CHEMISTRY

E – LEARNING NOTE
2019/2020 ACADEMIC SESSION

SECOND TERM

CLASS: SS1

SECOND TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

SUBJECT: CHEMISTRY CLASS: SS1

SCHEME OF WORK
WEEKS and TOPICS
1. Revision of last terms work/introduction to mole concept: calculation of molar
mass/relative molecular mass, calculation in term of formulae.
2. Mole concept cont’d: Calculations in term of relative molecular mass and volume,
percentage of an element in a compound, empirical formulae and molecular formulae
3.Writing and balancing of chemical equation, calculation from chemical equation.
4/5. State, illustration and verification of the following chemical laws: law of conservation of
matter, law of constant composition or definite proportions, law of multiple proportion,
calculations base on chemical laws
6. Chemical combinations or bonding: types of bonds, strong bond: electrovalent or ionic
bonding, covalent bonding, co-ordinate or dative bonding, metallic bonding, weak bond:
hydrogen bonding and vander-waal force.
1
7. The kinetic theory of matter: State of matter, postulate of kinetic theory of matter,
applications of kinetic theory of gases, and phenomena to illustrate kinetic theory of matter,
change of state.
8 Gas laws and calculations: Boyle’s laws, Charles’ law, general gas law and ideal gas law
9. Gas law cont’d: Gay- Lussac’s Law and Avogadro’s
Law, Graham’s law of diffusion, Molar volume of gases- Avogadro
number and the mole, concept, Dalton’s law of partial pressure
10. Experiment to illustrate gas laws
11. Air: constituent, percentage composition and properties. Flame: drawing, label and explain
various zone of flame e.g hydrogen flame, bursen flame and candle flame.

REFERENCE TEXTS:
1 .Comprehensive Certificate Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by G N C Ohia et al
2. New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio
3. Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools 1 by Magbagbeola O, et al; Melrose Books and
Publishers
4. Revised edition understanding chemistry for schools and colleges by Godwin O. Ojokuku.

WEEK 1:
MOLE: The mole is the amount of a substance that contains the same number of particles as the number of
atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12. The elementary particles can be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons or any
other. The number of atoms in a mole of any element is 6.02 x 1023. It is called Avogadro’s number. Hence, one
mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 elementary particle of that substance. Thus,
1 mole of an element contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms of the element
1 mole of a compound or molecule contains 6.02 x 1023 molecules
1 mole of an ion contains 6.02 x 1023 ions
The relative atomic mass of an element = mass of 1 mole of the element
The relative molecular mass of a compound or molecule = mass of 1 mole of the compound or molecule
The number of ions present in an ionic compound is obtained by summing up the amount of individual ions
present in the compound.
By definition:
Mole = Reacting mass
Molar mass
Mole = Number of particles
6.02 x 1023
:- Reacting mass = Number of particles
Molar mass X 6.02 x 1023
Examples
1. What is the mass of 3 moles of oxygen gas? (O=16)
2. How many atoms are present in 5g sample of sodium ( Na=23, N=6.02 x 10 23.)
3. How many ions are there in 1 mole of calcium chloride?
Solution
1. Mass of 1 mole of O2 = (2x16) = 32g
Mass of 3 mole of O2 = (3x32) = 96g
2
2. Mole = Reacting mass = 5 = 0.217
Molar mass 23
But number of moles = number of particles (atoms)
Avogadro’s number
:. 0.217 = number of atoms
6.02 x 1023.
Number of atoms = 0.127 x 6.02 x 10 23 =1.3 x 1023 atoms
3. 1 mole of CaCl2 contains: 1 mole of Ca2+ and 2 moles of Cl-
1 mole of an ion contains 6.02 x 1023 ions
:- 1 mole of CaCl2 contains (1 x 6.02 x 1023) + (2 x 6.02 x 1023) ions = 18.06 x 1023 ions
Molar mass: The molar mass of any substance is the mass of one mole of the substance expressed in grams. Its
unit is g/mol. The molar mass of an element is its atomic mass expressed in grams and the molar mass of a
compound is its relative molecular mass expressed in grams.

FORMULA MASS AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

Example: calculate the percentage by mass of each element in calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH) 2
[ Ca=40, O=16, H=1]
Solution
Rmm or formula mass of Ca(OH)2 = 40 + (16 x2) + (1 x2) = 40 + 32 + 2 = 74
%by mass of Ca in Ca(OH)2 = 100 x 40/74 = 54.1%
% by mass of O in Ca(OH)2 = 100 x 32/74 = 43.2%
%by mass of H in Ca(OH)2 = 100 x 2/74 = 2.7%

Assignment
1. What is the percentage by mass of sodium in sodium hydroxide? (Na = 23, O = 16, H=1)
2. How many atoms are there in one mole of hydrogen gas?[Avogadro’s constant = 6.02 x 1023mol-1]
Tutorial questions
1. How many elementary particles are there in 4g of CO2?
2. What is the relative molecular mass of MgSO4? [ Mg = 24, S = 32, O = 16]
3. A sample of chlorine contains 75% of 35
17Cl and 25% of 37
17Cl. Calculate the relative molecular mass of
chlorine.
4. What is the percentage by mass of carbon in Ca(HCO3)2? [ Ca = 40, H = 1, O = 16]

PERIOD 3: EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

Empirical formula is the simplest formula which gives the ratio of the number of different atoms present in a
compound. It does not give the exact number of each atom whereas the molecular formula gives the exact
number of the atoms present in a molecule of a compound.
The molecular formula of a compound is a whole number multiple of its empirical formula.
Examples:
EMPIRICAL FORMULAR: is a formula that simply gives the relative number of atoms of each element present in
a molecule. It is the simplest formula.
MOLECULAR FORMULA: is a formula that state the actual number of each kind of atom found in a molecule.
A substance whose empirical formula is CH2 have a molecular formula C2H4, C4H8 and so on. The empirical
formula of a compound can be found if the percentage composition and relative atomic masses of each
elements in the compound are known. Also, the empirical formula can be related to the molar mass of a
compound in order to obtain the molecular formular for the compound.

3
EXAMPLE1: An organic compound has the composition 55% of carbon, 9% hydrogen and 36% oxygen. Calculate
the empirical formular for the organic compound. (C= 12, H= 1, O= 16)
NOTE: Always check that the addition of the percentage composition of all elements present in a compound
equal to 100.
SOLUTION:
CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGEN
Relative composition: 55 9 36
Divide by atomic mass: 55 9 36
12 1 16
=4.58 = 9.00 = 2.25
Divide by the smallest: 4.58 9 2.25
2.25 2.25 2.25
=2 =4 =1
Hence the empirical formular = C2H4O.
EXAMPLE 2: What is the empirical formula of an organic compound whose percentage composition is carbon,
52.2%, hydrogen, 13.1% and oxygen, 34.7% (C = 12, H = 1, O = 16).
SOLUTION:
CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGEN
Relative composition: 52.2 13.1 34.7
Divide by atomic mass: 52.2 13.1 34.7
12 1 16
=4.35 = 13.1 = 2.17
Divide by the smallest: 4.35 13.1 2.17
2.17 2.17 2.17
=2 =6 =1
Hence the empirical formular = C2H6O.
EXAMPLE 3: An organic compound contains carbon, 62.1%, hydrogen, 10.3% and oxygen, 27.6% by mass.
(i) Find the empirical formula of the compound
(ii) If the molar mass of the compound is 58.0g, find its molecular formula. (C = 12, H = 1, O = 16).
SOLUTION:
CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGEN
Relative composition: 62.1 10.3 27.6
Divide by atomic mass: 62.1 10.3 27.6
12 1 16
=5.1 = 10.3 = 1.8
Divide by the smallest: 4.35 13.1 1.8
1.8 1.8 1.8
=3 =6 =1
Hence the empirical formular = C3H6O.
(ii) To calculate the molecular formula, relate the empirical formula to the molar mass.
(Empirical formula)n = Molar mass
(C3H6O)n = 58
(3x12 + 1x6 + 16x1)n = 58
(58)n = 58
n = 1
The molecular formula = (C3H6O)n = C3H6O.
EXAMPLE 4: A hydrocarbon contains 20.80% of hydrogen and has a relative molar mass of 30, what is the
(i) empirical formula
(ii) molecular formula (C = 12, H = 1).
SOLUTION:

4
Hydrocarbon is known to contain carbon and hydrogen only. Since the percentage composition of all elements
in a compound must be equal to 100. Therefore, the percentage composition of carbon which is the second
element contained by a hydrocarbon equals 79.20%. i.e 100 – percentage composition of hydrogen (20.80%).
CARBON HYDROGEN
Relative composition: 79.20 20.80
Divide by atomic mass: 79.20 20.80
12 1
=6.60 = 20.80
Divide by the smaller: 4.60 20.80
6.60 6.60
=1 =3
Hence the empirical formular = CH3.
(ii) To calculate the molecular formula, relate the empirical formula to the molar mass.
(Empirical formula)n = Molar mass
(CH3)n = 30
(12 + 1x3)n = 30
(15)n = 30
n = 2
The molecular formula = (CH3)n = C2H6.
EXAMPLE 5: A carbohydrate contains 40% and hydrogen 6.72%, Calculate its empirical formula and the
molecular formula, if the molar mass is 180 (C = 12, H = 1, O = 16).
SOLUTION:
Carbohydrate contains the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, but from the question above oxygen is
missing, hence the percentage composition of oxygen equals 100 – (percentage composition of carbon and
hydrogen)
= 100 – (40 + 6.72)
= 100 – 46.72 = 53.30%
CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGEN
Relative composition: 40 6.72 53.3
Divide by atomic mass: 40 6.72 53.3
12 1 16
=3.33 = 6.72 = 3.33
Divide by the smallest: 3.33 6.72 3.33
3.33 3.33 3.33
= 1 =2 =1
Hence the empirical formular = CH2O.
(ii) To calculate the molecular formula, relate the empirical formula to the molar mass.
(Empirical formula)n = Molar mass
(CH2O)n = 180
(12 + 1x2 + 16)n = 180
(30)n = 180
n = 180/30
n = 6
The molecular formula = (CH2O)n = (CH2O6)
= C6H12O6.
The molecular formula = C6H12O6.
EXAMPLE 6: A hydrocarbon contains 92.40% of carbon. If the vapour density of the hydrocarbon is 39. Find
(i) empirical formula
(ii) molecular formula (C = 12, H = 1).
SOLUTION:

5
Hydrocarbon is known to contain carbon and hydrogen only. Since the percentage composition of all elements
in a compound must be equal to 100. Therefore, the percentage composition of hydrogen which is the second
element contained by a hydrocarbon equals 7.60%. i.e 100 – percentage composition of carbon (92.40%).
CARBON HYDROGEN
Relative composition: 92.40 7.60
Divide by atomic mass: 92.40 7.60
12 1
=7.70 = 7.60
Divide by the smaller: 7.70 7.60
7.60 7.60
=1 =1
Hence the empirical formular = CH.
(ii) To calculate the molecular formula, relate the empirical formula to the molar mass.
(Empirical formula)n = Molar mass
But molecular mass = 2 x vapour density
(CH)n = 2 x 39
(12 + 1)n = 78
(13)n = 78
n = 6
The molecular formula = (CH)n = C6H6.
EXAMPLE 7: Calculate the empirical formular of an organic compound containing 81.8% carbon and 18.2%
hydrogen (C = 12, H = 1).
SOLUTION:
CARBON HYDROGEN
Relative composition: 81.8 18.2
Divide by atomic mass: 81.8 18.2
12 1
=6.82 = 18.2

Divide by the smaller : 6.82 18.2

6.82 6.82
=1 = 2.67
The carbon : hydrogen {C:H} ratio of 1:2.67 is too far from whole numbers and so the lowest multiple of this
which gives a whole number ratio is the empirical formular, i.e 1:2.67, 2:5.34, 3:8.01, 4:10.68 etc.
Hence the empirical formular = C3H8.

EXAMPLE 8: What is the empirical formular of an oxide of phosporius that contains 43.6% phosphorous and
56.4% oxygen (P = 31, O = 16).
SOLUTION:
PHOSPHOROUS OXYGEN
Relative composition: 43.6 56.4
Divide by atomic mass: 43.6 56.4
31 16
=1.41 = 3.53
Divide by the smaller: 1.41 3.53
1.41 1.41
=1 = 2.5
The phosphorous : oxygen {P:O} ratio of 1:2.5 is not a whole number ratio and so the lowest multiple, which
gives a whole number ratio is the empirical formulae, i.e 1:2.5, 2:5.0, 3:7.5 etc.
Hence the empirical formular = P2O5.

PERIOD 4: RELATIVE MOLECULAR MASS, MOLAR MASS AND PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION

6
If the formulae of a substance and the relative atomic Masses of each of the elements are known, then it is
possible to determine the relative molecular mass of that substance.
The relative molecular mass refers to the number of times a mole is heavier than one- twelfth the mass of one
atom of carbon -12. It has no unit.
The relative molecular mass of a compound is the sum of the masses of all the atoms present in one molecule
of the compound .e.g.
For NaCl, the relative molecular mass= (23 +35.5) = 58.5
For ethanol = C2H5OH (carbon=12, H=1, O =16)
The relative molecular mass of ethanol
= C2H5OH
(12×2) + (1×5) + (16) + (1)
24 + 5 + 16 +1 = 46
THE MOLAR MASS
This is the relative molecular mass expressed in grams. E.g. the molar mass of ethanol is 46gmol -1
In 12g of carbon-12, there are 6 × 1023 atoms of carbon. This is one mole of carbon -12.
A mole of any substance is the amount of that substance which contains 6× 1023 particles of that substance e.g.
One mole of ethanol has a mass of 46g and contains 6× 1023 ethanol molecules.
NOTE: The relative molecular mass has no units but the molar mass of any substance is expressed in grams.
PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF A COMPOUND
To calculate the percentage position of ethanol whose molecular formula is C 2H5OH, given that the relative
atomic masses of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen are 12, 1, and 16 respectively?
First calculate the molar mass ofC2H5OH =(12×2) +(1×5) + (16)+ (1) = 46gmol-1
Then determine the masses of C H and O present;
Mass of carbon= 12×2=24g
Mass of hydrogen= 6×1 = 6g
Mass of oxygen = 16× 1 = 16g
Molar mass of C2H5OH= 46g
24
Therefore, percentage of C= 46 × 100 = 52.17%
6
Percentage of hydrogen= × 100 = 13.04%
46
16
Percentage of oxygen=46 × 100 = 13.04%

CALCULATION OF THE CHEMICAL FORMULA FROM PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION BY MASS.

We can determine the simplest chemical formula of a compound, given its percentage composition e.g. If the
formula for anhydrous disodium trioxocarbonate (iv) is not known, if its percentage composition by mass is
known then it chemical formula could be calculated.
For example, the percentage composition of the compound was found to be Na=43.40%,C= 11.32% and O =
45.28%. This would mean that in every 100g of the compound, the masses of Na, C and O were 43.40g, 11.32g
and 45.28g respectively.
∴The amount in moles of Na, C and O would be.
43.40 11.32 45.28
, and respectively.
23 12 16
43.40
Therefore, the amount in moles of Na = = 1.89.
23
11.30
Amount in mole of C= =0.94.
12
45.28
Amount in mole of O= 16 =2.83.
Molar ratio of H: C: O is 1.89: 0.94: 2.83.
2: 1 : 3
Na: C: O= Na2C O3
The simplest formula is therefore, Na2CO3
GENERAL EVALUATION
ESSAY QUESTION
7
1. Diffentiate between valency and oxidation number.
2. Determine the empirical formula of an oxide of nitrogen containing 70% oxygen, if the relative molecular
mass of the oxide is 92, deduce its molecular formula.
3. Balance this chemical equation
NaOH + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O

WEEK 3
PERIOD 1: CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
Chemical equations is the representation of chemical reaction in terms of the symbols and formulars of the
elements and compound involved. The substances that participate in the reaction, i.e. reactants, are written on
the left hand side, while the product of the reaction are written on the right hand side. Reactants and products
are linked together by an arrow symbol ( ) whose head points towards the products. However,
reversible reaction is one which can be made to proceed in either direction under suitable conditions. The
reactants can form products, so also the products can form reactants. Reversible reactions is denoted by the
symbol ( ). Chemical reactions are represented in form of equations which show the reactants and
products in any given chemical reaction. For example, the reaction of aqueous hydrogen chloride and aqueous
sodium hydroxide is represented by the equation: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l). While a reversible
reaction is NH4Cl(s) HN3(g) + HCl(g)

Balancing Chemical Equations

All chemical equations must be balanced in order to comply with the law of conservation of mass. For example,
to balance the equation for the reaction involving the combustion of ammonia gas in air, the following steps
should be followed:
Step 1: The reactants (LHS) are NH3 and O2, while the products (RHS) are NO and H2O
NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g)
Step 2: Place a 4 in front of NH3 and a 6 in front of H2O. There are now 12 hydrogen atoms on both sides of the
equation.
4NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 3: Place a 4 in front of NO to balance with the 4 nitrogen atoms of the LHS of the equation.
4NH3(g) + O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
Step 4: Place a 5 in front of O2. An “atom count” shows that the equation is balanced.
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
An equation must be balanced. A balanced equation contains the same number of atoms of the elements of the
compounds on both sides of the equation.
The equation must also show the physical states of the reactants and the products i.e. whether in aqueous
solution or gaseous or solid state.
When Balancing a chemical reaction, the following must be remember
1. Equations must be balanced through the use of co-efficient in front of the formular and not by changing the
subscript numbers within the formulae
2. Common gases such as Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen and Chlorine in the free state are diatomic e.g. H 2, O2,
N2, and Cl2.
3. Other elements such as Sodium, Potassium, Copper and Iron in the free state are represented by their atomic
symbols e.g. Na, K, Cu and Fe
4. In simple chemical reactions, radicals remain unchanged during the reactions.

Information Provided by a chemical equation

1. The stoichiometry of the reaction (i.e. the relationship between the amounts of the reactants and the
products) in terms of mole ratio and the mass ratio of the reactants and products.
2. The molar mass of each compound from the relative atomic masses of elements forming the compound
3. The relative volume of reactants and products if gaseous (1 mole occupies 22.4dm 3 at s.t.p)
4. The reactants and products involved
8
5. Which reactants are in excess in a mixture of known amount of reactant and how much.
6. The state of matter of the reactants and products as indicated by the state symbols (s) for solid, (l) for liquid,
(g) for gas and (aq) for aqueous solution.

Information Not Provided by a chemical equation

1. The physical state, such as colours, of the reactants and products
2. The conditions of the reaction i.e. whether the solutions are concentrated or diluted, heat change.
3. The speed of the reaction.
Evaluation
Balance the equations below:
1. NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
2. KClO3(s) KCl(s) + O2(g)
3. NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l)
4. C(s) + H2O(g) CO(s) + H2(g)
5. BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + HCl(aq)
6. NH3(g) + O2(g) H2O(g) + N2(g)
7. Al(OH)3(s) + HNO3(aq) Al(NO3)3(aq) + H2O(l)
8. H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)
9. NH3(g) + O2(g) NO(g) + H2O(g)
10. ZnCO3(s) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g).
11. CaCO3(s) +HCl(aq) CaCl2(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(s)
12. CO2(g) + NaOH(aq) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

WEEK 4 AND 5
TOPIC: LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION
CONTENT:
1. Law of conservation of matters
2. Law of constant composition
3. Law of multiple proportions.

PERIOD 1: CHEMICAL LAWS OF COMBINATIONS

There are four laws of chemical combination which describe the general features of a chemical change.
Law of conservation of mass: This law was established by Lavoisier, a French chemist. The law of conservation of mass
states that matter is neither created nor destroyed during chemical reaction, but changes from one form to another.
Experiment to verify the law of conservation of matter (mass)
Theory:
The equation of the chemical reaction chosen for study is as follows;
Silver nitrate + sodium chloride → Silver chloride + Sodium trioxonitrate(v)
(White precipitate)
Method:
1. Put some sodium chloride solution in a conical flask
2. Fill a small test tube with silver trioxonitrate (iv) solution of string, suspend it in a conical flask as shown below:

9
Insert the stopper and weight the whole apparatus on a balance, note the mass of the whole system.
Mix the two liquids by pulling the string attached to the bottom end of the small test tube.
Weigh the whole apparatus again.
Result: When the two reactants are mixed together, a white precipitate is formed indicating that a chemical reaction has
taken place. The new substances formed are known as the products of the chemical reaction. The masses of the system
taken before and after the reaction are found to be the same, indicating that the mass of the reactants equals that of the
products.
CONCLUSION: Since there is no overall change in mass when the products are formed,we can infer that matter is neither
created nor destroyed during the chemical reaction. The law is, hence valid.
EVALUATION:
1. Mention another compound that could be used instead of silvertrioxo-nitrate(v) with sodium chloride
2. State the law of conservation of mass/matter.
PERIOD 2: LAW OF DEFINITE PROPORTION OR LAW OF CONSTANT COMPOSITION
The second law of chemical combination which is supported by the Atomic theory was proposed by provost (1755-1826)
known as the Law of definite proportions or constant composition.
The law of definite proportions states that all pure samples of a particular chemical compound contain similar elements
combined in the same proportion by mass. It is based on the fact that when elements combine to form a given
compound, they do so in fixed proportions by mass, so that all pure samples of that compound are identical in
composition by mass. Water for example: chemical analyses showed that as long as it is pure, its composition is always in
the ratio of one mole of oxygen to two moles of hydrogen. i.e. 32g of O to 4g of H. Irrespective of whether the water
comes from river, sea, rain or anywhere.

Experiment to verify the law of definite proportion

Method: Prepare two samples of black copper (ii) oxide, each by a different method as given below:

Sample A: Place some coppers turning in a crucible and add some concentrated trioxonitrate (v) acid, a little at a time,
until the copper dissolves completely. Evaporate the resulting green solution of copper II oxide trioxonitrate (v) to
dryness; continue to heat the residue until it decomposes to give a black solid which is copper II oxide. Keep the black
residue dry in desiccator.
Sample B:Place some copper (i) trioxocarbonate (iv) in a crucible and decompose it into copper (ii) oxide and carbon (iv)
oxide store the residue in a desiccator.
ANALYSES:
Determine the amount of copper present in the two samples of copper oxide by reducing the oxide in a stream of
hydrogen or carbon II oxide as follows.
1.Weigh two clean metal boats.
2.Add a reasonable amount of sample A to one and sample B to the other
3.Reweigh and determine the mass of each sample. Place the boats inside a hard glass tube as shown. Heat the samples
stronglywhile passing a stream of dry hydrogen gas through the tube. After some time, a reddish- brown copper residue is
left in each boat. Remove the flame, but continue passing the hydrogen as the copper residues cool down. This presents

10
the re-oxidation of the hot copper residue by atmospheric oxygen. Any water formed during the reaction is absorbed by
the fused calcium chloride in the adjacent U-tube.
Result:
Sample A B
Mass of copper II oxide 3.55g 3.02g
Mass of copper residue 2.81g 2.42g
2.81 2.42
Percentage of copper present in copper ×100 × 100
3.55 3.02
(ii) oxide
79.2% 80.1%
The percentage of copper residue in the two samples in approximately 80.0, irrespective of the method of preparation of
the copper(II) oxide samples.
CONCLUSION: In the pure copper(II) oxide copper and oxygen are always present in a definite proportion by mass of
approximately 4 to 1 i.e.
Copper(II)oxide = copper + oxygen
100% 80% 20%
Ratio 4 : 1
EVALUATION:
1.State the Law of Definiteproportion.
PERIOD 3: LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
This law states that if two elements combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one of the elements which
separately combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in simple ratio.
VERIFICATION OF THE LAW OF MULTIPLE PROPORTIONS
Some elements form more than one compound, depending on the conditions of the reaction and the valency copper
forms. Copper (I) and copper(II) with oxygen. Also in an insufficient supply of air, carbon burns to form carbon(II) oxide
and when the supply of air is sufficient, carbon(iv) oxide is obtained.
The sample of the copper (I) oxide and copper(II) are placed in porcelain, boats and placed in a combination tube as in the
diagram below.

A current of dry hydrogen is passed through the combustion tube until the oxides are reduced to metallic coppers. They
are now cooled and weighed and the masses of copper and oxygen are determined in the two samples.

Calculations Sample A Sample B

(i)Mass of porcelain boat 4.55g 5.38g
(ii) Mass of porcelain boat + copper oxide 6.44g 8.21g
(iii) Mass of copper oxide 1.89g 2.83g
(iv) Mass of porcelain boat + copper 6.05g 7.90g
(v) Mass of copper (iv) – (i) 1.50g 2.52g
(vi) Mass of oxygen (iii) –(v) 0.39g 0.31g
For example A1.50g of copper combines with 0.39 of oxygen.

11
 0.39
∴ 100g of copper combines with 1.50 × 100 = 26g
For sample (b) 2.52g of copper combines with 0.31g of oxygen
0.31
∴ 100g of copper combines with 2.52× 100= 12.3g
From these calculations, the masses of oxygen (26g and 12.3g) which combine with a fixed mass (100g) of copper are in
simple ratio 2:1
PERIOD 4: LAW OF RECIPROCAL PROPORTION
This is the fourth law of chemical combination. This law states that the masses of several elements,A,B,C,which combine
separately with a fixed mass of another element,D,are the same as ,or simple multiples of ,the masses in which
A,B,C,themselves combine with one another.For example C, H, O (12, 1, 16) respectively. Carbon and hydrogen combine
to form methane (CH4). Carbon and oxygen combine to form carbon (iv) oxide, (CO2) and hydrogen and oxygen combine
to form water (H2O).
In water,

This is the prediction of the law of reciprocal proportions. For example, 23g of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) on heating
decomposes to give calcium oxide (CaO) and carbon (iv) oxide. Calculate the masses of calcium oxide and carbon (iv)
oxide produced [C= 40, O = 16, C= 12]

100g of CaCO3yield 56g of CaO

56×23𝑔
∴ 23g of CaCO3 will yield 100 = 12.88g.
100g of CaCO3 yields 44g of CO2
44×23𝑔
∴ 23g of CaCO3 will yield 100 = 10.12g
EVALUATION:
State the law of multiple proportion
State the law of reciprocal proportions.
Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) → ZnCl2(aq)+ H2(g)
GENERAL EVALUATION:
ESSAY QUESTIONS
Copper(I)oxide Copper(II)oxide
Mass of sample oxide 30.4g 1.91g
Mass of copper residue 2.55g 1.38g
Mass of oxygen removed from oxide 0.49g 0.53g
From the above table, calculate the various masses of copper which would combine separately with a fixed mass of 1 g of
oxygen.
2. What mass of copper will be produced from the reductionof 7.95g of copper (II) oxide? (C= 63.5, O= 16)
3. Write down the names of these chemical compounds:(i) HNO 3 (ii) CuCl2(iii) CaCO3(iv) Fe2O3
4. Write the symbol and the valency of the following.(i) Boron (ii) Carbon (iii) Sulphur (iv) Argon
5. Calculate the formula of a compound with 31.9% potassium 28.93%, chlorine and the rest oxygen. K=39, Cl =355, O=16
OBJECTIVE TEST
1.Which of the following relative molecular mass has empirical formula CH2O (H=1 C=12, O=16). (a) 42 (b) 80 (c) 4 (d) 60
2.The relative molecular mass of tetraoxosulphate(VI) acid is? (a) 98 (b) 49 (b) 49 (c) 96 (d) 106
3.Chemical equations will provide all these except. (a) State of chemicals is solved (b) Direction of reaction (c) Mass of
products (d) Reactants

12
4.All pure samples of a particular compound contain the same elements combined in the same proportion by mass. The
statement is the law of (a) Definite proportion (b) Multiple proportion (c)Conservation of mass or matter (d) Atomic
proportion

WEEK 6
TOPIC: CHEMICAL COMBINATION

CONTENTS
(a) Types of chemical bonds
(b) IUPAC system of naming inorganic compounds.

PERIOD 1: PERIODIC TABLE (FIRST 20 ELEMENTS)

Chemical combination: The atoms of noble gases e.g. Helium He, Neon Ne are very stable; because their outermost shells
are completely filled with electrons. The tendency of the other elements is to attain this stable structure possessed by the
noble gases. This is achieved during chemical combination. Thus, chemical bonding is the coming together of atoms of
the same or different elements, in order to form a stable structure.

PERIODS 2 and 3:TYPES OF CHEMICAL BONDS

The attractive force between atoms when they combine chemically is called a chemical bond. There are two main types
of chemical bonds namely (i) Strong bonds (ii) Weak bonds.
(i) Strong bonds are: (a). Electrovalent (or Ionic) (b).Covalent (c).Co-ordinate (or Dative) (d). Metallic

(a) Electrovalent (Ionic) bond is defined as the electrostatic force of attraction between oppositely charged ions. It
involves the transfer of electrons from one atom, donor atom, (usually metallic) to another atom, acceptor atom, (usually
non-metallic). The electrons involved reside in the outermost shells of the atoms and are called Valence electron(s).
IONIC COMPOUNDS are crystal lattices consisting of aggregates of oppositely charged ions. Examples of such compounds
are Sodium chlorides, calcium oxides, ammonium chlorides etc. The formation of sodium chloride is illustrated below:
Na = 2, 8, 1 Cl =2, 8, 7
Na+= 2, 8 Cl- = 2, 8, 8
Na++ Cl-→ NaCl

Characteristics of Electrovalent bonds

i. They have high melting and boiling points
ii. They are generally soluble in water
iii .They are good conductors of electricity when molten or in solution
iv. They do not conduct electricity when solid
v. The energy needed to separate them is relatively high.

(b)Covalent bonds:This is defined as the bonds formed when two atoms donate equal numbers of electrons and share the
donated electrons to attain stable octet structure. In covalent bonding, electrons are shared between atoms of the same
or different elements such that each atom contributes the shared electrons so as to attain stable noble gas configuration.
During the process, discrete or separate molecules are formed with covalent bonds between the atoms.
If electrons are shared between similar atoms, the donated electrons are equally shared which give rise to a non-polar
covalent bonde.g. F2, H2, O2, Cl2but if the shared pair of electrons involves two different elements with difference in

13
electronegativity, the electrons are then not equally shared, this results in the formation of polar covalent bond, e.g. the
formation of HCl, H2O, HF..

Characteristics of Covalent bonds

i. Low melting and boiling points.
ii. Energy required for separation is low
iii. Do not conduct electricity in the solid or molten state, or in solution
iv. They generally have a strong, easily noticeable smell
v. They are not easily soluble in water, but are usually soluble in organic solvents

(c) Co-ordinate covalent or Dative bond involves sharing of electrons as in the normal covalent bonding, but the shared
pair is donated by only one of the participating atoms. For instance, Ammonia and water molecules possess lone pairs and
so readily enter into coordinate covalent bonding.

(d) Metallic bond: The electrostatic force of attraction between the positive nuclei and the sea of mobile electrons is
called metallic bond. Metallic bonding, therefore, is the process whereby the positively charged nuclei of metal atoms are
simultaneously attracted to the sea (or cloud) of mobile electrons. Metallic bond increase with increase in valence
electrons of the metal. For example, in period 3, metallic bond increases from sodium to aluminum.

(ii)Weak bonds: These are intermolecular forces of attraction that hold atoms and covalent molecules together in gases,
liquids and solids. The most common ones are: (a). Van der Waals forces (b). Hydrogen bond (c) Dipole-Dipole (Dipolar)
(e)Van der Waals forces: They were first described by J.D. van der Waals, and are known as van der Waals forces. They
are weak short-ranged attractive forces formed between covalent molecules. They are the only attractive forces between
the atoms of the noble gases and non-polar covalent molecules, and are responsible for the low melting and boiling point
of covalent compounds. Due to increase in van der Waals forces, there is gradation in the physical properties of the
Halogens: Fluorine and chlorine are gases; bromine is a liquid; and iodine is a solid.
Van der Waal force becomes stronger as the relative atomic mass increases among the non-metals.
(f) Hydrogen bond: This is an intermolecular force which arises when hydrogen is covalently linked to highly
electronegative elements like nitrogen, oxygen and fluorine.
The presence of hydrogen bonds between H2O molecules is responsible for water being a liquid at room temperature and
with a high boiling point; if not, it would have been a gas, like hydrogen H2S. HF is a liquid at room temperature, while HCl
is a gas.
EVALUATION
What is a chemical bond?
List three (3) general properties of electrovalent compounds.
Define covalent bond and state its characteristics
State two (2) differences between covalent and electrovalent compounds.
Explain the term Metallic bonding

WEEK 7
CONTENTS:
1. State of matter,
2. Kinetic theory of gases,
3. Applications of kinetic theory of gases
14
4. Phenomena to illustrate kinetic theory of matter

PERIOD 1: STATE OF MATTER

Matter is made up of very tiny particles such as atoms, molecules and ions. Matter exists in three physical
states namely; solid, liquid and gas. Matter has mass and occupies space.

(i) Solid: The tiny particles in solid are packed very closely together hence they cannot move about. The
presence of forces of attraction among the tiny particles of solid made them to be very closely packed together
and allowing only vibration among them instead of moving about. This is what makes the solid to have a fixed
shape and volume with high density. However, at high temperature, the molecules gain more energy and break
the forces of attraction among the particles thereby causing the particles to move faster. As the temperature
increases more and more, the solid melts and turns to liquid. Therefore, solid have fixed shape and volume,
incompressible and very dense with the least kinetic energy when compared with those of liquid and gasses.
(ii) Liquid: The particles in the liquid are slightly further a [art than those in a solid and there exist among them
weaker forces of attraction (weaker force of cohesion); thus allowing them to vibrate rotate and move about.
Liquid have fixed volume and a fixed shape but takes the shape of its container. When the liquid is heated, its
temperature increases, the forces of cohesion / attraction becomes progressively weaker. Eventually, a stage is
reached when the molecules acquire enough energy to escape as a gas. The temperature at which this occurs is
called the boiling point of the liquid. Therefore, the liquid have fixed volume, no fixed shape, less dense and
incompressible with kinetic energy relatively higher than those of solid state.
(iii) Gas: The particles in the gaseous state are very freely with large distances between them. The particles of
gases have no fixed volume and shape, compressible and least dense with the highest kinetic energy when
compared with particles of other states of matter.
EVLUATION
1. Define the term matter.
2. Enumerate the three main state of matter.
3. Explain each of the states.
PERIOD 2: KINETIC THOERY OF GASES
EXPLANATION OF KINETIC THEORY
The kinetic theory of matter postulates that the tiny Particles of matter are continually moving and so possess kinetic
energy. An increase in temperature causes an increase in the average kinetic energy of the particle.
Dalton’s experimental evidence shows that chemical compounds consists of molecules, which are groups of atoms of
various elements. The gas laws which explained the physical behaviour of gases can be explained by kinetic theory of
gases. This theory describes the behaviour of an ideal or perfect gas. This is to say that the kinetic theory of gases explains
quantitatively the properties of gas molecules and in so doing put up the following assumptions.
1.A gas consists of very tiny particles (usually molecules and atoms).
2.The cohesive forces of the gas molecules are negligible.
3.These particles are in constant random and rapid motion in straight lines.
4.As a result of these movements, collisions occur between the molecules and also with the walls of the container, hence
the molecules exert pressure. No energy is lost when collision occupy. This means that the collisions are perfectly elastic.
5.The space between the molecules is very large compared to the size of the molecules. The molecules therefore have
negligible (almost zero) volume compared to the volume of the container.

15
6.The average kinetic energy per molecule is the same for all gas samples at any given temperature. The absolute
temperature of the gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the gas particles.

EVALUATION
The kinetic theory ofmatter postulates ..........................
When the temperature of the particles of the molecules increases, what happens to kinetic energy?
Enumerate the six assumptions if the kinetic theory of matter.
PERIOD 3:THE APPLICATION OF KINETIC THEORY
The kinetic theory is useful in several respects and such aspects includes;
1.It provides reasonable explanations for the behaviour of gas.
2.It accounts for the gas laws
3.It explains important phenomenon such as diffusion
4.It provides a fundamental equation for gases.
1
PV =3 NMC2
EVALUATION
Mention four applications of kinetic theory of matter.
PERIOD 4: PHENOMENA TO ILLUSTRATE THE KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER
The following phenomena illustrate the kinetic theory of matter
1. Dispersion
2. Evaporation
3. Diffusion:
4. Brownian motion
5. Osmosis
6. Tyndall effect
7. Effusion

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST:
1.The kinetic theory of matter states ____________
2.Water (H2O) exists as a solid, liquid and gas respectively because: (a) water is colorless. (b) water is
electrovalent (c) Water in any state possesses a certain degree of motion in the molecules (d) water is
molecular
3.Which of the three states of matter has no fixed volume and least dense? (a) Gas (b) Solid (c) Liquid
4.The presence of sodium chloride in ice will. (a) Decrease or lower the boiling point of sodium chloride (b)
Increase the melting point of sodium chloride (c) Make sodium chloride impure (d) Lower the freezing point of
sodium chloride.
5.The escape of molecules with more than average kinetic energy of the molecules is called _____________ (A)
Melting (b) Freezing (C) Evaporation (d) Efflorescence
ESSAY QUESTION:
1. Define the term matter.
2. State the three state of matter.
3. Explain two out of the three main sate of matter.
4. List four importance of kinetic theory.
5. Give assumptions of kinetic theory of matter.
ASSIGNMENT:
Read New School Chemistry for Senior Secondary Schools, by Osei Yaw Ababio pages 584-594
PRE- READING ASSIGNMENT
Read the meaning of chemical industry and its development.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY
Explain with at least three points what you understand by chemical industry and also mention specifically five
types of chemical industry.

16
REFERENCE TEXT:
1. New School Chemistry for senior Secondary Schools by Osei Yaw Ababio 6th edition
2. Comprehensive certificate chemistry by G.N.C Ohia, G.I, Amasiatiu, J.O Ajagbe =, G.O. Ojokuku and U
Mohammed. 2nd Edition

WEEK 8
TOPIC: GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS
CONTENTS:
I. Boyle’s law
2. Charles’ law
3. General gas law
4. Ideal gas law

PERIOD 1: BOYLE’S LAW

The relationship between volume and pressure of a gas was first started by Robert Boyle in 1662.
Boyle’s law states thatthe volume of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure, provided that
the temperature remains constant.
According to Boyle’s law, volume of a gas increases as the pressure decreases and vice versa.
This relationship is independent of the nature of the gas and it can be expressed mathematically as:
1
V∝𝑃
𝑘
∴ V=𝑝
Or PV =k
Where V= volume at pressure P
K = a mathematical constant
For a given mass of a gas, the product of its pressure and its volume is always a constant. If the pressure of a
given mass of gas increases, its volume will decrease by a similar proportion and vice versa, as long as the
temperature remain constant. This relationship can also be expressed mathematically as:
P1V1 = P2 V2
Where V1 = volume at pressure P1
V2= Volume at pressure P2
Boyle’s law can still be re-stated as: ‘The pressure of a given mass of gas is inversely proportional to its volume,
provided the temperature remains constant.Boyle’s law can further be illustrated with the diagram below,
showing that when P is increasing, V is decreasing and when P is decreasing, V is increasing.

P3
V3
P2
V2
P1
V1

P1 = Initial pressure
P2= Final pressure
V1=Initial volume
V2= final volume
Graphical representation of Boyle’s law

17
Worked examples
1. 375cm3 of a gas has a pressure of 770mmHg. Find its volume if the pressure e is reduced to 750mmHg.
P1V1 = P2V2(Boyle’s law)
P1 = 770mmHg
P2 = 750mmHg
V1=375cm3
V2 =? (newvolume of gas)
P1V1 = P2 V2
𝑃1 𝑉1 770 ×375
V2 = 𝑃2 = 750 =385cm3
The new volume will be 385cm3

2. 100cm3 of a gas has pressure of 1 atmosphere. Determine the volume of the gas at 5 atmospheres keeping
the temperature constant.
Solution: since T is constant, we are to use Boyle’s law.
P1→ Initial pressure = l atmosphere
P1→Final pressure= 5
V1→ Initial volume= 100cm3
V2 → (required quantity)

Recall: V2 = P1V1 = P2V2

𝑃1 𝑉1 100 ×1
V2= 𝑃2 = 5 = 20cm3

EVALUATION:
1. A given quantity of gas occupies a volume of 228cm3 at a pressure of 750mmHg. What will be its at
atmospheric pressure if temperature is kept constant?
2. A given mass of gas at 550C has a pressure of 3.6x104Nm-2 and occupies a volume of 1.8dm3. What volume
will it occupy if its pressure is increased to 4.8x104Nm-2 if the temperature is kept constant?
PERIOD 2: CHARLES’ LAW
The effect of temperature changes on the volume of a given mass of a gas at a constant pressure is described
by Charles. Charles’ law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature
in Kelvin, provided that pressure remains constant.
The volume of the gas decreases as the temperature decreases, and increases as the temperature increases.
Mathematically, the law can be expressed as:
V∝ T
∴ V =kT
𝑉
Or 𝑇 = k

18
Where v= volume
T= Kelvin Temperature
K= mathematical constant
A Representation of Charles’s law

V V V
T TT
For a direct relationship, when the temperature increases, the volume will also increase at the same rate and
vice versa, at constant pressure. The diagram above shows that when V is decreasing, T is also decreasing and
when V is increasing, T is also increasing thus, making the quotient constant.
Charles’s law can be represented graphically has shown below.

If we divide the varying gas volumes by the corresponding temperature in Kelvin, the result would always be a
constant. This relationship can also be expressed in another form.
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑇2 𝑉1
= ∴ V2=
𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑇1
Where V1 is the volume at temperature T1
V2 is the volume at temperature T2
ABSOLUTE ZERO
This is the temperature at which the volume of a gas is theoretically zero..At this temperature there is no
motiom of any form and all gases have been liquefied or solidified. The value of the temperature is -2730C.
TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
1. To convert from Celsius scale to Kelvin scale, add 273 i.e. T= 0C + 273. This is because O0C=273K.
2. To convert from Kelvin scale to Celsius scale, subtract 273. i.e
0C= T- 273.

Where T= Temperature in Kevin

0C= Temperature in Celsius.

Examples:
1.Convert the following Celsius temperature to Kelvin temperature.
1000C (b) 00C (c) -570C
Solution
Recall: T= 0C + 273
1000C= (100 + 273) = 373k
0C=(0 + 273) = (0 + 273) = 373k

19
-570c = (- 57 + 273)k = (273-57)= 216k
2. Convert the following Kelvin temperatures to Celsius temperature.
298k (b) 405k (b) 285k (d) 0k
Solution
Recall 00c = k – 273
298k = (298 – 273)0C= 250C
405k = (405 – 273)0C = 120C
0k = (0 – 273)0C = - 2730C
Worked examples on Charles’s law
1. A gas occupies a volume of 20.0dm3 at 373k. Its volume at 746k at that pressure will be?
Here pressure is constant. Charles’s law will apply.
V1=20.0dm3
T1 = 273k
T2= 746
V2= ?
𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑇2 20 ×746
Recall Charles’s law = 𝑇1 =𝑇2V2= 𝑇1 V2 = 273 = 40.0dm3
EVALUATION:
1. State Charles’s law
2. Express the two laws mathematically
3. Draw two graphs to illustrate Charles’ law.
PERIOD 3: GENERAL GAS LAW
From the gas laws, we know that the volume of a gas depends on both its temperature and pressure. The
relationship between the three variable; i.e. volume,, temperature and pressure can be summarized up as
follows:
1
If V ∝ 𝑃 (Boyle’s law at constant temperature) and V ∝ T (Charle’s law at constant pressure)
1 𝑃𝑉
V ∝ 𝑃 × T (both temperature and pressure may vary) or 𝑇 = K (a mathematical constant for a fixed mass of gas)
𝑃𝑉
=k is often known as the general gas equation.
𝑇

GENERAL GAS EQUATION

General gas equation states that for fixed mass of a gas under any set of conditions of V, P and T, the value of
𝑃𝑉
must remain constant. If for a fixed mass of gas V1 is the volume at pressure
𝑇
P1 and absolute temperature T1 and V2 is the volume at pressure P2 and absolute temperature T2 it follows
that.
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= 𝑇2
𝑇
The general gas equation can be used to find the volume of a gas when both its pressure and temperature
change. Thus;
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2
V2 =
𝑃2 𝑉2
The standard temperature and pressure
The value of gases are sometimes given in standard temperature and pressure (S. T. P). These values are
standard temperature= 273k and standard pressure = 760mmHg. The S.I unit of standard pressure when used is
1.01 × 103Nm-2
Examples
1. At S. T. P a certain mass of gas occupies a volume of 790cm 3, find the temperature at which the gas occupies
1000cm3 and has a presence of 720mmHg
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2
P1 = 760mmHg (at stp), V1= 790cm3
T1 = 273k (at stp), 𝑉2 = 1000cm3
P2 = 726mmHg

20
T2 = New Temperature
𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑇1
∴T2 = 𝑃1 𝑉1
720 ×1000 ×273
= 760 ×790 = 330.1k
The new temperature of the gas is 330.1k
2. A given mass of gas occupies 850cm 3at 320k and 0.92 × 103Nm-2
of pressure. Calculate the volume of the gas at S.T.P.
𝑃1𝑉1 𝑃2𝑉2
= 𝑇2
𝑇1
P1= 0.92 × 103Nm-2 T1= 320k
3
V1= 850cm P2= SP + 1.01 × 103Nm-2
T2= 273k (at stp)
V2 = new volume of gas.
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑇2 0.92 ×850 ×273
∴V2 = 𝑃2 𝑇1 = 1.01 ×103 ×320 = 660.5𝑐𝑚3
EVALUATION
1. Explain the general gas equation.
2. If the volume of a given mass of a gas at 298k and a pressure of 205.2 ×105𝑁𝑚−2 is 2.12𝑑𝑚3 . What is the
volume of the gas S.T.P (standard pressure= 1013 ×105Nm-2, standard temperature = 273)
PERIOD 4: IDEAL GAS LAW
The ideal gas: This is a gas sample whose properties correspond, within experimental error, to the relationship
PV =RT. An ideal gas must obey all the rules guiding Boyle’s and Charles’s laws. Ideal gas conforms to the kinetic
theory of gases. Four quantities’ are important in all experimental work, measurements or calculations
involving gases. They are: (i) volume (ii) pressure (iii) temperature and (iv) numbers of moles
Ideal gas equation is given by PV = nRT
The value of R for one mole of a gas at 273K, 1atm and volume 22.4dm 3is 0.0821atmdm3K-1mol-1 or 8.314JK-
1mol-1

Examples:
1. Calculate the volume occupied by 2.5moles of an ideal gas at-23oC and 4.0atm. (R = 0.0821atmdm3K-1mol-1)
Solution:
Using PV = nRT where P = 4.0atm n = 2.5 mole T = -23+273 = 250K
𝑛𝑅𝑇 2.5𝑋0.0821𝑋250
Hence, V = 𝑃 = = 12.8dm3.
4
= 12.8dm3
NOTE: Pressure can also be measured in other units. 760mmHg = 1atm = 101325Nm -2
Ideal gases only exist at experimental conditions of high pressure and low temperature. Basically all gases are
real
REASONS WHY REAL GASES DEVIATE FROM IDEAL GAS BEHAVIOUR
1. The forces of attraction in real gases are not negligible.
2. The volume of real gases are not negligible. Hence, real gases have their own volume called excluded volume.
3. Real gases undergo inelastic collision
EVALUATION:
1. What is an ideal gas?
2. Write down the ideal gas equation for n-mole of a gas.
GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. A gas occupies 30.0𝑑𝑚3 at S.T.P. What volume will occupy at 910C and 52662.5𝑁𝑚−2 . (a) 20.0𝑑𝑚3 (b)
40.0𝑑𝑚3 (c) 60.0𝑑𝑚3 (d) 76.96𝑑𝑚3
2. Gases can be easily compressed because. (a) the molecule are relatively far apart (b) the molecule are quite
close together (c) the molecule are very soft (d) the molecules are in constant, rapid motion
3. A give mass of gas occupies 𝑋1 𝑐𝑚3 at Y1K. When the temperature is changed to Y2K, the volume becomes
X2𝑐𝑚3 , the pressure remaining constant. Which of the following equations correctly express the relationship
𝑋1 𝑋2
between 𝑋1X2Y1andY2? (a) 𝑋1Y1 = X2Y2(b) 𝑌1 = 𝑌2 (c) 𝑋1X2 =𝑋1 Y2(d)𝑋1 = X2Y1Y2

21
 0𝐶+273
4. Kelvin temperature can be converted into Celsius temperature by. (a) oC= K – 273 (b) k + 273 (c) (d)
𝑘
𝑘+273
0𝐶
5. What will be the new volume (v) if the new pressure is halved and the initial pressure remain the same. (a)
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2 𝑃2 𝑉2
2𝑝1 𝑉1 = 𝑝2 𝑉2 (b) 𝑝1 𝑉1 =2𝑝2 𝑉2 (c) 2 = 2 (d) 𝑝1 𝑉1 = 2

ESSAY QUESTIONS
1. 130𝑐𝑚3 of a gas at 200C exert a pressure of 750mmHg. Calculate its volume is increased to 150𝑐𝑚3 at 350C
2. Draw the graphical representation of both Boyle’s and Charles’ law respectively.
3. Convert the following temperature to K. (a) 150C (b)2750C (c) 880C
4. The volume of gas at 250C (298k) is 100𝑐𝑚3 . What will be the volume at (a.) 750C (348k) (b). 500C (223)k,
pressure remaining constant?
WEEKEND ASSIGNMENT:
Read about Graham’s law, Avogadro’s number and the mole concept.

WEEK 9
TOPIC: GASEOUS STATE AND GAS LAWS
CONTENTS:
1. Gay- Lussac’s Law and Avogadro’s Law.
2. Graham’slaw of diffusion.
3. Molar volume of gases- Avogadro number and the moleconcept.
4. Dalton’s law of partial pressure.

PERIOD 1: GAY- LUSSAC’S LAW AND AVOGADRO’S LAW

Gay- Lussac’s law describes the combining volumes of gases that react together.In his experiment, all
temperatures and pressures were kept constant:
A. STEAM: Gay- Lussac’s observed that two volumes of hydrogen reacted with one volume of oxygen to yield
two volumes of steam

B. HYDROGEN CHLORIDE GAS: One volume of hydrogen combined with one volume of chloride to yield two
volumes of hydrogen.
Hydrogen + Chlorine → Hydrogen Chloride

Gay- Lussac’s noticed that the combining volumes as well as the volumes of the products, if gaseous, were
related by simple ratios of whole numbers. He proposed the law of combining volume or gaseous volumes.

22
Hence; Gay- Lussac’s law combining volumes states thatwhen gases react, they do so in volumes which are in
simple ratios to one another and to the volumes of the products, if gaseous provide that the temperature and
the pressure remain constant.
EXAMPLES
1.What is the volume of oxygen required to burn completely 45𝑐𝑚3 of methane (𝐶𝐻4)?

By Gay- Lussac’s Law:

1 volume of methane required 2 volumes of oxygen i.e.
1𝑐𝑚3 of methane requires 2𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen
∴ 45𝑐𝑚3 of methane require 90𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
2.20𝑐𝑚3 of carbon(I) oxide are sparked with 20𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen. If all the volumes of gases are measured at a
S.T.P, calculate the volume of the residual gases after sparking?
Equation of reaction 2𝐶𝑂𝑔 + 𝑂2𝑔 2𝐶𝑜2𝑔
Combining volume 2 : 1 :2
Volumes before sparking 20𝑐𝑚 10𝑐𝑚3 , 20𝑐𝑚3
3

Volumes after sparking −10 20

Residual gases = un-reacted oxygen + carbon (IV) oxide formed
Volume of residual gas = 10𝑐𝑚3 + 20𝑐𝑚3 = 30𝑐𝑚3
AVOGADRO’S LAW
Avogadro’s Law states that equal volumes of all gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same
number of molecules.
This law means that for all of gases e.g. oxygen, hydrogen, Chlorine etc if their volumes are the same, they will
have the same number of molecules.
Avogadro’s Law is easily applied to convert volume of gases to the number of molecules. Avogadro’s Law can be
used to solve problem under Gay –Lussac’s law of combining volumes.
The formation of steam from reaction of Hydrogen and Oxygen is given below:
Reaction: Hydrogen + Oxygen → Steam
Volume: 2 1 2
Gay –Lussac’s: 2 : 1 : 2
Avogadro’s Law: 2 : 1 : 2
This agrees with the equation below:
2𝐻2(𝑔) + 𝑂2(𝑠) 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑠)
i.e 2 molecules of hydrogen combine with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of steam
Example:
1. 60𝑐𝑚3 of hydrogen are sparked with 20𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen at 1000C and 1 atmosphere. What is the volume of the
steam produced?
Solution
2H2 + O2 2H2O
From the equation, 2 molecules of hydrogen react with 1 molecule of oxygen to produce 2 molecules of steam.
2𝐻2 + O2 2H2O
2 vol 1vol 2 vol (combining volumes)
i.e. 2𝑐𝑚3 1𝑐𝑚3 2𝑐𝑚3
From the above information, when 2𝑐𝑚3 (2 vol) of 𝐻2 react, 1𝑐𝑚3 (1 vol) of O2will react i.e. half of 𝐻2 vol, to give
2𝑐𝑚3 (2 vol) of H2O.
Thus, 10𝑐𝑚3 of 𝐻2 will react with 5 𝑐𝑚3 of O2 to produce 10𝑐𝑚3 of H2O and so on.
From the question, we have 60𝑐𝑚3 of 𝐻2 and 20𝑐𝑚3 of O2, thus, when all the 20𝑐𝑚3 of O2react, only 40𝑐𝑚3
of𝐻2 will react to give 40𝑐𝑚3 of H2O,because the volume of H2 is the same as that of H2O i.e.
23
2𝐻2 + O2 2H2O
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
3 3 3
2𝑐𝑚 1𝑐𝑚 2𝑐𝑚
3 3
40𝑐𝑚 20𝑐𝑚 40𝑐𝑚3
Thus, the volume of steam (H2O) formed is 40𝑐𝑚3
2.What volume of propane is left unreacted when 80𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen and 20𝑐𝑚3 of propane react according to
the equation below?
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O
Solution
C3H8(g) + 5O2(g) 3CO2(g) + 4H2O
1vols 5vols
1𝑐𝑚3 5𝑐𝑚3
3
4𝑐𝑚 20𝑐𝑚3
Volume of the propane before the reaction =20𝑐𝑚3
The volume that reacted =4𝑐𝑚3
Volume that did not react= volume before
Reaction – volume that reacted i.e. 20 – 4 =16𝑐𝑚3
EVALUATION
1. State Gay –Lussac’s law
2. State Avogadro’s law.
3. 50𝑐𝑚3 of methane were burnt completely in oxygen according to the equation below.
CH4 + 2O2 Co2 + 2H2O
Calculate: (a) volume of oxygen used (b) Volume of carbon(Iv) oxide produced
(c) Volume of steam produced.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
(a) Define Graham’s law of diffusion.(b) What is mole and mole concept?
PERIOD 2: GRAHAM’S LAW OF DIFFUSION.
This law states that, at constant temperature and pressure, the rate of diffusion of a gas is inversely
proportional to the square root of its relative molecular mass or square root of its vapour density.
Mathematically, Graham’s law of diffusion can be represented as:
𝑅1 𝑝2
∝ √𝑝1 Where R1 and R2 are the rates of diffusion and P1 and P2, the densities of the two gases.
𝑅2
The density is directly proportional to its molecular mass.
EXAMPLES
1. 100𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen diffuse through an office in 60 seconds while it takes 120seconds for the same office.
Calculate the molecular mass of the unknown gas [0=16]
Solution
𝑅 𝑀𝑥
𝑅𝑥
O 2=
𝑀𝑂2
Since the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to the time taken:
𝑅 𝑡𝑥 𝑀𝑥
O2 = =𝑡𝑂2 = √𝑀𝑂2
𝑅𝑥
𝑡𝑥 𝑀𝑥
(𝑡𝑂2) = 𝑀𝑂2
𝑡𝑥 120
Mx= MO2 ×(𝑡𝑂2)2= 32 ×( 60 )2= 32 × 22
Mx = 32 × 4 = 128g

2. 200𝑐𝑚3 of hydrogen diffused through a porous pot in 40 seconds. How long will it take 300𝑐𝑚3 of chlorine to
diffuse through the same pot?
Solution
200𝑐𝑚3 of hydrogen diffused in 40secs
∴ 300𝑐𝑚3 of chlorine will diffuse in
300𝑐𝑚 3
× 4020
200𝑐𝑚 3
(3 × 20) = 60seconds
24
Now, using the equation
𝑡1 𝑀1
=√𝑀2
𝑡2
Where t= 60s, M1 = molecular mass of hydrogen
i.e H2= (2 ×1) =2
M2= molecular mass of chlorine = cl2 =2× 35.5 = 71
𝑀1 71
T2 = t1√ = 60√ = 60 √35.5 = 60 × 5.96
𝑀2 2
= 357.5sec
Time of diffusion of chlorine = 358s.
3. How many times the rate of diffusion of hydrogen is faster than that of oxygen and what law do you use to
get the answer? [ vapour density] of [H=1, O=16]
Solution
Rate (R+) of diffusion of H2=
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂2
√
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2

𝑅1 16 𝑅1 4
= √ 1 = 𝑅2= 1
𝑅2
∴Hydrogen diffuses four times faster. The law used is Graham’s law of diffusion.
𝑅𝐸𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐼𝑉𝐸 𝑉𝐴𝑃𝑂𝑈𝑅 𝐷𝐸𝑁𝑆𝐼𝑇𝑌 𝑂𝐹 𝐴 𝐺𝐴𝑆𝐸

The vapour density of a gas or vapour is the number of times a given volume of gas (or vapour) is heavier than
the same volume of hydrogen measured and weighed under the same temperature and pressure
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
Vapour density =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
Applying Avogadro’s law, it is possible to show that the vapour density of a gas is related to the relative
molecular mass of the gas.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑜𝑟 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑟
V.D= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1 𝑣𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑔𝑎𝑠
V.D = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 2 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
∴2 x V.D =relative molecular mass
The density of hydrogen at S.T.P is 0.09𝑑𝑚3

Example
Calculate the vapour densities of the following gases from the given data.
560𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen at S.T.P weighs 0.8g
1,400𝑐𝑚3 of sulphur (iv) oxide weighs 4g
Solution
1000𝑚3 of hydrogen at S.T.P weighs 0.09g
560𝑐𝑚 3
∴ 560𝑐𝑚3 of hydrogen at 100𝑐𝑚3× 0.09
= 0.05g
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑔𝑎𝑠
V.D= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
∴Vapour density of oxygen=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 560 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 560 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛

1000𝑐𝑚3 of hydrogen at S.T.P weighs 0.09g.

∴ 1400 of hydrogen will weighs
1400 ×0.09
= 0.126g
1000
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓𝑔𝑎𝑠
Vapour density= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑓ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑛
25
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1400𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑂2
∴Vapour density of SO2= 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 1400𝑐𝑚3 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2
4𝑔
= 0.126= 31.74= 32
EVALUATION
Deduce the relationship between relative molecular mass and vapour density of a substance.
Define vapour density of a gas.
PERIOD 3: MOLAR VOLUME OF GASES- AVOGADRO NUMBER AND THE MOLE CONCEPT
The molar volume of any gas is the volume occupied by one mole of that gas at s.t.p. and is numerically equally
to 22.4𝑑𝑚3 i.e. one mole of any gas at s.t.p. occupies the same volume the value of which is 22.4𝑑𝑚3 . This
value is called molecular mass or molar mass.
From the Avogadro’s law, the molar volume for all gases contains the same number of molecules. This number
is called the Avogadro’s number or constant and the value is 6.02 × 1023 at s.t.p
MOLE: The mole can be defined as the amount of substance which contain as many elementary particles or
entities e.g. ions, molecules, atoms, electrons as the number of atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon -12.
The mole of any substance represents 6.02 × 1023 particles of any substance. Therefore, a mole refers to
Avogadro’s number of particles of any substance.
In summary, the molar mass of a gas contains Avogadro’s number of molecules which is 6.02 × 1023 and
occupies a volume of 22.4𝑑𝑚3 at s.t.p.
The atomic mass of every element also contains Avogadro’s number of atoms.
The mole concept- This says that one mole of any substance contains the same number of particles; which can
be atoms, molecules or ions. This number is 6.023 × 1023 𝑑𝑚3 (the Avogadro’s number)
Examples
1.158g of a gas at s.t.p. occupies a volume of 5000𝑑𝑚3 . What is the relative molecular masss of the gas? (Molar
volume at s.t.p= 22.4𝑑𝑚3 mol-1
Solution
Volume of gas: V = 50.00𝑑𝑚3
Molar volume of gas; V = 22.4𝑑𝑚3 mol-1
N= amount in moles
𝑉
=𝑉
50
N= 22.4𝑑𝑚3𝑚𝑜𝑙−1= 2.23mol
𝑀 158𝑔
Molar mass M of the gas = 𝑛 = 22.4𝑑𝑚3 𝑚𝑜𝑙−1 = 70.8
Molar mass = 71 gmol-1
2. What is the mass of 3 moles of oxygen gas O 2? (O = 16)
Mass of 1 mole of O2= (2× 16)g =32g
Mass of 3moles of O2= (3 × 32)g = 96g
3. How Many moles are there in 20g of CaCO3? [CaCO3 =100]
Molar mass of CaCO3= 100g
100g of CaCO3= 1 mole
20
20g of CaCO3 = ×1mole = 0.2moles
100
EVALUATION
1.Using the relationship between mole and Avogadro’s number. Define mole in six ways.
PERIOD 4: DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE
Dalton’s law of partial pressure states that for a mixture of gases that do not react chemically, the total
pressure exerted by the mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual gases.
Mathematically, Dalton’s law of partial pressure for a mixture of n gases can be expressed as:
Ptotal = P1 +P2+P3 +………..+ Pn where Ptotal is the total pressure exerted by the mixture of gases that dot not react,
P1, P2, P3……Pn are partial pressure of the individual gases.
Example:
If 20.0dm3 of hydrogen were collected over water at 17oC and 79.7kNm-2 pressure; Calculate the
(a) Pressure of dry hydrogen at this temperature.
26
(b) Volume of dry hydrogen at s.t.p.
( vapour pressure of water is 1.90kNm-2 at 17OC)
Solution:
(a) PH2 =Ptotal – Pwater vapour
= 79.7 – 1.90
= 77.8kNm-2
𝑃 𝑉 𝑃 𝑉
(b) 𝑇1 1 = 𝑇2 2
1 2
77.9𝑋20 101.3𝑉
= 273 2
290
𝑉2= 14.5dm3

GENERAL EVALUATION
OBJECTIVE TEST
1. A liquid begins to boil when (a) Its vapour pressure is equal to the vapour pressure of its solid at the given
temperature (b) Molecules start escaping from its surface (c) Its vapour pressure equals the atmosphere
pressure (d) Its volume is slightly increased.
2. Hydrogen diffuses through a porous plug (a) At the same rate as oxygen (b) Twice as fast as oxygen (c) Three
times as fast as oxygen. (d) Four times as fast as oxygen
3. When pollen grains are suspended in water and viewed through a microscope, they appear to be in a state of
constant but erratic motion. This is due to: (a) Convention current (b) small change in temperature (c) a
chemical reaction between the pollen grains and the water (d) the bombardment of the pollen grain by
molecules of water.
4. If the quantity of oxygen occupying a 2.76litre container at pressure of 0.825 atmosphere and 300k is
reduced by one-half, what is the pressure exerted by the remaining gas? (a) 1.650atm (b) 0.825atm (c)
0.413atm (d) 0.275atm
5. 200𝑐𝑚3 of oxygen diffused through a porous plug in 50secs. How long will 80𝑐𝑚3 of methane (CH4) take to
diffuse through the same porous plug under the same conditions (C= 12, O= 16, H=1) (a) 40sec (b) 20sec (c)
14sec (d) 7sec
ESSAY QUESTIONS
1(a) State Graham’s law of diffusion
Arrange the following gases in decreasing order of diffusion rate: Chlorine, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen
sulphide and Carbon(IV) oxide
[ H=1, C= 12, O=16, S= 32, Cl=35.5]
2.(a) What do you understand by s.t.p?
(b) If the volume of a given mass of gas at 298k and pressure of 205.2 × 103 𝑁𝑚−2 is 2.12𝑑𝑚3 , what is the
volume at S.T.P? Standard pressure= 101.3 × 103 𝑁𝑚. Standard temperature= 273k
3. (a) Calculate the number of moles of the following at s.t.p
i. 16g of oxygen
ii. 67.2𝑑𝑚3 of nitrogen gas, and
iii. 1.14𝑑𝑚3 of hydrogen chloride gas.
O=16, H=14, N=1. Molar volume of gas at S.T.P = 22.4𝑑𝑚3
(b) (i) Convert 33℃ and -41℃ to Kelvin scale
(ii) Convert 270k and 315k to 0℃
PRE READING ASIGNMENT:
Read about standard separation techniques.
WEEKEND ACTIVITY:
List all the separation techniques that you know.

WEEK 10
Experiment to illustrate the laws
27
WEEK 11
ATMOSPHERE AND ENVIRONMENT
Air: Air is mixture of gases in the atmosphere and it consists of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon(iv)oxide, noble gases,
water vapour and gaseous impurities. The most active constituent of air is oxygen. The atmosphere is a layer of
air containing mixture of several gases. This mixture composition varies according to time and place. The
composition of water vapour varies from 0 - 5%, depending on the humidity of air.
Air is a mixture of gases composed mainly of nitrogen and oxygen with small amount of carbon(IV)
oxide, noble gases and water vapour. The following are the percentage composition of the air;
-Nitrogen – 78%
-Oxygen – 21%
-Carbon(IV)oxide – 0.03%
-Noble gases – about 1%
-Water vapour – variable
-Dust and others – variable

Air

Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon(iv)oxide Water vapour Noble vapour Impurities

78% by 21% by 0.03% by Variable about 1% by H2S SO2
Volume Volume Volume volume e.t.c

Properties of air
- It is colourless and odourless
- It fills the space in which it is placed
- It can be compressed
- Its density is about 1.2kgm-3.
- It exerts a pressure known as atmospheric pressure
- It supports burning and respiration because of the presence of oxygen

Evidence that air is a mixture

1. The constituents of air can be separated easily by physical methods.
2. The constituents of air still remain their individual properties.
3. The composition of air cannot be represented by a chemical formulae as in the case of a compound.
4. If the appropriate proportions of each of the different constituents of air are mixed together under ordinary
condition, there will be no evidence of any chemical combination such as heat production or volume change.

Percentage Composition of Oxygen in Air

A known volume of air is passed through tube with burning copper powder and oxygen in air will react with hot copper
powder to produce black copper oxide
2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)
If oxygen is depleted, the readings on both syringes will be steady and the reaction has completed. Hence, to find the
volume of oxygen in air collected in syringe Volume of O2 = Initial volume of air – Final volume of air Example, the initial
volume of air in one syringe is 80cm3 and the final volume is 64cm3. Hence, the percentage volume of O2 in air is
% Volume of O2=80 – 64 = 16cm3
= 16/80 X 100% = 20%

28
Liquefaction of Air: Firstly, CO2 is removed by passing air through NaOH. Then, the air is cooled to -25oC to freeze
water vapour to be removed and the remaining air is cooled and compressed to become liquid which is then separated
into its constituents by fractional distillation as each constituent has different boiling point.
Combustion MOST substances react with O2 in an exothermic reaction, which is called combustion. If flames are
produced during combustion, it is called burning. ALL carbon compounds burn in O2 to produce CO2 while ALL hydrogen
containing compounds burn in O2 to produce H2O.When adequate supply of oxygen is available during burning; it will
create a complete combustion. If otherwise, the combustion is incomplete
CH4(g) + 2O2(g) CO2(g) + 2H2O(g)
Typical Combustion Reaction
When air hole is closed, oxygen cannot enter reaction chamber, and hence soot (unburnt carbon) and CO is produced
from incomplete hydrocarbon gas combustion. As a result, flame is yellow due to glowing specks of hot soot in heat and
the flame is not hot. When air hole is opened, air supplies plenty of oxygen, allowing complete combustion.
Oxygen in combustion Reaction used as
1. As rocket fuel
2. In steel making, to burn off impurities
3. In oxy-acetylene cutting and welding
4. In oxygen tanks for deep sea divers and mountain climbers to provide oxygen
5. For respiration for most animals
6. Used as oxygen tents in hospital to aid patients with respiratory problems

FLAMES
A flame is a region where gases combine chemically, with the production of heat and light. Flames are
produced when substances burn and the structure varies according to the chemical composition of the gas
which is burning. Flames are not homogeneous, but are composed of several defined zones. A flame may be
luminous or non-luminous.
The burning or combustion of substances in air gives out light and heat. The reaction often produces
flame. A flame consists of several zones. It may be luminous or non-luminous.
(a) Non-luminous flame (e.g. Bunsen burner flame)
The flame consists of 3 zones:
- Dark base cone which is cold and contains unburnt gas and air.
- The blue inner cone which is the zone of incomplete combustion containing unburnt gas,
carbon(II) oxide and carbon
- Almost colourless outer cone near the tip of the inner cone which is the zone of complete
combustion and the hottest part of the flame.
Fig. Luminous and non-luminous flame
(b) Luminous flame: it is produced when there is limited supply of air e.g. when the hole of the Bunsen
burner is closed. There are four zones;
- the dark base zone of unburnt gas
- zone of incomplete combustion found in the orange inner cone
- the almost colourless outer zone where complete combustion occur. The tip of this cone is the
hottest part of the flame.
- the blue zone of partial combustion at the base of the flame.
Types of Flame
1. Hydrogen Flame
2. Candle Flame
3. Bunsen Flame

HYDROGEN FLAME: Hydrogen flame burns with a pale – blue, non-luminous flame. The structure of the
hydrogen flame is simple and consists of only two zones: zone of unburnt gas and zone of complete
combustion.
CANDLE FLAME: A candle flame burns with a luminous flame. Four zone can be identified in the flame
(i) The zone of unburnt gas around the wick

29
(ii) The bright yellow luminous zone where there is incomplete burning of the hydrocarbon, due to insufficient
supply of air.
(iii) The luminous zone on the outside, where there is complete combustion of the carbon particle due to the
plentiful supply of air from the atmosphere.
(iv) The blue zone at the base of the flame which is also a region of complete combustion, i.e. region of rapid
burning.
BUNSEN FLAME: A Bunsen burner is a device with air inlet at the base of the burner tube to ensure more
complete combustion of the fuel gas, by introducing a supply of stream of air to the flame together with the
fuel gas. When the air inlet at the base of the burner tube is closed, a luminous Bunsen flame is produced.

HYDROGEN FLAME CANDLE FLAME BUNSEN FLAME

Air pollution
Pollution is the release of toxic or harmful substances into the environment by the natural forces, man
and other animals to the extent that causes damage to living things and their resources.
Air pollution is the contamination of the atmosphere by substances in concentrations that are harmful
to human beings, plants and animals.
The unwanted substances that cause pollution are called pollutants.
Causes of air pollution
The main cause of air pollution is the combustion of fuels such as coal, petrol, gasoline and gases. Other
causes include the release of freons from aerosol cans and poisonous gas from chemical warfare.
Air pollutants
The main air pollutants include;
- Particulate matters (tiny solids)
- Oxides of carbon
- Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen
- Gaseous hydrocarbons and
- Chlorofluorocarbons
a) Particulate matters: they are solid pollutants emitted by industrial processes, burning of coal and
wood fires. They include smoke, soot and dust. They cause damage to the respiratory system if breathed
in as air.
b) Oxides of carbon: carbon (II) oxide produced by the incomplete combustion of automobile fuel is
poisonous when inhaled. It competes with oxygen for the haemoglobin in the blood to form
carboxyhaemoglobin.
Carbon(IV) oxide, when in excess in the atmosphere results in a greater retention of infra
– red ray (heat ray) radiated from the earth. This causes the greenhouse effect – a gradual warming of
the planet.
c) Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen: sulphur(IV) oxide is produced through the combustion of sulphur
containing coal and cracking of petroleum from industrial plant. Oxides of nitrogen are generated by
automobiles and electricity generating stations. Both oxides of sulphur and nitrogen dissolve in water to
produce acids. This results in the fall of acid rain which is harmful to plants and animals, building and
metal structures. When breathed in, these oxides cause irritation of the nose, throat and respiratory
30
tissues.
d) Gaseous hydrocarbons: Hydrocarbons are released into the air through deforestation, decomposition
of organic matters, evaporation of organic solvents and incomplete combustion of coal, oil and wood.
Hydrocarbons cause cancer and other hazards. It also reacts with oxides of nitrogen to produce smog
which reduces visibility.
e) Chorofluorocarbons(CFCs): they are group of man – made chemicals such as Freon which are used as
propellants for spray cans, coolants in refrigerators and air – conditioners and for making plastic foams.
CFCs cause the depletion of ozone layer through the following process; in the upper atmosphere, the
ultraviolent light breaks off a free chlorine atom from CFCs molecule. The free chlorine atom is very
reactive and attracts a molecule of ozone to produce an oxygen molecule and an unstable oxide of
chlorine, ClO. This oxide reacts with atomic oxygen to form oxygen molecule and release the chlorine
atom which then attacks another ozone molecule.
Ozone layer protects the earth surface from excessive ultraviolet rays which causes an increase in
cataracts, skin cancer and sun burns.
Control of air pollution
1. Strict laws should be passed to make factories and users of motor vehicles comply with antipollution
regulations.
2. People should be educated on the causes and dangers of pollution.
3. Machines should be improved so that efficient combustion of fuels can be ensured.
Corrosion of metals
Corrosion occurs from the combined actions of atmospheric oxygen and water. It is aided by the
presence of carbon(IV) oxide and other gaseous pollutants in the air. The corrosion of iron is known as
rusting. Iron rusts by reacting with oxygen in the presence of water to form brown hydrated iron (III)
oxide, Fe2O3.XH2O which is soft and breaks off easily. Prolong exposure of iron to water results in
complete rusting.
Prevention of rusting
- Painting: the use of paints or tars to protect the iron e.g. iron installed in machineries, vehicles
and buildings.
- Greasing and oiling: application of grease or oil on exposed or moving parts of a machine or
vehicle.
- Galvanizing: by coating the iron with zinc.
- Electroplating: the use of electrolytic process to coat iron with other metals like copper,
chromium, tin, gold or silver.
- Enamelling: enamel is a glass – like substance which is put on metals (e.g. cooking pot) to protect
and decorate it.
Rusting and burning
1. Both are oxidation processes i.e. they require oxygen. However, while water is needed for rusting, burning is
difficult in the presence of water.
2. Rusting is a very slow process while burning is rapid.
3. Both processes release heat but while burning releases detectable, large amount of heat within a
short time, rusting produced undetectable small amount of heat over a long period of time.
Atmospheric carbon(IV) oxide
Carbon(IV) oxide constitutes about 0.03% of atmospheric air. Its proportion in the atmosphere is kept fairly
constant by a balance between the processes which remove carbon(IV) oxide from the atmosphere
(photosynthesis) and those which return it to the atmosphere (respiration) in living organism.
Respiration is a catabolic process (breaking down) while photosynthesis is an anabolic (building up) process.
Assignment
Answer question 5 on page 246 of the Essential Chemistry
Tutorial questions
1. Differentiate between luminous and non-luminous flame
2. Compare and contrast; rusting and burning
3. Discuss the ways by which rusting can be prevented/controlled

31
4. Define air pollution
5. Describe any five air pollutants
6. Name three air pollutants that can be generated by burning coal
7. State three reasons why air is regarded as a mixture

32