e o f Tibetan Literature

Introduction ....................................................................................... 49

I. The Religious Literature............................................................ 51

A ) Religious Literature — According to O rigin ........................ 51
1. The Literature Translated from Indian Sources............... 51
(a) The Kajur Collection — The Buddha’s Teachings .... 51
(b) The Tenjur Collection — The Works of
Indian Buddhist Scholars......................................... 52
2. The Literature Written by Tibetan Scholars.................... 52
(a) The Literature of the Nyingmapa Sch ool................. 53
(i) The Classification of the D harm a.......................... 53
(ii) Sutra....................................................................... 53
(iii) Tantra..................................................................... 53
(iv) Study...................................................................... 56
(b) The Literature of the Sarm apa................................. 56
(i) The Classification of the D harm a.......................... 57
(ii) Major Texts for Study and Practice........................ 57
(iii) The Literature of the Kagyudpa S ch ool................. 57
(iv) The Literature of the Sakyapa School.................... 58
(v) The Literature of the Gelugpa School.................... 59
(vi) The Literature of Some Other Minor Schools........ 58
B) Religious Literature — According to Subject....................... 63
1. Religion........................................................................... 63
2. History and Biography..................................................... 63
3. Poetic Composition and Yogic S o n g s ............................. 64
4. Music, Dance, and Art and Architecture......................... 64
II. The Secular Literature................................................................ 65
A) History............................................................................... 65
B) G ram m ar........................................................................... 66
C) Poetic Composition, Metrical Literature, and Lexicons..... 67
D) Logic................................................................................... 67
E) Astrology........................................................................... 68
F) Mathematics...................................................................... 69
G) Medicine............................................................................ 69
H) Geography and Cosm ology............................................... 70
I) Law ..................................................................................... 70
J) Political Writings............................................................... 70
K) Music and D an ce............................................................... 71
L) Drama................................................................................ 71
M) Art and Craft...................................................................... 71

Glossary ........................................................................................... 73
Index.................................................................................................... 83
 PR E F A C E

This booklet contains two articles which I wrote a few years ago. The
first, "The Development o f Buddhism in Tibet" is a brief account o f the
history o f the four major Buddhist schoob in Tibet. It includes a description
o f their doctrines and monastic institutions. These four schools are the
Nyingmapa (the Ancient Ones), who are followers o f the Old Tantras
(those tantras translated into Tibetan before the eleventh century a.d.), the
Kagyudpa, Sakyapa, and Gelugpa who are followers o f the New Tantras
(those tantras which were translated after the eleventh century a.d.). The
account which I have given in this article is the traditional version o f the
history o f Buddhism in Tibet as it appears in Tibetan historical texts.

The second article, “The Scope o f Tibetan Literature" is a brief outline

o f the subject. It presents a general schema o f Tibetan literature,
classifying the works on various subjects — secular and religious. I have
included the names o f only a few m ajor literanj works as examples o f the
literature fedling under each heading.

I am grateful to Harold Talbot for editing these articles. My gratitude

also goes to the Center for the Study o f World Religions and to Michael
Baldwin and the other members o f the Buddhayana Foundation, U.S.A.
for their generous sponsorship, which enabled m e to prepare these texts
for printing. I am also thankful to Eric Jacobson for editing, proofreading
and assembling the glossary and index and to Martha Hamilton for doing
the typesetting, artwork and arranging for the texts to be printed.

January, 1982
Cambridge, U.S.A. Tulku Thondup
 KEY POLITICAL & RELIGIOCIS FIGURES
IN TIBETAN HISTORY

Founders of Religious
Schools and Translators K IN G S

2nd cent. Nyathri Tsenpo enthroned in

127 B.C.
First king of Tibet
Founded Chogyal Dynasty

5th cent. Lha-Thotho-Ri Nyen-Tsen

Brought first Buddhist scrip­
tures and religious objects
into Tibet in 433 A.D.

Early Spread o f the Doctrine 7th-10th Century A.D.

Thonmi Sambhota 7th cent. Srong-Tsen Gampo (617-698)

First Tibetan Buddhist Directed the development
translator. Invented of a written form of Tibetan
Tibetan script and language.
grammar. Inaugurated Buddhism as
the religion of Tibet.

Padmasambhava 9th cent. Thri-Song Deu-Tsen

Came from India to teach (1*10-844 A.D.)
Buddhism in Tibet. Invited greatest Indian
Founded nyingmapa School saints and yogis to teach
Buddhism in Tibet.
Directed construction of
Santirakshita ) Great Indian Samye monastery.
> scholars who
Vimalamitra j visited Tibet.

Bairocana
Kawa Paltseg
Tibetan
Cheg-Ro
Translators
Zhang Yeshey
De

Surendrabodhi 9th cent. Tri Ralpa Chan (866-901)

Shilendrabodhi Indian Assassinated by pro-Bon
Danashila Scholars ministers.

Ratnarakshita
Dharmatashila Tibetan
Jnanasena Scholars
Nub-Chen Sangye Yeshe 10th cent. Lang Dharma, ruled 901-906
A.D.
Preserved Tantrik tradition Persecuted and suppressed
Buddhism in Tibet.
La Chen Gangpa Rabsal Assassinated by
Re-established Vinaya Lha-Lung Pal-Dor.
tradition.
End of Chogyai dynasty.

Smrtijnana 10th-13th No central authority

Last great translator of cent. (906-1253)
the Earlier Spread of Gradual return of Buddhist
the Doctrine. practice in Central Tibet
to the end of the 10th
century.

Later Spread of the Doctrine 10th-20th Cent. A.D.

Rinchen Zang-Po (958-1051) 10th cent.

First great translator of
the Later Spread of the
Doctrine

Atisa (982-1054) 10th cent.

Founded Kadampa School

Ma rpa (1012-1099) 11 th cent.

Founded Kagyudpa School

Kon-Chog Gyalpo 11 th-12th

(1034-1102) cent.
Founded Sakyapa School

13th cent. Dro Gon Ghogyal Phagpa

(1235-1280)
Given kingship of Tibet by
the Mongol emperor
Kublai Khan, 1253.
Sakyapa Rule began.

14th cent. Chang Chub Gyaltsen

Overthrew Sakyapa rule,
1349.
Began Phagtru Kagyudpa
rule.
Tsongkhapa (1357-1419) Eleven Phagtru kings.
Founded Gelugpa School.
15th cent. Donyod Dorje
Overthrew Phagtru rule,
1435.
Began Rinpongpa rule.

Four Rinpongpa kings.

16th cent. Tsheten Dorje

Overthrew Rinpongpa rule
1566. Began Tsangpa rule.

Three Tsangpa kings.

17th cent. Gusri Khan, Mongolian king.

Defeated Tsangpa rule,
1646.
Gave rule over Tibet to the
5th Dalai Lama (1617-82).
Beginning Gelugpa rule.

Present 14th Dalai Lama (1 9 3 5 -)

Early Spread of the Doctrine — 9th and 10th century A .D .

Padmasambhava (9th cent.)

Came from India to teach
Santirakshita ”
Buddhism in Tibet.
Vimalamitra "

Bairochana ”
Kawa Paltseg ” Main Tibetan translators
Chog-Ro Lu’i Gyaltsen ” am ong the 108.
Zhang Yeshey De ’’

Nub-Ch’en Sangye Yeshey ” Preserved Tantrik tradition

Later Spread of the Doctrine — Started from later half of the

10th century A .D .

Lachen Gongpa Rabsal Re-established/preserved Vinaya

(10th cent. A.D.) in central Tibet.

Smrtijnana (11th cent. A.D.) The last translator o f the

Old Tantras.

Som e of the great Terton(s) — (Dharma Treasure Discoverers):

Nyang-Ral Nyima^Odzer (1124-1192)

Guru Chowang ( i l 6 4 - 1270/3)
Rig-Dzin God-Dem (1337-1408)
Sangye Lingpa (1340-1396)
Dorje Lingpa (1346-1405)
Ratna Lingpa (1403-1478)
Padma Lingpa (1450-?)
Rig-Dzin Jatshon Nyingpo (1585-1656)
Dud-Dul Dorje (1615-1672)
Lha-Tsun Namkha Jigmed (1597-1650?)
Ter-Chen Gyurmed Dorje (1646-1714)
Rig-Dzin Jig-Med Lingpa (1729-1798)
Jam-Yang Khyen-Tse’i W ang-Po (1820-1892)
Chog-Kyur Ling-Pa (1829-1870)
Som e of the great Writers:

Rong-Zom Cho-Zang (11 cent. A.D.) — Two Kun-Khyen(s) or

Long-Chen Rab-Jam( 1308-1363) — Omniscient Ones of
Nyingmapa.
Nga-Ri Pema Wang-Gyal (1487-1542)
Lo-Chen Dharmashri (1654-1717/8)
Pal-Tul Rinpoche (1808-1887)
Ju Mipham Nam-Gyal (1846-1912)
Third Dodrup Chen (1865-1926)
Zhen-Phen Cho-Kyi Nang-Wa (1871-1927) .
Khenpo Ngag-W ang Pal-Zang (1879-1941)
Jig-Tral Ye-Shey Dorje, '
the 2nd Dudjom Rinpoche (1 9 0 4 -)
the Supreme Head of the Nyingmapa School

xiu
IN INDIA: TILOPA

N A R O PA

MAITRIPA

IN TIBET: M ARPA
(1012-1099)

M ILAREPA
(1040-1123)

GAM POPA
(1079-1153)

Karmapa Du-Sum Khyen-Pa (1110-1193)

Founded Karma Kagyud

Phag-Mo Tru Pa, Dor-Je Gyal-Po (1110-1170)

Founded Phagtru Kagyud

W on Gom Tshul Thrim Nyingpo (12th cent.)

Zhang-Dar-Ma Trag (1 122-?)

Founded Tshalpa Kagyud

Dar-Ma W ang Chug (12th cent.)

Founded Barompa Kagyud

Tag-Lung Thang-Pa Tra-Shi-Pal (1142-1210)

Founded Tag-Lung Kagyud

Dri-Kung Kyob-Pa (1143-1217)

Founded Dri-Gung Kagyud

Tsang-Pa Gya-Re (1161-1211)

Founded Dmkpa Kagyud

xu
 S o m e o f the G re a t W rite rs
Karmapa Rang-Chung Dorje (1284-1334)

Karmapa Mi-Kyod Dorje (1507-1554)

Pa-W o Tsug-Lag Threng-Wa (1454-1566)

Situ Ten-Pa’i Nyin-Ched (1698-?)

Kong-Tul Yon-Ten Gyatsho (1813-.1899)

Rig-Pa’i Dorje, the 16th Karmapa (1924-1981)

1Oth-11th Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po (1034-1102)
cent. Built Sakya monastery in 1073 A.D. and founded
the Sakyapa school.
11th-12th Sa-Chen Kun-Ga Nying-Po (1092-1158)
cent. A great scholar and Siddha

12th cent. Sod-Nam Tse-Mo (1142-1182)

Great teacher of Sakya school.

12th-Oth Trag-Pa Gyal-Tshen (1147-1216)

cent. Great teacher of Sakyapa school.
Kun-Ga Gyal-Tshen (1181-1251), Sakya Pandita
The greatest scholar of Sakyapa lineage, brought
Buddhism to Mongolia and created the Mongolian script.

13th cent. Dro-Gon Cho-Gyal Phag-Pa (1235-1280)

Became a preceptor of Kublai Khan, the Chinese Mongol
Emperor, who gave him rule over Tibet in 1253 A.D.
He was the first priest ruler of Tibet.
14th-15th Rong-Ton She-Cha Kun-Rig (1367-1449)
cent. A great scholar who built the Na-Len-Tra monastery in
Phan-Po Valley in 1437 A.D.

Ngor-Chen Kun-Ga Zang-Po (1382-1456)

Built Ngor E-Wam Cho-Den monastery and founded
Ngor-Pa sub-school.

15th-16th Shakya Chog-Den (1428-1507)

cent. Great writer.

Go-Rab-Jam Sod-Nam Seng-Ge (1429-1489)

An outstanding writer, scholar and critic and built
Ta-Nag monastery in Tsang in 1414 A.D.

16th cent. Tshal-Chen Lo-Sal Gya-Tsho (1502-1566)

Founded Tshal-Ba sub-school.

20th cent. Kun-Ga Thrin-Le Wang-Gyal, Thri Rinpoche (1 9 4 5 -)

41st and present Holder of the Throne of Sakya.
14th cent. Tsong-Kha-Pa, Lob-Zang Trag-Pa (1357-1419)
One of the greatest scholars and writers of Tibet. He
built Gaden monastery in 1410 A.D., reformed Tibetan
monastic discipline and founded the Gelugpa school.
14th-15th Gyal-Tshab-Je(1364-1432) M . . . . . D
cent. Khe-Drub-Je (1385-1438) Mam d ‘SC‘pleS ° f Tson 9 -Kha-Pa

Cham-Chen Cho-Je (1354-1435)

Built Sera monastery in 1429 A.D.

Jam-Yang Cho-Je (1379-1449)

Built Dre-Pung monastery in 1419 A.D.

Pan-Chen Ge-Dun-Drub (1391-1474), First Dalai Lama

Built Tra-Shi Lhun-Po monastery in 1447 A.D.
15th-16th Cho-Kyi Gyal-Tshen (Ser-Che’i Je-tsun (1469-1546)
cent. Great writer and scholar.

Pan-Chen Sod-Nam Trag-Pa (1478-1554)

Great writer and scholar.
16th cent. Sod-Nam Gya-Tsho (1543-1588), Third Dalai Lama
He received the title of Dalai Lama from Mongol king
Altan Khan and he built Ku-Bum monastery.
16th-17 th Lob-Zang Cho-Kyi Gyal-Tshen (1570-1662)
cent. First Panchen Lama and was the greatest ritual text
compiler of the Gelugpa school.
17th cent. Ngag-W ang Lob-Zang Gya-Tsho (1617-82), Fifth Dalai
Lama.
He became the spiritual and temporal head of Tibet in
1642 A.D.
17th-18th Lob-Zang Ten-Pa’i Gyal-Tshen (1635-1723)
cent. First Je-Tsun Dam-pa
He was the highest spiritual and temporal authority of
Mongolia. He built Ri-Wo Ge-Gye-Ling monastery in
Mongolia.
Ngag-W ang Tson-Dru, first Jam-Yang Zhed-Pa (1648-1721)
He built Tra-Shi-Khyil monastery in 1710 A.D.
18th cent. Chang-Kya Rol-Wa’i Dor-Je (1717-1786)
Chang-Kya successive incarnations were influential
teachers in China.
20th cent. Thub-Ten Lung-Tog, Ling Rinpoche (1903- )
The 97th Holder of the Throne of Gaden, or successor
of Tsong-Kha-Pa.
Ten-Dzin Gya-Tsho (1935-), the 14th Dalai Lama.
 50 100 200 300 400 500
1 I _J_ —J

N am es of M onasteries:
N y in gm ap a K agyu d p a Gelugpa
1 Samye 10 Tshur-Phu 21 Gaden 28 Ra-Dreng
2 Min-Trol-Ling 11 Dri-Gung 22 Dre-Pung 29 Jo(Mo-) Nang
3 Dor-Je-Trag 12 Den-Sa-Thil 23 Sera
4 Ka-Thog 13 Dag-Lha Gam-Po 24 Tra-Shi Lhun-Po
5 Pal-Yul 14 Pal-Pung 25 Chab-Do
6 Dzog-Chen 15 Ri-Wo-Che 26 Ku-Bum
7 Zhe-Chen 16 Sang-Ngag Cho-Ling 27 Tra-Shi-Khyil
8 Dodrup Chen
9 Tarthang S ak y ap a
\
\ 17 Sakya
i
i 18 Nor-E-Wam Cho-Den
\
19 De-Ge Gon-Chen
(Lhun-Drup Teng)
N._ 20 Dzong-Sar
N ' " ’S N

LADAKH

WEST-CENTRAL
TIBET (TSANG)
 VOL. I

THE D E V E L O P M E N T O F
B UD D H ISM IN TIBET
 T H E D E V E L O P M E N T O F B U D D H IS M IN T IB E T

Introd uction

Twelve centuries after the Buddha’s Mahaparinirvana, Buddism

crossed the Himalayan ranges and reached Tibet, the Land of Snow, in
the 7th century A.D. In the following centuries Buddhism penetrated
into all aspects of Tibetan life and culture and the Tibetan people found
in the teaching of Lord Buddha a source of deep peace, happiness and
fulfillment. Within the structure of Buddhist teaching, various methods
were developed which were suited to different types of individuals.
These various methods are included within the three principle paths or
yanas: Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana. Tibetan Buddhism is
unique in that it contains the scriptures, teachings and traditions of
practice of all three yanas. Its almost infinite depth and richness make it
one of the world’s most profound living traditions. This essay is
intended to give a brief account of its development.
When Buddhism reached Tibet, it encountered the ancient native
religion called Bon. Bon is a type of Shamanism in which the spirits of
the sun, moon, mountains and trees are worshipped. The Bon-Pos, as
they were called, also sacrificed animals as part of their religious
practice. For several centuries Buddhism and Bon were in conflict with
one another in Tibet. Buddhism emerged the victor but Bon has
remained a living tradition until the present day. As a result of its
encounter with Buddhism, Bon underwent deep and lasting changes.
Many Bon texts were constructed on Buddhist models and as time
passed the content of the Bon scriptures reflected Buddhist influence.
Buddhist concepts were expressed in the terminology and language
peculiar to the Bon texts. There were even a few great Tibetan Buddhist
scholars who translated Buddhist texts into the Bon-Po canon by using
the vocabulary employed in the Bon writing. This was done so that the
numerous Bon-Pos of Tibet could also benefit from the Buddhist
teachings.
Buddhism also had a profound effect on the political situation in
Tibet. Part of the reason for its dramatic and almost total success within
the country was because of the reverence and devotion of some of
Tibet's greatest kings toward the teaching and principles of Buddhism,
•n giving an account of the development of Buddhism in Tibet we must
consider the activities of these kings, because their support and pa­
tronage was crucial to the spread of Buddhism in Tibet.
Before the 2nd century B.C. Tibet was not united. There were only
small feudal principalities, warring factions and wandering nomads.
Towards the end of the 2nd century B.C. an exiled Indian prince
reached Tibet and gained control over a substantial portion of the coun­
try. His Tibetan name was Nyathri Tsenpo and in 127 B.C. he was en­
throned as first king of Tibet. He built the first palace in the country, the
Yum-Bu La-Gang in Yarlung Valley. He and the lineage of kings that
descended from him extended their control over the whole of Tibet.
This lineage came to be known as the Chogyal (Ch’os-rGyal: Dharma
King) dynasty.
In 433 A.D. the 28th King of the Chogyal Dynasty, Lha-Thotho-Ri-
Nyen-Tsen, received some Buddhist scriptures and religious objects. He
did not understand the meaning of the scriptures but perceived that
they and the sacred objects were things of great value and treated them
with great reverence. This was the first appearance of Buddhist
scriptures in Tibet.
The 33rd king of the Chogyal Dynasty was Srong-Tsen Gampo
(617-698) who was the first of the three great Dharma kings of Tibet.
Before Srong-Tsen-Gampo’s time the Tibeten language had ho written
form. He sent his minister, Thonmi Sambhota, with many attendants to
India in order to study the Morth Indian languages. After his return to
Tibet, he developed the first Tibetan script on the basis of Indian
models. He also wrote the basic grammar books for the Tibetan lan­
guage and translated many Buddhist scriptures into Tibetan. Two of the
wives of King Srong-Tsen Gampo also played an important part in the
early history of Buddhism in Tibet. He married princess Bhrikuti,
daughter of King Amsuvarma of Nepal and Princess Wen Che’n,
daughter of the Emperor T a n g T a i Tsung of China. Both of these
women were devout Buddhists and they brought many priceless
religious objects with them to Tibet. The most famous image of the
Buddha in Tibet, the Jo-Wo-Yid-Zhin Nor-Bu, was brought from China
by the Princess Wen Che’n. They encouraged and supported the
building of many Buddhist temples within the country. The Tsug-Lag-
Khang, the main temple of the capital city of Lhasa, was built under the
patronage of King Srong-Tsen Gam po and Princess Bhrikuti. The King
also constructed three codes of law for the people of the country based
upon the principles and discipline of Buddhism. The reign of King
Srong-Tsen G am po marked the beginning o f the practice of Buddhism
in Tibet.
The 37th Chogyal King, Thri-Song Deu-Tsen (790-844 A.D.) is the
second o f the three great kings o f Tibet. He invited hundreds of Indian
scholars and yogic masters to Tibet. The most famous were: Shantarak-
sita, an abbot of Nalanda University; Guru Rinpoche or Padmasam-
bhava, the greatest Indian Tantric Master; and Vimalamitra, a famous
scholar and yogi.
King Thri-Song built the famous Samye monastery. Work was be­
gun on the monastery in 810 and during his reign the first Tibetans
took ordination as Bhiksus (monks). Working under the King’s
patronage, the great Indian scholars along with 108 Tibetan translators,
such as Bairochana and Kawa Paltseg, translated numerous Sutra and
Tantra texts from Sanskrit into Tibetan. During his reign Tibet attained
a high degree of both secular power and spiritual development. Until
the time of Lang Darma, in the 10th Century A.D., his successors
continued to extend and develop the doctrine of Dharma in Tibet.
*aSt t^le tllree 9reat Dharma kings was Thri Ralpa Chen
( -901), the 40th king of the Chogyal Dynasty. His major contribution
was to standardize the methods for translating Buddhist Sanskrit texts
into Tibetan. All the texts translated up to this time were retranslated
according to the new system. Henceforth, the translation of Buddhist
texts was able to proceed with a high degree of accuracy and scholarly
excellence. He also invited many great Indian scholars to Tibet and a
great number of texts were translated into Tibetan. Unfortunately at the
age of 36 he was murdered by his pro-Bon ministers.
King Thri Ralpa Chen’s elder brother, Lang Darma, became king in
901 A.D. He was the 41st and last king of the Chogyal Dynasty. Lang
Darma was anti-Buddhist and with the help of his pro-Bon ministers he
began the systematic destruction of Buddhism in Central Tibet. The
persecution fell especially heavily on the Bhiksu Sangha. Many monks
were forcibly disrobed or killed. The institutions of Buddhist monasti-
cism disappeared from Central Tibet for more than half a century.
However, many Tantriks continued to practice covertly as layman and
the powerful Tantric practioner, Nub-Chen Sangye Yeshe extracted a
promise from the king not to harm the Tantriks or the Tantric texts.
After five years of misrule Lang Darma was killed by a Buddhist
priest. After his death his sons fought among themselves for the vacant
throne. However, no one of them was able to succeed and for three and
a half centuries there was no effective central authority in the land. The
different provinces assumed the position of independent states and
were ruled by feudal lords.
During the time of Lang Darma’s persecution, three great monks
fled to the province of Kham in Eastern Tibet and maintained the tradi­
tion of the Vinaya ordination there. The greatest disciple of these three
monks was La-Chen Gongpa Rabsal. After half a century of absence, the
Vinaya lineage of Bhiksu ordination was brought from Kham back to
Central Tibet by ten students who had travelled from Central Tibet to
study with La-Chen Gongpa Rabsal. By the end of the 10th century A.D.
the monasteries of Central Tibet were able to resume their activities and
the work of translation and practice was again carried forward. The
great Indian scholar, Smrtijnana, was the most renowned translator of
this period o f Tibetan religious history.
The period we have been discussing so far down to the end of the
10th century is known in the Tibetan historial works as the period of the
Early Spread of the Doctrine (bsTam-Pa sNga-Dar). The Tantric texts
that were translated up to the end of this period are known as the Earlier
Translated Tantras (gSang-sNgags sNga-a'Gyur) or Old Tantras. Smrti­
jnana was the last great translator of these texts. The lineage of teach­
ing based on these texts is known as the Nyingmapa (The Old Ones).
This remained a powerful Buddhist lineage in Tibet up until the present
time, and will be discussed in some detail on the following pages.
The texts translated after the beginning o f the 10th century are
known as the New Tantras (sN gags gSar-Ma). Tibetan religious
historians refer to this period o f Tibetan history as the Later Spread
(bsTan-Pa Phyi-Dar) o f the Doctrine. The first great translator o f the
New Tantras was Rin-Chen Zang-Po (Rin-Ch'en bZang-Po, 958-1051).
Marpa Chokyi Lo-Dro (Ch’os-Kyi Blo-Gros, 1012-1099) and Drog-Mi
Shakya Ye-She (a’Brag-Mi Shakya Ye-Shes, 993-1050) were also great
translators of this period.
Various major and minor schools developed based on different
texts within the New Tantras. The Kagyudpa school was founded by
Marpa (1012-1099) and the Sakyapa School was founded by Khon-
Kon-Chog-Gyal-Po (dKon-mCh’og rGyal-Po, 1034-1102). The Kadampa
School was founded by the renowned Indian scholar of Vikramashila
known as Atisha (982,1054).
Before discussing the contributions of these various schools to the
religious history of Tibet it is necessary to conclude briefly our
discussion of Tibetan political history. Increasingly during the period of
the Later Spread of the Doctrine, especially after the development of
the powerful Gelugpa School in the 14th century, Buddhism exerted a
powerful influence and then completely dominated the political life of
Tibet.
This development began in the 13th century when Dro-Gon Cho-
Gyal-Phag-Pa (a ’Gro-mGon Ch’os-rGyal a’Phag-Pa, 1235-1280) of the
Sakyapa School became the spiritual tutor of Kublai Khan, the
Mongolian King who eventually became the Emperor of China. The
Khan in gratitude for Phag-Pa’s teaching and blessing, made him the
ruler of all Tibet in 1253. This was the first time that the supreme
secular authority was held by a monk. After Phag-Pa, a series of
Sakyapa kings ruled Tibet for almost a hundred years.
In 1349 Chang-Chub Gyal-Tshan (Byang-Ch’ub rGyal-mTshan) of
the Phag-Tru (Phag-Gru) clan overthrew the Sakyapa rulers and became
king of Tibet. Then a succession of eleven Phag-Tru kings ruled Tibet
for 106 years.
During this period, the celebrated scholar Lobzang Tragpa (Blo-
bZang Grags-Pa, 1357-1419) from Tsongkha, Am do in Eastern Tibet
founded the Gelugpa school. Tsongkha-Pa, as he was known, was a
great scholar who wrote many works. He and his disciples built many
large monasteries. He stressed the importance o f the fundamental
teachings of Buddhism and the strict observance of monastic
discipline. In time the Gelugpa became one of the most politically
powerful of the Tibetan Buddhist Schools. From the 17th century until
1959 the Dalai Lamas of this school were both the spiritual and
temporal leaders of Tibet.
Before the Gelugpa assumed power, Tibet was ruled by two
successive feudal dynasties. In 1435 Don-Yod Dorje of the Rinpung clan
overthrew the Phag-Tru king and four succeeding Rinpungpa kings
ruled Tibet for 130 years. In 1566 Tshe-Ten Dorje (Tshe-brTan rDo-rJe)
of the Tsang-Pa (gTsang-Pa) overthrew the Rinpungpa ruler and three
succeeding kings of this dynasty ruled Tibet for 76 years.
Then in 1642 the forces of Gusri Khan of the Qosot Mongols de­
feated the Tsangpa rulers and offered the lordship of Tibet to the 5th
Dalai Lama (1617-1682). The present Dalai Lama is the 14th in this
lineage.
_ W e will now discuss the various Buddhist Schools that developed
in Jibet, beginning with the Nyingmapa School.
 I. N yin gm ap a (rN y in g -M a -P a ) School
The Ancient Ones

This school was founded by the Indian Tantric master, Padmasam-

bhava, during the time of King Thri-Song-Detsen in the 9th century
A.D. Various versions of his life are given in the Tibetan scriptures of
the Nyingmapa Tradition, of which the following is a general outline.
He was born from a lotus blossom in the Milk-Ocean in the country
of U-rGyan (Oddiyana) which modern scholars believe to be the Swat
Valley of Pakistan. He took birth eight years after the Buddha’s
Mahaparinirvana He attained the deathless Siddhi through Tantric
practice and at the age of more than 1000 years went to Tibet in the 9th
century. His followers believe that he is still alive in the Rakshas’ land
(Srin-Po’i Gling) and can be seen by realized persons.
After his lotus birth, King Indrabodhi of Oddiyana found him in the
Milk Ocean while he was returning from a successful trip in search of a
Wishing-Gem. The king brought him to his palace and as he had no
heir, he made him the crown prince. Eventually Padmasambhava
married Khadro Od-Chang-Ma (mKha’-a’Gro A ’od-a’Chang-Ma). But he
asked the king to allow him to renounce the kingdom in order to lead a
life of religious practice. When the king refused, Padmasambhava
exercising Skillful Means, killed a wicked minister’s son — who was to
die at that time because of his past karmic effects — while they were
playing. According to the law of the land Padmasambhava was
banished from the country to a cemetary where he took up Tantric
teachings and practices. This was in accordance with his wishes and he
then visited other cemeteries to receive Tantric teachings and perform
Tantric practices and he subdued the male and female spirits of those
places. He was blessed by the Wisdom Dakinis Kha-Dro-Ma Zhi-Wa-
Tsho (mKha’-a’Gro-Ma Zhi-Ba-a’Tsho) and Vajra-Varahi. He then visited
different teachers and studied medicine, astrology, logic, and art. He
received Bhikshu (monk) ordination from Acharya Prabhahasti. He
studied the Yoga Sastras from Acharya Prabhahasti, Vinaya from
Ananda, and Tantra including Dzog-Pa Chen-Po (rDzog-Pa Ch’en-Po —
Atiyoga, Skt.) from Prahevajra, Shrisinha, Nagarjuna, Hum-
kara.Vimalamitra and Buddhaguhya, who were all accomplished
masters. Through his practice he received the attainments of the
various Tantras.
A very significant happening in his life occurred when he visited
the Sahora Kingdom. He gave teaching to the princess of the kingdom
and her 500 ladies in waiting all of whom became nuns. The news
reached the king that a very handsome stranger — like the son of the
gods — was staying with the princess and her maidens. The king
ordered that the Guru be burnt in a mountain valley filled with wood
and oil. The Guru was to be wrapped in many cloths and the burning to
take place before the people of Sahora. After a few days the Guru was
not only unharmed but with the miraculous powers he had transformed
the burning oil and wood into a mountain lake. He was sitting on a lotus
blossom in the middle of the lake attended by many gods and Dakinis.
Upon seeing this the king and his subjects repented of their evil ways
and Padmasambhava was taken to the king’s palace as a guest of
honor. The king himself received teachings from him and offered him
his kingdom and the hand of the Princess Mandarava. The Guru took
Mandarava as his consort and together they went to the Maratika Cave,
located in what is now Nepal, in order to do Tantric practice. There they
both achieved the Deathless Attainment.
Then Padmasambhava with his consort decided to return to the
Kingdom of Oddiyana. Upon arriving in the country he was recognized
by the evil minister whose son he had killed and the King ordered that
he and his consort be burnt in a big fire of sandalwood. After a few days
the Guru by his miraculous power had transformed the fire into a
beautiful lake and he and his consort were sitting on a lotus blossom in
the middle of the lake. The king, ministers and all people had faith in
him as a great teacher and he remained in Oddiyana for 13 years as the
Chaplain of the Palace. He gave powerful Tantric teachings such as the
Ka-Du Cho-Kyi Gya-Tsho (bKa’-a’Dus Ch’os-Kyi rGya-mTsho), a
condensed text of sadhanas and many fortunate people of the land
including the king attained the Vidyadhara Siddhi. After leaving
Oddyiana the Guru went to Nepal in order to do further practice. With
the support of the Nepalese Princess Shakya-Devi he achieved the
Supreme Attainment through the deep practice of the Sadhanas of
Yang-Dag (Vishuddha) and Dor-Je Phur-Ba (rDo-rJe Phur-Ba —
Vajrakila) divinities. Through this practice he attained and has
remained in the form (body) of Mahamudra Vidyadhara.
He then visited many parts of India such as Hurmuja (a small island
of Oddiyana), Sikodhara, Dhanakosha, Rukma, Tirahuti, Kamaru,
Tharu, Champa, Khasya, Triling (south India), Kanchi and Maghadha
(central India). In these places he manifested different forms and
subdued the evil spirits wherever he went. He gave various kinds of
teachings and many of his disciples attained Siddhis (powers) which
result from the successful practice of meditation and yoga.
At this time the great Dharma King Thrisong Deutsen (790-844)
was ruling Tibet. He was the most powerful ruler in Tibetan history and
under his guidance Tibetan forces captured C h’ang-An, the capital of
the Tang Dynasty and also penetrated all the way to Maghadha in
Central India. King Trisong Deutsen as well as being a powerful secular
ruler was also deeply devoted to the cause of Buddhism. He invited the
great Indian Buddhist scholar and saint Shantaraksita, an Abbot of
Nalanda University, to Tibet. The King and the Abbot launched the
building of Samye monastery, the first Buddhist monastery in the
country. However, because of the influence of the king’s wicked
ministers and the local evil spirits, it was impossible to carry out the
building o f the monastery. At the suggestion o f Shantaraksita the king
invited Padmasambhava, who by this time had the reputation of being
the most powerful Tantric master in India, to Tibet in order to defeat the
forces obstructing the construction of the monastery. It was for this
reason that Padmasambhava travelled to Tibet. He quickly pacified and
subdued all the forces opposed to the construction of Samye Monastery,
as well as defeating all the other forces that were attempting to prevent
the teaching of the Dharma in the Land of Snows. He gave both
Mahayana and Tantrayana teachings to many fortunate persons.
Together with his realized consort, Khadro Yeshe Tshogyal
(mKha’-a’Gro Ye-Shes mTsho-rGyal), he traveled with his miraculous
power throughout Tibet doing various Tantric practices, performing
miracles, giving teachings and blessing hundreds of caves, mountains,
lakes, monasteries and temples as sacred places. Hundreds of Tibetans
who received his teaching and blessing attained siddhis. He had 25
principle disciples (rJe-a'Bang Nyer-lNga) including the king.
The great Samye with its main temple, twelve smaller temples,
four great stupas and 108 smaller stupas all surrounded by a high wall,
was completed within five years. It was the center from which Buddhism
spread to all corners of Tibet. Many great Indian Pandits were invited to
Tibet by the king and they worked with Tibetan scholars on the
translation of the Buddhist scriptures from Sanskrit into Tibetan. In one
of the smaller temples (sGra-bsGyur rCiya-Gar Gling) of Samye
Monastery, one hundred Indian pandits and Tibetan translators worked
together on the translations of Sutras and Tantras. Many Tibetan texts
were also brought from other lands by the miraculous power of Guru
Rinpoche and were translated into Tibetan. Thus when the great Indian
Buddhist scholar Atisha who visited Tibet in 1042 A.D. saw the library
at Samye Monastery, he was surprised to find so many Tantras which he
had never seen in India. “These Tantras,” he said, "may have been
brought from the Land of Dakinis by the power of Guru Rinpoche.” In
the biography of Atisha it is said that that was one of the three reasons
why he realized that there is no end of Tantras.
Thus the mission of Guru Rinpoche to Tibet firmly established
Buddhism in the Snow Land. He cleared away the forces that were
hindering it and taught the Dharma in such a skillful manner that many
Tibetans attained realization. The school that grew out of his mission is
known as the Nyingma or Nyingmapa and it has survived through an
unbroken lineage of masters until the present day.
But Padmasambhava’s work in Tibet did not end with the
establishment of Buddhism. He told the king that by his meditative
power he could transform Tibet into a rich and prosperous land. He
transformed barren, rocky lands into pastures and caused water to
spring from rocks, Unfortunately some of the king’s ministers were anti-
Buddhist and they told the king that the Indian Tantrik was turning
Tibet into a developed land in order to make it a part of India. The
ministers intrigued against him and forced the king to ask him to return
to India. The king prostrated before the Guru, made many offerings of
gold and with a heavy heart asked him to return to India. Padmasam-
bhava said that he had not come to Tibet for gold. He told the king that
for him everything was gold and to prove his point he transformed
several ordinary objects into gold. Then he said:
 "Good happenings bring misery (ill luck),
The old compassion is the cause o f singer.
The mind o f the king was changed by the
ministers;
The ministers and evil-spirits o f Tibet are
mischievous.
For sentient beings who are experiencing the result
o f bad karma,
Even the Victorious Ones (Buddhas) are powerless
to help them. ”

Before leaving for India the Guru gave the teaching of the Man-Ngag-
lta-Ba’i a ’Phreng-Ba to the king and others. When he left, a large party
accompanied him part o f the way to see him off. The wicked ministers
sent eighteen men to kill him but when they encountered
Padmasambhava, he made them motionless by his miraculous power.
There is some dispute among Tibetan scholars about the length of
the Guru’s stay in Tibet. Some accounts say that he was forced to leave
Tibet because of the influence of the anti-Buddhist ministers. But the
Nyingmapa accounts of his mission in Tibet say that only one of his
magical emanations left the country and the real Guru remained at the
request o f the king. These accounts state that the Guru remained in
Tibet for 55 years 6 months. During this time he visited many solitary
places with his consort Yeshey Tshogyal and continued to perform
powerful Tantric practices in the country. Som e accounts say that he
visited Sam ye Monastery and gave teachings there and again was
threatened by the king’s ministers. This time these ministers were
finally silenced by a display of his Tantric powers. The accounts that
support Padmasambhava’s long stay in Tibet (55 years 6 months) agree
that he only left Tibet during the reign of King Thri-Song Deutsen’s son,
Prince Muthri Tsenpo. He finally left for the Rakshas’ Land in the year
864 with an impressive display of his magical power by riding a horse
through the air at a place called Gung-Thang La-Thog before the king,
Muthri Tsenpo, his ministers and thousands of people who had
gathered to see him off.
Guru Rinpoche visited many places in Tibet, snow-peaks, caves,
forests, lakes, and temples. He blessed these places and in some of
them he concealed various materials, including Dharma texts recording
teachings in full or symbolic form, prophesies of the future of Tibet,
and sacred objects and images. The Teachings he entrusted to his
Disciples and the concealed objects and symbolic scripts to the
protection of Dharmapalas, who would hand them over at the
appointed times in future ages to the appropriate Ter-Ton(s) (gTersTons
— Dharma Treasure Revealers).
Before considering the teachings of the Nyingmapa School, we
must first round out our account of the activities of King Thri-Song
Deutsen (790-844 A.D.) and his immediate successors who contributed
to the establishment of Buddhism in Tibet. King Thri-Song Deutsen
invited many other great Indian scholars and saints to Tibet along with
Padmasambhava and Shantaraksita. Mahapandita Vimalamitra, Dhar-
makirti, Buddhagupta, Kamalashila, Vishuddhasiddha, Shantagarbha
and Manjushri came to Tibet from India, Kashmir and Nepal. Also the
Tibetan scholars and translators Bairochana, Kawa Paltseg, Chogro Lu’i
Gyaltsen, Zhang Yeshey De went to India and Nepal many times to
receive Buddhist teaching and bring back texts to Tibet. During this
time hundreds of texts were translated into Tibetan including texts from
the Vinaya, Abhidharma, Hinayana and Mahayana Sutras as well as
Tantric texts. These special Tantras of the Nyingmapa school —
Maha Yoga, Anu-Yoga and Ati-Yoga (rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po) were trans­
lated in Tibetan by Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra and Bairochana
during this time.
It was during this era that the first Tibetans took monastic ordina­
tion. The king wanted to determine whether or not Tibetans were
capable of upholding the many (254) and strict vows which fully
ordained Bhikshus must maintain. Seven men were selected for a test
case and these men are known in Tibetan historical records as the
Seven Men of Trial (Sad-Mi Mi-bDun). They were successful in keeping
the vows and hundreds of Tibetans followed in their footsteps and
became fully ordained monks. Two sanghas (religious communities)
were founded: The Sangha of Renounced Ones (Bhikshus) and the
Sangha of Tantriks.
The succession of kings who followed Thri Song Deutsen until the
time of Lang Darma supported and encouraged the spread of Dharma.
This period of Tibetan religious history culminated in the reign of King
Ral-Pa Chen (866-901). He invited the Indian scholars Jinamitra,
Shilendrabodhi, Surendrabodhi and Danashila to Tibet and together
with the Tibetan translators they carried on the work of translating the
Buddhist scriptures. At this time the Tibetan grammatical systems were
revised and strict rules were laid down in order to ensure the accuracy
of the translations. These rules were known as the rGyal-Po’s b ’Kas-
bChad, the rules by the order of the king. Unfortunately the king was
killed by anti-Buddhist ministers at the age of 36 and his older brother,
Lang Darma, who was actively against the Dharma came to power and
severely persecuted Buddhism in Central Tibet. He ruled only five years
before being killed by a Buddhist priest, but his suppression of
Buddhism was so thorough that the Dharma virtually disappeared from
Central Tibet for half a century. This ends the period known as the Early
Spread of the Doctrine in which the Nyingmapa lineage was firmly
established in the Land of Snow.
 The Transmission of the Nyingmapa Teachings

The transmission or way in which the teachings of a spiritual

lineage originate, (particularly if the teachings have mystical and yogic
aspects) and are handed down from one generation to the next is very
important. It is necessary that the accuracy of the teachings be
maintained if they are to be efficacious. Thus all effective spiritual
traditions pay great attention to the transmission of their teachings and
take great pains to ensure that they are properly communicated from
generation to generation. W e will now consider the manner in which the
profound body of Nyingmapa teachings was transmitted to the
generations of practitioners.
Many Sutra teachings of the Buddha and of Buddhist scholars,
which were translated in the period of the earlier translation are still
present and being practiced in their respective lineages. The Vinaya
teachings and the lineage of Bhikshu ordination survived by bringing
back the earlier tradition from Kham to central Tibet. Most Tibetan
Bhikshus today belong to this tradition from the Earlier Spread. The
complete scriptures of the original Abhidharma from the Tripetaka never
reached Tibet. The Abhidharma of Asanga and Vasubandhu were
translated during the Earlier Spread by Jinamitra and the translator Kawa
Paltseg. They taught the Abhidharma to Lha-Lung Paldor and W e (dBas)
Yeshe Gyalwa. The latter went to Kham where he spread these teachings.
jPrajnaparamita texts were translated and taught by rLang-Khams-
Pa Qo-Ch’a. Madhyamika texts were translated and taught by Pandit
Jnyanagarbha, the translator Chog-Ro Lu’i-Gyaltshen, Shantaraksita,
Karrialashila, and others.
With the translators Kawa Paltseg, Chogro Lu’i Gyaltshen, and
Nanam Yeshe Gyaltshen, Acharyas Danashila and Kamalashila
translated the following Sutras: Kon-Tseg (dKon-brTsegs — Ratnakuta),
Phal-Wo-Ch’e (Phal-Bo-Ch’e — Avatamsaka), Sher-Ch’in (Sher-Phyin
— Prajna-paramita). The Chinese Archarya Kamalashila with the
translator Ma Rinch’en Chog (rMa-Rin-Ch’en mCh’og) translated many
sutras from the Chinese. Along with the Tibetan translators
Shantaraksita translated many texts of the Tripitaka. Padmasambhava
with Nub Nam-Kha’i Nying-Po (sNubs-Nam-mKha'i sNying-Po) and
others translated many Tantras. With the translator Nyag (gNyags)
Jnanakumara, Acharya Vimalamitra translated many Inner and Outer
Tantras. The names of the translators are recorded at the end of each
text in both the Kagyur and Tangyur.
The teachings of the Nyingmapa Tantras are transmitted through
two major systems: Ring-Gyud Kama (Ring-brGyud bKa’-Ma — the
Long Transmission of the Canons) and Nye-Gyud Ter-Ma (Nye-brGyud
gTer-Ma — the Short Transmission through the Discovered Dharma
Treasures). The Kama teachings were transmitted by earlier teachers to
Jheir disciples through an unbroken lineage of teachers and students.
The Ter-Ma teachings were texts concealed at various places by Guru
Rinpoche to be discovered in later times by highly realized lamas
known as Tertons (gTer-Tons — Dharma Treasure Discoverers).

1. L o n g T ra n s m is s io n o f C a n o n s
These are the Tantric teachings which the Buddha himself taught
through the manifestation of various divinities. Most of them were
taught by the Primordial Buddha Dharmakaya (Samantabhadra) and
transmitted to disciples in various ways. According to the Nyingmapa
School the transmission of Tantric teaching occurs in three stages:
1) The Primordial Buddha transmits the teaching to his
inseparable disciples, the Sambhogakaya Buddhas, through direct
Mind Transmission (dGongs-brGyud) without verbal or physical
symbols.
2) The Sambhogakaya Buddhas such as Vajrasattva transmit
teaching to Nirmanakaya emanations in different realms including the
human realm through Indication Transmission (brDa-br Gyud). This
type o f transmission is accomplished by verbal and physical
indications.
3) In India and Tibet most teachers transmit teaching to their
disciples through Hearing (ear) Transmission (sNyan-brGyud). This
method is the most commonly used for ordinary beings. Beginning
with Padmasambhava, Vimalamitra and other teachers, the Hearing
Transmission was started in Tibet and it has continued until the present
day. The Mind Transmission and Indication Transmission also still exist
among teachers of high Tantric meditational attainment. All of these
systems o f transmission are very important because according to the
Tantric teaching it is necessary to receive the proper transmission in
order to practice. Tantric meditation practiced without receiving the
proper transmission is dangerous or unbeneficial.
The Nyingmapa system o f teaching has six levels of Tantras: The
Three Outer Tantras and The Three Inner Tantras. The Three Outer
Tantras are the Kriya Tantra, Charya Tantra and Yoga Tantra. The
Three Inner Tantras are the Maha-Yoga, Anu-Yoga and Ati-Yoga. The
Three Outer Tantras were brought to Tibet by Acharya Buddhagupta
and others. The Three Inner Tantras’reached Tibet as follows:
1) Maha-Yoga: Vajrasattva taught the 18 Great Tantras to King Ja
of Sahora in India. This king also received them from Vimalakirti who
had received them from Vajrapani at the Malaya mountain (Sripada) in
Sri Lanka. After passing through many teachers Buddhaguhya received
them and then transmitted them to Vimalamitra. He gave the teachings
of Maha-Yoga to the Tibetan translators Ma (rMa), Nyag (gNyag) and
others. Padmasambhava also taught some of these Tantras to his
disciples, including the Drub-Pa Kagyed, the Eight Sadhanas of Great
Mandalas.
2) Anu-Yoga: King Ja also received the teachings of this Yana
from Vajrasattva and Vimalakirti. The king then taught them to Siddha
Kukuripa and they passed through many teachers finally reaching the
.... .ii etan Nub-Chen Sangye Yeshey (gNub-Ch’en Sangs rGyas Ye-Shes)
w o was one of the twenty-five principal disciples of Padmasambhava.
He taught them in Tibet and his lineage has survived to the present day.
3) Ati-Yoga: Vajrasattva transmitted these teachings to the Nir-
manakaya emanation Garab Dorje (dGa-Rab rDo-rJe — Prahevajra)
who passed them to a lineage of teachers including Padmasambhava,
Vimalamitra and Bairochana who taught them to Tibetans. Ati-Yoga
(rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po) has three divisions: Semde (Sems-sDe — Chitta-
varga), Long-De (Klong-sDe — Abhyantarvarga) and Men-Ngag-De
(Man-Ngag sDe — Clpadeshvarga). The first two divisions of the AtiYoga
teachings were brought to Tibet by Bairochana, Tibet’s greatest
translator. The Man-Ngag De which is also known as the Man-Mgag
Nying-Thig (M an-Ngag sNying-Thig — Instructions on the Innermost
Essence o f the Heart) are the deepest teachings of the Nyingmapa
School. They were brought to Tibet by Padmasambhava and Vimala­
mitra and then passed through two lineages of transmission. The first
was taught by Vimalamitra and passed through various teachers until it
reached the great Nyingmapa saint and scholar Kun-Khyen Long-Chen
Rab-Jam (Kun-mKhyen Klong-Ch’en Rab-a’Byams, 1308-1363). The
second lineage of transmission was taught by Padmasambhava to his
consort Khadro Yeshey Tsho-Gyal (mKha’-a’Gro Ye-Shes mTsho-rGyal)
and Princess Pema Sal (Padma gSal). He concealed these teachings to
be re-discovered at a later time. A few centuries later a reincarnation of
the Princess Pema Sal called Pema Lethro Tsai (Padma Las-a’Phro
rTsal) discovered the texts and her incarnation Kun-Khyen Long-Ch’en
Rab-Jam composed extraordinary commentaries on them. Thus in the
figure of Kun-Khyen Long-Ch’en Rab-Jam the two Nying-Thig lineages
converged. He was the greatest scholar and saint of the middle period
of the Nyingmapa tradition. He wrote 200 treatises on various subjects
and his writings are some of the most important treasures of the
Nyingmapa lineage and especially of the Man-Ngag Nying-Thig
transmission. In the later period of the Nyingmapa School, the most
important propagator of the teachings was Kun Khyen Jig-Med Ling-Pa
(Kun-mKhyen a’Jig- M ed Gling-Pa, 1729-1798) who was a great teacher
and writer.

2. Short Transmission of Discovered Dharma Treasures

The Terma transmission is referred to as a short transmission
because the lineages connected with it are generally very short. For
example, if a disciple of Padmasambhava takes rebirth as a Terton in
the 20th century, there is no need to have a long lineage of lamas
proceeding him. He himself has received the blessing and empower­
ment from Padmasambhava, attained realization, and is thus second to
Padmasambhava in the lineage of transmission.
At the time of Padmasambhava’s mission in Tibet he and his
consort Ye-Shey Tsho-Gyal concealed many texts and religious objects
to be discovered by future disciples. The disciples who discovered them
were known as Tertons (gTer-sTon). These lamas discovered the texts
and objects through their high attainments in meditation and
communicated them to disciples who were ready to hear them. Padma
sambhava himself foretold of the people who would become Tertons
and gave details of their birth.
The First Terton Sangye Lama (Sangs-rGyas Bla-Ma) appeared in
the 11th century. Following him, there were hundreds of lamas who
specialized in the discovery of these treasures. There were One Hundred
Great Tertons and one thousand minor ones. Am ong the One Hundred
Tertons there were five great ones who were known as the Five Kings.
They were: 1) Nyang-Ral Nyi-Ma Od-Zer (Nyang-Ral Nyi-Ma A ’od-Zer,
1124-1192); 2) Guru Cho-Wang (Ch’os-dBang, 1164-?); 3) Dor-Je Ling-
Pa (rDo-rJe Gling-Pa, 1346-1405); 4) Padma-Ling-Pa (Gling-Pa, 1450-?);
and 5) Jam-Yang Khyen-Tse (a’Jam-dByangs mKhyen-brTse, 1820­
1892).
 Most of the important Sutra, Abhidharma, Vinaya, Prajnaparamita
and Tantric texts are contained in the Ka-Gyur or Kajur (bKa’-a’Gyur)
collection of the Buddha’s canons which contains 1046 treatises in 104
volumes. The Nyingmapa also study the works contained in the Ten-
Gyur or Tanjur (bsTan-a’Gyur) collection which consists of commen­
taries by Indian Buddhist scholars on the Sutras and Tantras. This
collection contains 3863 treatises in 221 volumes.
There is also a large body of literature important to the Nyingmapa
school which is not included in these two large collections. Som e of the
most important texts are given as follows: 1) the Nying-Ma Gyud-Bum
(rNying-Ma rGyud-a’Bum) which is a collection of Ancient Tantras in 33
volumes which was recently reprinted in New Delhi; 2) the Terma
literature of the One Hundred Great Ter-Ton(s). One of the most
important collections of this literature is the Rin-Chen Ter-Dzod (Rin-
Ch’en gTer-mDzod) in 60 volumes compiled by Kong-Tul Yon-Ten Gya-
Tsho (rKong-sPrul Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho) (1813-1899). This collection
was published under the auspices of Venerable Khyentse Rinpoche
(Bhutan) and the Institute of Tibetology, Gangtok, Sikkim; 3) the Men-
Ngag Ta-Treng (Man-Ngag iTa-a’Phreng) and Ma-Mo Sang-Wa Le-Kyi
Thig-Le (Ma-Mo gSang-Ba Las-Kyi Thig-Le) by Guru Padmasambhava
and 4) the works of Vimalamitra and Bairochana.
Som e of the most important works written by Nyingmapa saints
and scholars are listed as follows: 1) the works of Rong-Zom Cho-Kyi
Zang-Po (Rong-Zom Ch'os Kyi bZang-Po,10th century); 2) the 200
treatises of Kun-Khyen Long-Ch’en Rab-Jam (1308-1363); 3) the works
of Pal-Tul Rinpoche (dPal-sPrul Rin-Po-Ch’e) 1808-?); 4) the works of Mi-
Pham Rin-Po-Ch’e (1846-1912) in 32 volumes; 5) the works of the 3rd
Dodrup Chen Rinpoche (rDo-Grub-Ch’en Rin-Po-Ch’e) (1865-1926) in 6
volumes; and 6) the works of Khenpo Zhenga (mKhan-Po gZhan-dGa’,
1871-1927) in 15 volumes.
 The Nyingmapa School classifies all of the Buddha’s teachings and
paths to enlightenment into Nine Yanas. The first three yanas are called
the Hetu-Laksana-Yanas or Yanas of Cause. They are known as the
Shravakayana, Pratyeka-Buddhayana and the Bodhisattvayana. The last
six yanas are called the six Phala-Vajrayanas or Yanas of Result. These
yanas contain the Tantric teachings and are known as the Three Outer
Tantras and Three Inner Tantras. W e will now give a brief explanation of
each of these yanas.

1) Shravaka-Yana (Vehicle of Listeners; Hinayana): The disciples

of this yana accept any one of the eight pratimoksa vows of moral
discipline. They accept the selflessness of persons (Pudgala-niratma)
but not the selflessness of phenomena (Dharma-niratma). The mind and
body is relaxed through the practice o f tranquility meditation. They do
insight meditation on the Four Truths and their sixteen aspects and
through the perfection of the four paths — Sambharamarga,
Prayogamarga, Darshanamarga and Bhavanamarga— they attain peace
and happiness for oneself. They attain gradually the four stages of
result: Stream Enterer, Once-Returner, Never-Returner, and Arhat.
2) Pratyeka-Buddhayana (Silent Buddha; Hinayana): discipies of
this path observe any one of the eight pratimoksa vows as do the
Shravakas. They assert the view of Pudgala-niratma, but in regard to
the view of Dharma-niratma, they accept the selflessness of objects but
they hold the view that the smallest moment of consciousness is true.
They practice tranquility meditation, meditation on the Four Truths
with their sixteen aspects of interdependent arising (Pratitya-
samutpada). Through these efforts one can attain the state of Arhat-
hood for oneself.
3) Bodhisattvayana (Mahayana): Disciples of this path assert that
all persons and phenoma are without any self or truth. They practice
many of the same meditations as in the above two yanas but practice is
done with the intention of achieving enlightenment of Buddhahood for
the benefit of all living beings. This intention to achieve enlightenment
for the benefit of all is known as ‘Bodhicitta’ and is one of the distinctive
marks of the Mahayana path. In addition, they practice the Six Per­
fections (paramitas): generosity (dana), ethics (sila), patience (ksanti),
strenousness (virya), contemplation (samadhi) and wisdom (prajna).
They train in the Four Paths, meditate on the two-fold Niratma and the
37 W ings of Enlightenment (Bodhi-pakshi). After practicing for three
countless eons (asankhya-kalpa) they attain the Mahaparinirvana,
Supreme Enlightenment. After attaining this state they continue to
appear in the world of beings in various forms until all creatures attain
enlightenment.
The next six yanas of the Nyingmapa are all within the practice of
the path of Tantra. A quotation from one of the ancient tantras (Tshul-
gSum-sGron-Me) gives a brief indication of the meaning of the Tantric
Path:
 The aim is the same, but there is no delusion,
There are many skillful means and no difficulties,
It is for people o f sharp intellect;
Hence, the Tantrayana is supreme.

The goal o f all the yanas is the same — enlightenment or Buddhahood

— but the way of practice is different. In the lower yanas, one attempts
to avoid defilement or uses various means as antidotes against defile­
ment. But in the Tantric paths the defilements themselves are used as a
means to attainment. The goal is to see all aspects of existence as
perfect and pure. This it is skillful means to attain Buddhahood.

A. The Three Outer Tantras (Phyi-rGyud sDe-gSum )

1) Kriya-Yoga (Bya-rGyud): Disciples of this path concentrate on
the purification of body, speech and mind. They live mostly on vege­
tarian foods, sweets and dairy products. They assert that within A bso ­
lute Truth (Parmartha) all things are equal but in the Relative Truth
(Samvriti-Satya) they hold that the divinities are lords and the disciples
are servants. They visualize the divinity in front of them and make
offerings and recite prayers and mantras. Generally, the devotee does
not visualize as himself the divinity. By meditating on the body, speech
and mind of the divinity the disciple receives the divinity’s blessing.
After six or seventeen lifetimes of such practice one will attain the Tri-
kula-vajradhara State.
2) Charya Yoga (also known as (Ipaya Yoga; sPyod-nGyud): The
disciples of this path maintain the same philosophical view as in the
Yoga-Tantra (below) and practice much as in the Kriya-Yoga Tantra
(above). The main difference is that they visualize the divinty as a friend
or close relation and concentrate on the stabilization of their contem­
plation. They attain the state of Vajradhara within seven lives.
3) Yoga Tantra (rNal-a’Byor-rGyud): The disciples of this path
maintain that within Absolute Truth all existents are free from any
conceptualization, are empty and shine with radiant clarity. Within
Relative Truth all appearances are regarded as the Mandalas of
divinities. They do not pay much attention to the cleaning of the body,
speech or mind as these things are automatically purified as a result of
meditation. Their meditation has two aspects: with char-acteristics and
without characteristics. In the first stage the disciples visualize
themselves as the divinity and then invite the wisdom divinity (Ye-Shes-
Pa) and dissolve it into the visualized form (Dam-Tshig-Pa). Then
offerings etc. are made. In the second stage, the disciples concentrate
on the meaning of Tathata, the non-duality of char-acteristicless
absolute nature and all appearances, which are divinities.

B. The Three Inner Tantras (Nang-rGyud sDe-gSum):

^ In the Outer Tantras the distinction between the Two Truths is
maintained, divinities are not visualized with their female consorts, the
five meats are not taken and one does not attain the final result in this
lifetime. In the Inner Tantras the Two Truths are held to be inseparable,
all phenomena are equal, the five meats and five nectars are taken, the
divinities are visualized with their consorts, and the final result can be
attained in this life. The Tantras of these three yanas are the special and
distinctive Nyingmapa practices.
1) Maha Yoga: The disciples of this path enjoy all things without
being in any way attached to them. Within absolute truth all things are
accepted as the essence of the mind and the Dharmakaya. All
manifestation, thoughts and appearances are considered to be the
sacred aspects of the divinities within relative truth. The disciple
purifies all existents as divinities and concentrates on the non-duality of
bliss, clarity and no-thought. One can attain enlightenment in this life.
2) Anu Yoga: This practice does not concentrate so much on the
visualization of the deities. Rather, the disciple stresses the perfection
(rDzogs-Rim) of bliss, clarity and no-thought (bDe-Ba, gSal-Ba and Mi-
rTog-Pa). This is done through yogic practices on the veins, semen and
energy (rTsa, Thig-Le and rLung) in the body. They assert that all
appearances are the three great mandalas which are Spontaneous,
Empty and Great Bliss. There are two paths contained within this
TantrarThe Path of Liberation (Grol Lam) and the Path of Skillful Means
(Thabs-Lam). In the path of liberation one meditates on the no-thought
wisdom and sees all appearances as divinities and their Pure Land. In
the path of skillful means one attains wisdom by using the four or six
chakras of the body. Through these practices one may attain
Buddhahood in this life.
3) Ati-Yoga (rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po — Mahasandhi Yoga): This is the
highest teaching of the Nyingmapa, and it is exclusively a Nyingmapa
teaching and practice.
Dzogchenpas assert that all the appearances or apparent
phenomena are illusions of the deluded mind. They are false because in
reality their nature is free from conceptualizations, in nature all
existents are the same and they are pure in the Dharmakaya. In practice
there is no acceptance or rejection, rather all existents are accepted as
manifestations of the nature, Dharmata.
There are three aspects in Dzogchen teachings: Sem-De (Sems-sDe
— Chittavarga), Long-De (Klong-sDe — Abhyantarvarga) and Men-
Ngag-De (Man-Ngag sDe — Cipadeshavarga). These teachings are
instructions which introduce the student to the nature of the mind or
the nature of all existents — the Dharmata (Awareness) by the
innermost direct method of practice. After receiving the introduction to
this nature, one maintains the practice to make clear and to stabilize
this state of Awareness and to attain freedom from worldly defilements
forever. When this meditation on the nature of mind is perfected, all
existents will dissolve into the vast expanse of Dharmata, the Dharma­
kaya.
 Important Nyingmapa Monasteries and Institutions

There are about 1000 Nyingmapa monasteries in Tibet. Som e of

the major ones are as follows:
The Samye monastery built by Guru Padmasambhava and Shan*
tarakshita in the 9th century is the most important as it was Tibet’s first
major monastic institution. The Tsug-Lag Khang (gTsug-Lag-Khang)
and Ra-Mo-Ch’e temples of Lhasa built by King Srongtsen Gam po in the
7th century and many other ancient temples are of Nyingmapa origin.
However, in recent centuries most of these temples are o f now
administered by the Gelupa Order.
Some of the important monasteries of the present day are given as
follows:
In Central Tibet: Min-Trol Ling (sMin-Grol Gling) monastery built
by Ter-Chen Gyur-Med Dor-Je (gTer-Ch’en a’Gyur-Med rDo-rJe,
1646-1714) in 1676. Dor-Je Trag (rDo-rJe Brag) monastery built by Rig-
Dzin Ngag-Gi Wang-Po (Rig-a’Dzin Ngag-Gi dBang-Po) in 1659.
In Kham: Ka-Thog monastery built by Ka-Dam-Pa De-Sheg (bDe-
gShegs, 1122-1192) in 1159. Pal-Yul (dPal-Yul) monastery built by Rig-
Dzin Kun-Zang Shey-Rab (Rig-a’Dzin Kun-bZang Shes-Rab) in 1665.
Dzog-Ch’en (rDzogs-Ch'en) monastery built by Padma Rig-Dzin
(Rig-a’Dzin, 1625-1697) in 1685. Zhe-Ch’en monastery built by the 2nd
Rab-Jam Gyur-Med Kun-Zang Nam-Gyal (Rab-a’Byam a’Gyur-Med Kun-
bZang rfHam-rGyal) in 1735. Khor-Dong (’Khor-gDong) Monastery of
Chang-Ter (Byang-gTer) tradition.
In Golok and Am do provinces: The Dodrup Chen monastery built
by the second Dodrup Chen Rinpoche. Tarthang monastery built by
Lhatul Rinpoche. Tung-Kar monastery of Ser-Tha. Rong-Wo Srib-Gon
monastery of Re-Kong. Rong-Wo Nyin-Gon of Re-Kong.
There are also a large number of Nyingmapa monasteries in
Bhutan and some in Sikkim, Ladhakh and parts of Nepal. In recent
years there are also a gowing number of Nyingmapa centers and
temples in Europe and the United States.
In general the Nyingmapa tradition in Tibet did not have one head
for the whole school. But since coming to India, the Nyingmapa
recognize H.H. Dudjom Rinpoche, the incarnation of the great Terton
Dudjom Lingpa, as supreme head with his main seat in Nepal.
 Tibetan Buddhist Schools Which Resulted
From The Later Spread of the Doctrine

The persecution o f the Dharma by the anti-Buddhist King Lang

Darma marks the end o f the Earlier Spread o f the Doctrine in Tibet
Towards the end o f the 10th century Buddhism began to reappear in
Central Tibet. The 11th century in Tibetan religious history was a time o f
great progress and development o f Buddhism in Tibet Many new teachers
and texts arrived from India during this period and many Tibetans went to
India to study. The texts which were translated during the 1 1th century
and afterwards are known as the New Tantras. These texts and teachers
who had mastered the teachings founded new Buddhist schools in Tibet
These schools are generally known as the Sar-Ma or New Ones. We begin
our survey o f these schools with the Kagyudpa S chool
 II. K agyu dp a S ch o o l (b K a ’-brG y u d -P a)
Transmission of the Oral Teaching

The Kagyudpa School has two main schools and many minor ones.
The two main school are: Shangpa Kagyudpa (Shangs-Fa bKa’-brGyud)
and Dagpo Kagyudpa (Dvags-Po bKa’-brGyud-Pa).
A . Shangpa Kagyudpa:
This school was established by the great yogi and Siddha Khyung-
Po Nal-Jor (rNal-a’Byor — the yogi of Khungpo, 978-1079). He spent 50
years studying Sutra and Tantra in India, Nepal and Tibet. He had many
teachers including Sukhasidha, Rahulagupta and the rainbow body
form of Nigu, the consort of Mahasiddha Naropa. The Zhang-Zhong
monastery in Shang valley was his principal monastery. In addition, he
built 100 other monasteries. He taught for 30 years and had 80,000
disciples.
His main teaching were on the five tantras: Sambhara, Haivajra,
Mahamaya, Guhyasamaja and Vajrabhairava. He also transmitted the
teachings of Nigu, Sukhasiddha and the doctrine of Mahamudra. This
lineage has survived until the present time but it is not very well known
at present.
B. Dagpo Kagyudpa:
'Dagpo Kagyudpa’ translated literally means transmission of the
order (canon) of Dagpo (Dvags-Po). Dagpo is one of the names for the
great scholar and yogi Gampopa who lived in the Dagpo valley and
played a decisive role in the establishment of this school in Tibet.
The founder of the school was Mar-Pa Lo-Tsa-Ba (also known as
Ch’os-Kyi BIo-Gros, 1012-1099). He first studied with Drog-Mi Lo-Tsa-
W a (a’Brog-Mi-Lo-Tsa-Ba) (993-1050) in Tibet and he then went to India
three times and Nepal four times. He took teachings from 108 teachers.
His two principal teachers were the Indian Mahasiddhas Maitripa and
Naropa, both of whom were among the 84 Mahasiddhas of Buddhist
India. He learned many Tantric teachings including the doctrine of
Mahamudra from these realized teachers. Through the teaching and
blessing of Mahasiddha Maitripa he accomplished the absolute reali­
zation of Mahamudra. Upon returning to Tibet he transmitted the
teachings of Sambhara, Guhyasamaja, Haivajra, Mahamaya and others
tantrasto his disciples. His four principal disciples were known as the
Four Pillars. They were: Ngog-Ton Cho-Ku Dor-Je (rNgog-sTon Ch’os-
sKu-rDo-rJe), Tshur-Ton W ang-Ngo (mTshur-Stong dBang-Ngo), Mey-
Ton Tshon-Po (Mes-sTon Tshon-Po) and Milarepa (mi-La Ras-Pa).
Milarepa (1040-1123) was Marpa’s greatest disciple and much of
the teaching of this school passed through him. He was one of the most
famous yogis and poets in Tibetan religious history. When he was
young he took up the practice of black magic in order to take revenge
on the enemies of his family. Through the powers he gained practicing
black magic he destroyed his enemies’ crops and killed 37 people.
Then he realized the consequences o f the evil deeds he had committed
and decided to practice the Dharma in order to purify himself. He
studied with different teachers and then m et Marpa who becam e his
root lama. Marpa subjected him to six years o f arduous labor in order
that he m ight be purified o f the bad karma he acquired through
practicing black m agic. A t the end o f this period o f trial Marpa initiated
him into the Tantric Mandalas. He then practiced in mountain caves
som etim es living for months on a diet o f herbs. Because o f the power o f
his Tum -M o (gTum -M o — Heat Y o g a ) he wore on ly a cotton cloth in the
dead o f the Himalayan winter. He had many disciples who attained
realization. His two main disciples w ere Dag-Po Lha-Je (Dvags-Po Lha-
rJe) and Re-Chung-Pa (Ras-Chung-Pa).
D agpo Lhaje (the doctor from D agpo valley and also known as
G am popa) was born in 1079. His w ife died when he was in his twenties
and he decided to renounce the world and b ecom e a monk. He received
the teachings o f the Kadampa tradition and o f M ilarepa and these two
traditions m erged within him. He obtained the suprem e realization and
becam e a great scholar. He wrote many scholarly texts, the most
fam ous being the Dag-Po'i Thar-Gyen (D vags-Po'i Thar-rGyan) in which
the teachings o f the Kadampa tradition and those o f M ilarepa are
com bined. Because o f the renown o f D ag-Po Lha-Je's scholarship this
school becam e known as the D agpo Kagyud. From this original school,
Four M ajor Sub-Schools and Eight M inor Sub-Schools developed. The
Four M ajor Sub-Schools o f the Kagyudpa are: Karma Kargyu (or
Kamtshang Kagyud), Phagtru Kagyud, Tshalpa Kagyud and Barom
Kagyud.
1) Karma K agyud (Kar-Ma bKa’-rGyud): This school grew out o f the
disciples o f Karmapa Du-Sum Khyeh-Pa (Dus-gSum mKhyen-Pa)
(1110-1193). He studies with many teachers including Gam popa and
Rechungpa, attained the supreme realization and built monasteries at
Karma Lha-Ding (ID in g) and Tshur-Phu (mTshur-Phu). His incarnation
was known as Karmarpa Pakshi and he was the first recognized
incarnation (Tulku) in Tibet. He visited the court o f the M ongols who at
that tim e ruled China and he becam e the Chaplain o f the Em peror, who
bestowed the title ‘Karmapa Pakshi’ on him. T h e Karmarpa lineage is
the head o f this school and now is generally recognized as the head o f
the whole Kagyudpa lineage. The present Karmarpa, the XVIth, Rig-Pa’i
Dor-Je (Rig-Pa’i rDo-rJe) who was born in 1924 presently lives in
Sikkim and has traveled to many countries throughout the world. He
has established over 100 m editation centers in the West.
The Karmarpas are also known as the Black Hat Lamas because
from the first or second Karmarpa (there is a scholarly dispute on this
point) they have worn a black hat m ade from the hair o f 10,000,000
dakinis. This hat which is worn on cerem onial occasions has been
passed through the entire lineage o f the Karmarpas. In Tibet the main
m onastery o f this lineage is Tshur-Phu m onastery located in the center
o f the country. Th e third Karmapa, Rang-Chung Dor-Je (Rang-Byung
rDo-rJe), was a great Siddha and scholar and the eighth Karmarpa Mi-
K yod Dor-Je (M i-bsKyod rDo-rJe), was a renowned writer.
This school produced many other great lamas. One o f the most
famous was Situ Cho-Kyi Nyin-Ched (Ch’os-Kyi Nyin-Byed) who built
the great Kagyudpa monastery o f Pal-Pung (dPal-sPung) in Dege,
Kham. He was also a great scholar and wrote 15 texts including the
famous commentary to the Tibetan grammatical roots texts. While
living in Pal-Pung monastery the great 19th century scholar and writer
Kong-Tul Yon-Ten Gya-Tsho (rKong-sPrul Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho)
(1813-1899) wrote and compiled 100 volumes of both Nyingmapa and
Kagyudpa teachings. His works are known as the Dzod-Nga (mDzod-
N ga) — the Five Treasures of Kontrul.
The other lineages o f highly attained reincarnations of the Karma
Kagyud are: Zha-Mar-Pa (Zha dMar-Pa) or Red Hat, Gyal-Tshab (rGyal-
Tshab), Situ and Ne-Nang Pa-Wo (gNas-Nang dPa’-Bo) Lamas.
2) Phagtru Kagyud (Phag-Gru bKa’-brGyud): This school was
founded by Phag-Mo Tru-Pa Dor-Je Gyal-Po (Phag-Mo Gru-Pa rDo-rJe
rGyal-Po) who was bom in 1110. He took teachings from many teachers
including Gampopa who taught him the Mahamudra doctrine. He built
a monastery at a place known as Phag-Mo (now called gDan-Sa mThil)
in Southern Tibet and his tradition came to be known as Phagtru
Kagyud. He had many disciples. Som e of them were Tag (sTag)-Lung
Thang-Pa, Na (sNa)-Phu-Pa, Ling-Re Pema Dorje (Gling-Ras Padma rDo-
rJe), Tsang-Pa, Gyal-Re Cho-Je Jig-Ten Gon-Po (gTsnag-Pa rGya-Ras
C h’os-eJe a’Jigs-rTen mGon-Po), Kal-Den Ye-Shey Sengye (sKal-IDan
Ye-Shes Senge), Ye-Phug-Pa, Kyer Gom-Pa (Gyer-bsGom-Pa) and Gyal
(rGyal)-Tsha Rin-Po-Ch’e Kun-Dan (IDan) Re (Ras)-Pa. Many sub-schools
developed from the disciples of Phagm o Trupa. In 1349 Chang-Chub
Gyal-Tshen (Byang-Ch’ub rGyal mTshan) of this school became ruler of
Tibet which helped to spread the influence of this tradition.
3) Tshalpa (Tshal-Ba) Kagyud- This school was founded by Zhang
Dar-Ma Trag (Grags) who was born in 1122. His main teacher was Won-
Gom Tshul-Thrim Nying-Po (dBon bsGom Tshul-Khrims sNying-Po)
who was a close disciple of Gampopa. He built the Gung-Thang
monastery and had many disciples.
4) Barom Kagyud (a ’Ba-Rom bKa’-brGyud): This school was
founded by Dar-Ma Wang-Chug (dBang-Phyug) o f Barom in Northern
Tibet. He was a close disciple of Gampopa and attained great realization
as a result of his teachings. He built the Barom monastery and thus his
tradition is known as the Barom Kagyud.
The Eight Minor sub-schools of the Kagyud lineage all developed
from the Phagtru Kagyud School. They were founded by disciples of
Phagmo Trupa. They are outlined as follows:
1) Drikung Kagyud (a’Bri-Gung bKa’-brGyud): This school wa
founded by Kyura Rinpoche (sKyu-Ra Rin-Po-Che, 1143-1192). He
received the highest Kagyudpa teachings from Phagmo Trupa and
became a great scholar and famous Bhikshu. W hen he gave teachings
55,000 people sometimes attended including 10,000 monks. He built a
Tionastery in the Drikung valley in Central Tibet and his tradition is
known as the Drikungpa. He wrote a series of scholarly volumes called
the Gong-Chig (sGongs-gChig). The most famous scholar and writer in
the later history of this tradition was Rin-Ch’en Phun-Tshogs who wrote
on aspects of both Nyingmapa and Kagyudpa teaching. There are still a
large number of Drikung Kagyud followers and monasteries in Ladakh.
2) Taglung Kagyudpa (sTag-Lung bKa’-brGyud-Pa): Tra-Lung
Thang-Pa Tra-Shi Pal (bKra-Shis dPal) who was born in 1142 founded
this school. He was an attendant to Phagmo Trupa, received the
complete teachings and attained the realized state of meditationless
Mahamudra. He built a monastery in the Taglung valley and his
tradition was named after the valley. He had 3,000 students. The
famous scholar Ngag-W ang Trag-Pa (Nga-dBang Grags-Pa) was also
instrumental in the development o f this tradition. Sang-Gyal W on Trag-
Pa Pal (Sangs-rGyal dBon Grags-Pa dPal), a nephew o f Gampopa built
the Riwoche monastery in Kham. The monastery is noteworthy in that it
contains different colleges for the study of the different schools in
Tibetan Buddhism.
3) Yamzang Kagyud (gYam-bZang bKa’-brGyud): This school was
founded by Phagmo Trupa’s disciple Ye-Shes (Shes) Senge. He received
the highest realization just by seeing the Guru and listening to the
introductory instructions in meditation. His chief disciple Ya-Zang-Pa
(gYa’-bZang-Pa) who was born in 1169 and built the Yazang monastery.
The tradition took its name from this monastery.
4) Throphu Kagyudpa (Khro-Phu bKa’-brGyud-Pa): This tradition
was founded by Rin-Po-Ch’e Gyal (rGyal)-Tsha and Kun-Den Re-Pa (Kun-
lDan Ras-Pa) who were brothers (som e accounts say nephew and uncle)
and disciples of Phagmo Trupa. Rin-Po-Ch’e Gyal-Tsha built the
Throphu monastery. They had a nephew called Throphu Lotsawa — the
translator from Throphu valley. He took teachings and the Bhikshu
vows from his uncles and then went to Nepal and studied with many
Indian teachers including the great Pandita Shakyashri of Kashmir. He
built an 80 foot statue of Maitri Buddha within the Throphu monastery
and wrote many important texts.
5) Shugseb Kagyud (Shugs-gSeb bKa’-brGyud): This tradition was
founded by Pagm o Trupa’s disciple Cho (C h ’os)-Kyi Senge who built
Nye-Phu Shug-Seb (sNye-Phu Shugs-gSeb) monastery. The school is
named after this monastery.
6) Yepa Kagyud (Yel-Ba bK a’-brGyud-Pa): This tradition was
established by Yel-Wa Ye-Shey Tseg (Yel-Ba Ye-Shes-brTsegs). He built
the Shar Dor-Je Dang (Shar rDo-rJe rDangs), Lho Yel-Phug and Chang
Ta-Na (Byang rTa-rNa) monasteries.
7) Martshang (sMar-Tshang) Kagyud: This tradition was started by
Marpa Richen Lodro (sMar-Pa Rin-Chhen Blo-Gros) of Mar-Shod in
Kham.
8) Drukpa Kagyud (aBrug-Pa bKa’-brGyud): This tradition was
established by Phagm o Trupa’s highly realized disciple Ling-Re-Pa
(Gling-Ras-Pa) and the latter’s disciple Tsangpa Gyare (gTrang-Pa rGya-
Ras) (1088-1158). This school eventually divided into three subschools
known as the Middle (or Central) Drukpa, Lower Drupka and Upper
Drupka Kagyud. Each of these three branches is briefly discussed
below.
a) The Par-Druk (Bar-a’Brug) — Middle Drukpa Kagyud: Ling-Re-
Pa (1248-1308) was a highly realized disciple of Phagmo Trupa who had
many disciples and who constructed a monastery at Na (sNa)-Phur. His
disciple Tsang-Pa Gya-Re (gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras) (1161-1211) became a
famous teacher whose teachings were sometimes attended by as many
as 50,000 people. After building the Long-Bol (Klong-rBol) and Ra-
Lung monasteries he went to a place called Nam (gNam)-Gyi Phu to
build a monastery. When he and his party reached Nam-Gyi Phu they
saw nine roaring dragons flying in the sky. The Tibetan word for dragon
is “a’Brug” which is being pronounced as “Druk”. The flying dragons
were taken to be an auspicious omen and the monastery and the
lineage which sprang from it came to be known as the Drukpa. This
school eventually became very popular in Tibet. Its followers were
simple people, content with few material possessions who were known
for their deep practice of the Dharma. There is a Tibetan proverb which
says:

Half o f the people are Drukpa Kagyudpas,

Half o f the Drukpa Kagyudpas are beggars,
And half o f the beggars are Drub Thobs (Siddhas).

Later in this tradition many great scholars appeared including

Sang-Gye Dor-Je (Sangs-rGyas rDo-rJe), Pod Khe-Pa (Bod-mKhas-Pa)
and Padma Kar-Po (dKar-Po). Padma Kar-Po (1527-?) was a famous
scholar whose collected works covers fouteen volumes. Am ong the
Drukpa Kagyudpas he is known as Kun-Khyen (Kun-mKhyen — All
Knowing). He was the fourth Druk-Ch’en incarnation of Tsang-Pa Gya-
Re (gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras). He founded the Sang-Ngag Cho-Ling (gSang-
sNgags Ch’os-Gling) monastery near the Tibetan-Assamese (an Indian
State) border. This monastery became the residence of the Druk-Ch’en
incarnations. Two lineages of incarnations came from him — Pag-Sam
Wang-Po (dPag-bSam dBang-Po) and Ngag-W ang Nam-Gyal (Ngag-
dBang rNam-rGyal) (1594-1651). The latter went to Bhutan and became
both the spiritual and temporal head of the country. Eventually this
school became very powerful in Bhutan and in the Tibetan and
Bhutanese languages Bhutan is known as “Druk” (a'Brug) or country of
the dragon.
The greatest Siddhas of this school are Tsang-Nyon (gTsang
sMyon) (1452-1507), Druk-Nyon Kun-Leg (a’Brug-sMyon Kun-Legs)
(1455-?), Wu-Nyon (dBus-aMyon, 1458-?).
b) The Med-Drufc(sMad-a’Brug) — Lower Druk-Pa Kagyud: This sub
school was founded by Lo-Re-Pa Dar-Ma Wang-Chug (Lo-Ras-Pa Dar-Ma
dBang-Phyug) who was a disciple o f Tsang-Pa Gya-Re. He lived a very
humble and strictly disciplined life. He built the Wu-Ri (dBu-Ri) and
Senge-Ri monasteries. The tradition he founded is known as Med-Druk.
c) The Tod-Druk (sTod-a’Brug) — Upper Druk-Pa Kagyud: This sub
school was founded by God-Tsang-Pa Gon-Po Dor-Je (rGod-Tshang-Pa
mGon-Po rDo-rJe) who was also an important disciple of Tsang-Pa Gya-
Re. He was very highly realized, led a simple and austere life and had
many disciples. His main disciples were O-Gyen-Pa (O-rGyan-Pa),
Yang-Gon-Pa (Yang-dGon-Pa), Chil-Kar-Pa (sPyil-dKar-Pa) and Ne-Ring-
Pa. Ba-Ra-Wa Gyal-Tshen Pal-Zang (a’Ba’-Ra-Ba rGyal-mTshan dPal-
bZang) (1255-1343) was one of the greatest scholars of this lineage.
Ogyenpa Rin-Chen-Pal (1230-?) who was a disciple of God-Tshang-Pa
became a great Siddha and visited Bodhagaya, Jalandara, Oddiyana
and China. He wrote many works including a famous guide to the
Oddiyana country. He had many disciples including the Karmapa Rang-
Chung Dor-Je (Rang-Byung rDo-rJe), Khar-Chu-Pa (mKhar-Chhu-Pa)
(1284-1339) and Tog-Den Da-Seng (rTogs-lDan Zla-Seng).

At the present time the most well known of these sub-schools are
the Karma Kagyud (or Karma Kam-tshang), Drukpa Kagyud and
Drikung Kagyud.
 The Kagyudpa teachings are based on the Kadampa tradition and
the Tantras of the New Translation. The special teachings of this school
are A ) the Naro-Cho-Trug (Na-Ro Ch'os-Trug — Six Yogas of Naropa)
from the Indian Mahasiddha Naropa and B ) the Mahamudra teachings
of Mahasiddha Maitripa.
A ) The Haro Chodruk (Six Yogas of Naropa):
There are six aspects of this advanced Vajrayana meditation
practice. They are briefly described as follows.
1) Tummo (gTum-Mo: Heat Yoga): This is the basic practice of the
Six Yogas o f Naropa in which the veins, air, heat and semen are used to
produce the four kinds of bliss and to actualize the wisdom o f the union
o f bliss and emptiness. The union of bliss and emptiness is known as
the Mahamudra.
2) Gyulu (sGyu-Lus: Maya Body): The purpose of this practice is to
make further progress on the path of realization. Through the practice
of this yoga the meditator is taught to see all appearance as the illusory
body of the deities.
3) Milam (rMi-Lam: Dream): This yoga is used to test the strength
o f the practice. The meditator is trained to maintain awareness during
sleep and dream states.
4) Odsal (a’od-gSal: Radiant Clarity): This practice is the essence
of the path. The meditator practices until he achieves the State of the
Cinbom Radiant Clarity Samadhi in which all of existence becomes the
spontaneously arising body of clarity and emptiness.
5) Bardo (Bar-Do: Intermediate state between death and rebirth):
This practice is used to actualize the union of clarity and emptiness in
the intermediate state through the experience o f the Maya-Body and
Radiant Clarity.
6) Phowa (a’Pho-Ba: Transference): This practice is used to
maintain the continuity of the path throughout one’s life. If the
meditator should die before perfecting the path through this practice he
is able to continue his practice into the next life. By this practice the
meditator can enter the Pure State through the door of the Mahamudra.
There is another type of Phowa called “a’Pho-Ba Grong-a’Jug” which
enables the practitioner to transfer his consciousness into another
body.
The lineage of this teaching came from the celestial Buddha
Vajradhara, Mahasiddha Tilopa, Mahasiddha Naropa, The Great
Translator Marpa, Milarepa and Gampopa, etc.
B ) Mahamudra (Phyag-rGya-Ch’en-Po):
The Mahamudra teachings have two aspects: The Mahamudra of
the Sutra and Mahamudra of Tantra.
In the Mahamudra of Sutra it is taught that the nature of mind is
Radiant Clarity and undefiled. The meditator meditates directly on
Unmodified mind which is inseparable from appearances and empti-
ness. The Relative Truth is the sudden defilements and the Absolute
Truth is the Buddha Nature. In reality, all existents are free from all con­
ceptualization and are emptiness.
In the Mahamudra of Tantra the meditator is introduced to the
nature of mind and concentrates on that one pointedly. A s a result, the
Lung (rLung) (air or energy) enters the Wu-Ma (dBu-Ma — central vein)
and generates the Tum-Mo (gTum-Mo, heat — Chandali, Skt.) and
develops the four kinds of bliss. The meditator then concentrates on the
union o f bliss and emptiness in order to attain the final goal of the
Mahamudra state.
The lineage of the Mahamudra teachings came from the Indian
Mahasiddha Maitripa and was introduced into Tibet by the translator
Marpa who passed it to Milarepa who passed it to Gampopa. These
teachings have been passed through an unbroken lineage of masters
down to the present day.

The fundamental teachings o f the various schools of the Kagyudpa

tradition are the same. However, the different schools had, slightly
different methods of practice and interpretation.
 III. Sakyapa (Sa-sKya-Pa) School
Grey Earth School

Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po (a’Khon dKon-mChhog rGyal-Po, 1034-1102)

was the founder of this school. In 1073 he built a monastery in tipper
Tsang. At the place where he built this monastery the color of the earth
was grey. ‘Sa-Kya’ means grey earth and the monastery and the
tradition that came from it are known as Sakyapa.
The earlier generation of the Khon clan were noted followers of the
Nyingmapa. But Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po went to the great translator
Drog-Mi Ye-Shey (a’Brog-Mi Ye-Shes, 993-1050) and received the
teachings and initiations of the New Tantra (gSar-Ma). He was
instructed in the Lam-Dre (Lam-a’Bras — the path and result) teachings
which had been expounded by the Indian Mahasiddha Bairupa.
Khon Kon-Chog Gyal-Po’s son, Sa-Chen Kun-Ga Nying-Po
(Sa-Ch’en Kun-dGa’-sNying-Po, 1092-1158) became a great scholar and
Siddha. He received the special Lam-Dre teachings from Mahasiddha
Bairupa himself who came to the Sakya monastery by his miraculous
power and stayed and taught for one month. Two of Sa-Chen Kun-Ga
Nying-Po’s sons Sod-Nam Tse-Mo (bSod-Nam s rTse-Mo, 1142-1182)
and Trag-Pa Gyal-Tshen (Grangs-Pa rGyal-mTshan, 1147-1216),
became great scholars and Siddhas. Their younger brother’s son, Kun-
Ga Gyal-Tshen (Kun-dGa’ rGyal-mTshan, 1181-1251), became the
greatest scholar of the Sakyapa school. He was recognized as the
highest authority on the teachings of the lineage. He became a Bhikshu
and wrote many scholarly volumes. Later he became known as the
Sakya Pandita. He defeated the great South Indian Pandit, Hari-
Nanda, in a debate in the Kyirorig valley between Tibet and Nepal. He
was invited to the Chinese court by the Mongolian Emperor of China,
Gotan who was the grandson of Gengis Khan. He became the supreme
teacher at the Chinese court and devised the script and grammar for the
Mongolian language.
The Sakya Pandita’s younger brother’s older son, Dro-Gon Cho-
Gyal Phag-Pa (a’Gro-mGon Chhos-rGyal a'Phags-Pa, 1235-1280) was a
great teacher and became the first Lama Ruler of Tibet. He studied
under his uncle’s guidance and became a highly realized Lama. After
his uncle’s death he became the guru to the Chinese Emperor Kublai
Khan. In return for receiving Abhishekha (initiation) the Emperor
offered him central, western and southern Tibet. At the time o f his
second visit to China the emperor offered him additional areas of
Tibetan territory. He thus became the ruler of Tibet and the Sakyapas
controlled the country for a century after 1253 A.D.
The Sakyapa school produced many great scholars throughout its
long history in Tibet. Its five greatest scholars are known as the Sa-Kya
Gong-Ma Nam -Nga (Sa-sKya Gong-Ma rNam-lNga): The Five Supreme
Ones of the Sakyapa. They were the Sakya Pandit, Sa-Chen, Sodnam,
Trak Pa and Phag-Pa. Som e of the other great scholars of the school are
^ agT ru g (gYag-Phrug), Rong-Ton (Rong-sTon), Ngor-Pa, Dzong-Pa
(rDzong-Pa), G o Rab-Jam (G o Rab-a’Byams) and Sakya Chog-Den
(m Ch’og-IDan). Go Rab-Jam-Pa Sod-Mam Senge (bSod-Nam s Senge)
who was bom in 1429 is one of the most famous writers o f the Sakyapa.
He is known as Kun-Khyen (Sarvajna, Skt.) which means All Knowing.
He wrote 15 famous books and built the Ta-Nag Thub-Ten Ling (rTa-
N ag Thub-bsTan Gling) monastery in Tsang.
In addition to the main Sakyapa school there are two subschools of
this lineage: Ngor-Pa and Tshar-Ba. Ngor-Chen Kun-Ga Zang-Po (Mgor-
Ch’en Kun-dGa’ bZang-Po) (1382-1456) built the N gor E-W am Choden
(E-W am Ch’os-lDan) monastery and it eventually became the second
greatest Sakyapa monastery and a subschool of the main lineage. The
followers of another great teacher, Tshal-Chen Lo-Sal Gya-Tsho (Tshal-
Ch’en Blo-gSal rGya-mTsho) (1502-1566) established another
subschool which became known as the Tshar-Ba.
Since the lineage was founded the primacy o f the Sakyapa lineage
has been passed through the Khon clan. They are also the heads of the
main Sakya monastery. The present head of the Sakyapa school is Thri
Rinpoche Kun-Ga Thrin-Le Wang-Gyal (Khri Rin-Po-Cher Kun dGa’
a’Phrin Las dBang-rGyal) who was born in 1945 and lives in India.
In addition to the Sakya and N gor monasteries in Tsang, the other
important monasteries are: Lhun-Drub-Teng (Lhun-a’Grub sTeng) in
Dege (sDe-dGe) province, Dzong-Sar Tra-Shi Lha-Tse (rDzong-gSar
bKra-Shis Lha-rTse) in Kham, Nalentra in Phen-Yul, Ta-Nag (rTa-Nag)
and Nyen-Yod (mNyan-Yod) in Central Tibet and Deur Cho-De (lDeur
Ch’os-sDe) in Am do.
 Sakyapa Doctrine

The special teaching of this school is the Lam-Dre teachings or the

Path and Result. The view o f Lam-Dre is said to be “Clarity and
Emptiness without grasping” or ‘T h e undifferential nature of Samsara
and Nirvana”. Within the Lam-Dre teachings there are two aspects:
A ) Sutra and B) Tantra.

A ) Sutra: Within the Sutric aspect there are two traditions: l)N agarjuna
and 2) Maitrinatha.

1) Nagaijuna: This tradition teaches the three Dog-Pa (bZIog-Pa)

practices. Dog-Pa means to reverse. These three practices are:
a) By meditating on the suffering of Samsara, the difficulties of
obtaining a human birth, the law of Karma and Maitri (compassion) one
will reverse oneself from unvirtuous actions.
b) First, reflecting on the grasping of one’s own body, to
examine as follows: if the body is real, then it should be real from the
beginning and independent of any causes and conditions. But the body
has developed and functions only because of causes and conditions. By
knowing this one will develop the certainty that the body is without
reality. By meditating on this, one will cease to take the
conceptualizations o f grasping self as truth (Satyagrahana) and will
reverse the concept of Self-Grasping (grasping self or ego as true).
c) Then one ceases to reflect on no-truth (Asatya): one will
reverse the view of no-truth by recognizing that emptiness is free from
grasping at an object; by recognizing that whether phenomena exist or
do not exist is beyond the conception of the mind; and by dwelling in
the state free from conceptualization and grasping.

2) Maitrinatha: This tradition teaches that the natural Clarity-

Wisdom of the Basis is the foundation of both Samsara and Nirvana. By
not recognizing this it we are in delusion and are grasping as true the
dual appearances of subject and object. This delusion is the root of
Samsara and the purpose of the path this to destroy this ignorance by
dissolving that duality into the Dharma-Space Pharmadhatu).

B) Tantra: The tantric aspect of the Lam-Dre teachings is used for the
realization o f the nature of the mind. First, one should recognize the
ordinary mind and then meditate on the union of clarity and emptiness.
From this practice one can find the Mind of natural wisdom
spontaneously arisen and meditate on the meaning of it. Through this
Practice the mind will not be distracted by delusions. All appearances
then arise as the play of wisdom. If deluded reflections still arise, then
by recollection and mindfulness the delusory appearances transform
themselves into the Nature of Wisdom.
The lineage of the Lam-Dre teachings came through the Indian
teachers Bairupa, Purva-Krisna, Damaupa, Avadhutipa and Gayadhara
monastery (dGa’IDan Khri-Pa) was Gyal-Tshab-Je and then Khe-Drub-
Je. Since that time the throne-hoiders o f Gaden have been the senior-
most scholars and they are the heads of the Gelugpa School. The
present Ga-Den Thri-Pa is Ling Rinpoche, senior tutor to the Dalai
Lama, who is now living in India.
 G e lu g p a M o n aste rie s

The Gelugpas constructed huge monastic establishments in many

parts of Tibet. Som e of the most important ones were:
1) Ga-Den (dGa-lDan) Monastery: This monastery was built by
Tsong-Kha-Pa himself in 1409. It is located 25 miles from Lhasa and
has residences for 4,000 monks. It had two major colleges (Gra-
Tshangs) for study of both Sutra and Tantra.
2) Dre-Pung (a’Bras-sPung) Monastery: This monastery was built
by Tsong-Kha-Pa’s disciple Jam-Yang Cho-Je, in 1416. It is located
three miles west of Lhasa and has accomodation for 9,000 monks. It
has three colleges for the study of Sutra and one college for the study
and practice of Tantra.
3) Se-Ra Monastery: This monastery was built by Tsong-Kha-Pa’s
disciple, Cham Chen Cho-Je in 1419. It is located IV 2 miles north of
Lhasa and has accomodation for 7,000 minks. It has two colleges for
Sutra study and one for Tantra.
4) Tra-Shi Lhun-Po (bKra-Shis Lhun-Po): This monastery was built
by Pen-Chen Ge-Dun-Trub, the first Dalai Lama, in 1447. It has
residences for 4,000 monks and three colleges for Sutra study and one
for Tantra. It was the seat of the Dalai Lamas until the first Panchen
Lama became head of the monastery. The first Panchen Lama, Lob-
Zang Cho-Kyi Gyal-Tshen (Blo-bZang Ch’os-Kyi rGyal-mTshan)
(1570-1662), was one of the greatest Gelugpa scholars and the tutor of
the fifth Dalai Lama. Since his time this monastery has been the seat of
the Panchen Lamas. The present Panchen Lama was born in 1938 and
is now in China.
5) Gyud-Med Tra-Tshang (rGyud-sMad Gra-Tshang — Lower
Tantric Training College): This monastic college is located in Lhasa and
was founded by Shey-Rab Senge (Shes-Rab Senge), a disciple of Tsong-
Kha-Pa, in 1440. It has accomodation for 500 Tantric Bhikshus.
6) Gyud-Tod Tra-Tshang (rGyud-sTod Gra-Tshang — Upper
Tantric Training College): This monastic college was founded by Kun-
Ga Don-Trub (Kun-dGa’ Don-Grub), a disciple of Shey-Rab Senge, in
1474. It is a training college for 900 Tantric Bhikshus.
< 7) Chab-Do (Ch’ab-mDo) Monmastery: This monastery is located
■n the Kham province of Eastern Tibet. It was built by Tsong-Kha-Pa’s
disciple, Cham-Chen Choje in 1437.
, 8) sKu-a’Bum Monastery: This monastery is located in the Amdo
Province of Eastern Tibet at the birthplace of Tsong-Kha-Pa. It was built
,With the advice and blessing o f the third Dalai Lama, Sod-Nam Gya-
Tsho (bSod-Nams rGya-mTsho) (1543-1588). It has residences for 3700
j£onks and has three colleges. One of the colleges is for medicine and
p*® other two are for Sutric and Tantric study and practice.
;* 9) Tra-Shi Go-Mang (bKra-Shis sGo-Mang) Monastery: This
fftonastery was built by Jam-Yang Zhed-Pa Ngag-W ang Tson-Dru
Jam-dByangs bZhad-Pa Ngag-Bang brTson-a’Grus, 1648-1721), a
disciple o f the fifth Dalai Lama, in 1710. It is located in the Amdc
province of Eastern Tibet and has residence for 3700 monks. Manj
great scholars have come from this monastery such as Gong-Thanc
Ten-Pa’i Dron-Me (Gong-Thang bsTan-Pa’i sGron-Me). It has foui
colleges: one for Sutra, two for Tantra and one for medicine.
10) dGon-Lung Monastery: This monastery was built by Don-Yoc
Cho-Kyi Gya-Tsho (Chhos-Kyi rGya-mTsho) in the Am do province ol
Eastern Tibet in 1592. From this monastery the great Chang-Kyj
(Chang-sKya) and Tho-Kvan (Thos-bKvan) incarnations spread the
Gelugpa teachings into Mongolia and parts of China. Many Buddhisl
scriptures were translated from Tibetan into Mongolian and Chinese al
this monastery.
11) Ri-Wo Ge-Gye-Ling (Ri-Bo-dGe-rGyas-Gling or Ta-Khu-Ral]
Monastery: This monastery was located in Hal-Ha, Outer Mongolia and
was founded by the first Je-Tsun Dam-Pa, Lob-Zang Ten-Pa’i Gyal-
Tshen (rJe-bTsun-Dam-Pa, Blo-bZang bsTan-Pa’i rGyal-mTshan]
(1635-1723) who was an incarnation of Taranath. The Jetsun Dampa
was the highest lama in Mongolia and occupied a position comparable
to that of the Dalai Lama in Tibet. This monastery was his residence. It
had 27,000 monks and 11 colleges. ;
There were also hundreds of smaller Gelugpa monasteries in
Mongolia before the coming of the Communists. In addition there were
also a few Gelugpa monasteries in China before 1949. |
 The G e lu g p a s are within the P rasan gik a-M adh yam ik a
philosophical tradition and they largely adopted the method of practice
taught by Atisha in the Kadampa system. Their Tantric teachings, from
the New Translation of the Tantras, are the Kriyayoga Tantra,
Charyayoga Tantra, Yoga Tantra and Anuttarayoga Tantra. The method
Of the Kadampa School is summarized in the following passage:

“To accept all the doctrines (o f Buddha) as instructions.

To understand that all the instructions are the main
path (or part o f the path) that leads a person to the
attainment o f Buddhahood, and to practice the three
stages o f the path (higher, middle and lesser) according
to one’s own capacity.

The Gelugpas stress the teaching on interdependent arising to

prove that all things are empty and free from conceptualization.
According to the doctrine of interdependent arising, all phenomena are
without self-nature and arise because of mutually interdependent
causes and conditions. Thus phenomena are empty in that they lack
self-nature and do not function independently of one another.
The Gelugpas practice both the Sutras and Tantras according to
the method of the “Stages of the Path” which is a gradual method
beginning with the Preliminary Practices and ending with the
Perfection of Transcendental Wisdom. In their Tantric practice they use
two stages (Rim-gNyis): development (bKyed-Rim) and perfection
(rDzogs-Rim). Through the use of this method they realize emptiness
through the spontaneously arising bliss and attain the fully perfected
Sambhogakaya.
The deep and intensive study of the Buddhist scriptures is strongly
emphasized by the Gelugpa school. For the study o f Sutra the following
texts are mainly used: 1) the Nyaya texts of Dignaga and Dharmakirti;
2) Prajnaparamita of Maitrinatha and Asangha; 3) the Madhyamika
texts of Nagarjuna and Chandrakirti; 4) the Abhidharma of Vasubandhu
and Asangha; and 5) the Vinaya text o f Gunaprabha. In addition to the
original texts, many commentaries by both Indian and Tibetan scholars
are studied. For example, just considering Dre-Pung monastery alone,
each Tra-Shang (college) has a different Yig-Cha (commentarial texts)
Written by Gelugpa scholars o f their own Tra-Tshang. The study of the
0riginal texts is done on the basis of these commentaries. The following
Tantras are mainly studied: Guhyasamaja, Chakrasamvara, Vajrabhai-
rava> Haivajra, Kalachakra and Vajrayogini.
_ The following quotations from the works of Tsong-Kha-Pa give an
lndication of the main points of the Gelugpa teachings. In Drang-Ngey
Leg-Shed Nying-Po (Drangs-Nges Legs-bShad sNying-Po) he says:

By the assertion o f the inevitable interdependent arising o f

o f Samsara and Nirvana,
Destroy all the characteristic conceptualizations;
By the moon-like teachings o f Chandrakirti,
When the Kumud garden-like mind and eyes have opened,
By seeing the path shown by Buddhapalita,
Who will not hold the excellent philosophy o f Nagaijuna
as supreme?

In the Lam-Tso Nam-Sum (Lam-gTso rNam-gSum — the Three

Principal Aspects of the Path), he says:

If you do not have the wisdom o f realizing the nature (real

state),
Even if you have gained the experience o f revulsion from
the Samsara and have generated Bodhicitta, '
You cannot cut the root o f Samsara;
So try the means o f understanding interdependent arising
(pratitya-samutpada). >

Whoever sees that the functioning o f cause and result

O f all the existents o f Samsara and Nirvana is inevitable
And destroys all conceptualization,
Enters the path "Pleasing to the Buddha”.
S '

A s long as you see the two —

Appearances, the inevitable interdependent arising,
And emptiness, the non-assertion (o f its existence) —
as separate,
You still do not understand the vision o f the Buddha.

When simultaneously without alternative,

You ju s t see that interdependent arising is inevitable,
It destroys all grasping at the oblects o f conception,
Then the analysis o f the Darshan (view) is complete.
 IV . S o m e O th er Tibetan B uddhist S ch o o ls

1. Kadampa (bKa’-gDams-Pa) School: The great Indian scholar

Atisha Dipamkarashirijnan (982-1048) founded this school. He was an
abbot of Vikramashila Monastic University which was one of the three
greatest centers of Buddhist learning during his time in India. He was
invited to Tibet in 1042 by Ye-She Od (Ye-Shes A ’od) and Chang-Chub
O d (A ’od) who were closely related to the dynasty o f the early Dharma
Kings of Tibet. He gave many teachings on the Buddhist Sutras and
instructions for correctly practicing the teachings. He wrote the famous
text, “The Light of the Path”. In this short work he explained all the
Buddha’s teachings as one path dividing it into three parts for persons
of higher, middle and lesser intelligence. He lived and taught in Tibet
until the time of his death.
His renowned disciple, Drom-Ton (a’Brom-sTon) (1004-1064) built
the Ra-Dreng (Ra-bsGreng) monastery to the north of Lhasa and it
became the source of the Kadampa teachings. Drom-Ton’s three
principal disciples were Po-To-Ba, Phu-Ch’ung-Ba and Chen-Nga-Wa
(sPyan-sNga-Ba).The Kadampas emphasized strict and earnest practice
and full understanding of the meaning o f the teachings. Their teachings
are simple and mostly in local dialects but are deep and full of meaning
and inspiration.
A separate Kadampa school did not survive but their teachings and
examples deeply influenced the other schools of Tibetan Buddhism.
This is because the original Kadampas were all hermits and did not
build monasteries. Their followers, however, did construct monasteries
iand these became the foundation of the Kagyur and Gelugpa sects. The
Gelugpas call themselves the New Kadampa and the Kagyudpas say
that their teachings are the confluence of the Mahamudra and
Kadampa.
2. Zhi-Ched-Pa (Zhi-Byed-Pa) and Chod (gChod): Zhi-Ched-Pa
means “pacification” or the "doctrine which pacifies suffering.’This
lineage was founded in Tibet by the great South Indian Saint Pha-Dam-
Pa Sang-Gye (Sangs-rGyas). He visited Tibet on five occasions, the last
time being in 1098 after his return from China.
His teachings were based on the Prajnaparamita Sutras and the
philosophy of Nagarjuna. The distinctive aspect o f Pha-Dam-Pa Sang-
Gyes’ teaching was the method he used to pacify suffering. In most
types of teaching the defilements which are the cause of suffering are
first purified then the suffering is dissolved. But in this method the
suffering is first purified and then the defilements which are its cause
are eliminated. In this practice the suffering itself is used as a practice.
The teaching of this lineage went through three periods of development
Marked by Pha-Dam-Pa Sang-Gyes’ different visits to Tibet.
The teachings o f Chod are a major practice of this school. Chod
^eans ‘to cut off, specifically to cut off the ego and defilements which
are the root of samsara. There are two types of Chod: a) Pho-Chod (male
'■hod) and b ) Mo-Chod (female Chod). The practice of Mo-Chod is the
m°st popular.
 a) Pho-Chod: This teaching was transmitted by Pha-Dam-Pa Sang-
Gyes to Kyo-Ton Sod-Nam (sKyo-sTon bSod-Nam s) and Ma-Ra Ser-Po
(sMa-Ra Ser-Po) who in turn transmitted it to Nyon-Pa Se-Rang (sMyon-
Pa Se-Rong), Tse-Ton (rTse-sTon) and Sum-Ton (Sum-sTon).
b ) Mo-Chog: This lineage was transmitted by Kyo-Ton-Sod-Nam
to the great frmale saint Ma-Chig Lab-Dron (sGron) (1031-1124). She is
recognized by all Tibetan schools as a Wisdom-Dakini in human form.
Because of her influence the Chod teachings were established in the
different schools in all parts o f Tibet and have been passed down to the
present time. There were numerous Chod texts and teachings that
came from her in different forms. Many of them were discovered as
Dharma Treasures (gTer). She spent the last years of her life in a cave at
Zang-Ri Khar-Mar (Zangs-Ri mKhar-dMar) in Southern Tibet.
Both Chod teachings are based on the Prajnaparamita Sutras. The
basic practice is to purify the defilements by completely cutting off
grasping at self which is the root of samsara. The Six Paramitas (per­
fections) are practiced by giving away one’s own body and possessions
to all including the most fearful beings in dangerous places without
attachment, fear or doubt. Ma-Chig Lab-Kyi Dron-Ma divided the Chod
into three aspects:

‘To travel to dangerous and solitary places is the

Outer-Chod, '
To transform the body as food for demons is the
Irmer-Chod,
To cut o ff the single thing (grasping) from the root
is the Actual-Chod.
Whoever practices these three Chods is a y o g i ’’

A t present there is no separate lineage of this tradition but its

teachings are practiced in all the schools, especially in the Nyingmapa
and Kagyudpa.
3. Jonangpa (jo-Nang-Pa) School: This lineage was founded in
Tibet by Yu-Mo Mi-Kyod Dor-Je (Yu-Mo Mi-bsKyod rDo-rJe) who was a
great teacher of the Kalachakra Tantra. He attained a profound
realization of the meaning of emptiness which is called Zhen-Tong
(gZhan-sTong). Kun-Pang Thug-Je Tshan-Dru (Kun sPang Thugs-rJe
brTson-a’Grus) (1243-?) who was a holder of this lineage built a
monastery at Jo-Mo-Nang and it became the source of the Jo-Nang-Pa
teachings. His great disciple, Dol-Po Shey-Rab Gyal-Tshen (Dol-Bo
Shes-Rab rGyal-mTshan) (1292-1361) became a very famous scholar of
his time. He expounded the Zhen-Tong philosophy in his Ri-Cho Ngey-
Don Gya-Tsho (Ri-Ch’os Nges-Don rGya-mTsho) and Ka-Du Zhi-Pa
(bKa’-bsDu bZhi-Pa). According to his teaching the Kun-gZhi (Alaya —
universal ground or basis) has two parts: wisdom and sense. Wisdom is
the absolute truth of Buddha nature which is true, pure, eternal and
exists in all beings. But because of the delusion of the senses, this
undifferentiated, pure natural state is obscured. Through the practice of
the 'Six Yogas’ taught by the Jo-Nang-Pa the obscurations o f the senses
are removed and the absolute state is attained. The disciples of this
school mainly rely on Dol-Po Shey-Rab Gyal-Tshen’s works for study
and practice. His most famous disciples were Sa-Zang Ma-Ti Rin-Chen
(Sa-bZang Ma-Ti Rin-Ch’en) and Po-Tong Chog-Le Nam-Gyal (Po-
Tongs-Phyogs-Las rNam-rGyal, 1306-1386). In later centuries Kun-Ga
were great teachers and scholars of this lineage. However, in the 17th
century because of political difficulties this school ceased to function
actively in Central Tibet but it remained powerful in Eastern Tibet until
recent times. The Shar Dzam-Thang (Shar-a’Dzam-Thang) monastery
built by Ka-Zhi-Pa Rin-Chen-Pal (Ka-bZhi-Pa Rin-Ch’en-dPal), a great
disciple of Dol-Po Shey-Rab Gyal-mTshen, in Golok province became
the center of the Jo-Nang-Pa doctrine in recent centuries.
The scriptures and meditation practices o f the Tibetan lineages
differ from one another according to their origins in the various
transmissions from India and the varying needs of their disciples in
Tibet. Yet all these schools are the same in the crucial sense o f directly
or indirectly leading to the same goal, Enlightenment. Similarly,
different medicines are the same in the sense that they all make people
healthy.
 V O L. II

THE S C O P E O F
TIBETAN LITERATURE
 THE SCOPE OF
T IB E T A N L IT E R A T U R E

In trod u ction

For many centuries the teachings of Buddhism deeply influenced

all aspects of Tibetan life and culture. Many monks and high lamas
meditated on the teachings of the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and Siddhas
and wrote extensively on all facets of the Buddha’s Dharma. Eventually
the discipline of Buddhism permeated all levels of Tibetan society and
"set the tone for the whole life of the people. Thus, any discussion about
the life, history, culture, and literature of Tibet must take Buddhism
into account as a predominating factor. This is especially true for
Tibetan literature because literary Tibetan was developed mainly in the
7th century A.D. for the purpose of translating the Buddhist scriptures
into Tibetan.
In the intellectual world beyond the confines of Tibetan society, the
Tibetan language is important because of the richness and vastness of
the Buddhist literature contained within its scope. It is one of the four
major Buddhist languages. The others are Sanskrit, Pali and Chinese.
The main treasury of Buddhist literature in India until the 12th
century A.D. was written in Sanskrit. It is an especially important source
for the Mahayana, unfortunately, due to historical circumstances many
of these priceless original Sanskrit texts, were lost.
Pali, the ancient language of Magadha, was the major medium and
source for Hinayana Buddhist literature. In later centuries the rich
treasury of Hinayana scripture was preserved in the Theravadin
countries. Especially important are the Tripitaka and the Atthakatha,
the huge commentary on the Tripitaka written by Acarya
Buddhaghosha.
Beginning in the early centuries of our era, many Buddhist texts
were translated into Chinese, and on this foundation Chinese became a
major source of Buddhist literature. But compared to Tibetan Buddhist
literature, Prof. Nalinaksa Dutt has written: “The Tibetan collections of
translations of Indian texts is much larger than the Chinese. In a
comparison made by Prof. Sakai Shinten between the Tibetan and
Chinese versions of the Indian texts, he finds the Chinese translations
are wanting in 670 texts of the Kajur and 3452 of the Tenjur.” He further
; said “One of the most outstanding contributions made by Tibetan
scholars was the preservation of Sanskrit texts in literal and accurate
Tibetan translations, in which they surpassed the Chinese in accuracy
: and volume.”
Thus it can be said that the Tibetan language contains the richest
collection of Buddhist literature in the world today. All aspects of the
Buddhist tradition — Hinayana, Mahayana and Vajrayana — are
contained within its scope. The translation and exposition of the
Buddha’s Dharma formed the basis of literary Tibetan. Buddhism
became the fountainhead of Tibetan literature and the main source of
Tibetan cultural life.

TIBETAN LITERATURE

W e will classify Tibetan Literature into two broad divisions: (I)

Religious and (II) Secular. Although there was very little literature that
was not influenced by religious concepts, there are many texts whose
main subject matter deals with non-religious subjects such as grammar,
medicine and law. These works are classified within the secular
literature. Only works which deal primarily with religious themes are
placed in the category of religious literature.
 I. T H E R E L IG IO U S L IT E R A T U R E

The religious literature can be classified in two ways:

(A ) according to origin and (B) according to subject. According to
origin, there is first of all (1) a large body of literature translated from
Indian sources into Tibetan. Secondly, (2) there is the enormous
volume of religious works written by Tibetan scholars. According to
subject, the religious literature falls into four divisions: 1. Religion, 2.
History and Biography, 3. Poetic Composition and Yogic Songs and 4.
Art, Music and Dance.

A ) Religious Literature — According to Origin

1. The Literature Translated from Tibetan Sources
(a) The Kajur Collection— The Buddha’s Teachings
The Kajur contains the scriptures of both Sutras and Tantras.
Although many of the Sutras were translated in the period of the Later
Spread of the Doctrine (bsTan-Pa Phyi-Dar), most of them were
translated into Tibetan during the Earlier Spread of the Doctrine
(bsTan-Pa sNga-Dar) and revised during the period of the Later Spread.
Most of the tantras contained in the Kajur are New Tantras (gSang-
sNgags gSar-Ma) but there are also a few scriptures of the Old Tantra in
this collection. The New Tantras are those which were translated
beginning with Lo-Ch’en Rin-Ch’en bZang-Po (958-1051). The Old
Tantras are the tantric scriptures translated from the 7th century A.D.
until the time of Acharya Smrtijnana at the beginning of the 11th
century. Most of the Old Tantras are contained in the rNying-Ma
rGyud-’Bum collection. The contents of the Kajur are as follows:

No. o f No. of
No. Title o f the Sub-Dlvislons Vol.* Treatises*

1. rGyud (Tantra) 24 729

2. Sher-Phyin (Prajnaparamita) 23 30
3. dKon-brTsegs (Ratnakuta) 6 1
4. Phal-Ch’en (Avatamsaka) 6 1
5. mDo (Sutra) 32 269
6. a ’Dul-Ba (Vinaya) 13 16
104 1046
7. The Collection of rNying-Ma rGyud-a’Bum
(Pracin-Tantras) + +
33 375

* These figure based on Peking Edition.

+ These figures based on Delhi publication
(b) The Tenjur Collection — The Works of Indian Buddhist Scholar^'
The Tenjur (bsTan-a’Gyur) is the collection of commentarial text&
written by ancient Indian Buddhist scholars on the Hinayana
Mahayana, and Tantra and translated into Tibetan. The Tenjur also
contains texts on secular subjects and these are included within the
secular literature section. The Dharma literature of the Tenjur is
classified according to the following subdivisions:

No. of No. of
No. Title o f the Sub-Dtvlslons Vol Treatises*
1. bs Tod-Tshogs (Stotras) Vz 63
2. rGyud-a’Grel (Tantra-tika) 85 y2 3120
3. Sher-Phyin (Prajnaparamita) 16 40
4. dBu-Ma (Madhyamika) 17 257
5. mDo-a’Grel (Sutra-tika) 10 40
6. Sems-Tsam (Citamatra-Yogacarya) 18 45
7. mNgon-Pa (Abhidharma) 11 19
8. a’Dul-Ba (Vinaya) 18 , 66
9. sKyes-Rabs (Jatakamala) 3Vz 8
10. sPring-Yig (Lekha) ’/2 42
11. Thun-Mong and Ngo-mTshar bsTan-bChos
(Sadharana Shastra) 1 5 86
(out of (out of
121/2) 143)
185 3786

2. The Literature Written by Tibetan Scholars

There is vast literature written by thousands of learned Tibetan
scholars and sages on various aspects o f Buddhism. This literature pri­
marily concerns itself with the interpretation and explanation of the
Sutras, Tantras and commentaries written by great Indian scholars.
In order to understand this indigenous literature, it is necessary to
know something about the Buddhist schools which developed in Tibet.
These schools developed from the experience and wisdom of renowned
Tibetan scholars and sages,and from the literary expression of their
understanding.
In Tibet four major and many minor Buddhist schools developed.
The four major schools are: Nyingmapa, Kagyudpa, Sakyapa and
Gelugpa. The main division between these schools is in relation to the
Tantras, although there were also different interpretations of the Sutras
am ong these schools. The followers of the Old Tantras or EarlierTrans-
lation (sN ga’-a’Gyur) are known as the Nyingmapa or O ld Ones. The
followers of the later translated tantras (Phyi-a’Gyur) are known as the
Sarma or New Ones. The Kagyudpa, Sakyapa and Gelugpa lineages are
all within the Sarma tradition of Tantra. In the following discussion of
the literature produced by these schools, a few of the special features of
each are pointed out.

* These figures based on Peking Edition.

52
 (i) The Classification o f the D h arm a
The Nyingmapa classifies the whole Buddhist doctrine into Nine
Yanas:
The Three Yanas of Paramita or Sutra are:
(a) Sravakayana (Hinayana)
(b) Pratyeka-Buddhayana (Hinayana)
(c) Bodhisattva (Mahayana)
The Three Outer Tantras of Vajrayana are:
(a) Kriyayoga
(b) Caryayoga
(c) Yogatantra
The Three Inner Tantras of Vajrayana are:
(a) Mahayoga
(b) Anuyoga
(c) Atiyoga
(ii) Sutra
The original texts and commentaries are contained in the Kajur
and Tenjur.
(iiii) Tantra
There are some tantras contained in the Kajur and Tenjur from
both the Earlier and Later periods of translation which are common to
all schools. But the different schools would emphasize certain tantras,
and these scriptures became special aspects of practice for a particular
lineage. The special tantras of the Nyingmapa are the scriptures of the
Mahayoga, Anuyoga and Atiyoga (or rDzogs-Pa Ch’en-Po). Most of
these teachings are contained within the O ld Tantra collection (rNying-
Ma rGyud-a’Bum). The three major divisions of the Old Tantra are:
:bKa’-Ma (Canon), gTer-Ma (concealed Dharma Treasures), and Dag-
sNang (Pure Vision).
y: 1) Kam a (b K a ’-M a) — These tantras are the Three Inner Tantras
translated into Tibetan by Guru Padmasambhava, Pandit Vimalamitra,
and others (in the 9th century A.D.), and transmitted through an
unbroken lineage of lamas to the present day. Some of the major works
within this division of Tantra are:
Mahayoga: (a) Tantra — The Mayajala Tantra (sGyu-a’Phrul-Drva-
Ba) and 18 Great Tantras (Tantra Ch’en-Po sDe
bCho-brGyad) and
(b) Sadhana — Scriptures o f Sadhanas of Eight Great
Mandalas

Anuyoga: The Tantras o f a’Dus-Pa mDo

Ati-Yoga: The 18 Tantras (Sems-sMad bCho-brGyad) of Sems-

sDe, 9 Tantras (Klong-dGu) of Klong-sDe, and 17
Tantras (bChu-bDun rGyud) of Man-Ngag sDe.
Compiled Kama texts: sMin-Gling gTer-Ch’en, aMin-Gling Lo-Ch’en
and rGyal-Sras gZhan-Phan mTha’-Yas compiled many of the Kama
texts. Later in some monasteries annual Sadhana rituals of the Thirteen
bKa’-Ma sadhanas (bK a’-Ma’i mCh-od-Khag bC hu-gSum ) were
performed in assembly. The 13 Sadhanas are: (1) a’Dus-Pa mDo, (2)
sGyu-a’Phrul Zhi-Khro, (3) Sangs-rGyas mNyam-sByor, (4) rTa-mCh’og.
Rol-Ba, (5) Na-Rag Dong-sPrugs, (6) gShin-rJe gShed Ru-mTshon dMar-
Mag, (7 ) Yang-Dag So-Lugs and Sa-Lugs, (8 ) Phur-Pa Rong-Lugs, Rog.
Lugs and Sa-Lugs, (9) Lung-Lugs Tshe-sGrub, (10) Guru Drag-dMar A o-
Bran-Lugs, (11) rGyud-mGon Legs-lDan, (12) sMin-Gling rDor-Sems
and (13) Ch’a-gSum (the last two are additional texts). •;
2) Terma (gTer-Ma) — Many tantric scriptures and teachings of
Guru Rinpoche were concealed in different sacred places (gTer-gNas)
by the mystic power of Guru Rinpoche, Dakini Ye-Shes mTsho-rGyal,
and others, to be discovered by future disciples. They were discovered
in later centuries by the Hundred Great Tertons (Dharma Treasure Dis­
coverers) and many other gTer-sTons. The discovery of these texts
began with Terton Sans-rGyas Bla-Ma (1000?-1080?) and Grva-Ba
mNgon-Shes-Chan (1012-1090) and has continued until the present
day. There are two kinds of Termas: Sater and Gong Ter.
a. Sater (Sa-gTer) — These texts were discovered by Tertons in
material objects such as mountains, lakes, temples and rocks. Most of
the important Sa-gTer scriptures fall into two major categories.
First, there is the important gTer-Ch’os literature which is in three
parts: Bla-Ma, rDzogs-Ch’en, and Thugs-Je Ch’en-Po.

Bla-Ma: The peaceful and Wrathful Guru Sadhanas:

1 Bla-Ma gSang-a’Dus of Guru Ch’os-dBang
■" (1212-1270)
2 Thugs-sGrub of Rig-a’Dzin rGod-IDem
(1337-1408)
3 Bla-Ma Nor-Bu rGya-mTsho of Padma Gling-Pa (1450-?)
4 Thugs-sGrub of Ratna Gling-Pa
(1403-1478)
5 Guru Drag-dMar o f Nyang Nyi-Ma Od-Zer
(1124-1193)
6 Guru Drag dMar of Ratna Gling-Pa

rDzogs-Ch’en: The scriptures on rDzogs-Ch’en teachings:

1 Vima sNying-Thig of IDang-Ma Lhun-rGyal
Its commentary Bla-Ma
Yang-Tig by Kun-mKhyen Klong-
Ch’en-Pa (1308-1367)
2 mKha’a’Gro sNying Thig, of Padma Las-a’Brel-rTsal
(1291-1315?)
Its commentary mKha’ by Kun-mKhyen Klong-
a’Gro Yang-Tig Ch’en-Pa
2a Zab-Mo Yang-Tig, a com­
mentary of both Vima
sNying-Thig and mKha’­ by Kun-mKhyen Klong-
a’Gro Yang-Tig C h’en-Pa
 3 dGongs-Pa Zang-Thal of Rig-a’Dzin rGod-lDem
4 Kun-bZang dGongs-a’Dus of Padma Gling-Pa

Thugs-rJe Ch'en-Po: Avalokiteshvara scriptures:

1 Mani bKa’-a’Bum of Grub-Thob Ngos-Grub
and Nyang
2 Yang-sNying a’Dus-Pa of Guru Ch’os-dBang
3 bDe-gShegs a’Dus-Pa of sMin-Gling gTer-Ch’en
(1646-1714)
Secondly, there is another important gTer-Ch’os with three parts:
bKa’-brGyad, dGongs-’Dus, and Phur-Pa.

bKa'-brGyad: There are three major texts:

1 bKa’-brGyad bDe-bSgegs
a’Dus-Pa of m N ga’-bDag Nyang
2 bKa’-brGyad gSang-Ba
Yongs-rDzogs of Guru Ch’os-dBang
3 bKa’-brGyad Drag-Po
Rang-Byung Rang-Shar of Rig-a’Dzin rGod-lDem

dGongs-a'Dus
1 Bla-Ma dGongs-a’Dus of Sangs-rGyas Gling-Pa
(1340-1396)

Phur-Pa: (Vajrakila)
1 sPu-Gri of Guru Ch’os-dBang
2 Yang-gSang Bla-Med of Ratna Gling-Pa

b. Gong Ter (dGong-gTer) — These texts were discovered within

the Realized Mind of Tertons in which they recalled teachings given by
Guru Rinpoche and others, which were then written down. Some of
them are:

1 mDzod-bDun (the seven of Kun-mKhyen Klong-

treasures) Ch’en-Pa
2 gNam -Ch’os of Mi-a’Gyur rDo-rJe
3 Klong-Ch’en sNying-Thig of Kun-mKhyen a’Jigs-Med
Gling-Pa (1729-1798)

3) Dag-N ang (Dag-sNang) — These are scriptures received from

divinities and Gurus by Tertons in pure meditative vision.
1 sNying-Thig texts of gYu-Thog Yon-Tan
mGon-Po
2 Rig-a’Dzin Srog-sGrub of Lha-bTsun Nam-mKha’
a’Jigs-Med (1597-1650?)

Collection of Ter-Ch’os (gTer-Ch’os) and Dag-Nang: rKong-sPrul

Yon-Tan rGya-mTsho (1813-1899) brought together many of the
important Ter-Ch’os in a collection of 61 volumes called the Rin-Ch’en
gTer-mDzod. It was printed in dPal-sPung monastery (Kham), mTshur-
Phu monastery (central Tibet) and in Delhi, India.
 (iv ) Study
The main texts for study o f the Sutra root texts and commentaries
are: the Phar-Phyin (Prajnaparamita), dBu-Ma (Madhyamika), a’Dul-Ba
(Vinaya) and mNgon-Pa (Abhidharma). The main Tantras to be studied
are: the Guhyagarbha Tantra with commentaries, the mDzod-bDun of
Kun-mKhyen Long-Ch’en-Pa (1308-63), sDom -gSum (three precepts) of
N g a ’-Ris Pan-Ch'en (1487-1542) and the texts on Kama and Terma by.
sMin-GIing gTer-Ch’en, Lo-Ch’en Dharmashri and others. j
In the present century the major works on Sutra to be studied are
the texts of the gZhung-Ch’en bChu-gSum (Thirteen Great Texts) and
the commentaries written on them by dPal-sPrul Rin-Po-Ch’e
(1808-1887) (6 Volumes), Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal (1846-1912) (32
Volumes) and especially the commentaries of gZhan-Phan Ch’os-Kyi
sNang-Ba. The gZhung-Ch’en bChu-gSum (Thirteen Great Texts) are:

1 So-Sor Thar-Pa’i mDo by Sakyamuni

(Pratimoksa-sutra) Buddha
2 a’Dul-Ba mDo-rTsa-Ba (Vinayasutra) by Gunaprabha
3 mNgon-Pa Kun-bTus (Abhidharma-
samuccaya) by Asangha
4 mNgon-Pa mDzod
(Abhidharmakosha) ! by Vasubandhu
5 dBu-Ma rTsa-Ba Shes-Rab (Prajna
nama mula madhyamika) ' by Nagarjuna
6 dBu-Ma-La a’Jug-Pa
(Madhyamikavatara) by Chandrakirti
7 bBu-Ma bZhi-brGya-Pa
(Catuhsatakasastra) by Aryadeva
8 Byang-Ch’ub Sems-dPa’i sPyod-Pa-La
a’Jug-Pa (Bodhicaryavatara) by Shantideva
9 Phar-Phyin mNgon-rTogs-rGyan
(Abhisamayalankara nama
Prajnaparamita) by Asangha
10 Thegs-Pa Ch’en-Po’i rGyud-Bla-Ma’i
(Mahayanasutralankara) by Asangha
11 bBus-mTha’ rNam-’Byed
(Madhyantavibhanga) by Asangha
12 Ch’os-Dang Ch’os-Nyid rNam-a’Byed
(Dharmadharmatavibhanga) by Asangha
13 Thegs-Pa Ch’en-Po’i rGyud-Bla-Ma’i
bsTan bChos (Mahayanottaratan-
trasutra) by Asangha

(b) The Literature of the Sarmapa

The other three major Buddhist schools— Kagyudpa, Sakyapa and
Gelugpa— are within the Sarma (gSar-Ma, New Tantra) tradition. The
Sarma schools have many o f the same original texts for study and
practice. The differences am ong them result from different lineages of
teaching and different interpretations of the subtle meanings of the
scriptures by Tibetan scholars and commentators. Also, some of the
jfschools have their own special teachings transmitted from Indian
' Siddhas such as the Phyag-rGya Ch’en-Po (Mahamudra) of the Kag­
yudpa and the gSung-Ngag Lam-a’Bras (teaching on the Path and
Result) of the Sakyapa. The teachers who first translated and spread the
Sarma literature were the great Tibetan translators, Rin-Ch’en bZang-Po
jp58-1051), a’Brog-Mi (993-1050), Mar-Pa (1012-1099), and others.

(i) The Classification of the Dharma

Three Sutric Yanas:
(a) Sravakayana (Hinayana)
(b) Pratyeka-Buddha Yana (Hinayana)
(c) Bodhisattvayana (Mahayana)
Four Vajrayanas:
(a) Kriyayoga
(b) Caryayoga
(c) Yogatantra
(d) Anuttarayogatantra
(1) Pitrtantra
(2) Matrtantra
(3) Advitiyatantra

(ii) Major Texts for Study and Practice

The basic texts are the literature from the Canon of the Buddha
and the works o f great Indian scholars in the Kajur and Tenjur
collections. But the numerous commentaries written by both Indian
and Tibetan scholars contained slightly different interpretations of the
basic works. These differences influenced the development of the
various schools in Tibet, as indicated above. In some of the larger
monasteries, different monastic colleges (Grva-Tshangs) had their own
commentarial texts (Yig-Ch’a) to study, practice and uphold.
Som e of the major texts for Sutra study are: Pramanasamuccaya of
Dignaga. Seven Treatises on Logic by Dharmakirti, Six Treatises by
Nagarjuna on Madhyamika, Five Treatises by Maitrinath and Asangha
on Mahayana Philosophy, Abhidharmasumucaya by Asangha and
Abhidharmakosa by Vasubandhu on Abhidharma, and the Vinayasutra
by Gunaprabha on Vinaya.
Som e of the root tantras are: Guhyasamaja and Vajrabhairaba of
the Pitrtantra; Cakrasamvara, Mahamaya and Haivajra of the
Matrtantra; and the Kalacakra and Manjusrimulatantra of Advitiya­
tantra.

(7(7) The Literature of the Kagyudpa School

The founder of the Kagyudpa (bKa’rGyud-Pa) school was the great
translator and sage Mar-Pa Ch’os-Kyi Blo-Gros (1012-1099). He visited
India three times and received the Tantric Teachings from Mahasiddha
Naropa, Maitripa and others. He then transmitted and expounded these
doctrines in Tibet. The other renowned scholars and sages in the
Kagudpa lineage are the great yogi Mi-La Ras-Pa (1040-1123), the
famous scholar sGam-Po-Pa (1079-1153), the First Karmapa Dus-gSum
m Khyen-Pa (1110-1193), a’Bri-G ung a ’Jig-rTen gSum -m G on
(1143-1217), gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras (1161-1211), Situ bsTan-Pa’i Nyin-
Byed (1698-?) and Kong-sPrul Yen-Tan rGya-mTsho (1813-1899).
Study — The basic literature for study is the same as for the
general Sarma Tradition. The highest philosophical teaching of the
Kagyudpa is the Mahamudra (Phyag-rGya Ch’en-Po) which is a special
teaching of this school. Marpa received this teaching from the Indian
Mahasiddha Maitripa. It has two aspects: Sutric Mahamudra and Tantric
Mahamudra. Another important special teaching of this school is the
Six Yogas of Naropa. These Six Yogas are: Heat Yoga (gTum-Mo),
Illusory Body (sGyu-Ma), Dream (rMi-Lam), Clear Light (Od-gSal),
Intermediate State (Bar-Do) and Consciousness Transference (Pho-Ba).
The Kagyudpa school emphasizes the basic practice of all three yanas:
the practice of Revulsion (Nges-a’Byung) from Samsara of the
Sravakayana, Developing the Bodhi-Mind (Byang-Sems) of the Maha­
yana, and Observing the Vows (Dam-Tshig) of the Vajrayana.

Som e of the Kagyudpa works for study are:

1 mGur-a’Bums and rNam-Thars of Mar-Pa and Mi-La
Ras-Pa
2 gSung-a’Bums of sGam-Po-Pa (3 Volumes) and Pag-Mo
Gru-Pa (1110-1170) (6 Volumes)
3 bKa’-aB um s of Karmapa Dus-gSum mKhyen-Pa (1110­
1193), Rang-Byung rDo-rJe (1284-1334) and Mi-bsKyod
rDo-rJe (1507-1554)
4 gSung-a’Bums of Glang-Ras-Pa, gTsang-Pa rGya-Ras
(1161-1211) (1 Volume), a'Bri-Gung a’Jigs-rTen mGen-
Po (1143-1217), a’Brug-Pa Kun-Legs (q455-?), Padma
dKar-Po (1527-1592) (14 Volumes), dBang-Phyug rDo-
rJe (1554-1603), Zhva-dMar mKha’-sPyod dBang-Po
(1350-1405), dK on-m Ch’o g Yon-Tan, gTshug-Lag
Phreng-Ba (1454-?) (9 Volumes), Situ Ch’os-a’Byung
(1700-1774) (12 Volumes) and Kong-sPrul Yon-Tan
rGya-mTsho (90 Volumes).

(iu) The Literature of the Sakyapa School

a’Khon dKon-mCh’og rGyal-Po (1034-1102) founded the Sakyapa
(Sa-sKya-Pa) school and built the Sakya monastery in 1073 A.D. The
great scholar and translator a’Brog-Mi Sakya Ye-Shes (993-1050) after
studying for many years at Nalanda Mahavihara and other places in
India, received many teachings from Siddha Shantipa, Naropa.
Guhyagarbha and others, and translated them into Tibetan. a’Brog-Mi
also translated the scriptures of gSung-Ngag Lam-a’Bras (the teachings
of the Path and Result) which he received from Gayadhara and
transmitted them to his disciple a’Khon dKon-mCh’og rGyal-P°
(1034-1102). There were five famous scholars of this school known as
the Five Supremes (Gong-Ma rNam-lNga). They were: Sa-Ch'en Kun-
dG a’sNying-Po (1092-1158), bSod-Nam s rTse-Mo (1142-1182), Grags-
 Pa rGyal-mTshan (1147-1216), Sakya Pandita Kun-dGa’ rGyal-mTshan
(1181-1251) and a’Gro-mGon Ch’os-rGyal a’Phags-Pa (1235-1280).
Some of the other great Sakya scholars were: Rong-sTon Shes-Bya
Kun-Rig (1367-?), Ngor-Ch’en Kun-dGa' bZang-Po (1382-1456), gYag-
Phrug Sangs-rGyas dPal (1348-?), and Go Rab-a’Byams-Pa bSod-Nams
Seng-Ge (1429-1489).
Study — The main texts for study are those for the Sarma
Tradition. The major texts for Sutra study are the Six Great Volumes
(Pod-Ch’en Drug). They are: Tshad-Ma Rig-gTer by Sakya Pandita and
Pramanavartika by Dharmakirti on logic, Vinayasutra by Gunaprabha,
Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandhu, Abhisamayalankara nama Prajna-
paramita of Asangha, Madhyamikavatara by Chandrakirti and the
general texts for sutra and tantra.
The special teachings of this school are: The Teaching of the Path
and Result and the Thirteen Golden Doctrines. The Teaching o f the
Path and Result (gSung-Ngag Lam-a’Bras) has both sutric and tantric
aspects for realizing the indivisibility of Samsara and Nirvana (a’Khor-
aDas dByer-Med). The Thirteen Golden Doctrines are: Three Doctrines
of mKa’-aPyod-Ma, Three Doctrines of dMar-Ch’en divinities, Three
Doctrines of dMar-Ch’ung divinities and the doctrines of Seng-gDong
sNgon-Mo, aJam-dPal Nag-Po, Ch’i-Med rDo-rJe Lha-Mo and Jambhala
dMar-Po. Some of the Sakyapa literary works are:

1 The gSung-a’Bum (Collections of Works) of Gong-Ma rNam-

lNga (The Five Supreme Teachers) (15 Volumes).
2 The Works of Ngor-Ch’en Kun-dGa’ bZang-Po (1382-1456)
(4 Volumes).
3 gSung-a’Bum of Go Rab-a’Byams bSod-Nam s Seng-Ge (1429­
3 1489) (15 Volumes).
4 a’Jam-dByangs mKhyen-brTse’i dBang-Po (1820-1892) (10
Volumes).

(u) The Literature of the Gelugpa School

The eminent scholar rje Tsong-Kha-Pa Blo-bZang Grags-Pa
(1357-1419) is the founder of the Gelugpa school. This lineage is in the
tradition of the bKa’-gDams-Pa school of Atisha Dipamkarasrijnana
(982-1054) of India. Je Tsong-Kha-Pa expounded and wrote renowned
texts and commentaries on Sutras, Shastras and Tantras, and founded
the dGa’IDan monastery in 1409. Som e of the numerous scholars and
writers of this school are: mKhas-Grub dGe-Legs dPal-bZang
(1385-1438), rGyal-Tshab Dar-Ma Rin-Ch’en (1364-1432), the 1st Dalai
Lama dGe-a’Dun-Grub (1391-1474), who built the bKra-Shis Lhun-Po
monastery in 1447 A.D., a’Jam-dByangs Ch’os-rJe (1379- 1449) who
built the aBras-sPungs monastery in 1416, Byams-Ch’en Ch’os-rJe, who
built the Se-Ra monastery in 1419 and Ch’ab-mDo monastery in 1437,
Shes-Rab Seng-Ge, who built the rGyud-sMad Gra-Tshang (Lower
Tantric College) in 1440, Kun-dGa’ Don-Grub who built the rGyud-sTod
; Gra-Tshang (Upper Tantric College) in 1474, Pan-Ch’en Ch’os-Kyi
rGyal-mTshan (1570-1662), rGyal-dBang bSod-Nam s rGya-mTsho
(1617-1682), and a’Jam-dByang bZhad-Pa Ngag-dBang brTson-a’Grus
(1648-1721), who built bKra-Shis sGo-Mang monastery in 1710 A.D.
Study — The texts for study are the same as mentioned for Sarma.
Their main emphasis for study and practice are: the strict observance of
monastic discipline, the study of the texts through reasoning of logical
expression, adherance to the philosophical doctrine of Prasangika
Madhyamika, practice of Dharma in the system of "Three Stages of
Path”, and accomplishing the Spontaneous Wisdom (lHan-sKyes-Kyi
Ye-Shes) and Illusory-Body (sGyu-Lus) through the practice of two
stages (Rim-gNyis) of Guhyatantra, Cakrasamvara, Vajrabhairaha and
other Tantras.

Som e of the enormous literary works of Gelugpa scholars are:

1 The gSung-a’Bum of rJe Tsong-Kha-Pa (20 Volumes, 210
Treatises)
2 " mKhas-Grub-dGe-Legs dPal-bZang (10
Volumes). /
3 " rGyal-Thab Dar-Ma Rin-Ch’en (8 Volumes)
4 " a'Dul-a’Dzin Grags-Pa rGyal-mTshan (1374-?)
(2 Volumes).
5 " Pan-Ch’en dGe-a’Dun Grub (5 Volumes).
6 " Pan-Ch’en bSod-Grags
7 " rJe-bTsun Ch’os-Kyi rGyal -mTshan (1469-1546)
8 " Pan-Ch’en Blo-bZang Ch’os-Kyi rGyal-
mTshan (5 Volumes).
9 " rGyal-dBang INga-Pa (30 Volumes).
10 " IChang-sKya Rol-Ba’i rDo-rJe (1717-?) (5 Vols.)
11 " a’Jam-dByangs bZhad-Pa (1648-1721) (15 Vols.)
12 " Klong-rDol Bla-Ma (1719-1794).

(ui) The Literature of Some Other Minor Schoob

1. Zhi-Byed-Pa — A great Siddha o f India, Pha Dam-Pa Sangs
rGyas, visited Tibet five times (last time in 1098 A.D .) and taught the
Zhi-Byed (Pacifier of Suffering), the teachings of Transcendental
Wisdom (Prajnaparamita). His tradition is known as Zhi-Byed-Pa. In this
tradition the most famous Yogini of Tibet, Ma-Chig Lab-Kyi sGron-M a
(1031-1129), taught the Prajnaparamita through practice of gChod
(terminating the defilements). There are many gChod texts of both
Kama and Terma traditions and they are practiced in both Kagyudpa
and Nyingmapa schools.
2. Jo-Nang-Pa — Kun-sPang Thugs-rJe brTson-a’Grus (1243-?)
founded a monastery at a place called Jo-Nang and his tradition is
known as the Jo-Nang-Pa. In this tradition both Kun-mKhyen Dol-Bu
Shes-Rab rGyal-mTshan (1292-?), a great scholar (especially of
Kalacakratantra) and the well-known historian, Taranath, wrote many
famous literary works on various subjects.
3. Shang-Pa bKa'-brGyud-Pa — The Great Siddha, Khyung-PP
rNal-a’Byor (978-1079), received the teachings of Six Yogas of Nigu,
and Five Tantras from Nigu, Maitripa and Sukhasiddhi in India and he
taught them in Tibet.
4. Zhva-Lu-Pa — The celebrated Tibetan scholar Bu-sTon
Rin-Ch’en Grub (1290-1364) became a great master of Kalacakratantra
and 70 other doctrines. He edited and put into present form the Kajur
and Tenjur Collections. His tradition is known as Bu-Lugs.
5. Bo-Dong-Ba — Bo-Dong Phyogs-Las rNam-rGyal (1375-1451)
who was a great scholar and writer founded this tradition. He wrote 132
volumes of texts and commentaries on various subjects.

Most of the minor schools functioned as distinctive schools when

their teachers were living, but at present many of them have merged
into one of the major schools or are a sub-school of one of the major
schools. Although they have not retained their identity as separate
schools, the works of their great scholars are still studied.
 B) Religious Literature — According to Subject

The religious literature of Tibet can be divided into four categories:

Religion; History and Biography; Poetic composition and Yogic Songs;
and Music, Dance, Art and Architecture. Religion comprises the main
body of the literature and the other categories are branches of it.

1. Religion
There are various ways of arranging this vast body of literature but
all of its works fall into three categories: the view, the practice and the
conduct.

Som e of the texts on View (ITa-Ba Darshan) are:

1 Hinayana: Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandhu
2 Mahayana: Six Treatises on Madhya­
mika by Nagarjuna
3 Vajrayana: Man-Ngag ITa-a’Phreng by Padmasambhava

Some o f the texts on Practice (bsGom-Pa) are:

1 Sutra: Bodhipathapradvipa by Dipamkarasrijnana
2 Tantra: sNgags-Rim Ch’en-Mo by rJe Tsong-Kha-Pa

Som e of the texts on Conduct (sPyod-Pa) are:

1 Pratimoksa: Vinaya-sutra by Gunaprabha
2 Bodhisattva: Bodhicaryavatara by Shantideva
3 Tantra: sNgags-sDom from sDom-
gSum rNam-Nges by Dharmasri

2. History and Biography

The Ch’os-a’Byung (Religious History) works recount the major
events in the transmission of the teaching and the activities of the
teachers and their disciples. Some of the major Ch’os-a’Byung texts are:
1 Ma-Ni bKa’-a’Bum by Grub-Thob Ngos-Grub
and Nyang (1124-1192)
2 Padma-bKa’-Thang and by O-rGyan Gling-Pa
O-rGyan bKa’-Thang (1450 ?)
3 Thub-bsTan gSal-Bar Byed-Pa’iby Klong-Ch’en Rab-
Nyi-A'od Byams (1308-1363)
4 Ch’os-aByung Rin-Po-Ch’e’i
mDzod by Bu-sTon (1290-1364)
5 Sa-sKya’i gDung-Rabs by Kun-dGa’ bSod-Nams
6 Padma rGyas-Pa'i Nyin-Byed by Padma dKar-Po
(1527-1592)
7 mKhas-Pa’i dGa’ sTon by gTshug-Lag a'Phreng-
Ba (1454-?)
8 dGos-a’Dod Kun-a’Byung by Taranatha (1575-?)
9 Bai-Dur Ser-Po by Sangs-rGyas rGya-
mTsho (1653-1705)
 10 a’Dzam-GIing Tha-Gru Khyab- by a’Jigs-Med Gling-Pa
Pa’i rGyan (1729-1798)
11 Lha-dBang gYul-Las rGyal- by a’Jigs-Bral Ye-Shes
Ba’i rNga-Bo-Ch'e rDo-rJe (1 9 0 4 -)

Som e of the rNam-Thar (Biography) texts are:

Padma bKa’Thang — the biography of Padmasambhava, Bai-Ro’i
a’Dra-a’Bag, and biographies of Jo-Bo Atisha, Mar-Pa, Mi-La Ras-Pa, Sa-
sKya Pandit, Ch’os-rGyal a’Phag-Pa, Klong-Ch’en Rab-a’Byams, rJe
Tsong-Kha-Pa, rGyal-dBang INga-Pa and Ngos-Kyi Yul-Dang Ngos-Kyi
Mi-Mang of the 14th Dalai Lama.

3. Poetic Composition and Yogic Songs

There are two major aspects of Tibetan religious poetry: Poems (sNyan-
N gag) and Yogic Songs (mGur).
The religious poems in the Tenjur are:
1 Bodhisattvavadana Kalpalata by Ksemendra
2 Buddhacarita by Asvaghosha
3 Jatakamala by Aryasura
Som e of the Tibetan works are:
The poetic literature written by Karmapa Mi-sKyod rDo-rJe, Taran-
atha, dPa’Bo gTsug-Lag a’Phreng-Ba, rGyal-dBang INga-Pa Ch’en-Po,
sMin-GIing Lo-Ch’en, Gung-Thang sTan-gGron, mDo-mKhar-Ba, and
Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal.

Som e of the Yogic Songs are:

1 Doha-Kosa-Giti x by Saraha
2 Dohas of other Mahasiddhas from the Tenjur
3 mGur-’aBum of Mi-La-Ras-Pa
4 bKa’-rGyud mGur-mTsho of Mi-sKyod rDo-rJe
5 mGur-a’Bum of a’Brug-Pa Kun-Legs
6 mGur of IChang-sKya Rol-Pa’i
rDo-rJe
7 mGur of Lha-bTsun Nam-mKha’
a’Jigs-Med

4. Music, Dance, Art and Architecture

Music and Dance — In the Sutric Tradition, musical instruments
(Rol-Mo or Rol-Ch’a) and vocal music (dByang), are used to accompany
religious ceremonies, but in the Tantra they are an important part of the
practice itself. Sacred dances are also performed in order to transform
oneself into the divinity and show this aspect to others. There are many
texts on music (dByang-Yig) and dance (a’Ch’am-Yig) that contain
instructions for this aspect of religious practice.
Art and Architcture — In the Vinaya and Tantric texts there is a
body of literature which is comprised of manuals of instructions for th?
architecture of temples, monastic residences and stupas. There' is also
an extensive literature that gives detailed instructions for the proper
proportions and design of Mandalas, Cakras and Images.
 II. T H E S E C U L A R L IT E R A T U R E

Except for some texts in the Tenjur Collection, there is little

Tibetan literature that was not influenced by religious conceptions. The
Tenjur texts whose subject matter is predominantly secular are: 67
treatises (21 volumes) on logic; 28 treatises (2 volumes) on grammar; 7
treatises (5 volumes) on medicine; 18 treatises ( V2 volume), on art; and
57 treatises (JV 2 volumes) on other general subjects.
On the basis of subject matter, there are a number of other
important Tibetan literary works which are considered within the
secular literature. They are included under the following headings:
History; Grammar; Poetic-Composition; Metrical Literature and
Lexicons; Logic; Astrology; Mathematics; Medicine; Geography and
Cosmology; Law; Political Writings; Music and Dance; Drama; and Arts
and Crafts.

A ) History (rGyal Rabs)

In Tibetan literature there are two major aspects of history (Lo-rGyus):

Secular history (rGyal-Rabs) and Religious history (Ch’os-a’Byung). The
secular history mainly relates the events in the succession of kings and
other political and social happenings. There are works dealing with
both the older period of Tibetan history and works concerned with
more recent times.

Som e major works of historical literature are:

1 bKa’Ch'en Ka-Khol-Ma Will of King Srong-bTsan

sGam-Po
2 rBa-bZhed Zhabs-bTags-Ma by rBa gSal-sNang and rBa
Sang-Shi
3 rBa-bZhed gTsang-Ma "
4 Deb-Ther dMar-Po (1346) by Tshal-Pa Kun-dGa’ rDo-rJe
5 rGyal-Po, Blon-Po and by O-rGyan Gling-Pa
bTsun-Mo bKa’-Thang (gTer-Ma) (1323-?)
6 Deb-Ther dMar-Po (gSar-Pa) by bSod-Nams Grags-Pa
7 Deb-Ther sNgon-Po by a’Gos-Lo gZhon-Nu dPal
8 Bod-Kyi rGyal-Rabs from by gTsug-Lag a’Phreng-Ba
mKhas-Pa’i dGa’-sTon (1454-?)
9 Bod-Kyi rGyal-Rabs gSal-Ba’i by Sakya bSod-Nams rGyal
Me-Long mTshan (1312-1375)
10 Bod-Kyi Deb-Ther dPyid-Kyi by 5th Dalai Lama (1617-82)
rGyal-Mo’i Glu-dByangs
11 Deb-Ther rGya-Tsho by Brag-dGon Zhabs-Drung
(1801-?)
12 Deb-Ther dKar-Po by dGe-a'Dun Ch’os-a'Phel
(1905-1951)
13 Bod-Kyi Srid-Don rGyed-Rabs by W .D. Shakab-Pa (1907- )
 B) Grammar
Tibetan grammatical literature contains both texts and commen­
taries on Sanskrit grammar translated from Indian sources and gram ­
matical texts for the Tibetan language itself. It was important for
scholars to know Sanskrit grammar because so much literature was
translated from Sanskrit into Tibetan and the Tibetan alphabet,
grammar, and literary forms were formed on the basis of Sanskrit
models.
Som e of the important Sanskrit grammar texts translated into
Tibetan are:

1 Panini-vyakarana Sutra by Panini

2 Candra-vyakarana Sutra by Candragomi
3 Kalapa-vyakarana Sutra by Saptavarma
4 Sarasvata-vyakarana by Anubhuti

In addition to the commentaries on Sanskrit grammars by Indiari

scholars which are in the Tenjur Collection, there are also many
commentaries by Tibetan scholars. Commentaries on the Candra-
Vyakarana were written by Lo-Ch'en Thugs-rJe dPal, Zhva-Lu Ch’os-
sKyong bZang-Po and Situ Ch’os-a’Byung. dPang-Lo wrote a commen­
tary on the Kalapa and Taranath wrote one on the Sarasvata.

Som e of the Tibetan grammar texts are: '

1 Lung-Ston-Pa Sum-Chu-Pa by Thon-Mi Sambhota

it ft it
2 rTags-Kyi a’Jug-Pa
3 sMa-Ba’i sGo mTshen-Ch’a by Dran-Pa’i Ye-Shes
4 gNas-brGyad Ch’en-Po’i
rTsa-Ba by Khyi-a’Brug

The first two texts, Sum-Chu-Pa and rTags-a’Jug, are root gram­
mar texts for the Tibetan language. There are many works on these two
texts and some of them are:

1 Sum-rTags a’Grel-Ba by sMar-Thang Lo-Tsa-Ba

2 " " by Zhva-Lu Lo-Tsa-Ba Ch’os-sKyong
bZang-Po (1441-?)
3 " " by Pan-Ch’en bSod-Nam s rNam-rGya
4 « a by Lo-Ch’en Nam-mKha’ bZang-Po
(1400-?)
5 " " by O-Phrung-Pa Karma Rab-rGyas
6 " * by Zur-mKhar Blo-Gros rGya-mTsho
y ti it
by dPa’-Bo gTsug-Lag a’Phreng-Ba
(1454-?)
8 " " by sBra-Ti dGe-bShes Rin-Ch’en
Don-Grub
9 Sum-rTags a’Grel-
Ch’en mKhas-Pa’i by Situ Ch’os-Kyi sNang-Ba
mGul rGyan Mu-Tig (1700-1774)
a’Phreng-mDzes
 C) Poetic Composition, Metrical Literature
and Lexicons
1. Poetic Literature
There is vast poetic literature in the Tibetan language. There are
also a number of works that deal with the rules and system of ancient
Indian poetry. Especially important are the Kavyadarsha by Dandin and
the Maghduta by Kalidasa.
Som e o f the well-known Tibetan Commentaries on Kavyadarsha
are: the commentaries written by dPang-Lo, a’Jam-dByangs Kha-Ch’e,
Rin-sPung-Pa, dPa’-Bo, 5th Dalai Lama, Bod-mKhas-Pa, sMin-Gling Lo-
Ch’en, Kham-Pa Ch’os-Kyi Nyi-Ma, Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal and u-rGyan
Kun-bZang bsTan-a’Dzin.
Som e of the great Tibetan poems are contained in the works of:
Sa-sKya Pandit, Kun-mKhyen Klong-Ch’en-Pa, rJe-Tsong-Kha-Pa,
Karmapa Mi-bsKyog rDo-rJe, 5th Dalai Lama, mDo-mKhar-Pa and Kun-
Khyen a’Jigs-Med Qling-Pa.

2. Metrical Literature

The major text for metre (sDeb-sByor) is the Chandaratnakara by

Ratnakarashantipada. Som e of the important Tibetan works on metre
are the commentaries written by Mi-bsKyod-rDo-rJe, sMin-Gling
Lo-Ch’en and a’Gyur-Med bsTan-a’Dzin.

3. Lexicons
The principle lexicon texts (mNgon-brJod) are: the bilingual
(Tibetan-Sanskrit) lexicon Bye-Brag-Tu rTogs-Par Byed-Pa by Tibetan
scholars; the Amarkosha (a’Ch’i-Med mDzod) by Amarsimha and its
commentary, Kamadhenu (A ’Dod-a’Joi Ba); Adhidhanamuktamala
(mNgon-brJod Mu-Tig-Phreng-Ba) by Aridharasena. The last three
works are translated from Sanskrit. The important Tibetan works are:
mNgon-brJod Tshig-Gi gTer by Sakya Pandita and Prajna (Shes-Rab) by
Sa-sKya-Pa bsTan-a’Dzin rGyal-mTshan.

4. Logic
There are a large number o f texts on logic written by both Indian
and Tibetan logicians. The famous works of Buddhist logic such as
those of Dignaga and Dharmakirti were written in order to refute non-
Buddhist philosophies and to defend Buddhist teaching. The method of
argument was based upon logical reasoning rather than an appeal to
scripture or faith. Logic is classified as a common or secular subject by
Buddhist scholars, including Dignaga, and the works on this subject are
not regarded as religious scripture.

Some of the principal Indian works are:

1 Pramanasamuccaya by Dignaga
2 Pramanavartika Karika, etc.
the Seven Treatises by Dharmakirti
 3 Tattva-samgraha Karika by Shantaraksita

Some of the main Tibetan works are:

1 Tshad-Ma bsDus-Pa Yid-Kyi by Phyva-Pa Ch’os-Seng
Mun-Sel (1109-?)
2 Tshad-Ma Rig-gTer by Sa-sKya Pandita
(1181-1251)
3 Tshad-Ma Rig-sNang by Bo-Dong Phyogs-Las
rNam-rGyal (1375/6-1451)

Som e o f the major commentaries on logical texts written by

Tibetan authors are the works o f rGyal-Tshab-rJe, Rong-sTon, Go-Rab-
a’Byams Pa and Mi-Pham rNam-Gyal.

5. Astrology
The major text for Tibetan astrology is the Kalacakratantra (in the
Kajur Collection) and its famous commentaries. The Lalitavistara and
mKha’a-Gro rGya-mTsho Tantra in the Kajur also contain some
material on astrology. The calendar of Sixty-year cycles (Rab-Byung)
was introduced in Tibet in 1027 A.D. as a result o f the introduction of
the Kalacakratantra. The eminent scholars, Bu-sTon (1290-1364) and
Dol-Po (1292-?) wrote many treatises on the Kalacakratantra. In later
centuries four main traditions o f astrology developed:
(a ) Phug-Lugs (tradition of Phug-Pa): This is the tradition of those
who followed the astrological texts of Pad-dKar Zhal-Lung and the
supplementary texts written by Nor-bZang rGya-mTsho (1423-1513)
and Phug-Pa Lhun-Drub rGya-mTsho. x
(b ) mTshur-Lugs (the tradition o f mTshur): The tradition of the
followers of the astrological literature written by mTshur-Phu Don-Grup
Od-Zer.
(c ) Phug-Lugs Grub-rTsts: This is a later astrological tradition based
on the texts Bai-Dur dKar-Po by sDe-Srid Sangs-rGyas rGya-mTsho
(1653-1705) and the Nyin-Byed sNang-Ba by sMin-Gling-Lo-Ch’en.
(d ) mTshur-Lugs Grub-rTsts: This tradition is based on the text Nyer-
mKho Bum-bZang by Nges-Legs bsTan-a’Dzin.

Som e of the other important texts written by Tibetan astrologers are:

1 rTsis-Kyi bsTan-Chos
mKhas-Pa dG a’-Byed by Bu-sTon (1290-1364)
2 INga-bDus Lag-Len and
others by Dol-Bo (1292-?)
3 Dus-a’Khor a’Grel-Ch’en by mKhas-Grub rJe (1385­
1438)
4 rTsis-Kun bsDus-Pa by Rang-Byung rDo-rJe
(1284-1339) ,
5 Pad-dKar Zhal-Lung by Nor-bZang rGya-mTsho
(1423-1513)
6 Dus-a'Khor a’Grel-Ch’en by Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal
and others (1846-1912)
 7 rTsis-gZhung Rig-lDan by mKhyen-Rab Nor-Bu
sNying-Thig (1890-1962)

6. Mathematics

A s mathematics is an elementaiy and essential part of astrology

the traditional source of mathematics has been the commentaries on
the Kalachakratantra. The Abhidharmakosha and Lalitavastara also
contain some material on numerical systems.
But there are no modern texts of mathematics. It is important to
develop such texts in order for Tibetan speaking people to keep abreast
o f educational developments.

7. Medicine
There were some Indian and a large number of Tibetan works in the
field of medicine. There are also some methods of medical treatment in
the Vinaya Sutras. The other major Indian medical texts translated into
Tibetan are the Astangahrdaya-samhita by Mahavaidyavagohata and
the Yoga-sataka by Magarjuna.
The greatest Tibetan physician was the later gYu-Thog Yon-Ton
mGon-Po who lived in the 12th century. (There was another great
Tibetan physician by the name o f gYu-Thog who lived in the 8th
century).
The main textual source for Tibetan medicine is the sMan-Gyi
rGyud-bZhi (the Four Tantras of Medicine). The Four Tantras are: rTsa-
gGyud; bShad-rGyud; Man-Ngag-rGyud; and rGyud-Phyi-Ma. The
authorship of the Four Tantras is disputed but they are generally
believed to be Canons translated by Bairocana from Sanskrit into
Tibetan and then concealed as Hidden Treasures at Samye monastery.
In the 11th century, the great gTer-sTon, Grva-Ba mNgon-Shes-Chan
(1012-?) discovered and transmitted them to the later gYu-Thog Yon-
Tan mGon-Po. He practiced and taught the Four Tantras and wrote
about 20 treatises on them and other aspects o f medicine. The two
major traditions which developed from this lineage are (a) Byang-Pa
and (b ) Zur.
(a) Byang-Pa: The tradition was founded by Byang-Pa Rig-lDan and his
followers who wrote many treatises on medicine.
(b )Z u r: This tradition was established by the great physician Zur-mKhar
mNyam-Nyid-rDo-rJe who edited the Four Tantras. He and his followers
wrote extensively on medical subjects.
sDe-Srid Sangs-rGyas rGya-mTsho (1653-1705) wrote the famous
Bai-Dur sNgon-Po and other texts. He also founded a medical college at
Lhasa.
Som e of the other Tibetan medical texts are:
1 sMan-gZhung Ch’a'-Lag
bCho-brGyad by gYu-Thog Yon-Tan Gon-Po
2 Treatises on the Tantra by Byang-Pa Rig-lDan
Ch’en-Po
 3 Bye-Ba Ring-bSrel by Zur-mNyam-Nyid rDo-rJe
4 Mes-Po’i Zhal-Lung by Zur-mKhar Blo-Gros-rGya-
mTsho (1508-?)
5 gChes-bDus by aBri-Gung
6 bKa’rGya-Ma by Dar-Mo sMan-Ram-Pa
7 Bai-Dur sNgon-Po and by sDe-Srid Sangs-rGyas
Lhan-Thabs rGya-mTsho (1653-1705)

8. Geography and Cosm ology

The traditional Tibetan geographical and cosmological texts are

contained within religious works. There is no separate literature for
them. The texts in which these subjects are discussed are: the
Kalacaktatantra (1st chapter); a’Jigs-rTen gZhag-Pa from the Kajur;
Abhidharmakosha by Vasubandu (3rd chapter); Yid-bZhin Rin-Po-Ch’e’i
mDzod by Kun-mKhyen Klong-Ch’en-Pa (1308-1363); and the various
commentaries on these works. ,
A later work on the geography of Tibet is the a'Jam-Gling rGyas-
bShad by bTsan-Po Bla-Ma.

9. Law
The judicial and common law of Tibet was developed by King
Srong-bTsen sGam-Po in the 7th century. The judicial law was enlarged
under King Phag-Mo-Gru-Pa. Until recently these were the only written
laws of the state. On March 10, 1963 H.H. the 14th Dalai Lama
promulgated a new constitution. ^
The literature of the laws of the state are:
(a) Common Law —

1 Lha-Ch’os-dGe-Ba bChu by King Srong-bTsan

(the 10 virtuous laws) sGam-Po (629-710)
2 Mi-Ch’os gTsang-Ma bChu-
Drug (the 16 pure laws) by " "
(b ) Judicial Law —

1 Khrims-Yig Zhal-lChe bChu

gSum (the law text of 13
codes of judicial judge­
ments) " "
2 Krims-Yig Zhal-lChe bCho-
lNga-Pa (the law text of 15
codes of judgements) by King Phag-Mo Gru-Pa
(c ) N ew Constitution —

1 The Constitution o f Tibet Promulgated by the 14th

Dalai Lama

10. Political Writings

Som e of the Indian works are:
1 Prajnasataka by Nagarjuna
 2 Nitisastra-prajna-danda by Nagarjuna
3 Rajaparikatharatna-vali
(4th chapter) by "
4 Nitisastra-jnaposana-bindu by "
5 Aryakosa b y Ravigupta
6 Satagatha by Vararuci
7 Vimalaprasnottara-
ratnamala by Amoghavarma
8 Canakya Rajanitishastra by Canakya
9 Nitisastra by Masuraksa

Som e o f the Tibetan works are:

1 Legs-Par-bShad-Pa Rin-Po- by Sa-sKya Pandit
Ch’ei gTer (1181-1251)
2 Lugs-gNyis-Kyi bSlab-Bya by the 5th Dalai Lama
Mu-Thu-Li a ’Phreng-Ba (1617-1682)
3 rGyal-Po Lugs-Kyi bsTan-
bChos Sa-gZhi sKyong-Ba’i by Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal
rGyan (1846-1912)

11. Music
There are different traditions of Tibetan vocal (GIu-dByangs) and
instrumental (Rol-Ch'a) music. However, most of this music was orally
communicated from generation to generation. There is probably little
written literature on it. N ow it is important that it be preserved in writing
and on records for the benefit of future generations.

12. Drama
Two dramatic works from the Tenjur are listed below as well as
some native Tibetan dramas. As with music and dance it is important to
translate this dramatic literature into contemporary dramatic forms and
to expand it with new works.
From the Tenjur:
1 Lokanandanataka by Candragomin
2 Nagananda-nama-nataka by Harsadeva
Som e Tibetan works are:
1 gZugs-Kyi Nyi-Ma
2 Dri-Med Kun-lDan
3 a’Gro-Ba bZang-Mo
4 Pad-Ma’i Tshal-Gyi Zlos-Gar by dPal-sPruI Rin-Po-Ch’e
(1808-1887)

13. A rts and Crafts

There are many craft traditions in Tibet such as drawing, painting,
writing, weaving, stitching, sculpture, metal work, carpentry and
construction. There are some texts of instructions such as the bZo’i-Pa-
Khra by Mi-Pham rNam-rGyal (1846-1912), but they are mostly taught
through oral and practical demonstration.
 Tibetan literature is a vast accumulation of works written over thir­
teen centuries by authors who addressed themselves to an encyclo­
pedic range o f subjects. While it is impossible to cover this entire body
of literature, I have tried to impart its general structure for English
speaking readers who are interested in expanding their knowledge of
Tibetan culture.
 G L O S S A R Y O F B U D D H IS T T E R M S

A B H ID H A R M A
One o f the three divisions of Buddhist canonical writings. It sets forth
the teachings of the Buddha according to logic and analysis.
A B S O L U T E TRUTH (Paramartha, S k t) See Two Truths
A C H A R Y A (Skt.)
A spiritual Master.
ARHAT
One who has subdued emotional defilement. The fourth and final
attainment of the Shravakyana.
“Foe-Subduer” is the traditional Tibetan meaning for this term.
“Worthy O ne” is the common Theravadin meaning.
B H IK SH U (Skt.)
A fully ordained Buddhist monk who observes the the 254 rules of
conduct.

BODH ICITTA (Skt.)

Enlightened Mind; an attitude intentionally directed toward benefiting
all sentient beings.
B O N (Tib.)
The native religion of Tibet before the advent of Buddhism.
B U D D H A (Skt.)
A fully Enlightened Being.

C H A K R A S (Skt.)
Energy centers within the human body, the understanding and control
of which constitute an essential part of the esoteric path of Buddhism.
In the esoteric teachings of Buddhism there are systems of three, four
and five chakras or more.
C H O D (Tib.)
Cutting off the ego. A special practice based on the Prajna-Paramita
texts. It was taught by Pha Dam-Pa and then by Ma-Chig Lap-Kyi Dron-
Ma for cutting through attachment to phenomena.
C H O G Y A L (Tib.)
Dharma King. This is also the name of the dynasty of the earliest rulers
of Tibet (2nd century B.C. - 10th century A.D.).

D H A R M A (Skt.)
Buddhism, or the Buddhist scriptures, practices and attainments.

D H A R M A K A Y A (S k t)
The Absloute Body o f the Enlightened One. This aspect o f the Buddha
is represented symbolically in the Nyingma Tradition as Samanta
Bhadra, the Primordial Buddha (Adibuddha) who resides in a condition
free from all elaboration.
D H A R M A -N IR A T M A (Skt.)
The non-substantive nature of phenomena, realization of which is
synonomous with the realization of Shunyata {Skt., voidness) and is the
special realization of a Bodhisattva. By contrast, the Arhat realizes only
the non-substantive nature of the human personality (Pudgala-
Nairatmya, Skt.).

D H A R M A P A L A S (Skt.)
Spiritual forces which protect and preserve the Dharma.
D ZO G -R IM (Tib.) (Sampanna Krama, Skt.)
The Completion Stage. A method o f Tantrik meditation in which one
visualizes the energy channels (rTsa, Tib.), energy flow (rLung, Tib.) and
energy-essence (Thig-Le, Tib.) within the human body.
Also a method of spiritual attainment by means of meditation on the
Tsa, Lung and Thig-Le which dissolves all phenomena into the
meditative state.
E IG H TY-FO U R M A H A S ID D H A S (Skt.)
A group of famous Indian Buddhist masters of meditation traditionally
noted for their esoteric attainments.

F IV E CER TAINTIES
The certainties o f teachers, disciple, teachings, time and place.

FOUR TRUTHS
1) The truth o f suffering
2) The truth o f the origin o f suffering
3) The truth o f cessation o f suffering
4) The truth o f the path to the cessation of'suffering.
The Four Truths cover the whole o f the Buddhist teachings. The Four
N oble Truths were the first teaching which the Lord Buddha delivered
in his sermon given at Deer Park near Varanasi.
FOUR PATHS
1) Sambharamarga — path o f accumulation
2) Prayogamarga — path o f application
3) Darshanamarga — path o f insight .
4) Bhauanamarga — path o f meditation.
These are the stages of the practice through which a Buddhist
practitioner attains the goal of Buddhahood.

FOUR STAG ES OF R ESULT

1) Stream-Enterer
2) Once-Retumer
3) Never-Returner
4) Arhat
These stages refer to the four degrees of spiritual maturation accord­
ing to the Hinayana tradition: (1) Having merely entered the “stream” of
the Buddhist teachings, (2) Having progressed to the point that one will
only be reborn in Samsara one more time (3) Never having to be reborn
in Samsara, and (4) Having achieved a final victory over the defiling
forces Kleshas, Skt.) of Samsaric existence.
GCIRCI (Skt.)
Source of spiritual guidance and teaching. (See Lama)
H EAR ING T R A N S M IS S IO N See Transmission
H IN A Y A N A (Skt.)
The Lesser Path, so-called because, in contrast to the Greater Path
(Mahayana, Skt), it does not stress the cultivation of an Enlightened
Mind (Bodhicitta, Skt.). Nowadays the followers of this path are known
as Thervadins (The Elders).

IND ICATIO N T R A N S M IS S IO N See Transmission.

IN SIG H T M E D ITATIO N (Vipashyna, Skt.)
Meditation whose purpose is the progressive realization of the
essentially empty nature of all phenomena.
KAJUR (Ttb.;
It is the collection o f canonical writings o f the Buddha translated into
Tibetan. It was collected together by Bu-Ton (1290-1364) in 108
volumes.
K A R M A (Skt.)
The process of cause and effect. The inexorable fact of retribution:
That every action of body, speech or mind has a definite result
though perhaps delayed and subtle. Contemplation of this truth is
conducive to spiritual maturation.

KARCINA (Skt.)
Strong compassion toward sentient beings, perceiving their suffering
along with the ardent wish that they can be free from suffering.

K L E S H A (Skt.)
Emotional defilements.
K YED — RIM (Tib.)
The Developing Stage of meditative practices which involve the
visualization and contemplation of Enlightened Awareness in the form
of deities for the ultimate purpose of realizing the essential purity of all
phenomena.

LAM -DRE (Tib.)

The highest esoteric teachings of the Sakya school, traditionally
associated with the Mahasiddha Virupa.
L A M A (Tib.)
The highest one, a spiritual master or teacher.

L U N G (rLung, Tib.)
The subtle energy flow within the energy channels (Tsa) o f the human
body. The understanding and control of this flow constitutes part of the
training in esoteric Buddhist teachings.

M A D H Y A M IK A (Skt.)
The Middle Way. One of the major Buddhist philosophical schools
whose primary tenets were composed by Nagarjuna and Aryadeva.
Through its methods all philosophical views are shown to be vacuous,
thereby helping to establish the central notion of this school — that all
phenomena are inherently void (Shunyata).

M A H A M U D R A (Skt.)
The highest and main esoteric practices of the Kagyudpa school of
Tibetan Buddhism.

M A H A P A R IN IR V A N A (Skt.)
The Great Cessation or Transcendence of Sorrow, Also refers to the
physical death of Shakyamuni Buddha.

M A H A Y A N A (Skt.)
The Greater Vehicle, because it stresses the great importance of
cultivating an Enlightened Mind (Bodhicitta). A long with others, the
Tibetan Buddhists are followers of the Mahayana.

M AITRI (Skt.)
The strong wish that all sentient beings have happiness and loving­
kindness. This is one o f the Four Immeasurables (Apramada, Skt.); so -
called because there is no limit to the benefits of cultivating this
attitude.

M A N D A L A (Skt.)
An assemblage of many things. In Tantrik Buddhism this often refers to
the circular assemblage of deities, their retinues, and the pure land in
which they dwell.

M A N T R A S (S k t); sN gags (Tib.)

Sacred syllables which express the essential nature of deities. These are
used as a medium to receive esoteric transmission and powers.

M A N T R A Y A N A (Skt.)
Esoteric teachings. This term refers especially to the mystic syllables in
esoteric practice.

M AYA BODY
Illusory Body. Through certain esoteric practices the meditator comes
to see all phenomena as the Mandalas of the Tantrik deities, which
appear like an illusory body.

M ILK O C E A N (Dhanakosa, Skt.)

The milky-white lake from which Guru Rinpoche (Padmasambhava)
was miraculously born.

M IN D -T R A N S M IS S IO N See Transmission.

N A L A N D A U N IV E R SITY
An ancient and great seat of Buddhist learning in Northern India, in the
state of Bihara. Nagarjuna was one of its many famous scholars. Naropa
was one o f its abbots. Both exoteric and esoteric studies were taught
there.

N IR M A N A K A Y A (S k t)
The form-body o f Enlightened Mind which is visible to ordinary people.
See Tulku.
NO-THOUGHT
Mind free from conceptualization. Through Tantrik practice one
achieves a wisdom which has the qualities o f uninterrupted bliss, clarity
and no-thought.

PARAMITAS (Skt.)
The six perfections:
1) Dana — generousity
2) Shila — moral conduct
3 ) Kshanti — patience
4 ) Virya — perseuerence
5 ) Samadhi — meditation
6) Prajna — wisdom
These perfections are practiced by Bodhisattvas for the benefit of all
sentient beings.

P R A J N A (Skt.)
Discriminating Insight. This term includes three kinds of wisdom:
1) The wisdom o f hearing
2 ) The wisdom o f pondering
3) The wisdom o f meditation.
This last is the wisdom which has the insight that all phenomena have
the absolute nature of Shunyata.

PRASANGIKA MADHYAMIKA (Skt.)

A school of Madhyamika doctrine expounded by Buddhapalita and
Candrakirti which uses the philosophical techniques of forcing the
advocates of opposing views to the absurd limits implied by their
assertions.

PRATIMOKSHA VOWS (Skt.)

Vows regarding conduct conducive to spiritual maturation, of which
there are eight types:
1) Precepts kept on lunar observance days (CJpauashatha)
2) Precepts fo r laymen (Upasaka)
3) Precepts fo r laywomen (Upasika)
4) Precepts for novice monks (Shramanera)
5) Precepts fo r novice nuns (Shramanerika)
6) Training precepts for women probationers (Shikshamana)
7) F o r monks (Bhikshu)
8) F o r nuns (Bhikshuni)

PRATITYAS AM UT PADA (Skt.)

Interdependent Arising. The fact that no facet of experience is isolated,
singular, self-sufficient, or due to a single causal factor. Everything
arises due to and owes its existence to a multitude of interdependently
working factors.

PUDGALA NIRATMA (Skt.)

The realizations of the stage of Arhat, that the human personality is
non-substantive and empty in nature.
PURE L A N D
The naturally resplendent lands in which completely Enlightened
Buddhas continuously teach for the benefit of all sentient beings. There
are two kinds o f pure lands:
Manifested Pure Lands
Pure Lands with Five Certainties.

R ELATIVE TR U TH (Samvriti-Satya, Skt.) See Two Truths.

S A D H A N A (Skt.)
The ritualized practice of contemplation using the Mandalas o f Tantrik
deities.

S A M A N T A B H A D R A (Skt.)
The Primordial Buddha (Adibuddha). The Dharmakaya from which the
Dzog-Chen teachings emanate.

S A M B H O G A K A Y A (Skt.)
The Enjoyment Body or Spiritual Rapture Body of Enlightened
Awareness which appears with Five Certainties and is iconographically
represented by the Five Buddha Families. This is the pure form-body of
the Buddhas.

S A N G H A (Skt.)
The community of like-minded people who adhere to the teachings of
Lord Buddha.

S A N S K R IT (Skt.)
The major northern Indian literary language which gradually became
the medium of expression for both Buddhist and Hindu philosophers up
until the 12th century when Moslems conquered India. Most of the
original Buddhist scriptures now preserved in Tibetan texts were
translated from Sanskrit.

S A R M A (Tib.)
The “new” as opposed to the “old” (Nyingm a) translations of Buddhist
Tantras from Sanskrit sources. The distinction arose at the time of Rin-
Chen Zang-Po (958-1005 A .D .) and applies only to Tantrik scriptures.

S H R A V A K A S (Skt.)
Listeners. Pious listeners to Buddha’s teachings, who follow the
doctrine of Hinayana Buddhism.

S H R A V A K A Y A N A (S k t) '
The vehicle or practice of the Shravakayana, or Listeners.

SHUNYATA
According to Mahayana doctrine, all phenomenal existence is
inherently free from conceptualization in its true nature and is therefore
empty or void of conceptual meaning.

S ID D H A
Accomplished One. An esoteric practitioner who has achieved a high
level o f mystic accomplishment.