Intro Physics 1-1-300

Introductory Physics I
Elementary Mechanics
by
Robert G. Brown
Duke University Physics Department
Durham, NC 27708-0305
rgb@phy.duke.edu
Copyright Notice
Copyright Robert G. Brown 1993, 2007, 2013
Notice
This physics textbook is designed to support my personal teaching activities at Duke
University, in particular teaching its Physics 141/142, 151/152, or 161/162 series (Introduc-
tory Physics for life science majors, engineers, or potential physics majors, respectively).
It is freely available in its entirety in a downloadable PDF form or to be read online at:
http://www.phy.duke.edu/∼rgb/Class/intro physics 1.php
It is also available in an inexpensive (really!) print version via Lulu press here:
http://www.lulu.com/shop/product-21186588.html
where readers/users can voluntarily help support or reward the author by purchasing
either this paper copy or one of the even more inexpensive electronic copies.
By making the book available in these various media at a cost ranging from free to
cheap, I enable the text can be used by students all over the world where each student can
pay (or not) according to their means.
Nevertheless, I am hoping that students who truly find this work useful will purchase
a copy through Lulu or a bookseller (when the latter option becomes available), if only
to help subsidize me while I continue to write inexpensive textbooks in physics or other
subjects.
This textbook is organized for ease of presentation and ease of learning. In partic-
ular, they are hierarchically organized in a way that directly supports efficient learning.
They are also remarkably complete in their presentation and contain moderately detailed
derivations of many of the important equations and relations from first principles while not
skimping on simpler heuristic or conceptual explanations as well.
As a “live” document (one I actively use and frequently change, adding or deleting
material or altering the presentation in some way), this textbook may have errors great
and small, “stub” sections where I intend to add content at some later time but haven’t yet
finished it, and they cover and omit topics according to my own view of what is or isn’t
important to cover in a one-semester course. Expect them to change with little warning or
announcement as I add content or correct errors.
Purchasers of the paper version should be aware of its probable imperfection and be
prepared to either live with it or mark up their copy with corrections or additions as need
be. The latest (and hopefully most complete and correct) version is always available for
free online anyway, and people who have paid for a paper copy are especially welcome
to access and retrieve it.
I cherish good-hearted communication from students or other instructors pointing out
errors or suggesting new content (and have in the past done my best to implement many
such corrections or suggestions).
Books by Robert G. Brown
Physics Textbooks
• Introductory Physics I and II

A lecture note style textbook series intended to support the teaching of introductory
physics, with calculus, at a level suitable for Duke undergraduates.
• Classical Electrodynamics
A lecture note style textbook intended to support the second semester (primarily
the dynamical portion, little statics covered) of a two semester course of graduate
Classical Electrodynamics.
Computing Books
• How to Engineer a Beowulf Cluster
An online classic for years, this is the print version of the famous free online book on
cluster engineering. It too is being actively rewritten and developed, no guarantees,
but it is probably still useful in its current incarnation.
Fiction
• The Book of Lilith
ISBN: 978-1-4303-2245-0
Web: http://www.phy.duke.edu/∼rgb/Lilith/Lilith.php
Lilith is the first person to be given a soul by God, and is given the job of giving all
the things in the world souls by loving them, beginning with Adam. Adam is given the
job of making up rules and the definitions of sin so that humans may one day live in
an ethical society. Unfortunately Adam is weak, jealous, and greedy, and insists on
being on top during sex to “be closer to God”.
Lilith, however, refuses to be second to Adam or anyone else. The Book of Lilith is
a funny, sad, satirical, uplifting tale of her spiritual journey through the ancient world
soulgiving and judging to find at the end of that journey – herself.
Poetry
• Who Shall Sing, When Man is Gone
Original poetry, including the epic-length poem about an imagined end of the world
brought about by a nuclear war that gives the collection its name. Includes many long
and short works on love and life, pain and death.
Ocean roaring, whipped by storm

in damned defiance, hating hell
with every wave and every swell,
every shark and every shell
and shoreline.
• Hot Tea!
More original poetry with a distinctly Zen cast to it. Works range from funny and
satirical to inspiring and uplifting, with a few erotic poems thrown in.
Chop water, carry

wood. Ice all around,
fire is dying. Winter Zen?
All of these books can be found on the online Lulu store here:
http://stores.lulu.com/store.php?fAcctID=877977
The Book of Lilith is available on Amazon, Barnes and Noble and other online book-
seller websites.
Contents
Preface xiii
Textbook Layout and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiv
I: Getting Ready to Learn Physics 3
Preliminaries 3
See, Do, Teach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Other Conditions for Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Your Brain and Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
How to Do Your Homework Effectively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
The Method of Three Passes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Homework for Week 0 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
II: Elementary Mechanics 37
Week 1: Newton’s Laws 39

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
1.1: Introduction: A Bit of History and Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
1.2: Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.3: Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.4: Newton’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1.5: Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
1.5.1: The Forces of Nature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
1.5.2: Force Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
i
ii CONTENTS
1.6: Force Balance – Static Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Example 1.6.1: Spring and Mass in Static Force Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . 64
1.7: Simple Motion in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Example 1.7.1: A Mass Falling from Height H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Example 1.7.2: A Constant Force in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
1.7.1: Solving Problems with More Than One Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Example 1.7.3: Atwood’s Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Example 1.7.4: Braking for Bikes, or Just Breaking Bikes? . . . . . . . . . . 77
1.8: Motion in Two Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
1.8.1: Free Flight Trajectories – Projectile Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Example 1.8.1: Trajectory of a Cannonball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1.8.2: The Inclined Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Example 1.8.2: The Inclined Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.9: Circular Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.9.1: Tangential Velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1.9.2: A Note on Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1.9.3: Centripetal Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Example 1.9.1: Ball on a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Example 1.9.2: Tether Ball/Conic Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.9.4: Tangential Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
1.10: Conclusion: Rubric for Newton’s Second Law Problems . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Week 2: Newton’s Laws: Continued 117

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2.1: Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Example 2.1.1: Inclined Plane of Length L with Friction . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Example 2.1.2: Block Hanging off of a Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Example 2.1.3: Find The Minimum No-Skid Braking Distance for a Car . . . 125
Example 2.1.4: Car Rounding a Banked Curve with Friction . . . . . . . . . 128
2.2: Drag Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.2.1: Stokes, or Laminar Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.2.2: Rayleigh, or Turbulent Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
2.2.3: Terminal velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
CONTENTS iii
Example 2.2.1: Falling From a Plane and Surviving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Example 2.2.2: Solution to Equations of Motion for Stokes’ Drag . . . . . . 138
2.2.4: Advanced: Solution to Equations of Motion for Turbulent Drag . . . . 139
Example 2.2.3: Dropping the Ram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
2.3: Inertial Reference Frames – the Galilean Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.3.1: Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
2.3.2: Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
2.4: Non-Inertial Reference Frames – Pseudoforces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
2.4.1: Identifying Inertial Frames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Example 2.4.1: Weight in an Elevator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Example 2.4.2: Pendulum in a Boxcar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
2.4.2: Advanced: General Relativity and Accelerating Frames . . . . . . . . 154
2.5: Just For Fun: Hurricanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Week 3: Work and Energy 169

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.1: Work and Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.1.1: Units of Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.1.2: Kinetic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.2: The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.2.1: Derivation I: Rectangle Approximation Summation . . . . . . . . . . . 175
3.2.2: Derivation II: Calculus-y (Chain Rule) Derivation . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Example 3.2.1: Pulling a Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Example 3.2.2: Range of a Spring Gun . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.3: Conservative Forces: Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.3.1: Force from Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
3.3.2: Potential Energy Function for Near-Earth Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3.3: Springs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.4: Conservation of Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.4.1: Force, Potential Energy, and Total Mechanical Energy . . . . . . . . . 188
Example 3.4.1: Falling Ball Reprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Example 3.4.2: Block Sliding Down Frictionless Incline Reprise . . . . . . . 189
Example 3.4.3: A Simple Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
iv CONTENTS
Example 3.4.4: Looping the Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

3.5: Generalized Work-Mechanical Energy Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Example 3.5.1: Block Sliding Down a Rough Incline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Example 3.5.2: A Spring and Rough Incline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.5.1: Heat and Conservation of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.6: Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Example 3.6.1: Rocket Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.7: Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
3.7.1: Energy Diagrams: Turning Points and Forbidden Regions . . . . . . 201
Week 4: Systems of Particles, Momentum and Collisions 215

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
4.1: Systems of Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
4.1.1: Newton’s Laws for a System of Particles – Center of Mass . . . . . . 222
Example 4.1.1: Center of Mass of a Few Discrete Particles . . . . . . . . . 224
4.1.2: Coarse Graining: Continuous Mass Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Example 4.1.2: Center of Mass of a Continuous Rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Example 4.1.3: Center of mass of a circular wedge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Example 4.1.4: Breakup of Projectile in Midflight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.2: Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.2.1: The Law of Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.3: Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Example 4.3.1: Average Force Driving a Golf Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Example 4.3.2: Force, Impulse and Momentum for Windshield and Bug . . 235
4.3.1: The Impulse Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3.2: Impulse, Fluids, and Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.4: Center of Mass Reference Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.5: Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.5.1: Momentum Conservation in the Impulse Approximation . . . . . . . . 242
4.5.2: Elastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.5.3: Fully Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.5.4: Partially Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.5.5: Dimension of Scattering and Sufficient Information . . . . . . . . . . 244
CONTENTS v
4.6: 1-D Elastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

4.6.1: The Relative Velocity Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
4.6.2: 1D Elastic Collision in the Center of Mass Frame . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4.6.3: The “BB/bb” or “Pool Ball” Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.7: Elastic Collisions in 2-3 Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
4.8: Inelastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Example 4.8.1: One-dimensional Fully Inelastic Collision (only) . . . . . . . 256
Example 4.8.2: Ballistic Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Example 4.8.3: Partially Inelastic Collision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
4.9: Kinetic Energy in the CM Frame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Week 5: Torque and Rotation in One Dimension 275

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
5.1: Rotational Coordinates in One Dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
5.2: Newton’s Second Law for 1D Rotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
5.2.1: The r-dependence of Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
5.2.2: Summing the Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
5.3: The Moment of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Example 5.3.1: The Moment of Inertia of a Rod Pivoted at One End . . . . 284
5.3.1: Moment of Inertia of a General Rigid Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Example 5.3.2: Moment of Inertia of a Ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Example 5.3.3: Moment of Inertia of a Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
5.3.2: Table of Useful Moments of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
5.4: Torque as a Cross Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Example 5.4.1: Rolling the Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
5.5: Torque and the Center of Gravity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Example 5.5.1: The Angular Acceleration of a Hanging Rod . . . . . . . . . 291
5.6: Solving Newton’s Second Law Problems Involving Rolling . . . . . . . . . . 292
Example 5.6.1: A Disk Rolling Down an Incline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Example 5.6.2: Atwood’s Machine with a Massive Pulley . . . . . . . . . . . 294
5.7: Rotational Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
5.7.1: Work Done on a Rigid Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
5.7.2: The Rolling Constraint and Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
vi CONTENTS
Example 5.7.1: Work and Energy in Atwood’s Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Example 5.7.2: Unrolling Spool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Example 5.7.3: A Rolling Ball Loops-the-Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
5.8: The Parallel Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Example 5.8.1: Moon Around Earth, Earth Around Sun . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Example 5.8.2: Moment of Inertia of a Hoop Pivoted on One Side . . . . . . 305
5.9: Perpendicular Axis Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Example 5.9.1: Moment of Inertia of Hoop for Planar Axis . . . . . . . . . . 308
Week 6: Vector Torque and Angular Momentum 325

Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.1: Vector Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
6.2: Total Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.2.1: The Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
6.3: The Angular Momentum of a Symmetric Rotating Rigid Object . . . . . . . . 330
Example 6.3.1: Angular Momentum of a Point Mass Moving in a Circle . . . 332
Example 6.3.2: Angular Momentum of a Rod Swinging in a Circle . . . . . . 333
Example 6.3.3: Angular Momentum of a Rotating Disk . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
Example 6.3.4: Angular Momentum of Rod Sweeping out Cone . . . . . . . 334
6.4: Angular Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Example 6.4.1: The Spinning Professor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
6.4.1: Radial Forces and Angular Momentum Conservation . . . . . . . . . 336
Example 6.4.2: Mass Orbits On a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
6.5: Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Example 6.5.1: Fully Inelastic Collision of Ball of Putty with a Free Rod . . . 341
Example 6.5.2: Fully Inelastic Collision of Ball of Putty with Pivoted Rod . . 345
6.5.1: More General Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
6.6: Angular Momentum of an Asymmetric Rotating Rigid Object . . . . . . . . . 347
Example 6.6.1: Rotating Your Tires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
6.7: Precession of a Top . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
Example 6.7.1: Finding ωp From ∆L/∆t (Average) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Example 6.7.2: Finding ωp from ∆L and ∆t Separately . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
Example 6.7.3: Finding ωp from Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
CONTENTS vii
Week 7: Statics 365

Statics Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.1: Conditions for Static Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
7.2: Static Equilibrium Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Example 7.2.1: Balancing a See-Saw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
Example 7.2.2: Two Saw Horses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
Example 7.2.3: Hanging a Tavern Sign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.2.1: Equilibrium with a Vector Torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
Example 7.2.4: Building a Deck . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.3: Tipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Example 7.3.1: Tipping Versus Slipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
Example 7.3.2: Tipping While Pushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
7.4: Force Couples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Example 7.4.1: Rolling the Cylinder Over a Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
III: Applications of Mechanics 393
Week 8: Fluids 393

Fluids Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
8.1: General Fluid Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
8.1.1: Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
8.1.2: Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
8.1.3: Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
8.1.4: Viscosity and fluid flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
8.1.5: Properties Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
Static Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
8.1.6: Pressure and Confinement of Static Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
8.1.7: Pressure and Confinement of Static Fluids in Gravity . . . . . . . . . 404
8.1.8: Variation of Pressure in Incompressible Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Example 8.1.1: Barometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Example 8.1.2: Variation of Oceanic Pressure with Depth . . . . . . . . . . 409
viii CONTENTS
8.1.9: Variation of Pressure in Compressible Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

Example 8.1.3: Variation of Atmospheric Pressure with Height . . . . . . . 411
8.2: Pascal’s Principle and Hydraulics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Example 8.2.1: A Hydraulic Lift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
8.3: Fluid Displacement and Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
8.3.1: Archimedes’ Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Example 8.3.1: Testing the Crown I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Example 8.3.2: Testing the Crown II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
8.4: Fluid Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
8.4.1: Conservation of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.4.2: Work-Mechanical Energy in Fluids: Bernoulli’s Equation . . . . . . . 426
Example 8.4.1: Emptying the Iced Tea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Example 8.4.2: Flow Between Two Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
8.4.3: Fluid Viscosity and Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
8.4.4: Resistance of a Circular Pipe: Poiseuille’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . 434
8.4.5: Turbulence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
8.5: The Human Circulatory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
Example 8.5.1: Atherosclerotic Plaque Partially Occludes a Blood Vessel . 445
Example 8.5.2: Aneurisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Example 8.5.3: The Giraffe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 447
Week 9: Oscillations 459

Oscillation Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
9.1: The Simple Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
9.1.1: The Archetypical Simple Harmonic Oscillator: A Mass on a Spring . 461
9.1.2: The Simple Harmonic Oscillator Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
9.1.3: Plotting the Solution: Relations Involving ω . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
9.1.4: The Energy of a Mass on a Spring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
9.2: The Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
9.2.1: The Physical Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
9.3: Damped Oscillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
9.3.1: Properties of the Damped Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Example 9.3.1: Car Shock Absorbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
CONTENTS ix
9.3.2: Energy Damping: Q-value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

9.4: Damped, Driven Oscillation: Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
9.4.1: Harmonic Driving Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
9.4.2: Solution to Damped, Driven, Simple Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . 486
9.5: Adding Springs in Series and in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
9.5.1: Adding Springs in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Example 9.5.1: Three Springs in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
9.5.2: Adding Springs in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
Example 9.5.2: Adding Springs in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
9.5.3: Rules of Thumb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
9.6: Elastic Properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
9.6.1: Simple Models for Molecular Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
9.6.2: The “Spring Constant” of a Molecular Bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 498
9.6.3: A Microscopic Picture of a Solid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
9.6.4: Shear Forces and the Shear Modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
9.6.5: Deformation and Fracture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
9.7: Human Bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Example 9.7.1: Scaling of Bones with Animal Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
Week 10: The Wave Equation 523

Wave Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
10.1: Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
10.2: Waves on a String . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
10.3: Solutions to the Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
10.3.1: An Important Property of Waves: Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . 527
10.3.2: Arbitrary Waveforms Propagating to the Left or Right . . . . . . . . 527
10.3.3: Harmonic Waveforms Propagating to the Left or Right . . . . . . . . 528
10.3.4: Stationary Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
10.4: Reflection of Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
10.5: Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
10.5.1: Energy in Travelling Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
10.5.2: Power Transmission by a Travelling Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
10.5.3: Energy in Standing Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
x CONTENTS
Homework for Week 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
Week 11: Sound 551

Sound Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
11.1: Sound Waves in a Fluid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
11.2: The Wave Equation for Sound . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
11.3: Sound Wave Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
11.4: Sound Wave Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
11.4.1: Sound Displacement and Intensity In Terms of Pressure . . . . . . . 567
11.4.2: Sound Pressure and Decibels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
11.5: Doppler Shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
11.5.1: Moving Source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
11.5.2: Moving Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
11.5.3: Moving Source and Moving Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
11.6: Standing Waves in Pipes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
11.6.1: Pipe Closed at Both Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
11.6.2: Pipe Closed at One End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
11.6.3: Pipe Open at Both Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
11.7: Beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
11.8: Interference and Sound Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
11.9: The Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
Week 12: Gravity 591

Gravity Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591
12.1: Cosmological Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
12.2: Kepler’s Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
12.2.1: Ellipses and Conic Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 602
12.3: Newton’s Law of Gravitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604
12.4: The Gravitational Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
12.4.1: Spheres, Shells, General Mass Distributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
12.5: Gravitational Potential Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
12.6: Energy Diagrams and Orbits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
12.7: Escape Velocity, Escape Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
Example 12.7.1: How to Cause an Extinction Event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
CONTENTS xi
12.8: Bridging the Gap: Coulomb’s Law and Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

xii CONTENTS
Preface
This introductory mechanics text is intended to be used in the first semester of a two-
semester series of courses teaching introductory physics at the college level, followed by
a second semester course in introductory electricity and magnetism, and optics. The
text is intended to support teaching the material at a rapid, but advanced level – it was
developed to support teaching introductory calculus-based physics to potential physics
majors, engineers, and other natural science majors at Duke University over a period of
more than thirty years.
Students who hope to succeed in learning physics from this text will need, as a min-
imum prerequisite, a solid grasp of basic mathematics. It is strongly recommended
that all students have mastered mathematics at least through single-variable differential
calculus (typified by the AB advanced placement test or a first-semester college calculus
course). Students should also be taking (or have completed) single variable integral cal-
culus (typified by the BC advanced placement test or a second-semester college calculus
course). In the text it is presumed that students are competent in geometry, trigonometry,
algebra, and single variable calculus; more advanced multivariate calculus is used in a
number of places but it is taught in context as it is needed and is always “separable” into
two or three independent one-dimensional integrals.
Many students are, unfortunately weak in their mastery of mathematics at the time they
take physics. This enormously complicates the process of learning for them, especially if
they are years removed from when they took their algebra, trig, and calculus classes (as
is frequently the case for pre-medical students taking the course in their junior year of
college). For that reason, a separate supplementary text intended specifically to help
students of introductory physics quickly and efficiently review the required math is
being prepared as a companion volume to all semesters of introductory physics. Indeed, it
should really be quite useful for any course being taught with any textbook series and not
just this one.
This book is located here:
http://www.phy.duke.edu/∼rgb/Class/math for intro physics.php
and I strongly suggest that all students who are reading these words preparing to begin
studying physics pause for a moment, visit this site, and either download the pdf or book-
mark the site.
Note that Week 0: How to Learn Physics is not part of the course per se, but I usually
do a quick review of this material (as well as the course structure, grading scheme, and
xiii
xiv CONTENTS
so on) in my first lecture of any given semester, the one where students are still finding
the room, dropping and adding courses, and one cannot present real content in good
conscience unless you plan to do it again in the second lecture as well. Students greatly
benefit from guidance on how to study, as most enter physics thinking that they can master
it with nothing but the memorization and rote learning skills that have served them so well
for their many other fact-based classes. Of course this is completely false – physics is
reason based and conceptual and it requires a very different pattern of study than simply
staring at and trying to memorize lists of formulae or examples.
Students, however, should not count on their instructor doing this – they need to be
self-actualized in their study from the beginning. It is therefore strongly suggested that
all students read this preliminary chapter right away as their first “assignment” whether
or not it is covered in the first lecture or assigned. In fact, (if you’re just such a student
reading these words) you can always decide to read it right now (as soon as you finish this
Preface). It won’t take you an hour, and might make as much as a full letter difference (to
the good) in your final grade. What do you have to lose?
Even if you think that you are an excellent student and learn things totally effortlessly,
I strongly suggest reading it. It describes a new perspective on the teaching and learning
process supported by very recent research in neuroscience and psychology, and makes
very specific suggestions as to the best way to proceed to learn physics.
Finally, the Introduction is a rapid summary of the entire course! If you read it and
look at the pictures before beginning the course proper you can get a good conceptual
overview of everything you’re going to learn. If you begin by learning in a quick pass the
broad strokes for the whole course, when you go through each chapter in all of its detail,
all those facts and ideas have a place to live in your mind.
That’s the primary idea behind this textbook – in order to be easy to remember, ideas
need a house, a place to live. Most courses try to build you that house by giving you one
nail and piece of wood at a time, and force you to build it in complete detail from the ground
up.
Real houses aren’t built that way at all! First a foundation is established, then the frame
of the whole house is erected, and then, slowly but surely, the frame is wired and plumbed
and drywalled and finished with all of those picky little details. It works better that way. So
it is with learning.
Textbook Layout and Design
This textbook has a design that is just about perfectly backwards compared to most text-
books that currently cover the subject. Here are its primary design features:
• All mathematics required by the student is reviewed in a standalone, cross-referenced

(free) work at the beginning of the book rather than in an appendix that many students
never find.
• There are only twelve chapters. The book is organized so that it can be sanely taught
CONTENTS xv
in a single college semester with at most a chapter a week.
• It begins each chapter with an “abstract” and chapter summary. Detail, especially
lecture-note style mathematical detail, follows the summary rather than the other
way around.
• This text does not spend page after page trying to explain in English how physics
works (prose which to my experience nobody reads anyway). Instead, a terse “lecture
note” style presentation outlines the main points and presents considerable mathe-
matical detail to support solving problems.
• Verbal and conceptual understanding is, of course, very important. It is expected to

come from verbal instruction and discussion in the classroom and recitation and lab.
This textbook relies on having a committed and competent instructor and a sensible
learning process.
• Each chapter ends with a short (by modern standards) selection of challenging home-
work problems. A good student might well get through all of the problems in the book,
rather than at most 10% of them as is the general rule for other texts.
• The problems are weakly sorted out by level, as this text is intended to support non-
physics science and pre-health profession students, engineers, and physics majors
all three. The material covered is of course the same for all three, but the level of
detail and difficulty of the math used and required is a bit different.
• The textbook is entirely algebraic in its presentation and problem solving require-
ments – with very few exceptions no calculators should be required to solve prob-
lems. The author assumes that any student taking physics is capable of punching
numbers into a calculator, but it is algebra that ultimately determines the formula that
they should be computing. Numbers are used in problems only to illustrate what
“reasonable” numbers might be for a given real-world physical situation or where the
problems cannot reasonably be solved algebraically (e.g. resistance networks).
This layout provides considerable benefits to both instructor and student. This text-
book supports a top-down style of learning, where one learns each distinct chapter topic
by quickly getting the main points onboard via the summary, then derives them or ex-
plores them in detail, then applies them to example problems. Finally one uses what one
has started to learn working in groups and with direct mentoring and support from the in-
structors, to solve highly challenging problems that cannot be solved without acquiring the
deeper level of understanding that is, or should be, the goal one is striving for.
It’s without doubt a lot of work. Nobody said learning physics would be easy, and this
book certainly doesn’t claim to make it so. However, this approach will (for most students)
work.
The reward, in the end, is the ability to see the entire world around you through new
eyes, understanding much of the “magic” of the causal chain of physical forces that makes
all things unfold in time. Natural Law is a strange, beautiful sort of magic; one that is
utterly impersonal and mechanical and yet filled with structure and mathematics and light.
It makes sense, both in and of itself and of the physical world you observe.
xvi CONTENTS
Enjoy.
CONTENTS xvii
I: Getting Ready to Learn Physics
1
Preliminaries
See, Do, Teach
If you are reading this, I assume that you are either taking a course in physics or wish
to learn physics on your own. If this is the case, I want to begin by teaching you the
importance of your personal engagement in the learning process. If it comes right down to
it, how well you learn physics, how good a grade you get, and how much fun you have all
depend on how enthusiastically you tackle the learning process. If you remain disengaged,
detatched from the learning process, you almost certainly will do poorly and be miserable
while doing it. If you can find any degree of engagement – or open enthusiasm – with the
learning process you will very likely do well, or at least as well as possible.
Note that I use the term learning, not teaching – this is to emphasize from the beginning
that learning is a choice and that you are in control. Learning is active; being taught is pas-
sive. It is up to you to seize control of your own educational process and fully participate,
not sit back and wait for knowledge to be forcibly injected into your brain.
You may find yourself stuck in a course that is taught in a traditional way, by an instructor
that lectures, assigns some readings, and maybe on a good day puts on a little dog-and-
pony show in the classroom with some audiovisual aids or some demonstrations. The
standard expectation in this class is to sit in your chair and watch, passive, taking notes.
No real engagement is “required” by the instructor, and lacking activities or a structure that
encourages it, you lapse into becoming a lecture transcription machine, recording all kinds
of things that make no immediate sense to you and telling yourself that you’ll sort it all out
later.
You may find yourself floundering in such a class – for good reason. The instructor
presents an ocean of material in each lecture, and you’re going to actually retain at most
a few cupfuls of it functioning as a scribe and passively copying his pictures and symbols
without first extracting their sense. And the lecture makes little sense, at least at first, and
reading (if you do any reading at all) does little to help. Demonstrations can sometimes
make one or two ideas come clear, but only at the expense of twenty other things that the
instructor now has no time to cover and expects you to get from the readings alone. You
continually postpone going over the lectures and readings to understand the material any
more than is strictly required to do the homework, until one day a big test draws nigh and
you realize that you really don’t understand anything and have forgotten most of what you
did, briefly, understand. Doom and destruction loom.
Sound familiar?
3
4 Preliminaries
On the other hand, you may be in a course where the instructor has structured the
course with a balanced mix of open lecture (held as a freeform discussion where questions
aren’t just encouraged but required) and group interactive learning situations such as a
carefully structured recitation and lab where discussion and doing blend together, where
students teach each other and use what they have learned in many ways and contexts. If
so, you’re lucky, but luck only goes so far.
Even in a course like this you may still be floundering because you may not understand
why it is important for you to participate with your whole spirit in the quest to learn anything
you ever choose to study. In a word, you simply may not give a rodent’s furry behind about
learning the material so that studying is always a fight with yourself to “make” yourself do
it – so that no matter what happens, you lose. This too may sound very familiar to some.
The importance of engagement and participation in “active learning” (as opposed to
passively being taught) is not really a new idea. Medical schools were four year programs
in the year 1900. They are four year programs today, where the amount of information that
a physician must now master in those four years is probably ten times greater today than
it was back then. Medical students are necessarily among the most efficient learners on
earth, or they simply cannot survive.
In medical schools, the optimal learning strategy is compressed to a three-step adage:
See one, do one, teach one.
See a procedure (done by a trained expert).
Do the procedure yourself, with the direct supervision and guidance of a trained expert.
Teach a student to do the procedure.
See, do, teach. Now you are a trained expert (of sorts), or at least so we devoutly hope,
because that’s all the training you are likely to get until you start doing the procedure over
and over again with real humans and with limited oversight from an attending physician
with too many other things to do. So you practice and study on your own until you achieve
real mastery, because a mistake can kill somebody.
This recipe is quite general, and can be used to increase your own learning in almost
any class. In fact, lifelong success in learning with or without the guidance of a good
teacher is a matter of discovering the importance of active engagement and participation
that this recipe (non-uniquely) encodes. Let us rank learning methodologies in terms of
“probable degree of active engagement of the student”. By probable I mean the degree of
active engagement that I as an instructor have observed in students over many years and
which is significantly reinforced by research in teaching methodology, especially in physics
and mathematics.
Listening to a lecture as a transcription machine with your brain in “copy machine”
mode is almost entirely passive and is for most students probably a nearly complete waste
of time. That’s not to say that “lecture” in the form of an organized presentation and review
of the material to be learned isn’t important or is completely useless! It serves one very
important purpose in the grand scheme of learning, but by being passive during lecture
you cause it to fail in its purpose. Its purpose is not to give you a complete, line by line
transcription of the words of your instructor to ponder later and alone. It is to convey, for a
Preliminaries 5
brief shining moment, the sense of the concepts so that you understand them.
It is difficult to sufficiently emphasize this point. If lecture doesn’t make sense to you
when the instructor presents it, you will have to work much harder to achieve the sense of
the material “later”, if later ever comes at all. If you fail to identify the important concepts
during the presentation and see the lecture as a string of disconnected facts, you will
have to remember each fact as if it were an abstract string of symbols, placing impossible
demands on your memory even if you are extraordinarily bright. If you fail to achieve some
degree of understanding (or synthesis of the material, if you prefer) in lecture by asking
questions and getting expert explanations on the spot, you will have to build it later out of
your notes on a set of abstract symbols that made no sense to you at the time. You might
as well be trying to translate Egyptian Hieroglyphs without a Rosetta Stone, and the best
of luck to you with that.
Reading is a bit more active – at the very least your brain is more likely to be somewhat
engaged if you aren’t “just” transcribing the book onto a piece of paper or letting the words
and symbols happen in your mind – but is still pretty passive. Even watching nifty movies
or cool-ee-oh demonstrations is basically sedentary – you’re still just sitting there while
somebody or something else makes it all happen in your brain while you aren’t doing much
of anything. At best it grabs your attention a bit better (on average) than lecture, but you
are mentally passive.
In all of these forms of learning, the single active thing you are likely to be doing is
taking notes or moving an eye muscle from time to time. For better or worse, the human
brain isn’t designed to learn well in passive mode. Parts of your brain are likely to take
charge and pull your eyes irresistably to the window to look outside where active things are
going on, things that might not be so damn boring!
With your active engagement, with your taking charge of and participating in the learn-
ing process, things change dramatically. Instead of passively listening in lecture, you can
at least try to ask questions and initiate discussions whenever an idea is presented that
makes no intial sense to you. Discussion is an active process even if you aren’t the one
talking at the time. You participate! Even a tiny bit of participation in a classroom setting
where students are constantly asking questions, where the instructor is constantly answer-
ing them and asking the students questions in turn makes a huge difference. Humans
being social creatures, it also makes the class a lot more fun!
In summary, sitting on your ass1 and writing meaningless (to you, so far) things down
as somebody says them in the hopes of being able to “study” them and discover their
meaning on your own later is boring and for most students, later never comes because you
are busy with many classes, because you haven’t discovered anything beautiful or exciting
(which is the reward for figuring it all out – if you ever get there) and then there is partying
and hanging out with friends and having fun. Even if you do find the time and really want
to succeed, in a complicated subject like physics you are less likely to be able to discover
the meaning on your own (unless you are so bright that learning methodology is irrelevant
and you learn in a single pass no matter what). Most introductory students are swamped
by the details, and have small chance of discovering the patterns within those details that
constitute “making sense” and make the detailed information much, much easier to learn
1
I mean, of course, your donkey. What did you think I meant?
6 Preliminaries
by enabling a compression of the detail into a much smaller set of connected ideas.
Articulation of ideas, whether it is to yourself or to others in a discussion setting, re-
quires you to create tentative patterns that might describe and organize all the details you
are being presented with. Using those patterns and applying them to the details as they
are presented, you naturally encounter places where your tentative patterns are wrong, or
don’t quite work, where something “doesn’t make sense”. In an “active” lecture students
participate in the process, and can ask questions and kick ideas around until they do make
sense. Participation is also fun and helps you pay far more attention to what’s going on than
when you are in passive mode. It may be that this increased attention, this consideration
of many alternatives and rejecting some while retaining others with social reinforcement, is
what makes all the difference. To learn optimally, even “seeing” must be an active process,
one where you are not a vessel waiting to be filled through your eyes but rather part of a
team studying a puzzle and looking for the patterns together that will help you eventually
solve it.
Learning is increased still further by doing, the very essence of activity and engage-
ment. “Doing” varies from course to course, depending on just what there is for you to do,
but it always is the application of what you are learning to some sort of activity, exercise,
problem. It is not just a recapitulation of symbols: “looking over your notes” or “(re)reading
the text”. The symbols for any given course of study (in a physics class, they very likely will
be algebraic symbols for real although I’m speaking more generally here) do not, initially,
~ = q(~
mean a lot to you. If I write F ~ on the board, it means a great deal to me, but
v × B)
if you are taking this course for the first time it probably means zilch to you, and yet I pop
it up there, draw some pictures, make some noises that hopefully make sense to you at
the time, and blow on by. Later you read it in your notes to try to recreate that sense, but
you’ve forgotten most of it. Am I describing the income I expect to make selling B ~ tons of
barley with a market value of ~v and a profit margin of q?
To learn this expression (for yes, this is a force law of nature and one that we very
much must learn this semester) we have to learn what the symbols stand for – q is the
charge of a point-like object in motion at velocity ~v in a magnetic field B, ~ and F ~ is the
resulting force acting on the particle. We have to learn that the × symbol is the cross
product of evil (to most students at any rate, at least at first). In order to get a gut feeling
for what this equation represents, for the directions associated with the cross product, for
the trajectories it implies for charged particles moving in a magnetic field in a variety of
contexts one has to use this expression to solve problems, see this expression in action in
laboratory experiments that let you prove to yourself that it isn’t bullshit and that the world
really does have cross product force laws in it. You have to do your homework that involves
this law, and be fully engaged.
The learning process isn’t exactly linear, so if you participate fully in the discussion
and the doing while going to even the most traditional of lectures, you have an excellent
chance of getting to the point where you can score anywhere from a 75% to an 85% in the
course. In most schools, say a C+ to B+ performance. Not bad, but not really excellent.
A few students will still get A’s – they either work extra hard, or really like the subject, or
they have some sort of secret, some way of getting over that barrier at the 90’s that is only
crossed by those that really do understand the material quite well.
Preliminaries 7
Here is the secret for getting yourself over that 90% hump, even in a physics class
(arguably one of the most difficult courses you can take in college), even if you’re not a
super-genius (or have never managed in the past to learn like one, a glance and you’re
done): Work in groups!
That’s it. Nothing really complex or horrible, just get together with your friends who
are also taking the course and do your homework together. In a well designed physics
course (and many courses in mathematics, economics, and other subjects these days)
you’ll have some aspects of the class, such as a recitation or lab, where you are required
to work in groups, and the groups and group activities may be highly structured or freeform.
“Studio” or “Team Based Learning” methods for teaching physics have even wrapped the
lecture itself into a group-structured setting, so everything is done in groups/teams, and
(probably by making it nearly impossible to be disengaged and sit passively in class waiting
for learning to “happen”) this approach yields measureable improvements (all things being
equal) on at least some objective instruments for measurement of learning.
If you take charge of your own learning, though, you will quickly see that in any course,
however taught, you can study in a group! This is true even in a course where “the home-
work]” is to be done alone by fiat of the (unfortunately ignorant and misguided) instructor.
Just study “around” the actual assignment – assign yourselves problems “like” the actual
assignment – most textbooks have plenty of extra problems and then there is the Inter-
net and other textbooks – and do them in a group, then (afterwards!) break up and do
your actual assignment alone. Note that if you use a completely different textbook to pick
your group problems from and do them together before looking at your assignment in your
textbook, you can’t even be blamed if some of the ones you pick turn out to be ones your
instructor happened to assign.
Oh, and not-so-subtly – give the instructor a PDF copy of this book (it’s free for in-
structors, after all, and a click away on the Internet) and point to this page and paragraph
containing the following little message from me to them:
Yo! Teacher! Let’s wake up and smell the coffee! Don’t prevent your students
from doing homework in groups – require it! Make the homework correspond-
ingly more difficult! Give them quite a lot of course credit for doing it well!
Construct a recitation or review session where students – in groups – who still
cannot get the most difficult problems can get socratic tutorial help after work-
ing hard on the problems on their own! Integrate discussion and deliberately
teach to increase active engagement (instead of passive wandering attention)
in lecture2 . Then watch as student performance and engagement spirals into
2
Perhaps by using Team Based Learning methods to structure and balance student groups and “flipping”
classrooms to foist the lecture off onto videos of somebody else lecturing to increase the time spent in the
class working in groups, but I’ve found that in mid-sized classes and smaller (less than around fifty students)
one can get very good results from traditional lecture without a specially designed classroom by the Chocolate
Method – I lecture without notes and offer a piece of chocolate or cheap toy or nifty pencil to any student
who catches me making a mistake on the board before I catch it myself, who asks a particularly good ques-
tion, who looks like they are nodding off to sleep (seriously, chocolate works wonders here, especially when
ceremoniously offered). Anything that keeps students focussed during lecture by making it into a game, by
allowing/encouraging them to speak out without raising their hands, by praising them and rewarding them for
engagement makes a huge difference.
8 Preliminaries
the stratosphere compared to what it was before...
Then pray. Some instructors have their egos tied up in things to the point where they
cannot learn, and then what can you do? If an instructor lets ego or politics obstruct
their search for functional methodology, you’re screwed anyway, and you might as well just
tackle the material on your own. Or heck, maybe their expertise and teaching experience
vastly exceeds my own so that their naked words are sufficiently golden that any student
should be able to learn by just hearing them and doing homework all alone in isolation from
any peer-interaction process that might be of use to help them make sense of it all – all
data to the contrary.
My own words and lecture – in spite of my 31 years of experience in the classroom, in
spite of the fact that it has been well over twenty years since I actually used lecture notes
to teach the course, in spite of the fact I never, ever prepare for recitation because solving
the homework problems with the students “cold” as a peer member of their groups is useful
where copying my privately worked out solutions onto a blackboard for them to passively
copy on their papers in turn is useless, in spite of the fact that I wrote this book similarly
without the use of any outside resource – my words and lecture are not. On the other hand,
students who work effectively in groups and learn to use this book (and other resources)
and do all of the homework “to perfection” might well learn physics quite well without my
involvement at all!
Let’s understand why working in groups has such a dramatic effect on learning. What
happens in a group? Well, a lot of discussion happens, because humans working on a
common problem like to talk. There is plenty of doing going on, presuming that the group
has a common task list to work through, like a small mountain of really difficult problems
that nobody can possibly solve working on their own and are barely within their abilities
working as a group backed up by the course instructor! Finally, in a group everybody has
the opportunity to teach!
The importance of teaching – not only seeing the lecture presentation with your whole
brain actively engaged and participating in an ongoing discussion so that it makes sense at
the time, not only doing lots of homework problems and exercises that apply the material
in some way, but articulating what you have discovered in this process and answering
questions that force you to consider and reject alternative solutions or pathways (or not)
cannot be overemphasized. Teaching each other in a peer setting (ideally with mentorship
and oversight to keep you from teaching each other mistakes) is essential!
This problem you “get”, and teach others (and actually learn it better from teaching
it than they do from your presentation – never begrudge the effort required to teach your
group peers even if some of them are very slow to understand). The next problem you don’t
get but some other group member does – they get to teach you. In the end you all learn far
more about every problem as a consequence of the struggle, the exploration of false paths,
the discovery and articulation of the correct path, the process of discussion, resolution and
agreement in teaching whereby everybody in the group reaches full understanding.
I would assert that it is all but impossible for someone to become a (halfway decent)
teacher of anything without learning along the way that the absolute best way to learn any
set of material deeply is to teach it – it is the very foundation of Academe and has been for
Preliminaries 9
two or three thousand years. It is, as we have noted, built right into the intensive learning
process of medical school and graduate school in general. For some reason, however, we
don’t incorporate a teaching component in most undergraduate classes, which is a shame,
and it is basically nonexistent in nearly all K-12 schools, which is an open tragedy.
As an engaged student you don’t have to live with that! Put it there yourself, by incorpo-
rating group study and mutual teaching into your learning process with or without the help
or permission of your teachers! A really smart and effective group soon learns to iterate
the teaching – I teach you, and to make sure you got it you immediately use the material
I taught you and try to articulate it back to me. Eventually everybody in the group under-
stands, everybody in the group benefits, everybody in the group gets the best possible
grade on the material. This process will actually make you (quite literally) more intelligent.
You may or may not become smart enough to lock down an A, but you will get the best
grade you are capable of getting, for your given investment of effort.
This is close to the ultimate in engagement – highly active learning, with all cylinders of
your brain firing away on the process. You can see why learning is enhanced. It is simply
a bonus, a sign of a just and caring God, that it is also a lot more fun to work in a group,
especially in a relaxed context with food and drink present. Yes, I’m encouraging you to
have “physics study parties” (or history study parties, or psychology study parties). Hold
contests. Give silly prizes. See. Do. Teach.
Other Conditions for Learning
Learning isn’t only dependent on the engagement pattern implicit in the See, Do, Teach
rule. Let’s absorb a few more True Facts about learning, in particular let’s come up with a
handful of things that can act as “switches” and turn your ability to learn on and off quite
independent of how your instructor structures your courses. Most of these things aren’t
binary switches – they are more like dimmer switches that can be slid up between dim (but
not off) and bright (but not fully on). Some of these switches, or environmental parameters,
act together more powerfully than they act alone. We’ll start with the most important pair,
a pair that research has shown work together to potentiate or block learning.
Instead of just telling you what they are, arguing that they are important for a paragraph
or six, and moving on, I’m going to give you an early opportunity to practice active learning
in the context of reading a chapter on active learning. That is, I want you to participate in a
tiny mini-experiment. It works a little bit better if it is done verbally in a one-on-one meeting,
but it should still work well enough even if it is done in this text that you are reading.
I’m going to give you a string of ten or so digits and ask you to glance at it one time
for a count of three and then look away. No fair peeking once your three seconds are up!
Then I want you to do something else for at least a minute – anything else that uses your
whole attention and interrupts your ability to rehearse the numbers in your mind in the way
that you’ve doubtless learned permits you to learn other strings of digits, such as holding
your mind blank, thinking of the phone numbers of friends or your social security number.
Even rereading this paragraph will do.
At the end of the minute, try to recall the number I gave you and write down what you
10 Preliminaries
remember. Then turn back to right here and compare what you wrote down with the actual
number.
Ready? (No peeking yet...) Set? Go!
Ok, here it is, in a footnote at the bottom of the page to keep your eye from naturally
reading ahead to catch a glimpse of it while reading the instructions above3 .
How did you do?
If you are like most people, this string of numbers is a bit too long to get into your
immediate memory or visual memory in only three seconds. There was very little time for
rehearsal, and then you went and did something else for a bit right away that was supposed
to keep you from rehearsing whatever of the string you did manage to verbalize in three
seconds. Most people will get anywhere from the first three to as many as seven or eight
of the digits right, but probably not in the correct order, unless...
...they are particularly smart or lucky and in that brief three second glance have time to
notice that the number consists of all the digits used exactly once! Folks that happened to
“see” this at a glance probably did better than average, getting all of the correct digits but
maybe in not quite the correct order.
People who are downright brilliant (and equally lucky) realized in only three seconds
(without cheating an extra second or three, you know who you are) that it consisted of
the string of odd digits in ascending order followed by the even digits in descending or-
der. Those people probably got it all perfectly right even without time to rehearse and
“memorize” the string! Look again at the string, see the pattern now?
The moral of this little mini-demonstration is that it is easy to overwhelm the mind’s
capacity for processing and remembering “meaningless” or “random” information. A string
of ten measely (apparently) random digits is too much to remember for one lousy minute,
especially if you aren’t given time to do rehearsal and all of the other things we have to
make ourselves do to “memorize” meaningless information.
Of course things changed radically the instant I pointed out the pattern! At this point
you could very likely go away and come back to this point in the text tomorrow or even a
year from now and have an excellent chance of remembering this particular digit string,
because it makes sense of a sort, and there are plenty of cues in the text to trigger recall
of the particular pattern that “compresses and encodes” the actual string. You don’t have
to remember ten random things at all – only two and a half – odd ascending digits followed
by the opposite (of both). Patterns rock!
This example has obvious connections to lecture and class time, and is one reason
retention from lecture is so lousy. For most students, lecture in any nontrivial college-level
course is a long-running litany of stuff they don’t know yet. Since it is all new to them, it
might as well be random digits as far as their cognitive abilities are concerned, at least at
first. Sure, there is pattern there, but you have to discover the pattern, which requires time
and a certain amount of meditation on all of the information. Basically, you have to have a
chance for the pattern to jump out of the stream of information and punch the switch of the
damn light bulb we all carry around inside our heads, the one that is endlessly portrayed in
3
1357986420 (one, two, three, quit and do something else for one minute...)
Preliminaries 11
cartoons. That light bulb is real – it actually exists, in more than just a metaphorical sense
– and if you study long enough and hard enough to obtain a sudden, epiphinaic realization
in any topic you are studying, however trivial or complex (like the pattern exposed above)
it is quite likely to be accompanied by a purely mental flash of “light”. You’ll know it when it
happens to you, in other words, and it feels great.
Unfortunately, the instructor doesn’t usually give students a chance to experience this
in lecture. No sooner is one seemingly random factoid laid out on the table than along
comes a new, apparently disconnected one that pushes it out of place long before we can
either memorize it the hard way or make sense out of it so we can remember it with a lot
less work. This isn’t really anybody’s fault, of course; the light bulb is quite unlikely to go
off in lecture just from lecture no matter what you or the lecturer do – it is something that
happens to the prepared mind at the end of a process, not something that just fires away
every time you hear a new idea.
The humble and unsurprising conclusion I want you to draw from this silly little mini-
experiment is that things are easier to learn when they make sense! A lot easier. In fact,
things that don’t make sense to you are never “learned” – they are at best memorized.
Information can almost always be compressed when you discover the patterns that run
through it, especially when the patterns all fit together into the marvelously complex and
beautiful and mysterious process we call “deep understanding” of some subject.
There is one more example I like to use to illustrate how important this information
compression is to memory and intelligence. I play chess, badly. That is, I know the legal
moves of the game, and have no idea at all how to use them effectively to improve my
position and eventually win. Ten moves into a typical chess game I can’t recall how I got
myself into the mess I’m typically in, and at the end of the game I probably can’t remember
any of what went on except that I got trounced, again.
A chess master, on the other hand, can play umpty games at once, blindfolded, against
pitiful fools like myself and when they’ve finished winning them all they can go back and
recontruct each one move by move, criticizing each move as they go. Often they can
remember the games in their entirety days or even years later.
This isn’t just because they are smarter – they might be completely unable to derive
the Lorentz group from first principles, and I can, and this doesn’t automatically make me
smarter than them either. It is because chess makes sense to them – they’ve achieved a
deep understanding of the game, as it were – and they’ve built a complex meta-structure
memory in their brains into which they can poke chess moves so that they can be retrieved
extremely efficiently. This gives them the attendant capability of searching vast portions of
the game tree at a glance, where I have to tediously work through each branch, one step
at a time, usually omitting some really important possibility because I don’t realize that that
knight on the far side of the board can affect things on this side where we are both moving
pieces.
This sort of “deep” (synthetic) understanding of physics is very much the goal of this
course (the one in the textbook you are reading, since I use this intro in many textbooks),
and to achieve it you must not memorize things as if they are random factoids, you must
work to abstract the beautiful intertwining of patterns that compress all of those apparently
12 Preliminaries
random factoids into things that you can easily remember offhand, that you can easily
reconstruct from the pattern even if you forget the details, and that you can search through
at a glance. But the process I describe can be applied to learning pretty much anything,
as patterns and structure exist in abundance in all subjects of interest. There are even
sensible rules that govern or describe the anti-pattern of pure randomness!
There’s one more important thing you can learn from thinking over the digit experiment.
Some of you reading this very likely didn’t do what I asked, you didn’t play along with the
game. Perhaps it was too much of a bother – you didn’t want to waste a whole minute
learning something by actually doing it, just wanted to read the damn chapter and get it
over with so you could do, well, whatever the hell else it is you were planning to do today
that’s more important to you than physics or learning in other courses.
If you’re one of these people, you probably don’t remember any of the digit string at
this point from actually seeing it – you never even tried to memorize it. A very few of you
may actually be so terribly jaded that you don’t even remember the little mnemonic formula
I gave above for the digit string (although frankly, people that are that disengaged are
probably not about to do things like actually read a textbook in the first place, so possibly
not). After all, either way the string is pretty damn meaningless, pattern or not.
Pattern and meaning aren’t exactly the same thing. There are all sorts of patterns one
can find in random number strings, they just aren’t “real” (where we could wax poetic at
this point about information entropy and randomness and monkeys typing Shakespeare if
this were a different course). So why bother wasting brain energy on even the easy way to
remember this string when doing so is utterly unimportant to you in the grand scheme of
all things?
From this we can learn the second humble and unsurprising conclusion I want you to
draw from this one elementary thought experiment. Things are easier to learn when you
care about learning them! In fact, they are damn near impossible to learn if you really don’t
care about learning them.
Let’s put the two observations together and plot them as a graph, just for fun (and
because graphs help one learn for reasons we will explore just a bit in a minute). If you
care about learning what you are studying, and the information you are trying to learn
makes sense (if only for a moment, perhaps during lecture), the chances of your learning
it are quite good. This alone isn’t enough to guarantee that you’ll learn it, but it they are
basically both necessary conditions, and one of them is directly connected to degree of
engagement.
On the other hand, if you care but the information you want to learn makes no sense,
or if it makes sense but you hate the subject, the instructor, your school, your life and just
don’t care, your chances of learning it aren’t so good, probably a bit better in the first case
than in the second as if you care you have a chance of finding someone or some way that
will help you make sense of whatever it is you wish to learn, where the person who doesn’t
cares, well, they don’t care. Why should they remember it?
If you don’t give a rat’s ass about the material and it makes no sense to you, go home.
Leave school. Do something else. You basically have almost no chance of learning the
material unless you are gifted with a transcendent intelligence (wasted on a dilettante who
Preliminaries 13
0.8
Learning Performance
0.6
0.4
0.2
1
0.8
1
0.6 0.8
0.4 0.6
Care
0.4
0.2 Sense
0.2
0 0
Figure 1: Conceptual relation between sense, care and learning, on simple relative scales.
lives in a state of perpetual ennui) and are miraculously gifted with the ability learn things
effortlessly even when they make no sense to you and you don’t really care about them.
All the learning tricks and study patterns in the world won’t help a student who doesn’t try,
doesn’t care, and for whom the material never makes sense.
If we worked at it, we could probably find other “logistic” controlling parameters to as-
sociate with learning – things that increase your probability of learning monotonically as
they vary. Some of them are already apparent from the discussion above. Let’s list a few
more of them with explanations just so that you can see how easy it is to sit down to study
and try to learn and have “something wrong” that decreases your ability to learn in that
particular place and time.
Learning is actual work and involves a fair bit of biological stress, just like working out.
Your brain needs food – it burns a whopping 20-30% of your daily calorie intake all by itself
just living day to day, even more when you are really using it or are somewhat sedentary
in your physical habits. Note that your brain runs on pure, energy-rich glucose, so when
your blood sugar drops your brain activity drops right along with it. This can happen (para-
doxically) because you just ate a carbohydrate rich meal. A balanced diet containing foods
with a lower glycemic index4 tends to be harder to digest and provides a longer period of
sustained energy for your brain. A daily multivitamin (and various antioxidant supplements
such as alpha lipoic acid) can also help maintain your body’s energy release mechanisms
at the cellular level.
Blood sugar is typically lowest first thing in the morning, so this is a lousy time to actively
study. On the other hand, a good hearty breakfast, eaten at least an hour before plunging
in to your studies, is a great idea and is a far better habit to develop for a lifetime than
4
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/glycemic index.
14 Preliminaries
eating no breakfast and instead eating a huge meal right before bed.
Learning requires adequate sleep. Sure this is tough to manage at college – there are
no parents to tell you to go to bed, lots of things to do, and of course you’re in class during
the day and then you study, so late night is when you have fun. Unfortunately, learning is
clearly correlated with engagement, activity, and mental alertness, and all of these tend to
shut down when you’re tired. Furthermore, the formation of long term memory of any kind
from a day’s experiences has been shown in both animal and human studies to depend on
the brain undergoing at least a few natural sleep cycles of deep sleep alternating with REM
(Rapid Eye Movement) sleep, dreaming sleep. Rats taught a maze and then deprived of
REM sleep cannot run the maze well the next day; rats that are taught the same maze
but that get a good night’s worth of rat sleep with plenty of rat dreaming can run the maze
well the next day. People conked on the head who remain unconscious for hours and are
thereby deprived of normal sleep often have permanent amnesia of the previous day – it
never gets turned into long term memory.
This is hardly surprising. Pure common sense and experience tell you that your brain
won’t work too well if it is hungry and tired. Common sense (and yes, experience) will
rapidly convince you that learning generally works better if you’re not stoned or drunk
when you study. Learning works much better when you have time to learn and haven’t put
everything off to the last minute. In fact, all of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs5 are important
parameters that contribute to the probability of success in learning.
There is one more set of very important variables that strongly affect our ability to learn,
and they are in some ways the least well understood. These are variables that describe
you as an individual, that describe your particular brain and how it works. Pretty much
everybody will learn better if they are self-actualized and fully and actively engaged, if the
material they are trying to learn is available in a form that makes sense and clearly com-
municates the implicit patterns that enable efficient information compression and storage,
and above all if they care about what they are studying and learning, if it has value to them.
But everybody is not the same, and the optimal learning strategy for one person is
not going to be what works well, or even at all, for another. This is one of the things that
confounds “simple” empirical research that attempts to find benefit in one teaching/learning
methodology over another. Some students do improve, even dramatically improve – when
this or that teaching/learning methodology is introduced. In others there is no change. Still
others actually do worse. In the end, the beneficial effect to a selected subgroup of the
students may be lost in the statistical noise of the study and the fact that no attempt is
made to identify commonalities among students that succeed or fail.
The point is that finding an optimal teaching and learning strategy is technically an op-
timization problem on a high dimensional space. We’ve discussed some of the important
dimensions above, isolating a few that appear to have a monotonic effect on the desired
outcome in at least some range (relying on common sense to cut off that range or suggest
5
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. In a nutshell, in order to become
self-actualized and realize your full potential in activities such as learning you need to have your physiological
needs met, you need to be safe, you need to be loved and secure in the world, you need to have good self-
esteem and the esteem of others. Only then is it particularly likely that you can become self-actualized and
become a great learner and problem solver.
Preliminaries 15
trade-offs – one cannot learn better by simply discussing one idea for weeks at the ex-
pense of participating in lecture or discussing many other ideas of equal and coordinated
importance; sleeping for twenty hours a day leaves little time for experience to fix into long
term memory with all of that sleep). We’ve omitted one that is crucial, however. That is
your brain!
Your Brain and Learning
Your brain is more than just a unique instrument. In some sense it is you. You could
imagine having your brain removed from your body and being hooked up to machinary that
provided it with sight, sound, and touch in such a way that “you” remain6 . It is difficult to
imagine that you still exist in any meaningful sense if your brain is taken out of your body
and destroyed while your body is artificially kept alive.
Your brain, however, is an instrument. It has internal structure. It uses energy. It does
“work”. It is, in fact, a biological machine of sublime complexity and subtlety, one of the true
wonders of the world! Note that this statement can be made quite independent of whether
“you” are your brain per se or a spiritual being who happens to be using it (a debate that
need not concern us at this time, however much fun it might be to get into it) – either way
the brain itself is quite marvelous.
For all of that, few indeed are the people who bother to learn to actually use their brain
effectively as an instrument. It just works, after all, whether or not we do this. Which is fine.
If you want to get the most mileage out of it, however, it helps to read the manual.
So here’s at least one user manual for your brain. It is by no means complete or
authoritative, but it should be enough to get you started, to help you discover that you are
actually a lot smarter than you think, or that you’ve been in the past, once you realize that
you can change the way you think and learn and experience life and gradually improve it.
In the spirit of the learning methodology that we eventually hope to adopt, let’s simply
itemize in no particular order the various features of the brain7 that bear on the process
of learning. Bear in mind that such a minimal presentation is more of a metaphor than
anything else because simple (and extremely common) generalizations such as “creativity
is a right-brain function” are not strictly true as the brain is far more complex than that.
• The brain is bicameral: it has two cerebral hemispheres8 , right and left, with brain
functions asymmetrically split up between them.
• The brain’s hemispheres are connected by a networked membrane called the corpus
callosum that is how the two halves talk to each other.
• The human brain consists of layers with a structure that recapitulates evolutionary
phylogeny; that is, the core structures are found in very primitive animals and com-
mon to nearly all vertebrate animals, with new layers (apparently) added by evolution
6
Imagine very easily if you’ve ever seen The Matrix movie trilogy...
7
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/brain.
8
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/cerebral hemisphere.
16 Preliminaries
on top of this core as the various phyla differentiated, fish, amphibian, reptile, mam-
mal, primate, human. The outermost layer where most actual thinking occurs (in
animals that think) is known as the cerebral cortex.
• The cerebral cortex9 – especially the outermost layer of it called the neocortex – is
where “higher thought” activities associated with learning and problem solving take
place, although the brain is a very complex instrument with functions spread out over
many regions.
• An important brain model is a neural network10 . Computer simulated neural net-

works provide us with insight into how the brain can remember past events and pro-
cess new information.
• The fundamental operational units of the brain’s information processing functionality

are called neurons11 . Neurons receive electrochemical signals from other neurons
that are transmitted through long fibers called axons12 Neurotransmitters13 are the
actual chemicals responsible for the triggered functioning of neurons and hence the
neural network in the cortex that spans the halves of the brain.
• Parts of the cortex are devoted to the senses. These parts often contain a map of
sorts of the world as seen by the associated sense mechanism. For example, there
exists a topographic map in the brain that roughly corresponds to points in the retina,
which in turn are stimulated by an image of the outside world that is projected onto
the retina by your eye’s lens in a way we will learn about later in this course! There is
thus a representation of your visual field laid out inside your brain!
• Similar maps exist for the other senses, although sensations from the right side of
your body are generally processed in a laterally inverted way by the opposite hemi-
sphere of the brain. What your right eye sees, what your right hand touches, is
ultimately transmitted to a sensory area in your left brain hemisphere and vice versa,
and volitional muscle control flows from these brain halves the other way.
• Neurotransmitters require biological resources to produce and consume bioenergy

(provided as glucose) in their operation. You can exhaust the resources, and saturate
the receptors for the various neurotransmitters on the neurons by overstimulation.
• You can also block neurotransmitters by chemical means, put neurotransmitter ana-
logues into your system, and alter the chemical trigger potentials of your neurons
by taking various drugs, poisons, or hormones. The biochemistry of your brain is
extremely important to its function, and (unfortunately) is not infrequently a bit “out
of whack” for many individuals, resulting in e.g. attention deficit or mood disorders
that can greatly affect one’s ability to easily learn while leaving one otherwise highly
functional.
9
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral cortex.
10
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neural network.
11
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurons.
12
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/axon. .
13
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/neurotransmitters.
Preliminaries 17
• Intelligence14 , learning ability, and problem solving capabilities are not fixed; they
can vary (often improving) over your whole lifetime! Your brain is highly plastic and
can sometimes even reprogram itself to full functionality when it is e.g. damaged by
a stroke or accident. On the other hand neither is it infinitely plastic – any given brain
has a range of accessible capabilities and can be improved only to a certain point.
However, for people of supposedly “normal” intelligence and above, it is by no means
clear what that point is! Note well that intelligence is an extremely controversial
subject and you should not take things like your own measured “IQ” too seriously.
• Intelligence is not even fixed within a population over time. A phenomenon known
as “the Flynn effect”15 (after its discoverer) suggests that IQ tests have increased
almost six points a decade, on average, over a timescale of tens of years, with most
of the increases coming from the lower half of the distribution of intelligence. This
is an active area of research (as one might well imagine) and some of that research
has demonstrated fairly conclusively that individual intelligences can be improved by
five to ten points (a significant amount) by environmentally correlated factors such as
nutrition, education, complexity of environment.
• The best time for the brain to learn is right before sleep. The process of sleep appears
to “fix” long term memories in the brain and things one studies right before going to
bed are retained much better than things studied first thing in the morning. Note that
this conflicts directly with the party/entertainment schedule of many students, who
tend to study early in the evening and then amuse themselves until bedtime. It works
much better the other way around.
• Sensory memory16 corresponds to the roughly 0.5 second (for most people) that
a sensory impression remains in the brain’s “active sensory register”, the sensory
cortex. It can typically hold less than 12 “objects” that can be retrieved. It quickly
decays and cannot be improved by rehearsal, although there is some evidence that
its object capacity can be improved over a longer term by practice.
• Short term memory is where some of the information that comes into sensory mem-
ory is transferred. Just which information is transferred depends on where one’s
“attention” is, and the mechanics of the attention process are not well understood
and are an area of active research. Attention acts like a filtering process, as there is
a wealth of parallel information in our sensory memory at any given instant in time
but the thread of our awareness and experience of time is serial. We tend to “pay
attention” to one thing at a time. Short term memory lasts from a few seconds to as
long as a minute without rehearsal, and for nearly all people it holds 4 − 5 objects17 .
However, its capacity can be increased by a process called “chunking” that is basi-
cally the information compression mechanism demonstrated in the earlier example
with numbers – grouping of the data to be recalled into “objects” that permit a larger
set to still fit in short term memory.
14
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/intelligence.
15
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/flynn effect.
16
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/memory. Several items in a row are connected to this page.
17
From this you can see why I used ten digits, gave you only a few seconds to look, and blocked rehearsal
in our earlier exercise.
18 Preliminaries
• Studies of chunking show that the ideal size for data chunking is three. That is, if you
try to remember the string of letters:
FBINSACIAIBMATTMSN
with the usual three second look you’ll almost certainly find it impossible. If, however,
I insert the following spaces:
FBI NSA CIA IBM ATT MSN
It is suddenly much easier to get at least the first four. If I parenthesize:
(FBI NSA CIA) (IBM ATT MSN)
so that you can recognize the first three are all government agencies in the gen-
eral category of “intelligence and law enforcement” and the last three are all market
symbols for information technology mega-corporations, you can once again recall
the information a day later with only the most cursory of rehearsals. You’ve taken
eighteen ”random” objects that were meaningless and could hence be recalled only
through the most arduous of rehearsal processes, converted them to six “chunks” of
three that can be easily tagged by the brain’s existing long term memory (note that
you are not learning the string FBI, you are building an association to the already
existing memory of what the string FBI means, which is much easier for the brain to
do), and chunking the chunks into two objects.
Eighteen objects without meaning – difficult indeed! Those same eighteen objects
with meaning – umm, looks pretty easy, doesn’t it...
Short term memory is still that – short term. It typically decays on a time scale that
ranges from minutes for nearly everything to order of a day for a few things unless
the information can be transferred to long term memory. Long term memory is the
big payoff – learning is associated with formation of long term memory.
• Now we get to the really good stuff. Long term is memory that you form that lasts
a long time in human terms. A “long time” can be days, weeks, months, years, or
a lifetime. Long term memory is encoded completely differently from short term or
sensory/immediate memory – it appears to be encoded semantically18 , that is to
say, associatively in terms of its meaning. There is considerable evidence for this,
and it is one reason we focus so much on the importance of meaning in the previous
sections.
To miraculously transform things we try to remember from “difficult” to learn random
factoids that have to be brute-force stuffed into disconnected semantic storage units
created as it were one at a time for the task at hand into “easy” to learn factoids,
all we have to do is discover meaning associations with things we already know, or
create a strong memory of the global meaning or conceptualization of a subject that
serves as an associative home for all those little factoids.
A characteristic of this as a successful process is that when one works systematically
to learn by means of the latter process, learning gets easier as time goes on. Every
factoid you add to the semantic structure of the global conceptualization strengthens
it, and makes it even easier to add new factoids. In fact, the mind’s extraordinary
18
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/semantics.
Preliminaries 19
rational capacity permits it to interpolate and extrapolate, to fill in parts of the struc-
ture on its own without effort and in many cases without even being exposed to the
information that needs to be “learned”!
• One area where this extrapolation is particularly evident and powerful is in math-
ematics. Any time we can learn, or discover from experience a formula for some
phenomenon, a mathematical pattern, we don’t have to actually see something to be
able to “remember” it. Once again, it is easy to find examples. If I give you data from
sales figures over a year such as January = $1000, October = $10,000, December =
$12,000, March=$3000, May = $5000, February = $2000, September = $9000, June
= $6000, November = $11,000, July = $7000, August = $8000, April = $4000, at
first glance they look quite difficult to remember. If you organize them temporally by
month and look at them for a moment, you recognize that sales increased linearly by
month, starting at $1000 in January, and suddenly you can reduce the whole series
to a simple mental formula (straight line) and a couple pieces of initial data (slope
and starting point). One amazing thing about this is that if I asked you to “remember”
something that you have not seen, such as sales in February in the next year, you
could make a very plausible guess that they will be $14,000!
Note that this isn’t a memory, it is a guess. Guessing is what the mind is designed
to do, as it is part of the process by which it “predicts the future” even in the most
mundane of ways. When I put ten dollars in my pocket and reach in my pocket for it
later, I’m basically guessing, on the basis of my memory and experience, that I’ll find
ten dollars there. Maybe my guess is wrong – my pocket could have been picked19 ,
maybe it fell out through a hole. My concept of object permanence plus my memory
of an initial state permit me to make a predictive guess about the Universe!
This is, in fact, physics! This is what physics is all about – coming up with a set of
rules (like conservation of matter) that encode observations of object permanence,
more rules (equations of motion) that dictate how objects move around, and allow
me to conclude that “I put a ten dollar bill, at rest, into my pocket, and objects at
rest remain at rest. The matter the bill is made of cannot be created or destroyed
and is bound together in a way that is unlikely to come apart over a period of days.
Therefore the ten dollar bill is still there!” Nearly anything that you do or that happens
in your everyday life can be formulated as a predictive physics problem.
• The hippocampus20 appears to be partly responsible for both forming spatial maps
or visualizations of your environment and also for forming the cognitive map that or-
ganizes what you know and transforms short term memory into long term memory,
and it appears to do its job (as noted above) in your sleep. Sleep deprivation prevents
the formation of long term memory. Being rendered unconscious for a long period
often produces short term amnesia as the brain loses short term memory before it
gets put into long term memory. The hippocampus shows evidence of plasticity –
taxi drivers who have to learn to navigate large cities actually have larger than nor-
mal hippocampi, with a size proportional to the length of time they’ve been driving.
19
With three sons constantly looking for funds to attend movies and the like, it isn’t as unlikely as you might
think!
20
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/hippocampus.
20 Preliminaries
This suggests (once again) that it is possible to deliberately increase the capacity
of your own hippocampus through the exercise of its functions, and consequently in-
crease your ability to store and retrieve information, which is an important component
(although not the only component) of intelligence!
• Memory is improved by increasing the supply of oxygen to the brain, which is best
accomplished by exercise. Unsurprisingly. Indeed, as noted above, having good gen-
eral health, good nutrition, good oxygenation and perfusion – having all the biomech-
anism in tip-top running order – is perfectly reasonably linked to being able to perform
at your best in anything, mental activity included.
• Finally, the amygdala21 is a brain organ in our limbic system (part of our “old”, reptile
brain). The amygdala is an important part of our emotional system. It is associated
with primitive survival responses, with sexual response, and appears to play a key
role in modulating (filtering) the process of turning short term memory into long term
memory. Basically, any short term memory associated with a powerful emotion is
much more likely to make it into long term memory.
There are clear evolutionary advantages to this. If you narrowly escape being killed
by a saber-toothed tiger at a particular pool in the forest, and then forget that this
happened by the next day and return again to drink there, chances are decent that
the saber-tooth is still there and you’ll get eaten. On the other hand, if you come
upon a particular fruit tree in that same forest and get a free meal of high quality food
and forget about the tree a day later, you might starve.
We see that both negative and positive emotional experiences are strongly correlated
with learning! Powerful experiences, especially, are correlated with learning. This
translates into learning strategies in two ways, one for the instructor and one for the
student. For the instructor, there are two general strategies open to helping students
learn. One is to create an atmosphere of fear, hatred, disgust, anger – powerful
negative emotions. The other is to create an atmosphere of love, security, humor,
joy – powerful positive emotions. In between there is a great wasteland of bo-ring,
bo-ring, bo-ring where students plod along, struggling to form memories because
there is nothing “exciting” about the course in either a positive or negative way and
so their amygdala degrades the memory formation process in favor of other more
“interesting” experiences.
Now, in my opinion, negative experiences in the classroom do indeed promote the for-
mation of long term memories, but they aren’t the memories the instructor intended.
The student is likely to remember, and loath, the instructor for the rest of their life but
is not more likely to remember the material except sporadically in association with
particularly traumatic episodes. They may well be less likely, as we naturally avoid
negative experiences and will study less and work less hard on things we can’t stand
doing.
For the instructor, then, positive is the way to go. Creating a warm, nurturing class-
room environment, ensuring that the students know that you care about their learning
and about them as individuals helps to promote learning. Making your lectures and
21
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/amygdala.
Preliminaries 21
teaching processes fun – and funny – helps as well. Many successful lecturers make
a powerful positive impression on the students, creating an atmosphere of amaze-
ment or surprise. A classroom experience should really be a joy in order to optimize
learning in so many ways.
For the student, be aware that your attitude matters! As noted in previous sections,
caring is an essential component of successful learning because you have to attach
value to the process in order to get your amygdala to do its job. However, you can do
much more. You can see how many aspects of learning can be enhanced through the
simple expedient of making it a positive experience! Working in groups, working with
a team of peers, is fun, and you learn more when you’re having fun (or quavering
in abject fear, or in an interesting mix of the two). Attending an interesting lecture
is fun, and you’ll retain more than average. Participation is fun, especially if you
are “rewarded” in some way that makes a moment or two special to you, and you’ll
remember more of what goes on.
Chicken or egg? We see a fellow student who is relaxed and appears to be having fun
because they are doing really well in the course where we are constantly stressed
out and struggling, and we write their happiness off as being due to their success
and our misery as being caused by our failure. It is possible, however, that we have
this backwards! Perhaps they are doing really well in the course because they are
relaxed and having fun, perhaps we are doing not so well because for us, every
minute in the classroom is a torture!
In any event, you’ve probably tried misery in the classroom in at least one class
already. How’d that work out for you? Perhaps it is worth trying joy, instead!
From all of these little factoids (presented in a way that I’m hoping helps you to build
at least the beginnings of a working conceptual model of your own brain) I’m hoping that
you are coming to realize that all of this is at least partially under your control! Even if
your instructor is scary or boring, the material at first glance seems dry and meaningless,
and so on – all the negative-neutral things that make learning difficult, you can decide to
make it fun and exciting, you can ferret out the meaning, you can adopt study strategies
that focus on the formation of cognitive maps and organizing structures first and then on
applications, rehearsal, factoids, and so on, you can learn to study right before bed, get
enough sleep, become aware of your brain’s learning biorhythms.
Finally, you can learn to increase your functional learning capabilities by a significant
amount. Solving puzzles, playing mental games, doing crossword puzzles or sudoku,
working homework problems, writing papers, arguing and discussing, just plain thinking
about difficult subjects and problems even when you don’t have to all increase your active
intelligence in initially small but cumulative ways. You too can increase the size of your hip-
pocampus by navigating a new subject instead of a city, you too can learn to engage your
amygdala by choosing in a self-actualized way what you value and learning to discipline
your emotions accordingly, you too can create more conceptual maps within your brain that
can be shared as components across the various things you wish to learn.
The more you know about anything, the easier it is to learn everything – this is
the pure biology underlying the value of the liberal arts education.
22 Preliminaries
Use your whole brain, exercise it often, don’t think that you “just” need math and not
spatial relations, visualization, verbal skills, a knowledge of history, a memory of performing
experiments with your hands or mind or both – you need it all! Remember, just as is the
case with physical exercise (which you should get plenty of), mental exercise gradually
makes you mentally stronger, so that you can eventually do easily things that at first appear
insurmountably difficult. You can learn to learn three to ten times as fast as you did in high
school, to have more fun while doing it, and to gain tremendous reasoning capabilities
along the way just by trying to learn to learn more efficiently instead of continuing to use
learning strategies that worked (possibly indifferently) back in elementary and high school.
The next section, at long last, will make a very specific set of suggestions for one
very good way to study physics (or nearly anything else) in a way that maximally takes
advantage of your own volitional biology to make learning as efficient and pleasant as it is
possible to be.
How to Do Your Homework Effectively
By now in your academic career (and given the information above) it should be very appar-
ent just where homework exists in the grand scheme of (learning) things. Ideally, you attend
a class where a warm and attentive professor clearly explains some abstruse concept and
a whole raft of facts in some moderately interactive way that encourages engagement and
“being earnest”. Alas, there are too many facts to fit in short term/immediate memory and
too little time to move most of them through into long term/working memory before finish-
ing with one and moving on to the next one. The material may appear to be boring and
random so that it is difficult to pay full attention to the patterns being communicated and
remain emotionally enthusiastic all the while to help the process along. As a consequence,
by the end of lecture you’ve already forgotten many if not most of the facts, but if you were
paying attention, asked questions as needed, and really cared about learning the material
you would remember a handful of the most important ones, the ones that made your brief
understanding of the material hang (for a brief shining moment) together.
This conceptual overview, however initially tenuous, is the skeleton you will eventu-
ally clothe with facts and experiences to transform it into an entire system of associative
memory and reasoning where you can work intellectually at a high level with little effort
and usually with a great deal of pleasure associated with the very act of thinking. But you
aren’t there yet.
You now know that you are not terribly likely to retain a lot of what you are shown in
lecture without engagement. In order to actually learn it, you must stop being a passive re-
cipient of facts. You must actively develop your understanding, by means of discussing the
material and kicking it around with others, by using the material in some way, by teaching
the material to peers as you come to understand it.
To help facilitate this process, associated with lecture your professor almost certainly
gave you an assignment. Amazingly enough, its purpose is not to torment you or to be
the basis of your grade (although it may well do both). It is to give you some concrete
stuff to do while thinking about the material to be learned, while discussing the material
Preliminaries 23
to be learned, while using the material to be learned to accomplish specific goals, while
teaching some of what you figure out to others who are sharing this whole experience while
being taught by them in turn. The assignment is much more important than lecture, as it is
entirely participatory, where real learning is far more likely to occur. You could, once you
learn the trick of it, blow off lecture and do fine in a course in all other respects. If you fail
to do the assignments with your entire spirit engaged, you are doomed.
In other words, to learn you must do your homework, ideally at least partly in a group
setting. The only question is: how should you do it to both finish learning all that stuff you
sort-of-got in lecture and to re-attain the moment(s) of clarity that you then experienced,
until eventually it becomes a permanent characteristic of your awareness and you know
and fully understand it all on your own?
There are two general steps that need to be iterated to finish learning anything at all.
They are a lot of work. In fact, they are far more work than (passively) attending lecture,
and are more important than attending lecture. You can learn the material with these steps
without ever attending lecture, as long as you have access to what you need to learn in
some media or human form. You in all probability will never learn it, lecture or not, without
making a few passes through these steps. They are:
a) Review the whole (typically textbooks and/or notes)
b) Work on the parts (do homework, use it for something)
(iterate until you thoroughly understand whatever it is you are trying to learn).
Let’s examine these steps.
The first is pretty obvious. You didn’t “get it” from one lecture. There was too much
material. If you were lucky and well prepared and blessed with a good instructor, perhaps
you grasped some of it for a moment (and if your instructor was poor or you were particu-
larly poorly prepared you may not have managed even that) but what you did momentarily
understand is fading, flitting further and further away with every moment that passes. You
need to review the entire topic, as a whole, as well as all its parts. A set of good summary
notes might contain all the relative factoids, but there are relations between those factoids
– a temporal sequencing, mathematical derivations connecting them to other things you
know, a topical association with other things that you know. They tell a story, or part of a
story, and you need to know that story in broad terms, not try to memorize it word for word.
Reviewing the material should be done in layers, skimming the textbook and your notes,
creating a new set of notes out of the text in combination with your lecture notes, maybe
reading in more detail to understand some particular point that puzzles you, reworking
a few of the examples presented. Lots of increasingly deep passes through it (starting
with the merest skim-reading or reading a summary of the whole thing) are much better
than trying to work through the whole text one line at a time and not moving on until you
understand it. Many things you might want to understand will only come clear from things
you are exposed to later, as it is not the case that all knowledge is ordinal, hierarchical,
and derivatory.
You especially do not have to work on memorizing the content. In fact, it is not desire-
able to try to memorize content at this point – you want the big picture first so that facts
24 Preliminaries
have a place to live in your brain. If you build them a house, they’ll move right in with-
out a fuss, where if you try to grasp them one at a time with no place to put them, they’ll
(metaphorically) slip away again as fast as you try to take up the next one. Let’s understand
this a bit.
As we’ve seen, your brain is fabulously efficient at storing information in a compressed
associative form. It also tends to remember things that are important – whatever that
means – and forget things that aren’t important to make room for more important stuff, as
your brain structures work together in understandable ways on the process. Building the
cognitive map, the “house”, is what it’s all about. But as it turns out, building this house
takes time.
This is the goal of your iterated review process. At first you are memorizing things
the hard way, trying to connect what you learn to very simple hierarchical concepts such
as this step comes before that step. As you do this over and over again, though, you
find that absorbing new information takes you less and less time, and you remember it
much more easily and for a longer time without additional rehearsal. Sometimes your
brain even outruns the learning process and “discovers” a missing part of the structure
before you even read about it! By reviewing the whole, well-organized structure over and
over again, you gradually build a greatly compressed representation of it in your brain and
tremendously reduce the amount of work required to flesh out that structure with increasing
levels of detail and remember them and be able to work with them for a long, long time.
Now let’s understand the second part of doing homework – working problems. As you
can probably guess on your own at this point, there are good ways and bad ways to do
homework problems. The worst way to do homework (aside from not doing it at all, which is
far too common a practice and a bad idea if you have any intention of learning the material)
is to do it all in one sitting, right before it is due, and to never again look at it.
Doing your homework in a single sitting, working on it just one time fails to repeat and
rehearse the material (essential for turning short term memory into long term in nearly
all cases). It exhausts the neurons in your brain (quite literally – there is metabolic energy
consumed in thinking) as one often ends up working on a problem far too long in one sitting
just to get done. It fails to incrementally build up in your brain’s long term memory the
structures upon which the more complex solutions are based, so you have to constantly
go back to the book to get them into short term memory long enough to get through a
problem. Even this simple bit of repetition does initiate a learning process. Unfortunately,
by not repeating them after this one sitting they soon fade, often without a discernable trace
in long term memory.
Just as was the case in our experiment with memorizing the number above, the prob-
lems almost invariably are not going to be a matter of random noise. They have certain key
facts and ideas that are the basis of their solution, and those ideas are used over and over
again. There is plenty of pattern and meaning there for your brain to exploit in information
compression, and it may well be very cool stuff to know and hence important to you once
learned, but it takes time and repetition and a certain amount of meditation for the “gestalt”
of it to spring into your awareness and burn itself into your conceptual memory as “high
order understanding”.
Preliminaries 25
You have to give it this time, and perform the repetitions, while maintaining an optimistic,
philosophical attitude towards the process. You have to do your best to have fun with it.
You don’t get strong by lifting light weights a single time. You get strong lifting weights re-
peatedly, starting with light weights to be sure, but then working up to the heaviest weights
you can manage. When you do build up to where you’re lifting hundreds of pounds, the
fifty pounds you started with seems light as a feather to you.
As with the body, so with the brain. Repeat broad strokes for the big picture with
increasingly deep and “heavy” excursions into the material to explore it in detail as the
overall picture emerges. Intersperse this with sessions where you work on problems and
try to use the material you’ve figured out so far. Be sure to discuss it and teach it to others
as you go as much as possible, as articulating what you’ve figured out to others both uses
a different part of your brain than taking it in (and hence solidifies the memory) and it helps
you articulate the ideas to yourself! This process will help you learn more, better, faster
than you ever have before, and to have fun doing it!
Your brain is more complicated than you think. You are very likely used to working hard
to try to make it figure things out, but you’ve probably observed that this doesn’t work very
well. A lot of times you simply cannot “figure things out” because your brain doesn’t yet
know the key things required to do this, or doesn’t “see” how those parts you do know fit
together. Learning and discovery is not, alas, “intentional” – it is more like trying to get a
bird to light on your hand that flits away the moment you try to grasp it.
People who do really hard crossword puzzles (one form of great brain exercise) have
learned the following. After making a pass through the puzzle and filling in all the words
they can “get”, and maybe making a couple of extra passes through thinking hard about
ones they can’t get right away, looking for patterns, trying partial guesses, they arrive at an
impasse. If they continue working hard on it, they are unlikely to make further progress, no
matter how long they stare at it.
On the other hand, if they put the puzzle down and do something else for a while –
especially if the something else is go to bed and sleep – when they come back to the puzzle
they often can immediately see a dozen or more words that the day before were absolutely
invisible to them. Sometimes one of the long theme answers (perhaps 25 characters long)
where they have no more than two letters just “gives up” – they can simply “see” what the
answer must be.
Where do these answers come from? The person has not “figured them out”, they have
“recognized” them. They come all at once, and they don’t come about as the result of a
logical sequential process.
Often they come from the person’s right brain22 . The left brain tries to use logic and
simple memory when it works on crosswork puzzles. This is usually good for some words,
but for many of the words there are many possible answers and without any insight one
can’t even recall one of the possibilities. The clues don’t suffice to connect you up to a word.
Even as letters get filled in this continues to be the case, not because you don’t know the
word (although in really hard puzzles this can sometimes be the case) but because you
22
Note that this description is at least partly metaphor, for while there is some hemispherical specialization
of some of these functions, it isn’t always sharp. I’m retaining them here (oh you brain specialists who might
be reading this) because they are a valuable metaphor.
26 Preliminaries
don’t know how to recognize the word “all at once” from a cleverly nonlinear clue and a few
letters in this context.
The right brain is (to some extent) responsible for insight and non-linear thinking. It
sees patterns, and wholes, not sequential relations between the parts. It isn’t intentional
– we can’t “make” our right brains figure something out, it is often the other way around!
Working hard on a problem, then “sleeping on it” (to get that all important hippocampal
involvement going) is actually a great way to develop “insight” that lets you solve it without
really working terribly hard after a few tries. It also utilizes more of your brain – left and right
brain, sequential reasoning and insight, and if you articulate it, or use it, or make some-
thing with your hands, then it exercieses these parts of your brain as well, strengthening
the memory and your understanding still more. The learning that is associated with this
process, and the problem solving power of the method, is much greater than just working
on a problem linearly the night before it is due until you hack your way through it using
information assembled a part at a time from the book.
The following “Method of Three Passes” is a specific strategy that implements many
of the tricks discussed above. It is known to be effective for learning by means of do-
ing homework (or in a generalized way, learning anything at all). It is ideal for “problem
oriented homework”, and will pay off big in learning dividends should you adopt it, espe-
cially when supported by a group oriented recitation with strong tutorial support and many
opportunities for peer discussion and teaching.
The Method of Three Passes
Pass 1 Three or more nights before recitation (or when the homework is due), make a fast
pass through all problems. Plan to spend 1-1.5 hours on this pass. With roughly 10-
12 problems, this gives you around 6-8 minutes per problem. Spend no more than
this much time per problem and if you can solve them in this much time fine, otherwise
move on to the next. Try to do this the last thing before bed at night (seriously) and
then go to sleep.
Pass 2 After at least one night’s sleep, make a medium speed pass through all problems.
Plan to spend 1-1.5 hours on this pass as well. Some of the problems will already be
solved from the first pass or nearly so. Quickly review their solution and then move on
to concentrate on the still unsolved problems. If you solved 1/4 to 1/3 of the problems
in the first pass, you should be able to spend 10 minutes or so per problem in the
second pass. Again, do this right before bed if possible and then go immediately to
sleep.
Pass 3 After at least one night’s sleep, make a final pass through all the problems. Begin
as before by quickly reviewing all the problems you solved in the previous two passes.
Then spend fifteen minutes or more (as needed) to solve the remaining unsolved
problems. Leave any “impossible” problems for recitation – there should be no more
than three from any given assignment, as a general rule. Go immediately to bed.
This is an extremely powerful prescription for deeply learning nearly anything. Here
is the motivation. Memory is formed by repetition, and this obviously contains a lot of
Preliminaries 27
that. Permanent (long term) memory is actually formed in your sleep, and studies have
shown that whatever you study right before sleep is most likely to be retained. Physics is
actually a “whole brain” subject – it requires a synthesis of both right brain visualization and
conceptualization and left brain verbal/analytical processing – both geometry and algebra,
if you like, and you’ll often find that problems that stumped you the night before just solve
themselves “like magic” on the second or third pass if you work hard on them for a short,
intense, session and then sleep on it. This is your right (nonverbal) brain participating as it
develops intuition to guide your left brain algebraic engine.
Other suggestions to improve learning include working in a study group for that third
pass (the first one or two are best done alone to “prepare” for the third pass). Teaching
is one of the best ways to learn, and by working in a group you’ll have opportunities to
both teach and learn more deeply than you would otherwise as you have to articulate your
solutions.
Make the learning fun – the right brain is the key to forming long term memory and it
is the seat of your emotions. If you are happy studying and make it a positive experience,
you will increase retention, it is that simple. Order pizza, play music, make it a “physics
homework party night”.
Use your whole brain on the problems – draw lots of pictures and figures (right brain)
to go with the algebra (left brain). Listen to quiet music (right brain) while thinking through
the sequences of events in the problem (left brain). Build little “demos” of problems where
possible – even using your hands in this way helps strengthen memory.
Avoid memorization. You will learn physics far better if you learn to solve problems
and understand the concepts rather than attempt to memorize the umpty-zillion formulas,
factoids, and specific problems or examples covered at one time or another in the class.
That isn’t to say that you shouldn’t learn the important formulas, Laws of Nature, and all of
that – it’s just that the learning should generally not consist of putting them on a big sheet
of paper all jumbled together and then trying to memorize them as abstract collections of
symbols out of context.
Be sure to review the problems one last time when you get your graded homework
back. Learn from your mistakes or you will, as they say, be doomed to repeat them.
If you follow this prescription, you will have seen every assigned homework problem a
minimum of five or six times – three original passes, recitation itself, a final write up pass
after recitation, and a review pass when you get it back. At least three of these should
occur after you have solved all of the problems correctly, since recitation is devoted to
ensuring this. When the time comes to study for exams, it should really be (for once) a
review process, not a cram. Every problem will be like an old friend, and a very brief review
will form a seventh pass or eighth pass through the assigned homework.
With this methodology (enhanced as required by the physics resource rooms, tutors,
and help from your instructors) there is no reason for you do poorly in the course and every
reason to expect that you will do well, perhaps very well indeed! And you’ll still be spending
only the 3 to 6 hours per week on homework that is expected of you in any college course
of this level of difficulty!
This ends our discussion of course preliminaries (for nearly any serious course you
28 Preliminaries
might take, not just physics courses) and it is time to get on with the actual material for this
course.
Mathematics
Physics, as was noted in the preface, requires a solid knowledge of all mathematics
through calculus. That’s right, the whole nine yards: number theory, algebra, geometry,
trigonometry, vectors, differential calculus, integral calculus, even a smattering of differen-
tial equations. You may well be reading this book intending to use it to learn physics (either
on your own – good for you! – or in an actual class) never having taken a class in calculus,
or perhaps you took a class in calculus but barely squeaked by with a C- or D+.
I strongly advise against attempting this! At Duke University (where I teach this
course) calculus is a strict prerequisite for taking calculus based physics. This is for
two reasons: First, a calculus class may well be the only place where you are exposed to
things like series, summation symbols, vectors (including vector products) that are often
not taught in high school algebra and trigonometry classes. Second, Newton invented
calculus just so that he could invent a consistent and successful theory of physics.
Learning physics without calculus (as it is taught in most high school physics classes
and sadly, in some University-level physics classes) is in my opinion a nearly complete
waste of time. It becomes an exercise in the memorization of formulas because one can
literally not understand where anything comes from or how it all fits together without cal-
culus. It tends to concentrate on constant force/constant acceleration problems simply
because they are pretty much the only ones one can solve without calculus, to such a
fault that I usually have to help students unlearn the algebraic solutions they memorized in
high school if this is their only exposure to physics before we can move forward and learn
physics correctly.
A final problem is that physics based only on algebraic solutions to constant accelera-
tion kinematics is boring, and students understandably come out of such a course bored
and frustrated with physics through no fault of the discipline (which is anything but boring).
Learning physics is hard work, without doubt. It can be frustrating if it is poorly taught,
taught as an exercise in memorization and graded primarily on how well you can do the
simple arithmetic of substituting this or that set of numbers into a memorized formula in
a single step. Substantial research in the teaching and learning of physics have demon-
strated that there is a huge gap between achieving conceptual understanding of even the
most elementary physics and this strictly algebra+arithmetic approach to studying physics.
Of course, even students who have taken calculus successfully can have a bit of a
gap there as well. Many calculus classes – perhaps understandably, perhaps not, I don’t
want to judge too harshly – concentrate for better or for worse on skills, on the algebraic
manipulations of calculus. Those courses are easy to identify – they had a student do-
ing regular homework assignments consisting of page after page of taking derivatives of
that, doing integrals of another thing, without one single exercise having the slightest bit of
meaning! Again it is all too common for students to have treated the course as an exer-
cise in memorization more than an invitation of mastery even of the limited tools required
Preliminaries 29
to do most of the problems, an understandable student response when presented with

what appears to be an overwhelming mountain of meaningless symbols instead of a much
smaller mountain of symbols that actually mean something and have some use when you
are done.
This creates two distinct problems when students start to learn physics, with calculus.
First, well over 95% of the calculus problems they were drilled on turn out to be useless
in any scientific discipline and are ‘valuable’ only as a hobby for people who like to solve
for analytical derivatives or integrals of functions that don’t represent anything whatsoever
in the real world. Second, because of the tremendous dilution of efforts wasted on these
obscure and – to anyone but a future math major – useless problems, they end up inad-
equately skilled in the 5% of the introductory calculus problems they might have studied
that are really, really valuable in real world problems.
Let me be very specific. One can succeed in – nay, thrive! – in introductory physics
if you have truly mastered only five basic integration/differentiation rules, plus the product
rule for differentiation (and the corresponding integration by parts rule for integration), plus
the chain rule for differentiation (and the corresponding u-substitution rule for integration).
If I were to add anything to that list it would be the hyperbolic differentials (and integrals).
Let’s list them (as indefinite integrals, although some of them, such as the natural logs, are
more useful as definite integrals when it comes to handling the physical dimensions of the
arguments):
Z
dun n−1 1
• = nu and un du = un+1 + C
du n+1
Z
d ln |u| 1 du
• = and = ln |u| + C
du u u
Z
deu
• = eu and eu du = eu + C
du
Z
d sin u
• = cos u and cos u du = sin u + C
du
Z
d cos u
• = − sin u and sin u du = − cos u + C
du
plus the two “extra” formulas (that can be easily enough derived from the exponential rule
above, as can the trig integrals for that matter):
Z
d sinh u
• = cosh u and cosh u du = sinh u + C
du
Z
d cosh u
• = − sinh u and sinh u du = − cosh u + C
du
1 1
where sinh u = eu − e−u and cosh u = eu + e−u . Tangent and cotangent are just a matter
2 2
of using the product rule, as are the hyperbolic equivalents. Trig substitution derivatives
and integrals are similarly just a matter using the chain rule or u-substitution (but with some
clever pictures that allow one to visualize them as e.g. triangles). It also helps to at least
know about the Taylor series expansion of smooth functions and the slightly more specific
30 Preliminaries
binomial expansion, and the idea of convergence. The actual use of all of this, extended
right into the evaluation of multidimensional integrals and derivatives as needed, is taught
in a self contained way in a typical course, as physics instructors have long since learned
not to rely on the calculus supposedly learned in calculus classes by incoming students.
To put it another way, the fundamental calculus formulas needed to completely master
a one year (two semester) introductory physics sequence – mechanics, electricity, mag-
netism, optics, and diverse applications of all of the above all entirely based on calculus
– can easily fit on one single page.
That isn’t to say that memorizing that page is sufficient preparation in math, though.
Physics builds on skills in algebra, geometry, trigonometry, the idea of vector spaces and
vector decomposition, some familiarity with at least three separable coordinate frames
(much of which, again, is taught or retaught as need be in the physics courses them-
selves), series, complex numbers – it really uses mathematics throughout, where every
single mathematical tool and idea used has meaning and is not an empty exercise with
meaningless symbols.
The skill that is in some sense the least important is – perhaps surprisingly, given
the public perception of the discipline – arithmetic. That isn’t to say that physicists don’t
care about numbers or that you can get by in a physics class when you are unable to
add, subtract, multiply or divide numbers with nothing but a pen and piece of paper, it’s
just recognition of the fact that once one understands what is going on and can solve
problems correctly algebraically, plugging in the numbers is a trivial final step, one that
can easily be done with a calculator or computer if need be, where even an arithmetical
savant, somebody capable of multiplying 8 digit numbers instantly in their head, is helpless
in physics if they cannot actually perform the conceptual reasoning, visualization, algebra,
and dimensional analysis required to take a word problem, convert it into a picture with
coordinates attached, decorate it with given forces or interactions, express the whole thing
in the algebraic forms associated with the relevant physical laws, and then use all of the
mathematical and algebraic skills one needs to obtain an algebraic solution that can be
checked with dimensional analysis for consistency and rechecked with some simple does-
it-make-sense rules. Sure, once that formula is obtained, they might be better and faster
than a computer, but given the formula, a sixth grader with the same numerical data and a
calculator can get just as accurate a solution in only a little more time, provided only that
they know what those trig functions and so on on their calculator are good for.
In any event, if you are preparing to study calculus-based physics (from this book or any
other), here is a list of a few of the kinds of things you’ll have to be able to do during the next
two semesters of physics. Don’t worry just yet about what they mean – that is part of what
you will learn along the way. The question is, can you (perhaps with a short review of things
you’ve learned and knew at one time but have not forgotten) evaluate these mathematical
expressions or solve for the algebraic unknowns? You don’t necessarily have to be able to
do all of these things right this instant, but you should at the very least recognize most of
them and be able to do them with just a very short review:
• What are the two values of α that solve:

R 1
α2 + α+ = 0?
L LC
Preliminaries 31
• What is: Z r
ρ0
Q(r) = 4π r′3 dr′ ?
R 0
• What is:
d cos(ωt + δ)
?
dt
y
A
?
θ
x
?
• What are the x and y components of a vector of length A that makes an angle of θ
with the positive x axis (proceeding, as usual, counterclockwise for positive θ)?
~ = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ and B
• What is the sum of the two vectors A ~ = Bx x̂ + By ŷ?
~ = Ax x̂+Ay ŷ and B
• What is the inner/dot product of the two vectors A ~ = Bx x̂+By ŷ?
• What is the cross product of the two vectors ~ ~ = Fy ŷ (magnitude and

r = rx x̂ and F
direction)?
If all of these items are unfamiliar – you don’t remember the quadratic formula (needed
to solve the first one), can’t integrate xn dx (needed to solve the second one), don’t recall
how to differentiate a sine or cosine function, don’t recall your basic trigonometry so that
you can’t find the components of a vector from its length and angle or vice versa, and don’t
recall what the dot or cross product of two vectors are, then you are going to have to add
to the burden of learning physics per se the burden of learning, or re-learning, all of the
basic mathematics that would have permitted you to answer these questions easily.
Here are the answers, see if this jogs your memory:
• Here are the two roots, found with the quadratic formula:
q
R 2 r
−RL ± L
4
− LC R R2 1
α± = =− ± 2
−
2 2L 4L LC
• Z r
r
ρ0 ′3 ρ0
′ r′4 ρ0 πr4
Q(r) = 4π r dr = 4π =
R 0 R 4 0 R
•
d cos(ωt + δ)
= −ω sin(ωt + δ)
dt
32 Preliminaries
•
Ax = A cos(θ) Ay = A sin(θ)
•
~+B
A ~ = (Ax + Bx )x̂ + (Ay + By )ŷ
•
~·B
A ~ = Ax Bx + Ay By
•
~ ~ = rx x̂ × Fy ŷ = rx Fy (x̂ × ŷ) = rx Fy ẑ
r×F
My strong advice to you, if you are now feeling the cold icy grip of panic because in
fact you are signed up for physics using this book and you couldn’t answer any of these
questions and don’t even recognize the answers once you see them, is to seek out the
course instructor and review your math skills with him or her to see if, in fact, it is advisable
for you to take physics at this time or rather should wait and strengthen your math skills
first. You can, and will, learn a lot of math while taking physics and that is actually part of
the point of taking it! If you are too weak going into it, though, it will cost you some misery
and hard work and some of the grade you might have gotten with better preparation ahead
of time.
So, what if you could do at least some of these short problems and can remember once
learning/knowing the tools, like the Quadratic Formula, that you were supposed to use to
solve them? Suppose you are pretty sure that – given a chance and resource to help you
out – you can do some review and they’ll all be fresh once again in time to keep up with
the physics and still do well in the course? What if you have no choice but to take physics
now, and are just going to have to do your best and relearn the math as required along the
way? What if you did in fact understand math pretty well once upon a time and are sure
it won’t be much of an obstacle, but you really would like a review, a summary, a listing of
the things you need to know someplace handy so you can instantly look them up as you
struggle with the problems that uses the math it contains? What if you are (or were) really
good at math, but want to be able to look at derivations or reread explanations to bring
stuff you learned right back to your fingertips once again?
Hmmm, that set of questions spans the set of student math abilities from the near-
tyro to the near-expert. In my experience, everybody but the most mathematically gifted
students can probably benefit from having a math review handy while taking this course.
For all of you, then, I provide the following free book online:
Mathematics for Introductory Physics
It is located here:
http://www.phy.duke.edu/∼rgb/Class/math for intro physics.php
It is a work in progress, and is quite possibly still somewhat incomplete, but it should
help you with a lot of what you are missing or need to review, and if you let me know what
you are missing that you didn’t find there, I can work to add it!
Preliminaries 33
I would strongly advise all students of introductory physics (any semester) to visit this
site right now and bookmark it or download the PDF, and to visit the site from time to time
to see if I’ve posted an update. It is on my back burner, so to speak, until I finish the actual
physics texts themselves that I’m working on, but I will still add things to them as motivated
by my own needs teaching courses using this series of books.
Summary
That’s enough preliminary stuff. At this point, if you’ve read all of this “week”’s material
and vowed to adopt the method of three passes in all of your homework efforts, if you’ve
bookmarked the math help or downloaded it to your personal ebook viewer or computer,
if you’ve realized that your brain is actually something that you can help and enhance in
various ways as you try to learn things, then my purpose is well-served and you are as
well-prepared as you can be to tackle physics.
34 Preliminaries
Homework for Week 0
Problem 1.
Skim read this entire section (Week 0: How to Learn Physics), then read it like a novel,
front to back. Think about the connection between engagement and learning and how
important it is to try to have fun in a physics course. Write a short essay (say, three
paragraphs) describing at least one time in the past where you were extremely engaged
in a course you were taking, had lots of fun in the class, and had a really great learning
experience.
Problem 2.
Skim-read the entire content of Mathematics for Introductory Physics (linked above).
Identify things that it covers that you don’t remember or don’t understand. Pick one and
learn it.
Problem 3.
Apply the Method of Three Passes to this homework assignment. You can either write
three short essays or revise your one essay three times, trying to improve it and enhance it
each time for the first problem, and review both the original topic and any additional topics
you don’t remember in the math review problem. On the last pass, write a short (two
paragraph) essay on whether or not you found multiple passes to be effective in helping
you remember the content.
Note well: You may well have found the content boring on the third pass because
it was so familiar to you, but that’s not a bad thing. If you learn physics so thoroughly
that its laws become boring, not because they confuse you and you’d rather play World of
Warcraft but because you know them so well that reviewing them isn’t adding anything to
your understanding, well damn you’ll do well on the exams testing the concept, won’t you?
II: Elementary Mechanics
35
Preliminaries 37
OK, so now you are ready to learn physics. Your math skills are buffed and honed,
you’ve practiced the method of three passes, you understand that success depends on
your full engagement and a certain amount of hard work. In case you missed the previous
section (or are unused to actually reading a math-y textbook instead of minimally skimming
it to extract just enough “stuff” to be able to do the homework) I usually review its content
on the first day of class at the same time I review the syllabus and set down the class rules
and grading scheme that I will use.
It’s time to embark upon the actual week by week, day by day progress through the
course material. For maximal ease of use for you the student and (one hopes) your in-
structor whether or not that instructor is me, the course is designed to cover one chapter
per week-equivalent, whether or not the chapter is broken up into a day and a half of lecture
(summer school), an hour a day (MWF), or an hour and a half a day (TTh) in a semester
based scheme. To emphasize this preferred rhythm, each chapter will be referred to by the
week it would normally be covered in my own semester-long course.
A week’s work in all cases covers just about exactly one “topic” in the course. A very few
are spread out over two weeks; one or two compress two related topics into one week, but
in all cases the homework is assigned on a weekly rhythm to give you ample opportunity
to use the method of three passes described in the first part of the book, culminating in an
expected 2-3 hour recitation where you should go over the assigned homework in a group
of three to six students, with a mentor handy to help you where you get stuck, with a goal
of getting all of the homework perfectly correct by the end of recitation.
That is, at the end of a week plus its recitation, you should be able to do all of the
week’s homework, perfectly, and without looking or outside help. You will usually need all
three passes, the last one working in a group, plus the mentored recitation to achieve this
degree of competence! But without it, surely the entire process is a waste of time. Just
finishing the homework is not enough, the whole point of the homework is to help you learn
the material and it is the latter that is the real goal of the activity not the mere completion
of a task.
However, if you do this – attempt to really master the material – you are almost certain
to do well on a quiz that terminates the recitation period, and you will be very likely to retain
the material and not have to “cram” it in again for the hour exams and/or final exam later
in the course. Once you achieve understanding and reinforce it with a fair bit of repetition
and practice, most students will naturally transform this experience into remarkably deep
and permanent learning.
Note well that each week is organized for maximal ease of learning with the week/chapter
review first. Try to always look at this review before lecture even if you skip reading the
chapter itself until later, when you start your homework. Skimming the whole week/chapter
guided by this summary before lecture is, of course, better still. It is a “first pass” that can
often make lecture much easier to follow and help free you from the tyranny of note-taking
as you only need to note differences in the presentation from this text and perhaps the
answers to questions that helped you understand something during the discussion. Then
read or skim it again right before each homework pass.
38 Week 1: Newton’s Laws
Week 1: Newton’s Laws
Summary
• Physics is a language – in particular the language of a certain kind of worldview. For

philosophically inclined students who wish to read more deeply on this, I include links
to terms that provide background for this point of view.
– Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldview
– Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics
– Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology
Mathematics is the natural language and logical language of physics, not for any
particularly deep reason but because it works. The components of the seman-
tic language of physics are thus generally expressed as mathematical or logical
coordinates, and the semantic expressions themselves are generally mathemati-
cal/algebraic laws.
• Coordinates are the fundamental adjectival modifiers corresponding to the differenti-

ating properties of “things” (nouns) in the real Universe, where the term fundamental
can also be thought of as meaning irreducible – adjectival properties that cannot be
readily be expressed in terms of or derived from other adjectival properties of a given
object/thing. See:
– Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate System
• Units. Physical coordinates are basically mathematical numbers with units (or can
be so considered even when they are discrete non-ordinal sets). In this class we will
consistently and universally use Standard International (SI) units unless otherwise
noted. Initially, the irreducible units we will need are:
a) meters – the SI units of length

b) seconds – the SI units of time
c) kilograms – the SI units of mass
All other units for at least a short while will be expressed in terms of these three, for
example units of velocity will be meters per second, units of force will be kilogram-
meters per second squared. We will often give names to some of these combinations,
such as the SI units of force:
39
kg-m
1 Newton =
sec2
Later you will learn of other irreducible coordinates that describe elementary parti-
cles or extended macroscopic objects in physics such as electrical charge, as well
as additional derivative quantities such as energy, momentum, angular momentum,
electrical current, and more.
• Laws of Nature are essentially mathematical postulates that permit us to understand

natural phenomena and make predictions concerning the time evolution or static re-
lations between the coordinates associated with objects in nature that are consistent
mathematical theorems of the postulates. These predictions can then be compared
to experimental observation and, if they are consistent (uniformly successful) we in-
crease our degree of belief in them. If they are inconsistent with observations, we
decrease our degree of belief in them, and seek alternative or modified postulates
that work better23 .
The entire body of human scientific knowledge is the more or less successful out-
come of this process. This body is not fixed – indeed it is constantly changing be-
cause it is an adaptive process, one that self-corrects whenever observation and
prediction fail to correspond or when new evidence spurs insight (sometimes revolu-
tionary insight!)
Newton’s Laws built on top of the analytic geometry of Descartes (as the basis for
at least the abstract spatial coordinates of things) are the dynamical principle that
proved successful at predicting the outcome of many, many everyday experiences
and experiments as well as cosmological observations in the late 1600’s and early
1700’s all the way up to the mid-19th century24 . When combined with associated
empirical force laws they form the basis of the physics you will learn in this course.
• Newton’s Laws:
a) Law of Inertia: Objects at rest or in uniform motion (at a constant velocity) in

an inertial reference frame remain so unless acted upon by an unbalanced (net)
force. We can write this algebraically25 as
X
~ i = 0 = m~ d~
v
F a=m ⇒ ~
v = constant vector (1.1)
dt
i
23
Students of philosophy or science who really want to read something cool and learn about the fundamental
basis of our knowledge of reality are encouraged to read e.g. Richard Cox’s The Algebra of Probable Reason
or E. T. Jaynes’ book Probability Theory: The Logic of Science. These two related works quantify how science
is not (as some might think) absolute truth or certain knowledge, but rather the best set of things to believe
based on our overall experience of the world, that is to say, “the evidence”.
24
Although they failed in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, to be superceded by relativistic quantum
mechanics. Basically, everything we learn in this course is wrong, but it nevertheless works damn well to
describe the world of macroscopic, slowly moving objects of our everyday experience.
25
For students who are still feeling very shaky about their algebra and notation, let me remind you that
P P
F~ i stands for “The sum over i of all force F
~ i ”, or F
~1 + F
~2 + F
~ 3 + .... We will often use as shorthand
i
for summing over a list of similar objects or components or parts of a whole.
b) Law of Dynamics: The net force applied to an object is directly proportional to

its acceleration in an inertial reference frame. The constant of proportionality is
called the mass of the object. We write this algebraically as:
~=
X
~ i = m~ d(m~v) d~
p
F F a= = (1.2)
dt dt
i
where we introduce the momentum of a particle, p v , in the last way of

~ = m~
writing it.
~ AB on object A along a line con-
c) Law of Reaction: If object B exerts a force F
necting the two objects, then object A exerts an equal and opposite reaction
~ BA = −F
force of F ~ AB on object B. We write this algebraically as:
~ ij
F ~ ji
= −F (1.3)
X
(or) ~ ij
F = 0 (1.4)
i,j
(the latter form means that the sum of all internal forces between particles in
any closed system of particles cancel).
• An inertial reference frame is a spatial coordinate system plus an indepen-

dent time coordinate that is either at rest or moving at a constant speed, a non-
accelerating set of coordinates that can be used to describe the locations of real
objects as a function of time. However, this definition is inadequate, because ac-
celeration itself is defined only relative to a frame. This leaves us with a problem:
non-accelerating relative to what frame? We have to identify at least one inertial ref-
erence frame before we can talk about other frames that do not accelerate relative to
it.
The way we can identify any inertial reference frame is as follows. As you will see,
all actual physical forces in the laws of nature are interaction laws. For any
observed force pushing an object, there exists another object somewhere that is
doing the pushing, a “Newton’s Third Law partner”. No force exists in isolation, and
no object can exert a force on itself. A signature of a non-inertial reference frame is
that within it, there exists an observed “pseudoforce” that arises in Newton’s Second
Law due to the acceleration of the frame. This pseudoforce has no Newton’s Third
Law partner! A consistent definition of an inertial reference frame is therefore:
Inertial Reference Frame: Any frame where all observed forces that
occur in all statements of Newton’s Second Law for all particles are
pairwise interactions between particles. In other words, there are no
forces that act on any particle in complete isolation from and independent
of the other particles in the system
.
In physics one has considerable leeway when it comes to choosing the (inertial) co-
ordinate frame to be used to solve a problem – some lead to much simpler solutions
than others!
• Forces of Nature (weakest to strongest):
a) Gravity
b) Weak Nuclear
c) Electromagnetic
d) Strong Nuclear
It is possible that there are more forces of nature waiting to be discovered. Because
physics is not a dogma, this presents no real problem. If they are, we’ll simply give
the discoverer a Nobel Prize and add their name to the “pantheon” of great physicists,
add the force to the list above, and move on. Science, as noted, is self-correcting.
• Force is a vector. For each force rule below we therefore need both a formula or
rule for the magnitude of the force (which we may have to compute in the solution to
a problem – in the case of forces of constraint such as the normal force (see below)
we will usually have to do so) and a way of determining or specifying the direction of
the force. Often this direction will be obvious and in corresponence with experience
and mere common sense – strings pull, solid surfaces push, gravity points down and
not up. Other times it will be more complicated or geometric and (along with the
magnitude) may vary with position and time.
• Force Rules The following set of force rules will be used both in this chapter and
throughout this course. All of these rules can be derived or understood (with some
effort) from the forces of nature, that is to say from “elementary” natural laws.
a) Gravity (near the surface of the earth):
Fg = mg (1.5)
The direction of this force is down, so one could write this in vector form as
F~ g = −mg ŷ in a coordinate system such that up is the +y direction. This rule
follows from Newton’s Law of Gravitation, the elementary law of nature in the
list above, evaluated “near” the surface of the earth where it is approximately
constant.
b) The Spring (Hooke’s Law) in one dimension:
Fx = −k∆x (1.6)
This force is directed back to the equilibrium point of unstretched spring, in

the opposite direction to ∆x, the displacement of the mass on the spring from
equilibrium. This rule arises from the primarily electrostatic forces holding the
atoms or molecules of the spring material together, which tend to linearly oppose
small forces that pull them apart or push them together (for reasons we will
understand in some detail later).
c) The Normal Force:
F⊥ = N (1.7)
This points perpendicular and away from solid surface, magnitude sufficient to
oppose the force of contact whatever it might be! This is an example of a force
of constraint – a force whose magnitude is determined by the constraint that

one solid object cannot generally interpenetrate another solid object, so that the
solid surfaces exert whatever force is needed to prevent it (up to the point where
the “solid” property itself fails). The physical basis is once again the electro-
static molecular forces holding the solid object together, and microscopically the
surface deforms, however slightly, more or less like a spring.
d) Tension in an Acme (massless, unstretchable, unbreakable) string:
Fs = T (1.8)
This force simply transmits an attractive force between two objects on opposite
ends of the string, in the directions of the taut string at the points of contact.
It is another constraint force with no fixed value. Physically, the string is like a
spring once again – it microscopically is made of bound atoms or molecules that
pull ever so slightly apart when the string is stretched until the restoring force
balances the applied force.
e) Static Friction
fs ≤ µs N (1.9)
(directed opposite towards net force parallel to surface to contact). This is an-
other force of constraint, as large as it needs to be to keep the object in question
travelling at the same speed as the surface it is in contact with, up to the max-
imum value static friction can exert before the object starts to slide. This force
arises from mechanical interlocking at the microscopic level plus the electro-
static molecular forces that hold the surfaces themselves together.
f) Kinetic Friction
fk = µk N (1.10)
(opposite to direction of relative sliding motion of surfaces and parallel to surface

of contact). This force does have a fixed value when the right conditions (sliding)
hold. This force arises from the forming and breaking of microscopic adhesive
bonds between atoms on the surfaces plus some mechanical linkage between
the small irregularities on the surfaces.
g) Fluid Forces, Pressure: A fluid in contact with a solid surface (or anything
else) in general exerts a force on that surface that is related to the pressure of
the fluid:
FP = P A (1.11)
which you should read as “the force exerted by the fluid on the surface is the
pressure in the fluid times the area of the surface”. If the pressure varies or
the surface is curved one may have to use calculus to add up a total force. In
general the direction of the force exerted is perpendicular to the surface. An
object at rest in a fluid often has balanced forces due to pressure. The force
arises from the molecules in the fluid literally bouncing off of the surface of the
object, transferring momentum (and exerting an average force) as they do so.
We will study this in some detail and will even derive a kinetic model for a gas
that is in good agreement with real gases.
h) Drag Forces:
Fd = −bv n (1.12)
(directed opposite to relative velocity of motion through fluid, n usually between
1 (low velocity) and 2 (high velocity). This force also has a determined value,
although one that depends in detail on the motion of the object. It arises first
because the surface of an object moving through a fluid is literally bouncing
fluid particles off in the leading direction while moving away from particles in
the trailing direction so that there is a differential pressure on the two surfaces,
second from “friction” between the fluid particles and the surface.
The first week summary would not be complete without some sort of reference to
methodologies of problem solving using Newton’s Laws and the force laws or rules above.
The following rubric should be of great use to you as you go about solving any of the prob-
lems you will encounter in this course, although we will modify it slightly when we treat e.g.
energy instead of force, torque instead of force, and so on.
Dynamical Recipe for Newton’s Second Law
a) Draw a good picture of what is going on. In general you should probably do this even
if one has been provided for you – visualization is key to success in physics.
b) On your drawing (or on a second one) decorate the objects with all of the forces
that act on them, creating a free body diagram for the forces on each object. It is
sometimes useful to draw pictures of each object in isolation with just the forces
acting on that one object connected to it, although for simple problems this is not
always necessary. Either way your diagram should be clearly drawn and labelled.
c) Choose a suitable coordinate system for the problem. This coordinate system need
not be cartesian (x, y, z). We sometimes need separate coordinates for each mass
(with a relation between them) or will even find it useful to “wrap around a corner”
(following a string around a pulley, for example) in some problems
d) Decompose the forces acting on each object into their components in the (orthogo-
nal) coordinate frame(s) you chose, using trigonometry and geometry.
e) Write Newton’s Second Law for each object (summing the forces and setting the
result to mi~ai for each – ith – object for each dimension) and algebraically rearrange it
into (vector) differential equations of motion (practically speaking, this means solving
ai = ddt~
2x
for or isolating the acceleration ~ 2 of the particles in the equations of motion).
i
f) Solve the independent 1 dimensional systems for each of the independent orthog-
onal coordinates chosen, plus any coordinate system constraints or relations. In
many problems the constraints will eliminate one or more degrees of freedom from
consideration, especially if you have chosen your cooordinates wisely (for example,
ensuring that one coordinate points in the direction of a known component of the
acceleration such as 0 or Ω2 r).
Note that in most nontrivial cases, these solutions will have to be simultaneous solu-
tions, obtained by e.g. algebraic substitution or elimination.
g) Reconstruct the multidimensional trajectory by adding the vector components thus

obtained back up (for a common independent variable, time). In some cases you may
skip straight ahead to other known kinematic relations useful in solving the problem.
h) Answer algebraically any questions requested concerning the resultant trajectory,

using kinematic relations as needed.
Some parts of this rubric will require experience and common sense to implement
correctly for any given kind of problem. That is why homework is so critically important! We
want to make solving the problems (and the conceptual understanding of the underlying
physics) easy, and they will only get to be easy with practice followed by a certain amount
of meditation and reflection, practice followed by reflection, iterate until the light dawns...
1.1: Introduction: A Bit of History and Philosophy
It has been remarked by at least one of my colleagues that one reason we have such a
hard time teaching Newtonian physics to college students is that we have to first unteach
them their already prevailing “natural” worldview of physics, which dates all the way back
to Aristotle.
In a nutshell and in very general terms (skipping all the “nature is a source or cause
of being moved and of being at rest” as primary attributes, see Aristotle’s Physica, book
II) Aristotle considered motion or the lack thereof of an object to be innate properties of
materials, according to their proportion of the big four basic elements: Earth, Air, Fire and
Water. He extended the idea of the moving and the immovable to cosmology and to his
Metaphysics as well.
In this primitive view of things, the observation that (most) physical objects (being
“Earth”) set in motion slow down is translated into the notion that their natural state is
to be at rest, and that one has to add something from one of the other essences to pro-
duce a state of uniform motion. This was not an unreasonable hypothesis; a great deal
of a person’s everyday experience (then and now) is consistent with this. When we pick
something up and throw it, it moves for a time and bounces, rolls, slides to a halt. We need
to press down on the accelerator of a car to keep it going, adding something from the “fire”
burning in the motor to the “earth” of the body of the car. Even our selves seem to run on
“something” that goes away when we die.
Unfortunately, it is completely and totally wrong. Indeed, it is almost precisely Newton’s
first law stated backwards. It is very likely that the reason Newton wrote down his first law
(which is otherwise a trivial consequence of his second law) is to directly confront the error
of Aristotle, to force the philosophers of his day to confront the fact that his (Newton’s) the-
ory of physics was irreconcilable with that of Aristotle, and that (since his actually worked
to make precise predictions of nearly any kind of classical motion that were in good agree-
ment with observation and experiments designed to test it) Aristotle’s physics was almost
certainly wrong. Or at any rate, wronger than Newton’s.
Newton’s discoveries were a core component of the Enlightment, a period of a few
hundred years in which Europe went from a state of almost slavish, church-endorsed belief
in the infallibility and correctness of the Aristotelian worldview to a state where humans,
for the first time in history, let nature speak for itself by using a consistent framework to
listen to what nature had to say26 . Aristotle lost, but his ideas are slow to die because they
closely parallel everyday experience. The first chore for any serious student of physics is
thus to unlearn this Aristotelian view of things27 .
26
Students who like to read historical fiction will doubtless enjoy Neal Stephenson’s Baroque Cycle, a set
of novels – filled with sex and violence and humor, a good read – that spans the Enlightenment and in which
Newton, Liebnitz, Hooke and other luminaries to whom we owe our modern conceptualization of physics all
play active parts.
27
This is not the last chore, by the way. Physicists have long since turned time into a coordinate just like
space so that how long things take depends on one’s point of view, eliminated the assumption that one can
measure any set of measureable quantities to arbitrary precision in an arbitrary order, replaced the determin-
ism of mathematically precise trajectories with a funny kind of stochastic quasi-determinism, made (some)
forces into just an aspect of geometry, and demonstrated a degree of mathematical structure (still incomplete,
This is not, unfortunately, an abstract problem. It is very concrete and very current.
Because I have an online physics textbook, and because physics is in some very fun-
damental sense the “magic” that makes the world work, I not infrequently am contacted
by individuals who do not understand the material covered in this textbook, who do not
want to do the very hard work required to master it, but who still want to be “magicians”.
So they invent their own version of the magic, usually altering the mathematically precise
meanings of things like “force”, “work”, “energy” to be something else altogether that they
think that they understand but that, when examined closely, usually are dimensionally or
conceptually inconsistent and mean nothing at all.
Usually their “new” physics is in fact a reversion to the physics of Aristotle. They recre-
ate the magic of earth and air, fire and water, a magic where things slow down unless fire
(energy) is added to sustain their motion or where it can be extracted from invisible an inex-
haustible resources, a world where the mathematical relations between work and energy
and force and acceleration do not hold. A world, in short, that violates a huge, vast, truly
stupdendous body of accumulated experimental evidence including the very evidence that
you yourselves will very likely observe in person in the physics labs associated with this
course. A world in which things like perpetual motion machines are possible, where free
lunches abound, and where humble dilettantes can be crowned “the next Einstein” without
having a solid understanding of algebra, geometry, advanced calculus, or the physics that
everybody else seems to understand perfectly.
This world does not exist. Seriously, it is a fantasy, and a very dangerous one, one that
threatens modern civilization itself. One of the most important reasons you are taking this
course, whatever your long term dreams and aspirations are professionally, is to come to
fully and deeply understand this. You will come to understand the magic of science, at the
same time you learn to reject the notion that science is magic or vice versa.
There is nothing wrong with this. I personally find it very comforting that the individuals
that take care of my body (physicians) and who design things like jet airplanes and auto-
mobiles (engineers) share a common and consistent Newtonian28 view of just how things
work, and would find it very disturbing if any of them believed in magic, in gods, in fairies,
in earth, air, fire and water as constituent elements, in “crystal energies”, in the power of
a drawn pentagram or ritually chanted words in any context whatsoever. These all repre-
sent a sort of willful wishful thinking on the part of the believer, a desire for things to not
follow the rigorous mathematical rules that they appear to follow as they evolve in time, for
there to be a “man behind the curtain” making things work out as they appear to do. Or
sometimes an entire pantheon.
Let me be therefore be precise. In the physics we will study week by week below, the
natural state of “things” (e.g. objects made of matter) will be to move uniformly. We will
learn non-Aristotelian physics, Newtonian physics. It is only when things are acted on from
outside by unbalanced forces that the motion becomes non-uniform; they will speed up or
slow down. By the time we are done, you will understand how this can still lead to the
we’re working on it) beyond the wildest dreams of Aristotle or his mathematical-mystic buddies, the Pythagore-
ans.
28
Newtonian or better, that is. Of course actual modern physics is non-Newtonian quantum mechanics, but
this is just as non-magical and concrete and it reduces to Newtonian physics in the macroscopic world of our
quotidian experience.
damping of motion observed in everyday life, why things do generally slow down. In the
meantime, be aware of the problem and resist applying the Aristotelian view to real physics
problems, and consider, based on the evidence and your experiences taking this course
rejecting “magic” as an acceptable component of your personal worldview unless and until
it too has some sort of objective empirical support. Which would, of course, just make it
part of physics!
1.2: Dynamics
Physics is the study of dynamics. Dynamics is the description of the actual forces of
nature that, we believe, underlie the causal structure of the Universe and are responsible
for its evolution in time. We are about to embark upon the intensive study of a simple
description of nature that introduces the concept of a force, due to Isaac Newton. A force
is considered to be the causal agent that produces the effect of acceleration in any massive
object, altering its dynamic state of motion.
Newton was not the first person to attempt to describe the underlying nature of causal-
ity. Many, many others, including my favorite ‘dumb philosopher’, Aristotle, had attempted
this. The major difference between Newton’s attempt and previous ones is that Newton did
not frame his as a philosophical postulate per se. Instead he formulated it as a mathemat-
ical theory and proposed a set of laws that (he hoped) precisely described the regularities
of motion in nature.
In physics a law is the equivalent of a postulated axiom in mathematics. That is, a
physical law is, like an axiom, an assumption about how nature operates that not formally
provable by any means, including experience, within the theory. A physical law is thus not
considered “correct” – rather we ascribe to it a “degree of belief” based on how well and
consistently it describes nature in experiments designed to verify and falsify its correspon-
dence.
It is important to do both. Again, interested students are are encouraged to look up
Karl Popper’s “Falsifiability”29 and the older Postivism30 . A hypothesis must successfully
withstand the test of repeated, reproducible experiments that both seek to disprove it and
to verify that it has predictive value in order to survive and become plausible. And even
then, it could be wrong!
If a set of laws survive all the experimental tests we can think up and subject it to,
29
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsifiability. Popper considered the ability to in principle disprove
a hypothesis as an essential criterion for it to have objective meaning. Students might want to purchase and
read Nassim Nicholas Taleb’s book The Black Swan to learn of the dangers and seductions of worldview-
building gone awry due to insufficient skepticism or a failure to allow for the disproportionate impact of the
unexpected but true anyway – such as an experiment that falsifies a conclusion that was formerly accepted as
being verified.
30
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positivism. This is the correct name for “verifiability”, or the ability
to verify a theory as the essential criterion for it to have objective meaning. The correct modern approach in
physics is to do both, following the procedure laid out by Richard Cox and E. T. Jaynes wherein propositions
are never proven or disproven per se, but rather are shown to be more or less “plausible”. A hypothesis in this
approach can have meaning as a very implausible notion quite independent of whether or not it can be verified
or falsified – yet.
we consider it likely that it is a good approximation to the true laws of nature; if it passes
many tests but then fails others (often failing consistently at some length or time scale)
then we may continue to call the postulates laws (applicable within the appropriate milieu)
but recognize that they are only approximately true and that they are superceded by some
more fundamental laws that are closer (at least) to being the “true laws of nature”.
Newton’s Laws, as it happens, are in this latter category – early postulates of physics
that worked remarkably well up to a point (in a certain “classical” regime) and then failed.
They are “exact” (for all practical purposes) for massive, large objects moving slowly com-
pared to the speed of light31 for long times such as those we encounter in the everyday
world of human experience (as described by SI scale units). They fail badly (as a basis for
prediction) for microscopic phenomena involving short distances, small times and masses,
for very strong forces, and for the laboratory description of phenomena occurring at rela-
tivistic velocities. Nevertheless, even here they survive in a distorted but still recognizable
form, and the constructs they introduce to help us study dynamics still survive.
Interestingly, Newton’s laws lead us to second order differential equations, and even
quantum mechanics appears to be based on differential equations of second order or less.
Third order and higher systems of differential equations seem to have potential problems
with temporal causality (where effects always follow, or are at worst simultaneous with,
their causes in time); it is part of the genius of Newton’s description that it precisely and
sufficiently allows for a full description of causal phenomena, even where the details of that
causality turn out to be incorrect.
Incidentally, one of the other interesting features of Newton’s Laws is that Newton in-
vented calculus to enable him to solve the problems they described. Now you know why
calculus is so essential to physics: physics was the original motivation behind the invention
of calculus itself. Calculus was also (more or less simultaneously) invented in the more
useful and recognizable form that we still use today by other mathematical-philosophers
such as Leibnitz, and further developed by many, many people such as Gauss, Poincare,
Poisson, Laplace and others. In the overwhelming majority of cases, especially in the
early days, solving one or more problems in the physics that was still being invented was
the motivation behind the most significant developments in calculus and differential equa-
tion theory. This trend continues today, with physics providing an underlying structure and
motivation for the development of much of the most advanced mathematics.
1.3: Coordinates
Think about any thing, any entity that objectively exists in the real, visible, Universe. What
defines the object and differentiates it from all of the other things that make up the Uni-
verse? Before we can talk about how the Universe and its contents change in time, we
have to talk about how to describe its contents (and time itself) at all.
As I type this I’m looking over at just such a thing across the room from me, an object
that I truly believe exists in the real Universe. To help you understand this object, I have to
use language. I might tell you how large it is, what its weight is, what it looks like, where
31
c = 3 × 108 meters/second
it is, how long it has been there, what it is for, and – of course – I have to use words to
do this, not just nouns but a few adjectival modifiers, and speak of an “empty beer glass
sitting on a table in my den just to my side”, where now I have only to tell you just where
my den is, where the table is in the den, and perhaps differentiate this particular beer glass
from other beer glasses you might have seen. Eventually, if I use enough words, construct
a detailed map, make careful measurements, perhaps include a picture, I can convey to
you a very precise mental picture of the beer glass, one sufficiently accurate that you can
visualize just where, when and what it is (or was).
Of course this prose description is not the glass itself! If you like, the map is not the
territory32 ! That is, it is an informational representation of the glass, a collection of symbols
with an agreed upon meaning (where meaning in this context is a correspondence between
the symbols and the presumed general sensory experience of the glass that one would
have if one looked at the glass from my current point of view).
Constructing just such a map is the whole point of physics, only the map is not just of
mundane objects such as a glass; it is the map of the whole world, the whole Universe.
To the extent that this worldview is successful, especially in a predictive sense and not just
hindsight, the physical map in your mind works well to predict the Universe you perceive
through your sensory apparatus. A perfect understanding of physics (and a knowledge of
certain data) is equivalent to a possessing a perfect map, one that precisely locates every
thing within the Universe for all possible times.
Maps require several things. It is convenient, but not necessary, to have a set of single
term descriptors, symbols for various “things” in the world the map is supposed to describe.
So this symbol might stand for a house, that one for a bridge, still another one for a street
or railroad crossing. Another absolutely essential part of a map is the actual coordinates
of things that it is describing. The coordinate representation of objects drawn in on the
map is supposed to exist in an accurate one-to-one but abstract correspondence with the
concrete territory in the real world where the things represented by the symbols actually
exist and move about33 .
Of course the symbols such as the term “beer glass” can themselves be abstractly
modeled as points in some sort of space; Complex or composite objects with “simple”
coordinates can be represented as a collection of far more coordinates for the smaller
objects that make up the composite object. Ultimately one arrives at elementary objects,
objects that are not (as far as we know or can tell so far ) made up of other objects at
all. The various kinds of elementary objects, the list of their variable properties, and their
spatial and temporal coordinates are in some deep sense all coordinates, and every object
in the universe can be thought of as a point in or volume of this enormous and highly
complex coordinate space!
In this sense “coordinates” are the fundamental adjectival modifiers corresponding to
the differentiating properties of “named things” (nouns) in the real Universe, where the
32
This is an adage of a field called General Semantics and is something to keep carefully in mind while
studying physics. Not even my direct perception of the glass is the glass itself; it is just a more complex and
dynamical kind of map.
33
Of course in the old days most actual maps were stationary, and one had to work hard to see “time” on
them, but nowadays nearly everybody has or at least has seen GPS maps and video games, where things or
the map coordinates themselves move.
term fundamental can also be thought of as meaning elementary or irreducible – adjectival

properties that cannot be readily be expressed in terms of or derived from other adjectival
properties of a given object/thing.
Physical coordinates are, then, basically mathematical numbers with units (and can be
so considered even when they are discrete non-ordinal sets). At first we will omit most of
the details from the objects we study to keep things simple. In fact, we will spend most
of the first part of the course interested in only three quantities that set the scale for the
coordinate system we need to describe the classical physics of a rather generic “particle”:
space (where it is), time (when it is there), and mass (an intrinsic property).
This is our first idealization – the treatment of an extended (composite) object as if it
were itself an elementary object. This is called the particle approximation, and later we will
justify this approximation a posteriori (after the fact) by showing that there really is a special
point in a collective system of particles that behaves like a particle as far as Newton’s Laws
are concerned. For the time being, then, objects such as porpoises, puppies, and ponies
are all idealized and will be treated as particles34 . We’ll talk more about particles in a page
or two.
We need units to describe intervals or values in all three coordinates so that we can
talk or think about those particles (idealized objects) in ways that don’t depend on the
listener. In this class we will consistently and universally use Standard International (SI)
units unless otherwise noted. Initially, the irreducible units we will need are:
a) meters – the SI units of length
b) seconds – the SI units of time
c) kilograms – the SI units of mass
All other units for at least a short while will be expressed in terms of these three.
For example units of velocity will be meters per second, units of force will be kilogram-
meters per second squared. We will often give names to some of these combinations,
such as the SI units of force:
kg-m
1 Newton =
sec2
Later you may learn of other irreducible coordinates that describe elementary particles
or extended macroscopic objects in physics such as electrical charge, as well as additional
derivative quantities such as energy, momentum, angular momentum, electrical current,
and more.
As for what the quantities that these units represent are – well, that’s a tough question
to answer. I know how to measure distances between points in space and times between
events that occur in space, using things like meter sticks and stopwatches, but as to just
34
I teach physics in the summers at the Duke Marine Lab, where there are porpoises and wild ponies visible
from the windows of our classroom. Puppies I threw in for free because they are cute and also begin with “p”.
However, you can think of a particle as a baseball or bullet or ball bearing if you prefer less cute things that
begin with the letter “b”, which is a symmetry transformed “p”, sort of.
what the space and time in which these events are embedded really is I’m as clueless as a
cave-man. It’s probably best to just define distance as that which we might measure with a
meter stick or other “standard” of length, time as that which we might measure with a clock
or other “standard” of time, and mass that which we might measure compared to some
“standard” of mass using methods we’ll have to figure out below. Existential properties
cannot really be defined, only observed, quantified, and understood in the context of a
complete, consistent system, the physical worldview, the map we construct that works to
establish a useful semantic representation of that which we observe.
Sorry if that’s difficult to grasp, but there it is. It’s just as difficult for me (after most
of a lifetime studying physics) as it is for you right now. Dictionaries are, after all, writ-
ten in words that are in the dictionaries and hence are self-referential and in some deep
sense should be abstract, arbitrary, meaningless – yet somehow we learn to speak and
understand them. So it is, so it will be for you, with physics, and the process takes some
time.
y
m
y(t) ∆x
x(t)
x(t+ ∆t)
x(t) x
Figure 2: Coordinatized visualization of the motion of a particle of mass m along a trajec-

tory ~
x(t). Note that in a short time ∆t the particle’s position changes from ~
x(t) to ~
x(t+∆t).
Coordinates are enormously powerful ideas, the very essence of mapmaking and knowl-
edge itself. To assist us in working with them, we introduce the notion of coordinate frame
– a system of all of the relevant coordinates that describe at least the position of a particle
(in one, two or three dimensions, usually). In figure 2 is a picture of a simple single particle
with mass m (that might represent my car) on a set of coordinates that describes at least
part of the actual space where my car is sitting. The solid line on this figure represents the
trajectory of my car as it moves about. Armed with a watch, an apparatus for measuring
mass, meter sticks and some imagination, one can imagine a virtual car rolling up or down
along its virtual trajectory and compare its motion in our conceptual map35 with the corre-
spondent happenings in the world outside of our minds where the real car moves along a
real track.
35
This map need not be paper, in other words – I can sit here and visualize the entire drive from my house
to the grocery store, over time. Pictures of trajectories on paper are just ways we help our brains manage this
sort of understanding.
Note well that we idealize my car by treating the whole thing as a single object with a
single position (located somewhere “in the middle”) when we know that it is really made
up steering wheels and bucket seats that are “objects” in their own right that are further
assembled into a “car” All of these wheels and panels, nuts and bolts are made up of still
smaller objects – molecules – and molecules are made up of atoms, and atoms are made
of protons and neutrons and electrons, and protons and neutrons are made up of quarks,
and we don’t really know for certain if electrons and quarks are truly elementary particles
or are themselves composite objects36 . Later in this semester we will formally justify our
ability to do this, and we will improve on our description of things like cars and wheels and
solid composite objects by learning how they can move, rotate, and even explode into little
bits of car and still have some parts of their collective coordinate motion that behaves as
though the ex-car is still a “single point-like object”.
In the meantime, we will simply begin with this idealization and treat discrete solid ob-
jects as particles – masses that are at a single point in space at a single time. So we will
treat objects such as planets, porpoises, puppies, people, baseballs and blocks, cars and
cannonballs and much more as if they have a single mass and a single spatial location
at any single instant in time – as a particle. One advantage of this is that the mathemat-
ical expressions for all of these quantities become functions of time37 and possibly other
coordinates.
In physical dynamics, we will be concerned with finding the trajectory of particles or
systems – the position of each particle in the system expressed as a function of time. We
can write the trajectory as a vector function on a spatial coordinate system (e.g. cartesian
coordinates in 2 dimensions):
~
x(t) = x(t)x̂ + y(t)ŷ (1.13)
Note that ~x(t) stands for a vector from the origin to the particle, where x(t) by itself (no
boldface or vector sign) stands for the x-component of this vector. An example trajectory
is visualized in figure 2 (where as noted, it might stand for the trajectory of my car, treated
as a particle). In all of the problems we work on throughout the semester, visualization will
be a key component of the solution.
The human brain doesn’t, actually, excel at being able to keep all of these details on-
board in your “mind’s eye”, the virtual visual field of your imagination. Consequently, you
must always draw figures, usually with coordinates, forces, and other “decorations”, when
you solve a physics problem. The paper (or blackboard or whiteboard) then becomes an
extension of your brain – a kind of “scratch space” that augments your visualization ca-
pabilities and your sequential symbolic reasoning capabilities. To put it bluntly, you are
more intelligent when you reason with a piece of paper and pen than you are when you are
forced to rely on your brain alone. To succeed in physics, you need all of the intelligence
you can get, and you need to synthesize solutions using both halves of your brain, visual-
ization and sequential reason. Paper and pen facilitate this process and one of the most
important lessons of this course is how to use them to attain the full benefit of the added
intelligence they enable not just in physics problems, but everywhere else as well.
36
Although the currently accepted belief is that they are. However, it would take only one good, reproducible
experiment to make this belief less plausible, more probably false. Evidence talks, belief walks.
37
Recall that a function is a quantity that depends on a set of argument(s) that is single-valued, that is, has
a single value for each unique value of its argument(s).
If we know the trajectory function of a particle, we know a lot of other things too. Since
we know where it is at any given time, we can easily tell how fast it is going in what
direction. This combination of the speed of the particle and its direction forms a vector
called the velocity of the particle. Speed, we all hopefully know from our experience in real
life doing things like driving cars, is a measure of how far you go in a certain amount of
time, expressed in units of distance (length) divided by time. Miles per hour. Furlongs per
fortnight. Or, in a physics course, meters per second 38 .
The average velocity of the particle is by definition the vector change in its position ∆~
x
in some time ∆t divided by that time:
∆~
x
~
v av = (1.14)
∆t
Sometimes average velocity is useful, but often, even usually, it is not. It can be a rather
poor measure for how fast a particle is actually moving at any given time, especially if
averaged over times that are long enough for interesting changes in the motion to occur.
For example, I might get in my car and drive around a racetrack at speed of 50 meters
per second – really booking it, tires squealing on the turns, smoke coming out of my engine
(at least if I tried this in my car, as it would likely explode if I tried to go 112 mph for any
extended time), and screech to a halt right back where I began. My average velocity is
then zero – I’m back where I started! That zero is a poor explanation for the heat waves
pulsing out from under the hood of the car and the wear on its tires.
More often we will be interested in the instantaneous velocity of the particle. This is
basically the average velocity, averaged over as small a time interval as possible – one so
short that it is just long enough for the car to move at all. Calculus permits us to take this
limit, and indeed uses just this limit as the definition of the derivative. We thus define the
instantaneous velocity vector as the time-derivative of the position vector:
~
x(t + ∆t) − ~
x(t) ∆~
x d~
x
~
v (t) = lim = lim = (1.15)
∆t→0 ∆t ∆t→0 ∆t dt
Sometimes we will care about “how fast” a car is going but not so much about the
direction. Speed is defined to be the magnitude of the velocity vector:
v(t) = |~
v (t)| (1.16)
We could say more about it, but I’m guessing that you already have a pretty good intu-
itive feel for speed if you drive a car and pay attention to how your speedometer reading
corresponds to the way things zip by or crawl by outside of your window.
The reason that average velocity is a poor measure is that (of course) our cars speed
up and slow down and change direction, often. Otherwise they tend to run into things,
because it is usually not possible to travel in perfectly straight lines at only one speed and
drive to the grocery store. To see how the velocity changes in time, we will need to consider
38
A good rule of thumb for people who have a practical experience of speeds in miles per hour trying to
visualize meters per second is that 1 meter per second is approximately equal to 2 41 miles per hour, hence
four meters per second is nine miles per hour. A cruder but still quite useful approximation is (meters per
second) equals (miles per hour/2).
the acceleration of a particle, or the rate at which the velocity changes. As before, we can
easily define an average acceleration over a possibly long time interval ∆t as:
~
v (t + ∆t) − ~
v (t) ∆~
v
~
aav = = (1.17)
∆t ∆t
Also as before, this average is usually a poor measure of the actual acceleration a
particle (or car) experiences. If I am on a straight track at rest and stamp on the accelerator,
burning rubber until I reach 50 meters per second (112 miles per hour) and then stamp
on the brakes to quickly skid to a halt, tires smoking and leaving black streaks on the
pavement, my average acceleration is once again zero, but there is only one brief interval
(between taking my foot off of the accelerator and before I pushed it down on the brake
pedal) during the trip where my actual acceleration was anything close to zero. Yet, my
average acceleration is zero.
Things are just as bad if I go around a circular track at a constant speed! As we will
shortly see, in that case I am always accelerating towards the center of the circle, but my
average acceleration is systematically approaching zero as I go around the track more and
more times.
From this we conclude that the acceleration that really matters is (again) the limit of the
average over very short times; the time derivative of the velocity. This limit is thus defined
to be the instantaneous accleration:
∆~
v d~
v d2 ~
x
~
a(t) = lim = = 2, (1.18)
∆t→0 ∆t dt dt
the acceleration of the particle right now.
Obviously we could continue this process and define the time derivative of the accel-
eration39 and still higher order derivatives of the trajectory. However, we generally do not
have to in physics – we will not need to continue this process. As it turns out, the dynamic
principle that appears sufficient to describe pretty much all classical motion will involve
force and acceleration, and pretty much all of the math we do (at least at first) will involve
solving backwards from a knowledge of the acceleration to a knowledge of the velocity and
position vectors via integration or more generally (later) solving the differential equation of
motion.
We are now prepared to formulate this dynamical principle – Newton’s Second Law.
While we’re at it, let’s study his First and Third Laws too – might as well collect the complete
set...
39
A quantity that actually does have a name – it is called the jerk – but we won’t need it.
1.4: Newton’s Laws
The following are Newton’s Laws as you will need to know them to both solve problems
and answer conceptual questions in this course. Note well that they are framed in terms of
the spatial coordinates defined in the previous section plus mass and time.
a) Law of Inertia: Objects at rest or in uniform motion (at a constant velocity) in an

inertial reference frame remain so unless acted upon by an unbalanced (net, total)
force. We can write this algebraically as:
~=
X
~ i = 0 = m~ d~
v
F F a=m ⇒ ~
v = constant vector (1.19)
dt
i
b) Law of Dynamics: The total force applied to an object is directly proportional to its
acceleration in an inertial reference frame. The constant of proportionality is called
the mass of the object. We write this algebraically as:
~=
X
~ i = m~ d(m~v) d~
p
F F a= = (1.20)
dt dt
i
where we introduce the momentum of a particle, p v , in the last way of writing it.
~ = m~
c) Law of Reaction: If object B exerts a (named) force F ~ AB on object B along a line

connecting the two objects, then object A exerts an equal and opposite reaction force
~ BA = −F
of F ~ AB on object B. Because we can have a lot more than just two particles
A and B, we write this algebraically as:
~ ij
F ~ ji
= −F (1.21)
X
(or) ~ ij
F = 0 (1.22)
i,j
where i and j are arbitrary particle labels. The latter form will be useful to us later; it
means that the sum of all internal forces between particles in any closed system of
particles cancels!.
Note that these laws are not all independent as mathematics goes. The first law is
a clear and direct consequence of the second. The third is not – it is an independent
statement. The first law historically, however, had an important purpose. It rejected the
dynamics of Aristotle, introducing the new idea of intertia where an object in motion contin-
ues in that motion unless acted upon by some external agency. This is directly opposed to
the Aristotelian view that things only moved when acted on by an external agency and that
they naturally came to rest when that agency was removed. A second important purpose
of the first law is that – together with the third law – it helps us define an inertial reference
frame as a frame where the first law is true.
The second law is our basic dynamical principle. It tells one how to go from a problem
description (in words) plus a knowledge of the force laws of nature to an “equation of
motion” (typically a statement of Newton’s second law). The equation of motion, generally
solved for the acceleration, becomes a kinematical equation from which we can develop
a full knowledge of the solution using mathematics guided by our experience and physical
intuition.
The third law leads (as we shall see) to the surprising result that systems of particles
behave collectively like a particle! This is indeed fortunate! We know that something like
a baseball is really made up of a lot of teensy particles itself, and yet it obeys Newton’s
Second law as if it is a particle. We will use the third law to derive this and the closely
related Law of Conservation of Momentum in a later week of the course.
An inertial reference frame is a coordinate system (or frame) that is either at rest or mov-
ing at a constant speed, a non-accelerating frame of reference. For example, the ground,
or lab frame, is a coordinate system at rest relative to the approximately non-accelerating
ground or lab and is considered to be an inertial frame to a good approximation. A (coordi-
nate system inside a) car travelling at a constant speed relative to the ground, a spaceship
coasting in a region free from fields, a railroad car rolling on straight tracks at constant
speed are also inertial frames. A (coordinate system inside a) car that is accelerating (say
by going around a curve), a spaceship that is accelerating, a freight car that is speeding
up or slowing down – these are all examples of non-inertial frames. All of Newton’s laws
suppose an inertial reference frame (yes, the third law too) and are generally false for
accelerations evaluated in an accelerating frame as we will prove and discuss next week.
In the meantime, please be sure to learn the statements of the laws including the con-
dition “in an inertial reference frame”, in spite of the fact that you don’t yet really understand
what this means and why we include it. Eventually, it will be the other important meaning
and use of Newton’s First Law – it is the law that defines an inertial reference frame as any
frame where an object remains in a state of uniform motion if no forces act on it!
You’ll be glad that you did.
1.5: Forces
Classical dynamics at this level, in a nutshell, is very simple. Find the total force on an
object. Use Newton’s second law to obtain its acceleration (as a differential equation of
motion). Solve the equation of motion by direct integration or otherwise for the position
and velocity.
That’s it!
Well, except for answering those pesky questions that we typically ask in a physics
problem, but we’ll get to that later. For the moment, the next most important problem is:
how do we evaluate the total force?
To answer it, we need a knowledge of the forces at our disposal, the force laws and
rules that we are likely to encounter in our everyday experience of the world. Some of
these forces are fundamental forces – elementary forces that we call “laws of nature” be-
cause the forces themselves aren’t caused by some other force, they are themselves the
actual causes of dynamical action in the visible Universe. Other force laws aren’t quite so
fundamental – they are more like “approximate rules” and aren’t exactly correct. They are
also usually derivable from (or at least understandable from) the elementary natural laws,
Particle Location Size

Up or Down Quark Nucleon (Proton or Neutron) pointlike
Proton Nucleus 10−15 meters
Neutron Nucleus 10−15 meters
Nucleus Atom 10−15 meters
Electron Atom pointlike
Atom Molecules or Objects ∼ 10−10 meters
Molecule Objects > 10−10 meters
Table 1: Basic building blocks of normal matter as of 2011, subject to change as we dis-
cover and understand more about the Universe, ignoring pesky things like neutrinos, pho-
tons, gluons, heavy vector bosons, heavier leptons that physics majors (at least) will have
to learn about later...
although it may be quite a lot of work to do so.

We quickly review the forces we will be working with in the first part of the course, both
the forces of nature and the force rules that apply to our everyday existence in approximate
form.
1.5.1: The Forces of Nature
At this point in your life, you almost certainly know that all normal matter of your everyday
experience is made up of atoms. Most of you also know that an atom itself is made up
of a positively charged atomic nucleus that is very tiny indeed surrounded by a cloud of
negatively charged electrons that are much lighter. Atoms in turn bond together to make
molecules, atoms or molecules in turn bind together (or not) to form gases, liquids, solids
– “things”, including those macroscopic things that we are so far treating as particles.
The actual elementary particles from which they are made are much tinier than atoms.
It is worth providing a greatly simplified table of the “stuff” from which normal atoms (and
hence molecules, and hence we ourselves) are made:
In this table, up and down quarks and electrons are so-called elementary particles –
things that are not made up of something else but are fundamental components of nature.
Quarks bond together three at a time to form nucleons – a proton is made up of “up-up-
down” quarks and has a charge of +e, where e is the elementary electric charge. A neutron
is made up of “up-down-down” and has no charge.
Neutrons and protons, in turn, bond together to make an atomic nucleus. The simplest
atomic nucleus is the hydrogen nucleus, which can be as small as a single proton, or
can be a proton bound to one neutron (deuterium) or two neutrons (tritium). No matter
how many protons and neutrons are bound together, the atomic nucleus is small – order
of 10−15 meters in diameter40 . The quarks, protons and neutrons are bound together by
means of a force of nature called the strong nuclear interaction, which is the strongest
force we know of relative to the mass of the interacting particles.
40
...with the possible exception of neutrons bound together by gravity to form neutron stars. Those can be
thought of, very crudely, as very large nuclei.
The positive nucleus combines with electrons (which are negatively charged and around
2000 times lighter than a proton) to form an atom. The force responsible for this binding is
the electromagnetic force, another force of nature (although in truth nearly all of the inter-
action is electrostatic in nature, just one part of the overall electromagnetic interaction).
The light electrons repel one another electrostatically almost as strongly as they are
attracted to the nucleus that anchors them. They also obey the Pauli exclusion principle
which causes them to avoid one another’s company. These things together cause atoms
to be much larger than a nucleus, and to have interesting “structure” that gives rise to
chemistry and molecular bonding and (eventually) life.
Inside the nucleus (and its nucleons) there is another force that acts at very short
range. This force can cause e.g. neutrons to give off an electron and turn into a proton
or other strange things like that. This kind of event changes the atomic number of the
atom in question and is usually accompanied by nuclear radiation. We call this force the
weak nuclear force. The two nuclear forces thus both exist only at very short length scales,
basically in the quantum regime inside an atomic nucleus, where we cannot easily see
them using the kinds of things we’ll talk about this semester. For our purposes it is enough
that they exist and bind stable nuclei together so that those nuclei in turn can form atoms,
molecules, objects, us.
Our picture of normal matter, then, is that it is made up of atoms that may or may not be
bonded together into molecules, with three forces all significantly contributing to what goes
on inside a nucleus and only one that is predominantly relevant to the electronic structure
of the atoms themselves.
There is, however, a fourth force (that we know of – there may be more still, but four
is all that we’ve been able to positively identify and understand). That force is gravity.
Gravity is a bit “odd”. It is a very long range, but very weak force – by far the weakest
force of the four forces of nature. It only is signficant when one builds planet or star sized
objects, where it can do anything from simply bind an atmosphere to a planet and cause
moons and satellites to go around it in nice orbits to bring about the catastrophic collapse
of a dying star. The physical law for gravitation will be studied over an entire week of work
– later in the course. I put it down now just for completeness, but initially we’ll focus on the
force rules in the following section.
~ 21 = − Gm1 m2 r̂ 12
F (1.23)
2
r12
Don’t worry too much about what all of these symbols mean and what the value of G is –
we’ll get to all of that but not now.
Since we live on the surface of a planet, to us gravity will be an important force, but the
forces we experience every day and we ourselves are primarily electromagnetic phenom-
ena, with a bit of help from quantum mechanics to give all that electromagnetic stuff just
the right structure.
Let’s summarize this in a short table of forces of nature, strongest to weakest:
a) Strong Nuclear
b) Electromagnetic
c) Weak Nuclear
d) Gravity
Note well: It is possible that there are more forces of nature waiting to be discovered.
Because physics is not a dogma, this presents no real problem. If a new force of nature
(or radically different way to view the ones we’ve got) emerges as being consistent with
observation and predictive, and hence possibly/plausibly true and correct, we’ll simply give
the discoverer a Nobel Prize, add their name to the “pantheon of great physicists”, add the
force itself to the list above, and move on. Science, as noted above, is a self-correcting
system of reasoning, at least when it is done right.
1.5.2: Force Rules
The following set of force rules will be used both in this chapter and throughout this course.
All of these rules can be derived or understood (with some effort) from the forces of nature,
that is to say from “elementary” natural laws, but are not quite laws themselves.
a) Gravity (near the surface of the earth):
Fg = mg (1.24)
The direction of this force is down, so one could write this in vector form as F ~g =
−mg ŷ in a coordinate system such that up is the +y direction. This rule follows from
Newton’s Law of Gravitation, the elementary law of nature in the list above, evaluated
“near” the surface of the earth where it is varies only very slowly with height above
the surface (and hence is “constant”) as long as that height is small compared to the
radius of the Earth.
The measured value of g (the gravitational “constant” or gravitational field close to
the Earth’s surface) thus isn’t really constant – it actually varies weakly with latitude
and height and the local density of the earth immediately under your feet and is pretty
complicated41 . Some “constant”, eh?
Most physics books (and the wikipedia page I just linked) give g’s value as something
like:
meters
g ≈ 9.81 (1.25)
second2
(which is sort of an average of the variation) but in this class to the extent that we do
arithmetic with it we’ll just use
meters
g ≈ 10 (1.26)
second2
because hey, so it makes a 2% error. That’s not very big, really – you will be lucky to
measure g in your labs to within 2%, and it is so much easier to multiply or divide by
10 than 9.80665.
41
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity of Earth. There is a very cool “rotating earth” graphic on
this page that shows the field variation in a color map. This page goes into much more detail than I will about
the causes of variation of “apparent gravity”.
b) The Spring (Hooke’s Law) in one dimension:
Fx = −k∆x (1.27)
This force is directed back to the equilibrium point (the end of the unstretched spring
where the mass is attached) in the opposite direction to ∆x, the displacement of the
mass on the spring away from this equilibrium position. This rule arises from the
primarily electrostatic forces holding the atoms or molecules of the spring material
together, which tend to linearly oppose small forces that pull them apart or push
them together (for reasons we will understand in some detail later).
c) The Normal Force:

F⊥ = N (1.28)
This points perpendicular and away from solid surface, magnitude sufficient to op-
pose the force of contact whatever it might be! This is an example of a force of
constraint – a force whose magnitude is determined by the constraint that one solid
object cannot generally interpenetrate another solid object, so that the solid surfaces
exert whatever force is needed to prevent it (up to the point where the “solid” prop-
erty itself fails). The physical basis is once again the electrostatic molecular forces
holding the solid object together, and microscopically the surface deforms, however
slightly, more or less like a spring to create the force.
d) Tension in an Acme (massless, unstretchable, unbreakable) string:
Fs = T (1.29)
This force simply transmits an attractive force between two objects on opposite ends
of the string, in the directions of the taut string at the points of contact. It is another
constraint force with no fixed value. Physically, the string is like a spring once again
– it microscopically is made of bound atoms or molecules that pull ever so slightly
apart when the string is stretched until the restoring force balances the applied force.
e) Static Friction
fs ≤ µs N (1.30)
(directed opposite towards net force parallel to surface to contact). This is another
force of constraint, as large as it needs to be to keep the object in question travelling
at the same speed as the surface it is in contact with, up to the maximum value static
friction can exert before the object starts to slide. This force arises from mechanical
interlocking at the microscopic level plus the electrostatic molecular forces that hold
the surfaces themselves together.
f) Kinetic Friction
fk = µk N (1.31)
(opposite to direction of relative sliding motion of surfaces and parallel to surface
of contact). This force does have a fixed value when the right conditions (sliding)
hold. This force arises from the forming and breaking of microscopic adhesive bonds
between atoms on the surfaces plus some mechanical linkage between the small
irregularities on the surfaces.
g) Fluid Forces, Pressure: A fluid in contact with a solid surface (or anything else) in
general exerts a force on that surface that is related to the pressure of the fluid:
FP = P A (1.32)
which you should read as “the force exerted by the fluid on the surface is the pressure
in the fluid times the area of the surface”. If the pressure varies or the surface is
curved one may have to use calculus to add up a total force. In general the direction
of the force exerted is perpendicular to the surface. An object at rest in a fluid often
has balanced forces due to pressure. The force arises from the molecules in the
fluid literally bouncing off of the surface of the object, transferring momentum (and
exerting an average force) as they do so. We will study this in some detail and will
even derive a kinetic model for a gas that is in good agreement with real gases.
h) Drag Forces:
Fd = −bv n (1.33)
(directed opposite to relative velocity of motion through fluid, n usually between 1

(low velocity) and 2 (high velocity). It arises in part because the surface of an object
moving through a fluid is literally bouncing fluid particles off in the leading direction
while moving away from particles in the trailing direction, so that there is a differential
pressure on the two surfaces, in part from “kinetic friction” that exerts a force compo-
nent parallel to a surface in relative motion to the fluid. It is really pretty complicated
– so complicated that we can only write down a specific, computable expression for it
for very simple geometries and situations. Still, it is a very important and ubiquitous
force and we’ll try to gain some appreciation for it along the way.
1.6: Force Balance – Static Equilibrium
Before we start using dynamics at all, let us consider what happens when all of the forces
acting on an object balance. That is, there are several non-zero (vector) forces acting on
an object, but those forces sum up to zero force. In this case, Newton’s First Law becomes
very useful. It tells us that the object in question will remain at rest if it is initially at rest.
We call this situation where the forces are all balanced static force equilibrium:
X
~ tot =
F ~ i = m~
F a=0 (1.34)
i
This works both ways; if an object is at rest and stays that way, we can be certain that
the forces acting on it balance!
We will spend some time later studying static equilibrium in general once we have
learned about both forces and torques, but for the moment we will just consider a single
example of what is after all a pretty simple idea. This will also serve as a short introduction
to one of the forces listed above, Hooke’s Law for the force exerted by a spring on an
attached mass.
∆x
Figure 3: A mass m hangs on a spring with spring constant k. We would like to compute
the amount ∆x by which the string is stretched when the mass is at rest in static force
equilibrium.
Example 1.6.1: Spring and Mass in Static Force Equilibrium
Suppose we have a mass m hanging on a spring with spring constant k such that the
spring is stretched out some distance ∆x from its unstretched length. This situation is
pictured in figure 3.
We will learn how to really solve this as a dynamics problem later – indeed, we’ll spend
an entire week on it! Right now we will just write down Newton’s laws for this problem so
we can find a. Let the x direction be up. Then (using Hooke’s Law from the list above):
X
Fx = −k(x − x0 ) − mg = max (1.35)
or (with ∆x = x − x0 , so that ∆x is negative as shown)
k
ax = − ∆x − g (1.36)
m
Note that this result doesn’t depend on where the origin of the x-axis is, because x and
x0 both change by the same amount as we move it around. In most cases, we will find
the equilibrium position of a mass on a spring to be the most convenient place to put the
origin, because then x and ∆x are the same!
In static equilibrium, ax = 0 (and hence, Fx = 0) and we can solve for ∆x:
k
ax = − ∆x − g = 0
m
k
∆x = g
m
mg
∆x = (1.37)
k
You will see this result appear in several problems and examples later on, so bear it in
mind.
1.7: Simple Motion in One Dimension
Finally! All of that preliminary stuff is done with. If you actually read and studied the
chapter up to this point (many of you will not have done so, and you’ll be SORRReeee...)
you should:
a) Know Newton’s Laws well enough to recite them on a quiz – yes, I usually just put a
question like “What are Newton’s Laws” on quizzes just to see who can recite them
perfectly, a really useful thing to be able to do given that we’re going to use them
hundreds of times in the next 12 weeks of class, next semester, and beyond; and
b) Have at least started to commit the various force rules we’ll use this semester to
memory.
I don’t generally encourage rote memorization in this class, but for a few things, usually
very fundamental things, it can help. So if you haven’t done this, go spend a few minutes
working on this before starting the next section.
All done? Well all rightie then, let’s see if we can actually use Newton’s Laws (usually
Newton’s Second Law, our dynamical principle) and force rules to solve problems. We will
start out very gently, trying to understand motion in one dimension (where we will not at
first need multiple coordinate dimensions or systems or trig or much of the other stuff that
will complicate life later) and then, well, we’ll complicate life later and try to understand
what happens in 2+ dimensions.
Here’s the basic structure of a physics problem. You are given a physical description of
the problem. A mass m at rest is dropped from a height H above the ground at time t = 0;
what happens to the mass as a function of time? From this description you must visualize
what’s going on (sometimes but not always aided by a figure that has been drawn for you
representing it in some way). You must select a coordinate system to use to describe what
happens. You must write Newton’s Second Law in the coordinate system for all masses,
being sure to include all forces or force rules that contribute to its motion. You must solve
Newton’s Second Law to find the accelerations of all the masses (equations called the
equations of motion of the system). You must solve the equations of motion to find the
trajectories of the masses, their positions as a function of time, as well as their velocities
as a function of time if desired. Finally, armed with these trajectories, you must answer
all the questions the problem poses using algebra and reason and – rarely in this class –
arithmetic!
Simple enough.
Let’s put this simple solution methodology to the test by solving the following one di-
mensional, single mass example problem, and then see what we’ve learned.
Example 1.7.1: A Mass Falling from Height H
Let’s solve the problem we posed above, and as we do so develop a solution rubric – a
recipe for solving all problems involving dynamics42 ! The problem, recall, was to drop a
mass m from rest from a height H, algebraically find the trajectory (the position function
that solves the equations of motion) and velocity (the time derivative of the trajectory),
and then answer any questions that might be asked using a mix of algebra, intuition,
experience and common sense. For this first problem we’ll postpone actually asking any
question until we have these solutions so that we can see what kinds of questions one
might reasonably ask and be able to answer.
The first step in solving this or any physics problem is to visualize what’s going on!
Mass m? Height H? Drop? Start at rest? Fall? All of these things are input data that
mean something when translated into algebraic ”physicsese”, the language of physics, but
in the end we have to coordinatize the problem (choose a coordinate system in which to
do the algebra and solve our equations for an answer) and to choose a good one we need
to draw a representation of the problem.
Figure 4: A picture of a ball being dropped from a height H, with a suitable one-dimensional
coordinate system added. Note that the figure clearly indicates that it is the force of gravity
that makes it fall. The pictures of Satchmo (my border collie) and the tree and sun and
birds aren’t strictly necessary and might even be distracting, but my right brain was bored
when I drew this picture and they do orient the drawing and make it more fun!
Physics problems that you work and hand in that have no figure, no picture, not even
additional hand-drawn decorations on a provided figure will rather soon lose points in the
grading scheme! At first we (the course faculty) might just remind you and not take points
off, but by your second assignment you’d better be adding some relevant artwork to every
solution43 . Figure 4 is what an actual figure you might draw to accompany a problem might
42
At least for the next couple of weeks... but seriously, this rubric is useful all the way up to graduate physics.
43
This has two benefits – one is that it actually is a critical step in solving the problem, the other is that
look like.
Note a couple of things about this figure. First of all, it is large – it took up 1/4+ of the
unlined/white page I drew it on. This is actually good practice – do not draw postage-stamp
sized figures! Draw them large enough that you can decorate them, not with Satchmo but
with things like coordinates, forces, components of forces, initial data reminders. This is
your brain we’re talking about here, because the paper is functioning as an extension of
your brain when you use it to help solve the problem. Is your brain postage-stamp sized?
Don’t worry about wasting paper – paper is cheap, physics educations are expensive. Use
a whole page (or more) per problem solution at this point, not three problems per page with
figures that require a magnifying glass to make out.
When I (or your instructor) solve problems with you, this is the kind of thing you’ll see us
draw, over and over again, on the board, on paper at a table, wherever. In time, physicists
become pretty good schematic artists and so should you. However, in a textbook we want
things to be clearer and prettier, so I’ll redraw this in figure 5, this time with a computer
drawing tool (xfig) that I’ll use for drawing most of the figures included in the textbook.
Alas, it won’t have Satchmo, but it does have all of the important stuff that should be on
your hand-drawn figures.
v=0@t=0 +y’ v’ = 0 @ t = 0
+y
H m m
x’
mg mg
Figure 5: The same figure and coordinate system, drawn “perfectly” with xfig, plus a second
(alternative) coordinatization.
Note that I drew two alternative ways of adding coordinates to the problem. The x-y
coordinate system on the left is appropriate if you visualize the problem from the ground,
looking up like Satchmo, where the ground is at zero height. This might be e.g. dropping a
drawing engages the right hemisphere of your brain (the left hemisphere is the one that does the algebra).
The right hemisphere is the one that controls formation of long term memory, and it can literally get bored,
independently of the left hemisphere and interrupt your ability to work. If you’ve ever worked for a very long
time on writing something very dry (left hemisphere) or doing lots of algebraic problems (left hemisphere) and
found your eyes being almost irresistably drawn up to look out the window at the grass and trees and ponies
and bright sun, then know that it is your “right brain” that has taken over your body because it is dying in there,
bored out of its (your!) gourd.
To keep the right brain happy while you do left brained stuff, give it something to do – listen to music,
draw pictures or visualize a lot, take five minute right-brain-breaks and deliberately look at something visually
pleasing. If your right brain is happy, you can work longer and better. If your right brain is engaged in solving the
problem you will remember what you are working on much better, it will make more sense, and your attention
won’t wander as much. Physics is a whole brain subject, and the more pathways you use while working on it,
the easier it is to understand and remember!
ball off of the top of Duke Chapel, for example, with you on the ground watching it fall.
The x′ -y ′ coordinate system on the right works if you visualize the problem as some-
thing like dropping the same ball into a well, where the ground is still at “zero height” but
now it falls down to a negative height H from zero instead of starting at H and falling to
height zero. Or, you dropping the ball from the top of the Duke Chapel and counting “y ′ = 0
as the height where you are up there (and the initial position in y ′ of the ball), with the
ground at y ′ = −H below the final position of the ball after it falls.
Now pay attention, because this is important: Physics doesn’t care which coordinate
system you use! Both of these coordinatizations of the problem are inertial reference
frames. If you think about it, you will be able to see how to transform the answers obtained
in one coordinate system into the corresponding answers in the other (basically subtract
a constant H from the values of y in the left hand figure and you get y ′ in the right hand
figure, right?). Newton’s Laws will work perfectly in either inertial reference frame44 , and
truthfully there are an infinite number of coordinate frames you could choose that would all
describe the same problem in the end. You can therefore choose the frame that makes the
problem easiest to solve!
Personally, from experience I prefer the left hand frame – it makes the algebra a tiny
bit prettier – but the one on the right is really almost as good. I reject without thinking
about it all of the frames where the mass m e.g. starts at the initial position yi = H/2 and
falls down to the final position yf = −H/2. I do sometimes consider a frame like the one
on the right with y positive pointing down, but it often bothers students to have “down” be
positive (even though it is very natural to orient our coordinates so that F ~ points in the
positive direction of one of them) so we’ll work into that gently. Finally, I did draw the x
(horizontal) coordinate and ignored altogether for now the z coordinate that in principle is
pointing out of the page in a right-handed coordinate frame. We don’t really need either
of these because no aspect of the motion will change x or z (there are no forces acting in
those directions) so that the problem is effectively one-dimensional.
Next, we have to put in the physics, which at this point means: Draw in all of the
forces that act on the mass as proportionate vector arrows in the direction of the
force. The “proportionate” part will be difficult at first until you get a feeling for how large
the forces are likely to be relative to one another but in this case there is only one force,
gravity that acts, so we can write on our page (and on our diagram) the vector relation:
~ = −mg ŷ
F (1.38)
or if you prefer, you can write the dimension-labelled scalar equation for the magnitude of
the force in the y-direction:
Fy = −mg (1.39)
Note well! Either of these is acceptable vector notation because the force is a vector
(magnitude and direction). So is the decoration on the figure – an arrow for direction
labelled mg.
What is not quite right (to the tune of minus a point or two at the discretion of the
grader) is to just write F = mg on your paper without indicating its direction somehow.
44
For the moment you can take my word for this, but we will prove it in the next week/chapter when we learn
how to systematically change between coordinate frames!
Yes, this is the magnitude of the force, but in what direction does it point in the particular
coordinate system you drew into your figure? After all, you could have made +x point down
as easily as −y! Practice connecting your visualization of the problem in the coordinates
you selected to a correct algebraic/symbolic description of the vectors involved.
In context, we don’t really need to write Fx = Fz = 0 because they are so clearly
irrelevant. However, in many other problems we will need to include either or both of these.
You’ll quickly get a feel for when you do or don’t need to worry about them – a reasonable
“rule” for this is represented in the figure above – the particle has no x velocity, there are
no forces at all in the x-direction, and we could even make the initial x coordinate of the
particle zero. Nothing happens that is at all interesting in the x direction, so we more or
less ignore it.
Now comes the key step – setting up all of the algebra that leads to the solution. We
write Newton’s Second Law for the mass m, and algebraically solve for the acceleration!
Since there is only one relevant component of the force in this one-dimensional problem,
we only need to do this one time for the scalar equation for that component.:
Fy = −mg = may
may = −mg
ay = −g
2
d y dvy
= = −g (1.40)
dt2 dt
where g = 10 m/second2 is the constant (within 2%, close to the Earth’s surface, remem-
ber).
We are all but done at this point. The last line (the algebraic expression for the accel-
eration) is called the equation of motion for the system, and one of our chores will be to
learn how to solve several common kinds of equation of motion. This one is a constant
acceleration problem. Let’s do it.
Here is the algebra involved. Learn it. Practice doing this until it is second nature when
solving simple problems like this. I do not recommend memorizing the solution you obtain
at the end, even though when you have solved the problem enough times you will probably
remember it anyway for the rest of your share of eternity. Start with the equation of motion
for a constant acceleration:
dvy
= −g Next, multiply both sides by dt to get:
dt
dvy = −g dt Then integrate both sides:
Z Z
dvy = − g dt doing the indefinite integrals to get:
vy (t) = −gt + C (1.41)
The final C is the constant of integration of the indefinite integrals. We have to evaluate it
using the given (usually initial) conditions. In this case we know that:
vy (0) = −g · 0 + C = C = 0 (1.42)
(Recall that we even drew this into our figure to help remind us – it is the bit about being
“dropped from rest” at time t = 0.) Thus:
vy (t) = −gt (1.43)
We now know the velocity of the dropped ball as a function of time! This is good, we are
likely to need it. However, the solution to the dynamical problem is the trajectory function,
y(t). To find it, we repeat the same process, but now use the definition for vy in terms of y:
dy
= vy (t) = −gt Multiply both sides by dt to get:
dt
dy = −gt dt Next, integrate both sides:
Z Z
dy = − gt dt to get:
1
y(t) = − gt2 + D (1.44)
2
The final D is again the constant of integration of the indefinite integrals. We again have
to evaluate it using the given (initial) conditions in the problem. In this case we know that:
1
y(0) = − g · 02 + D = D = H (1.45)
2
because we dropped it from an initial height y(0) = H. Thus:
1
y(t) = − gt2 + H (1.46)
2
and we know everything there is to know about the motion! We know in particular exactly
where it is at all times (until it hits the ground) as well as how fast it is going and in what
direction. Sure, later we’ll learn how to evaluate other quantities that depend on these two,
but with the solutions in hand evaluating those quantities will be (we hope) trivial.
Finally, we have to answer any questions that the problem might ask! Note well
that the problem may not have told you to evaluate y(t) and vy (t), but in many cases you’ll
need them anyway to answer the questions they do ask. Here are a couple of common
questions you can now answer using the solutions you just obtained:
a) How long will it take for the ball to reach the ground?
b) How fast is it going when it reaches the ground?
To answer the first one, we use a bit of algebra. “The ground” is (recall) y = 0 and it will
reach there at some specific time (the time we want to solve for) tg . We write the condition
that it is at the ground at time tg :
1
y(tg ) = − gt2g + H = 0 (1.47)
2
If we rearrange this and solve for tg we get:
s
2H
tg = ± (1.48)
g
Hmmm, there seem to be two times at which y(tg ) equals zero, one in the past and one
p
in the future. The right answer, of course, must be the one in the future: tg = + 2H/g,
but you should think about what the one in the past means, and how the algebraic solution
we’ve just developed is ignorant of things like your hand holding the ball before t = 0 and
just what value of y corresponds to “the ground”...
That was pretty easy. To find the speed at which it hits the ground, one can just take
our correct (future) time and plug it into vy ! That is:
s
2H p
vg = vy (tg ) = −gtg = −g = − 2gH (1.49)
g
Note well that it is going down (in the negative y direction) when it hits the ground. This
is a good hint for the previous puzzle. What direction would it have been going at the
negative time? What kind of motion does the overall solution describe, on the interval from
t = (−∞, ∞)? Do we need to use a certain amount of common sense to avoid using the
algebraic solution for times or values of y for which they make no sense, such as y < 0 or
t < 0 (in the ground or before we let go of the ball, respectively)?
The last thing we might look at I’m going to let you do on your own (don’t worry, it’s
easy enough to do in your head). Assuming that this algebraic solution is valid for any
reasonable H, how fast does the ball hit the ground after falling (say) 5 meters? How
about 20 = 4 ∗ 5 meters? How about 80 = 16 ∗ 5 meters? How long does it take for the ball
to fall 5 meters, 20 meters, 80 meters, etc? In this course we won’t do a lot of arithmetic,
but whenever we learn a new idea with parameters like g in it, it is useful to do a little
arithmetical exploration to see what a “reasonable” answer looks like. Especially note how
the answers scale with the height – if one drops it from 4x the height, how much does that
increase the time it falls and speed with which it hits?
One of these heights causes it to hit the ground in one second, and all of the other
answers scale with it like the square root. If you happen to remember this height, you can
actually estimate how long it takes for a ball to fall almost any height in your head with a
division and a square root, and if you multiply the time answer by ten, well, there is the
speed with which it hits! We’ll do some conceptual problems that help you understand this
scaling idea for homework.
This (a falling object) is nearly a perfect problem archetype or example for one dimen-
sional motion. Sure, we can make it more complicated, but usually we’ll do that by having
more than one thing move in one dimension and then have to figure out how to solve the
two problems simultaneously and answer questions given the results.
Let’s take a short break to formally solve the equation of motion we get for a constant
force in one dimension, as the general solution exhibits two constants of integration that
we need to be able to identify and evaluate from initial conditions. Note well that the next
problem is almost identical to the former one. It just differs in that you are given the force
F~ itself, not a knowledge that the force is e.g. “gravity”.
Example 1.7.2: A Constant Force in One Dimension
This time we’ll imagine a different problem. A car of mass m is travelling at a constant
speed v0 as it enters a long, nearly straight merge lane. A distance d from the entrance,
the driver presses the accelerator and the engine exerts a constant force of magnitude F
on the car.
a) How long does it take the car to reach a final velocity vf > v0 ?
b) How far (from the entrance) does it travel in that time?
As before, we need to start with a good picture of what is going on. Hence a car:
t=0 t=tf
m v0 v0 vf
F
x
d
D
Figure 6: One possible way to portray the motion of the car and coordinatize it.
In figure 6 we see what we can imagine are three “slices” of the car’s position as a
function of time at the moments described in the problem. On the far left we see it “entering
a long, nearly straight merge lane”. The second position corresponds to the time the car is
a distance d from the entrance, which is also the time the car starts to accelerate because
of the force F . I chose to start the clock then, so that I can integrate to find the position as
a function of time while the force is being applied. The final position corresponds to when
the car has had the force applied for a time tf and has acquired a velocity vf . I labelled the
distance of the car from the entrance D at that time. The mass of the car is indicated as
well.
This figure completely captures the important features of the problem! Well, almost.
There are two forces I ignored altogether. One of them is gravity, which is pulling the car
down. The other is the so-called normal force exerted by the road on the car – this force
pushes the car up. I ignored them because my experience and common sense tell me that
under ordinary circumstances the road doesn’t push on the car so that it jumps into the
air, nor does gravity pull the car down into the road – the two forces will balance and the
car will not move or accelerate in the vertical direction. Next week we’ll take these forces
into explicit account too, but here I’m just going to use my intuition that they will cancel and
hence that the y-direction can be ignored, all of the motion is going to be in the x-direction
as I’ve defined it with my coordinate axes.
It’s time to follow our ritual. We will write Newton’s Second Law and solve for the accel-
eration (obtaining an equation of motion). Then we will integrate twice to find first vx (t) and
then x(t). We will have to be extra careful with the constants of integration this time, and
in fact will get a very general solution, one that can be applied to all constant acceleration
problems, although I do not recommend that you memorize this solution and try to use it
every time you see Newton’s Second Law! For one thing, we’ll have quite a few problems
this year where the force, and acceleration, are not constant and in those problems the
solution we will derive is wrong. Alas, to my own extensive and direct experience, students
that memorize kinematic solutions to the constant acceleration problem instead of learning
to solve it with actual integration done every time almost invariably try applying the solu-
tion to e.g. the harmonic oscillator problem later, and I hate that. So don’t memorize the
answer; learn how to derive it and practice the derivation until (sure) you know the result,
and also know when you can use it.
Thus:
F = max
F
ax = = a0 (a constant)
m
dvx
= a0 (1.50)
dt
Next, multiply through by dt and integrate both sides:

Z Z
F
vx (t) = dvx = a0 dt = a0 t + V = t + V (1.51)
m
Either of the last two are valid answers, provided that we define a0 = F/m somewhere in
the solution and also provided that the problem doesn’t explicitly ask for an answer to be
given in terms of F and m. V is a constant of integration that we will evaluate below.
Note that if a0 = F/m was not a constant (say that F(t) is a function of time) then we
would have to do the integral:
Z Z
F (t) 1
vx (t) = dt = F (t) dt =??? (1.52)
m m
At the very least, we would have to know the explicit functional form of F (t) to proceed,
and the answer would not be linear in time.
At time t = 0, the velocity of the car in the x-direction is v0 , so (check for yourself)
V = v0 and:
dx
vx (t) = a0 t + v0 = (1.53)
dt
We multiply this equation by dt on both sides, integrate, and get:
Z Z
1
x(t) = dx = (a0 t + v0 ) dt = a0 t2 + v0 t + x0 (1.54)
2
where x0 is the constant of integration. We note that at time t = 0, x(0) = d, so x0 = d.

Thus:
1
x(t) = a0 t2 + v0 t + d (1.55)
2
It is worth collecting the two basic solutions in one place. It should be obvious that for
any one-dimensional (say, in the x-direction) constant acceleration ax = a0 problem we
will always find that:
vx (t) = a0 t + v0 (1.56)
1 2
x(t) = a0 t + v 0 t + x0 (1.57)
2
where x0 is the x-position at time t = 0 and v0 is the x-velocity at time t = 0. You can see
why it is so very tempting to just memorize this result and pretend that you know a piece
of physics, but don’t!
The algebra that led to this answer is basically ordinary math with units. As we’ve seen,
“math with units” has a special name all its own – kinematics – and the pair of equations
1.56 and 1.57 are called the kinematic solutions to the constant acceleration problem.
Kinematics should be contrasted with dynamics, the physics of forces and laws of nature
that lead us to equations of motion. One way of viewing our solution strategy is that –
after drawing and decorating our figure, of course – we solve first the dynamics problem
of writing our dynamical principle (Newton’s Second Law with the appropriate vector total
force), turning it into a differential equation of motion, then solving the resulting kinematics
problem represented by the equation of motion with calculus. Don’t be tempted to skip the
calculus and try to memorize the kinematic solutions – it is just as important to understand
and be able to do the kinematic calculus quickly and painlessly as it is to be able to set up
the dynamical part of the solution.
Now, of course, we have to actually answer the questions given above. To do this
requires as before logic, common sense, intuition, experience, and math. First, at what
time tf does the car have speed vf ? When:
vx (tf ) = vf = a0 tf + v0 (1.58)
of course. You can easily solve this for tf . Note that I just transformed the English state-
ment “At tf , the car must have speed vf ” into an algebraic equation that means the exact
same thing!
Second, what is D? Well in English, the distance D from the entrance is where the car
is at time tf , when it is also travelling at speed vf . If we turn this sentence into an equation
we get:
1
x(tf ) = D = a0 t2f + v0 tf + d (1.59)
2
Again, having solved the previous equation algebraically, you can substitute the result for
tf into this equation and get D in terms of the originally given quantities! The problem is
solved, the questions are answered, we’re finished.
Or rather, you will be finished, after you fill in these last couple of steps on your own!
1.7.1: Solving Problems with More Than One Object
One of the keys to answering the questions in both of these examples has been turning
easy-enough statements in English into equations, and then solving the equations to ob-
tain an answer to a question also framed in English. So far, we have solved only single
equations, but we will often be working with more than one thing at a time, or combining
two or more principles, so that we have to solve several simultaneous equations.
The only change we might make to our existing solution strategy is to construct and
solve the equations of motion for each object or independent aspect (such as dimension)
of the problem. In a moment, we’ll consider problems of the latter sort, where this strategy
will work when the force in one coordinate direction is independent of the force in another
coordinate direction! . First, though, let’s do a couple of very simple one-dimensional
problems with two objects with some sort of constraint connecting the motion of one to the
motion of the other.
Example 1.7.3: Atwood’s Machine
T
T
m1
m2
m 1g
m 2g
Figure 7: Atwood’s Machines consists of a pair of masses (usually of different mass) con-
nected by a string that runs over a pulley as shown. Initially we idealize by considering the
pulley to be massless and frictionless, the string to be massless and unstretchable, and
ignore drag forces.
A mass m1 and a second mass m2 are hung at both ends of a massless, unstretchable
string that runs over a frictionless, massless pulley as shown in figure 7. Gravity near the
Earth’s surface pulls both down. Assuming that the masses are released from rest at time
t = 0, find:
a) The acceleration of both masses;
b) The tension T in the string;
c) The speed of the masses after they have moved through a distance H in the direction
of the more massive one.
The trick of this problem is to note that if mass m2 goes down by a distance (say) x,
mass m1 goes up by the same distance x and vice versa. The magnitude of the displace-
ment of one is the same as that of the other, as they are connected by a taut unstretchable
string. This also means that the speed of one rising equals the speed of the other falling,
the magnitude of the acceleration of one up equals the magnitude of the acceleration of
the other down. So even though it at first looks like you need two coordinate systems for
this problem, x1 (measured from m1 ’s initial position, up or down) will equal x2 (measured
from m2 ’s initial position, down or up) be the same. We therefore can just use x to describe
this displacement (the displacement of m1 up and m2 down from its starting position), with
vx and ax being the same for both masses with the same convention.
This, then, is a wraparound one-dimensional coordinate system, one that “curves
around the pulley”. In these coordinates, Newton’s Second Law for the two masses be-
comes the two equations:
F1 = T − m1 g = m1 ax (1.60)
F2 = m2 g − T = m2 ax (1.61)
This is a set of two equations and two unknowns (T and ax ). It is easiest to solve by
elimination. If we add the two equations we eliminate T and get:
m2 g − m1 g = (m2 − m1 )g = m1 ax + m2 ax = (m1 + m2 )ax (1.62)
or
m2 − m1
ax = g (1.63)
m1 + m2
In the figure above, if m2 > m1 (as the figure suggests) then both mass m2 will accelerate
down and m1 will accelerate up with this constant acceleration.
We can find T by substituting this value for ax into either force equation:
T − m1 g = m1 ax
m2 − m1
T − m1 g = m1 g
m1 + m2
m2 − m1
T = m1 g + m1 g
m1 + m2
m2 − m1 m2 + m1
T = m1 g + m1 g
m1 + m2 m1 + m2
2m2 m1
T = g (1.64)
m1 + m2
ax is constant, so we can evaluate vx (t) and x(t) exactly as we did for a falling ball:
dvx m2 − m1
ax = = g
dt m1 + m2
m2 − m1
dvx = g dt
m + m2
Z Z 1
m2 − m1
dvx = g dt
m1 + m2
m2 − m1
vx = gt + C
m1 + m2
m2 − m1
vx (t) = gt (1.65)
m1 + m2
and then:
dx m2 − m1
vx (t) = = gt
dt m1 + m2
m2 − m1
dx = gt dt
m + m2
Z Z 1
m2 − m1
dx = gt dt
m1 + m2
1 m2 − m1 2
x = gt + C ′
2 m1 + m2
1 m2 − m1 2
x(t) = gt (1.66)
2 m1 + m2
(where C and C ′ are set from our knowledge of the initial conditions, x(0) = 0 and v(0) = 0
in the coordinates we chose).
Now suppose that the blocks “fall” a height H (only m2 actually falls, m1 goes up). Then
we can, as before, find out how long it takes for x(th ) = H, then substitute this into vx (th )
to find the speed. I leave it as an exercise to show that this answer is:
s
m2 − m1
vx (th ) = 2gH (1.67)
m1 + m2
Example 1.7.4: Braking for Bikes, or Just Breaking Bikes?
A car of mass M is overtaking a bicyclist. Initially, the car is travelling at speed v0c and
the bicyclist is travelling at v0b < v0c in the same direction. At a time that the bicyclist is
D meters away, the driver of the car suddenly sees that he is on a collision course and
applies the brakes, exerting a force −F on his car (where the minus sign just means that
he is slowing down, diminishing his velocity.
Assuming that the bicyclist doesn’t speed up or slow down, does he hit the bike?
At this point you should have a pretty good idea how to proceed for each object. First,
we’ll draw a figure with both objects and formulate the equations of motion for each object
separately. Second, we’ll solve the equations of motion for reach object. Third, we’ll write
an equation that captures the condition that the car hits the bike, and see if that equation
has any solutions. If so, then it is likely that the car will be breaking, not braking (in time)!
y
t=0
m
F M v0c v0b
D x
Figure 8: The initial picture of the car overtaking the bike at the instant it starts to brake.
Again we will ignore the forces in the y-direction as we know that the car doesn’t jump over
the bike and we’ll pretend that the biker can’t just turn and get out of the way as well.
Here’s the solution, without most of the details. You should work through this example,
filling in the missing details and making the solution all pretty. The magnitude of the accel-
eration of the car is ac = F/M , and we’ll go ahead and use this constant acceleration ac
to formulate the answer – we can always do the arithmetic and substitute at the end, given
some particular values for F and M .
Integrating this (and using xc (0) = 0, vc (0) = v0c ) you will get:
vc (t) = −ac t + v0c (1.68)

1
xc (t) = − ac t2 + v0c t (1.69)
2
The acceleration of the bike is ab = 0. This means that:
vb (t) = ab t + v0b = v0b (1.70)
The velocity of the bike is constant because there is no (net) force acting on it and hence
it has no acceleration. Integrating this one gets (using xb (0) = D):
xb (t) = v0b t + D (1.71)
Now the big question: Does the car hit the bike? If it does, it does so at some real time,
call it th . “Hitting” means that there is no distance between them – they are at the same
place at the same time, in particular at this time th . Turning this sentence into an equation,
the condition for a collision is algebraically:
1
xb (th ) = v0b th + D = − ac t2h + v0c th = xc (th ) (1.72)
2
Rearranged, this is a quadratic equation:

1 2
ac t − (v0c − v0b ) th + D = 0 (1.73)
2 h
and therefore has two roots. If we write down the quadratic formula:
p
(v0c − v0b ) ± (v0c − v0b )2 − 2ac D
th = (1.74)
ac
we can see that there will only be a real (as opposed to imaginary) time th that solves the
collision condition if the argument of the square root is non-negative. That is:
(v0c − v0b )2 ≥ 2ac D (1.75)
If this is true, there will be a collision. If it is false, the car will never reach the bike.
There is actually a second way to arrive at this result. One can find the time ts that the
car is travelling at the same speed as the bike. That’s really pretty easy:
v0b = vc (ts ) = −ac ts + v0c (1.76)
or
(v0c − v0b )
ts = (1.77)
ac
Now we locate the car relative to the bike. If the collision hasn’t happened by ts it never
will, as afterwards the car will be slower than the bike and the bike will pull away. If the
position of the car is behind (or barely equal to) the position of the bike at ts , all is well, no
collision occurs. That is:
1
xc (ts ) = − ac t2s + v0c ts ≤ v0b ts + D (1.78)
2
if no collision occurs. It’s left as an exercise to show that this leads to the same condition
that the quadratic gives you.
Next, let’s see what happens when we have only one object but motion in two dimen-
sions.
1.8: Motion in Two Dimensions
The idea of motion in two or more dimensions is very simple. Force is a vector, and so is
acceleration. Newton’s Second Law is a recipe for taking the total force and converting it
into a differential equation of motion:
d2 ~
r ~ tot
F
~
a= = (1.79)
dt2 m
In the most general case, this can be quite difficult to solve. For example, consider the
forces that act upon you throughout the day – every step you take, riding in a car, gravity,
friction, even the wind exert forces subtle or profound on your mass and accelerate you
first this way, then that as you move around. The total force acting on you varies wildly
with time and place, so even though your trajectory is a solution to just such an equation
of motion, computing it algebraically is out of the question. Computing it with a computer
would be straightforward if the forces were all known, but of course they vary according to
your volition and the circumstances of the moment and are hardly knowable ahead of time.
However, much of what happens in the world around you can actually be at least ap-
proximated by relatively simple (if somewhat idealized) models and explicitly solved. These
simple models generally arise when the forces acting are due to the “well-known” forces of
nature or force rules listed above and hence point in specific directions (so that their vector
description can be analyzed) and are either constant in time or vary in some known way
so that the calculus of the solution is tractable45 .
We will now consider only these latter sorts of forces: forces that act in a well-defined
direction with a computable value (initially, with a computable constant value, or a value
that varies in some simple way with position or time). If we write the equation of motion out
45
“Tractable” here means that it can either be solved algebraically, true for many of the force laws or rules,
or at least solved numerically. In this course you may or may not be required or expected to explore numerical
solutions to the differential equations with e.g. matlab, octave, or mathematica.
in components:
d2 x Ftot,x
ax = 2
= (1.80)
dt m
d2 y Ftot,y
ay = = (1.81)
dt2 m
d2 z Ftot,z
az = = (1.82)
dt2 m
we will often reduce the complexity of the problem from a “three dimensional problem” to
three “one dimensional problems” of the sort we just learned to solve in the section above.
Of course, when this is possible, there’s a trick to it. The trick is this:
Select a coordinate system in which one or more of the coordinate axes

are in a direction where we know the acceleration, for example a direction
where it is zero (straight line motion) or v 2 /r (circular motion) and hence
where we instantly know the solution.
In many cases this means we should:
Select a coordinate system in which one of the coordinate axes is aligned

with the total force.
as this means that the force in the other two directions is zero, hence the acceleration is
zero, hence the motion in those directions is (hopefully) “simple”, as in constant straight
line motion or no motion at all.
We won’t always be able to do this, but when it can it will get us off to a very good start,
and trying it will help us understand what to do when we hit problems where this alone
won’t quite work or help us solve the problem.
Again, the reason this step (when possible) simplifies the problem is simple enough
to understand: In this particular coordinate frame (with the total force pointing in a single
direction along one of the coordinate axes), the total force in the other directions adds up to
zero! That means that all acceleration occurs only along the selected coordinate direction.
Solving the equations of motion in the other directions is then trivial – it is motion with a
constant velocity (which may be zero, as in the case of dropping a ball vertically down from
the top of a tower in the problems above, or not in the case of ballistic trajectories examined
below). Solving the equation of motion in the direction of the total force itself is then “the
problem”, and you will need lots of practice and a few good examples to show you how to
go about it.
To make life even simpler while we are learning, we will now further restrict ourselves to
the class of problems where the acceleration and velocity in one of the three dimensions
is zero. In that case the value of that coordinate is constant, and may as well be taken
to be zero. The motion (if any) then occurs in the remaining two dimensional plane that
contains the origin. In the problems below, we will find it useful to use one of two possible
two-dimensional coordinate systems to solve for the motion: Cartesian coordinates (which
we’ve already begun to use, at least in a trivial way) and Plane Polar coordinates, which
we will review in context below.
As you will see, solving problems in two or three dimensions with a constant force
direction simply introduces a few extra steps into the solution process:
• Decomposing the known forces into a coordinate system where one of the coordinate
axes lines up with the (expected) total force...
• Solving the individual one-dimensional motion problems (where one or two of the
resulting solutions will usually be “trivial”, e.g. constant motion)...
• Finally, reconstructing the overall (vector) solution from the individual solutions for the
independent vector coordinate directions...
and answering any questions as usual.
1.8.1: Free Flight Trajectories – Projectile Motion
Perhaps the simplest example of this process adds just one small change to our first ex-
ample. Instead of dropping a particle straight down let us imagine throwing the ball off of
a tower, or firing a cannon, or driving a golf ball off of a tee or shooting a basketball. All of
these are examples of projectile motion – motion under the primary action of gravity where
the initial velocity in some horizontal direction is not zero.
Note well that we will necessarily idealize our treatment by (initially) neglecting some
of the many things that might affect the trajectory of all of these objects in the real world –
drag forces which both slow down e.g. a golf ball and exert “lift” on it that can cause it to
hook or slice, the fact that the earth is not really an inertial reference frame and is rotating
out underneath the free flight trajectory of a cannonball, creating an apparent deflection of
actual projectiles fired by e.g. naval cannons. That is, only gravity near the earth’s surface
will act on our ideal particles for now.
The easiest way to teach you how to handle problems of this sort is just to do a few
examples – there are really only three distinct cases one can treat – two rather special
ones and the general solution. Let’s start with the simplest of the special ones.
Example 1.8.1: Trajectory of a Cannonball
A cannon fires a cannonball of mass m at an initial speed v0 at an angle θ with respect to

the ground as shown in figure 9. Find:
a) The time the cannonball is in the air.
b) The range of the cannonball.
We’ve already done the first step of a good solution – drawing a good figure, selecting
and sketching in a coordinate system with one axis aligned with the total force, and draw-
ing and labelling all of the forces (in this case, only one). We therefore proceed to write
m
v0 mg
θ
R x
Figure 9: An idealized cannon, neglecting the drag force of the air. Let x be the horizontal
~ g = −mg ŷ points along
direction and y be the vertical direction, as shown. Note well that F
one of the coordinate directions while Fx = (Fz =)0 in this coordinate frame.
Newton’s Second Law for both coordinate directions.
Fx = max = 0 (1.83)
d2 y
Fy = may = m = −mg (1.84)
dt2
We divide each of these equations by m to obtain two equations of motion, one for x
and the other for y:
ax = 0 (1.85)
ay = −g (1.86)
We solve them independently. In x:
dvx
ax = =0 (1.87)
dt
The derivative of any constant is zero, so the x-component of the velocity does not change
in time. We find the initial (and hence constant) component using trigonometry:
vx (t) = v0x = v0 cos(θ) (1.88)
We then write this in terms of derivatives and solve it:
dx
vx = = v0 cos(θ)
dt
dx = v0 cos(θ) dt
Z Z
dx = v0 cos(θ) dt
x(t) = v0 cos(θ)t + C
We evaluate C (the constant of integration) from our knowledge that in the coordinate
system we selected, x(0) = 0 so that C = 0. Thus:
x(t) = v0 cos(θ)t (1.89)

The solution in y is more or less identical to the solution that we obtained above drop-
ping a ball, except the constants of integration are different:
dvy
ay = = −g
dt
dvy = −g dt
Z Z
dvy = − g dt
vy (t) = −gt + C ′ (1.90)
For this problem, we know from trigonometry that:
vy (0) = v0 sin(θ) (1.91)
so that C ′ = v0 sin(θ) and:

vy (t) = −gt + v0 sin(θ) (1.92)
We write vy in terms of the time derivative of y and integrate:
dy
= vy (t) = −gt + v0 sin(θ)
dt
dy = (−gt + v0 sin(θ)) dt
Z Z
dy = (−gt + v0 sin(θ)) dt
1
y(t) = − gt2 + v0 sin(θ)t + D (1.93)
2
Again we use y(0) = 0 in the coordinate system we selected to set D = 0 and get:
1
y(t) = − gt2 + v0 sin(θ)t (1.94)
2
Collecting the results from above, our overall solution is thus:
x(t) = v0 cos(θ)t (1.95)

1
y(t) = − gt2 + v0 sin(θ)t (1.96)
2
vx (t) = v0x = v0 cos(θ) (1.97)
vy (t) = −gt + v0 sin(θ) (1.98)
We know exactly where the cannonball is at all times, and we know exactly what its velocity
is as well. Now let’s see how we can answer the equations.
To find out how long the cannonball is in the air, we need to write an algebraic expres-
sion that we can use to identify when it hits the ground. As before (dropping a ball) “hitting
the ground” in algebra-speak is y(tg ) = 0, so finding tg such that this is true should do the
trick:
1
y(tg ) = − gt2g + v0 sin(θ)tg = 0
2
1
− gtg + v0 sin(θ) tg = 0
2
or
tg,1 = 0 (1.99)
2v0 sin(θ)
tg,2 = (1.100)
g
are the two roots of this (factorizable) quadratic. The first root obviously describes when
the ball was fired, so it is the second one we want. The ball hits the ground after being in
the air for a time
2v0 sin(θ)
tg,2 = (1.101)
g
Now it is easy to find the range of the cannonball, R. R is just the value of x(t) at the
time that the cannonball hits!
2v02 sin(θ) cos(θ)

R = x(tg,2 ) = (1.102)
g
Using a trig identity one can also write this as:
v02 sin(2θ)
R= (1.103)
g
The only reason to do this is so that one can see that the range of this projectile is sym-
metric: It is the same for θ = π/4 ± φ for any φ ∈ [0, π/4].
For your homework you will do a more general case of this, one where the cannonball
(or golf ball, or arrow, or whatever) is fired off of the top of a cliff of height H. The solu-
tion will proceed identically except that the initial and final conditions may be different. In
general, to find the time and range in this case one will have to solve a quadratic equation
using the quadratic formula (instead of simple factorization) so if you haven’t reviewed or
remembered the quadratic formula before now in the course, please do so right away.
1.8.2: The Inclined Plane
The inclined plane is another archetypical problem for motion in two dimensions. It has
many variants. We’ll start with the simplest one, one that illustrates a new force, the
normal force. Recall from above that the normal force is whatever magnitude it needs
to be to prevent an object from moving in to a solid surface, and is always perpendicular
(normal) to that surface in direction.
In addition, this problem beautifully illustrates the reason one selects coordinates aligned
with the total force when that direction is consistent throughout a problem, if at all possible.
Example 1.8.2: The Inclined Plane
A block m rests on a plane inclined at an angle of θ with respect to the horizontal. There is
no friction (yet), but the plane exerts a normal force on the block that keeps it from falling
straight down. At time t = 0 it is released (at a height H = L sin(θ) above the ground), and
y
θ N
m
mg
L
H
θ
x
Figure 10: This is the naive/wrong coordinate system to use for the inclined plane problem.
The problem can be solved in this coordinate frame, but the solution (as you can see) would
be quite difficult.
we might then be asked any of the “usual” questions – how long does it take to reach the
ground, how fast is it going when it gets there and so on.
The motion we expect is for the block to slide down the incline, and for us to be able
to solve the problem easily we have to use our intuition and ability to visualize this motion
to select the best coordinate frame.
Let’s start by doing the problem foolishly. Note well that in principle we actually can
solve the problem set up this way, so it isn’t really wrong, but in practice while I can solve
it in this frame (having taught this course for 30 years and being pretty good at things like
trig and calculus) it is somewhat less likely that you will have much luck if you haven’t even
used trig or taken a derivative for three or four years. Kids, Don’t Try This at Home46 ...
In figure 10, I’ve drawn a coordinate frame that is lined up with gravity. However, gravity
is not the only force acting any more. We expect the block to slide down the incline, not
move straight down. We expect that the normal force will exert any force needed such that
this is so. Let’s see what happens when we try to decompose these forces in terms of our
coordinate system.
~ , the vector normal force, in our coordinate
We start by finding the components of N
frame:
Nx = N sin(θ) (1.104)
Ny = N cos(θ) (1.105)
~ | is the (unknown) magnitude of the normal force.
where N = |N
We then add up the total forces in each direction and write Newton’s Second Law for
each direction’s total force :
Fx = N sin(θ) = max (1.106)

Fy = N cos(θ) − mg = may (1.107)
46
Or rather, by all means give it a try, especially after reviewing my solution.
Finally, we write our equations of motion for each direction:
N sin(θ)
ax = (1.108)
m
N cos(θ) − mg
ay = (1.109)
m
Unfortunately, we cannot solve these two equations as written yet. That is because we
do not know the value of N ; it is in fact something we need to solve for! To solve them we
need to add a condition on the solution, expressed as an equation. The condition we need
to add is that the motion is down the incline, that is, at all times:
y(t)
= tan(θ) (1.110)
L cos(θ) − x(t)
must be true as a constraint47 . That means that:
y(t) = (L cos(θ) − x(t)) tan(θ)

dy(t) dx(t)
= − tan(θ)
dt dt
d2 y(t) d2 x(t)
= − tan(θ)
dt2 dt2
ay = −ax tan(θ) (1.111)
where we used the fact that the time derivative of L cos(θ) is zero! We can use this relation
to eliminate (say) ay from the equations above, solve for ax , then backsubstitute to find ay .
Both are constant acceleration problems and hence we can easily enough solve them. But
yuk! The solutions we get will be so very complicated (at least compared to choosing a
better frame), with both x and y varying nontrivially with time.
Now let’s see what happens when we choose the right (or at least a “good”) coordinate
frame according to the prescription given. Such a frame is drawn in 11:
As before, we can decompose the forces in this coordinate system, but now we need to
~ = N ŷ is easy! Furthermore, we know
find the components of the gravitational force as N
that ay = 0 and hence Fy = 0.
Fx = mg sin(θ) = max (1.112)

Fy = N − mg cos(θ) = may = 0 (1.113)
We can immediately solve the y equation for:
N = mg cos(θ) (1.114)
and write the equation of motion for the x-direction:
ax = g sin(θ) (1.115)
which is a constant.
47
Note that the tangent involves the horizontal distance of the block from the lower apex of the inclined
plane, x′ = L cos(θ) − x where x is measured, of course, from the origin.
θ
mg
L
H
θ
x
Figure 11: A good choice of coordinate frame has (say) the x-coordinate lined up with the
total force and hence direction of motion.
From this point on the solution should be familiar – since vy (0) = 0 and y(0) = 0,
y(t) = 0 and we can ignore y altogether and the problem is now one dimensional! See
if you can find how long it takes for the block to reach bottom, and how fast it is going
√
when it gets there. You should find that vbottom = 2gH, a familiar result (see the very
first example of the dropped ball) that suggests that there is more to learn, that gravity is
somehow “special” if a ball can be dropped or slide down from a height H and reach the
bottom going at the same speed either way!
1.9: Circular Motion
v
v
∆θ ∆ s = r ∆θ
r
Figure 12: A way to visualize the motion of a particle, e.g. a small ball, moving in a circle
of radius r. We are looking down from above the circle of motion at a particle moving
counterclockwise around the circle. At the moment, at least, the particle is moving at a
constant speed v (so that its velocity is always tangent to the circle.
So far, we’ve solved only two dimensional problems that involved a constant acceler-
ation in some specific direction. Another very general (and important!) class of motion is
circular motion. This could be: a ball being whirled around on a string, a car rounding a
circular curve, a roller coaster looping-the-loop, a bicycle wheel going round and round,
almost anything rotating about a fixed axis has all of the little chunks of mass that make it
up going in circles!
Circular motion, as we shall see, is “special” because the acceleration of a particle
moving in a circle towards the center of the circle has a value that is completely determined
by the geometry of this motion. The form of centripetal acceleration we are about to
develop is thus a kinematic relation – not dynamical. It doesn’t matter which force(s) or
force rule(s) off of the list above make something actually move around in a circle, the
relation is true for all of them. Let’s try to understand this.
1.9.1: Tangential Velocity
First, we have to visualize the motion clearly. Figure 12 allows us to see and think about the
motion of a particle moving in a circle of radius r (at a constant speed, although later we
can relax this to instantaneous speed) by visualizing its position at two successive times.
The first position (where the particle is solid/shaded) we can imagine as occurring at time
t. The second position (empty/dashed) might be the position of the particle a short time
later at (say) t + ∆t.
During this time, the particle travels a short distance around the arc of the circle. Be-
cause the length of a circular arc is the radius times the angle subtended by the arc we
can see that:
∆s = r∆θ (1.116)
Note Well! In this and all similar equations θ must be measured in radians, never degrees.
In fact, angles measured in degrees are fundamentally meaningless, as degrees are an
arbitrary partitioning of the circle. Also note that radians (or degrees, for that matter) are
dimensionless – they are the ratio between the length of an arc and the radius of the arc
(think 2π is the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its radius, for example).
The average speed v of the particle is thus this distance divided by the time it took to
move it:
∆s ∆θ
vavg = =r (1.117)
∆t ∆t
Of course, we really don’t want to use average speed (at least for very long) because
the speed might be varying, so we take the limit that ∆t → 0 and turn everything into
derivatives, but it is much easier to draw the pictures and visualize what is going on for a
small, finite ∆t:
∆θ dθ
v = lim r =r (1.118)
∆t→0 ∆t dt
This speed is directed tangent to the circle of motion (as one can see in the figure) and we
will often refer to it as the tangential velocity. Sometimes I’ll even put a little “t” subscript
on it to emphasize the point, as in:
dθ
vt = r (1.119)
dt
but since the velocity is always tangent to the trajectory (which just happens to be circular
in this case) we don’t really need it.
In this equation, we see that the speed of the particle at any instant is the radius times
the rate that the angle is being swept out by by the particle per unit time. This latter quantity
is a very, very useful one for describing circular motion, or rotating systems in general. We
define it to be the angular velocity:
dθ
Ω= (1.120)
dt
Thus:
v = rΩ (1.121)
or
v
Ω= (1.122)
r
are both extremely useful expressions describing the kinematics of circular motion.
1.9.2: A Note on Notation
In the previous section we used the symbol “capital omega” – Ω – to stand for angular
velocity. If you compare this textbook with many, if not most, other introductory physics
textbooks, you will observe that it is very common to use “lower-case omega” – ω – for this,
that is:
dθ v
ω= =
dt r
for a particle (or later, chunk of mass dm) moving in a circle of radius r.
There is one problem with this. Eventually we will study simple harmonic oscilla-
tion, and two of the oscillators we will look at are pendulums of a variety of shapes and
arrangements, and torsional oscillators. In both cases, the system has both angular ve-
locity – the pendulum moves along a circular arc, the torsional oscillator rotates around
the axis of a torsional spring – and something we will define in that chapter called angular
frequency, and those same textbooks invariably use the same symbol, ω, for both of these
very different quantities. A student may find themselves writing as part of their answer to
the question: “what is the angular velocity of the swinging pendulum bob?” something like
ω = −ωθ0 sin(ωt + φ)
and trying to differentiate the two quantities with an ambiguous subscript such as:
ωa = −ωθ0 sin(ωt + φ)
where in this expression:

dθ
ωa = (angular velocity)
dt
and r
g
ω= (angular frequency)
ℓ
The two are differentiated by the fact that harmonic oscillators oscillate with a harmonic
angular frequency even when absolutely nothing in the system actually rotates through an
angle, while angular velocity is simply the rate at which something sweeps out an angle as
it moves relative to some selected pivot/axis. Masses on springs have angular frequencies.
Linearly polarized light waves have angular frequencies. Quantum mechanical wavefunc-
tions have angular frequencies. In none of these cases is anything at all sweeping out a
physical angle or rotating.
This can seriously disturb introductory students, who are not yet practiced at using
the same symbols for different physical quantities in different contexts, let alone using the
same symbols for different physical quantities in a single problem and context! Nor are they
yet prepared for the idea that one sometimes might write (for example) the equation for the
x-component of a particle moving in a circle of radius r at constant speed x(t) = r cos(Ωt)
where Ω is the angular velocity, but its use in the context of this expression for the x
component only is more as an angular frequency.
For that reason I have elected to differentiate the symbols explicitly in this book, so that
the offending equation for angular velocity would be written as:
Ω = −ωθ0 sin(ωt + φ)
without the slightest ambiguity. This is the angular velocity of the pendulum; the ω is its
angular frequency.
Be alert for a few other discussions of notational differences in other places in this
textbook. It is commonplace to use λ, for example, as both a symbol for linear mass density
and for wavelength of a wave. When studying waves on strings, however, both again occur
in the same context, and can actually occur with both meanings in a single equation! Again
expert textbook writers and second or third year physics majors may not even notice this,
or may throw in a subscript to differentiate them notationally, but undergraduates will simply
become confused and sad and make entirely unnecessary mistakes in their algebra or due
to confused conceptual thinking that after all is not really their fault. For that reason, we
will try to use symbols that collide a bit less whenever we can do so without departing too
much from the norm – ℓ for lengths instead of L as the latter is also the universal symbol
for angular momentum, and rods of length L may well have an angular momentum L that
depends on L as well (see how difficult this can be?); µ for linear mass density instead of
λ, as it is less likely to find linear mass density and dynamic viscosity or magnetic moment
(two other common uses for the symbol µ) in the same problem.
1.9.3: Centripetal Acceleration
Next, we need to think about the velocity of the particle (not just its speed, note well, we
have to think about direction). In figure 13 you can see the velocities from figure 12 at time
t and t + ∆t placed so that they begin at a common origin (remember, you can move a
vector anywhere you like as long as the magnitude and direction are preserved).
The velocity is perpendicular to the vector ~
r from the origin to the particle at any instant
of time. As the particle rotates through an angle ∆θ, the velocity of the particle also must
rotate through the angle ∆θ while its magnitude remains (approximately) the same.
In time ∆t, then, the magnitude of the change in the velocity is:
∆v = v∆θ (1.123)
∆v = v∆θ
v
∆θ
Figure 13: The velocity of the particle at t and t + ∆t. Note that over a very short time ∆t
the speed of the particle is at least approximately constant, but its direction varies because
it always has to be perpendicular to ~ r , the vector from the center of the circle to the particle.
The velocity swings through the same angle ∆θ that the particle itself swings through in
this (short) time.
Consequently, the average magnitude of the acceleration is:

∆v ∆θ
aavg = =v (1.124)
∆t ∆t
As before, we are interested in the instantaneous value of the acceleration, and we’d
also like to determine its direction as it is a vector quantity. We therefore take the limit
∆t → 0 and inspect the figure above to note that the direction in that limit is to the left,
that is to say in the negative ~r direction! (You’ll need to look at both figures, the one
representing position and the other representing the velocity, in order to be able to see and
understand this.) The instantaneous magnitude of the acceleration is thus:
∆θ dθ v2
a = lim v =v = vΩ = = rΩ2 (1.125)
∆t→0 ∆t dt r
where we have substituted equation 1.122 for Ω (with a bit of algebra) to get the last couple
of equivalent forms. The direction of this vector is towards the center of the circle.
The word “centripetal” means “towards the center”, so we call this kinematic accel-
eration the centripetal acceleration of a particle moving in a circle and will often label
it:
v2
ac = vΩ = = rΩ2 (1.126)
r
A second way you might see this written or referred to is as the r-component of a vector
in plane polar coordinates. In that case “towards the center” is in the −r̂ direction and we
could write:
v2
ar = −vΩ = − = −rΩ2 (1.127)
r
In most actual problems, though, it is easiest to just compute the magnitude ac and then
assign the direction in terms of the particular coordinate frame you have chosen for the
problem, which might well make “towards the center” be the positive x direction or some-
thing else entirely in your figure at the instant drawn.
This is an enormously useful result. Note well that it is a kinematic result – math with
units – not a dynamic result. That is, I’ve made no reference whatsoever to forces in
the derivations above; the result is a pure mathematical consequence of motion in a 2

dimensional plane circle, quite independent of the particular forces that cause that motion.
The way to think of it is as follows:
If a particle is moving in a circle at instantaneous speed v, then its acceleration

towards the center of that circle is v 2 /r (or rΩ2 if that is easier to use in a given
problem).
This specifies the acceleration in the component of Newton’s Second Law that points
towards the center of the circle of motion! No matter what forces act on the particle, if
it moves in a circle the component of the total force acting on it towards the center of
the circle must be mac = mv 2 /r. If the particle is moving in a circle, then the centripetal
component of the total force must have this value, but this quantity isn’t itself a force law or
rule! There is no such thing as a “centripetal force”, although there are many forces that
can cause a centripetal acceleration in a particle moving in circular trajectory.
Let me say it again, with emphasis: A common mistake made by students is to confuse
mv 2 /r with a “force rule” or “law of nature”. It is nothing of the sort. No special/new force
“appears” because of circular motion, the circular motion is caused by the usual forces we
list above in some combination that add up to mac = mv 2 /r in the appropriate direction.
Don’t make this mistake one a homework problem, quiz or exam! Think about this a bit
and discuss it with your instructor if it isn’t completely clear.
Example 1.9.1: Ball on a String
L
T
m
v
mg
Figure 14: A ball of mass m swings down in a circular arc of radius L suspended by a
string, arriving at the bottom with speed v. What is the tension in the string?
At the bottom of the trajectory, the tension T in the string points straight up and the
force mg points straight down. No other forces act, so we should choose coordinates such
that one axis lines up with these two forces. Let’s use +y vertically up, aligned with the
string. Then:
v2
Fy = T − mg = may = m (1.128)
L
or
v2
T = mg + m (1.129)
L
Wow, that was easy! Easy or not, this simple example is a very useful one as it will form
part of the solution to many of the problems you will solve in the next few weeks, so be sure
that you understand it. The net force towards the center of the circle must be algebraically
equal to mv 2 /r, where I’ve cleverly given you L as the radius of the circle instead of r just
to see if you’re paying attention48 .
Example 1.9.2: Tether Ball/Conic Pendulum
m r
vt
Figure 15: Ball on a rope (a tether ball or conical pendulum). The ball sweeps out a right
circular cone at an angle θ with the vertical when launched appropriately.
Suppose you hit a tether ball (a ball on a string or rope, also called a conic pendulum
as the rope sweeps out a right circular cone) so that it moves in a plane circle at an angle
θ at the end of a string of length L. Find T (the tension in the string) and v, the speed of
the ball such that this is true.
We note that if the ball is moving in a circle of radius r = L sin θ, its centripetal accel-
2
eration must be ar = − vr . Since the ball is not moving up and down, the vertical forces
must cancel. This suggests that we should use a coordinate system with +y vertically up
and x in towards the center of the circle of motion, but we should bear in mind that we will
also be thinking of the motion in plane polar coordinates in the plane and that the angle
θ is specified relative to the vertical! Oooo, head aching, must remain calm and visualize,
visualize.
Visualization is aided by a good figure, like the one (without coordinates, you can add
them) in figure 15. Note well in this figure that the only “real” forces acting on the ball are
gravity and the tension T in the string. Thus in the y-direction we have:
X
Fy = T cos θ − mg = 0 (1.130)
48
There is actually an important lesson here as well: Read the problem! I can’t tell you how often students
miss points because they don’t solve the problem given, they solve a problem like the problem given that
perhaps was a class example or on their homework. This is easily avoided by reading the problem carefully
and using the variables and quantities it defines. Read the problem!
and in the x-direction (the minus r-direction, as drawn) we have:

X mv 2
Fx = T sin θ = mar = . (1.131)
r
Thus
mg
T = , (1.132)
cos θ
T r sin θ
v2 = (1.133)
m
or p
v= gL sin θ tan θ (1.134)
Nobody said all of the answers will be pretty...
1.9.4: Tangential Acceleration
Sometimes we will want to solve problems where a particle speeds up or slows down while
moving in a circle. Obviously, this means that there is a nonzero tangential acceleration
changing the magnitude of the tangential velocity.
~ (total) acting on a particle moving in a circle in a coordinate system that
Let’s write F
rotates along with the particle – plane polar coordinates. The tangential direction is the θ̂
direction, so we will get:
F~ = Fr r̂ + Ft θ̂ (1.135)
From this we will get two equations of motion (connecting this, at long last, to the dynamics
of two dimensional motion):
v2
Fr = −m (1.136)
r
dv
Ft = mat = m (1.137)
dt
The acceleration on the right hand side of the first equation is determined from m, v, and
r, but v(t) itself is determined from the second equation. You will use these two equa-
tions together to solve the “bead sliding on a wire” problem in the next week’s homework
assignment, so keep this in mind.
That’s about it for the first week. We have more to do, but to do it we’ll need more
forces. Next week we move on to learn some more forces from our list, especially friction
and drag forces. We’ll wrap the week’s work up with a restatement of our solution rubric
for “standard” dynamics problems. I would recommend literally ticking off the steps in your
mind (and maybe on the paper!) as you work this week’s homework. It will really help you
later on!
1.10: Conclusion: Rubric for Newton’s Second Law Problems
a) Draw a good picture of what is going on. In general you should probably do this even
if one has been provided for you – visualization is key to success in physics.
b) On your drawing (or on a second one) decorate the objects with all of the forces that
act on them, creating a free body diagram for the forces on each object.
c) Write Newton’s Second Law for each object (summing the forces and setting the
result to mi~
ai for each – ith – object) and algebraically rearrange it into (vector) dif-
ferential equations of motion (practically speaking, this means solving for or isolating
ai = ddt~
2x
the acceleration ~ 2 of the particles in the equations of motion).
i
d) Decompose the 1, 2 or 3 dimensional equations of motion for each object into a set
of independent 1 dimensional equations of motion for each of the orthogonal coor-
dinates by choosing a suitable coordinate system (which may not be cartesian, for
some problems) and using trig/geometry. Recall the rule above, and try to pick co-
ordinates where one or more axes are in directions where we know the acceleration
from the problem constraints, for example directions where it is zero or v 2 /r, so that
just one axis points in a direction where you have to use Newton’s Second Law to
actually solve for nontrivial motion.
Note that a “coordinate” here may even wrap around a corner following a string, for
example – or we can use a different coordinate system for each particle, as long
as we have a known relation between the coordinate systems. And use it to
ultimately answer the questions!
e) Solve the independent 1 dimensional systems for each of the independent orthogo-
nal coordinates chosen, plus any coordinate system constraints or relations. In many
problems the constraints will eliminate one or more degrees of freedom from con-
sideration (if we’ve chosen our coordinates wisely, for example). Note that in most
nontrivial cases, these solutions will have to be simultaneous solutions, obtained by
e.g. algebraic substitution or elimination.
f) Reconstruct the multidimensional trajectory by adding the vectors components thus

obtained back up (for a common independent variable, time).
g) Answer algebraically any questions requested concerning the resultant trajectory.

Homework for Week 1
Problem 1.
Physics Concepts
In order to solve the following physics problems for homework, you will need to have the
following physics and math concepts first at hand, then in your long term memory, ready to
bring to bear whenever they are needed. Every week (or day, in a summer course) there
will be new ones.
To get them there efficiently, you will need to carefully organize what you learn as you
go along. This organized summary will be a standard, graded part of every homework
assignment!
Your homework will be graded in two equal parts. Ten points will be given for a complete
crossreferenced summary of the physics concepts used in each of the assigned problems.
One problem will be selected for grading in detail – usually one that well-exemplifies the
material covered that week – for ten more points.
Points will be taken off for egregiously missing concepts or omitted problems in the
concept summary. Don’t just name the concepts; if there is an equation and/or diagram
associated with the concept, put that down too. Indicate (by number) all of the homework
problems where a concept was used.
This concept summary will eventually help you prioritize your study and review for ex-
ams! To help you understand what I have in mind, I’m building you a list of the concepts
for this week, and indicating the problems that (will) need them as a sort of template, or
example. However, Note Well! You must write up, and hand in, your own version this
week as well as all of the other weeks to get full credit.
In the end, if you put your homework assignments including the summaries for each
week into a three-ring binder as you get them back, you will have a nearly perfect study
guide to go over before all of the exams and the final. You might want to throw the quizzes
and hour exams in as well, as you get them back. Remember the immortal words of
Edmund Burke: ”Those who don’t know history are destined to repeat it” – know your own
“history”, by carefully saving, and going over, your own work throughout this course!
• Writing a vector in cartesian coordinates. For example:
~ = Ax x̂ + Ay ŷ + Az ẑ
A
Used in problems 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,12
• Decomposition of a vector at some angle into components in a (2D) coordinate sys-

~ with length A at angle θ with respect to the x-axis:
tem. Given a vector A
Ax = A cos(θ)
Ay = A sin(θ)
Used in problem 5,6,9,10,11,12
• Definition of trajectory, velocity and acceleration of a particle:

The trajectory is the vector ~
x(t), the vector position of the particle as a function of the
time.
The velocity of the particle is the (vector) rate at which its position changes as a
function of time, or the time derivative of the trajectory:
∆~
x d~
x
~
v= =
∆t dt
The acceleration is the (vector) rate at which its velocity changes as a function of
time, or the time derivative of the velocity:
∆~
v d~
v
~
a= =
∆t dt
Used in all problems.
• Inertial reference frame

A set of coordinates in which (if you like) the laws of physics that describe the tra-
jectory of particles take their simplest form. In particular a frame in which Newton’s
Laws (given below) hold in a consistent manner. A set of coordinates that is not it-
self accelerating with respect to all of the other non-accelerating coordinate frames
in which Newton’s Laws hold.
Used in all problems (when I choose a coordinate system that is an inertial reference
frame).
• Newton’s First Law

In an inertial reference frame, an object in motion will remain in motion, and an object
at rest will remain at rest, unless acted on by a net force.
~ = 0, then ~
If F v is a constant vector.
A consequence, as one can see, of Newton’s Second Law. Not used much yet.
• Newton’s Second Law

In an inertial reference frame, the net vector force on an object equals its mass times
its acceleration.
~ = m~
F a
Used in every problem! Very important! Key! Five stars! *****
• Newton’s Third Law

If one object exerts a force on a second object (along the line connecting the two
objects), the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
~ ij = −F
F ~ ji
Not used much yet.
• Differentiating xn
dxn
= nxn−1
dx
Not used much yet.
• Integrating xn dx
Z
xn+1
xn dx =
n+1
Used in every problem where we implicitly use kinematic solutions to constant accel-
eration to find a trajectory.
Problems 2
• The force exerted by gravity near the Earth’s surface
~ = −mg ŷ
F
(down).
Used in problems 2,3,4,5,6,8,9,10,11,12
Problems 2
• Centripetal acceleration.
v2
ar = −
r
Used in problems 11,13
This isn’t a perfect example – if I were doing this by hand I would have drawn pictures to
accompany, for example, Newton’s second and third law, the circular motion acceleration,
and so on.
I also included more concepts than are strictly needed by the problems – don’t hesitate
to add important concepts to your list even if none of the problems seem to need them!
Some concepts (like that of inertial reference frames) are ideas and underlie problems
even when they aren’t actually/obviously used in an algebraic way in the solution!
Problem 2.
t=0
m, v0 = 0
mg
A ball of mass m is dropped at time t = 0 from the top of the Duke Chapel (which has
height H) to fall freely under the influence of gravity. Neglect “wind resistance” (which we’ll
come to call drag in the next chapter).
a) How long does it take for the ball to reach the ground?
b) How fast is it going when it reaches the ground?
Just this once, for this first problem of many, many you will solve as the course pro-
ceeds, I’m going to give you a bunch of advice on how to get started, but remember to look
back at the rubrick for solving force problems in the chapter content as well as the following
more or less recapitulates this rubrick. To solve this first problem:
• Draw a good figure – in this case a chapel tower, the ground, the ball falling. Label the
distance H in the figure, indicate the force on the mass with a vector arrow labelled
mg pointing down. This is called a force diagram. Alternative, draw an “inset” figure
of the mass(es) off to the side and decorate it alone with the forces acting on it
(maintaining their coordinate orientation). This is called a free body diagram as it
concentrates on each body separately, “free” from the others. Note well! Solutions
without a figure (usually including either a force diagram or free body diagram) will
lose points!
• Choose coordinates! In this case you could (for example) put an origin at the bottom
of the tower with a y-axis going up so that the height of the object is y(t).
• Write Newton’s second law for the mass.
• Transform it into a (differential) equation of motion. This is the math problem that
must be solved.
dvy
• In this case, you will want to integrate the constant = ay = −g to get vy (t), then
dt
dy
integrate = vy (t) to get y(t).
dt
• Express the algebraic condition that is true when the mass reaches the ground, and
solve for the time it does so, answering the first question.
• Use the answer to the first question (plus your solutions) to answer the second.
These last two steps requires a mix of creative thinking and experience to give
you the insight as to how to proceed, and the following assignments will ensure that
you get a lot of practice at this so that you become quite good at it!
The first four steps in this solution will nearly always be the same for Newton’s Law
problems. Once one has the equation of motion, solving the rest of the problem depends
on the force law(s) in question, and answering the questions requires a bit of insight that
only comes from practice. So practice!
Problem 3.
t=0
m, v 01 = 0
H
v02
m
A baseball of mass m is dropped at time t = 0 from rest (v01 = 0) from the top of the
Duke Chapel (which has height H) to fall freely under the influence of gravity. At the same
instant, a second baseball of mass m is thrown up from the ground directly beneath at
a speed v02 (so that if the two balls travel far enough, fast enough, they will collide). In
answering the following questions, neglect drag.
a) Draw a force diagram or free body diagram for each mass, and then compute the net
force acting on each mass, separately. You can neglect all directions but the vertical
direction (so this is a “one dimensional (1D) motion problem”).
b) From the equation of motion for each mass, determine their one dimensional
trajectory functions, y1 (t) and y2 (t). Please actually do the two integrals (and use the
initial conditions) for each mass, don’t just look up or remember the solution.
c) Sketch a qualitatively correct graph of y1 (t) and y2 (t) on the same set of axes in the
case where the two collide before they hit the ground, and draw a second graph of
y1 (t) and y2 (t) on a new set of axes in the case where they do not. From your two
pictures, determine a criterion for whether or not the two balls will actually collide be-
fore they hit the ground. Express this criterion as an algebraic expression (inequality)
involving H, g, and v02 .
d) The Duke Chapel is roughly 100 meters high. What (also roughly, you may estimate
and don’t need a calculator) is the minimum velocity v02 a the second mass must
be thrown up in order for the two to collide? Note that you should give an actual
numerical answer here. What is the (again approximate, no calculators) answer in
miles per hour, assuming that 1 meter/second ≈ 9/4 miles per hour? Do you think
you can throw a baseball that fast?
Pro tip: The y(t) functions for both masses will turn out to be upside down parabolas
with exactly the same curvature. They differ only in their y-intercept y0 at t = 0 and their
slope v0 at t = 0. If you want to make a neat diagram, draw a single, very neat parabola,
turn it upside down and then trace it (with suitable intercepts) onto a single y-t frame
for various possible intercepts for the lower ball. Can you understand the question now
graphically?
Problem 4.
mg
A model rocket of mass m blasts off vertically from rest at time t = 0 being pushed
by an engine that produces a constant thrust force F (up). The engine blasts away for
tb seconds and then stops. Assume that the mass of the rocket remains more or less
unchanged during this time, and that the only forces acting are the thrust and gravity near
the earth’s surface.
a) Find the height yb and vertical velocity vb that the rocket has reached by the end of
the blast at time tb (neglect any drag forces from the air).
b) Find the maximum height ym that the rocket reaches. You may want to reset your
clock to be zero at tb , solving for v(t′ ) and y(t′ ) in terms of the reset clock t′ . Your
answer may be expressed in terms of the symbols vb and yb (which are now initial
data for the second part of the motion after the rocket engine goes off).
c) Find the speed of the rocket as it hits the ground, vg (note that this is a magnitude
and won’t need the minus sign). You may find it easiest to express this answer in
terms of ym .
d) Sketch v(t) and y(t) for the entire time the rocket is in the air. Indicate and label (on
both graphs) tb , tm (the time the rocket reaches its maximum height) and tg (the time
it reaches the ground again).
e) Evaluate the numerical value of your algebraic answers to a-c if m = 0.1 kg, F = 5 N,
and tb = 3 seconds. You may use g = 10 m/sec2 (now and for the rest of the course)
for simplicity. Note that you will probably want to evaluate the numbers piecewise –
find yb and vb , then put these and the other numbers into your algebraic answer for
ym , put that answer into your algebraic answer for vg .
Problem 5.
Superman launches himself into the sky to fly to the top of a tall building of height H to
rescue Lois Lane. Using he Kryptonian powers, he accelerates upward with an accelera-
tion of g/3. After a time t1 he has reached the height H/2. In an additional time t2 , he
reaches the top of the building (so he reaches its top in a total time tt = t1 + t2 ) and comes
“instantly” to rest.
a) What is the height H of the building in terms of the time t2 ?
b) Lois turns out not to be there, so he jumps back to the ground. How long t3 does it
take for him to reach the ground falling freely from the top?
c) If t2 = 2 seconds, what is H in meters and t3 in seconds. Use g ≈ 10 meters/second2 ,

and be careful about significant figures!
Problem 6.
m
H
v0
θ
R
A cannon sits on a horizontal plain. It fires a cannonball of mass m at speed v0 at an

angle θ relative to the ground. Find:
a) The maximum height H of the cannonball’s trajectory.
b) The time ta the cannonball is in the air.
c) The range R of the cannonball.
Questions to discuss in recitation: How does the time the cannonball remains in the air
depend on its maximum height? If the cannon is fired at different angles and initial speeds,
does the cannonballs with the greatest range always remain in the air the longest? Use
the trigonometric identity:
2 sin(θ) cos(θ) = sin(2θ)
to express your result for the range. For a fixed v0 , how many angles (usually) can you set
the cannon to that will have the same range?
Problem 7.
v0 m
θ
ymax
H
A cannon sits on at the top of a rampart of height (to the mouth of the cannon) H. It
fires a cannonball of mass m at speed v0 at an angle θ relative to the ground. Find:
a) The maximum height ymax of the cannonball’s trajectory.
b) The time the cannonball is in the air.
c) The range of the cannonball.
Discussion: In your solution to b) above you should have found two times, one of them
negative. What does the negative time correspond to? (Does our mathematical solution
“know” about the actual prior history of the cannonball?
You might find the quadratic formula useful in solving this problem. We will be using
this a lot in this course, and on a quiz or exam you won’t be given it, so be sure that you
really learn it now in case you don’t know or have forgotten it. The roots of a quadratic:
ax2 + bx + c = 0
are √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x=
2a
You can actually derive this for yourself if you like (it helps you remember it). Just divide the
whole equation by a and complete the square by adding and subtracting the right algebraic
quantities, then factor.
Problem 8.
Fx = −kx
k
eq x
A mass m on a frictionless table is connected to a spring with spring constant k (so that
the force on it is Fx = −kx where x is the distance of the mass from its equilibrium postion.
It is then pulled so that the spring is stretched by a distance x from its equilibrium position
and at t = 0 is released.
Write Newton’s Second Law and solve for the acceleration. Solve for the acceleration
and write the result as a second order, homogeneous differential equation of motion for
this system.
Discussion in your recitation group: Based on your experience and intuition with masses
on springs, how do you expect the mass to move in time? Since x(t) is not constant, and
a is proportional to x(t), a is a function of time! Do you expect the solution to resemble the
kinds of solutions you derived in constant acceleration problems above at all?
The moral of this story is that not everything moves under the influence of a constant
force! If the force/acceleration vary in time, we cannot use e.g. the constant acceleration
solution x(t) = 21 at2 ! Yet this is a very common mistake made by intro physics students,
often as late as the final exam. Try to make sure that you are not one of them!
Problem 9.
m1
m2
A mass m1 is attached to a second mass m2 by an Acme (massless, unstretchable)

string. m1 sits on a frictionless table; m2 is hanging over the ends of a table, suspended
by the taut string from an Acme (frictionless, massless) pulley. At time t = 0 both masses
are released.
a) Draw the force/free body diagram for this problem.
b) Find the acceleration of the two masses.
c) The tension T in the string.
d) How fast are the two blocks moving when mass m2 has fallen a height H (assuming
that m1 hasn’t yet hit the pulley)?
Discussion: Your answer should look something like: The total unopposed force acting
on the system accelerates both masses. The string just transfers force from one mass to
the other so that they accelerate together! This is a common feature to many problems
involving multiple masses and internal forces, as we’ll see and eventually formalize.
Also, by this point you should be really internalizing the ritual for finding the speed of
something when it has moved some distance while acclerating as in d) above: find the time
it takes to move the distance, backsubstitute to find the speed/velocity. We could actually
do this once and for all algebraically for constant accelerations and derive a formula that
saves these steps:
v12 − v02 = 2a∆x
However, very soon we will formally eliminate time as a variable altogether from New-
ton’s Second Law, and the resulting work-energy theorem is a better version of this same
result that will work even for non-constant forces and accelerations (and is the basis of a
fundamental law of nature!), so we won’t do this yet.
Problem 10.
m1 m2
A mass m1 is attached to a second mass m2 > m1 by an Acme (massless, unstretch-

able) string. m1 sits on a frictionless inclined plane at an angle θ with the horizontal; m2
is hanging over the high end of the plane, suspended by the taut string from an Acme
(frictionless, massless) pulley. At time t = 0 both masses are released from rest.
a) Draw the force/free body diagram for this problem.
b) Find the acceleration of the two masses.
c) Find the tension T in the string.
d) How fast are the two blocks moving when mass m2 has fallen a height H (assuming
that m1 hasn’t yet hit the pulley)?
Problem 11.
A block m is sitting on a frictionless inclined block with mass M at an angle θ0 as

shown. With what force F should you push on the large block in order that the small block
will remain motionless with respect to the large block and neither slide up nor slide down?
BTW, I made the angle θ0 sit in the upper corner just to annoy you and make you
actually think about sines and cosines of angles. This is good for you – don’t just memorize
the trig for an inclined plane, understand it! Talk about it in your groups until you do!
Problem 12.
A tether ball of mass m is suspended by a rope of length L from the top of a pole.
A youngster gives it a whack so that it moves with some speed v in a circle of radius
r = L sin(θ) < L around the pole.
a) Find an expression for the tension T in the rope as a function of m, g, and θ.
b) Find an expression for the speed v of the ball as a function of θ.
Discussion: Why don’t you need to use L or v in order to find the tension T ? Once the
tension T is known, how does it constrain the rest of your solution?
By now you should have covered, and understood, the derivation of the True Fact that
if a particle is moving in a circle of radius r, it must have a total acceleration towards the
center of the circle of:
v2
ac =
r
This acceleration (or rather, the acceleration times the mass, mac ) is not a force!. The
force that produces this acceleration has to come from the many real forces of nature
pushing and pulling on the object (in this case tension in the string and/or gravity).
Problem 13.
v0
θ
A researcher aims her tranquiler gun directly at a monkey in a distant tree. Just as she
fires, the monkey lets go and drops in free fall towards the ground.
Show that the sleeping dart hits the monkey.
Discussion: There are some unspoken assumptions in this problem. For example, if
the gun shoots the dart too slowly (v0 too small), what will really happen? Also, real guns
fire a bullet so fast that the trajectory is quite flat. We must neglect drag forces (discussed
next chapter) or the problem is absurdly difficult and we could not possibly answer it here.
Finally and most importantly, real hunters allow for the drop in their dart/bullet and would
aim the gun at a point above the monkey to hit it if it did not drop (the default assumption).
Be at peace. No monkeys, real or virtual, were harmed in this problem.
Problem 14.
A train engine of mass m is chugging its way around a circular curve of radius R at a
constant speed v. Draw a free body/force diagram for the train engine showing all of the
forces acting on it. Evaluate the total vector force acting on the engine as a function of its
speed in a plane perpendicular to its velocity ~v.
You may find the picture above of a train’s wheels useful. Note that they are notched
so that they fit onto the rails – the thin rim of metal that rides on the inside of each rail is
essential to the train being able to go around a curve and stay on a track!
Draw a schematic picture of the wheel and rail in cross-section and draw in the forces
using the force rules we have learned so far that illustrate how a rail can exert both com-
ponents of the force needed to hold a train up and curve its trajectory around in a circle.
Discussion: What is the mechanical origin of the force responsible for making the train
go in a curve without coming off of the track (and for that matter, keeping it on the track in
the first place, even when it is going “straight”)? What would happen if there were no rim
on the train’s wheels?
Advanced Problem 15.
v0
D
φ
θ
You fire a ball of mass m at an initial speed v0 at an angle φ measured from the surface
of an incline, which itself makes an angle θ with the ground as shown above
a) Find the distance D, measured along the incline, from the launch point to where the
ball strikes the incline.
b) What angle φ gives the maximum distance D?
Ignore drag – once fired the ball experiences only the force of gravity.
Optional Problems
The following problems are not required or to be handed in, but are provided to give
you some extra things to work on or test yourself with after mastering the required problems
and concepts above and to prepare for quizzes and exams.
No optional problems this week.

116 Week 2: Newton’s Laws: Continued
Week 2: Newton’s Laws: Continued
Summary
We now continue our discussion of dynamics and Newton’s Laws, adding a few more very
important force rules to our repertoire. So far our idealizations have carefully excluded
forces that bring things to rest as they move, forces that always seem to act to slow things
down unless we constantly push on them. The dissipative forces are, of course, ubiquitous
and we cannot afford to ignore them for long. We’d also like to return to the issue of inertial
reference frames and briefly discuss the topic of pseudoforces introduced in the “weight in
an elevator” example above. Naturally, we will also see many examples of the use of these
ideas, and will have to do even more problems for homework to make them intelligible.
The ideas we will cover include:
• Static Friction 49 is the force exerted by one surface on another that acts parallel to
the surfaces to prevent the two surfaces from sliding.
a) Static friction is as large as it needs to be to prevent any sliding motion, up to a

maximum value, at which point the surfaces begin to slide.
b) The maximum force static friction can exert is proportional to both the pressure
between the surfaces and the area in contact. This makes it proportional to the
product of the pressure and the area, which equals the normal force. We write
this as:
fs ≤ fsmax = µs N (2.1)
where µs is the coefficient of static friction, a dimensionless constant charac-
teristic of the two surfaces in contact, and N is the normal force.
c) The direction of static friction is parallel to the surfaces in contact and opposes
the component of the difference between the total force acting on the object in
in that plane – it therefore acts to hold the object stationary until the applied
force exceeds the maximum fsmax . Note that in general it does not matter which
direction the applied force points in the plane of contact – static friction usually
acts symmetrically to the right or left, backwards or forwards and required to
hold an object stationary.
49
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friction. This article describes some aspects of friction in more
detail than my brief introduction below. The standard model of friction I present is at best an approximate, ide-
alized one. Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribology describes the science of friction and lubrication
in more detail.
117
• Kinetic Friction is the force exerted by one surface on another that is sliding across
it. It, also, acts parallel to the surfaces and opposes the direction of relative motion
of the two surfaces. That is:
a) The force of kinetic friction is proportional to both the pressure between the
surfaces and the area in contact. This makes it proportional to the product of
the pressure and the area, which equals the normal force. Thus again
fk = µk N (2.2)
where µk is the coefficient of kinetic friction, a dimensionless constant char-

acteristic of the two surfaces in contact, and N is the normal force.
Note well that kinetic friction equals µk N in magnitude, where static friction is
whatever it needs to be to hold the surfaces static up to a maximum of µs N . This
is often a point of confusion for students when they first start to solve problems.
b) The direction of kinetic friction is parallel to the surfaces in contact and opposes
the relative direction of the sliding surfaces. That is, if the bottom surface
has a velocity (in any frame) of ~ v b and the top frame has a velocity of ~ vb,
v t 6= ~
the direction of kinetic friction on the top object is the same as the direction of
the vector −(~ vt − ~
vb) = ~ v t . The bottom surface “drags” the top one in the
vb − ~
(relative) direction it slides, as it were (and vice versa).
Note well that often the circumstances where you will solve problems involving
kinetic friction will involve a stationary lower surface, e.g. the ground, a fixed
inclined plane, a roadway – all cases where kinetic friction simply opposes the
direction of motion of the upper object – but you will be given enough problems
where the lower surface is moving and “dragging” the upper one that you should
be able to learn to manage them as well.
• Drag Force50 is the “frictional” force exerted by a fluid (liquid or gas) on an object
that moves through it. Like kinetic friction, it always opposes the direction of relative
motion of the object and the medium: “drag force” equally well describes the force
exerted on a car by the still air it moves through and the force exerted on a stationary
car in a wind tunnel.
Drag is an extremely complicated force. It depends on a vast array of things including
but not limited to:
– The size of the object.

– The shape of the object.
– The relative velocity of the object through the fluid.
– The state of the fluid (e.g. its internal turbulence).
– The density of the fluid.
– The viscosity of the fluid (we will learn what this is later).
– The properties and chemistry of the surface of the object (smooth versus rough,
strong or weak chemical interaction with the fluid at the molecular level).
50
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag (physics). This article explains a lot of the things we skim
over below, at least in the various links you can follow if you are particularly interested.
– The orientation of the object as it moves through the fluid, which may be fixed
in time or varying in time (as e.g. an object tumbles).
The long and the short of this is that actually computing drag forces on actual objects
moving through actual fluids is a serious job of work for fluid engineers and physicists.
To obtain mastery in this, one must first study for years, although then one can make
a lot of money (and have a lot of fun, I think) working on cars, jets, turbine blades,
boats, and many other things that involve the utilization or minimization of drag forces
in important parts of our society.
To simplify drag forces to where we learn to understand in general how they work,
we will use following idealizations:
a) We will only consider smooth, uniform, nonreactive surfaces of convex, bluff

objects (like spheres) or streamlined objects (like rockets or arrows) moving
through uniform, stationary fluids where we can ignore or treat separately e.g.
bouyant forces.
b) We will wrap up all of our ignorance of the shape and cross-sectional area of the
object, the density and viscosity of the fluid, and so on in a single number, b. This
dimensioned number will only be actually computable for certain particularly
“nice” shapes and so on (see the Wikipedia article on drag linked above) but
allows us to treat drag relatively simply. We will treat drag in two limits:
c) Low velocity, non-turbulent (streamlined, laminar) motion leads to Stokes’ drag,
described by:
~ d = −b~
F v (2.3)
This is the simplest sort of drag – a drag force directly proportional to the velocity
of (relative) motion of the object through the fluid and oppositely directed.
d) High velocity, turbulent (high Reynolds number) drag that is described by a
quadratic dependence on the relative velocity:
~ d = −b|v|~
F v (2.4)
It is still directed opposite to the relative velocity of the object and the fluid but
now is proportional to that velocity squared.
e) In between, drag is a bit of a mess – changing over from one from to the other.
We will ignore this transitional region where turbulence is appearing and so on,
except to note that it is there and you should be aware of it.
• Pseudoforces in an accelerating frame are gravity-like “imaginary” forces we must

add to the real forces of nature to get an accurate Newtonian description of motion
in a non-inertial reference frame. In all cases it is possible to solve Newton’s Laws
without recourse to pseudoforces (and this is the general approach we promote in this
textbook) but it is useful in a few cases to see how to proceed to solve or formulate
a problem using pseudoforces such as “centrifugal force” or “coriolis force” (both
arising in a rotating frame) or pseudogravity in a linearly accelerating frame. In all
cases if one tries to solve force equations in an accelerating frame, one must modify
the actual force being exerted on a mass m in an inertial frame by:
~ accelerating = F
F ~ intertial − m~
aframe (2.5)
where −m~
aframe is the pseudoforce.
This sort of force is easily exemplified – indeed, we’ve already seen such an example in
our treatment of apparent weight in an elevator in the first week/chapter.
2.1: Friction
So far, our picture of natural forces as being the cause of the acceleration of mass seems
fairly successful. In time it will become second nature to you; you will intuitively connect
forces to all changing velocities. However, our description thus far is fairly simplistic – we
have massless strings, frictionless tables, drag-free air. That is, we are neglecting certain
well-known and important facts or forces that appear in real-world problems in order to
concentrate on “ideal” problems that illustrate the methods simply.
It is time to restore some of the complexity to the problems we solve. The first thing we
will add is friction.
Applied Force F
Normal Force
Frictional Contact Force
Figure 16: A cartoon picture representing two “smooth” surfaces in contact when they
are highly magnified. Note the two things that contribute to friction – area in actual con-
tact, which regulates the degree of chemical bonding between the surfaces, and a certain
amount of “keyholing” where features in one surface fit into and are physically locked by
features in the other.
Experimentally
a) fs ≤ µs |N |. The force exerted by static friction is less than or equal to the coeffi-
cient of static friction mus times the magnitude of the normal force exerted on the
entire (homogeneous) surface of contact. We will sometimes refer to this maximum
possible value of static friction as fsmax = µs |N |. It opposes the component of any
(otherwise net) applied force in the plane of the surface to make the total force com-
ponent parallel to the surface zero as long as it is able to do so (up to this maximum).
b) fk = µk |N |. The force exerted by kinetic friction (produced by two surfaces rubbing

against or sliding across each other in motion) is equal to the coefficient of kinetic
friction times the magnitude of the normal force exerted on the entire (homogeneous)
surface of contact. It opposes the direction of the relative motion of the two surfaces.
c) µk < µs
d) µk is really a function of the speed v (see discussion on drag forces), but for “slow”
speeds µk ∼ constant and we will idealize it as a constant throughout this book.
e) µs and µk depend on the materials in “smooth” contact, but are independent of con-
tact area.
We can understand this last observation by noting that the frictional force should de-
pend on the pressure (the normal force/area ≡ N/m2 ) and the area in contact. But then
N
fk = µk P ∗ A = µk ∗ A = µk N (2.6)
A
and we see that the frictional force will depend only on the total force, not the area or
pressure separately.
The idealized force rules themselves, we see, are pretty simple: fs ≤ µs N and fk =
µk N . Let’s see how to apply them in the context of actual problems.
Example 2.1.1: Inclined Plane of Length L with Friction
f s,k N
θ
mg
L
H
θ
x
Figure 17: Block on inclined plane with both static and dynamic friction. Note that we still
use the coordinate system selected in the version of the problem without friction, with the
x-axis aligned with the inclined plane.
In figure 17 the problem of a block of mass m released from rest at time t = 0 on a plane
of length L inclined at an angle θ relative to horizontal is once again given, this time more
realistically, including the effects of friction. The inclusion of friction enables new questions
to be asked that require the use of your knowledge of both the properties and the formulas
that make up the friction force rules to answer, such as:
a) At what angle θc does the block barely overcome the force of static friction and slide
down the incline.?
b) Started at rest from an angle θ > θc (so it definitely slides), how fast will the block be
going when it reaches the bottom?
To answer the first question, we note that static friction exerts as much force as neces-
sary to keep the block at rest up to the maximum it can exert, fsmax = µs N . We therefore
decompose the known force rules into x and y components, sum them componentwise,
write Newton’s Second Law for both vector components and finally use our prior knowl-
edge that the system remains in static force equilibrium to set ax = ay = 0. We get:
X
Fx = mg sin(θ) − fs = 0 (2.7)
(for θ ≤ θc and v(0) = 0) and

X
Fy = N − mg cos(θ) = 0 (2.8)
So far, fs is precisely what it needs to be to prevent motion:
fs = mg sin(θ) (2.9)
while
N = mg cos(θ) (2.10)
is true at any angle, moving or not moving, from the Fy equation51 .
You can see that as one gradually and gently increases the angle θ, the force that
must be exerted by static friction to keep the block in static force equilibrium increases as
well. At the same time, the normal force exerted by the plane decreases (and hence the
maximum force static friction can exert decreases as well. The critical angle is the angle
where these two meet; where fs is as large as it can be such that the block barely doesn’t
slide (or barely starts to slide, as you wish – at the boundary the slightest fluctuation in
the total force suffices to trigger sliding). To find it, we can substitute fsmax = µs Nc where
Nc = mg cos(θc ) into both equations, so that the first equation becomes:
X
Fx = mg sin(θc ) − µs mg cos(θc ) = 0 (2.11)
at θc . Solving for θc , we get:

θc = tan−1 (µs ) (2.12)
Once it is moving (either at an angle θ > θc or at a smaller angle than this but with
the initial condition vx (0) > 0, giving it an initial “push” down the incline) then the block will
(probably) accelerate and Newton’s Second Law becomes:
X
Fx = mg sin(θ) − µk mg cos(θ) = max (2.13)
51
Here again is an appeal to experience and intuition – we know that masses placed on inclines under the
influence of gravity generally do not “jump up” off of the incline or “sink into” the (solid) incline, so their accel-
eration in the perpendicular direction is, from sheer common sense, zero. Proving this in terms of microscopic
interactions would be absurdly difficult (although in principle possible) but as long as we keep our wits about
ourselves we don’t have to!
which we can solve for the constant acceleration of the block down the incline:
ax = g sin(θ) − µk g cos(θ) = g(sin(θ) − µk cos(θ)) (2.14)
Given ax , it is now straightforward to answer the second question above (or any of a
number of others) using the methods exemplified in the first week/chapter. For example,
we can integrate twice and find vx (t) and x(t), use the latter to find the time it takes to
reach the bottom, and substitute that time into the former to find the speed at the bottom
of the incline. Try this on your own, and get help if it isn’t (by now) pretty easy.
Other things you might think about: Suppose that you started the block at the top of an
incline at an angle less than θc but at an initial speed vx (0) = v0 . In that case, it might well
be the case that fk > mg sin(θ) and the block would slide down the incline slowing down.
An interesting question might then be: Given the angle, µk , L and v0 , does the block come
to rest before it reaches the bottom of the incline? Does the answer depend on m or g?
Think about how you might formulate and answer this question in terms of the givens.
Example 2.1.2: Block Hanging off of a Table
+y
N
m1 +x
f s,k
T
m 1g T
m2
+y
m 2g
+x
Figure 18: Atwood’s machine, sort of, with one block resting on a table with friction and the
other dangling over the side being pulled down by gravity near the Earth’s surface. Note
that we should use an “around the corner” coordinate system as shown, since a1 = a2 = a
if the string is unstretchable.
Suppose a block of mass m1 sits on a table. The coefficients of static and kinetic friction
between the block and the table are µs > µk and µk respectively. This block is attached
by an “ideal” massless unstretchable string running over an “ideal” massless frictionless
pulley to a block of mass m2 hanging off of the table as shown in figure 18. The blocks are
released from rest at time t = 0.
Possible questions include:
a) What is the largest that m2 can be before the system starts to move, in terms of the
givens and knowns (m1 , g, µk , µs ...)?
b) Find this largest m2 if m1 = 10 kg and µs = 0.4.

c) Describe the subsequent motion (find a, v(t), the displacement of either block x(t)
from its starting position). What is the tension T in the string while they are station-
ary?
d) Suppose that m2 = 5 kg and µk = 0.3. How fast are the masses moving after m2 has
fallen one meter? What is the tension T in the string while they are moving?
Note that this is the first example you have been given with actual numbers. They are
there to tempt you to use your calculators to solve the problem. Do not do this! Solve both
of these problems algebraically and only at the very end, with the full algebraic answers
obtained and dimensionally checked, consider substituting in the numbers where they are
given to get a numerical answer. In most of the rare cases you are given a problem with
actual numbers in this book, they will be simple enough that you shouldn’t need a calculator
to answer them! Note well that the right number answer is worth very little in this course
– I assume that all of you can, if your lives (or the lives of others for those of you who
plan to go on to be physicians or aerospace engineers) depend on it, can punch numbers
into a calculator correctly. This course is intended to teach you how to correctly obtain
the algebraic expression that you need to numerically evaluate, not “drill” you in calculator
skills52 .
We start by noting that, like Atwood’s Machine and one of the homework problems from
the first week, this system is effectively “one dimensional”, where the string and pulley
serve to “bend” the contact force between the blocks around the corner without loss of
magnitude. I crudely draw such a coordinate frame into the figure, but bear in mind that it
is really lined up with the string. The important thing is that the displacement of both blocks
from their initial position is the same, and neither block moves perpendicular to “x” in their
(local) “y” direction.
At this point the ritual should be quite familiar. For the first (static force equilibrium)
problem we write Newton’s Second Law with ax = ay = 0 for both masses and use static
friction to describe the frictional force on m1 :
X
Fx1 = T − fs = 0
X
Fy1 = N − m1 g = 0
X
Fx2 = m2 g − T = 0
X
Fy2 = 0 (2.15)
From the second equation, N = m1 g. At the point where m2 is the largest it can be (given
m1 and so on) fs = fsmax = µs N = µs m1 g. If we substitute this in and add the two x
equations, the T cancels and we get:
mmax
2 g − µs m1 g = 0 (2.16)
Thus
mmax
2 = µs m1 (2.17)
52
Indeed, numbers are used as rarely as they are to break you of the bad habit of thinking that a calculator,
or computer, is capable of doing your intuitive and formal algebraic reasoning for you, and are only included
from time to time to give you a “feel” for what reasonable numbers are for describing everyday things.
which (if you think about it) makes both dimensional and physical sense. In terms of the
given numbers, m2 > mus m1 = 4 kg is enough so that the weight of the second mass will
make the whole system move. Note that the tension T = m2 g = 40 Newtons, from Fx2
(now that we know m2 ).
Similarly, in the second pair of questions m2 is larger than this minimum, so m1 will
slide to the right as m2 falls. We will have to solve Newton’s Second Law for both masses
in order to obtain the non-zero acceleration to the right and down, respectively:
X
Fx1 = T − fk = m1 a
X
Fy1 = N − m1 g = 0
X
Fx2 = m2 g − T = m2 a
X
Fy2 = 0 (2.18)
If we substitute the fixed value for fk = µk N = µk m1 g and then add the two x equations
once again (using the fact that both masses have the same acceleration because the string
is unstretchable as noted in our original construction of round-the-corner coordinates), the
tension T cancels and we get:
m2 g − µk m1 g = (m1 + m2 )a (2.19)
or
m2 − µk m1
a= g (2.20)
m1 + m2
is the constant acceleration.
This makes sense! The string forms an “internal force” not unlike the molecular forces
that glue the many tiny components of each block together. As long as the two move
together, these internal forces do not contribute to the collective motion of the system any
more than you can pick yourself up by your own shoestrings! The net force “along x” is just
the weight of m2 pulling one way, and the force of kinetic friction pulling the other. The sum
of these two forces equals the total mass times the acceleration!
Solving for v(t) and x(t) (for either block) should now be easy and familiar. So should
finding the time it takes for the blocks to move one meter, and substituting this time into v(t)
to find out how fast they are moving at this time. Finally, one can substitute a into either of
the two equations of motion involving T and solve for T . In general you should find that T
is less than the weight of the second mass, so that the net force on this mass is not zero
and accelerates it downward. The tension T can never be negative (as drawn) because
strings can never push an object, only pull.
Basically, we are done. We know (or can easily compute) anything that can be known
about this system.
Example 2.1.3: Find The Minimum No-Skid Braking Distance for a Car
One of the most important everyday applications of our knowledge of static versus kinetic
friction is in anti-lock brake systems (ABS)53 ABS brakes are implemented in every car
53
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-lock Braking System.
a)
N
fs v0
mg
Ds
b)
N
fk v0
mg
Dk
Figure 19: Stopping a car with and without locking the brakes and skidding. The coordinate
system (not drawn) is x parallel to the ground, y perpendicular to the ground, and the origin
in both cases is at the point where the car begins braking. In panel a), the anti-lock brakes
do not lock and the car is stopped with the maximum force of static friction. In panel b) the
brakes lock and the car skids to a stop, slowed by kinetic/sliding friction.
sold in the European Union (since 2007) and are standard equipment in almost every
car sold in the United States, where for reasons known only to congress it has yet to
be formally mandated. This is in spite of the fact that road tests show that on average,
stopping distances for ABS-equipped cars are some 18 to 35% shorter than non-ABS
equipped cars, for all but the most skilled drivers (who still find it difficult to actually beat
ABS stopping distances but who can equal them).
One small part of the reason may be that ABS braking “feels strange” as the car pumps
the brakes for you 10-16 times per second, making it “pulse” as it stops. This causes
drivers unprepared for the feeling to back off of the brake pedal and not take full advantage
of the ABS feature, but of course the simpler and better solution is for drivers to educate
themselves on the feel of anti-lock brakes in action under safe and controlled conditions
and then trust them.
This problem is designed to help you understand why ABS-equipped cars are “better”
(safer) than non-ABS-equipped cars, and why you should rely on them to help you stop a
car in the minimum possible distance. We achieve this by answer the following questions:
Find the minimum braking distance of a car travelling at speed v0 30 m/sec running on
tires with µs = 0.5 and µk = 0.3:
a) equipped with ABS such that the tires do not skid, but rather roll (so that they exert
the maximum static friction only);
b) the same car, but without ABS and with the wheels locked in a skid (kinetic friction
only)
c) Evaluate these distances for v0 = 30 meters/second (∼ 67 mph), and both for µs =

0.8, µk = 0.7 (reasonable values, actually, for good tires on dry pavement) and for
µs = 0.7, µk = 0.3 (not unreasonable values for wet pavement). The latter are,
however, highly variable, depending on the kind and conditions of the treads on your
car (which provide channels for water to be displaced as a thin film of water beneath
the treads lubricates the point of contact between the tire and the road. With luck
they will teach you why you should slow down and allow the distance between your
vehicle and the next one to stretch out when driving in wet, snowy, or icy conditions.
To answer all of these questions, it suffices to evalute the acceleration of the car given
either fsmax = µs N = µs mg (for a car being stopped by peak static friction via ABS) and
fk = µk N = µk mg. In both cases we use Newton’s Law in the x-direction to find ax :
X
Fx = −µ(s,k) N = max (2.21)
x
X
Fy = N − mg = may = 0 (2.22)
y
(where µs is for static friction and µk is for kinetic friction), or:
max = −µ(s,k) mg (2.23)
so
ax = −µ(s,k) g (2.24)
which is a constant.
We can then easily determine how long a distance D is required to make the car come
to rest. We do this by finding the stopping time ts from:
vx (ts ) = 0 = v0 − µ(s,k) gts (2.25)
or:
v0
ts = (2.26)
µ(s,k) g
and using it to evaluate:
1
D(s,k) = x(ts ) = − µ(s,k) gt2s + v0 ts (2.27)
2
I will leave the actual completion of the problem up to you, because doing these last few
steps four times will provide you with a valuable lesson that we will exploit shortly to moti-
vate learing about energy, which will permit us to answer questions like this without always
having to find times as intermediate algebraic steps.
Note well! The answers you obtain for D (if correctly computed) are reasonable! That
is, yes, it can easily take you order of 100 meters to stop your car with an initial speed of
30 meters per second, and this doesn’t even allow for e.g. reaction time. Anything that
shortens this distance makes it easier to survive an emergency situation, such as avoiding
a deer that “appears” in the middle of the road in front of you at night.
+y
θ N
fs θ
θ
mg
+x
R
Figure 20: Friction and the normal force conspire to accelerate car towards the center of
the circle in which it moves, together with the best coordinate system to use – one with one
axis pointing in the direction of actual acceleration. Be sure to choose the right coordinates
for this problem!
Example 2.1.4: Car Rounding a Banked Curve with Friction
A car of mass m is rounding a circular curve of radius R banked at an angle θ relative to

the horizontal. The car is travelling at speed v (say, into the page in figure 20 above). The
coefficient of static friction between the car’s tires and the road is µs . Find:
a) The normal force exerted by the road on the car.
b) The force of static friction exerted by the road on the tires.
c) The range of speeds for which the car can round the curve successfully (without
sliding up or down the incline).
Note that we don’t know fs , but we are certain that it must be less than or equal to
µs N in order for the car to successfully round the curve (the third question). To be able
to formulate the range problem, though, we have to find the normal force (in terms of
the other/given quantities and the force exerted by static friction (in terms of the other
quantities), so we start with that.
As always, the only thing we really know is our dynamical principle – Newton’s Second
Law – plus our knowledge of the force rules involved plus our experience and intuition,
which turn out to be crucial in setting up this problem.
For example, what direction should fs point? Imagine that the inclined roadway is
coated with frictionless ice and the car is sitting on it (almost) at rest (for a finite but tiny
v → 0). What will happen (if µs = µk = 0)? Well, obviously it will slide down the hill which
doesn’t qualify as ‘rounding the curve’ at a constant height on the incline. Now imagine
that the car is travelling at an enormous v; what will happen? The car will skid off of the
road to the outside, of course. We know (and fear!) that from our own experience rounding
curves too fast.
We now have two different limiting behaviors – in the first case, to round the curve
friction has to keep the car from sliding down at low speeds and hence must point up the
incline; in the second case, to round the curve friction has to point down to keep the car
from skidding up and off of the road.
We have little choice but to pick one of these two possibilities, solve the problem for that
possibility, and then solve it again for the other (which should be as simple as changing
the sign of fs in the algebra. I therefore arbitrarily picked fs pointing down (and parallel
to, remember) the incline, which will eventually give us the upper limit on the speed v with
which we can round the curve.
As always we use coordinates lined up with the eventual direction of F ~ tot and the
actual acceleration of the car: +x parallel to the ground (and the plane of the circle of
movement with radius R).
We write Newton’s second law:
X mv 2
Fx = N sin θ + fs cos θ = max = (2.28)
x
R
X
Fy = N cos θ − mg − fs sin θ = may = 0 (2.29)
y
(where so far fs is not its maximum value, it is merely whatever it needs to be to make the
car round the curve for a v presumed to be in range) and solve the y equation for N :
mg + fs sin θ
N= (2.30)
cos θ
substitute into the x equation:
mv 2
(mg + fs sin θ) tan θ + fs cos θ = (2.31)
R
and finally solve for fs :
mv 2
R − mg tan θ
fs = (2.32)
sin θ tan θ + cos θ
From this we see that if
mv 2
> mg tan θ (2.33)
R
or
v2
> tan θ (2.34)
Rg
v 2
then fs is positive (down the incline), otherwise it is negative (up the incline). When Rg =
tan θ, fs = 0 and the car would round the curve even on ice (as you determined in a
previous homework problem).
See if you can use your knowledge of the algebraic form for fsmax to determine the
range of v given µs that will permit the car to round the curve. It’s a bit tricky! You may
have to go back a couple of steps and find N max (the N associated with fsmax ) and fsmax in
terms of that N at the same time, because both N and fs depend, in the end, on v...
2.2: Drag Forces
As we will discuss later in more detail in the week that we cover fluids, when an object is
sitting at rest in a fluid at rest with a uniform temperature, pressure and density, the fluid
viscous friction
turbulence
Pressure increase
Fd
v
Pressure decrease
Figure 21: A “cartoon” illustrating the differential force on an object moving through a fluid.
The drag force is associated with a differential pressure where the pressure on the side
facing into the ‘wind’ of its passage is higher than the pressure of the trailing/lee side, plus
a “dynamic frictional” force that comes from the fluid rubbing on the sides of the object as
it passes. In very crude terms, the former is proportional to the cross-sectional area; the
latter is proportional to the surface area exposed to the flow. However, the details of even
this simple model, alas, are enormously complex.
around it presses on it, on average, equally on all sides54 .

Basically, the molecules of the fluid on one side of the object hit it, on average, with as
much force per unit area area as molecules on the other side and the total cross-sectional
area of the object seen from any given direction or the opposite of that direction is the
same. By the time one works out all of the vector components and integrates the force
component along any line over the whole surface area of the object, the force cancels.
This “makes sense” – the whole system is in average static force equilibrium and we don’t
expect a tree to bend in the wind when there is no wind!
When the same object is moving with respect to the fluid (or the fluid is moving with
respect to the object, i.e. – there is a wind in the case of air) then we empirically observe
that a friction-like force is exerted on the object (and back on the fluid) called drag 55 .
We can make up at least an heuristic description of this force that permits us to intu-
itively reason about it. As an object moves through a fluid, one expects that the molecules
of the fluid will hit on the side facing the direction of motion harder, on the average, then
molecules on the other side. Even though we will delay our formal treatment of fluid pres-
sure until later, we should all be able to understand that these stronger collisions corre-
spond (on average) to a greater pressure on the side of the object moving against the fluid
or vice versa, and a lower pressure in the turbulent flow on the far side, where the object is
moving away from the “chasing” and disarranged molecules of fluid. This pressure-linked
drag force we might expect to be proportional to the cross-sectional area of the object per-
pendicular to its direction of relative motion through the fluid and is called form drag to
indicate its strong dependence on the shape of the object.
54
We are ignoring variations with bulk fluid density and pressure in e.g. a gravitational field in this idealized
statement; later we will see how the field gradient gives rise to buoyancy through Archimedes’ Principle.
However, lateral forces perpendicular to the gravitational field and pressure gradient still cancel even then.
55
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drag (physics). This is a nice summary and well worth at least
glancing at to take note of the figure at the top illustrating the progression from laminar flow and skin friction to
highly turbulent flow and pure form drag.
However, the fluid that flows over the sides of the object also tends to “stick” to the
surface of the object because of molecular interactions that occur during the instant of the
molecular collision between the fluid and the surface. These collisions exert transverse
“frictional” forces that tend to speed up the recoiling air molecules in the direction of motion
of the object and slow the object down. The interactions can be strong enough to actually
“freeze” a thin layer called the boundary layer of the fluid right up next to the object so that
the frictional forces are transmitted through successive layers of fluid flowing and different
speeds relative to the object. This sort of flow in layers is often called laminar (layered)
flow and the frictional force exerted on the object transmitted through the rubbing of the
layers on the sides of the object as it passes through the fluid is called skin friction or
laminar drag.
Note well: When an object is enlongated and passes through a fluid parallel to its long
axis with a comparatively small forward-facing cross section compared to its total area,
we say that it is a streamlined object as the fluid tends to pass over it in laminar flow. A
streamlined object will often have its total drag dominated by skin friction. A bluff object, in
contrast has a comparatively large cross-sectional surface facing forward and will usually
have the total drag dominated by form drag. Note that a single object, such as an arrow
or piece of paper, can often be streamlined moving through the fluid one way and bluff
another way or be crumpled into a different shape with any mix in between. A sphere is
considered to be a bluff body, dominated by form drag.
Unfortunately, this is only the beginning of an heuristic description of drag. Drag is a
very complicated force, especially when the object isn’t smooth or convex but is rather
rough and irregularly shaped, or when the fluid through which it moves is not in an “ideal”
state to begin with, when the object itself tumbles as it moves through the fluid causing the
drag force to constantly change form and magnitude. Flow over different parts of a single
object can be laminar here, or turbulent there (with portions of the fluid left spinning in
whirlpool-like eddies in the wake of the object after it passes).
The full Newtonian description of a moving fluid is given by the Navier-Stokes equa-
tion56 which is too hard for us to even look at.
We will therefore need to idealize; learn a few nearly universal heuristic rules that we
can use to conceptually understand fluid flow for at least simple, smooth, convex geome-
tries.
It would be nice, perhaps, to be able to skip all of this but we can’t, not even for future
physicians as opposed to future engineers, physicists or mathematicians. As it happens,
the body contains at least two major systems of fluid flow – the vasculature and the lym-
phatic system – as well as numerous minor ones (the renal system, various sexual sys-
tems, even much of the digestive system is at least partly a fluid transport problem). Drag
forces play a critical role in understanding blood pressure, heart disease, and lots of other
stuff. Sorry, my beloved students, you gotta learn it at least well enough to qualitatively and
56
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navier-Stokes Equation. A partial differential way, way beyond
the scope of this course. To give you an idea of how difficult the Navier-Stokes equation is to solve (in all but a
few relatively simple geometries) simply demonstrating that solutions to it always exist and are smooth is one
of the seven most important questions in mathematics and you could win a million dollar prize if you were to
demonstrate it (or offer a proven counterexample).
semi-quantitatively understand it.

Besides, this section is the key to understanding how to at least in principle fall out of
an airplane without a parachute and survive. Drag forces significantly modify the idealized
trajectory functions we derived in week 1, so much so that anyone relying on them to
aim a cannon would almost certainly consistently miss any target they aimed at using the
idealized no-drag trajectories.
Drag is an extremely complicated force. It depends on a vast array of things including
but not limited to:
• The size of the object.
• The shape of the object.
• The relative velocity of the object through the fluid.
• The state of the fluid (e.g. its velocity field including any internal turbulence).
• The density of the fluid.
• The viscosity of the fluid (we will learn what this is later).
• The properties and chemistry of the surface of the object (smooth versus rough,
strong or weak chemical interaction with the fluid at the molecular level).
• The orientation of the object as it moves through the fluid, which may be fixed in time
(streamlined versus bluff motion) or varying in time (as, for example, an irregularly
shaped object tumbles).
To eliminate most of this complexity and end up with “force rules” that will often be quan-
titatively predictive we will use a number of idealizations. We will only consider smooth,
uniform, nonreactive surfaces of convex bluff objects (like spheres) or streamlined objects
(like rockets or arrows) moving through uniform, stationary fluids where we can ignore or
treat separately the other non-drag (e.g. buoyant) forces acting on the object.
There are two dominant contributions to drag for objects of this sort.
The first, as noted above, is form drag – the difference in pressure times projective
area between the front of an object and the rear of an object. It is strongly dependent on
both the shape and orientation of an object and requires at least some turbulence in the
trailing wake in order to occur.
The second is skin friction, the friction-like force resulting from the fluid rubbing across
the skin at right angles in laminar flow.
In this course, we will wrap up all of our ignorance of the shape and cross-sectional
area of the object, the density and viscosity of the fluid, and so on into a single number: b.
This (dimensioned) number will only be actually computable for certain particularly “nice”
shapes, but it allows us to understand drag qualitatively and treat drag semi-quantitatively
relatively simply in two important limits.
2.2.1: Stokes, or Laminar Drag
The first is when the object is moving through the fluid relatively slowly and/or is arrow-
shaped or rocket-ship-shaped so that streamlined laminar drag (skin friction) is dominant.
In this case there is relatively little form drag, and in particular, there is little or no turbu-
lence – eddies of fluid spinning around an axis – in the wake of the object as the presence
of turbulence (which we will discuss in more detail later when we consider fluid dynamics)
breaks up laminar flow.
This “low-velocity, streamlined” skin friction drag is technically named Stokes’ drag
(as Stokes was the first to derive it as a particular limit of the Navier-Stokes equation for a
sphere moving through a fluid) or laminar drag and has the idealized force rule:
~ d = −bl~
F v (2.35)
This is the simplest sort of drag – a drag force directly proportional to the velocity of
relative motion of the object through the fluid and oppositely directed.
Stokes derived the following relation for the dimensioned number bl (the laminar drag
coefficient) that appears in this equation for a sphere of radius R:
bl = −6πµR (2.36)
where µ is the dynamical viscosity. Different objects will have different laminar drag co-
efficients bl , and in general it will be used as a simple given parameter in any problem
involving Stokes drag.
Sadly – sadly because Stokes drag is remarkably mathematically tractable compared
to e.g. turbulent drag below – spheres experience pure Stokes drag only when they are
very small or moving very slowly through the fluid. To given you an idea of how slowly – a
sphere moving at 1 meter per second through water would have to be on the order of one
micron (a millionth of a meter) in size in order to experience predominantly laminar/Stokes
drag. Equivalently, a sphere a meter in diameter would need to be moving at a micron per
second. This is a force that is relevant for bacteria or red blood cells moving in water, but
not too relevant to baseballs.
It becomes more relevant for streamlined objects – objects whose length along the
direction of motion greatly exceeds the characteristic length of the cross-sectional area
perpendicular to this direction. We will therefore still find it useful to solve a few prob-
lems involving Stokes drag as it will be highly relevant to our eventual studies of harmonic
oscillation and is not irrelevant to the flow of blood in blood vessels.
2.2.2: Rayleigh, or Turbulent Drag
On the other hand, if one moves an object through a fluid too fast – where the actual speed
depends in detail on the actual size and shape of the object, how bluff or streamlined it
is – pressure builds up on the leading surface and turbulence 57 appears in its trailing
57
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbulence. Turbulence – eddies spun out in the fluid as it moves
off of the surface passing throughout it – is arguably the single most complex phenomenon physics attempts to
wake in the fluid (as illustrated in figure 21 above) when the Reynolds number Re of the
relative motion (which is a function of the relative velocity, the kinetic viscosity, and the
characteristic length of the object) exceeds a critical threshold. Again, we will learn more
about this (and perhaps define the Reynolds number) later – for the moment it suffices to
know that most macroscopic objects moving through water or air at reasonable velocities
experience turbulent drag, not Stokes drag.
This high velocity, turbulent drag exerts a force described by a quadratic dependence
on the relative velocity due to Lord Rayleigh:
~ d = − 1 ρCd A|v|~
F v = −bt |v|~
v (2.37)
2
It is still directed opposite to the relative velocity of the object and the fluid but now
is proportional to that velocity squared. In this formula ρ is the density of the fluid through
which the object moves (so denser fluids exert more drag as one would expect) and A is
the cross-sectional area of the object perpendicular to the direction of motion, also known
as the orthographic projection of the object on any plane perpendicular to the motion. For
example, for a sphere of radius R, the orthographic projection is a circle of radius R and
the area A = πR2 .
The number Cd is called the drag coefficient and is a dimensionless number that de-
pends on relative speed, flow direction, object position, object size, fluid viscosity and fluid
density. In other words, the expression above is only valid in certain domains of all of these
properties where Cd is slowly varying and can be thought of as a “constant”! Hence we can
say that for a sphere moving through still air at speeds where turbulent drag is dominant it
is around 0.47 ≈ 0.5, or:
1
bt ≈ ρπR2 (2.38)
4
which one can compare to bl = 6µπR for the Stokes drag of the same sphere, moving
much slower.
To get a feel for non-spherical objects, bluff convex objects like potatoes or cars or
people have drag coefficients close to but a bit more or less than 0.5, while highly bluff
objects might have a drag coefficient over 1.0 and truly streamlined objects might have a
drag coefficient as low as 0.04.
As one can see, the functional complexity of the actual non-constant drag coefficient Cd
even for such a simple object as a sphere has to manage the entire transition from laminar
drag force for low velocities/Reynold’s numbers to turbulent drag for high velocites/Reynold’s
numbers, so that at speeds in between the drag force is at best a function of a non-integer
power of v in between 1 and 2 or some arcane mixture of form drag and skin friction. We
will pretty much ignore this transition. It is just too damned difficult for us to mess with,
although you should certainly be aware that it is there.
You can see that in our actual expression for the drag force above, as promised, we
have simplified things even more and express all of this dependence – ρ, µ, size and shape
and more – wrapped up in the turbulent dimensioned constant bt , which one can think of
describe, dwarfing even things like quantum field theory in its difficulty. We can “see” a great deal of structure
in it, but that structure is fundamentally chaotic and hence subject to things like the butterfly effect. In the
end it is very difficult to compute except in certain limiting and idealized cases.
as an overall turbulent drag coefficient that plays the same general role as the laminar
drag coefficient bl we similarly defined above. However, it is impossible for the heuristic
descriptors bl and bt to be the same for Stokes’ and turbulent drag – they don’t even have
the same units – and for most objects most of the time the total drag is some sort of mixture
of these limiting forces, with one or the other (probably) dominant.
As you can see, drag forces are complicated! In the end, they turn out to be most useful
(to us) as heuristic rules with drag coefficients bl or bt given so that we can see what we
can reasonably compute or estimate in these limits.
2.2.3: Terminal velocity
Fd
v
mg
Figure 22: A simple object falling through a fluid experiences a drag force that increasingly
cancels the force of gravity as the object accelerates until a terminal velocity vt is asymp-
totically reached. For bluff objects such as spheres, the Fd = −bv 2 force rule is usually
appropriate.
One immediate consequence of this is that objects dropped in a gravitational field in

fluids such as air or water do not just keep speeding up ad infinitum. When they are
dropped from rest, at first their speed is very low and drag forces may well be negligible58 .
The gravitational force accelerates them downward and their speed gradually increases.
As it increases, however, the drag force in all cases increases as well. For many objects
the drag forces will quickly transition over to turbulent drag, with a drag force magnitude of
bt v 2 . For others, the drag force may remain Stokes’ drag, with a drag force magnitude of
bl v (in both cases opposing the directioin of motion through the fluid). Eventually, the drag
force will balance the gravitational force and the object will no longer accelerate. It will fall
instead at a constant speed. This speed is called the terminal velocity.
It is extremely easy to compute the terminal velocity for a falling object, given the form
of its drag force rule. It is the velocity where the net force on the object vanishes. If we
choose a coordinate system with “down” being e.g. x positive (so gravity and the velocity
58
In air and other low viscosity, low density compressible gases they probably are; in water or other viscous,
dense, incompressible liquids they may not be.
are both positive pointing down) we can write either:
mg − bl vt = max = 0 or
mg
vt = (2.39)
bl
(for Stokes’ drag) or
mg − bt vt2 = max = 0 and

r
mg
vt = (2.40)
bt
for turbulent drag.

We expect vx (t) to asymptotically approach vt with time. Rather than draw a generic
asymptotic curve (which is easy enough, just start with the slope of v being g and bend the
curve over to smoothly approach vt ), we will go ahead and see how to solve the equations
of motion for at least the two limiting (and common) cases of Stokes’ and turbulent drag.
The entire complicated set of drag formulas above can be reduced to the following “rule
of thumb” that applies to objects of water-like density that have sizes such that turbulent
drag determines their terminal velocity – raindrops, hail, live animals (including humans)
falling in air just above sea level near the surface of the Earth. In this case terminal velocity
is roughly equal to √
vt = 90 d (2.41)
where d is the characteristic size of the object in meters.
For a human body d ≈ 0.6 so vt ≈ 70 meters per second or 156 miles per hour.
However, if one falls in a bluff position, one can reduce this to anywhere from 40 to 55
meters per second, say 90 to 120 miles per hour.
Note that the characteristic size of a small animal such as a squirrel or a cat might
be 0.05 (squirrel) to 0.1 (cat). Terminal velocity for a cat is around 28 meters per second,
lower if the cat falls in a bluff position (say, 50 to 60 mph) and for a squirrel in a bluff position
it might be as low as 10 to 20 mph. Smaller animals – especially ones with large bushy
tails or skin webs like those observed in the flying squirrel 59 – have a much lower terminal
velocity than (say) humans and hence have a much better chance of survival. One rather
imagines that this provided a direct evolutionary path to actual flight for small animals that
lived relatively high above the ground in arboreal niches.
Example 2.2.1: Falling From a Plane and Surviving
As noted above, the terminal velocity for humans in free fall near the Earth’s surface is
(give or take, depending on whether you are falling in a streamlined swan dive or falling in
a bluff skydiver’s belly flop position) anywhere from 40 to 70 meters per second (90-155
miles per hour). Amazingly, humans can survive60 collisions at this speed.
59
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flying Squirrel. A flying squirrel doesn’t really fly – rather it sky-
dives in a highly bluff position so that it can glide long transverse distances and land with a very low terminal
velocity.
60
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free fall#Surviving falls. ...and have survived...
The trick is to fall into something soft and springy that gradually slows you from high
speed to zero without ever causing the deceleration force to exceed 100 times your weight,
applied as uniformly as possible to parts of your body you can live without such as your
legs (where your odds go up the smalller this multiplier is, of course). It is pretty simple to
figure out what kinds of things might do.
Suppose you fall from a large height (long enough to reach terminal velocity) to hit a
haystack of height H that exerts a nice, uniform force to slow you down all the way to the
ground, smoothly compressing under you as you fall. In that case, your initial velocity at
the top is vt , down. In order to stop you before y = 0 (the ground) you have to have a net
acceleration −a such that:
v(tg ) = 0 = vt − atg (2.42)

1
y(tg ) = 0 = H − vt tg − at2g (2.43)
2
If we solve the first equation for tg (something we have done many times now) and substi-
tute it into the second and solve for the magnitude of a, we will get:
−vt2 = −2aH or
vt2
a = (2.44)
2H
We know also that

Fhaystack − mg = ma (2.45)
or
′ vt2
Fhaystack = ma + mg = m(a + g) = mg = m +g (2.46)
2H
Let’s suppose the haystack was H = 1.25 meter high and, because you cleverly landed
on it in a “bluff” position to keep vt as small as possible, you start at the top moving at only
vt = 50 meters per second. Then g ′ = a + g is approximately 1009.8 meters/second2 , 103
‘gees’, and the force the haystack must exert on you is 103 times your normal weight. You
actually have a small chance of surviving this stopping force, but it isn’t a very large one.
To have a better chance of surviving, one needs to keep the g-force under 100, ideally
well under 100, although a very few people are known to have survived 100 g accelera-
tions in e.g. race car crashes. Since the “haystack” portion of the acceleration needed is
inversely proportional to H we can see that a 2.5 meter haystack would lead to 51 gees,
a 5 meter haystack would lead to 26 gees, and a 10 meter haystack would lead to a mere
13.5 gees, nothing worse than some serious bruising. If you want to get up and walk to
your press conference, you need a haystack or palette at the mattress factory or thick pine
forest that will uniformly slow you over something like 10 or more meters. I myself would
prefer a stack of pillows at least 40 meters high... but then I have been known to crack a
rib just falling a meter or so playing basketball.
The amazing thing is that a number of people have been reliably documented61 to have
survived just such a fall, often with a stopping distance of only a very few meters if that,
61
http://www.greenharbor.com/fffolder/ffresearch.html This website contains ongoing and constantly up-
dated links to contemporary survivor stories as well as historical ones. It’s a fun read.
from falls as high as 18,000 feet. Sure, they usually survive with horrible injuries, but in a
very few cases, e.g. falling into a deep bank of snow at a grazing angle on a hillside, or
landing while strapped into an airline seat that crashed down through a thick forest canopy
they haven’t been particularly badly hurt...
Kids, don’t try this at home! But if you ever do happen to fall out of an airplane at a few
thousand feet, isn’t it nice that your physics class helps you have the best possible chance
at surviving?
Example 2.2.2: Solution to Equations of Motion for Stokes’ Drag
We don’t have to work very hard to actually find and solve the equations of motion for a
streamlined object that falls subject to a Stokes’ drag force.
We begin by writing the total force equation for an object falling down subject to near-
Earth gravity and Stokes’ drag, with down being positive:
dv
mg − bv = m (2.47)
dt
(where we’ve selected the down direction to be positive in this one-dimensional problem).
We rearrange this to put the velocity derivative by itself, factor out the coefficient of v
on the right, divide through the v-term from the right, multiply through by dt, integrate both
sides, exponentiate both sides, and set the constant of integration. Of course...
Was that too fast for you62 ? Like this:
dv b
= g− v
dt m
dv b mg
= − v−
dt m b
dv b
= − dt
v − mg
b m
mg b
ln v − = − t+C
b m
mg b b
v− = −m
e t eC = v 0 e− m t
b
mg b
v(t) = + v 0 e− m t
b
mg b

v(t) = 1 − e− m t (2.48)
b
or
b
v(t) = vt 1 − e− m t (2.49)
(where we used the fact that v(0) = 0 to set the constant of integration v0 , which just
happened to be vt , the terminal velocity!
Objects falling through a medium under the action of Stokes’ drag experience an ex-
ponential approach to a constant (terminal) velocity. This is an enormously useful piece of
62
Just kidding! I know you (probably) have no idea how to do this. That’s why you’re taking this course!
60
50
40
v(t)
30
20
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t
Figure 23: A simple object falling through a fluid experiences a drag force of Fd = −bl v. In
the figure above m = 100 kg, g = 9.8 m/sec2 , and bl = 19.6, so that terminal velocity is 50
m/sec. Compare this figure to figure 25 below and note that it takes a relatively longer time
to reach the same terminal velocity for an object of the same mass. Note also that the bl
that permits the terminal velocities to be the same is much larger than bt !
calculus to master; we will have a number of further opportunities to solve equations of mo-
tion this and next semester that are first order, linear, inhomogeneous ordinary differential
equations such as this one.
Given v(t) it isn’t too difficult to integrate again and find x(t), if we care to, but in this
class we will usually stop here as x(t) has pieces that are both linear and exponential in t
and isn’t as “pretty” as v(t) is.
2.2.4: Advanced: Solution to Equations of Motion for Turbulent Drag
Turbulent drag is set up exactly the same way that Stokes’ drag is We suppose an object
is dropped from rest and almost immediately converts to a turbulent drag force. This can
easily happen because it has a bluff shape or an irregular surface together with a large
coupling between that surface and the surrounding fluid (such as one might see in the
following example, with a furry, fluffy ram).
The one “catch” is that the integral you have to do is a bit difficult for most physics stu-
dents to do, unless they were really good at calculus. We will use a special method to solve
this integral in the example below, one that I commend to all students when confronted by
problems of this sort.
Fd h!
hh
aah
M ram Ba
mg v
H
Figure 24: The kidnapped UNC Ram is dropped a height H from a helicopter into a vat of
Duke Blue paint!
Example 2.2.3: Dropping the Ram
The UNC ram, a wooly beast of mass Mram is carried by some naughty (but intellectually
curious) Duke students up in a helicopter to a height H and is thrown out. On the ground
below a student armed with a radar gun measures and records the velocity of the ram as it
plummets toward the vat of dark blue paint below63 . Assume that the fluffy, cute little ram
experiences a turbulent drag force on the way down of −bt v 2 in the direction shown.
In terms of these quantities (and things like g):
a) Describe qualitatively what you expect to see in the measurements recorded by the
student (v(t)).
b) What is the actual algebraic solution v(t) in terms of the givens.
c) Approximately how fast is the fat, furry creature going when it splashes into the paint,
more or less permanently dying it Duke Blue, if it has a mass of 100 kg and is dropped
from a height of 1000 meters, given bt = 0.392 Newton-second2 /meter2 ?
63
Note well: No real sheep are harmed in this physics problem – this actual experiment is only conducted
with soft, cuddly, stuffed sheep...
I’ll get you started, at least. We know that:

dv
Fx = mg − bv 2 = ma = m (2.50)
dt
or
dv b b 2 mg
a= = g − v2 = − v − (2.51)
dt m m b
much as before. Also as before, we divide all of the stuff with a v in it to the left, multiply
the dt to the right, integrate, solve for v(t), set the constant of integration, and answer the
questions.
I’ll do the first few steps in this for you, getting you set up with a definite integral:
dv b
= − dt
v2 − mg
b m
Z vf Z tf
dv b
= − dt
0 v2 − mg
b m 0
Z vf
dv b
= − tf (2.52)
0 v 2 − mg
b m
Unfortunately, the remaining integral is one you aren’t likely to remember. I’m not either!
Does this mean that we are done? Not at all! We use the look it up in an integral table
method of solving it, also known as the famous mathematician method! Once upon a time
famous mathematicians (and perhaps some not so famous ones) worked all of this sort of
thing out. Once upon a time you and I probably worked out how to solve this in a calculus
class. But we forgot (at least I did – I took integral calculus in the spring of 1973, almost
forty years ago as I write this). So what the heck, look it up!
We discover that: Z √
dx tanh−1 (x/ a)
= − √ (2.53)
x2 − a a
Now you know what those rarely used buttons on your calculator are for. We substitute
p
x− > v, a → mg/b, multiply out the mg/b and then take the hyperbolic tangent of both
p
sides and then multiply by mg/b again to get the following result for the speed of descent
as a function of time: r r !
mg gb
v(t) = tanh t (2.54)
b m
This solution is plotted for you as a function of time in figure 25 below.
Clearly this is a lot of algebra, but that’s realistic (or more so than Stokes’ drag for
most problems). It’s just the way nature really is, tough luck and all that. If we want any
consolation, at least we didn’t have to try to integrate over the transition between Stokes’
drag and full-blown turbulent drag for the specific shape of a furry ram being dropped
from underneath a helicopter (that no doubt has made the air it falls through initially both
turbulent and beset by a substantial downdraft).
Real physics is often not terribly easy to compute, but the good thing is that it is still
easy enough to understand. Even if we have a hard time answering question b) above, we
should all be able to understand and draw a qualitative picture for a) and we should really
even be able to guess that the ram is moving at or near terminal velocity by the time it has
fallen 1000 meters.
60
50
40
v(t)
30
20
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
t
Figure 25: A simple object falling through a fluid experiences a drag force of Fd = −bt v 2 .
In the figure above (generated using the numbers given in the ram example), m = 100 kg,
g = 9.8 m/sec2 , and bt = 0.392, so that terminal velocity is 50 m/sec. Note that the initial
acceleration is g, but that after falling around 14 seconds the object is travelling at a speed
p √
very close to terminal velocity. Since even without drag forces it takes 2H/g ≈ 200 ≈ 14
seconds to fall 1000 meters, it is almost certain that the ram will be travelling at the terminal
velocity of 50 m/sec as it hits the paint!
2.3: Inertial Reference Frames – the Galilean Transformation
We have already spoken about coordinate systems, or “frames”, that we need to imagine
when we create the mental map between a physics problem in the abstract and the sup-
posed reality that it describes. One immediate problem we face is that there are many
frames we might choose to solve a problem in, but that our choice of frames isn’t com-
pletely arbitrary. We need to reason out how much freedom we have, so that we can use
that freedom to make a “good choice” and select a frame that makes the problem relatively
simple.
Students that go on in physics will learn that there is more to this process than meets
the eye – the symmetries of frames that preserve certain quantities actually leads us to an
understanding of conserved quantities and restricts acceptable physical theories in certain
key ways. But even students with no particular interest in relativity theory or quantum
theory or advanced classical mechanics (where all of this is developed) have to understand
the ideas developed in this section, simply to be able to solve problems efficiently.
2.3.1: Time
Let us start by thinking about time. Suppose that you wish to time a race (as physicists).
The first thing one has to do is understand what the conditions are for the start of the race
and the end of the race. The start of the race is the instant in time that the gun goes off and
the racers (as particles) start accelerating towards the finish line. This time is concrete, an
actual event that you can “instantly” observe64 . Similarly, the end of the race is the instant
in time that the racers (as particles) cross the finish line.
Consider three observers timing the same racer. One uses a “perfect” stop watch, one
that is triggered by the gun and stopped by the racer crossing the finish line. The race
starts at time t = 0 on the stop watch, and stops at time tf , the time it took the racer to
complete the race.
The second doesn’t have a stop watch – she has to use their watch set to local time.
When the gun goes off she records t0 , the time her watch reads at the start of the race.
When the racer crosses the finish line, she records t1 , the finish time in local time coordi-
nates. To find the time of the race, she converts her watch’s time to seconds and subtracts
to obtain tf = t1 − t0 , which must non-relativistically65 agree with the first observer.
The third has just arrived from India, and hasn’t had time to reset his watch. He records
t′0 for the start, t′1 for the finish, and subtracts to once again obtain tf = t′1 − t′0 .
All three of these times must agree because clearly the time required for the racer
to cross the finish line has nothing to do with the observers. We could use any clock
we wished, set to any time zone or started so that “t = 0” occurs at any time you like to
time the race as long as it records times in seconds accurately. In physics we express
this invariance by stating that we can change clocks at will when considering a particular
problem by means of the transformation:
t′ = t − t0 (2.55)
where t0 is the time in our old time-coordinate frame that we wish to be zero in our new,
primed frame. This is basically a linear change of variables, a so-called “u-substitution” in
calculus, but because we shift the “zero” of our clock in all cases by a constant, it is true
that:
dt′ = dt (2.56)
so differentiation by t′ is identical to differentiation by t and:
2x d2 ~
~ = md ~
F = m
x
(2.57)
dt 2 dt ′2
That is, Newton’s second law is invariant under uniform translations of time, so we can
start our clocks whenever we wish and still accurately describe all motion relative to that
time.
2.3.2: Space
We can reason the same way about space. If we want to measure the distance between
two points on a line, we can do so by putting the zero on our meter stick at the first and
64
For the purpose of this example we will ignore things like the speed of sound or the speed of light and
assume that our observation of the gun going off is instantaneous.
65
Students not going on in physics should just ignore this adverb. Students going on in physics should be
aware that the real, relativistic Universe those times might not agree.
reading off the distance of the second, or we can put the first at an arbitrary point, record
the position of the second, and subtract to get the same distance. In fact, we can place the
origin of our coordinate system anywhere we like and measure all of our locations relative
to this origin, just as we can choose to start our clock at any time and measure all times
relative to that time.
Displacing the origin is described by:
x′ = ~
~ x−~
x0 (2.58)
and as above,
x′ = d~
d~ x (2.59)
so differentiating by ~ x′ .
x is the same as differentiating by a displaced ~
However, there is another freedom we have in coordinate transformations. Suppose
you are driving a car at a uniform speed down the highway. Inside the car is a fly, flying
from the back of the car to the front of the car. To you, the fly is moving slowly – in fact, if
you place a coordinate frame inside the car, you can describe the fly’s position and velocity
relative to that coordinate frame very easily. To an observer on the ground, however, the fly
is flying by at the speed of the car plus the speed of the car. The observer on the ground
can use a coordinate frame on the ground and can also describe the position of the fly
perfectly well.
S’
S
x’
x
vt
Figure 26: The frame S can be thought of as a coordinate system describing positions
relative to the ground, or laboratory, “at rest”. The frame S ′ can be thought of as the coor-
dinate system inside (say) the car moving at a constant velocity ~ v relative to the coordinate
system on the ground. The position of a fly in the ground coordinate frame is the position
of the car in the ground frame plus the position of the fly in the coordinate frame inside the
car. The position of the fly in the car’s frame is the position of the fly in the ground frame
minus the position of the car in the ground frame. This is an easy mental model to use to
understand frame transformations.
In figure 26 one can consider the frame S to be the “ground” frame. ~ x is the position
′
of the fly relative to the ground. The frame S is the car, moving at a constant velocity
v relative to the ground, and ~
~ x′ is the position of the fly relative to the car. Repeat the
following ritual expression (and meditate) until it makes sense forwards and backwards:
The position of the fly in the coordinate frame of the ground is the position of
the fly in the coordinate frame of the car, plus the position of the car in the
coordinate frame of the ground.
In this way we can relate the position of the fly in time in either one of the two frames
to its position in the other, as (looking at the triangle of vectors in figure 26):
~ x′ (t) + ~
x(t) = ~ v frame t or
x′ (t) = ~
~ x(t) − ~
v frame t (2.60)
We call the transformation of coordinates in equations 2.60 from one (inertial) reference
frame to another moving at a constant velocity relative to the first the Galilean transfor-
mation. Note that we use the fact that the displacement of the origin of the two frames
is ~
v t, the velocity of the moving frame times time. In a bit we’ll show that this is formally
correct, but you probably already understand this pretty well based on your experiences
driving cars and the like.
So much for description; what about dynamics? If we differentiate this equation twice,
we get:
d~x x′
d~
= +~
v frame (2.61)
dt dt
d2 ~
x x′
d2 ~
= (2.62)
dt2 dt2
(where we use the fact that the velocity ~v frame is a constant so that it disappears from the
second derivative) so that if we multiply both sides by m we prove:
2x
~ = md ~ x′
d2 ~
F = m (2.63)
dt2 dt2
or Newton’s second law is invariant under the Galilean transformation represented by equa-
tion 2.60 – the force acting on the mass is the same in both frames, the acceleration is the
same in both frames, the mass itself is the same in both frames, and so the motion is the
same except that the translation of the S ′ frame itself has to be added to the trajectory in
the S frame to get the trajectory in the S ′ frame. It makes sense!
Any coordinate frame travelling at a constant velocity (in which Newton’s first law will
thus apparently hold66 ) is called an inertial reference frame, and since our law of dynamics
is invariant with respect to changes of inertial frame (as long as the force law itself is), we
have complete freedom to choose the one that is the most convenient.
The physics of the fly relative to (expressed in) the coordinate frame in the car are
identical to the physics of the fly relative to (expressed in) the coordinate frame on the
ground when we account for all of the physical forces (in either frame) that act on the fly.
66
This is a rather subtle point, as my colleague Ronen Plesser pointed out to me. If velocity itself is always
defined relative to and measured within some frame, then “constant velocity” relative to what frame? The
Universe doesn’t come with a neatly labelled Universal inertial reference frame – or perhaps it does, the frame
where the blackbody background radiation leftover from the big bang is isotropic – but even if it does the
answer is “relative to another inertial reference frame” which begs the question, a very bad thing to do when
constructing a consistent physical theory. To avoid this, an inertial reference frame may be defined to be “any
frame where Newton’s First Law is true, that is, a frame where objects at rest remain at rest and objects in
motion remain in uniform motion unless acted on by an actual external force.
Equation 2.60, differentiated with respect to time, can be written as:
v′ = ~
~ v −~
v frame (2.64)
which you can think of as the velocity relative to the ground is the velocity in the frame plus
the velocity of the frame. This is the conceptual rule for velocity transformations: The fly
may be moving only at 1 meter per second in the car, but if the car is travelling at 19 meters
per second relative to the ground in the same direction, the fly is travelling at 20 meters per
second relative to the ground!
The Galilean transformation isn’t the only possible way to relate frames, and in fact it
doesn’t correctly describe nature. A different transformation called the Lorentz transforma-
tion from the theory of relativity works much better, where both length intervals and time
intervals change when changing inertial reference frames. However, describing and de-
riving relativistic transformations (and the postulates that lead us to consider them in the
first place) is beyond the scope of this course, and they are not terribly important in the
classical regime where things move at speeds much less than that of light.
2.4: Non-Inertial Reference Frames – Pseudoforces
Note that if the frame S ′ is not travelling at a constant velocity and we differentiate equation
2.64, one more time with respect to time then:
d~x x′
d~
= +~v (t)
dt dt
d2 ~
x x′
d2 ~
= +~aframe (2.65)
dt2 dt2
or
~ a′ + ~
a=~ aframe (2.66)
Note that the velocity transformation is unchanged from that in an inertial frame – the
velocity of the fly relative to the ground is always the velocity of the fly in the car plus the
velocity of the car, even if the car is accelerating.
However, the acceleration transformation is now different – to find the acceleration of
an object (e.g. a fly in a car) in the lab/ground frame S we have to add the acceleration of
the accelerating frame (the car) in S to the acceleration of in the accelerating frame S’.
Newton’s second law is then not invariant. If S is an inertial frame where Newton’s
Second Law is true, then:
~ = m~
F a = m~ a′ + m~aframe (2.67)
We would like to be able to write something that looks like Newton’s Second Law in
this frame that can also be solved like Newton’s Second Law in the (accelerating) frame
coordinates. That is, we would like to write:
~ ′ = m~
F a′ (2.68)
If we compare these last two equations, we see that this is possible if and only if:
~′ = F
F ~ − m~ ~ −F
aframe = F ~p (2.69)
where F ~ p is a pseudoforce – a force that does not exist as a force or force rule of nature
– that arises within the accelerated frame from the acceleration of the frame.
In the case of uniform frame accelerations, this pseudoforce is proportional to the mass
times a the constant acceleration of the frame and behaves a lot like the only force rule we
have so far which produces uniform forces proportional to the mass – gravity near Earth’s
surface! Indeed, it feels to our senses like gravity has been modified if we ride along
in an accelerating frame – made weaker, stronger, changing its direction. However, our
algebra above shows that a pseudoforce behaves consistently like that – we can actually
solve equations of motion in the accelerating frame using the additional “force rule” of
the pseudoforce and we’ll get the right answers within the frame and, when we add the
coordinates in the frame to the ground/inertial frame coordinates of the frame, in those
coordinates as well.
Pseudoforces are forces which aren’t really there. Why, then, you might well ask, do
we deal with them? From the previous paragraph you should be able to see the answer:
because it is psychologically and occasionally computationally useful to do so. Psychologi-
cally because they describe what we experience in such a frame; computationally because
we live in a non-inertial frame (the surface of the rotating earth) and for certain problems it
is the solution in the natural coordinates of this non-inertial frame that matters.
We have encountered a few pseudoforces already, either in the course or in our life ex-
perience. We will encounter more in the weeks to come. Here is a short list of places where
one experiences pseudoforces, or might find the concept itself useful in the mathematical
description of motion in an accelerating frame:
a) The force added or subtracted to a real force (i.e. – mg, or a normal force) in a frame
accelerating uniformly. The elevator and boxcar examples below illustrate this nearly
ubiquitous experience. This is the “force” that pushes you back in your seat when
riding in a jet as it takes off, or a car that is speeding up. Note that it isn’t a force at
all – all that is really happening is that the seat of the car is exerting a normal force
on you so that you accelerate at the same rate as the car, but this feels like gravity
has changed to you, with a new component added to mg straight down.
b) Rotating frames account for lots of pseudoforces, in part because we live on one (the
Earth). The “centrifugal” force mv 2 /r that apparently acts on an object in a rotating
frame is a pseudoforce. Note that this is just minus the real centripetal force that
pushes the object toward the center. The centrifugal force is the normal force that a
scale might read as it provides the centripetal push. It is not uniform, however – its
value depends on your distance r from the axis of rotation!
c) Because of this r dependence, there are slightly different pseudoforces acting on

objects falling towards or away from a rotating sphere (such as the earth). These
forces describe the apparent deflection of a particle as its straight-line trajectory falls
ahead of or behind the rotating frame (in which the ”rest” velocity is a function of Ω
and r).
d) Finally, objects moving north or south along the surface of a rotating sphere also
experience a similar deflection, for similar reasons. As a particle moves towards the
equator, it is suddenly travelling too slowly for its new radius (and constant Ω) and
is apparently “deflected” west. As it travels away from the equator it is suddenly
traveling too fast for its new radius and is deflected east. These effects combine
to produce clockwise rotation of large air masses in the northern hemisphere and
anticlockwise rotations in the southern hemisphere.
Note Well: Hurricanes rotate counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere because the
counterclockwise winds meet to circulate the other way around a defect at the center. This
defect is called the “eye”. Winds flowing into a center have to go somewhere. At the defect
they must go up or down. In a hurricane the ocean warms air that rushes toward the center
and rises. This warm wet air dumps (warm) moisture and cools. The cool air circulates far
out and gets pulled back along the ocean surface, warming as it comes in. A hurricane is
a heat engine! There is an optional section on hurricanes down below “just for fun”. I live
in North Carolina and teach physics in the summers at the Duke Marine Lab at Beaufort,
NC, which is more or less one end of the “bowling alley” where hurricanes spawned off of
the coast of Africa eventually come to shore. For me, then, hurricanes are a bit personal
– every now and then they come roaring overhead and do a few billion dollars worth of
damage and kill people. It’s interesting to understand at least a bit about them and how
the rotation of the earth is key to their formation and structure.
The two forces just mentioned (pseudoforces in a rotating spherical frame) are com-
monly called coriolis forces and are a major driving factor in the time evolution of weather
patterns in general, not just hurricanes. They also complicate naval artillery trajectories,
missile launches, and other long range ballistic trajectories in the rotating frame, as the
coriolis forces combine with drag forces to produce very real and somewhat unpredictable
deflections compared to firing right at a target in a presumed cartesian inertial frame. One
day, pseudoforces will one day make pouring a drink in a space station that is being ro-
tated to produce a kind of ‘pseudogravity’ an interesting process (hold the cup just a bit
antispinward, as things will not – apparently – fall in a straight line!).
2.4.1: Identifying Inertial Frames
We are now finally prepared to tackle a very difficult concept. All of our dynamics so far is
based on the notion that we can formulate it in an inertial frame. It’s right there in Newton’s
Laws – valid only in inertial frames, and we can now clearly see that if we are not in such
a frame we have to account for pseudoforces before we can solve Newtonian problems in
that frame.
This is not a trivial question. The Universe doesn’t come with a frame attached – frames
are something we imagine, a part of the conceptual map we are trying to build in our minds
in an accurate correspondence with our experience of that Universe. When we look out
of our window, the world appears flat so we invent a Cartesian flat Earth. Later, further
experience on longer length scales reveals that the world is really a curved, approximately
spherical object that is only locally flat – a manifold 67 in fact.
67
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/manifold. A word that students of physics or mathematics would
do well to start learning...
Similarly we do simple experiments – suspending masses from strings, observing

blocks sliding down inclined planes, firing simple projectiles and observing their trajec-
tories – under the assumption that our experiential coordinates associated with the Earth’s
surface form an inertial frame, and Newton’s Laws appear to work pretty well in them at
first. But then comes the day when we fire a naval cannon at a target twenty kilometers
to the north of us and all of our shots consistently miss to the east of it because of that
pesky coriolis force – the pseudoforce in the rotating frame of the earth and we learn of
our mistake.
We learn to be cautious in our system of beliefs. We are always doing our experiments
and making our observations in a sort of “box”, a box of limited range and resolution. We
have to accept the fact that any set of coordinates we might choose might or might not be
inertial, might or might not be “flat”, that at best they might be locally flat and inertial within
the box we can reach so far.
In this latter, highly conservative point of view, how do we determine that the coordi-
nates we are using are truly inertial? To put it another way, is there a rest frame for the
Universe, a Universal inertial frame S from which we can transform to all other frames S ′ ,
inertial or not?
The results of the last section provide us with one possible way. If we systematically
determine the force laws of nature, Newton tells us that all of those laws involve two ob-
jects (at least). I cannot be pushed unless I push back on something. In more appropriate
language (although not so conceptually profound) all of the force laws are laws of interac-
tion. I interact with the Earth by means of gravity, and with a knowledge of the force law
I can compute the force I exert on the Earth and the force the Earth exerts on me given
only a knowledge of our mutual relative coordinates in any coordinate system. Later we
will learn that the same is more or less true for the electromagnetic interaction – it is a
lot more complicated, in the end, than gravity, but it is still true that a knowledge of the
trajectories of two charged objects suffices to determine their electromagnetic interaction,
and there is a famous paper by Wheeler and Feynman that suggests that even “radiation
reaction” (something that locally appears as a one-body self-force) is really a consequence
of interaction with a Universe of charge pairs.
This, then, allows us to cleanly differentiate real forces and pseudoforces. Real forces
always involve two objects, where pseudoforces have no Newton’s Third Law partner! In
the Elevator and Boxcar examples below, real gravity is identified by the fact that while
the Earth pulls down on the mass in question, the mass pulls up on the Earth! Where
the normal force acts on it, it pushes back on the object exerting the normal force. When
tension in a string pulls it, it pulls back on the string.
There is no Newton’s third law partner to the F ~ p = −m~ a pseudoforce arising from
the acceleration of the frame! Furthermore, this “pseudogravity” behaves differently from
actual gravity – it is (for example) perfectly uniform within the frame no matter how large
the frame might be where actual gravity drops off (however slightly) as one moves verti-
cally, with the field lines slowly diverging (because the gravitational field diverges from its
massive sources). One has to work a bit harder to make this operational distinction clear
when one builds a (relativistic, quantum) field theory, but throughout physics it remains the
case that forces (or their quantum equivalents, “interactions”) never occur in isolation, while
pseudoforces “just happen” with nothing else making them happen.

The point is that in the end, the operational definition of an inertial frame is that it is a
frame where Newton’s Laws are true for a closed, finite set of (force) Law of Nature that
all involve well-defined interaction in the coordinates of the inertial frame. In that case we
can add up all of the actual forces acting on any mass. If the observed movement of that
mass is in correspondence with Newton’s Laws given that total force, the frame must be
inertial! Otherwise, there must be at least one “force” that we cannot identify in terms of any
interaction pair, and examined closely, it will have a structure that suggests some sort of
acceleration of the frame rather than interaction per se with a (perhaps still undiscovered)
interaction law.
There is little more that we can do, and even this will not generally suffice to prove
that any given frame is truly inertial. For example, consider the “rest frame” of the visible
Universe, which can be thought of as a sphere some 13.7 billion Light Years68 in radius
surrounding the Earth. To the best of our ability to tell, there is no compelling asymmetry of
velocity or relative acceleration within that sphere – all motion is reasonably well accounted
for by means of the known forces plus an as yet unknown force, the force associated with
“dark matter” and “dark energy”, that still appears to be a local interaction but one we do
not yet understand.
How could we tell if the entire sphere were uniformly accelerating in some direction,
however? Note well that we can only observe near-Earth gravity by its opposition – in a
freely falling box all motion in box coordinates is precisely what one would expect if the box
were not falling! The pseudoforce associated with the motion only appears when relating
the box coordinates back to the actual unknown inertial frame.
If all of this gives you a headache, well, it gives me a bit of a headache too. The point
is once again that an inertial frame is practically speaking a frame where Newton’s Laws
hold, and that while the coordinate frame of the visible Universe is probably the best that
we can do for a Universal rest frame, we cannot be certain that it is truly inertial on a much
larger length scale – we might be able to detect it if it wasn’t, but then, we might not.
Einstein extended these general meditations upon the invariance of frames to invent
first special relativity (frame transformations that leave Maxwell’s Equations form invariant
and hence preserve the speed of light in all inertial frames) and then general relativity,
which is discussed a bit further below.
Example 2.4.1: Weight in an Elevator
Let’s compute our apparent weight in an elevator that is accelerating up (or down, but say
up) at some net rate a. If you are riding in the elevator, you must be accelerating up with
the same acceleration. Therefore the net force on you must be
X
F = ma (2.70)
where the coordinate direction of these forces can be whatever you like, x, y or z, because
the problem is really one dimensional and you can name the dimension whatever seems
68
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light Year. The distance light travels in a year.
Figure 27: An elevator accelerates up with a net acceleration of a. The normal force
exerted by the (scale on the floor) of the elevator overcomes the force of gravity to provide
this acceleration.
most natural to you.

That net force is made up of two “real” forces: The force of gravity which pulls you
“down” (in whatever coordinate frame you choose), and the (normal) force exerted by all
the molecules in the scale upon the soles of your feet. This latter force is what the scale
indicates as your ”weight”69 .
Thus:
X
F = ma = N − mg (2.71)
or
N = W = mg + ma (2.72)
where W is your weight.

Note well that we could also write this as:
W = m(g + a) = mg ′ (2.73)
The elevator is an example of a non-inertial reference frame and its acceleration causes
you to experiences something that feels like an additional force of gravity, as if g → g ′ .
Similarly, if the elevator accelerates down, gravity g ′ = g − a feels weaker and you feel
lighter.
69
Mechanically, a non-digital bathroom scale reads the net force applied to/by its top surface as that force
e.g. compresses a spring, which in turn causes a little geared needle to spin around a dial. This will make
more sense later, as we come study springs in more detail.
Example 2.4.2: Pendulum in a Boxcar
Tx
m Ty
+y T +y’
a
θ
mg’ θ mg
+x −ma +x’
Figure 28: A plumb bob or pendulum hangs “at rest” at an angle θ in the frame of a boxcar
that is uniformly accelerating to the right.
In figure 28, we see a railroad boxcar that is (we imagine) being uniformly and con-
tinuously accelerated to the right at some constant acceleration ~ a = ax x̂ in the (ground,
inertial) coordinate frame shown. A pendulum of mass m has been suspended “at rest” (in
the accelerating frame of the boxcar) at a stationary angle θ relative to the inertial frame y
axis as shown
We would like to be able to answer questions such as:
a) What is the tension T in the string suspending the mass m?
b) What is the angle θ in terms of the givens and knows?
We can solve this problem and answer these questions two ways (in two distinct frames).
The first, and I would argue “right” way, is to solve the Newton’s Second Law dynamics
problem in the inertial coordinate system corresponding to the ground. This solution (as
we will see) is simple enough to obtain, but it does make it relatively difficult to relate the
answer in ground coordinates (that isn’t going to be terribly simple) to the extremely sim-
ple solution in the primed coordinate system of the accelerating boxcar shown in figure
28. Alternatively, we can solve and answer it directly in the primed accelerating frame –
the coordinates you would naturally use if you were riding in the boxcar – by means of a
pseudoforce.
Let’s proceed the first way. In this approach, we as usual decompose the tension in the
string in terms of the ground coordinate system:
X
Fx = Tx = T sin(θ) = max (2.74)
X
Fy = Ty − mg = T cos(θ) − mg = may = 0 (2.75)
where we see that ay is 0 because the mass is “at rest” in y as the whole boxcar frame
moves only in the x-direction and hence has no y velocity or net acceleration.
From the second equation we get:
mg
T = (2.76)
cos(θ)
and if we substitute this for T into the first equation (eliminating T ) we get:
mg tan(θ) = max (2.77)
or
ax
tan(θ) = (2.78)
g
We thus know that θ = tan−1 (ax /g) and we’ve answered the second question above. To
answer the first, we look at the right triangle that makes up the vector force of the tension
(also from Newton’s Laws written componentwise above):
Tx = max (2.79)
Ty = mg (2.80)
and find: q p
T = Tx2 + Ty2 = m a2x + g 2 = mg ′ (2.81)
p
where g ′ = a2x + g 2 is the effective gravitation that determines the tension in the string,
an idea that won’t be completely clear yet. At any rate, we’ve answered both questions.
To make it clear, let’s answer them both again, this time using a pseudoforce in the
accelerating frame of the boxcar. In the boxcar, according to the work we did above, we
expect to have a total effective force:
~′ = F
F ~ − m~
aframe (2.82)
where F ~ is the sum of the actual force laws and rules in the inertial/ground frame and
−m~ aframe is the pseudoforce associated with the acceleration of the frame of the boxcar.
In this particular problem this becomes:
− mg ′ ŷ ′ = −mg ŷ − max x̂ (2.83)
or the magnitude of the effective gravity in the boxcar is mg ′ , and it points “down” in the
boxcar frame in the ŷ ′ direction. Finding g ′ from its components is now straightforward:
p
g ′ = a2x + g 2 (2.84)
as before and the direction of ŷ ′ is now inclined at the angle

−1 ax
θ = tan (2.85)
g
also as before. Now we get T directly from the one dimensional statics problem along the
ŷ ′ direction:
T − mg ′ = may′ = 0 (2.86)
or p
T = mg ′ = m a2x + g 2 (2.87)
as – naturally – before. We get the same answer either way, and there isn’t much difference
in the work required. I personally prefer to think of the problem, and solve it, in the inertial
ground frame, but what you experience riding along in the boxcar is much closer to what
the second approach yields – gravity appears to have gotten stronger and to be pointing
back at an angle as the boxcar accelerates, which is exactly what one feels standing up in
a bus or train as it starts to move, in a car as it rounds a curve, in a jet as it accelerates
down the runway during takeoff.
Sometimes (rarely, in my opinion) it is convenient to solve problems (or gain a bit of
insight into behavior) using pseudoforces in an accelerating frame (and the latter is cer-
tainly in better agreement with our experience in those frames) but it will lead us to make
silly and incorrect statements and get problems wrong if we do things carelessly, such as
call mv 2 /r a force where it is really just mac , the right and side of Newton’s Second Law
where the left hand side is made up of actual force rules. In this kind of problem and many
others it is better to just use the real forces in an inertial reference frame, and we will fairly
religiously stick to this in this textbook. As the next discussion (intended only for more ad-
vanced or intellectually curious students who want to be guided on a nifty wikiromp of sorts)
suggests, however, there is some advantage to thinking more globally about the apparent
equivalence between gravity in particular and pseudoforces in accelerating frames.
2.4.2: Advanced: General Relativity and Accelerating Frames
As serious students of physics and mathematics will one day learn, Einstein’s Theory of
Special Relativity70 and the associated Lorentz Transformation71 will one day replace
the theory of inertial “relativity” and the Galilean transformation between inertial reference
frames we deduced in week 1. Einstein’s result is based on more or less the same general
idea – the laws of physics need to be invariant under inertial frame transformation. The
problem is that Maxwell’s Equations (as you will learn in detail in part 2 of this course, if you
continue) are the actual laws of nature that describe electromagnetism and hence need to
be so invariant. Since Maxwell’s equations predict the speed of light, the speed of light has
to be the same in all reference frames!
This has the consequence – which we will not cover in any sort of detail at this time –
of causing space and time to become a system of four dimensional spacetime, not three
space dimension plus time as an independent variable. Frame transformations nonlin-
early mix space coordinates and time as a coordinate instead of just making simple linear
tranformations of space coordinates according to “Galilean relativity”.
Spurred by his success, Einstein attempted to describe force itself in terms of curva-
ture of spacetime, working especially on the ubiquitous force of gravity. The idea there is
that the pseudoforce produced by the acceleration of a frame is indistinguishible from a
gravitational force, and that a generalized frame transformation (describing acceleration in
terms of curvature of spacetime) should be able to explain both.
This isn’t quite true, however. A uniformly accelerating frame can match the local mag-
nitude of a gravitational force, but gravitational fields have (as we will learn) a global ge-
ometry that cannot be matched by a uniform acceleration – this hypothesis “works” only in
small volumes of space where gravity is approximately uniform, for example in the elevator
or train above. Nor can one match it with a rotating frame as the geometric form of the
70
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special Relativity.
71
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz Transformation.
coriolis force that arises in a rotating frame does not match the 1/r2 r̂ gravitational force
law.
The consequence of this “problem” is that it is considerably more difficult to derive the
theory of general relativity than it is the theory of special relativity – one has to work with
manifolds72 . In a sufficiently small volume Einstein’s hypothesis is valid and gives excellent
results that predict sometimes startling but experimentally verified deviations from classical
expectations (such as the precession of the perihelion of Mercury)73
The one remaining problem with general relativity – also beyond the scope of this text-
book – is its fundamental, deep incompatibility with quantum theory. Einstein wanted to
view all forces of nature as being connected to spacetime curvature, but quantum me-
chanics provides a spectacularly different picture of the cause of interaction forces – the
exchange of quantized particles that mediate the field and force, e.g. photons, gluons,
heavy vector bosons, and by extension – gravitons74 . So far, nobody has found an en-
tirely successful way of unifying these two rather distinct viewpoints, although there are a
number of candidates75 .
72
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manifold. A manifold is a topological curved space that is locally
“flat” in a sufficiently small volume. For example, using a simple cartesian map to navigate on the surface of the
“flat” Earth is quite accurate up to distances of order 10 kilometers, but increasingly inaccurate for distances
of order 100 kilometers, where the fact that the Earth’s surface is really a curved spherical surface and not a
flat plane begins to matter. Calculus on curved spaces is typically defined in terms of a manifold that covers
the space with locally Euclidean patches. Suddenly the mathematics has departed from the relatively simple
calculus and geometry we use in this book to something rather difficult...
73
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tests of general relativity. This is one of several “famous” tests
of the theory of general relativity, which is generally accepted as being almost correct, or rather, correct in
context.
74
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/gravitons. The quantum particle associated with the gravitational
field.
75
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/quantum gravity. Perhaps the best known of these is “string the-
ory”, but as this article indicates, there are a number of others, and until dark matter and dark energy are
better understood as apparent modifiers of gravitational force we may not be able to experimentally choose
between them.
2.5: Just For Fun: Hurricanes
Figure 29: Satellite photo of Hurricane Ivan as of September 8, 2004. Note the roughly
symmetric rain bands circulating in towards the center and the small but clearly defined
“eye”.
Hurricanes are of great interest, at least in the Southeast United States where every
fall several of them (on average) make landfall somewhere on the Atlantic or Gulf coast
between Texas and North Carolina. Since they not infrequently do billions of dollars worth
of damage and kill dozens of people (usually drowned due to flooding) it is worth taking a
second to look over their Coriolis dynamics.
In the northern hemisphere, air circulates around high pressure centers in a generally
clockwise direction as cool dry air “falls” out of them in all directions, deflecting west as it
flows out south and east as it flow out north.
Air circulates around low pressure centers in a counterclockwise direction as air rushes
to the center, warms, and lifts. Here the eastward deflection of north-travelling air meets
the west deflection of south-travelling air and creates a whirlpool spinning opposite to the
far curvature of the incoming air (often flowing in from a circulation pattern around a neigh-
boring high pressure center).
If this circulation occurs over warm ocean water it picks up considerable water vapor
and heat. The warm, wet air cools as it lifts in the central pattern of the low and precipitation
occurs, releasing the energy of fusion into the rapidly expanding air as wind flowing out of
the low pressure center at high altitude in the usual clockwise direction (the “outflow” of
the storm). If the low remains over warm ocean water and no “shear” winds blow at high
altitude across the developing eye and interfere with the outflow, a stable pattern in the
storm emerges that gradually amplifies into a hurricane with a well defined “eye” where the
air has very low pressure and no wind at all.
(North−−Counter Clockwise)
Hurricane
N
Eye
Southward
trajectory
North to South deflects west
direction of rotation
Falling deflects east
Figure 30:
Figure 31: Coriolis dynamics associated with tropical storms. Air circulating clockwise
(from surrounding higher pressure regions) meets at a center of low pressure and forms a
counterclockwise “eye”.
Figure 32 shows a “snapshot” of the high and low pressure centers over much of North
and South America and the Atlantic on September 8, 2004. In it, two “extreme low” pres-
sure centers are clearly visible that are either hurricanes or hurricane remnants. Note well
the counterclockwise circulation around these lows. Two large high pressure regions are
also clearly visible, with air circulating around them (irregularly) clockwise. This rotation
smoothly transitions into the rotation around the lows across boundary regions.
As you can see the dynamics of all of this are rather complicated – air cannot just “flow”
on the surface of the Earth – it has to flow from one place to another, being replaced as it
flows. As it flows north and south, east and west, up and down, pseudoforces associated
with the Earth’s rotation join the real forces of gravitation, air pressure differences, buoy-
ancy associated with differential heating and cooling due to insolation, radiation losses,
conduction and convection, and moisture accumulation and release, and more. Atmo-
spheric modelling is difficult and not terribly skilled (predictive) beyond around a week or at
most two, at which point small fluctuations in the initial conditions often grow to unexpect-
edly dominate global weather patterns, the so-called “butterfly effect”76 .
In the specific case of hurricanes (that do a lot of damage, providing a lot of political
76
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butterfly Effect. So named because “The flap of a butterfly’s
wings in Brazil causes a hurricane in the U.S. some months later.” This latter sort of statement isn’t really
correct, of course – many things conspire to cause the hurricane. It is intended to reflect the fact that weather
systems exhibit deterministic chaotic dynamics – infinite sensitivity to initial conditions so that tiny differences
in initial state lead to radically different states later on.
Figure 32: Pressure/windfield of the Atlantic on September 8, 2004. Two tropical storms
are visible – the remnants of Hurricane Frances poised over the U.S. Southeast, and Hurri-
cane Ivan just north of South America. Two more low pressure “tropical waves” are visible
between South America and Africa – either or both could develop into tropical storms if
shear and water temperature are favorable. The low pressure system in the middle of the
Atlantic is extratropical and very unlikely to develop into a proper tropical storm.
and economic incentive to improve the predictive models) the details of the dynamics and
energy release are only gradually being understood by virtue of intense study, and at this
point the hurricane models are quite good at predicting motion and consequence within
reasonable error bars up to five or six days in advance. There is a wealth of information
available on the Internet77 to any who wish to learn more. An article78 on the Atlantic
Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory’s Hurricane Frequently Asked Questions79
website contains a lovely description of the structure of the eye and the inflowing rain
bands.
Atlantic hurricanes usually move from Southeast to Northwest in the Atlantic North of
the equator until they hook away to the North or Northeast. Often they sweep away into
the North Atlantic to die as mere extratropical storms without ever touching land. When
they do come ashore, though, they can pack winds well over a hundred miles an hour.
This is faster than the “terminal velocity” associated with atmospheric drag and thereby
they are powerful enough to lift a human or a cow right off their feet, or a house right off
its foundations. In addition, even mere “tropical storms” (which typically have winds in the
range where wind per se does relatively little damage) can drop a foot of rain in a matter
of hours across tens of thousands of square miles or spin down local tornadoes with high
77
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical Cyclone.
78
http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/tcfaq/A11.html
79
http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/weather sub/faq.html
and damaging winds. Massive flooding, not wind, is the most common cause of loss of life
in hurricanes and other tropical storms.
Hurricanes also can form in the Gulf of Mexico, the Carribean, or even the waters of
the Pacific close to Mexico. Tropical cyclones in general occur in all of the world’s tropical
oceans except for the Atlantic south of the equator, with the highest density of occurrence
in the Western Pacific (where they are usually called “typhoons” instead of “hurricanes”).
All hurricanes tend to be highly unpredictable in their behavior as they bounce around
between and around surrounding air pressure ridges and troughs like a pinball in a pinball
machine, and even the best of computational models, updated regularly as the hurricane
evolves, often err by over 100 kilometers over the course of just a day or two.
Homework for Week 2
Problem 1.
Physics Concepts: Make this week’s physics concepts summary as you work all of
the problems in this week’s assignment. Be sure to cross-reference each concept in the
summary to the problem(s) they were key to, and include concepts from previous weeks
as necessary. Do the work carefully enough that you can (after it has been handed in and
graded) punch it and add it to a three ring binder for review and study come finals!
Problem 2.
m θ
A block of mass m sits at rest on a rough plank of length L that can be gradually tipped
up until the block slides. The coefficient of static friction between the block and the plank
is µs ; the coefficient of dynamic friction is µk and as usual, µk < µs .
a) Find the angle θ0 at which the block first starts to move.
b) Suppose that the plank is lifted to an angle θ > θ0 (where the mass will definitely
slide) and the mass is released from rest at time t0 = 0. Find its acceleration a down
the incline.
c) Finally, find the time tf that the mass reaches the lower end of the plank.
Problem 3.
m1 r
v
m2
A hockey puck of mass m1 is tied to a string that passes through a hole in a frictionless
table, where it is also attached to a mass m2 that hangs underneath. The mass is given a
push so that it moves in a circle of radius r at constant speed v when mass m2 hangs free
beneath the table. Find r as a function of m1 , m2 , v, and g.
Problem 4.
A small square block m is sitting on a larger wedge-shaped block of mass M at an

upper angle θ0 such that the little block will slide on the big block if both are started from
rest and no other forces are present. The large block is sitting on a frictionless table. The
coefficient of static friction between the large and small blocks is µs . With what range of
force F can you push on the large block to the right such that the small block will remain
motionless with respect to the large block and neither slide up nor slide down?
Problem 5.
m1
m2
A mass m1 is attached to a second mass m2 by an Acme (massless, unstretchable)

string. m1 sits on a table with which it has coefficients of static and dynamic friction µs and
µk respectively. m2 is hanging over the ends of a table, suspended by the taut string from
an Acme (frictionless, massless) pulley. At time t = 0 both masses are released.
a) What is the minimum mass m2,min such that the two masses begin to move?
b) If m2 = 2m2,min , determine how fast the two blocks are moving when mass m2 has
fallen a height H (assuming that m1 hasn’t yet hit the pulley)?
Problem 6.
v m towards center
R θ
(top view) (side view)
A car of mass m is rounding a banked curve that has radius of curvature R and banking
angle θ. Find the speed v of the car such that it succeeds in making it around the curve
without skidding on an extremely icy day when µs ≈ 0.
Problem 7.
v m towards center
R θ
(top view) (side view)
A car of mass m is rounding a banked curve that has radius of curvature R and banking
angle θ. The coefficient of static friction between the car’s tires and the road is µs . Find the
range of speeds v of the car such that it can succeed in making it around the curve without
skidding.
Problem 8.
v
m
You and a friend are working inside a cylindrical new space station that is a hundred
meters long and thirty meters in radius and filled with a thick air mixture. It is lunchtime and
you have a bag of oranges. Your friend (working at the other end of the cylinder) wants
one, so you throw one at him at speed v0 at t = 0. Assume Stokes drag, that is F ~ d = −b~
v
(this is probably a poor assumption depending on the initial speed, but it makes the algebra
relatively easy and qualitatively describes the motion well enough).
a) Derive an algebraic expression for the velocity of the orange as a function of time.
b) How long does it take the orange to lose half of its initial velocity?
Problem 9.
R
m v
A bead of mass m is threaded on a metal hoop of radius R. There is a coefficient

of kinetic friction µk between the bead and the hoop. It is given a push to start it sliding
around the hoop with initial speed v0 . The hoop is located on the space station, so you can
ignore gravity.
a) Find the normal force exerted by the hoop on the bead as a function of its speed.
b) Find the dynamical frictional force exerted by the hoop on the bead as a function of
its speed.
c) Find its speed as a function of time. This involves using the frictional force on the
bead in Newton’s second law, finding its tangential acceleration on the hoop (which
is the time rate of change of its speed) and solving the equation of motion.
All answers should be given in terms of m, µk , R, v (where requested) and v0 .

Problem 10.
m2
m1
A block of mass m2 sits on a rough table. The coefficients of friction between the
block and the table are µs and µk for static and kinetic friction respectively. A mass m1 is
suspended from an massless, unstretchable, unbreakable rope that is looped around the
two pulleys as shown and attached to the support of the rightmost pulley. At time t = 0 the
system is released at rest.
a) Find an expression for the minimum mass m1,min such that the masses will begin to
move.
b) Suppose m1 = 2m1,min (twice as large as necessary to start it moving). Solve for the
accelerations of both masses. Hint: Is there a constraint between how far mass m2
moves when mass m1 moves down a short distance?
c) Find the speed of both masses after the small mass has fallen a distance H. Re-
member this answer and how hard you had to work to find it – next week we will find
it much more easily.
Problem 11.
1
m
2
m
Two blocks, each with the same mass m but made of different materials, sit on a rough
plane inclined at an angle θ such that they will slide (so that the component of their weight
down the incline exceeds the maximum force exerted by static friction). The first (upper)
block has a coefficient of kinetic friction of µk1 between block and inclined plane; the second
(lower) block has coefficient of kinetic friction µk2 . The two blocks are connected by an
Acme string.
Find the acceleration of the two blocks a1 and a2 down the incline:
a) when µk1 > µk2 ;
b) when µk2 > µk1 .

θ R
A small frictionless bead is threaded on a semicircular wire hoop with radius R, which
is then spun on its vertical axis as shown above at angular velocity ω.
a) Find an expression for θ in terms of R, g and ω.
b) What is the smallest angular frequency ωmin such that the bead will not sit at the
bottom at θ = 0, for a given R.
168 Week 3: Work and Energy
Optional Problems
No optional problems (yet) this week.

Week 3: Work and Energy
Summary
• The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in words is “The work done by the total force
acting on an object between two points equals the change in its kinetic energy.” As
is frequently the case, though, this is more usefully learned in terms of its algebraic
forms: Z x2
1 1
W (x1 → x2 ) = Fx dx = mv22 − mv12 = ∆K (3.1)
x1 2 2
in one dimension or
Z x2
~ · d~ 1 1
W (~
x1 → ~
x2 ) = F ℓ = mv22 − mv12 = ∆K (3.2)
x1 2 2
in two or more dimensions, where the integral in the latter is along some specific
path between the two endpoints.
~ c is one where the integral:
• A Conservative Force F
Z x2
W (~
x1 → ~
x2 ) = ~ c · d~
F ℓ (3.3)
x1
does not depend on the particular path taken between ~

x1 and ~
x2 . In that case going
from ~
x1 to ~
x2 by one path and coming back by another forms a loop (a closed curve
containing both points). We must do the same amount of positive work going one
way as we do negative the other way and therefore we can write the condition as:
I
~ c · d~
F ℓ=0 (3.4)
C
for all closed curves C.

Note Well: If you have no idea what the dot-product in these equations is or how to
evaluate it, if you don’t know what an integral along a curve is, it might be a good
time to go over the former in the online math review and pay close attention to the
pictures below that explain it in context. Don’t worry about this – it’s all part of what
you need to learn in the course, and I don’t expect that you have a particularly good
grasp of it yet, but it is definitely something to work on!
• Potential Energy is the negative work done by a conservative force (only) moving
between two points. The reason that we bother defining it is because for known, con-
servative force rules, we can do the work integral once and for all for the functional
169
form of the force and obtain an answer that is (within a constant) the same for all
problems! We can then simplify the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem for problems in-
volving those conservative forces, changing them into energy conservation problems
(see below). Algebraically:
Z
U (~
x) = − F ~ c · d~
ℓ + U0 (3.5)
where the integral is the indefinite integral of the force and U0 is an arbitrary constant
of integration (that may be set by some convention though it doesn’t really have to
be, be wary) or else the change in the potential energy is:
Z ~x1
∆U (~x0 → ~ x1 ) = − ~ c · d~
F ℓ (3.6)
~
x0
(independent of the choice of path between the points).
• The Law of Conservation of Mechanical Energy states that if no non-conservative

forces are acting, the sum of the potential and kinetic energies of an object are con-
stant as the object moves around:
Ei = U0 + K0 = Uf + Kf = Ef (3.7)
x0 ), K0 = 21 mv02 etc.
where U0 = U (~
• The Generalized Non-Conservative Work-Mechanical Energy Theorem states

that if both conservative and non-conservative forces are acting on an object (par-
ticle), the work done by the non-conservative forces (e.g. friction, drag) equals the
change in the total mechanical energy:
Z ~x1
Wnc = ~ nc · d~
F ℓ = ∆Emech = (Uf + Kf ) − (U0 + K0 ) (3.8)
~
x0
In general, recall, the work done by non-conservative forces depends on the path
taken, so the left hand side of this must be explicitly evaluated for a particular path
while the right hand side depends only on the values of the functions at the end points
of that path.
Note well: This is a theorem only if one considers the external forces acting on a
particle. When one considers systems of particles or objects with many “internal” de-
grees of freedom, things are not this simple because there can be non-conservative
internal forces that (for example) can add or remove macroscopic mechanical en-
ergy to/from the system and turn it into microscopic mechanical energy, for example
chemical energy or “heat”. Correctly treating energy at this level of detail requires us
to formulate thermodynamics and is beyond the scope of the current course, al-
though it requires a good understanding of its concepts to get started.
• Power is the work performed per unit time by a force:

dW
P = (3.9)
dt
In many mechanics problems, power is most easily evaluated by means of:
d ~ ~ ~ d~ ℓ ~ ·~
P = F · dℓ = F · =F v (3.10)
dt dt
• An object is in force equilibrium when its potential energy function is at a minimum

or maximum. This is because the other way to write the definition of potential energy
is:
dU
Fx = − (3.11)
dx
so that if
dU
=0 (3.12)
dx
then Fx = 0, the condition for force equilibrium in one dimension.
For advanced students: In more than one dimension, the force is the negative gradi-
ent of the potential energy:
F ~ = − ∂U x̂ − ∂U ŷ − ∂U ẑ
~ = −∇U (3.13)
∂x ∂y ∂z
∂
(where ∂x stands for the partial derivative with respect to x, the derivative of the
function one takes pretending the other coordinates are constant.
• An equilibrium point ~ xe is stable if U (~

xe ) is a minimum. A mass hanging at rest from
a string is at a stable equilibrium at the bottom.
• An equilibrium point ~
xe is unstable if U (~
xe ) is a maximum. A pencil balanced on its
point (if you can ever manage such a feat) is in unstable equilibrium – the slightest
disturbance and it will fall.
• An equilibrium point ~ xe is neutral if U (~

xe ) is flat to either side, neither ascending or
descending. A disk placed on a perfectly level frictionless table is in neutral equilib-
rium – if it is place at rest, it will remain at rest no matter where you place it, but of
course if it has the slightest nonzero velocity it will coast until it either reaches the
edge of the table or some barrier that traps it. In the latter sense a perfect neutral
equilibrium is often really unstable, as it is essentially impossible to place an object at
rest, but friction or drag often conspire to “stabilize” a neutral equilibrium so that yes,
if you put a penny on a table it will be there the next day, unmoved, as far as physics
is concerned...
3.1: Work and Kinetic Energy
If you’ve been doing all of the work assigned so far, you may have noticed something. In
many of the problems, you were asked to find the speed of an object (or, if the direction
was obvious, its velocity) after it moved from some initial position to a final position. The
solution strategy you employed over and over again was to solve the equations of motion,
solve for the time, substitute the time, find the speed or velocity. We used this in the
very first example in the book and the first actual homework problem to show that a mass
√
dropped from rest that falls a height H hits the ground at speed v = 2gH, but later we
discovered that a mass that slides down a frictionless inclined plane starting from rest a
√
height H above the ground arrives at the ground as a speed 2gH independent of the
slope of the incline!
If you were mathematically inclined – or used a different textbook, one with a separate
section on the kinematics of constant acceleration motion (a subject this textbook has
assiduously avoided, instead requiring you to actually solve the equations of motion using
calculus repeatedly and then use algebra as needed to answer the questions) you might
have noted that you can actually do the algebra associated with this elimination of time
once and for all for a constant acceleration problem in one dimension. It is simple.
If you look back at week 1, you can see if that if you integrate a constant acceleration
of an object twice, you obtain:
v(t) = at + v0
1 2
x(t) = at + v0 t + x0
2
as a completely general kinematic solution in one dimension, where v0 is the initial speed
and x0 is the initial x position at time t = 0.
Now, suppose you want to find the speed v1 the object will have when it reaches position
x1 . One can algebraically, once and for all note that this must occur at some time t1 such
that:
v(t1 ) = at1 + v0 = v1
1 2
x(t1 ) = at + v0 t1 + x0 = x1
2 1
We can algebraically solve the first equation once and for all for t1 :
v1 − v0
t1 = (3.14)
a
and substitute the result into the second equation, elminating time altogether from the
solutions:

1 v1 − v0 2 v1 − v0
a + v0 + x0 = x1
2 a a

1 2 2
v0 v1 − v02
v − 2v0 v1 + v0 + = x1 − x0
2a 1 a
v12 − 2v0 v1 + v02 + 2v0 v1 − 2v02 = 2a(x1 − x0 )
or
v12 − v02 = 2a(x1 − x0 ) (3.15)
Many textbooks encourage students to memorize this equation as well as the two kinematic
solutions for constant acceleration very early – often before one has even learned Newton’s
Laws – so that students never have to actually learn why these solutions are important or
where they come from, but at this point you’ve hopefully learned both of those things well
and it is time to make solving problems of this kinds a little bit easier.
However, we will not do so using this constant acceleration kinematic equation even
now! There is no need! As we will see below, it is quite simple to eliminate time from
Newton’s Second Law itself once and for all, and obtain a powerful way of solving many,
many physics problems – in particular, ones where the questions asked do not depend on
specific times – without the tedium of integrating out the equations of motion. This “time
independent” formulation of force laws and motion turns out, in the end, to be even more
general and useful than Newton’s Laws themselves, surviving the transition to quantum
theory where the concepts of force and acceleration do not.
One very good thing about waiting as we have done and not memorizing anything,
let alone kinematic constant acceleration solutions, is that this new formulation in terms of
work and energy works just fine for non-constant forces and accelerations, where the kine-
matic solutions above are (as by now you should fully appreciate, having worked through
e.g. the drag force and investigated the force exerted by springs, neither of which are
constant in space or in time) completely useless and wrong.
Let us therefore begin now with this relatively meaningless kinematical result that arises
from eliminating time for a constant acceleration in one dimension only – planning
to use it only long enough to ensure that we never have to use it because we’ve found
something even better that is far more meaningful:
v12 − v02 = 2a∆x (3.16)
where ∆x is the displacement of the object x1 − x0 .

If we multiply by m (the mass of the object) and move the annoying 2 over to the other
side, we can make the constant acceleration a into a constant force Fx = ma:
1 1
(ma)∆x = mv 2 − mv 2 (3.17)
2 1 2 0
1 1
Fx ∆x = mv 2 − mv 2 (3.18)
2 1 2 0
We now define the work done by the constant force Fx on the mass m as it moves
through the distance ∆x to be:
∆W = Fx ∆x. (3.19)
The work can be positive or negative.

Of course, not all forces are constant. We have to wonder, then, if this result or
concept is as fragile as the integral of a constant acceleration (which does not “work”,
so to speak, for springs!) or if it can handle springs, pendulums, real gravity (not near
the Earth’s surface) and so on. As you might guess, the answer is yes – we wouldn’t
have bothered introducing and naming the concept if all we cared about was constant
acceleration problems as we already had a satisfactory solution for them – but before we
turn this initial result into a theorem that follows directly from the axiom of Newton’s Second
Law made independent of time, we should discuss units of work, energy, and all that.
3.1.1: Units of Work and Energy
Work is a form of energy. As always when we first use a new named quantity in physics,
we need to define its units so we can e.g. check algebraic results for kinematic consis-
tency, correctly identify work, and learn to quantitatively appreciated it when people refer
to quantities in other sciences or circumstances (such as the energy yield of a chemical re-
action, the power consumed by an electric light bulb, or the energy consumed and utilized
by the human body in a day) in these units.
In general, the definition of SI units can most easily be remembered and understood
from the basic equations that define the quantity of interest, and the units of energy are
no exception. Since work is defined above to be a force times a distance, the SI units
of energy must be the SI units of force (Newtons) times the SI units of length (meters).
The units themselves are named (as many are) after a Famous Physicist, James Prescott
Joule80 . Thus:
kilogram-meter2
1 Joule = 1 Newton-meter = 1 (3.20)
second2
3.1.2: Kinetic Energy
The latter, we also note, are the natural units of mass times speed squared. We observe
that this is the quantity that changes when we do work on a mass, and that this energy
appears to be a characteristic of the moving mass associated with the motion itself (de-
pendent only on the speed v). We therefore define the quantity changed by the work to be
the kinetic energy 81 and will use the symbol K to represent it in this work:
1
K = mv 2 (3.21)
2
Note that kinetic energy is a relative quantity – it depends upon the inertial frame in
which it is measured. Suppose we consider the kinetic energy of a block of mass m sliding
forward at a constant speed vb in a railroad car travelling at a constant speed vc . The frame
of the car is an inertial reference frame and so Newton’s Laws must be valid there. In
particular, our definition of kinetic energy that followed from a solution to Newton’s Laws
ought to be valid there. It should be equally valid on the ground, but these two quantities
are not equal.
Relative to the ground, the speed of the block is:
vg = vb + vc (3.22)
and the kinetic energy of the block is:

1 1 1
Kg = mvg2 = mvb2 + mvc2 + mvb vc (3.23)
2 2 2
or
1
Kg = Kb + mvc2 + mvb vc (3.24)
2
where Kb is the kinetic energy of the block in the frame of the train.
80
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/James Prescott Joule. He worked with temperature and heat and
was one of the first humans on Earth to formulate and initially experimentally verify the Law of Conservation
of Energy, discussed below. He also discovered and quantified resistive electrical heating (Joule heating) and
did highly precise experiments that showed that mechanical energy delivered into a closed system increased
its temperature is the work converted into heat.
81
The work “kinetic” means “related to the motion of material bodies”, although we also apply it to e.g.
hyperkinetic people...
Worse, the train is riding on the Earth, which is not exactly at rest relative to the sun,
so we could describe the velocity of the block by adding the velocity of the Earth to that
of the train and the block within the train. The kinetic energy in this case is so large that
the difference in the energy of the block due to its relative motion in the train coordinates
is almost invisible against the huge energy it has in an inertial frame in which the sun is
approximately at rest. Finally, as we discussed last week, the sun itself is moving relative
to the galactic center or the “rest frame of the visible Universe”.
What, then, is the actual kinetic energy of the block?
I don’t know that there is such a thing. But the kinetic energy of the block in the inertial
reference frame of any well-posed problem is 21 mv 2 , and that will have to be enough for
us. As we will prove below, this definition makes the work done by the forces of nature
consistent within the frame, so that our computations will give us answers consistent with
experiment and experience in the frame coordinates.
3.2: The Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Let us now formally state the result we derived above using the new definitions of work and
kinetic energy as the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem (which I will often abbreviate, e.g.
WKET) in one dimension in English:
The work done on a mass by the total force acting on it is equal to the change
in its kinetic energy.
and as an equation that is correct for constant one dimensional forces only:
1 1
∆W = Fx ∆x = mvf2 − mvi2 = ∆K (3.25)
2 2
You will note that in the English statement of the theorem, I didn’t say anything about
needing the force to be constant or one dimensional. I did this because those conditions
aren’t necessary – I only used them to bootstrap and motivate a completely general result.
Of course, now it is up to us to prove that the theorem is general and determine its correct
and general algebraic form. We can, of course, guess that it is going to be the integral of
this difference expression turned into a differential expression:
dW = Fx dx = dK (3.26)
but actually deriving this for an explicitly non-constant force has several important concep-
tual lessons buried in the derivation. So much so that I’ll derive it in two completely different
ways.
3.2.1: Derivation I: Rectangle Approximation Summation
First, let us consider a force that varies with position so that it can be mathematically
described as a function of x, Fx (x). To compute the work done going between (say) x0
Fx
x 0 x1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x f x
Figure 33: The work done by a variable force can be approximated arbitrarily accurately
by summing Fx ∆x using the average force as if it were a constant force across each of
the “slices” of width ∆x one can divide the entire interval into. In the limit that the width
∆x → dx, this summation turns into the integral.
and some position xf that will ultimately equal the total change in the kinetic energy, we
can try to chop the interval xf −x0 up into lots of small pieces, each of width ∆x. ∆x needs
to be small enough that Fx basically doesn’t change much across it, so that we are justified
in saying that it is “constant” across each interval, even though the value of the constant
isn’t exactly the same from interval to interval. The actual value we use as the constant in
the interval isn’t terribly important – the easiest to use is the average value or value at the
midpoint of the interval, but no matter what sensible value we use the error we make will
vanish as we make ∆x smaller and smaller.
In figure 33, you can see a very crude sketch of what one might get chopping the total
interval x0 → xf up into eight pieces such that e.g. x1 = x0 + ∆x, x2 = x1 + ∆x,...
and computing the work done across each sub-interval using the approximately constant
value it has in the middle of the sub-interval. If we let F1 = Fx (x0 + ∆x/2), then the
work done in the first interval, for example, is F1 ∆x, the shaded area in the first rectangle
draw across the curve. Similarly we can find the work done for the second strip, where
F2 = Fx (x1 + ∆x/2) and so on. In each case the work done equals the change in kinetic
energy as the particle moves across each interval from x0 to xf .
We then sum the constant acceleration Work-Kinetic-Energy theorem for all of these
intervals:
Wtot = F1 (x1 − x0 ) + F2 (x2 − x1 ) + . . .

1 1 1 1
= ( mv 2 (x1 ) − mv 2 (x0 )) + ( mv 2 (x2 ) − mv 2 (x1 )) + . . .
2 2 2 2
1 1
F1 ∆x + F2 ∆x + . . . = mv 2 − mv 2
2 f 2 i
8
X 1 1
Fi ∆x = mvf2 − mvi2 (3.27)
2 2
i=1
where the internal changes in kinetic energy at the end of each interval but the first and
last cancel. Finally, we let ∆x go to zero in the usual way, and replace summation by
integration. Thus:
∞
X Z xf
Wtot = lim Fx (x0 + i∆x)∆x = Fx dx = ∆K (3.28)
∆x→0 x0
i=1
and we have generalized the theorem to include non-constant forces in one dimension82 .
This approach is good in that it makes it very clear that the work done is the area under
the curve Fx (x), but it buries the key idea – the elimination of time in Newton’s Second
Law – way back in the derivation and relies uncomfortably on constant force/acceleration
results. It is much more elegant to directly derive this result using straight up calculus, and
honestly it is a lot easier, too.
3.2.2: Derivation II: Calculus-y (Chain Rule) Derivation
To do that, we simply take Newton’s Second Law and eliminate dt using the chain rule.
The algebra is:
dvx
Fx = max = m
dt
dvx dx
Fx = m (chain rule)
dx dt
dvx
Fx = m vx (definition of vx )
dx
F dx = mvx dvx (rearrange)
Z x1 x Z v1
Fx dx = m vx dvx (integrate both sides)
x0 v0
Z x1
1 1
Wtot = Fx dx = mv12 − mv02 (The WKE Theorem) (3.29)
x0 2 2
This is an elegant proof, one that makes it completely clear that time dependence is being
eliminated in favor of the direct dependence of v on x. It is also clearly valid for very general
one dimensional force functions; at no time did we assume anything about Fx other than
its general integrability in the last step.
What happens if F ~ is actually a vector force, not necessarily in acting only in one
dimension? Well, the first proof above is clearly valid for Fx (x), Fy (y) and Fz (z) indepen-
dently, so:
Z Z Z Z
~ ~
F · dℓ = Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz = ∆Kx + ∆Ky + ∆Kz = ∆K (3.30)
However, this doesn’t make the meaning of the integral on the left very clear.
The best way to understand that is to examine a small piece of the path in two dimen-
sions. In figure 34 a small part of the trajectory of a particle is drawn. A small chunk of that
trajectory d~ℓ represents the vector displacement of the object over a very short time under
~ acting there.
the action of the force F
The component of F ~ perpendicular to d~ ℓ doesn’t change the speed of the particle; it
behaves like a centripetal force and alters the direction of the velocity without altering the
speed. The component parallel to d~ ℓ, however, does alter the speed, that is, does work.
82
This is notationally a bit sloppy, as I’m not making it clear that as ∆x gets smaller, you have to systemati-
cally increase the number of pieces you divide xf − x0 into and so on, hoping that you all remember your intro
calculus course and recognize this picture as being one of the first things you learned about integration...
x(t)
F
θ
F||
dl
Figure 34: Consider the work done going along the particular trajectory ~ x(t) where there
~
is a force F (~
x) acting on it that varies along the way. As the particle moves across the
small/differential section d~
ℓ, only the force component along d~
ℓ does work. The other force
component changes the direction of the velocity without changing its magnitude.
The magnitude of the component in this direction is (from the picture) F cos(θ) where θ is
~ and the direction of d~
the angle between the direction of F ℓ.
That component acts (over this very short distance) like a one dimensional force in the
direction of motion, so that
1
dW = F cos(θ)dℓ = d( mv 2 ) = dK (3.31)
2
The next little chunk of ~
x(t) has a different force and direction but the form of the work done
and change in kinetic energy as the particle moves over that chunk is the same. As before,
we can integrate from one end of the path to the other doing only the one dimensional
integral of the path element dℓ times F|| , the component of F ~ parallel to the path at that
(each) point.
The vector operation that multiplies a vector by the component of another vector in the
same direction as the first is the dot (or scalar) product. The dot product between two
~ and B
vectors A ~ can be written more than one way (all equally valid):
~·B
A ~ = AB cos(θ) (3.32)
= Ax Bx + Ay By + Az Bz (3.33)
The second form is connected to what we got above just adding up the independent carte-
sian component statements of the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in one (each) dimension,
but it doesn’t help us understand how to do the integral between specific starting and
ending coordinates along some trajectory. The first form of the dot product, however, cor-
responds to our picture:
dW = F cos(θ)dℓ = F ~ · d~ℓ = dK (3.34)
Now we can see what the integral means. We have to sum this up along some specific
path between ~ x0 and ~x1 to find the total work done moving the particle along that path by
the force. For differential sized chunks, the “sum” becomes an integral and we integrate
this along the path to get the correct statement of the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem in 2
or 3 dimensions:
Z ~
x1
~ · d~ 1 1
W (~
x0 → ~ x1 ) = F ℓ = mv12 − mv02 = ∆K (3.35)
~
x0 ,path 2 2
Note well that this integral may well be different for different paths connecting points ~
x0
to ~
x1 ! In the most general case, one cannot find the work done without knowing the path
taken, because there are many ways to go between any two points and the forces could
be very different along them.
Note well: Energy is a scalar – just a number with a magnitude and units but no
direction – and hence is considerably easier to treat than vector quantities like forces.
Note well: Normal forces (perpendicular to the direction of motion) do no work :
~ ⊥ · ∆~
∆W = F x = 0. (3.36)
In fact, force components perpendicular to the trajectory bend the trajectory with local
curvature F⊥ = mv 2 /R but don’t speed the particle up or slow it down. This really simplifies
problem solving, as we shall see.
We should think about using time-independent work and energy instead of time de-
pendent Newtonian dynamics whenever the answer requested for a given problem is in-
dependent of time. The reason for this should now be clear: we derived the work-energy
theorem (and energy conservation) from the elimination of t from the dynamical equations.
Let’s look at a few examples to see how work and energy can make our problem solving
lives much better.
Example 3.2.1: Pulling a Block
M θ
Figure 35: A block is connected to an Acme (massless, unstretchable) string and is pulled
so that it exerts a constant tension T on the block at the angle θ.
Suppose we have a block of mass m being pulled by a string at a constant tension T

at an angle θ with the horizontal along a rough table with coefficients of friction µs > µk .
Typical questions might be: At what value of the tension does the block begin to move?
If it is pulled with exactly that tension, how fast is it moving after it is pulled a horizontal
distance L?
We see that in the y-direction, N + T sin(θ) − mg = 0, or N = mg − T sin(θ). In the
x-direction, Fx = T cos(θ) − µs N = 0 (at the point where block barely begins to move).
Therefore:
T cos(θ) − µs mg + T µs sin(θ) = 0 (3.37)
or
µs mg
T = (3.38)
cos(θ) + µs sin(θ)
With this value of the tension T, the work energy theorem becomes:
W = Fx L = ∆K (3.39)
where Fx = T cos(θ) − µk (mg − T sin(θ). That is:
1
(T cos(θ) − µk (mg − T sin(θ)) L = mvf2 − 0 (since vi = 0) (3.40)
2
or (after a bit of algebra, substituting in our value for T from the first part):
1
2µs gL cos(θ) 2µk µs gL sin(θ) 2
vf = − 2µk gL + (3.41)
cos(θ) + µs sin(θ) cos(θ) + µs sin(θ)
Although it is difficult to check exactly, we can see that if µk = µs , vf = 0 (or the mass
doesn’t accelerate). This is consistent with our value of T – the value at which the mass
will exactly not move against µs alone, but will still move if “tapped” to get it started so that
static friction falls back to weaker dynamic friction.
This is an example of how we can combine Newton’s Laws or statics with work and
energy for different parts of the same problem. So is the next example:
Example 3.2.2: Range of a Spring Gun
∆x
H
R?
Figure 36: A simple spring gun is fired horizontally a height H above the ground. Compute
its range R.
Suppose we have a spring gun with a bullet of mass m compressing a spring with
force constant k a distance ∆x. When the trigger is pulled, the bullet is released from
rest. It passes down a horizontal, frictionless barrel and comes out a distance H above the
ground. What is the range of the gun?
If we knew the speed that the bullet had coming out of the barrel, we’d know exactly
how to solve this as in fact we have solved it for homework (although you shouldn’t look
– see if you can do this on your own or anticipate the answer below for the extra practice
and review). To find that speed, we can use the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem if we can
compute the work done by the spring!
So our first chore then is to compute the work done by the spring that is initially com-
pressed a distance ∆x, and use that in turn to find the speed of the bullet leaving the
barrel.
Z x0
W = −k(x − x0 )dx (3.42)
x1
1
= − k(x − x0 )2 |xx01 (3.43)
2
1 1
= k(∆x)2 = mvf2 − 0 (3.44)
2 2
or r
k
vf = |∆x| (3.45)
m
As you can see, this was pretty easy. It is also a result that we can get no other way,
so far, because we don’t know how to solve the equations of motion for the mass on the
spring to find x(t), solve for t, find v(t), substitute to find v and so on. If we hadn’t derived
the WKE theorem for non-constant forces we’d be screwed!
The rest should be familiar. Given this speed (in the x-direction), find the range from
Newton’s Laws:
F~ = −mg ŷ (3.46)
or ax = 0, ay = −g, v0x = vf , v0y = 0, x0 = 0, y0 = H. Solving as usual, we find:
R = vx0 t0 (3.47)
s
2H
= vf (3.48)
g
s
2kH
= |∆x| (3.49)
mg
where you can either fill in the details for yourself or look back at your homework. Or get
help, of course. If you can’t do this second part on your own at this point, you probably
should get help, seriously.
3.3: Conservative Forces: Potential Energy
path 1
C x2
x1
path 2
Figure 37: The work done going around an arbitrary loop by a conservative force is zero.
This ensures that the work done going between two points is independent of the path
taken, its defining characteristic.
We have now seen two kinds of forces in action. One kind is like gravity. The work done
on a particle by gravity doesn’t depend on the path taken through the gravitational field –
it only depends on the relative height of the two endpoints. The other kind is like kinetic
friction. Kinetic (sliding) friction not only depends on the path a particle takes, it is usually
negative work; typically kinetic friction turns macroscopic mechanical energy into “heat”,
which can crudely be thought of an internal microscopic mechanical energy that can no
longer easily be turned back into macroscopic mechanical energy. A proper discussion of
heat is beyond the scope of this course, but we will remark further on this below when we
discuss non-conservative forces.
We define a conservative force to be one such that the work done by the force as
you move a point mass from point ~
x1 to point ~
x2 is independent of the path used to move
between the points:
Z ~
x2 Z ~
x2
W (~
x1 → ~
x2 ) = ~ · d~l =
F ~ · d~l
F (3.50)
~
x1 (path 1) ~
x1 (path 2)
In this case (only), the work done going around an arbitrary closed path (starting and
ending on the same point) will be identically zero!
I
Wloop = ~ · d~l
F
C
Z ~
x2 Z ~
x1
= ~ · d~l +
F ~ · d~l
F
~
x1 (path 1) ~
x2 (path 2)
Z ~
x2 Z ~
x2
= ~ · d~l −
F ~ · d~l = 0
F (3.51)
~
x1 (path 1) ~
x1 (path 2)
This is illustrated in figure 37. Note that the two paths from ~
x1 to ~
x2 combine to form a
closed loop C, where the work done going forward along one path is undone coming back
along the other.
We make this the defining characteristic of a conservative force. It is one where:
I
Wloop = ~ conservative · d~l = 0
F (3.52)
C
for all closed loops one can draw in space! This guarantees that the work done by such a
force is independent of the path taken between any two points. It is also (in more advanced
calculus) the defining characteristic of an “exact differential”, the property that lets us turn
it into a potential energy function below.
Since the work done moving a mass m from an arbitrary starting point to any point in
space is the same independent of the path, we can assign each point in space a numerical
value: the work done by us on mass m, against the conservative force, to reach it. This
is the negative of the work done by the force. We do it with this sign for reasons that will
become clear in a moment. We call this function the potential energy of the mass m
~:
associated with the conservative forceF
Z x
U (~
x) = − ~ · d~
F x = −W (3.53)
x0
Note Well: that only one limit of integration depends on x; the other depends on where
you choose to make the potential energy zero. This is a free choice. No physical result that
can be measured or observed can uniquely depend on where you choose the potential
energy to be zero. Let’s understand this.
3.3.1: Force from Potential Energy
~ · d~
In one dimension, the x-component of −F ℓ is:
dU = −dW = −Fx dx (3.54)
If we rearrange this, we get:

dU
Fx = − (3.55)
dx
That is, the force is the slope of the potential energy function. This is actually a rather
profound result and relationship.
U(x)
+x
Figure 38: A tiny subset of the infinite number of possible U (x) functions that might lead
to the same physical force Fx (x). One of these is highlighted by means of a thick line, but
the only thing that might make it “preferred” is whether or not it makes solving any given
problem a bit easier.
Consider the set of transformations that leave the slope of a function invariant. One
of them is quite obvious – adding a positive or negative constant to U (x) as portrayed in
figure 38 does not affect its slope with respect to x, it just moves the whole function up or
down on the U -axis. That means that all of this infinite set of candidate potential energies
that differ by only a constant overall energy lead to the same force!
That’s good, as force is something we can often measure, even “at a point” (without
necessarily moving the object), but potential energy is not. To measure the work done by
a conservative force on an object (and hence measure the change in the potential energy)
we have to permit the force to move the object from one place to another and measure the
change in its speed, hence its kinetic energy. We only measure a change, though – we
cannot directly measure the absolute magnitude of the potential energy, any more than we
can point to an object and say that the work of that object is zero Joules, or ten Joules, or
whatever. We can talk about the amount of work done moving the object from here to there
but objects do not possess “work” as an attribute, and potential energy is just a convenient
renaming of the work, at least so far.
I cannot, then, tell you precisely what the near-Earth gravitational potential energy of
a 1 kilogram mass sitting on a table is, not even if you tell me exactly where the table
and the mass are in some sort of Universal coordinate system (where if the latter exists,
as now seems dubious given our discussion of inertial frames and so on, we have yet to
find it). There are literally an infinity of possible answers that will all equally well predict
the outcome of any physical experiment involving near-Earth gravity acting on the mass,
because they all lead to the same force acting on the object.
In more than one dimesion we have to use a bit of vector calculus to write this same
result per component:
Z
∆U = − F ~ · d~ℓ (3.56)
dU ~ · d~
= −F ℓ (3.57)
It’s a bit more work than we can do in this course to prove it, but the result one gets by
“dividing through but d~
ℓ” in this case is:
F ~ = − ∂U x̂ − ∂U ŷ − ∂U ẑ
~ = −∇U (3.58)
∂x ∂y ∂z
or, the vector force is the negative gradient of the potential energy. This is basically the
one dimensional result written above, per component.
If you are a physics or math major (or have had or are in multivariate calculus) so that
you know what a gradient is, this last form should probably be studied until it makes sense,
but everybody should know that
dU
Fx = − (3.59)
dx
in any given direction so this relation should reasonably hold (subject to working out some
more math than you may yet know) for all coordinate directions. Note that non-physics
majors won’t (in my classes) be held responsible for knowing this vector calculus form,
but everybody should understand the concept underlying it. We’ll discuss this a bit further
below, after we have learned about the total mechanical energy.
To summarize: we now know the definition of a conservative force, its potential energy,
and how to get the force back from the potential energy. We hopefully are starting to
understand our freedom to choose add a constant energy to the potential energy and still
get the same answers to all physics problems83 – obviously adding a constant to the
potential energies won’t change the derivatives of the potential energy function and hence
won’t lead to a different force.
Still, we had a perfectly good way of solving problems where we wished to find v as
a function of x or vice versa (independent of time): the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem.
Why, then, do we bother inventing all of this complication: conservative forces, potential
energies, arbitrary zeros? What was wrong with plain old work?
Well, for one thing, since the work done by conservative forces is independent of the
path taken by definition, we can do the work integrals once and for all for the well-known
83
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge Theory. For students intending to continue with more
physics, this is perhaps your first example of an idea called Gauge freedom – the invariance of things like
energy under certain sets of coordinate transformations and the implications (like invariance of a measured
force) of the symmetry groups of those transformations – which turns out to be very important indeed in future
courses. And if this sounds strangely like I’m speaking Martian to you or talking about your freedom to choose
a 12 gauge shotgun instead of a 20 gauge shotgun – gauge freedom indeed – well, don’t worry about it...
conservative forces, stick a minus sign in front of them, and have a set of well-known
potential energy functions that are generally even simpler and more useful. In fact,
since one can easily differentiate the potential energy function to recover the force, one
can in fact forget thinking in terms of the force altogether and formulate all of physics in
terms of energies and potential energy functions!
In this class, we won’t go to this extreme – we will simply learn both the forces and
the associated potential energy functions where appropriate (there aren’t that many; this
isn’t like learning all of organic chemistry’s reaction pathways, for example...), deriving the
second from the first as we go, but in future courses taken by a physics major, a chem-
istry major, a math major it is quite likely that you will relearn even classical mechanics in
terms of the Lagrangian84 or Hamiltonian85 formulation, both of which are fundamentally
energy-based, and quantum physics is almost entirely derived and understood in terms of
Hamiltonians.
For now let’s see how life is made a bit simpler by deriving general forms for the potential
energy functions for near-Earth gravity and masses on springs, both of which will be very
useful indeed to us in the weeks to come.
3.3.2: Potential Energy Function for Near-Earth Gravity
The potential energy of an object experiencing a near-Earth gravitational force is either:

Z y
Ug (y) = − (−mg)dy ′ = mgy (3.60)
0
where we have effectively set the zero of the potential energy to be “ground level”, at least
if we put the y-coordinate origin at the ground. Of course, we don’t really need to do this –
we might well want the zero to be at the top of a table over the ground, or the top of a cliff
well above that, and we are free to do so. More generally, we can write the gravitational
potential energy as the indefinite integral:
Z
Ug (y) = − (−mg)dy = mgy + U0 (3.61)
where U0 is an arbitrary constant that sets the zero of gravitational potential energy. For
example, suppose we did want the potential energy to be zero at the top of a cliff of height
H, but for one reason or another selected a coordinate system with the y-origin at the
bottom. Then we need:
Ug (y = H) = mgH + U0 = 0 (3.62)
or
U0 = −mgH (3.63)
so that:
Ug (y) = mgy − mgH = mg(y − H) = mgy ′ (3.64)
where in the last step we changed variables (coordinate systems) to a new one y ′ = y − H
with the origin at the top of the cliff!
84
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrangian.
85
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamiltonian.
From the latter, we see that our freedom to choose any location for the zero of our
potential energy function is somehow tied to our freedom to choose an arbitrary origin for
our coordinate frame. It is actually even more powerful (and more general) than that – we
will see examples later where potential energy can be defined to be zero on entire planes
or lines or “at infinity”, where of course it is difficult to put an origin at infinity and have local
coordinates make any sense.
You will find it very helpful to choose a coordinate system and set the zero of potential
energy in such as way as to make the problem as computationally simple as possible. Only
experience and practice will ultimately be your best guide as to just what those are likely
to be.
3.3.3: Springs
Springs also exert conservative forces in one dimension – the work you do compressing or
stretching an ideal spring equals the work the spring does going back to its original position,
whatever that position might be. We can therefore define a potential energy function for
them.
In most cases, we will choose the zero of potential energy to be the equilibrium position
of the spring – other choices are possible, though, and one in particular will be useful (a
mass hanging from a spring in near-Earth gravity).
With the zero of both our one dimensional coordinate system and the potential energy
at the equilibrium position of the unstretched spring (easiest) Hooke’s Law is just:
Fx = −kx (3.65)
and we get:
Z x
Us (x) = − (−kx′ ) dx′
0
1 2
= kx (3.66)
2
This is the function you should learn – by deriving this result several times on your own,
not by memorizing – as the potential energy of a spring.
More generally, if we do the indefinite integral in this coordinate frame instead we get:
Z
1
U (x) = − (−kx) dx = kx2 + U0 (3.67)
2
To see how this is related to one’s choice of coordinate origin, suppose we choose the
origin of coordinates to be at the end of the spring fixed to a wall, so that the equilibrium
length of the unstretched, uncompressed spring is xeq . Hooke’s Law is written in these
coordinates as:
Fx (x) = −k(x − xeq ) (3.68)
Now we can choose the zero of potential energy to be at the position x = 0 by doing the
definite integral:
Z x
1 1
Us (x) = − −k(x′ − xeq ) dx′ = k(x − xeq )2 − kx2eq (3.69)
0 2 2
If we now change variables to, say, y = x − xeq , this is just:
1 1 1
Us (y) = ky 2 − kx2eq = ky 2 + U0 (3.70)
2 2 2
which can be compared to the indefinite integral form above. Later, we’ll do a problem
where a mass hangs from a spring and see that our freedom to add an arbitrary constant
of integration allows us to change variables to an ”easier” origin of coordinates halfway
through a problem.
Consider: our treatment of the spring gun (above) would have been simpler, would it
not, if we could have simply started knowing the potential energy function for (and hence
the work done by) a spring?
There is one more way that using potential energy instead of work per se will turn out to
be useful to us, and it is the motivation for including the leading minus sign in its definition.
Suppose that you have a mass m that is moving under the influence of a conservative
force. Then the Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem (3.35) looks like:
WC = ∆K (3.71)
where WC is the ordinary work done by the conservative force. Subtracting WC over to the
other side and substituting, one gets:
∆K − WC = ∆K + ∆U = 0 (3.72)
Since we can now assign U (~ x) a unique value (once we set the constant of integration
or place(s) U (~x) is zero in its definition above) at each point in space, and since K is
similarly a function of position in space when time is eliminated in favor of position and no
other (non-conservative) forces are acting, we can define the total mechanical energy of
the particle to be:
Emech = K + U (3.73)
in which case we just showed that

∆Emech = 0 (3.74)
Wait, did we just prove that Emech is a constant any time a particle moves around under
only the influence of conservative forces? We did...
3.4: Conservation of Mechanical Energy
OK, so maybe you missed that last little bit. Let’s make it a bit clearer and see how enor-
mously useful and important this idea is.
First we will state the principle of the Conservation of Mechanical Energy:
The total mechanical energy (defined as the sum of its potential and ki-
netic energies) of a particle being acted on by only conservative forces is
constant.
Or (in much more concise algebra), if only conservative forces act on an object and U is
the potential energy function for the total conservative force, then
Emech = K + U = A scalar constant (3.75)
The proof of this statement is given above, but we can recapitulate it here.
Suppose
Emech = K + U (3.76)
Because the change in potential energy of an object is just the path-independent negative
work done by the conservative force,
∆K + ∆U = ∆K − WC = 0 (3.77)
is just a restatement of the WKE Theorem, which we derived and proved. So it must be
true! But then
∆K + ∆U = ∆(K + U ) = ∆Emech = 0 (3.78)
and Emech must be constant as the conservative force moves the mass(es) around.
3.4.1: Force, Potential Energy, and Total Mechanical Energy
Now that we know what the total mechanical energy is, the following little litany might help
you conceptually grasp the relationship between potential energy and force. We will return
to this still again below, when we talk about potential energy curves and equilibrium, but
repetition makes the ideas easier to understand and remember, so skim it here first, now.
The fact that the force is the negative derivative of (or gradient of) the potential energy of
an object means that the force points in the direction the potential energy decreases
in.
This makes sense. If the object has a constant total energy, and it moves in the direc-
tion of the force, it speeds up! Its kinetic energy increases, therefore its potential energy
decreases. If it moves from lower potential energy to higher potential energy, its kinetic
energy decreases, which means the force pointed the other way, slowing it down.
There is a simple metaphor for all of this – the slope of a hill. We all know that things
roll slowly down a shallow hill, rapidly down a steep hill, and just fall right off of cliffs. The
force that speeds them up is related to the slope of the hill, and so is the rate at which
their gravitational potential energy increases as one goes down the slope! In fact, it isn’t
actually just a metaphor, more like an example.
Either way, “downhill” is where potential energy variations push objects – in the direction
that the potential energy maximally decreases, with a force proportional to the rate at which
it decreases. The WKE Theorem itself and all of our results in this chapter, after all, are
derived from Newton’s Second Law – energy conservation is just Newton’s Second Law in
a time-independent disguise.
Example 3.4.1: Falling Ball Reprise
To see how powerful this is, let us look back at a falling object of mass m (neglecting drag
and friction). First, we have to determine the gravitational potential energy of the object a
height y above the ground (where we will choose to set U (0) = 0):
Z y
U (y) = − (−mg)dy = mgy (3.79)
0
Wow, that was kind of – easy!

Now, suppose we have our ball of mass m at the height H and drop it from rest, yadda
yadda. How fast is it going when it hits the ground? This time we simply write the total
energy of the ball at the top (where the potential is mgH and the kinetic is zero) and the
bottom (where the potential is zero and kinetic is 21 mv 2 ) and set the two equal! Solve for v,
done:
1
Ei = mgH + (0) = (0) + mv 2 = Ef (3.80)
2
or p
v = 2gH (3.81)
Even better:
Example 3.4.2: Block Sliding Down Frictionless Incline Reprise
The block starts out a height H above the ground, with potential energy mgH and kinetic
energy of 0. It slides to the ground (no non-conservative friction!) and arrives with no po-
tential energy and kinetic energy 12 mv 2 . Whoops, time to block-copy the previous solution:
1
Ei = mgH + (0) = (0) + mv 2 = Ef (3.82)
2
or p
v= 2gH (3.83)
Example 3.4.3: A Simple Pendulum
Here are two versions of a pendulum problem: Imagine a pendulum (ball of mass m sus-
pended on a string of length L that we have pulled up so that the ball is a height H < L
above its lowest point on the arc of its stretched string motion. We release it from rest.
How fast is it going at the bottom? Yep, you guessed it – block copy again:
1
Ei = mgH + (0) = (0) + mv 2 = Ef (3.84)
2
or p
v= 2gH (3.85)
It looks as though it does not matter what path a mass takes as it goes down a height
H starting from rest – as long as no forces act to dissipate or add energy to the particle, it
will arrive at the bottom travelling at the same speed.
L
L
m H
v0
Figure 39: Find the maximum angle through which the pendulum swings from the initial
conditions.
Here’s the same problem, formulated a different way: A mass m is hanging by a mass-
less thread of length L and is given an initial speed v0 to the right (at the bottom). It swings
up and stops at some maximum height H at an angle θ as illustrated in figure 39 (which
can be used “backwards” as the figure for the first part of this example, of course). Find θ.
Again we solve this by setting Ei = Ef (total energy is conserved).
Initial:
1 1
Ei = mv02 + mg(0) = mv02 (3.86)
2 2
Final:
1
Ef = m(0)2 + mgH = mgL(1 − cos(θ)) (3.87)
2
(Note well: H = L(1 − cos(θ))!)
Set them equal and solve:
v02
cos(θ) = 1 − (3.88)
2gL
or
v02
θ = cos−1 (1 − ). (3.89)
2gL
Example 3.4.4: Looping the Loop
Here is a lovely problem – so lovely that you will solve it five or six times, at least, in various
forms throughout the semester, so be sure that you get to where you understand it – that
requires you to use three different principles we’ve learned so far to solve:
What is the minimum height H such that a block of mass m loops-the-loop (stays on
the frictionless track all the way around the circle) in figure 40 above?
Such a simple problem, such an involved answer. Here’s how you might proceed. First
of all, let’s understand the condition that must be satisfied for the answer “stay on the track”.
For a block to stay on the track, it has to touch the track, and touching something means
“exerting a normal force on it” in physicsspeak. To barely stay on the track, then – the
minimal condition – is for the normal force to barely go to zero.
v
H
Figure 40:
Fine, so we need the block to precisely “kiss” the track at near-zero normal force at the
point where we expect the normal force to be weakest. And where is that? Well, at the
place it is moving the slowest, that is to say, the top of the loop. If it comes off of the loop,
it is bound to come off at or before it reaches the top.
Why is that point key, and what is the normal force doing in this problem. Here we need
two physical principles: Newton’s Second Law and the kinematics of circular motion
since the mass is undoubtedly moving in a circle if it stays on the track. Here’s the way we
reason: “If the block moves in a circle of radius R at speed v, then its acceleration towards
the center must be ac = v 2 /R. Newton’s Second Law then tells us that the total force
component in the direction of the center must be mv 2 /R. That force can only be made out
of (a component of) gravity and the normal force, which points towards the center. So we
can relate the normal force to the speed of the block on the circle at any point.”
At the top (where we expect v to be at its minimum value, assuming it stays on the
circle) gravity points straight towards the center of the circle of motion, so we get:
mv 2
mg + N = (3.90)
R
and in the limit that N → 0 (“barely” looping the loop) we get the condition:
mvt2
mg = (3.91)
R
where vt is the (minimum) speed at the top of the track needed to loop the loop.
Now we need to relate the speed at the top of the circle to the original height H it began
at. This is where we need our third principle – Conservation of Mechanical Energy! Note
that we cannot possible integrate Newton’s Second Law and solve an equation of motion
for the block on the frictionless track – I haven’t given you any sort of equation for the track
(because I don’t know it) and even a physics graduate student forced to integrate N2 to find
the answer for some relatively “simple” functional form for the track would suffer mightily
finding the answer. With energy we don’t care about the shape of the track, only that the
track do no work on the mass which (since it is frictionless and normal forces do no work)
is in the bag.
Thus:
1
Ei = mgH = mg2R + mvt2 = Ef (3.92)
2
If you put these two equations together (e.g. solve the first for mvt2 and substitute it
into the second, then solve for H in terms of R) you should get Hmin = 5R/2. Give it a
try. You’ll get even more practice in your homework, for some more complicated situations,
for masses on strings or rods – they’re all the same problem, but sometimes the Newton’s
Law condition will be quite different! Use your intuition and experience with the world to
help guide you to the right solution in all of these causes.
So any time a mass moves down a distance H, its change in potential energy is mgH,
and since total mechanical energy is conserved, its change in kinetic energy is also mgH
the other way. As one increases, the other decreases, and vice versa!
This makes kinetic and potential energy bone simple to use. It also means that there
is a lovely analogy between potential energy and your savings account, kinetic energy
and your checking account, and cash transfers (conservative movement of money from
checking to savings or vice versa where your total account remains constant.
Of course, it is almost too much to expect for life to really be like that. We know that we
always have to pay banking fees, teller fees, taxes, somehow we never can move money
around and end up with as much as we started with. And so it is with energy.
Well, it is and it isn’t. Actually conservation of energy is a very deep and fundamental
principle of the entire Universe as best we can tell. Energy seems to be conserved every-
where, all of the time, in detail, to the best of our ability to experimentally check. However,
useful energy tends to decrease over time because of “taxes”. The tax collectors, as it
were, of nature are non-conservative forces!
What happens when we try to combine the work done by non-conservative forces
(which we must tediously calculate per problem, per path) with the work done by con-
servative ones, expressed in terms of potential and total mechanical energy? You get
the...
3.5: Generalized Work-Mechanical Energy Theorem
So, as suggested above let’s generalize the WKE one further step by considering what
happens if both conservative and nonconservative forces are acting on a particle. In that
case the argument above becomes:
Wtot = WC + WN C = ∆K (3.93)
or
WN C = ∆K − WC = ∆K + ∆U = ∆Emech (3.94)
which we state as the Generalized Non-Conservative Work-Mechanical Energy Theo-
rem:
The work done by all the non-conservative forces acting on a particle

equals the change in its total mechanical energy.
Our example here is very simple.
Example 3.5.1: Block Sliding Down a Rough Incline
Suppose a block of mass m slides down an incline of length L at an incline θ with respect
to the horizontal and with kinetic friction (coefficient µk ) acting against gravity. How fast is
it going (released from rest at an angle where static friction cannot hold it) when it reaches
the ground?
Here we have to do a mixture of several things. First, let’s write Newton’s Second Law
for just the (static) y direction:
N − mg cos(θ) = 0 (3.95)
or
N = mg cos(θ) (3.96)
Next, evaluate:
fk = µk N = µk mg cos(θ) (3.97)
(up the incline, opposite to the motion of the block).
We ignore dynamics in the direction down the plane. Instead, we note that the work
done by friction is equal to the change in the mechanical energy of the block. Ei = mgH =
mgL sin(θ). Ef = 21 mv 2 . So:
1
− µk mgL cos(θ) = Ef − Ei = mv 2 − mgH (3.98)
2
or
1
mv 2 = mgH − µk mgL cos(θ) (3.99)
2
so that: p
v=± 2gH − µk 2gL cos(θ) (3.100)
Here we really do have to be careful and choose the sign that means “going down the
incline” at the bottom.
As an extra bonus, our answer tells us the condition on (say) the angle such that the
mass doesn’t or just barely makes it to the bottom. v = 0 means “barely” (gets there and
stops) and if v is imaginary, it doesn’t make all the way to the bottom at all.
I don’t know about you, but this seems a lot easier than messing with integrating New-
ton’s Law, solving for v(t) and x(t), solving for t, back substituting, etc. It’s not that this
is all that difficult, but work-energy is simple bookkeeping, anybody can do it if they just
know stuff like the form of the potential energy, the magnitude of the force, some simple
integrals.
Here’s another example.
Example 3.5.2: A Spring and Rough Incline
In figure 41 a mass m is released from rest from a position on a spring with spring constant
k compressed a distance ∆x from equilibrium. It slides down a frictionless horizontal
H max
∆x
k
m
θ
Figure 41: A spring compressed an initial distance ∆x fires a mass m across a smooth
(µk ≈ 0) floor to rise up a rough µk 6= 0) incline. How far up the incline does it travel before
coming to rest?
surface and then slides up a rough plane inclined at an angle θ. What is the maximum
height that it reaches on the incline?
This is a problem that is basically impossible, so far, for us to do using Newton’s Laws
alone. This is because we are weeks away from being able to solve the equation of motion
for the mass on the spring! Even if/when we can solve the equation of motion for the mass
on the spring, though, this problem would still be quite painful to solve using Newton’s Laws
and dynamical solutions directly.
Using the GWME Theorem, though, it is pretty easy. As before, we have to express
the initial total mechanical energy and the final total mechanical energy algebraically, and
set their difference equal to the non-conservative work done by the force of kinetic friction
sliding up the incline.
I’m not going to do every step for you, as this seems like it would be a good homework
problem, but here are a few:
1 1 1
Ei = Ugi + Usi + Ki = mg(0) + k∆x2 + m(0)2 = k∆x2 (3.101)
2 2 2
1
Ef = Ugf + Kf = mgHmax + m(0)2 = mgHmax (3.102)
2
Remaining for you to do: Find the force of friction down the incline (as it slides up). Find
the work done by friction. Relate that work to Hmax algebraically, write the GWME Theorem
algebraically, and solve for Hmax . Most of the steps involving friction and the inclined plane
can be found in the previous example, if you get stuck, but try to do it without looking first!
3.5.1: Heat and Conservation of Energy
Note well that the theorem above only applies to forces acting on particles, or objects that
we consider in the particle approximation (ignoring any internal structure and treating the
object like a single mass). In fact, all of the rules above (so far) from Newton’s Laws on
down strictly speaking only apply to particles in inertial reference frames, and we have
some work to do in order to figure out how to apply them to systems of particles being
pushed on both by internal forces between particles in the system as well as external
forces between the particles of the system and particles that are not part of the system.
What happens to the energy added to or removed from an object (that is really made
up of many particles bound together by internal e.g. molecular forces) by things like my
non-conservative hand as I give a block treated as a “particle” a push, or non-conservative
kinetic friction and drag forces as they act on the block to slow it down as it slides along a
table? This is not a trivial question. To properly answer it we have to descend all the way
into the conceptual abyss of treating every single particle that makes up the system we call
“the block” and every single particle that makes up the system consisting of “everything else
in the Universe but the block” and all of the internal forces between them – which happen,
as far as we can tell, to be strictly conservative forces – and then somehow average over
them to recover the ability to treat the block like a particle, the table like a fixed, immovable
object it slides on, and friction like a comparatively simple force that does non-conservative
work on the block.
It requires us to invent things like statistical mechanics to do the averaging, thermo-
dynamics to describe certain kinds of averaged systems, and whole new sciences such
as chemistry and biology that use averaged energy concepts with their own fairly stable
rules that cannot easily be connected back to the microscopic interactions that bind quarks
and electrons into atoms and atoms together into molecules. It’s easy to get lost in this,
because it is both fascinating and really difficult.
I’m therefore going to give you a very important empirical law (that we can understand
well enough from our treatment of particles so far) and a rather heuristic description of the
connections between microscopic interactions and energy and the macroscopic mechani-
cal energy of things like blocks, or cars, or human bodies.
The important empirical law is the Law of Conservation of Energy 86 . Whenever we
examine a physical system and try very hard to keep track of all of the mechanical energy
exchanges withing that system and between the system and its surroundings, we find that
we can always account for them all without any gain or loss. In other words, we find that the
total mechanical energy of an isolated system never changes, and if we add or remove
mechanical energy to/from the system, it has to come from or go to somewhere outside of
the system. This result, applied to well defined systems of particles, can be formulated as
the First Law of Thermodynamics:
∆Qin = ∆Eof + Wby (3.103)
In words, the heat energy flowing in to a system equals the change in the internal total
mechanical energy of the system plus the external work (if any) done by the system on
its surroundings. The total mechanical energy of the system itself is just the sum of the
potential and kinetic energies of all of its internal parts and is simple enough to understand
if not to compute. The work done by the system on its surroundings is similarly simple
enough to understand if not to compute. The hard part of this law is the definition of heat
energy, and sadly, I’m not going to give you more than the crudest idea of it right now and
make some statements that aren’t strictly true because to treat heat correctly requires a
86
More properly, mass-energy, but we really don’t want to get into that in an introductory course.
major chunk of a whole new textbook on textbfThermodynamics. So take the following with
a grain of salt, so to speak.
When a block slides down a rough table from some initial velocity to rest, kinetic friction
turns the bulk organized kinetic energy of the collectively moving mass into disorganized
microscopic energy – heat. As the rough microscopic surfaces bounce off of one another
and form and break chemical bonds, it sets the actual molecules of the block bounding,
increasing the internal microscopic mechanical energy of the block and warming it up.
Some of it similarly increasing the internal microscopic mechanical energy of the table it
slide across, warming it up. Some of it appears as light energy (electromagnetic radiation)
or sound energy – initially organized energy forms that themselves become ever more
disorganized. Eventually, the initial organized energy of the block becomes a tiny increase
in the average internal mechanical energy of a very, very large number of objects both
inside and outside of the original system that we call the block, a process we call being
“lost to heat”.
We have the same sort of problem tracking energy that we add to the system when
I give the block a push. Chemical energy in sugars causes muscle cells to change their
shape, contracting muscles that do work on my arm, which exchanges energy with the
block via the normal force between block and skin. The chemical energy itself originally
came from thermonuclear fusion reactions in the sun, and the free energy released in those
interactions can be tracked back to the Big Bang, with a lot of imagination and sloughing
over of details. Energy, it turns out, has “always” been around (as far back in time as we can
see, literally) but is constantly changing form and generally becoming more disorganized
as it does so.
In this textbook, we will say a little more on this later, but this is enough for the mo-
ment. We will summarize this discussion by remarking that non-conservative forces, both
external (e.g. friction acting on a block) and internal (e.g. friction or collision forces acting
between two bodies that are part of “the system” being considered) will often do work that
entirely or partially “turns into heat” – disappears from the total mechanical energy we can
easily track. That doesn’t mean that it is has truly disappeared, and more complex treat-
ments or experiments can indeed track and/or measure it, but we just barely learned what
mechanical energy is and are not yet ready to try to deal with what happens when it is
shared among (say) Avogadro’s number of interacting gas molecules.
3.6: Power
The energy in a given system is not, of course, usually constant in time. Energy is added to
a given mass, or taken away, at some rate. We accelerate a car (adding to its mechanical
energy). We brake a car (turning its kinetic energy into heat). There are many times when
we are given the rate at which energy is added or removed in time, and need to find the
total energy added or removed. This rate is called the power.
Power: The rate at which work is done, or energy released into a system.
This latter form lets us express it conveniently for time-varying forces:
~ · d~
dW = F ~ · dx dt
x=F (3.104)
dt
or
dW ~ ·~
P = =F v (3.105)
dt
so that Z
∆W = ∆Etot = P dt (3.106)
The units of power are clearly Joules/sec = Watts. Another common unit of power is
“Horsepower”, 1 HP = 746 W. Note that the power of a car together with its drag coefficient
determine how fast it can go. When energy is being added by the engine at the same rate
at which it is being dissipated by drag and friction, the total mechanical energy of the car
will remain constant in time.
Example 3.6.1: Rocket Power
A model rocket engine delivers a constant thrust F that pushes the rocket (of approximately
constant mass m) up for a time tr before shutting off. Show that the total energy delivered
by the rocket engine is equal to the change in mechanical energy the hard way – by solving
Newton’s Second Law for the rocket to obtain v(t), using that to find the power P , and
integrating the power from 0 to tr to find the total work done by the rocket engine, and
comparing this to mgy(tr ) + 21 mv(tr )2 , the total mechanical energy of the rocket at time tr .
To outline the solution, following a previous homework problem, we write:
F − mg = ma (3.107)
or
F − mg
a= (3.108)
m
We integrate twice to obtain (starting at y(0) = 0 and v(0) = 0):
F − mg
v(t) = at = t (3.109)
m
1 2 1 F − mg 2
y(t) = at = t (3.110)
2 2 m
(3.111)
From this we can find:

1
Emech (tr ) = mgy(tr ) + mv(tr )2
2
2
1 F − mg 2 1 F − mg
= mg tr + m tr
2 m 2 m

1 2 F2
= F g − mg + + mg − 2F g t2r
2
2 m
1
= F 2 − F mg t2r (3.112)
2m
Now for the power:
P = F · v = F v(t)
F 2 − F mg
= t (3.113)
m
We integrate this from 0 to tr to find the total energy delivered by the rocket engine:
Z tr
1
W = P dt = F 2 − F mg t2r = Emech (tr ) (3.114)
0 2m
For what it is worth, this should also just be W = F × y(tr ), the force through the
distance:
1 F − mg 2 1
W =F× tr = F 2 − F mg t2r (3.115)
2 m 2m
and it is.
The main point of this example is to show that all of the definitions and calculus above
are consistent. It doesn’t matter how you proceed – compute ∆Emech , find P (t) and inte-
grate, or just straight up evaluate the work W = F ∆y, you will get the same answer.
Power is an extremely important quantity, especially for engines because (as you see)
the faster you go at constant thrust, the larger the power delivery. Most engines have a
limit on the amount of power they can generate. Consequently the forward directed force
or thrust tends to fall off as the speed of the e.g. rocket or car increases. In the case of a
car, the car must also overcome a (probably nonlinear!) drag force. One of your homework
problems explores the economic consequences of this.
3.7: Equilibrium
Recall that the force is given by the negative gradient of the potential energy:
~ = −∇U
F ~ (3.116)
or (in each direction87 ):

dU dU dU
Fx = − , Fy = − , Fz = − (3.117)
dx dy dz
or the force is the negative slope of the potential energy function in this direction. As
discussed above, the meaning of this is that if a particle moves in the direction of the
(conservative) force, it speeds up. If it speeds up, its kinetic energy increases. If its kinetic
energy increases, its potential energy must decrease. The force (component) acting on a
particle is thus the rate at which the potential energy decreases (the negative slope) in any
given direction as shown.
In the discussion below, we will concentrate on one-dimensional potentials to avoid
overstressing students’ calculus muscles while they are still under development, but the
ideas all generalize beautifully to two or three (or in principle still more) dimensions.
87
Again, more advanced math or physics students will note that these should all be partial derivatives in
correspondance with the force being the gradient of the potential energy surface U (x, y, z), but even then
each component is the local slope along the selected direction.
U(x)
b a x
F = 0 Equilibrium
Figure 42: A one-dimensional potential energy curve U (x). This particular curve might well
represent U (x) = 21 kx2 for a mass on a spring, but the features identified and classified
below are generic.
In one dimension, we can use this to rapidly evaluate the behavior of a system on a
qualitative basis just by looking at a graph of the curve! Consider the potential energy
curves in figure 42. At the point labelled a, the x-slope of U (x) is positive. The x (com-
ponent of the) force, therefore, is in the negative x direction. At the point b, the x-slope is
negative and the force is correspondingly positive. Note well that the force gets larger as
the slope of U (x) gets larger (in magnitude).
The point in the middle, at x = 0, is special. Note that this is a minimum of U (x) and
hence the x-slope is zero. Therefore the x-directed force F at that point is zero as well. A
point at which the force on an object is zero is, as we previously noted, a point of static
force equilibrium – a particle placed there at rest will remain there at rest.
In this particular figure, if one moves the particle a small distance to the right or the
left of the equilibrium point, the force pushes the particle back towards equilibrium. Points
where the force is zero and small displacements cause a restoring force in this way are
called stable equilibrium points. As you can see, the isolated minima of a potential energy
curve (or surface, in higher dimensions) are all stable equilibria.
Figure 43 corresponds to a more useful “generic” atomic or molecular interaction po-
tential energy. It corresponds roughly to a Van der Waals Force88 between two atoms or
molecules, and exhibits a number of the features that such interactions often have.
At very long ranges, the forces between neutral atoms are extremely small, effectively
zero. This is illustrated as an extended region where the potential energy is flat for large r.
Such a range is called neutral equilibrium because there are no forces that either restore
or repel the two atoms. Neutral equilibrium is not stable in the specific sense that a particle
placed there with any non-zero velocity will move freely (according to Newton’s First Law).
Since it is nearly impossible to prepare an atom at absolute rest relative to another particle,
one basically “never” sees two unbound microscopic atoms with a large, perfectly constant
spatial orientation.
88
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van der Waals Force.
U(r)
F Unstable Equilibrium
Neutral Equilibrium
Stable Equilibrium
Figure 43: A fairly generic potential energy shape for microscopic (atomic or molecular)
interactions, drawn to help exhibits features one might see in such a curve more than as
a realistically scaled potential energy in some set of units. In particular, the curve exhibits
stable, unstable, and neutral equilibria for a radial potential energy as a fuction of r, the
distance between two e.g. atoms.
As the two atoms near one another, their interaction becomes first weakly attractive
due to e.g. quantum dipole-induced dipole interactions and then weakly repulsive as the
two atoms start to “touch” each other. There is a potential energy minimum in between
where two atoms separated by a certain distance can be in stable equilibrium without
being chemically bound.
Atoms that approach one another still more closely encounter a second potential en-
ergy well that is at first strongly attractive (corresponding, if you like, to an actual chemical
interaction between them) followed by a hard core repulsion as the electron clouds are
prevented from interpenetrating by e.g. the Pauli exclusion principle. This second poten-
tial energy well is often modelled by a Lennard-Jones potential energy (or “6-12 potential
energy”, corresponding to the inverse powers of r used in the model89 . It also has a point
of stable equilibrium.
In between, there is a point where the growing attraction of the inner potential energy
well and the growing repulsion of the outer potential energy well balance, so that the poten-
tial energy function has a maximum. At this maximum the slope is zero (so it is a position
of force equilibrium) but because the force on either side of this point pushes the particle
away from it, this is a point of unstable equilibrium. Unstable equilibria occur at isolated
maxima in the potential energy function, just as stable equilibria occur at isolated minima.
Note for advanced students: In more than one dimension, a potential energy curve can
have “saddle points” that are maxima in one dimension and minima in another (so called
because the potential energy surface resembles the surface of a saddle, curved up front-
89
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lennard-Jones Potential. We will learn the difference between a
“potential energy” and a “potential” later in this course, but for the moment it is not important. The shapes of
the two curves are effectively identical.
to-back to hold the rider in and curved down side to side to allow the legs to straddle the
horse). Saddle points are unstable equilibria (because instability in any direction means
unstable) and are of some conceptual importance in more advanced studies of physics or
in mathematics when considering asymptotic convergence.
3.7.1: Energy Diagrams: Turning Points and Forbidden Regions
U(r)
Ea
Classically forbidden domains (shaded)
Eb c c
a b b b r
K < 0 forbidden
Ec
Quadratic region
K = E − U > 0 allowed
Figure 44: The same potential energy curve, this time used to illustrate turning points and
classically allowed and forbidden regions. Understanding the role of the total energy on
potential energy diagrams and how transitions from a higher energy state to a lower energy
state can “bind” a system provide insight into chemistry, orbital dynamics, and more.
We now turn to another set of extremely useful information one can extract from poten-
tial energy curves in cases where one knows the total mechanical energy of the particle
in addition to the potential energy curve. In figure 44 we again see the generic (Van der
Waals) atomic interaction curve this time rather “decorated” with information. To under-
stand this information and how to look at the diagram and gain insight, please read the
following description very carefully while following along in the figure.
Consider a particle with total energy mechanical Ea . Since the total mechanical energy
is a constant, we can draw the energy in on the potential energy axes as a straight line
with zero slope – the same value for all r. Now note carefully that:
K(r) = Emech − U (r) (3.118)
which is the difference between the total energy curve and the potential energy curve. The
kinetic energy of a particle is 21 mv 2 which is non-negative. This means that we can never
observe a particle with energy Ea to the left of the position marked a on the r-axis – only
point where Ea ≥ U lead to K > 0. We refer to the point a as a turning point of the motion
for any given energy – when r = a, Emech = Ea = U (a) and K(a) = 0.
We can interpret the motion associated with Ea very easily. An atom comes in at more
or less a constant speed from large r, speeds and slows and speeds again as it reaches the
support of the potential energy90 , “collides” with the central atom at r = 0 (strongly repelled
by the hard core interaction) and recoils, eventually receding from the central atom at more
or less the same speed it initially came in with. Its distance of closest approach is r = a.
Now consider a particle coming in with energy Emech = Eb . Again, this is a constant
straight line on the potential energy axes. Again K(r) = Eb − U (r) ≥ 0. The points on
the r-axis labelled b are the turning points of the motion, where K(b) = 0. The shaded
regions indicate classically forbidden regions where the kinetic energy would have
to be negative for the particle (with the given total energy) to be found there. Since the
kinetic energy can never be negative, the atom can never be found there.
Again we can visualize the motion, but now there are two possibilities. If the atom
comes in from infinity as before, it will initially be weakly attracted ultimately be slowed
and repelled not by the hard core, but by the much softer force outside of the unstable
maximum in U (r). This sort of “soft” collision is an example of an interaction barrier a
chemical reaction that cannot occur at low temperatures (where the energy of approach
is too low to overcome this initial repulsion and allow the atoms to get close enough to
chemically interact.
However, a second possibility emerges. If the separation of the two atoms (with energy
Eb , recall) is in the classically allowed region between the two inner turning points, then
the atoms will oscillate between those two points, unable to separate to infinity without
passing through the classically forbidden region that would require the kinetic energy to be
negative. The atoms in this case are said to be bound in a classically stable configuration
around the stable equilibrium point associated with this well.
In nature, this configuration is generally not stably bound with an energy Eb > 0 –
quantum theory permits an atom outside with this energy to tunnel into the inner well and
an atom in the inner well to tunnel back to the outside and thence be repelled to r → ∞.
Atoms bound in this inner well are then said to be metastable (which means basically
“slowly unstable”) – they are classically bound for a while but eventually escape to infinity.
However, in nature pairs of atoms in the metastable configuration have a chance of
giving up some energy (by, for example, giving up a photon or phonon, where you shouldn’t
worry too much about what these are just yet) and make a transistion to a still lower energy
state such as that represented by Ec < 0.
When the atoms have total energy Ec as drawn in this figure, they have only two turning
points (labelled c in the figure). The classically permitted domain is now only the values of
r in between these two points; everything less than the inner turning point or outside of the
outer turning point corresponds to a kinetic energy that is less than 0 which is impossible.
The classically forbidden regions for Ec are again shaded on the diagram. Atoms with this
energy oscillate back and forth between these two turning points.
They oscillate back and forth very much like a mass on a spring! Note that this regions
is labelled the quadratic region on the figure. This means that in this region, a quadratic
function of r − re (where re is the stable equilibrium at the minimum of U (r) in this well)
is a very good approximation to the actual potential energy. The potential energy of a
90
The “support” of a function is the set values of the argument for which the function is not zero, in this case
a finite sphere around the atom out where the potential energy first becomes attractive.
mass on a spring aligned with r and with its equilibrium length moved so that it is re is just
1 2
2 k(r − re ) + U0 , which can be fit to U (r) in the quadratic region with a suitable choice of
k and U0 .
Homework for Week 3
Problem 1.
Problem 2.
Derive the Work-Kinetic Energy (WKE) theorem in one dimension from Newton’s second
law. You may use any approach used in class or given and discussed in this textbook (or
any other), but do it yourself and without looking after studying.
Problem 3.
L
µ at rest
k
θ
D?
A block of mass m slides down a smooth (frictionless) incline of length L that makes an
angle θ with the horizontal as shown. It then reaches a rough surface with a coefficient of
kinetic friction µk .
Use the concepts of work and/or mechanical energy to find the distance D the block
slides across the rough surface before it comes to rest. You will find that using the gener-
alized non-conservative work-mechanical energy theorem is easiest, but you can succeed
using work and mechanical energy conservation for two separate parts of the problem as
well.
Problem 4.
A simple child’s toy is a jumping frog made up of an approximately massless spring of

uncompressed length d and spring constant k that propels a molded plastic “frog” of mass
m. The frog is pressed down onto a table (compressing the spring by d) and at t = 0 the
spring is released so that the frog leaps high into the air.
Use work and/or mechanical energy to determine how high the frog leaps.
Problem 5.
m2
m1
A block of mass m2 sits on a rough table. The coefficients of friction between the block
and the table are µs and µk for static and kinetic friction respectively. A much larger mass
m1 (easily heavy enough to overcome static friction) is suspended from a massless, un-
stretchable, unbreakable rope that is looped around the two pulleys as shown and attached
to the support of the rightmost pulley. At time t = 0 the system is released at rest.
Use work and/or mechanical energy (where the latter is very easy since the internal
work done by the tension in the string cancels) to find the speed of both masses after the
large mass m1 has fallen a distance H. Note that you will still need to use the constraint
between the coordinates that describe the two masses. Remember how hard you had to
“work” to get this answer last week? When time isn’t important, energy is better!
Problem 6.
D
m
−x/D
F = F oe
x
A simple schematic for a paintball gun with a barrel of length D is shown above; when
the trigger is pulled carbon dioxide gas under pressure is released into the approximately
frictionless barrel behind the paintball (which has mass m). As it enters, the expanding gas
is cut off by a special valve so that it exerts a force on the ball of magnitude:
F = F0 e−x/D
on the ball, pushing it to the right, where x is measured from the paintball’s initial position
as shown, until the ball leaves the barrel.
a) Find the work done on the paintball by the force as the paintball is accelerated a total
distance D down the barrel.
b) Use the work-kinetic-energy theorem to compute the kinetic energy of the paintball
after it has been accelerated.
c) Find the speed with which the paintball emerges from the barrel after the trigger is
pulled.
Problem 7.
m
v
H
R
θ
R
A block of mass M sits at rest at the top of a frictionless hill of height H leading to a
circular frictionless loop-the-loop of radius R.
a) Find the minimum height Hmin for which the block barely goes around the loop staying
on the track at the top. (Hint: What is the condition on the normal force when it
“barely” stays in contact with the track? This condition can be thought of as “free fall”
and will help us understand circular orbits later, so don’t forget it.).
Discuss within your recitation group why your answer is a scalar number times R and
how this kind of result is usually a good sign that your answer is probably right.
b) If the block is started at height Hmin , what is the normal force exerted by the track at
the bottom of the loop where it is greatest?
If you have ever ridden roller coasters with loops, use the fact that your apparent
weight is the normal force exerted on you by your seat if you are looping the loop
in a roller coaster and discuss with your recitation group whether or not the results
you derive here are in accord with your experiences. If you haven’t, consider riding
one aware of the forces that are acting on you and how they affect your perception of
weight and change your direction on your next visit to e.g. Busch Gardens to be, in a
bizarre kind of way, a physics assignment. (Now c’mon, how many classes have you
ever taken that assign riding roller coasters, even as an optional activity?:-)
Problem 8.
vmin
T m
vo
A ball of mass m is attached to a (massless, unstretchable) string and is suspended

from a pivot. It is moving in a vertical circle of radius R such that it has speed v0 at the
bottom as shown. The ball is in a vacuum; neglect drag forces and friction in this problem.
Near-Earth gravity acts down.
a) Find an expression for the force exerted on the ball by the string at the top of the loop
as a function of m, g, R, and vtop , assuming that the ball is still moving in a circle
when it gets there.
b) Find the minimum speed vmin that the ball must have at the top to barely loop the
loop (staying on the circular trajectory) with a precisely limp string with tension T = 0
at the top.
c) Determine the speed v0 the ball must have at the bottom to arrive at the top with
this minimum speed. You may use either work or potential energy for this part of the
problem.
Problem 9.
vmin
T m
vo
A ball of mass m is attached to a massless rod (note well) and is suspended from a
frictionless pivot. It is moving in a vertical circle of radius R such that it has speed v0 at the
bottom as shown. The ball is in a vacuum; neglect drag forces and friction in this problem.
Near-Earth gravity acts down.
a) Find an expression for the force exerted on the ball by the rod at the top of the loop
as a function of m, g, R, and vtop , assuming that the ball is still moving in a circle
when it gets there.
b) Find the minimum speed vmin that the ball must have at the top to barely loop the
loop (staying on the circular trajectory). Note that this is easy, once you think about
how the rod is different from a string!
c) Determine the speed v0 the ball must have at the bottom to arrive at the top with
this minimum speed. You may use either work or potential energy for this part of the
problem.
Problem 10.
m
θ R v
A block of mass M sits at the top of a frictionless hill of height H. It slides down and
around a loop-the-loop of radius R, so that its position on the circle can be identified with
the angle θ with respect to the vertical as shown
a) Find the magnitude of the normal force as a function of the angle θ.
b) From this, deduce an expression for the angle θ0 at which the block will leave the
track if the block is started at a height H = 2R.
2v0
v0
In the figure above we see two cars, one moving at a speed v0 and an identical car
moving at a speed 2v0 . The cars are moving at a constant speed, so their motors are
pushing them forward with a force that precisely cancels the drag force exerted by the air.
This drag force is quadratic in their speed:
Fd = −bv 2
(in the opposite direction to their velocity) and we assume that this is the only force acting
on the car in the direction of motion besides that provided by the motor itself, neglecting
various other sources of friction or inefficiency.
a) Prove that the engine of the faster car has to be providing eight times as much power
to maintain the higher constant speed than the slower car.
b) Prove that the faster car has to do four times as much work to travel a fixed distance
D than the slower car.
Discuss these (very practical) results in your groups. Things you might want to talk over
include: Although cars typically do use more gasoline to drive the same distance at 100
kph (∼ 62 mph) than they do at 50 kph, it isn’t four times as much, or even twice as much.
Why not?
Things to think about include gears, engine efficiency, fuel wasted idly, friction, stream-
lining (dropping to Fd = −bv Stokes’ drag).
+y
r sin θ(t) r
θ(t)
r cos θ (t) +x
This is a guided exercise in calculus exploring the kinematics of circular motion and
the relation between Cartesian and Plane Polar coordinates. It isn’t as intuitive as the
derivation given in the first two weeks, but it is much simpler and is formally correct.
In the figure above, note that:
~
r = r cos (θ(t)) x̂ + r sin (θ(t)) ŷ
where r is the radius of the circle and θ(t) is an arbitrary continuous function of time de-
scribing where a particle is on the circle at any given time. This is equivalent to:
x(t) = r cos(θ(t))
y(t) = r sin(θ(t))
(going from (r, θ) plane polar coordinates to (x, y) cartesian coordinates and the corre-
sponding:
p
r = x(t)2 + y(t)2
y
θ(t) = tan−1
x
You will find the following two definitions useful:
dθ
ω =
dt
dω d2 θ
α = = 2
dt dt
The first you should already be familiar with as the angular velocity, the second is the
angular acceleration. Recall that the tangential speed vt = rω; similarly the tangential
acceleration is at = rα as we shall see below.
Work through the following exercises:
214 Week 4: Systems of Particles, Momentum and Collisions
a) Find the velocity of the particle ~

v in cartesian vector coordinates.
b) Form the dot product ~ r and show that it is zero. This proves that the velocity vector
v ·~
is perpendicular to the radius vector for any particle moving on a circle!
c) Show that the total acceleration of the particle ~

a in cartesian vector coordinates can
be written as:
α
~a = −ω 2~r+ ~ v
ω
Since the direction of ~

v is tangent to the circle of motion, we can identify these two terms
as the results:
v2
ar = −ω 2 r = − t
r
(now derived in terms of its cartesian components) and
at = αr.
Optional Problems
No optional problems (yet) this week.

Week 4: Systems of Particles,
Momentum and Collisions
Summary
• The center of mass of a system of particles is given by:

P
mi ~
xi 1 X
xcm = Pi
~ = mi ~
xi
i mi Mtot
i
One can differentiate this expression once or twice with respect to time to get the two
corollary expressions:
P
mi~vi 1 X
v cm = Pi
~ = mi~vi
i mi Mtot
i
and P
mi~ai 1 X
~
acm = Pi = mi~
ai
i mi Mtot
i
All three expressions may be summed up in the useful forms:

X
Mtot ~
xcm = mi ~
xi
i
X
Mtot~
v cm = mi~
vi
i
X
Mtot~
acm = mi~
ai
i
The center of mass coordinates are truly weighted averages of the coordinates –
weighted with the actual weights of the particles91 .
• The mass density of a solid object in one, two, or three dimensions is traditionally
written in physics as:
∆m dm
µ = lim=
∆x→0 ∆x dx
∆m dm
σ = lim =
∆x→0 ∆A dA
∆m dm
ρ = lim =
∆x→0 ∆V dV
91
Near the Earth’s surface where the weight only depends on the mass, of course. Really they are weighted
with the mass.
215
In each of these expressions, ∆m is the mass in a small “chunk” of the material,

one of length ∆x, area ∆A, or volume ∆V . The mass distribution of an object is
in general a complicated function of the coordinates92 . However we will usually
work only with very simple mass distributions that we can easily integrate/sum over
in this class. When doing so we are likely to use these definitions backwards:
dm = µ dx 1 dimension
dm = σ dA 2 dimensions
dm = ρ dV 3 dimensions
Use the following ritual incantation (which will be useful to you repeatedly for both
semesters of this course!) when working with mass (or later, charge) density distri-
butions:
The mass of the chunk is the mass per unit (length, area, volume)
times the (length, area, volume) of the chunk!
• The Center of Mass of a solid object (continuous mass distribution) is given by:
R R Z
~
x dm ~
x ρ(~
x) dV 1
~
xcm = R = R = ~
x ρ(~ x) dV
dm ρ(~
x) dV Mtot
This can be evaluated one component at a time, e.g.:

R R Z
x dm x ρ(~
x) dV 1
xcm = R = R = x ρ(~
x) dV
dm ρ(~
x) dV Mtot
(and similarly for ycm and zcm ).
It also can be written (componentwise) for mass distributions in one and two dimen-
sions: R R Z
x dm x µ dx 1
xcm = R = R = x µ dx
dm µ dx Mtot
(in one dimension) or
R R Z
x dm x σ dA 1
xcm = R = R = x σ dA
dm σ dA Mtot
and R R Z
y dm y σ dA 1
ycm = R = R = y σ dA
dm σ dA Mtot
(in two dimensions).
• The Momentum of a particle is defined to be:
p
~ = m~
v
The momentum of a system of particles is the sum of the momenta of the individual
particles: X X
p
~tot = mi~
vi = mi~
v cm = Mtot~
v cm
i
92
Think about how mass is distributed in the human body! Or, for that matter, think about the Universe itself,
which can be thought of at least partially as a great big mass density distribution ρ(~
x)...
where the last expression follows from the expression for the velocity of the center of
mass above.
• The Kinetic Energy in Terms of the Momentum of a particle is easily written as:
1 1 m (mv)2 p2
K = mv 2 = mv 2 = =
2 2 m 2m 2m
or (for a system of particles):

X1 X p2
Ktot = mi vi2 = i
2 2mi
i i
These forms are very useful in collision problems where momentum is known and
conserved; they will often save you a step or two in the algebra if you express kinetic
energies in terms of momenta from the beginning.
• Newton’s Second Law for a single particle can be expressed (and was so ex-
pressed, originally, by Newton) as:
~ tot = d~
F
p
dt
~ tot is the total force acting on the particle.
where F
For a system of particles one can sum this:
P
~ tot =
X
~i =
X d~
p i d ip
~i d~
ptot
F F = =
dt dt dt
i i
In this expression the internal forces directed along the lines between particles of the
system cancel (due to Newton’s Third Law) and:
~ tot =
X
~ ext d~
ptot
F F i =
dt
i
where the total force in this expression is the sum of only the total external forces
acting on the various particles of the system.
• The Law of Conservation of Momentum states (following the previous result) that:
If and only if the total external force acting on a system of particles

vanishes, then the total momentum of that system is a constant vec-
tor.
or (in equationspeak):
~ tot = 0 then p
If and only if F ~tot = p
~i = p
~f , a constant vector
where p~i and p~f are the initial and final momenta across some intervening process or
time interval where no external forces acted. Momentum conservation is especially
useful in collision problems because the collision force is internal and hence does
not change the total momentum.
• The Center of Mass Reference Frame is a convenient frame for solving collision
problems. It is the frame whose origin lies at the center of mass and that moves at
the constant velocity (relative to “the lab frame”) of the center of mass. That is, it is
the frame wherein:
x′i = ~
~ xi − ~
xcm = ~
xi − ~v cm t
and (differentiating once):
v ′i = ~
~ vi − ~
v cm
In this frame,
X X X
~′tot =
p v ′i =
mi~ mi~
vi − mi~
v cm = p
~tot − p
~tot = 0
i i i
which is why it is so very useful. The total momentum is the constant value 0 in the
center of mass frame of a system of particles with no external forces acting on it!
• The Impulse of a collision is defined to be the total momentum transferred during

the collision, where a collision is an event where a very large force is exerted over a
very short time interval ∆t. Recalling that F~ = d~ p/dt, it’s magnitude is:
Z ∆t

I = |∆~ p| =
~ ~ avg |∆t
F dt = |F
0
and it usually acts along the line of the collision. Note that this the impulse is directly
related to the average force exerted by a collision that lasts a very short time ∆t:
Z ∆t
~ avg = 1
F ~ (t) dt
F
∆t 0
• An Elastic Collision is by definition a collision in which both the momentum and

the total kinetic energy of the particles is conserved across the collision. That is:
p
~i = p
~f
Ki = Kf
This is actually four independent conservation equations (three components of mo-

mentum and kinetic energy).
In general we will be given six “initial values” for a three-dimensional collision – the
three components of the initial velocity for each particle. Our goal is to find the six
final values – the three components of the final velocity of each particle. However,
we don’t have enough simultaneous equations to accomplish this and therefore have
to be given two more pieces of information in order to solve a general elastic collision
problem in three dimensions.
In two dimensional collisions we are a bit better off – we have three conservation
equations (two momenta, one energy) and four unknowns (four components of the
final velocity) and can solve the collision if we know one more number, say the angle
at which one of the particles emerges or the impact parameter of the collision93 , but
it is still pretty difficult.
93
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/impact parameter.
In one dimension we have two conservation equations – one momentum, one energy,
and two unknowns (the two final velocities) and we can (almost) uniquely solve for
the final velocities given the initial ones. In this latter case only, when the initial state
of the two particles is given by m1 , v1i , m2 , v2i then the final state is given by:
v1f = −v1i + 2vcm

v2f = −v2i + 2vcm
• An Inelastic Collision is by definition not an elastic collision, that is, a collision

where kinetic energy is not conserved. Note well that the term “elastic” therefore
refers to conservation of energy which may or may not be present in a collision,
but that MOMENTUM IS ALWAYS CONSERVED IN A COLLISION in the impact
approximation, which we will universally make in this course.
A fully inelastic collision is one where the two particles collide and stick together
to move as one after the collision. In three dimensions we therefore have three con-
served quantities (the components of the momentum) and three unknown quantities
(the three components of the final velocity and therefore fully inelastic collisions
are trivial to solve! The solution is simply to find:
~ tot = P
P ~ i = m1~
v 1,i + m2~
v 2,i
~f:
and set it equal to P
m1~
v 1,i + m2~
v 2,i = (m1 + m2 )~
v f = (m1 + m2 )~
v cm
or
m1~ v 1,i + m2~
v 2,i ~ tot
P
~
vf = ~
v cm = =
m1 + m2 Mtot
The final velocity of the stuck together masses is the (constant) velocity of the center
of mass of the system, which makes complete sense.
Kinetic energy is always lost in an inelastic collision, and one can always evaluate it
from: !
2
Ptot p21,i p22,i
∆K = Kf − Ki = − +
2Mtot 2m1 2m2
In a partially inelastic collision, the particles collide but don’t quite stick together.
One has three (momentum) conservation equations and needs six final velocities, so
one in general must be given three pieces of information in order to solve a partially
inelastic collision in three dimensions. Even in one dimension one has only one
equation and two unknowns and hence one needs at least one additional piece of
independent information to solve a problem.
• The Kinetic Energy of a System of Particles can in general be written as:

!
X
Ktot = Ki′ + Kcm = Ktot ′
+ Kcm
i
which one should read as “The total kinetic energy of a system in the lab frame
equals its total kinetic energy in the (primed) center of mass frame plus the kinetic
energy of the center of mass frame treated as a ‘particle’ in the lab frame.”
The kinetic energy of the center of mass frame in the lab is thus just:
1 P2
2
Kcm = Mtot vcm = tot
2 2Mtot
which we recognize as “the kinetic energy of a baseball treated as a particle with its
total mass located at its center of mass” (for example) even though the baseball is
really made up of many, many small particles that generally have kinetic energy of
their own relative to the center of mass.
This theorem will prove very useful to us when we consider rotation, but it also means
that the total kinetic energy of a macroscopic object (such as a baseball) made up
of many microscopic parts is the sum of its macroscopic kinetic energy – its kinetic
energy where we treat it as a “particle” located at its center of mass – and its inter-
nal microscopic kinetic energy. The latter is essentially related to enthalpy, heat
and temperature. Inelastic collisions that “lose kinetic energy” of their macroscopic
constituents (e.g. cars) gain it in the increase in temperature of the objects after the
collision that results from the greater microscopic kinetic energy of the particles that
make them up in the center of mass (object) frame.
4.1: Systems of Particles
Baseball ("particle" of mass M)
Packing (particle of mass m < M)
Atoms in packing
electrons in atom
Figure 45: An object such as a baseball is not really a particle. It is made of many, many
particles – even the atoms it is made of are made of many particles each. Yet it behaves
like a particle as far as Newton’s Laws are concerned. Now we find out why.
The world of one particle as we’ve learned it so far is fairly simple. Something pushes
on it, and it accelerates, its velocity changing over time. Stop pushing, it coasts or remains
still with its velocity constant. Or from another (time independent) point of view: Do work
on it and it speeds up. Do negative work on it and it slows down. Increase or decrease its
potential energy; decrease or increase its kinetic energy.
However, the world of many particles is not so simple. For one thing, every push
works two ways – all forces act symmetrically between objects – no object experiences
a force all by itself. For another, real objects are not particles – they are made up of lots
of “particles” themselves. Finally, even if we ignore the internal constituents of an object,
we seem to inhabit a universe with lots of macroscopic objects. If we restrict ourselves
to objects the size of stars there are well over a hundred billion stars in our Milky Way
galaxy (which is fairly average as far as size and structure are concerned) and there are
well over a hundred billion galaxies visible to the Hubble, meaning that there are at least
1020 stars visible to our instruments. One can get quite bored writing out the zeros in a
number like that even before we consider just how many electrons and quarks each star
(on average) is made up of!
Somehow we know intuitively that the details of the motion of every electron and quark
in a baseball, or a star, are irrelevant to the motion and behavior of the baseball/star as a
whole, treated as a “particle” itself. Clearly, we need to deduce ways of taking a collection
of particles and determining its collective behavior. Ideally, this process should be one
we can iterate, so that we can treat collections of collections – a box of baseballs, under
the right circumstances (falling out of an airplane, for example) might also be expected to
behave within reason like a single object independent of the motion of the baseballs inside,
or the motion of the atoms in the baseballs, or the motion of the electrons and quarks in
the atoms.
We will obtain this collective behavior by averaging, or summing over (at successively
larger scales) the physics that we know applies at the smallest scale to things that really
are particles and discover to our surprise that it applies equally well to collections of those
particles, subject to a few new definitions and rules.
4.1.1: Newton’s Laws for a System of Particles – Center of Mass
F F
1 2
m F m
1 tot 2
x
x 2
1 M
tot
X cm m
3
x
3 F
3
Figure 46: A system of N = 3 particles is shown above, with various forces F~ i acting on
the masses (which therefore each their own accelerations ~
ai ). From this, we construct a
weighted average acceleration of the system, in such a way that Newton’s Second Law is
satisfied for the total mass.
Suppose we have a system of N particles, each of which is experiencing a force. Some

(part) of those forces are “external” – they come from outside of the system. Some (part)
of them may be “internal” – equal and opposite force pairs between particles that help hold
the system together (solid) or allow its component parts to interact (liquid or gas).
We would like the total force to act on the total mass of this system as if it were a
“particle”. That is, we would like for:
~ tot = Mtot A
F ~ (4.1)
~ is the “acceleration of the system”. This is easily accomplished.

where A
Newton’s Second Law for a system of particles is written as:
~ tot =
X
~i =
X d2 ~
xi
F F mi (4.2)
dt2
i i
We now perform the following Algebra Magic:

X
~ tot =
F ~i
F (4.3)
i
X d2 ~
xi
= mi (4.4)
dt2
i
!
X ~
d2 X
= mi (4.5)
dt2
i
~
d2 X
= Mtot ~
= Mtot A (4.6)
dt2
Note well the introduction of a new coordinate, X. ~ This introduction isn’t “algebra”, it is
a definition. Let’s isolate it so that we can see it better:
X d2 ~
xi ~
d2 X
mi 2
= M tot (4.7)
dt dt2
i
Basically, if we define an X ~ such that this relation is true then Newton’s second law is
~ as if that location were indeed a
recovered for the entire system of particles “located at X”
particle of mass Mtot itself.
We can rearrange this a bit as:
dV~ ~
d2 X 1 X d2 ~
xi 1 X d~ vi
= 2
= mi 2 = mi (4.8)
dt dt Mtot dt Mtot dt
i i
and can integrate twice on both sides (as usual, but we only do the integrals formally). The
first integral is:
dX~
~ = 1 ~0= 1
X X d~xi ~
=V mi~
vi + V mi +V0 (4.9)
dt Mtot Mtot dt
i i
and the second is:

~ = 1 X ~ 0t + X
~0
X mi ~
xi + V (4.10)
Mtot
i
Note that this equation is exact, but we have had to introduce two constants of integration
~ 0 and X
that are completely arbitrary: V ~ 0.
These constants represent the exact same freedom that we have with our inertial frame
of reference – we can put the origin of coordinates anywhere we like, and we will get
the same equations of motion even if we put it somewhere and describe everything in a
uniformly moving frame. We should have expected this sort of freedom in our definition of
a coordinate that describes “the system” because we have precisely the same freedom in
our choice of coordinate system in terms of which to describe it.
In many problems, however, we don’t want to use this freedom. Rather, we want the
simplest description of the system itself, and push all of the freedom concerning constants
of motion over to the coordinate choice itself (where it arguably “belongs”). We therefore
select just one (the simplest one) of the infinity of possibly consistent rules represented
in our definition above that would preserve Newton’s Second Law and call it by a special
name: The Center of Mass!
We define the position of the center of mass to be:
X
MX ~ cm = mi ~
xi (4.11)
i
or:
~ cm = 1
X
X mi ~
xi (4.12)
M
i
P
(with M = i mi ). If we consider the “location” of the system of particles to be the center
of mass, then Newton’s Second Law will be satisfied for the system as if it were a particle,
and the location in question will be exactly what we intuitively expect: the “middle” of the
(collective) object or system, weighted by its distribution of mass.
Not all systems we treat will appear to be made up of point particles. Most solid objects
or fluids appear to be made up of a continuum of mass, a mass distribution. In this case
we need to do the sum by means of integration, and our definition becomes:
Z
~
M X cm = ~ xdm (4.13)
or Z
~ cm = 1
X ~
xdm (4.14)
M
R
(with M = dm). The latter form comes from treating every little differential chunk of a
solid object like a “particle”, and adding them all up. Integration, recall, is just a way of
adding them up.
Of course this leaves us with the recursive problem of the fact that “solid” objects are
really made out of lots of point-like elementary particles and their fields. It is worth very
briefly presenting the standard “coarse-graining” argument that permits us to treat solids
and fluids like a continuum of smoothly distributed mass – and the limitations of that argu-
ment.
Example 4.1.1: Center of Mass of a Few Discrete Particles
2m
1 kg
1m 2 kg
2 kg 1m 2m
3 kg x
Figure 47: A system of four massive particles.
In figure 47 above, a few discrete particles with masses given are located at the posi-
tions indicated. We would like to find the center of mass of this system of particles. We do
this by arithmetically evaluating the algebraic expressions for the x and y components of
the center of mass separately:
1 X 1
xcm = mi xi = (2 ∗ 0 + 2 ∗ 1 + 3 ∗ 2 + 1 ∗ 2) = 1.25 m (4.15)
Mtot 8
i
1 X 1
ycm = mi yi = (2 ∗ 0 + 3 ∗ 0 + 2 ∗ 1 + 1 ∗ 2) = 0.5 m (4.16)
Mtot 8
i
Hence the center of mass of this system is located at ~

xcm = 1.25x̂ + 0.5ŷ.
4.1.2: Coarse Graining: Continuous Mass Distributions
Suppose we wish to find the center of mass of a small cube of some uniform material –
such as gold, why not? We know that really gold is made up of gold atoms, and that gold
atoms are make up of (elementary) electrons, quarks, and various massless field particles
that bind the massive particles together. In a cube of gold with a mass of 197 grams,
there are roughly 6 × 1023 atoms, each with 79 electrons and 591 quarks for a total of 670
elementary particles per atom. This is then about 4 × 1026 elementary particles in a cube
just over 2 cm per side.
If we tried to actually use the sum form of the definition of center of mass to evaluate
it’s location, and ran the computation on a computer capable of performing one trillion
floating point operations per second, it would take several hundred trillion seconds (say
ten million years) and – unless we knew the exacly location of every quark – would still be
approximate, no better than a guess.
We do far better by averaging. Suppose we take a small chunk of the cube of gold –
one with cube edges 1 millimeter long, for example. This still has an enormous number
of elementary particles in it – so many that if we shift the boundaries of the chunk a tiny
bit many particles – many whole atoms are moved in or out of the chunk. Clearly we are
justified in talking about the ”average number of atoms” or ”average amount of mass of
gold” in a tiny cube like this.
A millimeter is still absurdly large on an atomic scale. We could make the cube 1
micron (1 × 10−6 meter, a thousandth of a millimeter) and because atoms have a “generic”
size around one Angstrom – 1 × 10−10 meters – we would expect it to contain around
(10−6 /10−10 )3 = 1012 atoms. Roughly a trillion atoms in a cube too small to see with the
naked eye (and each atom still has almost 700 elementary particles, recall). We could go
down at least 1-2 more orders of magnitude in size and still have millions of particles in our
chunk!
A chunk 10 nanometers to the side is fairly accurately located in space on a scale
of meters. It has enough elementary particles in it that we can meaningfully speak of its
”average mass” and use this to define the mass density at the point of location of the chunk
– the mass per unit volume at that point in space – with at least 5 or 6 significant figures
(one part in a million accuracy). In most real-number computations we might undertake
in the kind of physics learned in this class, we wouldn’t pay attention to more than 3 or 4
significant figures, so this is plenty.
The point is that this chunk is now small enough to be considered differentially small for
the purposes of doing calculus. This is called coarse graining – treating chunks big on an
atomic or molecular scale but small on a macroscopic scale. To complete the argument, in
physics we would generally consider a small chunk of matter in a solid or fluid that we wish
to treat as a smooth distribution of mass, and write at first:
∆m = ρ∆V (4.17)
while reciting the following magical formula to ourselves:
The mass of the chunk is the mass per unit volume ρ times the volume of
the chunk.
We would then think to ourselves: “Gee, ρ is almost a uniform function of location for
chunks that are small enough to be considered a differential as far as doing sums using
integrals are concerned. I’ll just coarse grain this and use integration to evaluation all
sums.” Thus:
dm = ρ dV (4.18)
We do this all of the time, in this course. This semester we do it repeatedly for mass
distributions, and sometimes (e.g. when treating planets) will coarse grain on a much
larger scale to form the “average” density on a planetary scale. On a planetary scale,
barring chunks of neutronium or the occasional black hole, a cubic kilometer “chunk” is still
“small” enough to be considered differentially small – we usually won’t need to integrate
over every single distinct pebble or clod of dirt on a much smaller scale. Next semester we
will do it repeatedly for electrical charge, as after all all of those gold atoms are made up of
charged particles so there are just as many charges to consider as there are elementary
particles. Our models for electrostatic fields of continuous charge and electrical currents in
wires will all rely on this sort of coarse graining.
Before we move on, we should say a word or two about two other common distributions
of mass. If we want to find e.g. the center of mass of a flat piece of paper cut out into
(say) the shape of a triangle, we could treat it as a “volume” of paper and integrate over
its thickness. However, it is probably a pretty good bet from symmetry that unless the
paper is very inhomogeneous across its thickness, the center of mass in the flat plane is
in the middle of the “slab” of paper, and the paper is already so thin that we don’t pay
much attention to its thickness as a general rule. In this case we basically integrate out the
thickness in our minds (by multiplying ρ by the paper thickness t) and get:
∆m = ρ∆V = ρt∆A = σ∆A (4.19)
where σ = ρt is the (average) mass per unit area of a chunk of paper with area ∆A. We
say our (slightly modified) magic ritual and poof! We have:
dm = σ dA (4.20)
for two dimensional areal distributions of mass.

Similarly, we often will want to find the center of mass of things like wires bent into
curves, things that are long and thin. By now I shouldn’t have to explain the following
reasoning:
∆m = ρ∆V = ρA∆x = µ∆x (4.21)
where A is the (small!) cross section of the solid wire and µ = ρA is the mass per unit
length of the chunk of wire, magic spell, cloud of smoke, and when the smoke clears we
are left with:
dm = µ dx (4.22)
In all of these cases, note well, ρ, σ, µ can be functions of the coordinates! They are not
necessarily constant, they simply describe the (average) mass per unit volume at the point
in our object or system in question, subject to the coarse-graining limits. Those limits are
pretty sensible ones – if we are trying to solve problems on a length scale of angstroms,
we cannot use these averages because the laws of large numbers won’t apply. Or rather,
we can and do still use these kinds of averages in quantum theory (because even on the
scale of a single atom doing all of the discrete computations proves to be a problem) but
then we do so knowing up front that they are approximations and that our answer will be
“wrong”.
In order to use the idea of center of mass (CM) in a problem, we need to be able to
evaluate it. For a system of discrete particles, the sum definition is all that there is – you
brute-force your way through the sum (decomposing vectors into suitable coordinates and
adding them up).
For a solid object that is symmetric, the CM is “in the middle”. But where’s that? To
precisely find out, we have to be able to use the integral definition of the CM:
Z
MX ~ cm = ~ xdm (4.23)
R
(with M = dm, and dm = ρdV or dm = σdA or dm = µdl as discussed above).
Let’s try a few examples:
Example 4.1.2: Center of Mass of a Continuous Rod
M
dm = λ dx =___ dx
L
0 dx L
Figure 48:
Let us evaluate the center of mass of a continuous rod of length L and total mass M ,
to make sure it is in the middle:
Z Z L
~
M X cm = ~ xdm = µxdx (4.24)
0
where Z Z L
M= dm = µdx = µL (4.25)
0
(which defines µ, if you like) so that
~ cm = µ L2 L
MX =M (4.26)
2 2
and
~ cm = L .
X (4.27)
2
Gee, that was easy. Let’s try a hard one.
dA =r dr dθ
θ
0 dm = σ dA
r dθ
r
0 R
dr
Figure 49:
Example 4.1.3: Center of mass of a circular wedge
Let’s find the center of mass of a circular wedge (a shape like a piece of pie, but very flat).
It is two dimensional, so we have to do it one coordinate at a time. We start from the same
place:
Z Z R Z θ0 Z R Z θ0
M Xcm = xdm = σxdA = σr2 cos θdrdθ (4.28)
0 0 0 0
where Z Z R Z θ0 Z R Z θ0
R 2 θ0
M= dm = σdA = σrdrdθ = σ (4.29)
0 0 0 0 2
(which defines σ, if you like) so that
R3 sin θ0
M Xcm = σ (4.30)
3
from which we find (with a bit more work than last time but not much) that:
2R3 sin θ0
Xcm = . (4.31)
3R2 θ
Amazingly enough, this has units of R (length), so it might just be right. To check it, do
Ycm on your own!
Example 4.1.4: Breakup of Projectile in Midflight
m = m 1+ m 2
v0
θ m1 m2
x1
R
x2
Figure 50: A projectile breaks up in midflight. The center of mass follows the original
trajectory of the particle, allowing us to predict where one part lands if we know where the
other one lands, as long as the explosion exerts no vertical component of force on the two
particles.
Suppose that a projectile breaks up horizontally into two pieces of mass m1 and m2 in
midflight. Given θ, v0 , and x1 , predict x2 .
The idea is: The trajectory of the center of mass obeys Newton’s Laws for the entire
projectile and lands in the same place that it would have, because no external forces other
than gravity act. The projectile breaks up horizontally, which means that both pieces will
land at the same time, with the center of mass in between them. We thus need to find the
point where the center of mass would have landed, and solve the equation for the center
of mass in terms of the two places the projectile fragments land for one, given the other.
Thus:
Find R. As usual:
1
y = (v0 sin θ)t − gt2 (4.32)
2
1
tR (v0 sin θ − gtR ) = 0 (4.33)
2
2v0 sin θ)
tR = (4.34)
g
2v02 sin θ cos θ
R = (v0 cos θ)tR = . (4.35)
g
R is the position of the center of mass. We write the equation making it so:
m1 x1 + m2 x2 = (m1 + m2 )R (4.36)
and solve for the unknown x2 .

(m1 + m2 )R − m1 x1
x2 = (4.37)
m2
From this example, we see that it is sometimes easiest to solve a problem by separating
the motion of the center of mass of a system from the motion in a reference frame that
“rides along” with the center of mass. The price we may have to pay for this convenience is
the appearance of pseudoforces in this frame if it happens to be accelerating, but in many

cases it will not be accelerating, or the acceleration will be so small that the pseudoforces
can be neglected compared to the much larger forces of interest acting within the frame.
We call this (at least approximately) inertial reference frame the Center of Mass Frame
and will discuss and define it in a few more pages.
First, however, we need to define an extremely useful concept in physics, that of mo-
mentum, and discuss the closely related concept of impulse and the impulse approxi-
mation that permits us to treat the center of mass frame as being approximately inertial in
many problems even when it is accelerating.
4.2: Momentum
Momentum is a useful idea that follows naturally from our decision to treat collections as
objects. It is a way of combining the mass (which is a characteristic of the object) with the
velocity of the object. We define the momentum to be:
p
~ = m~
v (4.38)
Thus (since the mass of an object is generally constant):
~ = m~ d~
v d d~
p
F a=m = (m~
v) = (4.39)
dt dt dt
is another way of writing Newton’s second law. In fact, this is the way Newton actually
wrote Newton’s second law – he did not say “F ~ = m~ a” the way we have been reciting.
We emphasize this connection because it makes the path to solving for the trajectories of
constant mass particles a bit easier, not because things really make more sense that way.
Note that there exist systems (like rocket ships, cars, etc.) where the mass is not
constant. As the rocket rises, its thrust (the force exerted by its exhaust) can be constant,
but it continually gets lighter as it burns fuel. Newton’s second law (expressed as F ~ =
m~a) does tell us what to do in this case – but only if we treat each little bit of burned
and exhausted gas as a “particle”, which is a pain. On the other hand, Newton’s second
law expressed as F ~ = dp ~
still works fine and makes perfect sense – it simultaneously
dt
describes the loss of mass and the increase of velocity as a function of the mass correctly.
Clearly we can repeat our previous argument for the sum of the momenta of a collection
of particles: X X
P~ tot = p
~i = m~vi (4.40)
i i
so that
~ tot X d~
dP pi X ~
= = ~ tot
Fi = F (4.41)
dt dt
i i
Differentiating our expression for the position of the center of mass above, we also get:
P
d i mi ~xi X d~ xi X ~ tot = Mtot~
= mi = p
~i = P v cm (4.42)
dt dt
i i
4.2.1: The Law of Conservation of Momentum
We are now in a position to state and trivially prove the Law of Conservation of Momen-
tum. It reads94 :
If and only if the total external force acting on a system is zero, then the total
momentum of a system (of particles) is a constant vector.
You are welcome to learn this in its more succinct algebraic form:
~ tot = 0 then P
If and only if F ~ tot = P
~ initial = P
~ final = a constant vector. (4.43)
~ tot = 0 is essential –
Please learn this law exactly as it is written here. The condition F
~
~ tot = dP tot !
otherwise, as you can see, F dt
The proof is almost a one-liner at this point:

X
F~ tot = F~i = 0 (4.44)
i
implies
~ tot
dP
=0 (4.45)
dt
~ tot is a constant if the forces all sum to zero. This is not quite enough. We need
so that P
to note that for the internal forces (between the ith and jth particles in the system, for
example) from Newton’s third law we get:
~ ij = −F
F ~ ji (4.46)
so that
~ ij + F
F ~ ji = 0 (4.47)
pairwise, between every pair of particles in the system. That is, although internal forces
may not be zero (and generally are not, in fact) the changes the cause in the momentum
of the system cancel. We can thus subtract:
X
~ internal =
F F~ ij = 0 (4.48)
i,j
~ tot = F
from F ~ external + F
~ internal to get:
~
~ external = dP tot = 0
F (4.49)
dt
and the total momentum must be a constant (vector).
This can be thought of as the “bootstrap law” – You cannot lift yourself up by your own
bootstraps! No matter what force one part of you exerts on another, those internal forces
can never alter the velocity of your center of mass or (equivalently) your total momentum,
nor can they overcome or even alter any net external force (such as gravity) to lift you up.
94
The “if and only if” bit, recall, means that if the total momentum of a system is a constant vector, it also
implies that the total force acting on it is zero, there is no other way that this condition can come about.
As we shall see, the idea of momentum and its conservation greatly simplify doing a
wide range of problems, just like energy and its conservation did in the last chapter. It is
especially useful in understanding what happens when one object collides with another
object.
Evaluating the dynamics and kinetics of microscopic collisions (between, e.g. elec-
trons, protons, neutrons and targets such as atoms or nuclei) is a big part of contemporary
physics – so big that we call it by a special name: Scattering Theory95 . The idea is to
take some initial (presumed known) state of an about-to-collide “system”, to let it collide,
and to either infer from the observed scattering something about the nature of the force
that acted during the collision, or to predict, from the measured final state of some of the
particles, the final state of the rest.
Sound confusing? It’s not, really, but it can be complicated because there are lots
of things that might make up an initial and final state. In this class we have humbler
goals – we will be content simply understanding what happens when macroscopic objects
like cars or billiard96 balls collide, where (as we will see) momentum conservation plays
an enormous role. This is still the first step (for physics majors or future radiologists) in
understanding more advanced scattering theory but it provides a lot of direct insight into
everyday experience and things like car safety and why a straight on shot in pool often
stops one ball cold while the other continues on with the original ball’s velocity.
In order to be able to use momentum conservation in a collision, however, no external
force can act on the colliding objects during the collision. This is almost never going to
precisely be the case, so we will have to idealize by assuming that a “collision” (as opposed
to a more general and leisurely force interaction) involves forces that are zero right up to
where the collision starts, spike up to very large values (generally much larger than the
sum of the other forces acting on the system at the time) and then drop quickly back to
zero, being non-zero only in a very short time interval ∆t.
In this idealization, collisions will (by assumption) take place so fast that any other
external forces cannot significantly alter the momentum of the participants during the time
∆t. This is called the impulse approximation. With the impulse approximation, we can
neglect all other external forces (if any are present) and use momentum conservation as
a key principle while analyzing or solving collisions. All collision problems solved in this
course should be solved using the impulse approximation. Let’s see just what “impulse”
is, and how it can be used to help solve collision problems and understand things like the
forces exerted on an object by a fluid that is in contact with it.
95
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scattering Theory. This link is mostly for more advanced stu-
dents, e.g. physics majors, but future radiologists might want to look it over as well as it is the basis for a whole
lot of radiology...
96
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billiards. It is always dangerous to assume the every student has
had any given experience or knows the same games or was raised in the same culture as the author/teacher,
especially nowadays when a significant fraction of my students, at least, come from other countries and
cultures, and when this book is in use by students all over the world outside of my own classroom, so I provide
this (and various other) links. In this case, as you will see, billiards or “pool” is a game played on a table where
the players try to knock balls in holes by poking one ball (the “cue ball”) with a stick to drive another identically
sized ball into a hole. Since the balls are very hard and perfectly spherical, the game is an excellent model for
two-dimensional elastic collisions.
4.3: Impulse
Let us imagine a typical collision: one pool ball approaches and strikes another, causing
both balls to recoil from the collision in some (probably different) directions and at different
speeds. Before they collide, they are widely separated and exert no force on one another.
As the surfaces of the two (hard) balls come into contact, they “suddenly” exert relatively
large, relatively violent, equal and opposite forces on each other over a relatively short
time, and then the force between the objects once again drops to zero as they either
bounce apart or stick together and move with a common velocity. “Relatively” here in all
cases means compared to all other forces acting on the system during the collision
in the event that those forces are not actually zero.
For example, when skidding cars collide, the collision occurs so fast that even though
kinetic friction is acting, it makes an ignorable change in the momentum of the cars during
the collision compared to the total change of momentum of each car due to the collision
force. When pool balls collide we can similarly ignore the drag force of the air or frictional
force exerted by the table’s felt lining for the tiny time they are in actual contact. When a
bullet embeds itself in a block, it does so so rapidly that we can ignore the friction of the
table on which the block sits. Idealizing and ignoring e.g. friction, gravity, drag forces in
situations such as this is known as the impulse approximation, and it greatly simplifies
the treatment of collisions.
Note that we will frequently not know the detailed functional form of the collision force,
~
F coll (t) nor the precise amount of time ∆t in any of these cases. The “crumpling” of cars
as they collide is a very complicated process and exerts a completely unique force any
time such a collision occurs – no two car collisions are exactly alike. Pool balls probably
do exert a much more reproducible and understandable force on one another, one that
we we could model if we were advanced physicists or engineers working for a company
that made billiard tables and balls and our livelihoods depended on it but we’re not and it
doesn’t. Bullets embedding themselves in blocks again do so with a force that is different
every time that we can never precisely measure, predict, or replicate.
In all cases, although the details of the interaction force are unknown (or even unknow-
able in any meaningful way), we can obtain or estimate or measure some approximate
things about the forces in any given collision situation. In particular we can put reasonable
limits on ∆t and make ‘before’ and ‘after’ measurements that permit us to compute the
average force exerted over this time.
Let us begin, then, by defining the average force over the (short) time ∆t of any given
collision, assuming that we did know F ~ = F ~ 21 (t), the force one object (say m1 ) exerts
on the other object (m2 ). The magnitude of such a force (one perhaps appropriate to the
collision of pool balls) is sketched below in figure 51 where for simplicity we assume that
the force acts only along the line of contact and is hence effectively one dimensional in this
direction97 .
The time average of this force is computed the same way the time average of any other
97
This is, as anyone who plays pool knows from experience, an excellent assumption and is in fact how one
most generally “aims” the targeted ball (neglecting all of the various fancy tricks that can alter this assumption
and the outcome).
F (t)
Area is ∆p = I (impulse)
F avg
∆t t
Figure 51: A “typical” collision force that might be exerted by the cue ball on the eight ball
in a game of pool, approximately along the line connecting the two ball centers. In this
case we would expect a fairly symmetric force as the two balls briefly deform at the point
of contact. The time of contact ∆t has been measured to be on the order of a tenth of a
millisecond for colliding pool balls.
time-dependent quantity might be:

Z ∆t
~ avg = 1
F ~ (t) dt
F (4.50)
∆t 0
We can evaluate the integral using Newton’s Second Law expressed in terms of momen-
tum:
F~ (t) = d~
p
(4.51)
dt
so that (multiplying out by dt and integrating):
Z ∆t
p
~2f − p~2i = ∆~ p2 = ~ (t) dt
F (4.52)
0
This is the total vector momentum change of the second object during the collision and
is also the area underneath the F ~ (t) curve (for each component of a general force – in
the figure above we assume that the force only points along one direction over the entire
collision and the change in the momentum component in this direction is then the area
under the drawn curve). Note that the momentum change of the first ball is equal and
opposite. From Newton’s Third Law, F ~ 12 (t) = −F
~ 21 (t) = F~ and:
Z ∆t
p
~1f − p
~1i = ∆~ p1 = − ~ (t) dt = −∆~
F p2 (4.53)
0
The integral of a force F~ over an interval of time is called the impulse 98 imparted by
the force Z t2 Z t2 Z p2
~ ~ d~
p
I= F (t) dt = dt = d~
p=p ~2 − p
~1 = ∆~
p (4.54)
t1 t1 dt p1
This proves that the (vector) impulse is equal to the (vector) change in momentum over the
same time interval, a result known as the impulse-momentum theorem. From our point
98
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impulse (physics).
of view, the impulse is just the momentum transferred between two objects in a collision in
such a way that the total momentum of the two is unchanged.
Returning to the average force, we see that the average force in terms of the impulse
is just:
~ p
~ −p ~i
~ avg = I = ∆p = f
F (4.55)
∆t ∆t ∆t
If you refer again to figure 51 you can see that the area under Favg is equal the area
under the actual force curve. This makes the average force relatively simple to compute or
estimate any time you know the change in momentum produced by a collision and have a
way of measuring or assigning an effective or average time ∆t per collision.
Example 4.3.1: Average Force Driving a Golf Ball
A golf ball leaves a 1 wood at a speed of (say) 70 meters/second (this is a reasonable

number – the world record as of this writing is 90 meters/second). It has a mass of 45
grams. The time of contact has been measured to be ∆t = 0.0005 seconds (very similar
to a collision between pool balls). What is the magnitude of the average force that acts on
the golf ball during this “collision”?
This one is easy:
I mvf − m(0) 3.15
Favg = = = = 6300 Newtons (4.56)
∆t ∆t 0.0005
Since I personally have a mass conveniently (if embarrassingly) near 100 kg and therefore
weigh 1000 Newtons, the golf club exerts an average force of 6.3 times my weight, call it
3/4 of a ton. The peak force, assuming an impact shape for F (t) not unlike that pictured
above is as much as two English tons (call it 17400 Newtons).
Note Well! Impulse is related to a whole spectrum of conceptual mistakes students

often make! Here’s an example that many students would get wrong before they take
mechanics and that no student should ever get wrong after they take mechanics! But
many do. Try not to be one of them...
Example 4.3.2: Force, Impulse and Momentum for Windshield and Bug
There’s a song by Mary Chapin Carpenter called “The Bug” with the refrain:
Sometimes you’re the windshield,

Sometimes you’re the bug...
In a collision between (say) the windshield of a large, heavily laden pickup truck and a
teensy little yellowjacket wasp, answer the following qualitative/conceptual questions:
a) Which exerts a larger (magnitude) force on the other during the collision?
b) Which changes the magnitude of its momentum more during the collision?
c) Which changes the magnitude of its velocity more during the collision?
Think about it for a moment, answer all three in your mind. Now, compare it to the
correct answers below99 . If you did not get all three perfectly correct then go over this
whole chapter until you do – you may want to discuss this with your favorite instructor as
well.
4.3.1: The Impulse Approximation
When we analyze actual collisions in the real world, it will almost never be the case that
there are no external forces acting on the two colliding objects during the collision process.
If we hit a baseball with a bat, if two cars collide, if we slide two air-cushioned disks along
a tabletop so that they bounce off of each other, gravity, friction, drag forces are often
present. Yet we will, in this textbook, uniformly assume that these forces are irrelevant
during the collision.
F (t)
∆pc (collision)
∆p b(background forces)
∆t t
Figure 52: Impulse forces for a collision where typical external forces such as gravity or
friction or drag forces are also present.
Let’s see why (and when!) we can get away with this. Figure 52 shows a typical collision
force (as before) for a collision, but this time shows some external force acting on the mass
at the same time. This force might be varying friction and drag forces as a car brakes to
try to avoid a collision on a bumpy road, for example. Those forces may be large, but in
general they are very small compared to the peak, or average, collision force between two
cars. To put it in perpective, in the example above we estimated that the average force
between a golf ball and a golf club is over 6000 newtons during the collision – around
six times my (substantial) weight. In contrast, the golf ball itself weighs much less than a
99
Put here so you can’t see them while you are thinking so easily. The force exerted by the truck on the wasp
is exactly the same as the force exerted by the wasp on the truck (Newton’s Third Law!). The magnitude of
the momentum (or impulse) transferred from the wasp to the truck is exactly the same as the magnitude of
the momentum transferred from the truck to the wasp. However, the velocity of the truck does not measurably
change (for the probable impulse transferred from any normal non-Mothra-scale wasp) while the wasp (as we
will see below) bounces off going roughly twice the speed of the truck...
newton, and the drag force and friction force between the golf ball and the tee are a tiny
fraction of that.
If anything, the background forces in this figure are highly exaggerated for a typical
collision, compared to the scale of the actual collision force!
The change in momentum resulting from the background force is the area underneath
its curve, just as the change in momentum resulting from the collision force alone is the
area under the collision force curve.
Over macroscopic time – over seconds, for example – gravity and drag forces and fric-
tion can make a significant contribution to the change in momentum of an object. A braking
car slows down. A golf ball soars through the air in a gravitational trajectory modified by
drag forces. But during the collision time ∆t they are negligible, in the specific sense
that:
∆~p = ∆~ pc + ∆~pb ≈ ∆~pc (4.57)
(for just one mass) over that time only. Since the collision force is an internal force between
the two colliding objects, it cancels for the system making the momentum change of the
system during the collision approximately zero.
We call this approximation ∆~ p ≈ ∆~ pc (neglecting the change of momentum resulting
from background external forces during the collision) the impulse approximation and we
will always assume that it is valid in the problems we solve in this course. It justifies treating
the center of mass reference frame (discussed in the next section) as an inertial reference
frame even when technically it is not for the purpose of analyzing a collision or explosion.
It is, however, useful to have an understanding of when this approximation might fail.
In a nutshell, it will fail for collisions that take place over a long enough time ∆t that the
external forces produce a change of momentum that is not negligibly small compared to the
momentum exchange between the colliding particles, so that the total momentum before
the collision is not approximately equal to the total momentum after the collision.
This can happen because the external forces are unusually large (comparable to the
collision force), or because the collision force is unusually small (comparable to the ex-
ternal force), or because the collision force acts over a long time ∆t so that the external
forces have time to build up a significant ∆~p for the system. None of these circumstances
are typical, however, although we can imagine setting up an problem where it is true – a
collision between two masses sliding on a rough table during the collision where the colli-
sion force is caused by a weak spring (a variant of a homework problem, in other words).
We will consider this sort of problem (which is considerably more difficult to solve) to be
beyond the scope of this course, although it is not beyond the scope of what the concepts
of this course would permit you to set up and solve if your life or job depended on it.
4.3.2: Impulse, Fluids, and Pressure
Another valuable use of impulse is when we have many objects colliding with something
– so many that even though each collision takes only a short time ∆t, there are so many
collisions that they exert a nearly continuous force on the object. This is critical to under-
standing the notion of pressure exerted by a fluid, because microscopically the fluid is just
a lot of very small particles that are constantly colliding with a surface and thereby trans-
ferring momentum to it, so many that they exert a nearly continuous and smooth force on
it that is the average force exerted per particle times the number of particles that collide. In
this case ∆t is conveniently considered to be the inverse of the rate (number per second)
with which the fluid particles collide with a section of the surface.
To give you a very crude idea of how this works, let’s review a small piece of the kinetic
theory of gases. Suppose you have a cube with sides of length L containing N molecules
of a gas. We’ll imagine that all of the molecules have a mass m and an average speed in
the x direction of vx , with (on average) one half going left and one half going right at any
given time.
In order to be in equilibrium (so vx doesn’t change) the change in momentum of any
molecule that hits, say, the right hand wall perpendicular to x is ∆px = 2mvx . This is the
impulse transmitted to the wall per molecular collision. To find the total impulse in the time
∆t, one must multiply this by one half the number of molecules in in a volume L2 vx ∆t.
That is,
1 N
∆ptot = L2 vx ∆t (2mvx ) (4.58)
2 L3
Let’s call the volume of the box L3 = V and the area of the wall receiving the impulse
L2 = A. We combine the pieces to get:

Favg ∆ptot N 1 2 N
P = = = mvx = Kx,avg (4.59)
A A ∆t V 2 V
where the average force per unit area applied to the wall is the pressure, which has SI
units of Newtons/meter2 or Pascals.
If we add a result called the equipartition theorem100 :
1 1
Kx,avg = mvx2 = kb T 2 (4.60)
2 2
where kb is Boltzmann’s constant and T is the temperature in degrees absolute, one gets:
P V = N kT (4.61)
which is the Ideal Gas Law 101 .

This all rather amazing and useful, and is generally covered and/or derived in a ther-
modynamics course, but is a bit beyond our scope for this semester. It’s an excellent use
of impulse, though, and the homework problem involving bouncing of a stream of beads
off of the pan of a scale is intended to be “practice” for doing it then, or at least reinforcing
the understanding of how pressure arises for later on in this course when we treat fluids.
In the meantime, the impulse approximation reduces a potentially complicated force of
interaction during a collision to its most basic parameters – the change in momentum it
causes and the (short) time over which it occurs. Life is simple, life is good. Momentum
100
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equipartition Theorem.
101
Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideal Gas Law. The physicist version of it anyway. Chemists have
the pesky habit of converting the number of molecules into the number of moles using Avogadro’s number
N = 6 × 1023 and expressing it as P V = nRT instead, where R = kb NA . then using truly horrendous units
such as liter-atmospheres in
conservation (as an equation or set of equations) will yield one or more relations between
the various momentum components of the initial and final state in a collision, and with
luck and enough additional data in the problem description will enable us to solve them
simultaneously for one or more unknowns. Let’s see how this works.
4.4: Center of Mass Reference Frame
lab frame
CM frame
v
1
x’
m 1
1
x v cm
1
x cm x’
m 2
2 v
x 2
2
Figure 53: The coordinates of the “center of mass reference frame”, a very useful inertial
reference frame for solving collisions and understanding rigid rotation.
In the “lab frame” – the frame in which we actually live – we are often in some sense
out of the picture as we try to solve physics problems, trying to make sense of the motion
of flies buzzing around in a moving car as it zips by us. In the Center of Mass Reference
Frame we are literally in the middle of the action, watching the flies in the frame of the
moving car, or standing a ground zero for an impending collision. This makes it a very
convenient frame for analyzing collisions, rigid rotations around an axis through the center
of mass (which we’ll study next week), static equilibrium (in a couple more weeks). At the
end of this week, we will also derive a crucial result connecting the kinetic energy of a
system of particles in the lab to the kinetic energy of the same system evaluated in the
center of mass frame that will help us understand how work or mechanical energy can be
transformed without loss into enthalpy (the heating of an object) during a collision or to
rotational kinetic energy as an object rolls!
Recall from Week 2 the Galilean transformation between two inertial references frames
where the primed one is moving at constant velocity ~ v frame compared to the unprimed (lab)
reference frame, equation 2.60.
x′i = ~
~ xi − ~
v frame t (4.62)
We choose our lab frame so that at time t = 0 the origins of the two frames are the same
for simplicity. Then we take the time derivative of this equation, which connects the velocity
in the lab frame to the velocity in the moving frame:
v ′i = ~
~ vi − ~
v frame (4.63)
I always find it handy to have a simple conceptual metaphor for this last equation: The
velocity of flies observed within a moving car equals the velocity of the flies as seen by
an observer on the ground minus the velocity of the car, or equivalently the velocity seen
on the ground is the velocity of the car plus the velocity of the flies measured relative to
the car. That helps me get the sign in the transformation correct without having to draw
pictures or do actual algebra.
Let’s define the Center of Mass Frame to be the particular frame whose origin is at the
center of mass of a collection of particles that have no external force acting on them, so
that the total momentum of the system is constant and the velocity of the center of mass
of the system is also constant:
~ tot = Mtot~
P v cm = a constant vector (4.64)
or (dividing by Mtot and using the definition of the velocity of the center of mass):
1 X
~
v cm = mi~
v i = a constant vector. (4.65)
Mtot
i
Then the following two equations define the Galilean transformation of position and
velocity coordinates from the (unprimed) lab frame into the (primed) center of mass frame:
x′i = ~
~ xi − ~
xcm = ~
xi − ~
v cm t (4.66)
v ′i = ~
~ vi − ~
v cm (4.67)
An enormously useful property of the center of mass reference frame follows from
adding up the total momentum in the center of mass frame:
X X
~ ′tot =
P v ′i =
mi~ mi (~
vi − ~
v cm )
i i
X X
= ( mi~
vi) − ( mi )~
v cm
i i
= Mtot~
v cm − Mtot~
v cm = 0 (!) (4.68)
The total momentum in the center of mass frame is identically zero! In retrospect, this
is obvious. The center of mass is at the origin, at rest, in the center of mass frame by
v ′cm is zero, and therefore it should come as no surprise that
definition, so its velocity ~
′
P~ tot = Mtot~ ′
v cm = 0.
As noted above, the center of mass frame will be very useful to us both conceptually
and computationally. Our first application of the concept will be in analyzing collisions.
Let’s get started!
4.5: Collisions
A “collision” in physics occurs when two bodies that are more or less not interacting (be-
cause they are too far apart to interact) come “in range” of their mutual interaction force,
strongly interact for a short time, and then separate so that they are once again too far
apart to interact. We usually think of this in terms of “before” and “after” states of the
system – a collision takes a pair of particles from having some known initial “free” state
right before the interaction occurs to an unknown final “free” state right after the interaction
occurs. A good mental model for the interaction force (as a function of time) during the
collision is the impulse force sketched above that is zero at all times but the short time ∆t
that the two particles are in range and strongly interacting.
There are three general “types” of collision:
• Elastic
• Fully Inelastic
• Partially Inelastic
In this section, we will first indicate a single universal assumption we will make when
solving scattering problems using kinematics (conservation laws) as opposed to dynamics
(solving the actual equations of motion for the interaction through the collision). Next, we
will briefly define each type of collision listed above. Finally, in the following sections we’ll
spend some time studying each type in some detail and deriving solutions where it is not
too difficult.
4.5.1: Momentum Conservation in the Impulse Approximation
Most collisions that occur rapidly enough to be treated in the impulse approximation con-
serve momentum even if the particles are not exactly free before and after (because they
are moving in a gravitational field, experiencing drag, etc). There are, of course, excep-
tions – cases where the collision occurs slowly and with weak forces compared to external
forces, and the most important exception – collisions with objects connected to (usually
much larger) “immobile” objects by a pivot or via contact with some surface.
An example of the latter is dropping one pool ball on another that is resting on a table.
As the upper ball collides with the lower, the impulse the second ball experiences is com-
municated to the table, where it generates an impulse in the normal force there preventing
that ball from moving! Momentum can hardly be conserved unless one includes the table
and the entire Earth (that the table, in turn, sits on) in the calculation!
This sort of thing will often be the case when we treat rotational collisions in a later
chapter, where disks or rods are pivoted via a connection to a large immobile object
(essentially, the Earth). During the collision the collision impulse will often generate an
impulse force at the pivot and cause momentum not to be conserved between the two
colliding bodies.
On the other hand, in many other cases the external forces acting on the two bodies
will not be “hard” constraint forces like a normal force or a pivot of some sort. Things
like gravity, friction, drag, and spring forces will usually be much smaller than the impulse
force and will not change due to the impulse itself, and hence are ignorable in the impulse
approximation. For this reason, the validity of the impulse approximation will be our default
assumption in the collisions we treat in this chapter, and hence we will assume that all
collisions conserve total momentum through the collision unless we can see a pivot or
normal force that will exert a counter-impulse of some sort.
To summarize, whether or not any “soft” external force is acting during the collision,
we will make the impulse approximation and assume that the total vector momentum of
the colliding particles right before the collision will equal the total vector momentum of the
colliding particles right after the collision.
Because momentum is a three-dimensional vector, this yields one to three (relevant)
independent equations that constrain the solution, depending on the number of dimensions
in which the collision occurs.
4.5.2: Elastic Collisions
By definition, an elastic collision is one that also conserves total kinetic energy so that
the total scalar kinetic energy of the colliding particles before the collision must equal the
total kinetic energy after the collision. This is an additional independent equation that the
solution must satisfy.
It is assumed that all other contributions to the total mechanical energy (for example,
gravitational potential energy) are identical before and after if not just zero, again this is
the impulse approximation that states that all of these forces are negligible compared to
the collision force over the time ∆t. However, two of your homework problems will treat
exceptions by explicitly giving you a conservative, “slow” interaction force (gravity and an
inclined plane slope, and a spring) that mediates the “collision”. You can use these as
mental models for what really happens in elastic collisions on a much faster and more
violent time frame.
4.5.3: Fully Inelastic Collisions
For inelastic collisions, we will assume that the two particles form a single “particle” as a
final state with the same total momentum as the system had before the collision. In these
collisions, kinetic energy is always lost. Since energy itself is technically conserved, we
can ask ourselves: Where did it go? The answer is: Into heat102 ! The final section in
this chapter “discovers” that we have completely neglected both organized and disorga-
nized/internal energy by treating extended objects (which are really “systems”) as if they
are particles.
102
Or more properly, into Enthalpy, which is microscopic mechanical energy distributed among the atoms and
molecules that make up an object. Also into things like sound, light, the energy carried away by flying debris if
any.
One important characteristic of fully inelastic collisions, and the property that distin-
guishes them from partially inelastic collisions, is that the energy lost to heat in a fully
inelastic collision is the maximum energy that can be lost in a momentum-conserving col-
lision, as will be proven and discussed below.
Inelastic collisions are much easier to solve than elastic (or partially inelastic) ones, be-
cause there are fewer degrees of freedom in the final state (only one velocity, not two). As
we count this up later, we will see that inelastic collisions are fully solvable using kinematics
alone, independent of the details of the mediating force and without additional information.
4.5.4: Partially Inelastic Collisions
As suggested by their name, a partially inelastic collision is one where some kinetic energy
is lost in the collision (so it isn’t elastic) but not the maximum amount. The particles do not
stick together, so there are in general two velocities that must be solved for in the “after”
picture, just as there are for elastic collisions. In general, since any energy from zero
(elastic) to some maximum amount (fully inelastic) can be lost during the collision, you will
have to be given more information about the problem (such as the velocity of one of the
particles after the collision) in order to be able to solve for the remaining information and
answer questions.
4.5.5: Dimension of Scattering and Sufficient Information
Given an actual force law describing a collision, one can in principle always solve the
dynamical differential equations that result from applying Newton’s Second Law to all of
the masses and find their final velocities from their initial conditions and a knowledge of
the interaction force(s). However, the solution of collisions involving all but the simplest
interaction forces is beyond the scope of this course (and is usually quite difficult).
The reason for defining the collision types above is because they all represent kinematic
(math with units) constraints that are true independent of the details of the interaction force
beyond it being either conservative (elastic) or non-conservative (fully or partially inelastic).
In some cases the kinematic conditions alone are sufficient to solve the entire scattering
problem! In others, however, one cannot obtain a final answer without knowing the details
of the scattering force as well as the initial conditions, or without knowing some of the
details of the final state.
To understand this, consider only elastic collisions. If the collision occurs in three di-
mensions, one has four equations from the kinematic relations – three independent mo-
mentum conservation equations (one for each component) plus one equation representing
kinetic energy conservation. However, the outgoing particle velocities have six numbers in
them – three components each. There simply aren’t enough kinematic constraints to be
able to predict the final state from the initial state without knowing the interaction.
Many collisions occur in two dimensions – think about the game of pool, for example,
where the cue ball “elastically” strikes the eight ball. In this case one has two momentum
conservation equations and one energy conservation equation, but one needs to solve for
the four components of two final velocities in two dimensions. Again we either need to know
something about the velocity of one of the two outgoing particles – say, its x-component –
or we cannot solve for the remaining components without a knowledge of the interaction.
Of course in the game of pool103 we do know something very important about the
interaction. It is a force that is exerted directly along the line connecting the centers of the
balls at the instant they strike one another! This is just enough information for us to be able
to mentally predict that the eight ball will go into the corner pocket if it begins at rest and is
struck by the cue ball on the line from that pocket back through the center of the eight ball.
This in turn is sufficient to predict the trajectory of the cue ball as well.
Two dimensional elastic collisions are thus almost solvable from the kinematics. This
makes them too difficult for students who are unlikely to spend much time analyzing actual
collisions (although it is worth it to look them over in the specific context of a good example,
one that many students have direct experience with, such as the game of pool/billiards).
Physics majors should spend some time here to prepare for more difficult problems later,
but life science students can probably skip this without any great harm.
One dimensional elastic collisions, on the other hand, have one momentum conserva-
tion equation and one energy conservation equation to use to solve for two unknown final
velocities. The number of independent equations and unknowns match! We can thus solve
one dimensional elastic collision problems without knowing the details of the collision force
from the kinematics alone.
Things are much simpler for fully inelastic collisions. Although one only has one, two,
or three momentum conservation equations, this precisely matches the number of compo-
nents in the final velocity of the two masses moving together as one after they have stuck
together! The final velocity is thus fully determined from the initial velocities (and hence
total momentum) of the colliding objects. Fully inelastic collisions are thus the easiest
collision problems to solve in any number of dimensions.
Partially inelastic collisions in any number of dimensions are the most difficult to solve
or least determined (from the kinematic point of view). There one loses the energy conser-
vation equation – one cannot even solve the one dimensional partially inelastic collision
problem without either being given some additional information about the final state – typ-
ically the final velocity of one of the two particles so that the other can be found from mo-
mentum conservation – or solving the dynamical equations of motion, which is generally
even more difficult.
This explains why this textbook focuses on only four relatively simple characteristic
collision problems. We first study elastic collisions in one dimension, solving them in two
slightly different ways that provide different insights into how the physics works out. I
then talk briefly about elastic collisions in two dimensions in an “elective” section that can
safely be omitted by non-physics majors (but is quite readable, I hope). We then cover
inelastic collisions in one and two dimensions, concentrating on the fully solvable case
(fully inelastic) but providing a simple example or two of partially inelastic collisions as well.
103
Or “billiards”.
4.6: 1-D Elastic Collisions
Before Collision
m
2
m v
1 v 2i
1i
Xcm
After Collision
m
m 2
v 1 v
1f 2f
Xcm
Figure 54: Before and after snapshots of an elastic collision in one dimension, illustrating
the important quantities.
In figure 54 above, we see a typical one-dimensional collision between two masses,

m1 and m2 . m1 has a speed in the x-direction v1i > 0 and m2 has a speed v2i < 0,
but our solution should not only handle the specific picture above, it should also handle
the (common) case where m2 is initially at rest (v2i = 0) or even the case where m2 is
moving to the right, but more slowly than m1 so that m1 overtakes it and collides with it,
v1i > v2i > 0. Finally, there is nothing special about the labels “1” and “2” – our answer
should be symmetric (still work if we label the mass on the left 2 and the mass on the right
1).
We seek final velocities that satisfy the two conditions that define an elastic collision.
Momentum Conservation:
p
~1i + p
~2i = p
~1f + p
~2f
m1 v1i x̂ + m2 v2i x̂ = m1 v1f x̂ + m2 v2f x̂ (4.69)
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f (x-direction only) (4.70)
Kinetic Energy Conservation:
Ek1i + Ek2i = Ek1f + Ek2f

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f (4.71)
2 2 2 2
Note well that although our figure shows m2 moving to the left, we expressed momentum
conservation without an assumed minus sign! Our solution has to be able to handle both
positive and negative velocities for either mass, so we will assume them to be positive in
our equations and simply use a negative value for e.g. v2i if it happens to be moving to the
left in an actual problem we are trying to solve.
The big question now is: Assuming we know m1 , m2 , v1i and v2i , can we find v1f and
v2f , even though we have not specified any of the details of the interaction between the two
masses during the collision? This is not a trivial question! In three dimensions, the answer
might well be no, not without more information. In one dimension, however, we have two
independent equations and two unknowns, and it turns out that these two conditions alone
suffice to determine the final velocities.
To get this solution, we must solve the two conservation equations above simultane-
ously. There are three ways to proceed.
One is to use simple substitution – manipulate the momentum equation to solve for
(say) v2f in terms of v1f and the givens, substitute it into the energy equation, and then
brute force solve the energy equation for v1f and back substitute to get v2f . This involves
solving an annoying quadratic (and a horrendous amount of intermediate algebra) and in
the end, gives us no insight at all into the conceptual “physics” of the solution. We will
therefore avoid it, although if one has the patience and care to work through it it will give
one the right answer.
The second approach is basically a much better/smarter (but perhaps less obvious)
algebraic solution, and gives us at least one important insight. We will treat it – the “relative
velocity” approach – first in the subsections below.
The third is the most informative, and (in my opinion) the simplest, of the three solu-
tions – once one has mastered the concept of the center of mass reference frame outlined
above. This “center of mass frame” approach (where the collision occurs right in front of
your eyes, as it were) is the one I suggest that all students learn, because it can be reduced
to four very simple steps and because it yields by far the most conceptual understanding
of the scattering process.
4.6.1: The Relative Velocity Approach
As I noted above, using direct substitution openly invites madness and frustration for all
but the most skilled young algebraists. Instead of using substitution, then, let’s rearrange
the energy conservation equation and momentum conservation equations to get all of the
terms with a common mass on the same side of the equals signs and do a bit of simple
manipulation of the energy equation as well:
2 2 2 2
m1 v1i − m1 v1f = m2 v2f − m2 v2i
2 2 2 2
m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )
m1 (v1i − v1f )(v1i + v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i )(v2i + v2f ) (4.72)
(from energy conservation) and
m1 (v1i − v1f ) = m2 (v2f − v2i ) (4.73)
(from momentum conservation).

When we divide the first of these by the second (subject to the condition that v1i 6= v1f
and v2i 6= v2f to avoid dividing by zero, a condition that incidentally guarantees that a
collision occurs as one possible solution to the kinematic equations alone is always for the
final velocities to equal the initial velocities, meaning that no collision occured), we get:
(v1i + v1f ) = (v2i + v2f ) (4.74)
or (rearranging):
(v2f − v1f ) = −(v2i − v1i ) (4.75)
This final equation can be interpreted as follows in English: The relative velocity of re-
cession after a collision equals (minus) the relative velocity of approach before a
collision. This is an important conceptual property of elastic collisions.
Although it isn’t obvious, this equation is independent from the momentum conservation
equation and can be used with it to solve for v1f and v2f , e.g. –
v2f = v1f − (v2i − v1i )

m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 (v1f − (v2i − v1i ))
(m1 + m2 )v1f = (m1 − m2 )v1i + 2m2 v2i (4.76)
Instead of just solving for v1f and either backsubstituting or invoking symmetry to find v2f
we now work a bit of algebra magic that you won’t see the point of until the end. Specifically,
let’s add zero to this equation by adding and subtracting m1 v1i :
(m1 + m2 )v1f = (m1 − m2 )v1i + 2m2 v2i + (m1 v1i − m1 v1i )

(m1 + m2 )v1f = −(m1 + m2 )v1i + 2 (m2 v2i + m1 v1i ) (4.77)
(check this on your own). Finally, we divide through by m1 + m2 and get:

m1 v1i + m2 v2i
v1f = −v1i + 2 (4.78)
m1 + m2
The last term is just two times the total initial momentum divided by the total mass,
which we should recognize to be able to write:
v1f = −v1i + 2vcm (4.79)
There is nothing special about the labels “1” and “2”, so the solution for mass 2 must be
identical:
v2f = −v2i + 2vcm (4.80)
although you can also obtain this directly by backsubstituting v1f into equation 4.75.
This solution looks simple enough and isn’t horribly difficult to memorize, but the deriva-
tion is difficult to understand and hence learn. Why do we perform the steps above, or
rather, why should we have known to try those steps? The best answer is because they
end up working out pretty well, a lot better than brute force substitutions (the obvious thing
to try), which isn’t very helpful. We’d prefer a good reason, one linked to our eventual
conceptual understanding of the scattering process, and while equation 4.75 had a whiff
of concept and depth and ability to be really learned in it (justifying the work required to
obtain the result) the “magical” appearance of vcm in the final answer in a very simple and
symmetric way is quite mysterious (and only occurs after performing some adding-zero-in-
just-the-right-form dark magic from the book of algebraic arts).
To understand the collision and why this in particular is the answer, it is easiest to put
everything into the center of mass (CM) reference frame, evaluate the collision, and
then put the results back into the lab frame! This (as we will see) naturally leads to the
same result, but in a way we can easily understand and that gives us valuable practice in
frame transformations besides!
4.6.2: 1D Elastic Collision in the Center of Mass Frame
Here is a bone-simple recipe for solving the 1D elastic collision problem in the center of
mass frame.
a) Transform the problem (initial velocities) into the center of mass frame.
b) Solve the problem. The “solution” in the center of mass frame is (as we will see)
trivial: Reverse the center of mass velocities.
c) Transform the answer back into the lab/original frame.
Suppose as before we have two masses, m1 and m2 , approaching each other with
velocities v1i and v2i , respectively. We start by evaluating the velocity of the CM frame:
m1 v1i + m2 v2i
vcm = (4.81)
m1 + m2
and then transform the initial velocities into the CM frame:
′
v1i = v1i − vcm (4.82)
′
v2i = v2i − vcm (4.83)
We know that momentum must be conserved in any inertial coordinate frame (in the
impact approximation). In the CM frame, of course, the total momentum is zero so that the
momentum conservation equation becomes:
′ ′ ′ ′
m1 v1i + m2 v2i = m1 v1f + m2 v2f (4.84)
p′1i + p′2i = p′1f + p′2f =0 (4.85)
Thus p′i = p′1i = −p′2i and p′f = p′1f = −p′2f . The energy conservation equation (in
terms of the p’s) becomes:
p′2
i p′2
i
p′2
f p′2
f
+ = + or
2m1 2m2 2m1 2m2

′2 1 1 ′2 1 1
pi + = pf + so that
2m1 2m2 2m1 2m2
p′2
i = p′2
f (4.86)
Taking the square root of both sides (and recalling that p′i refers equally well to mass 1
or 2):
p′1f = ±p′1i (4.87)

p′2f = ±p′2i (4.88)
The + sign rather obviously satisfies the two conservation equations. The two particles
keep on going at their original speed and with their original energy! This is, actually, a
perfectly good solution to the scattering problem and could be true even if the particles
“hit” each other. The more interesting case (and the one that is appropriate for “hard”
particles that cannot interpenetrate) is for the particles to bounce apart in the center of
mass frame after the collision. We therefore choose the minus sign in this result:
p′1f = m1 v1f
′ ′
= −m1 v1i = −p′1i (4.89)
p′2f = m2 v2f
′ ′
= −m2 v2i = −p′2i (4.90)
Since the masses are the same before and after we can divide them out of each equa-
tion and obtain the solution to the elastic scattering problem in the CM frame as:
′ ′
v1f = −v1i (4.91)
′ ′
v2f = −v2i (4.92)
or the velocities of m1 and m2 reverse in the CM frame.

This actually makes sense. It guarantees that if the momentum was zero before it is still
zero, and since the speed of the particles is unchanged (only the direction of their velocity
in this frame changes) the total kinetic energy is similarly unchanged.
Finally, it is trivial to put the these solutions back into the lab frame by adding vcm to
them:
′
v1f = v1f + vcm
′
= −v1i + vcm
= −(v1i − vcm ) + vcm or
v1f = −v1i + 2vcm and similarly (4.93)
v2f = −v2i + 2vcm (4.94)
These are the exact same solutions we got in the first example/derivation above, but now
they have considerably more meaning. The “solution” to the elastic collision problem in
the CM frame is that the velocities reverse (which of course makes the relative velocity of
approach be the negative of the relative velocity of recession, by the way). We can see that
this is the solution in the center of mass frame in one dimension without doing the formal
algebra above, it makes sense!
That’s it then: to solve the one dimensional elastic collision problem all one has to do is
transform the initial velocities into the CM frame, reverse them, and transform them back.
Nothing to it.
Note that (however it is derived) these solutions are completely symmetric – we obvi-
ously don’t care which of the two particles is labelled “1” or “2”, so the answer should have
exactly the same form for both. Our derived answers clearly have that property. In the end,
we only need one equation (plus our ability to evaluate the velocity of the center of mass):
vf = −vi + 2vcm (4.95)
valid for either particle.

If you are a physics major, you should be prepared to derive this result one of the
various ways it can be derived (I’d strongly suggest the last way, using the CM frame). If
you are e.g. a life science major or engineer, you should derive this result for yourself at
least once, at least one of the ways (again, I’d suggest that last one) but then you are also
welcome to memorize/learn the resulting solution well enough to use it.
Note well! If you remember the three steps needed for the center of mass frame deriva-
tion, even if you forget the actual solution on a quiz or a test – which is probably quite likely
as I have little confidence in memorization as a learning tool for mountains of complicated
material – you have a prayer of being able to rederive it on a test.
4.6.3: The “BB/bb” or “Pool Ball” Limits
In collision problems in general, it is worthwhile thinking about the “ball bearing and bowling
ball (BB) limits”104 . In the context of elastic 1D collision problems, these are basically the
asymptotic results one obtains when one hits a stationary bowling ball (large mass, BB)
with rapidly travelling ball bearing (small mass, bb).
This should be something you already know the answer to from experience and intu-
ition. We all know that if you shoot a bb gun at a bowling ball so that it collides elastically,
it will bounce back off of it (almost) as fast as it comes in and the bowloing ball will hardly
recoil105 . Given that vcm in this case is more or less equal to vBB , that is, vcm ≈ 0 (just a
bit greater), note that this is exactly what the solution predicts.
What happens if you throw a bowling ball at a stationary bb? Well, we know perfectly
well that the BB in this case will just continue barrelling along at more or less vc m (still
roughly equal to the velocity of the more massive bowling ball) – ditto, when your car hits a
bug with the windshield, it doesn’t significantly slow down. The bb (or the bug) on the other
hand, bounces forward off of the BB (or the windshield)!
In fact, according to our results above, it will bounce off the BB and recoil forward at
approximately twice the speed of the BB. Note well that both of these results preserve
the idea derived above that the relative velocity of approach equals the relative velocity
of recession, and you can transform from one to the other by just changing your frame of
reference to ride along with BB or bb – two different ways of looking at the same collision.
Finally, there is the “pool ball limit” – the elastic collision of roughly equal masses. When
the cue ball strikes another ball head on (with no English), then as pool players well know
the cue ball stops (nearly) dead and the other ball continues on at the original speed of the
cue ball. This, too, is exactly what the equations/solutions above predict, since in this case
vcm = v1i /2.
Our solutions thus agree with our experience and intuition in both the limits where one
mass is much larger than the other and when they are both roughly the same size. One
has to expect that they are probably valid everywhere. Any answer you derive (such as
this one) ultimately has to pass the test of common-sense agreement with your every-
day experience. This one seems to, however difficult the derivation was, it appears to be
104
Also known as the “windshield and bug limits”...
105
...and you’ll put your eye out – kids, do not try this at home!
correct!
As you can probably guess from the extended discussion above, pool is a good exam-
ple of a game of “approximately elastic collisions” because the hard balls used in the game
have a very elastic coefficient of restitution, another way of saying that the surfaces of the
balls behave like very small, very hard springs and store and re-release the kinetic energy
of the collision from a conservative impulse type force.
However, it also opens up the question: What happens if the collision between two balls
is not along a line? Well, then we have to take into account momentum conservation in
two dimensions. So alas, my fellow human students, we are all going to have to bite the
bullet and at least think a bit about collisions in more than one dimension.
4.7: Elastic Collisions in 2-3 Dimensions
As we can see, elastic collisions in one dimension are “good” because we can completely
solve them using only kinematics – we don’t care about the details of the interaction be-
tween the colliding entities; we can find the final state from the initial state for all possible
elastic forces and the only differences that will depend on the forces will be things like how
long it takes for the collision to occur.
In 2+ dimensions we at the very least have to work much harder to solve the problem.
We will no longer be able to use nothing but vector momentum conservation and energy
conservation to solve the problem independent of most of the details of the interaction. In
two dimensions we have to solve for four outgoing components of velocity (or momentum),
but we only have conservation equations for two components of momentum and kinetic en-
ergy. Three equations, four unknowns means that the problem is indeterminate unless we
are told at least one more thing about the final state, such as one of the components of the
velocity or momentum of one of the outgoing masses. In three dimensions it is even worse
– we must solve for six outgoing components of velocity/momentum but have only four
conservation equations (three momentum, one energy) and need at least two additional
pieces of information. Kinematics alone is simply insufficient to solve the scattering prob-
lem – need to know the details of the potential/force of interaction and solve the equations
of motion for the scattering in order to predict the final/outgoing state from a knowledge of
the initial/incoming state.
The dependence of the outoing scattering on the interaction is good and bad. The
good thing is that we can learn things about the interaction from the results of a collision
experiment (in one dimension, note well, our answers didn’t depend on the interaction
force so we learn nothing at all about that force aside from the fact that it is elastic from
scattering data). The bad is that for the most part the algebra and calculus involved in
solving multidimensional collisions is well beyond the scope of this course. Physics majors,
and perhaps a few other select individuals in other majors or professions, will have to sweat
blood later to work all this out for a tiny handful of interaction potentials where the problem
is analytically solvable, but not yet!
Still, there are a few things that are within the scope of the course, at least for majors.
These involve learning a bit about how to set up a good coordinate frame for the scattering,
and how to treat “hard sphere” elastic collisions which turn out to be two dimensional, and
hence solvable from kinematics plus a single assumption about recoil direction in at least
some simple cases. Let’s look at scattering in two dimensions in the case where the target
particle is at rest and the outgoing particles lie (necessarily) in a plane.
We expect both energy and momentum to be conserved in any elastic collision. This
gives us the following set of equations:
p0x = p1x + p2x (4.96)

p0y = p1y + p2y (4.97)
p0z = p1z + p2z (4.98)
(for momentum conservation) and

p20 p2 p2
= E0 = E1 + E2 = 1 + 2 (4.99)
2m1 2m1 m2
for kinetic energy conservation.
We have four equations, and four unknowns, so we might hope to be able to solve it
quite generally. However, we don’t really have that many equations – if we assume that the
scattering plane is the x − y plane, then necessarily p0z = p1z = p2z = 0 and this equation
tells us nothing useful. We need more information in order to be able to solve the problem.
p
2
m2 p
2y
m1 p
p0 φ 2x
θ p
m1 1x
p p
1 1y
Figure 55: The geometry for an elastic collision in a two-dimensional plane.
Let’s see what we can tell in this case. Examine figure 55. Note that we have introduced
two angles: θ and φ for the incident and target particle’s outgoing angle with respect to the
incident direction. Using them and setting p0y = p0z = 0 (and assuming that the target is
at rest initially and has no momentum at all initially) we get:
p0x = p1x + p2x = p1 cos(θ) + p2 cos(φ) (4.100)

p0y = p1y + p2y = 0 = −p1 sin(θ) + p2 sin(φ) (4.101)
In other words, the momentum in the x-direction is conserved, and the momentum in
the y-direction (after the collision) cancels. The latter is a powerful relation – if we know
the y-momentum of one of the outgoing particles, we know the other. If we know the
magnitudes/energies of both, we know an important relation between their angles.
This, however, puts us no closer to being able to solve the general problem (although
it does help with a special case that is on your homework). To make real progress, it is
necessarily to once again change to the center of mass reference frame by subtracting ~
v cm
from the velocity of both particles. We can easily do this:
~′i1 = m1 (~
p v0 − ~
v cm ) = m1 u1 (4.102)
~′i2
p = −m2~
v cm = m2 u2 (4.103)
~′i1 + p
so that p ~′i2 = p
~′tot = 0 in the center of mass frame as usual. The initial energy in the
center of mass frame is just:
′ ′
p2 p2
Ei = i1 + i2 (4.104)
2m1 2m2
Since p′i1 = p′i2 = p′i (the magnitudes are equal) we can simplify this a bit further:
′ ′ ′ ′
p2i p2i p2i 1 1 p2i m1 + m2
Ei = + = + = (4.105)
2m1 2m2 2 m1 m2 2 m1 m2
After the collision, we can see by inspection of

′ ′ ′ ′
p2f p2f p2f p2f m1 + m2

1 1
Ef = + = + = = Ei (4.106)
2m1 2m2 2 m1 m2 2 m1 m2
that p′f 1 = p′f 2 = p′f = p′i will cause energy to be conserved, just as it was for a 1 dimen-
sional collision. All that can change, then, is the direction of the incident momentum in the
center of mass frame. In addition, since the total momentum in the center of mass frame
is by definition zero before and after the collision, if we know the direction of either particle
after the collision in the center of mass frame, the other is the opposite:
~′f 1 = −~
p p′f 2 (4.107)
We have then “solved” the collision as much as it can be solved. We cannot uniquely
predict the direction of the final momentum of either particle in the center of mass (or
any other) frame without knowing more about the interaction and e.g. the incident impact
parameter. We can predict the magnitude of the outgoing momenta, and if we know the
outgoing direction alone of either particle we can find everything – the magnitude and
direction of the other particle’s momentum and the magnitude of the momentum of the
particle whose angle we measured.
As you can see, this is all pretty difficult, so we’ll leave it at this point as a partially
solved problem, ready to be tackled again for specific interactions or collision models in a
future course.
4.8: Inelastic Collisions
A fully inelastic collision is where two particles collide and stick together. As always, mo-
mentum is conserved in the impact approximation, but now kinetic energy is not! In fact,
we will see that macroscopic kinetic energy is always lost in an inelastic collision, either to
heat or to some sort of mechanism that traps and reversibly stores the energy.
These collisions are much easier to understand and analyze than elastic collisions.
That is because there are fewer degrees of freedom in an inelastic collision – we can
easily solve them even in 2 or 3 dimensions. The whole solution is developed from
p
~i,ntot = m1~
v 1i + m2~
v 2i = (m1 + m2 )~
v f = (m1 + m2 )~
v cm = p
~f,tot (4.108)
In other words, in a fully inelastic collision, the velocity of the outgoing combined particle
is the velocity of the center of mass of the system, which we can easily compute from a
knowledge of the initial momenta or velocities and masses. Of course! How obvious! How
easy!
From this relation you can easily find ~ v f in any number of dimensions, and answer many
related questions. The collision is “solved”. However, there are a number of different kinds
of problems one can solve given this basic solution – things that more or less tag additional
physics problems on to the end of this initial one and use its result as their starting point,
so you have to solve two or more subproblems in one long problem, one of which is the
“inelastic collision”. This is best illustrated in some archetypical examples.
Example 4.8.1: One-dimensional Fully Inelastic Collision (only)
v0 m2
m1
vf
m1 m2
Figure 56: Two blocks of mass m1 and m2 collide and stick together on a frictionless table.
In figure 56 above, a block m1 is sliding across a frictionless table at speed v0 to strike

a second block m2 initially at rest, whereupon they stick together and move together as
one thereafter at some final speed vf .
Before, after, and during the collision, gravity acts but is opposed by a normal force.
There is no friction or drag force doing any work. The only forces in play are the internal
forces mediating the collision and making the blocks stick together. We therefore know
that momentum is conserved in this problem independent of the features of that internal
interaction. Even if friction or drag forces did act, as long as the collision took place “in-
stantly” in the impact approximation, momentum would still be conserved from immediately
before to immediately after the collision, when the impulse ∆p of the collision force would
be much, much larger than any change in momentum due to the drag over the same small
time ∆t.
Thus:
pi = m1 v0 = (m1 + m2 )vf = pf (4.109)
or
mv0
vf = ( = vcm ) (4.110)
(m1 + m2 )
A traditional question that accompanies this is: How much kinetic energy was lost in
the collision? We can answer this by simply figuring it out.
p2f
p2
∆K = Kf − Ki = − i
2(m1 + m2 ) 2m1
2

pi 1 1
= −
2 (m1 + m2 ) m1

p2i m1 − (m1 + m2 )
=
2 m1 (m1 + m2 )
2

pi m2
= −
2m1 (m1 + m2 )

m2
= − Ki (4.111)
(m1 + m2 )
where we have expressed the result as a fraction of the initial kinetic energy!
There is a different way to think about the collision and energy loss. In figure 57 you
see the same collision portrayed in the CM frame. In this frame, the two particles always
Before Collision
m
2
m v
1 v 2i
1i
Xcm
After Collision
m +m
1 2
Xcm
Figure 57: Two blocks collide and stick together on a frictionless table – in the center of
mass frame. After the collision they are both at rest at the center of mass and all of the
kinetic energy they had before the collision in this frame is lost.
come together and stick to remain, at rest, at the center of mass after the collision. All of
the kinetic energy in the CM frame is lost in the collision! That’s exactly the amount
we just computed, but I’m leaving the proof of that as an exercise for you.
Note well the BB limits: For a light bb (m1 ) striking a massive BB (m2 ), nearly all the
energy is lost. This sort of collision between an asteroid (bb) and the earth (BB) caused
at least one of the mass extinction events, the one that ended the Cretaceous and gave
mammals the leg up that they needed in a world dominated (to that point) by dinosaurs.
For a massive BB (m1 ) stricking a light bb (m2 ) very little of the energy of the massive
object is lost. Your truck hardly slows when it smushes a bug “inelastically” against the
windshield. In the equal billiard ball bb collision (m1 = m2 ), exactly one half of the initial
kinetic energy is lost.
A similar collision in 2D is given for your homework, where a truck and a car inelastically
collide and then slide down the road together. In this problem friction works, but not during
the collision! Only after the “instant” (impact approximation) collision do we start to worry
about the effect of friction.
Example 4.8.2: Ballistic Pendulum
The classic ballistic pendulum question gives you the mass of the block M , the mass of
the bullet m, the length of a string or rod suspending the “target” block from a free pivot,
and the initial velocity of the bullet v0 . It then asks for the maximum angle θf through
which the pendulum swings after the bullet hits and sticks to the block (or alternatively, the
θf
R
v M
m
Figure 58: The “ballistic pendulum”, where a bullet strikes and sticks to/in a block, which
then swings up to a maximum angle θf before stopping and swinging back down.
maximum height H through which it swings). Variants abound – on your homework you
might be asked to find the minimum speed v0 the bullet must have in order the the block
whirl around in a circle on a never-slack string, or on the end of a rod. Still other variants
permit the bullet to pass through the block and emerge with a different (smaller) velocity.
You should be able to do them all, if you completely understand this example (and the other
physics we have learned up to now, of course).
There is an actual lab that is commonly done to illustrate the physics; in this lab one
typically measures the maximum horizontal displacement of the block, but it amounts to
the same thing once one does the trigonometry.
The solution is simple:
• During the collision momentum is conserved in the impact approximation, which

in this case basically implies that the block has no time to swing up appreciably
“during” the actual collision.
• After the collision mechanical energy is conserved. Mechanical energy is not

conserved during the collision (see solution above of straight up inelastic collision).
One can replace the second sub-problem with any other problem that requires a knowledge
of either vf or Kf immediately after the collision as its initial condition. Ballistic loop-the-
loop problems are entirely possible, in other words!
At this point the algebra is almost anticlimactic: The collision is one-dimensional (in the
x-direction). Thus (for block M and bullet m) we have momentum conservation:
pm,0 = mv0 = pM +m,f (4.112)
Now if we were foolish we’d evaluate vM +m,f to use in the next step: mechanical energy
conservation. Being smart, we instead do the kinetic part of mechanical energy conserva-
tion in terms of momentum:

p2B+b,f p2b,0
E0 = =
2(M + m) 2(M + m)
= Ef = (M + m)gH
= (M + m)gR(1 − cos θf ) (4.113)
Thus:
(mv0 )2
θf = cos−1 (1 − ) (4.114)
2(M + m)2 gR
which only has a solution if mv0 is less than some maximum value. What does it mean if it
is greater than this value (there is no inverse cosine of an argument with magnitude bigger
than 1)? Will this answer “work” if θ > π/2, for a string? For a rod? For a track?
Don’t leave your common sense at the door when solving problems using algebra!
Example 4.8.3: Partially Inelastic Collision
Let’s briefly consider the previous example in the case where the bullet passes through the
block and emerges on the far side with speed v1 < v0 (both given). How is the problem
going to be different?
Not at all, not really. Momentum is still conserved during the collision, mechanical
energy after. The only two differences are that we have to evaluate the speed vf of the
block M after the collision from this equation:
p0 = m1 v0 = M vf + mv1 = pm + p1 = pf (4.115)
so that:
∆p m(v0 − v1 )
vf = = (4.116)
M M
We can read this as “the momentum transferred to the block is the momentum lost by the
bullet” because momentum is conserved. Given vf of the block only, you should be able
to find e.g. the kinetic energy lost in this collision or θf or whatever in any of the many
variants involving slightly different “after”-collision subproblems.
4.9: Kinetic Energy in the CM Frame
Finally, let’s consider the relationship between kinetic energy in the lab frame and the CM
frame, using all of the velocity relations we developed above as needed. We start with:
X1 X p2
Ktot = mi vi2 = i
. (4.117)
2 2mi
i i
in the lab/rest frame.

We recall (from above) that
~ v ′i + ~
vi = ~ v cm (4.118)
so that:

p v ′i + ~
v i = mi ~
~i = mi~ v cm (4.119)
Then
p2i v ′i · ~
m2 v ′2 2m2i ~ v 2cm m2i vcm
2
Ki = = i i + + . (4.120)
2mi 2mi 2mi 2mi
If we sum this as before to construct the total kinetic energy:

!
X X p′2 P2 X
Ktot = Ki = i
+ tot + ~
v cm · v ′i
mi~ ·~
v cm (4.121)
2mi 2Mtot
i i i
| {z }
P
= ~′i
ip =0
or
Ktot = K(in cm) + K(of cm) (4.122)
We thus see that the total kinetic energy in the lab frame is the sum of the kinetic energy
of all the particles in the CM frame plus the kinetic energy of the CM frame (system) itself
(viewed as single “object”).
To conclude, at last we can understand the mystery of the baseball – how it behaves
like a particle itself and yet also accounts for all of the myriad of particles it is made up
of. The Newtonian motion of the baseball as a system of particles is identical to that of a
particle of the same mass experiencing the same total force. The “best” location to assign
the baseball (of all of the points inside) is the center of mass of the baseball. In the frame
of the CM of the baseball, the total momentum of the parts of the baseball is zero (but
the baseball itself has momentum Mtot~ v relative to the ground). Finally, the kinetic energy
of a baseball flying through the air is the kinetic energy of the “baseball itself” (the entire
system viewed as a particle) plus the kinetic energy of all the particles that make up the
baseball measured in the CM frame of the baseball itself. This is comprised of rotational
kinetic energy (which we will shortly treat) plus all the general vibrational (atomic) kinetic
energy that is what we would call heat.
We see that we can indeed break up big systems into smaller/simpler systems, solve
the smaler problems, and reassemble the solutions into a big solution, even as we can
combine many, many small problems into one bigger and simpler problem and ignore or
average over the details of what goes on “inside” the little problems. Treating many bodies
at the same time can be quite complex, and we’ve only scratched the surface here, but it
should be enough to help you understand both many things in your daily life and (just as
important) the rest of this book.
Next up (after the homework) we’ll pursue this idea of motion in plus motion of a bit
further in the context of torque and rotating systems.
Homework for Week 4
Problem 1.
Problem 2.
This problem will help you learn required concepts such as:
• Center of Mass
• Integrating a Distribution of Mass
so please review them before you begin.

In the figure above, a uniformly thick piece of wire is bent into 3/4 of a circular arc as
shown. Find the center of mass of the wire in the coordinate system given, using integration
to find the xcm and ycm components separately.
Problem 3.
Suppose we have a block of mass m sitting initially at rest on a table. A massless string
is attached to the block and to a motor that delivers a constant power P to the block as it
pulls it in the x-direction.
a) Find the tension T in the string as a function of v, the speed of the block in the
x-direction, initially assuming that the table is frictionless.
b) Find the acceleration of the block as a function of v.
c) Solve the equation of motion to find the velocity of the block as a function of time.
Show that the result is the same that you would get by evaluating:
Z t
1 1
P dt = mvf2 − mv02
0 2 2
with v0 = 0.
d) Suppose that the table exerts a constant force of kinetic friction on the block in the
opposite direction to v, with a coefficient of kinetic friction µk . Find the “terminal
velocity” of the system after a very long time has passed. Hint: What is the total
power delivered to the block by the motor and friction combined at that time?
Problem 4.
U(x)
E1
x
E2
E3
• Potential energy/total energy diagrams
• Finding the force from the potential energy
• Identifying turning points and stable/unstable equilibribum points on a graph of the

potential energy
• Identifying classically forbidden versus allowed domains of motion (in one dimension)
on an energy diagram
a) On (a large copy of) the diagram above, place a small letter ‘u’ to mark points of
unstable equilibrium.
b) Place the letter ‘s’ to mark points of stable equilibrium.
c) On the curve itself, place a few arrows in each distinct region indicating the direction
of the force. Try to make the lengths of the arrows proportional in a relative way to
the arrow you draw for the largest magnitude force.
d) For the three energies shown, mark the turning points of motion with the letter ‘t’.
allowed
e) For energy E2 , place z }| { to mark out the classically allowed region where the
particle might be found. Place | {z } to mark out the classically forbidden region
forbidden
where the particle can never be found.
Problem 5.
30
20
10
U(x)
0
-10
-20
-30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2
• Energy conservation and the use of E = K + U in graphs.
• Finding the force from the potential energy.
• Finding turning points and stable/unstable equilibrium points from algebraic expres-
sions for the potential as well as visualizing the result on a graph.

An object moves in the force produced by a potential energy function:
1 10
U (x) = 12 − 6
x x
This is a one-dimensional representation of an actual important physical potential, the
Lennard-Jones potential. This one-dimensional “12-6” Lennard-Jones potential models
the dipole-induced dipole Van der Waals interaction between two atoms or molecules in a
gas, but the “12-10” form can also model hydrogen bonds in physical chemistry. Note well
that the force is strongly repulsive inside the E = 0 turning point xt (which one can think
of as where the atoms “collide”) but weakly attractive for all x > x0 , the position of stable
equilibrium.
a) Write an algebraic expression for Fx (x).
b) Find x0 , the location of the stable equilibrium distance predicted by this potential.
c) Find U (x0 ) the binding energy for an object located at this distance.
d) Find xt , the turning point distance for E = 0. This is essentially the sum of the radii
of the two atoms (in suitable coordinates – the parameters used in this problem are
not intended to be physical).
Problem 6.
(a) m
v = 0 (for both)
(b)
vM M vm
m
• Momentum Conservation
• Fully Elastic Collisions

A small block with mass m is sitting on a large block of mass M that is sloped so that
the small block can slide down the larger block. There is no friction between the two blocks,
no friction between the large block and the table, and no drag force. The center of mass of
the small block is located a height H above where it would be if it were sitting on the table,
and both blocks are started at rest (so that the total momentum of this system is zero, note
well!)
a) Are there any net external forces acting in this problem? What quantities do you
expect to be conserved?
b) Using suitable conservation laws, find the velocities of the two blocks after the small
block has slid down the larger one and they have separated.
c) To check your answer, consider the limiting case of M → ∞ (where one rather ex-
pects the larger block to pretty much not move). Does your answer to part b) give
you the usual result for a block of mass m sliding down from a height H on a fixed
incline?
d) This problem doesn’t look like a collision problem, but it easily could be half of one.
Look carefully at your answer, and see if you can determine what initial velocity one
should give the two blocks so that they would move together and precisely come to
rest with the smaller block a height H above the ground. If you put the two halves
together, you have solved a fully elastic collision in one dimension in the case where
the center of mass velocity is zero!
Problem 7.
(a) (2 at rest)
vo
1 2
vcm
(b)
1 2
(c)
v1 v2
1 2
• Energy conservation
• Impulse and average force in a collision

This problem is intended to walk you through the concepts associated with collisions in
one dimension.
In (a) above, mass m1 approaches mass m2 at velocity v0 to the right. Mass m2 is
initially at rest. An ideal massless spring with spring constant k is attached to mass m2
and we will assume that it will not be fully compressed from its uncompressed length in
this problem.
Begin by considering the forces that act, neglecting friction and drag forces. What will
be conserved throughout this problem?
a) In (b) above, mass m1 has collided with mass m2 , compressing the spring. At the
particular instant shown, both masses are moving with the same velocity to the right.
Find this velocity. What physical principle do you use?
b) Also find the compression ∆x of the spring at this instant. What physical principle do
you use?
c) The spring has sprung back, pushing the two masses apart. Find the final velocities
of the two masses. Note that the diagram assumes that m2 > m1 to guess the final
directions, but in general your answer should make sense regardless of their relative
mass.
d) So check this. What are the two velocities in the “BB limits” – the m1 ≫ m2 (bowling
ball strikes ball bearing) and m1 ≪ m2 (ball bearing strikes bowling ball) limits? In
other words, does your answer make dimensional and intuitive sense?
e) In this particular problem one could in principle solve Newton’s second law because
the elastic collision force is known. In general, of course, it is not known, although
for a very stiff spring this model is an excellent one to model collisions between
hard objects. Assuming that the spring is sufficiently stiff that the two masses are in
contact for a very short time ∆t, write a simple expression for the impulse imparted
to m2 and qualitatively sketch Fav over this time interval compared to Fx (t).
Problem 8.
vf
vo θ
m
vo
• Fully Inelastic Collisions

In the figure above, a large, heavy truck with mass M speeds through a red light to
collide with a small, light compact car of mass m. Both cars fail to brake and are travelling
at the speed limit (v0 ) at the time of the collision, and their metal frames tangle together in
the collision so that after the collision they move as one big mass.
a) Which exerts a larger force on the other, the car or the truck?
b) Which transfers a larger momentum to the other, the car or the truck?
c) What is the final velocity of the wreck immediately after the collision (please give
(vf , θ))?
d) How much kinetic energy was lost in the collision?
e) If the tires blow and the wreckage has a coefficient of kinetic friction µk with the
ground after the collision, set up an expression in terms of vf that will let you solve
for how far the wreck slides before coming to a halt. You do not need to substitute
your expression from part c) into this and get a final answer, but you should definitely
be able to do this on a quiz or exam.
Problem 9.
xj
xb
xr
mj mb mr
Romeo and Juliet are sitting in a boat at rest next to a dock, looking deeply into each
other’s eyes. Juliet, overcome with emotion, walks from her end of the boat to sit beside
him and give Romeo a chaste kiss on the cheek. The water exerts negligible friction or
drag force on the boat along its length as she moves.
Assume that the masses and initial positions of the centers of mass of Romeo, Juliet
and the boat are (mr , xr ), (mj , xj ), (mb , xb ), (where x is measured from the dock as shown).
a) Given no x-directed friction or drag forces, what quantity is conserved while she is
moving?
b) How far D has the boat moved away from the dock when she reaches him? (Hint:
What is the velocity of the center of mass given your answer to a)? Draw a good
picture of the boat with Juliet sitting with Romeo on the same coordinate frame!)
c) Does your answer to b) make sense when mb ≫ mj + mr (the boat is the Titanic, for
example) and when mj ≫ mb + mr (the boat is an ultra-light canoe and Romeo is a
tiny Romeo-doll)?
d) While she is moving to the right at the instantaneous speed v, the boat and Romeo
are moving at speed v ′ in the opposite direction. What is the ratio v ′ /v?
e) What is vrel , their relative speed of approach, in terms of v.

Problem 10.
m H
• Newton’s Second Law
• Gravitation
• Impulse and Average Force
• Fully Elastic Collisions

In the figure above, a feeder device provides a steady stream of beads of mass m that
fall a distance H and bounce elastically off of one of the hard metal pans of a beam balance
scale (and then fall somewhere else into a hopper and disappear from our problem). N
beads per second come out of the feeder to bounce off of the pan. Our goal is to derive an
expression for M , the mass we should put on the other pan to balance the average force
exerted by this stream of beads106
a) First, the easy part. The beads come off of the feeder with an initial velocity of
v = v0x x̂ in the x-direction only. Find the y-component of the velocity vy when a
~
single bead hits the pan after falling a height H.
b) Since the beads bounce elastically, the x-component of their velocity is unchanged
and the y-component reverses. Find the change of the momentum of this bead ∆~ p
during its collision.
c) Compute the average force being exerted on the stream of beads by the pan over a
second (assuming that N ≫ 1, so that many beads strike the pan per second).
d) Use Newton’s Third Law to deduce the average force exerted by the beads on the
pan, and from this determine the mass M that would produce the same force on the
other pan to keep the scale in balance.
106
This is very similar (conceptually) to the way a gas microscopically exerts a force on a surface that confines
it; we will later use this idea to understand the pressure exerted by a fluid and to derive the kinetic theory of
gases and the ideal gas law P V = N kT , which is why I assign it in particular now.
Problem 11.
v M
m
• Conservation of Momentum
• Conservation of Energy
• Disposition of energy in fully inelastic collisions
• Circular motion
• The different kinds of constraint forces exerted by rigid rods versus strings.

A block of mass M is attached to a rigid massless rod of length R (pivot to center-of-
mass of the block/bullet distance at collision) and is suspended from a frictionless pivot. A
bullet of mass m travelling at velocity v strikes it as shown and is quickly stopped by friction
in the hole so that the two masses move together as one thereafter. Find:
a) The minimum speed vr that the bullet must have in order to swing through a complete
circle after the collision. Note well that the pendulum is attached to a rod!
b) The energy lost in the collision when the bullet is incident at this speed.

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Introductory Physics I

• Introductory Physics I and II

Ocean roaring, whipped by storm

Chop water, carry

I: Getting Ready to Learn Physics 3

II: Elementary Mechanics 37

Week 1: Newton’s Laws 39

1.6: Force Balance – Static Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Week 2: Newton’s Laws: Continued 117

Example 2.2.1: Falling From a Plane and Surviving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

Week 3: Work and Energy 169

Example 3.4.4: Looping the Loop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

Week 4: Systems of Particles, Momentum and Collisions 215

4.6: 1-D Elastic Collisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246

Week 5: Torque and Rotation in One Dimension 275

Example 5.7.1: Work and Energy in Atwood’s Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . 299

Week 6: Vector Torque and Angular Momentum 325

Homework for Week 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358

Week 7: Statics 365

III: Applications of Mechanics 393

Week 8: Fluids 393

8.1.9: Variation of Pressure in Compressible Fluids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410

Week 9: Oscillations 459

9.3.2: Energy Damping: Q-value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480

Week 10: The Wave Equation 523

Homework for Week 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539

Week 11: Sound 551

Week 12: Gravity 591

12.8: Bridging the Gap: Coulomb’s Law and Electrostatics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619

http://www.phy.duke.edu/∼rgb/Class/math for intro physics.php

Textbook Layout and Design

• All mathematics required by the student is reviewed in a standalone, cross-referenced

in a single college semester with at most a chapter a week.

• Verbal and conceptual understanding is, of course, very important. It is expected to

See, Do, Teach

the stratosphere compared to what it was before...

Other Conditions for Learning

Your Brain and Learning

• An important brain model is a neural network10 . Computer simulated neural net-

• The fundamental operational units of the brain’s information processing functionality

• Neurotransmitters require biological resources to produce and consume bioenergy

How to Do Your Homework Effectively

a) Review the whole (typically textbooks and/or notes)

b) Work on the parts (do homework, use it for something)

The Method of Three Passes

to do most of the problems, an understandable student response when presented with

• What are the two values of α that solve:

• What is the cross product of the two vectors ~ ~ = Fy ŷ (magnitude and

Homework for Week 0

• Physics is a language – in particular the language of a certain kind of worldview. For

• Coordinates are the fundamental adjectival modifiers corresponding to the differenti-

– Wikipedia: http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate System

a) meters – the SI units of length

• Laws of Nature are essentially mathematical postulates that permit us to understand

a) Law of Inertia: Objects at rest or in uniform motion (at a constant velocity) in

b) Law of Dynamics: The net force applied to an object is directly proportional to

where we introduce the momentum of a particle, p v , in the last way of

• An inertial reference frame is a spatial coordinate system plus an indepen-

• Forces of Nature (weakest to strongest):