Bio120 Labex12 Genetics 1

Exercise 12
GENETICS
Student Learning Outcomes
At the completion of this exercise you should:
1. Be able to determine the expected genotype and phenotype frequencies in offspring from a
Mendelian dihybrid cross.
2. Be able to explain why the observed proportions of offspring phenotypes, in a given dihybrid cross,
usually differ from the proportions “expected” (calculated using a Punnett square).
3. Be able to list seven observable Mendelian traits in humans.
4. Be able to describe the genetic basis for the ABO blood trait in terms of codominance and multiple
alleles.
5. Be able to describe sex-linked and traits and how they differ from the inheritance of most other
traits.
Question 1. Before starting the lab work, define the terms below. If necessary, look these up in your
biology textbook and print the definitions in the spaces below:
A. Allele One or two different forms of a gene that are created by mutations
B. Trait
C. Gene
D. Dominant
E. Recessive
F. Homozygous
G. Heterozygous
H. Genotype
I. Phenotype
J. Genetics
Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Exercise 12: Genetics 2
I. Genotype and Phenotype Frequencies in a Dihybrid Cross

All characteristics of an organism result from hereditary factors called genes. For each gene, there
typically are more than one variant, which are called alleles. When Gregor Mendel crossed his
true-breeding green pea plants with true-breeding yellow pea plants, the offspring plants, called the F1
generation, produced only yellow peas. Since these plants must have received an allele for green peas
from one parent (as well as the allele for yellow peas), the yellow allele apparently was dominant over
the green allele, which is therefore said to be the recessive allele. This was verified by the results of
several subsequent experiments, including the reappearance of plants which produced green peas in the
F2 generation (the offspring from a cross of two F1 plants).
Sometimes we have incomplete dominance, wherein a heterozygous individual (possessing two

different alleles for the same trait) shows an intermediate phenotype. For example, a plant with an allele
for red flowers and an allele for white flowers may produce pink flowers. The heterozygous individual is
also sometimes called a hybrid.
Today, we will explore the inheritance pattern in a dihybrid cross. The name refers to the fact that we
will observe two sets of alleles, independent of each other and each governing a separate trait. The traits
are eye color and hair form, human characteristics which have been somewhat generalized for the
purpose of our demonstration.
Our demonstration of the dihybrid cross will assume that the genes and alleles for eye color and hair
form follow Mendel's Laws, the law of segregation and the law of independent assortment.
Therefore, we assume that the pairs of parental alleles each separate during meiosis and the individual
alleles are randomly distributed to the gametes. Also, the genes for eye color and hair form are assumed
to be independent of one another (in other words, they are not "linked" on the same chromosome). Their
alleles are thus allowed to randomly mix during meiosis, and all possible combinations should be
equally represented in the gametes.
In the following discussions, we will adhere to a certain convention of genetic notation. Dominant
alleles will be represented by italicized capital letters (e.g., B as the allele for brown eyes), and recessive
traits will be represented by italicized lowercase letters (e.g., b as the allele for blue eyes). Thus, for
diploid organisms, genotypes will be shown with two alleles (e.g., bb , Bb, or BB ). For the gametes,
which are haploid, genotypes will be shown with one allele (e.g., B or b ).
A. Eye Color and Hair Form
[Neither eye color nor hair form is a truly monogenic trait. Both are influenced by several genes and
environmental factors. For the purposes of this lab however, we will treat both as monogenic with no
environmental influence.]
1. Eye Color: The inheritance of eye color is actually quite complex and the discussion given here has
been oversimplified. In blue eyes, there is no pigment in the front part of the iris, and a person with
blue eyes is homozygous recessive for non-pigmented irises (bb). The presence of pigment is

controlled by the dominant allele B. For simplicity, we shall recognize the homozygous dominant
BB and the heterozygote Bb as brown eyes; and bb as blue eyes.
2. Hair Form: The form of hair is dependent primarily upon its shape in cross-section. Straight hair is
rounded, while wavy, curly, and extremely curly hair show progressive degrees of flattening. No
doubt a number of genes are involved in hair form, but generally the evidence indicates that there is
one pair of alleles which can produce the difference between curly and straight hair. The
heterozygote shows wavy hair, which is an example of incomplete dominance. For the sake of
communication, let AA be the genotype for curly hair, Aa for wavy hair, and aa for straight
hair.

B. The Dihybrid Cross Laboratory Model
Individuals who are heterozygous for both eye color and hair form are said to be doubly heterozygous,
or dihybrids. Dihybrids might arise from true-breeding parents, one parent being the double
homozygous dominant and the other being the double homozygous recessive:
Parents (P): AABB X aabb
Offspring (F1): AaBb
Question 2. Verify that the genotype of the F1 (above) is correct by doing the following:
a. On the diagram, write the genotypes of the parental gametes in the space below each parent
(P). (Double click on the diagram and it will open up in a drawing window. Double click on
each circle and you will be able to write in it.)
b. Verify that the gametes you have written combine to form the F1 genotype in the diagram.
Notice that while the order of the alleles does not matter, we group alleles for the same trait
together, with capital letters first. This makes it easier to recognize whether individuals have
identical genotypes.
c. What is the phenotype of the F1 generation?
Enter your answer here.

The F2 generation is the offspring produced when two F1 individuals (dihybrids) mate and reproduce.
In this part of the exercise, we will use a model to investigate the genotypes and phenotypes of the F2
generation.
Procedure:
1. Matchbox "chromosomes": Each pair of students should obtain a yellow/green matchbox and
a red/blue matchbox from the front lab table. Examine the "chromosomes" in each matchbox. [This is
the procedure we would follow in the lab. Needless to say, we’ll use a different procedure for you to do
the lab on your own. Follow the alternate procedure below.]
a. The green/yellow matchbox (containing one yellow and one green matchstick) represents
the synapsed chromosome pair which carries the gene for eye color. The yellow stick stands for
the b allele and the green stick stands for the B allele. That is, this individual is heterozygous
(Bb) for the eye color gene.
b. The red/blue matchbox (containing one red and one blue matchstick) represents the
synapsed chromosome pair which carries the gene for hair form. The red stick stands for the A
allele and the blue stick stands for the a allele. That is, this individual is heterozygous (Aa) for
the hair form gene.
c. The two boxes together then stand for the two pairs of chromosomes in an individual who
is doubly heterozygous (dihybrid) for the eye color and the hair form genes. Recall that during
meiosis only ONE chromosome of each pair is selected to go into each gamete. That is, one
chromosome from the yellow box and one chromosome from the red box will be found in each
gamete of this double heterozygote.
Matchbox “chromosomes”: Alternate Procedure - Coin “chromosomes”

In this activity, you are going to simulate how the production of different gamete genotypes as a result of
random events during meiosis. You will be simulating 16 “matings” of two parents, each who are
heterozygous, AaBb.
1. Find two coins. Each coin will represent one of the chromosomes. It may help to use two different
types of coins, for example a quarter and a dime.

2. Use the quarter to represent the eye color gene, which is on one chromosome and use the dime to
represent the hair texture gene, which is on another chromosome. In each case, heads represents the
dominant allele (A or B) and tails represents the recessive allele (a or b).
3. To generate hypothetical gametes, you will flip each coin in turn. Remember that a gamete contains
one allele for the eye color gene and one allele for the hair texture gene.
Question 3. An individual of genotype AaBb would produce 4 types of gametes. Remember that each
gamete gets one allele from each gene pair. What are the 4 kinds of gametes that could be produced?
a)
b)
c)
d)
The coin tosses indicate the following alleles:
Quarter, heads = the B allele for eye color
Quarter, tails = the b allele for eye color
Dime, heads = the A allele for hair form
Dime, tails = the a allele for hair form
3. Record the genetic composition of the gamete from your coin tosses on Table 1 under the column
labeled "first gamete."
4. Toss the coins again and repeat the step 3 procedure. List the results of your second coin toss in
Table 1 under the column marked "second gamete."
5. Repeat the procedure until you have filled both columns. You will have 16 "first" and 16 "second"
gametes, which will result in 16 "breedings" and 16 offspring genotypes.
6. The combining of each gamete pair to form an offspring represents the cross (mating) of two
individuals who are both dihybrids for these two traits. In genetic language, an AaBb x AaBb cross. By
random chance, your gamete columns would be expected to include all possible combinations of all four
different gametes.
7. Complete the "offspring" column of Table 1 by writing the genotype derived by combining the
two gametes in fertilization. To make similar genotypes easily identifiable, always group alleles for the
same trait together, and write the letter for any dominant allele first. (e.g., Ab + ab = Aabb).

Example:
Breeding #1, Gamete 1:
Gamete: aB
Breeding #1, Gamete 2:
Gamete: ab

Table 1 - Dihybrid Cross Laboratory Model:

OBSERVED Genotypes of Offspring from the Cross: AaBb X AaBb
Note: Combine the first and second gametes to obtain the genotype of each offspring. For each
offspring, group the alleles with the same letter together, placing the capital letters first
Breeding First Gamete* Second Gamete Genotype of Offspring
1. aB ab aaBb
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
*The “first gamete” represents the sperm (or egg) from one individual while the “second gamete”
represents the egg (or sperm) from a second individual.

Question 4. Identify the phenotype associated with each of the following genotypes:
AA BB
Aa Bb
aa bb
8. Count the observed number of each offspring genotype in Table 1. Tabulate these observed
numbers according to the genotype list in Table 2. Note that there are three possible allele combinations
for the hair texture gene (AA, Aa, and aa) and three possible allele combinations for the eye color gene
(BB, Bb, and bb) for a total of nine (3 x 3) possible genotypes for both genes combined.
9. Determine the phenotype for each offspring genotype and fill in the phenotype column of Table
2. Use your answers to Question 4 (above) to help you identify the phenotypes. Note that there are six
possible phenotype combinations.
Table 2 - Tabulation of Offspring OBSERVED from the Dihybrid Cross: AaBb x AaBb
Genotype Number Observed Phenotype
AABB
AABb
AAbb
AaBB
AaBb
Aabb
aaBB
aaBb
aabb

10. Using the numbers from Table 2, add up the total observed offspring of each of the six possible
phenotypes. Record these values in the “observed” column of Table 3.
Table 3: frequency of observed phenotypes
1. Number Observed 3. Number Expected

by your Team (from 2. Class Average from Punnett Square
Phenotype Table 2) Observed (see Table 4)
curly hair, brown eyes
wavy hair, brown eyes,
straight hair, brown eyes
curly hair, blue eyes
wavy hair, blue eyes
straight t hair, blue eyes
11. [Optional. Consult with your instructor on whether or not to enter your data in a classwide
spreadsheet.] Enter and compare your observations with the class average and the expected
frequencies.
a. Enter your observed number of each phenotype (table 3, column 1) in the class spreadsheet of
observed phenotypes. Just scroll right and use the next available column. Enter the student or
group number that you used below:
Group or student #
b. Fill in table 3, column 2 with the average frequency of each phenotype frequency from
previous semesters, which can be found on this sheet of all-time averages (column B).
12. To determine the expected numbers for the offspring phenotypes, complete the Punnett Square
below (Table 4):
a. Write the genotypes of the 4 parental gametes in the indicated areas for each parent. (Recall
you identified these in Question 3.) The first one has been done for you.
b. In each of the 16 boxes of the Punnett Square, combine the row and column gametes to give
the genotype of the offspring. Remember to group alleles with the same letter together, with the
capital letters (dominant alleles) first.
c. Add up all of the members of each phenotype in the Punnett Square and write the totals in the
“expected” column of Table 3.
Table 4 - Punnett Square: Calculating EXPECTED Offspring Frequencies from the

Dihybrid Cross: (Parent #1) AaBb x AaBb (Parent #2)
Note: Combine the first and second gametes to obtain the genotype of each offspring. For each
offspring, group the alleles with the same letter together, placing the capital letters first.
Parent one gametes
Parent
two
gametes
Question 5. Which were closer to your expected numbers for the offspring of the dihybrid cross: your
team's observed numbers or the class averages? Which observed numbers are more reliable predictors
of population values?
Enter answer here

Question 6. Determine the probability of getting any of the 4 different kinds of gametes possible from
each dihybrid individual. For help, refer to the following:
a. The probability of any gamete genotype is a fraction:
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡
𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑦𝑝𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒
b. List all the gamete genotypes for an AaBb individual and indicate their probabilities:
Enter answer here
Question 7. A married couple both happen to be doubly heterozygous (dihybrid) for eye color and hair
form. They have only one child who has blue eyes and straight hair. Determine the probability of this
couple producing a child with the aabb genotype. Follow these steps:
a. Write the probability of an ab gamete from an AaBb parent:
Enter answer here
b. At the time of fertilization, the probability of specific gametes getting together is the product
of the individual probabilities for each gamete (this is known as the multiplicative law).
Therefore, we can calculate the aabb probability using the following equation:
Enter answer here
P (offspring with aabb) = P (ab sperm) x P (ab egg) =
c. Examine your Punnett Square (Figure 4).
How many total boxes are there?
How many of these are the aabb genotype?
What fraction of the offspring are expected to be aabb?
d. Your probability calculation should agree with the Punnett Square proportion for the aabb
genotype - does it?
Enter answer here

II. Mendelian Inheritance in Humans
Estimates of the number of genes carried on the human genome are difficult to make and subject to
considerable error. At this time there is general agreement among biologists that 20,000 - 30,000 is a
reasonable range, we do not yet know the exact number. The federally sponsored Human Genome
Project, had as its objective the "mapping" of all of the human chromosomes. The project, which was
finished in the year 2003, involved research laboratories nation-wide, each of which had been assigned a
portion of the genome to analyze. For example, the DNA base sequence of the gene that mutates to
produce the disease cystic fibrosis has been found to be on chromosome # 7. Locally, scientists at the
Salk Institute, where chromosome #11 was studied, made significant contributions.
Among the known genes, some are associated with easily recognizable traits such as eye color, while
others can be detected only by special means. Furthermore, except for the human blood groups, the
inheritance of serious and relatively rare abnormalities is usually better understood than is that of trivial
traits such as eye color. This is because a serious abnormality is nearly always brought to the attention of
the scientist or physician, and reliable records covering several generations are more easily obtained
than in the case of those traits which confer no disability.
The following six traits in humans are inherited in the way Mendel's principle of segregation predicts.
Thus, they are said to be traits which illustrate simple "Mendelian Inheritance" in humans. Most traits
in humans and other organisms are not inherited in such a simple Mendelian fashion because their
phenotypic expression is due not to just one gene on homologous chromosomes, but rather to several
different genes. As a result, characteristics in a population tend to grade from one extreme to another
(e.g., body height in humans grades from one extreme to another rather than the existence of only tall or
short people). This is called a continuum. Mendelian traits which are dictated by only one set of alleles
are observed to be phenotypically distinct in a population, i.e., red flowers or white flowers with no
gradations in between. (In the case of Mendelian inheritance where there is incomplete dominance, there
are usually three distinct phenotypes in the population (rather than two) with no gradations in between.)
A. Six Mendelian Traits in Humans
1. Eye color: The many variations in human eye color have a complex and little understood heredity.
However, blue or grey eyes, as contrasted with all other colors, seem to be determined by a single pair of
alleles. Individuals genotypically EE or Ee have a pigment in the front layer of the iris resulting in
brown (or dark) eyes, whereas persons with blue or grey eyes, genotypically ee, have pigment only in
the back layer of the iris.
2. Ear lobes: While there is much variation in the degree of attachment of the ear lobes, the condition
in which the ear lobe merges smoothly with the skin of the head seems to be recessive, ll, to the free or
pendant phenotype, genotypically LL or Ll.

3. Hair on middle phalanx: the presence of hair, even in very small amounts, on middle phalanx
of any or all fingers seems to be due to the presence of a dominant factor M. Persons without such hair
are genotypically mm.
4. Tongue rolling: The ability to roll the tongue into a U-shape when extending it through the lips is
governed by the presence of a dominant gene R. "Rollers" are thus genotypically RR or Rr; persons
unable to roll the tongue are genotypically rr.
5. Bent little finger: The condition wherein the terminal joints of the little fingers are bent so that
the two little fingers cannot be held together along their entire lengths when the hands are held together,
palms upward, seems to be due to the presence of a dominant factor B. Straight little fingers indicate the
homozygous recessive condition bb.
6. Left handedness: Persons who are left handed are homozygous recessive, hh, while right
handed persons carry at least one dominant allele of h and are genotypically HH or Hh.
B. Determination of your own Genetic Profile
Figure 1 is a diagram which you may use to determine your own phenotype for the six heritable traits
listed above.

Figure 1. Heredity Wheel

Human Variability on the Basis of Six Traits
Procedure:
1. After you are sure you understand how to recognize each of the six traits and their alternatives, track
your own phenotype on the heredity wheel. Begin at the center of the diagram, first deciding on your
eye genotype. Shade that segment of the diagram with your pencil.
2. Next, shade the ear lobe genotype which matches your phenotype and adjoins your shaded eye
genotype.
3. Proceed toward the outer edge shading each space with the symbol which best describes you. When
you are finished, the shaded areas for all six genotypes should be touching in a chain, and your
number on the heredity wheel can be identified.
4. When all students have finished this task, the instructor will poll the class to determine how many of
the 64 possible kinds of phenotypes (considering only six traits) are represented by the students in
the class. Indicate on the diagram how many individuals with each number are in your class.
Question 8. Among the members of your class, is there a preponderance of numbers in any particular
range of numbers, such as 1-32? Try to account for this.
Enter answer here
Are there more odd than even numbers? Try to account for this. (Hint: examine the last of
the six traits on the wheel.)
Enter answer here
Question 9. It is likely that more than one person in your class have the same "number" on the
hereditary wheel. Do these people look like they might be identical twins? Do you see a similarity
between them which you do not see with other members of the class?
Enter answer here

Considering the vastness of the human genome, comment on your observations.
Enter answer here
Question 10. Do you suppose there are other Mendelian characteristics which could be added to a
heredity wheel?
Enter answer here
How many different phenotypes would there be if you added just one more trait to the wheel?
Two more traits?
Enter answer here
Question 11. Describe how the variety of human phenotypes illustrates one of the fundamental
biological requirements for evolution by natural selection. (Read about the requirements for natural
selection in your textbook if necessary.)
5. Now, add one more trait to your genetic profile. The ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide
(PTC) is a trait that, like the blood groups, cannot be recognized by direct observation. You cannot
know whether you are a taster until you have sampled this substance.
· Taste a slip of filter paper which has been soaked in PTC. To persons who cannot taste
PTC, the paper tastes like any other paper. Tasters, on the other hand, will perceive a distinct
bitterness. T is the dominant allele over t; tt is the genotype for non-taster. About 70% of the
North American population are tasters.
Caution: Very rarely individuals are sensitive to certain sulfur-containing compounds such as PTC. Usually this is discovered
early in life, following exposure to certain foods which have been preserved with sulfur-containing compounds. Examples: meats such as
hot dogs and many dried fruits. If you know you are sensitive, do not taste the PTC paper.
Question 12. What percent of your class are tasters? .
Question 13. Do all students who are tasters react equally strongly to the PTC paper? .
Describe how such variability might have a genetic basis.
Question 14. If you were a taster but your mother were a non-taster, what would be your genotype?
What do you know and not know about your father's genotype
Enter answer here

III. Human Blood Types
There are numerous human genes which govern biochemical functions as opposed to morphological
characteristics. Examples of these are genes controlling a wide variety of functional proteins, such as
enzymes, cell membrane proteins, hemoglobin, etc. In this part of the exercise we shall be concerned
with the pattern of inheritance for certain antigenic properties of erythrocytes (red blood cells) and with
the serum antibodies associated with them.
Antigens are molecules, often proteins, which are recognized by the body's immune system. When an
antigen is foreign to the body, for example, surface molecules on bacterial cells or viruses, certain
lymphocytes (a type of white blood cell) are stimulated to produce specific serum proteins called
antibodies. These antibodies can then chemically react with the antigen and help to neutralize it. This
reaction is called an antigen-antibody reaction.
Cells of the immune system can also recognize the surface molecules on the body's own cells. The
immune system does not mount an antigen-antibody response to cells identified as "self," except in
certain autoimmune diseases. Among those surface molecules on the body's cells are those
membrane-bound polysaccharides which determine the ABO blood groups of erythrocytes.
A. The ABO and Rh Blood Groups
1. The ABO System
If one has blood type A, the antigen we call A is present on the surface of their erythrocytes. The
person's immune system recognizes type A cells as self, but if the person receives a blood transfusion of
cells with type B antigen, an antigen-antibody reaction occurs. Since the reaction causes the type B
erythrocytes to stick together in large clumps, a process called agglutination, dangerous clogging of
small blood vessels might occur, with other life-threatening effects to follow. A similar reaction would
occur if erythrocytes with type A antigen were transfused into a person with blood type B.
The reactions described above are immediate, due to the presence of circulating antibodies in the plasma
(liquid) portion of the recipients' blood. Specifically, type A blood contains anti-B antibodies and type
B blood contains anti-A antibodies. Type O blood, whose erythrocytes have neither A nor B antigens,
has both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in the serum. Finally, the rare type AB blood, whose red cells
have both A and B antigens, has no circulating anti-A or anti-B antibodies.
Anti-A and anti-B are often described as "natural" antibodies, since they are present lifelong. These
antibodies are an exception to the normal pattern of antibody production. Usually, specific antibodies
are only produced after the body has been exposed to a foreign antigen, and the immune system has
recognized the antigen as non-self. The reasons for these natural antibodies are not fully understood.

anti-A, anti-B and other antibodies are found in the serum, the cell-free portion of the blood after the
clotting factors have been removed. Figure 2 summarizes the serum antibodies and the associated red
blood cell types:
Figure 2. Characteristics of the ABO Blood Groups

Erythrocyte Antigen Serum Antibody Erythrocytes Agglutinate
with:
A anti-B anti-A
B anti-A anti-B
O both neither
AB neither both
2. The Rh Factor
Another red blood cell antigen is the protein responsible for the "Rh factor." This antigen, independent
from those responsible for the ABO blood types, was first discovered in 1940 by Levine and Stetson on
the erythrocytes of the Rhesus monkey -- thus the letters "Rh." It was subsequently found on the
erythrocytes of most humans, with 85% of the population possessing the factor (Rh+) and 15% having
no Rh antigen on their blood cells (Rh-). Unlike the ABO system, there is no "natural" anti-Rh antibody
in humans. However, if an Rh- individual receives Rh+ blood their immune system will develop
antibodies against the Rh+ blood cells. This is what can occur when an Rh- mother carries an Rh+
child: if any cells from the fetus slip into the mother's blood, her body builds antibodies against her
child's blood. The mother's antibodies move into the baby's circulatory system and destroy its blood
cells--a condition known as erythroblastosis fetalis. Because the ability of the blood to carry enough
oxygen depends on the erythrocytes, the fetus or newborn may suffer irreversible brain damage or even
death from lack of oxygen.
Procedure: AB0 and Rh (D) Typing Technique (You can’t actually do this procedure, but read the
instructions and look at the pictures and then assign blood types based on the pictured results (step 3).
In the lab, prepared blood typing solutions are available. They are called anti-A antiserum, anti-B
antiserum and anti-D (anti-Rh) antiserum. The first two behave like the normal human anti-A
and anti-B found in type B and type A blood, respectively. The anti-D antiserum is similar to the
human antibody produced when an Rh- person receives Rh+ blood.
1. Secure the following materials:
● One plastic blood typing slide per student (Do not write on these.)
● One laminated cardstock paper (Do not write on these.)
● 3 plastic toothpicks: blue, yellow, and white

2. Testing unknown simulated blood samples:

a. With the other students at your lab table, decide which of you will analyze each of the 4
"unknown" simulated blood samples below. Write the students' names next to each
unknown:
Mr. Smith .
Ms. Jones .
Mr. Green .
Ms. Brown .
b. Place each of the blood typing slides on top of its own laminated cardstock paper. Do not
write on the cardstock.
c. Do not write on the blood typing slide. Place 3-4 drops of your unknown simulated
blood sample in each of the A, B, and Rho wells of your blood typing slide.
d. Do not write on the blood typing slide. Add 3-4 drops of simulated anti-A serum in the
A well of your slide. Use a new blue toothpick to mix the solution.
e. Do not write on the blood typing slide. Add 3-4 drops of simulated anti-B serum in the
B well of your slide. Use a new yellow toothpick to mix the solution.
f. Do not write on the blood typing slide. Add 3-4 drops of simulated anti-Rho serum in
the Rho well of your slide. Use a new white toothpick to mix the solution.

3. Observe the slide for development of agglutination (clumping) among the simulated erythrocytes.
This is evidence that the antigen is present on the "cells." With a human blood sample, agglutination
may take several minutes to develop, which varies among individuals.
Use the information inTable 6 to help you evaluate your blood type. Indicate your test results below.
Did the “blood agglutinate?” (If yes, indicate +. If not, indicate -.)
Table 6. Appearance of Agglutination of 4 Human Blood Samples with Antisera
Antiserum Mr. Smith Ms. Jones Mr. Green Ms. Brown
anti-A + - + -
anti-B - + + -
anti-D (Rh) + - + -
"blood" type A B AB + O-
comments
4. Clean up:
● Wipe any writing off the blood typing slides or white cardstocks that you or anyone may have
written on.
● Return the white cardstocks to their container. Do not throw them away.
● Rinse off the blood typing slide and place it in the container labeled ‘Used Blood Typing
Slides.’
● Rinse off the toothpicks and place them back into their appropriate container.
● Make sure the “blood” and “sera” have been returned to their appropriate container

5. A volunteer should draw Table7 on the board at the front of the room. If you know your own blood
type, put a mark in the correct space on the table. Total the results and write them in Table 7 below.
Table 7. Number of Students of each Blood Type in Biology 120 Class

A B O AB
Rh+
Rh-
B. Inheritance of Blood Types
1. The Inheritance of the ABO Blood Types
Often, inheritance is more complicated than the simple dominant-recessive pattern governing pea
color in Mendel's plants. Sometimes there are multiple alleles for a trait, rather than just two alleles.
This occurs in the genetics of human ABO blood groups. In this example, we also find codominance
between the IA and IB alleles*, with both of them being expressed when present (therefore people with
the genotype IAIB have blood group AB). However, since IA and IB alleles are both dominant over the
recessive i allele, people can have the blood group O only if their genotype is ii. The four basic blood
types (phenotypes) are associated with six genotypes as shown in Table 8.
Figure 3. Genotypes Associated with Blood Types

Blood Type (phenotype) Genotype*
A IAIA or IAi
B IBIB or IBi
O ii
AB IAIB
*I stands for isoagglutinogen - another word for antigen. The use of I helps to avoid confusion between the names of the
blood groups and the names of the alleles.

2. Rh Inheritance
In an oversimplification of the inheritance of the Rh factor, we can say that there are two alleles of the
Rh gene: D for possessing the factor, and d for the absence of the factor. The D allele is dominant,
therefore a phenotypically Rh+ individual can have a genotype of DD or Dd. An Rh- individual is
homozygous recessive, dd. The inheritance of the Rh factor follows simple Mendelian genetics.
Remember that the Rh factor is inherited independently from the ABO blood type.
C. Questions and Practice Problems
Question 15. Blood transfusions aim to give the patient a temporary supply of erythrocytes until their
body can manufacture enough of its own. It is desirable that the donor and the recipient of the
transfusion be of the same blood type. But it has been found that a person of blood type O can safely
give blood (in limited quantity, a pint seems always to be safe) to persons of any other blood type. Thus,
type O is sometimes called the universal donor.
How might this be explained? (Hint: refer to Table 5.)
A type ‘O’ person can be a universal donor because their red blood cells have no a, b, or rh.
Question 16. What complications might arise if large quantities of blood from a donor of type O were
introduced into a recipient of any blood type other than O?
O negative is the universal doner so if that is admitted into the bloodstream there will be no
reaction, but a O+ can donate to all blood types. But if there is an incompatibility there will be
an incompatible reaction
Question 17. If persons of type O are sometimes called universal donors because they can donate to all
other types, what blood type might be called the universal recipient? Why? (Refer to Table 5.)
AB positive b/c they can receive any red blood cells from any blood type
Question 18. Explain the fact that blood types A and B each have two genotypes.
ABO blood group of humans is expressed by a gene which has three alleles. lA &lB are
expressed to produce sugar but it cannot produce any


Question 19. What blood types might occur among the children of a marriage between a person of
blood type AB and a person of blood type O? Fill in the Punnett Square: show the gamete genotypes of
each parent, then determine the offspring blood types.
If you’re using Google Docs, double click on the

Punnett square at left and it will open in a drawing
window. Double click on each box or circle in the
drawing window and you should be able to type
letters into it.
What is the probability of the parents having a child with type A blood?
25% that the offspring will be blood type A
Question 20. If you are blood type O and your father is also blood type O, what type or types must your
mother be? (Write your father's gamete genotypes and your own genotype on the Punnett Square. Then
identify what you know about your mother's genotype.)
Possible genotypes of mother:
the mother can have either Ai, Bi, or ii blood

Could these same parents have a child with blood type AB? Explain.
No. I don’t know why, but all i know it’s a no because I read it in a biology book a few years ago
Question 21. Can a person of blood type A who marries a person of blood type B have type O children?
(Explain your answer.)
No, b/c when creating the child the kid could have a possibility of being an AB blood type
Question 22. If a homozygous Rh+ man fathered children with a homozygous Rh- woman, what
fraction of the offspring would be Rh+? (Show your work: remember to first determine the egg and
sperm genotypes.)
25% of the offspring would be rh+
Question 23. If an Rh- woman gave birth to an Rh- child, what could you conclude about genotype of
the father? Defend your answer.
Rh-; if the kid and mother are rh- then it would make sense for the father to be rh- as well

Question 24. Hemophilia is a hereditary disease characterized by poor clotting of the blood. As a result,
hemophiliacs bleed excessively when injured. A certain kind of hemophilia is sex-linked and recessive.
Sex-linked means that the allele for hemophilia is found on the X chromosome. Although recessive, the
hemophilia allele (Xh) will determine the phenotype of the individual unless the individual is a female
with a normal allele (XH) on her second X chromosome.
Problem: A "normal" woman whose father was a hemophiliac marries a normal man. What genotypes
and phenotypes are expected in the children and in what proportions? (When you are working with
sex-linked traits, it is a good idea to include both types of sex chromosomes in your Punnett Square.) -
This problem requires you to draw two Punnett squares. I’ve drawn one of them for you.
Replace this text with your answer.
Question 25. It has been observed that there are more hemophiliac children of one sex than the other
born in the general population. Explain.
Hemophilia is more common among male children, as they only inherit one X chromosome, which
means that they will develop symptoms of hemophilia if that chromosome carries the mutation
Even in class I don’t do this one because people don’t generally know their blood types. In this situation
we definitely can’t do it.
Question 26. The frequencies of the various blood groups have historically been quite stable in
well-defined populations, i.e., they tend to remain unchanged in time, and characteristic of each group.
The following chart shows these frequencies among several populations. Refer to Table 7 for the
Biology 120 Class Frequencies and complete Table 9 by calculating the percentages of each blood type
in your class.

Table 9. Comparison of Blood Group Frequencies
Population Blood Group Frequencies
O A B AB Rh+ Rh-
Japanese 25% 39% 24% 12% 99% 1%
Whites (USA) 45% 38% 12% 5% 85% 15%
Blacks (USA) 47% 28% 20% 5% 93% 7%
Aborigines (Australia) 34% 66% 0 0
Eskimos (Labrador) 49% 51% 0 0
Pueblo Indians (New Mexico) 88% 12% 0 0 98% 2%
Biology 120 Class (frequencies)
Biology 120 Class (percents)
Question 27. Is the frequency distribution for the Biology 120 class similar to any of the others?
Comment on this.
Question 28. Imagine that one of your lab partners thinks that recessive phenotypes must be "weaker"
than dominant phenotypes. As a result, the student concludes that there must always be fewer recessive
genes in the population. The student cites as an example the fact that there are fewer blue-eyed people
than brown eyed people. Explain how you would use the information in this lab exercise to set your
partner straight. [Hint. Look at frequencies of different blood types in different populations.]
Recessive is expressed less they are equal
Question 29. Suggest some factors which might act to bring about changes in the relative proportions of
the various blood groups in a population. (Hint: consider reasons why the ethnic composition of an area
might change.)

Question 30. What factors might act to keep the blood group frequencies in a population fairly constant
over time?
In the ABO blood type system in humans, three alleles determine the particular blood-type protein on
the surface of red blood cells. Each individual in a population of diploid organisms can only carry two
alleles for a particular gene,
Question 31. A man whose blood group genotype is IAi marries a woman with Type AB blood.
Assume both parents are also heterozygous for the Rh factor. Construct a Punnett Square which shows
the genotypes of all possible offspring. Then organize the data: list all possible phenotypes, and the
probability of this couple having any one of those phenotypes.
a.
Parent Ai (+-) X AB(+-)
genotypes:
b. Punnett Square:
GAMETES from- Parent # 2
A i + -
GAMETE A AA Ai
from- B AB Bi
Parent # 1 + ++ +-
- +- --
c. Expected offspring phenotypes and probabilities are:
Blood type Frequency
A+ 6/16
A- 2/16
B+ 3/16
B- 1/16
AB+ 3/16
AB- 0
O+ 0

O- 0

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Exercise 12

Student Learning Outcomes

At the completion of this exercise you should:

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

I. Genotype and Phenotype Frequencies in a Dihybrid Cross

Sometimes we have incomplete dominance, wherein a heterozygous individual (possessing two

A. Eye Color and Hair Form

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

B. The Dihybrid Cross Laboratory Model

Parents (P): AABB X aabb

Offspring (F1): AaBb

Enter your answer here.

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Matchbox “chromosomes”: Alternate Procedure - Coin “chromosomes”

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

The coin tosses indicate the following alleles:

Quarter, heads = the B allele for eye color

Quarter, tails = the b allele for eye color

Dime, heads = the A allele for hair form

Dime, tails = the a allele for hair form

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Breeding #1, Gamete 1:

Breeding #1, Gamete 2:

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Table 1 - Dihybrid Cross Laboratory Model:

Breeding First Gamete* Second Gamete Genotype of Offspring

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Genotype Number Observed Phenotype

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Table 3: frequency of observed phenotypes

1. Number Observed 3. Number Expected

curly hair, brown eyes

wavy hair, brown eyes,

straight hair, brown eyes

curly hair, blue eyes

wavy hair, blue eyes

straight t hair, blue eyes

Table 4 - Punnett Square: Calculating EXPECTED Offspring Frequencies from the

Parent one gametes

Enter answer here

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Enter answer here

P (offspring with aabb) = P (ab sperm) x P (ab egg) =

c. Examine your Punnett Square (Figure 4).

How many total boxes are there?

How many of these are the aabb genotype?

What fraction of the offspring are expected to be aabb?

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

II. Mendelian Inheritance in Humans

A. Six Mendelian Traits in Humans

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

B. Determination of your own Genetic Profile

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Figure 1. Heredity Wheel

Grossmont College Bio 120 Lab Manual, Spring 2021

Human Variability on the Basis of Six Traits

Enter answer here

Enter answer here