Artscope Journal 2

1| ARTSCOPE: A Journal of School of Arts and Social Sciences
TOWARDS A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF NEW ELECTORAL

ACT: AN ASSESSMENT OF 2019 GUBERNATORIAL AND NATIONAL
ASSEMBLY ELECTION IN BENUE STATE OF 2019.
Apav, Godwin Gemma

Department of Mathematics
College of Education
Katsina-Ala, Benue State
&
Ako Benjamin Tavershima

Department of Integrated Science,
College of Education
Katsina-ala, Benue State
Abstract
This study examined the impact of the new electoral procedure
introduced by INEC in the 2019 gubernatorial and National Assembly
elections in Benue state. The study adopted survey research design in
which 40 electorates were randomly sampled from each of the three
senatorial zones of the state for study. This gaves a sample of 120
electorates. A fourteen item questionnaire on 4 Likert scale of strongly
agreed (SA) agreed (A) disagreed (D) and strongly disagreed (SD) was
designed and administered by the researchers after the elections. The
data collected were analyzed using the mean and standard deviation and
chi-square test was used to test the 3 hypotheses. The result obtained
showed that, INEC complied with the mathematical principles
enshrined in the electoral process during the elections. However many
electorates did not vote because it was a new development to them as a
result, there were clashes when results were announced. It was therefore
recommended that, INEC should create more awareness to electorates
in the forth-coming elections to help strengthen the system for more
effective polls.
Introduction
The twenty-first century is a world awash in concepts of time and numbers.
Headlines in newspapers and magazines use quantitative techniques to report
various phenomena such as increase in gasoline prices at some point in time,
number of people infected with various diseases, number of refugees from ethnic
wars and attacks from bandits. Companies use numbers to advertise and compete
over cost of commodities they produce and so on.
More important to many people are the rapidly increasing uses of
quantitative thinking in the work place such as in schools, hospitals, industries and
in nearly every other field of human endeavour. For example, nurses use unit
conversions to verify accuracy of drug dosages, taken over a period of time,
sociologists draw inferences from data collected to understand human behaviour
(Okereke, 2006). Entrepreneurs project market behaviour from data collected over
a period of time using computer spreadsheets. Lawyers on the other hand use
statistical evidence and argument involving probabilities to convince judges in
courts of law (Obioma, 2009). This shows the endless roles numbers play in our
daily life and the contemporary society at large. That is why Crosby (2017)
emphasized that, quantitatively; literate citizens need the predisposition to look at
the world through mathematical eye so that, they can benefit more by thinking
quantitatively about common place issues. It is therefore clear that, quantitative
literacy empowers people by giving them tools to think for themselves, ask
intelligent questions analyse them as experts and arrive at conclusions within a
reasonable time period. These are skills required to thrive in the modern world to
reduce confusion to minimal level.
It is in line with the indispensible values of mathematics to humanity that,
throughout the world now, political systems are undergoing transformations
through the use of mathematical principles in the conduct of elections. This
worldwide trend otherwise known as “mathematizing democracy” has made
elections a little fairer and faster. This study therefore examines the level of
adherence and impact of this new INEC electoral procedure on the 2019 election in
Benue State.
Conceptual Clarification
Election: Election as a democratic practice refers to the process whereby the
citizenry (the electorates) consciously choose candidates at polls into civic roles
through a competitive selection process (Elekwa, 2008). According to Steen and
Lynn (2001), election is a formal process of selecting persons for public offices or
accepting or registering a political proposition by voting. They state further that,
election is one of the means by which a society may organize itself and make
specified formal decisions. Therefore, where voting is free, it acts simultaneously
as a system for making certain decisions regarding the power relations in a society
and also a method of seeking political obedience with minimum sacrifice of the
individual’s freedom. The essence of a democratic election is freedom of choice.
Hence during elections, electorates are supposed to be given the opportunity and
freedom to choose between alternative contestants.
Electoral procedure – refers to the component steps involved in conducting an
election; such as registration of voters, mode of accreditation, duration of
accreditation, duration and mode of voting, method of counting votes and mode of
declaring a winner.
Theoretical Framework
This study was based on Conditions of Electoral Fairness proposed by
Arrow in his theorem of (1848), which states that, “in simple-election where
persons contest for an office, and electorates have one vote to cast, elections are
declared free and fair only if voters vote at will, within the time-frame scheduled
for accreditation and voting, each voter casts only one vote and it counts, counting
and declaration of results are done within the stipulated time by the body mandated
to declare the results without duress”. The study therefore took an indept look at
mathematical principles in the context of accreditation, voting, counting of ballot
papers using machines and declaration of results with respect to the time schedules
for each segment of the electoral process as enshrined in the Nigerian Electoral Act
of 1999. As a result, some related works have been reviewed to give credence to
the study.
Review of Related Literature
One of the works related to this study was done by Orrison (2012) at Harvey
Mudd College, Britain titled “Mathematical Analysis of an electoral process-the
adherence to schedules. “The aim of the study was to determine how adherence to
voting procedures can affect election result. The study was done during elections to
choose a student body president. The result of the study showed that strict
observance of mathematical principles and schedules presented the declarationof
many election results that would not have been the true reflection of the will of the
students. Secondly, the interference of candidates in the election results was
minimized; thirdly it helped many students to understand where voting systems are
vulnerable to arbitrariness or manipulations.
A similar study was carried out in the Russian Duma by Klimek and
Vegosory (2009) titled “Statistical detection of systematic election irregularities”.
The aim of the study was to develop a parametric model quantifying the extent to
which fraudulent mechanisms are present in an election process. This model was to
help determine whether an election result represents the will of the electorates or
the will of the people counting the votes.
The survey method was therefore employed in the study where close
observation of the electoral process was maintained at some randomly sampled
polling units.
The study focused on two mechanisms; the stuffing of ballot boxes and the
reporting of contrived numbers. Data were analyzed using point wise sum of the
square difference of the observed vote distributions. This procedure was repeated
for 100 iterations leading to 100 pairs of fraud parameters (f i fe). Analysis of the
data collected showed that stuffing of ballot boxes not only changes the shape of
vote and turnout distributions but also influences a high correlation between them.
Also statistical regularities of voting results are caused by the application of
statistical physics concepts to quantitative social dynamics. Hence not the people
who vote that count, but the people who count the votes. Therefore, fraudulent
results at elections have the digits 0 at the end much more than the uncorrupted
results.
Statement of the Problem
The application of mathematics to solve human problems is as old as the
existence of man on earth. This approach has contributed immensely in making the
society what it is today in terms of scientific and technological development.
Mathematical application to many sectors of the economy has contributed in
enhancing accountability. The political sector of the Nigerian economy is not free
of crises due to fraud inherent in the political system. Electoral bodies in the
country such as Federal Electoral Commission (FEDECO), National Electoral
Commission (NEC) and Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) have
introduced many measures to curb electoral malpractices with very minimal
achievement. During elections, crises result to clashes among party supporters
leading to loss of lives and property thereby affecting negatively the electoral
system in the country. The introduction of a new electoral procedure embedded
with mathematical principles by INEC such as card readers for accreditation, time-
frame for accreditation, time frame for voting, votes counters and two – third ( 2/3)
majority of votes casts to be declared winner at election, has prompted the
researchers to carry out the study. According to Elekwa (2008), developed
economics like, USA China, Britain apply effectively imbibe mathematical
principles in electoral process to ensure free and fair elections. This study was
therefore designed to assess the impact of adherence to the electoral procedure on

Benue State gubernatorial and national assembly elections in 2019.
Therefore the main objectives of the study were:
1. To examine the extent to which the new electoral procedure embedded with
mathematical principles incorporated in Nigerian electoral process was
complied with in the state during the elections.
2. To examine the impact the adherence to the new procedure has on electoral
process in ensuring free and fair elections in the state.
The following research questions were therefore addressed in the study:
1. Was the new procedure of the Nigerian electoral process adhered to by
INEC during the gubernatorial and National Assembly Elections in the
State?
2. Were strict observance of time schedules and lack of adequate and functional
machines a problem in the smooth conduct of the polls?
3. Did adherence to the new electoral procedure improve the conduct of the
elections in the state?
The following null hypotheses were tested in the study at 0.05 level of significance.
Ho1: INEC did not adhere strictly to the new electoral procedure inherent in the
Nigerian electoral process during the elections in the state.
Ho2: Adherence to time schedules and lack of adequate and functional machines
did not constitute a problem to smooth conduct of elections in the state.
Ho3: Adherence to the new electoral procedure during the polls did not improve
the conduct of elections in the state.
Research Methodology
The survey research design was used for the study. This design was used in
order to assess the opinion of Benue electorates on the extent the new electoral
procedure inherent in the Nigerian electoral process was adhered to, to ensure free
and fair electoral process in Benue State. The population of study was the entire
Benue State electorates of the 23 local government areas.
Sample for the study was drawn randomly based on the three (3) senatorial
zones of the state; zone, A, B and C using a lucky-dip container. First, two local
government areas were drawn from each zone resulting in six (6) local government
areas. Then five (5) polling units were drawn randomly from the INEC registers in
the affected local government areas. This gave a total of 30 polling units. Then four
(4) registered voters from each polling unit were randomly sampled from the
polling unit’s voters’ register. This resulted to a sample size of 120 electorates.
Data for the study was collected using a fourteen item questionnaire which
was administered personally by the researchers and collected on the spot after
response by the electorates. This took a period of six weeks after the elections. The
fourteen-item instrument utilized four points scale of strongly agree (4) agree (3)
disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1). The decision rule was put at 2.5. Therefore
mean response below 2.5 were rejected and mean response from 2.5 and above was
accepted.
Descriptive statistic of mean and standard deviation were used to answer the
research questions while chi-square test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.05
level of significance. Data were collected after the instrument underwent face and
content validation by two experts, one in political science and the other in
measurement and evaluation. The instrument was thereafter pilot-tested on 100
respondents from different locations not sampled for study. Test- retest method
was used and the coefficient of reliability obtained was 0.7. According to
Brookhart and Nikto (2007, P.82) “Moderate level of reliability coefficient of 0.7 is
tolerated as ensuring the validity of items”, hence the instrument was reliable to
elicit the required information sought for in the study.
Results and Discussion of Findings
Results of the analyses of data collected are presented in this section of the report
in order the research questions were stated and research hypotheses raised.
Research Question 1:
Was the new electoral procedure adhered to by INEC in the conduct of the
gubernatorial and National Assembly Elections in the state?
Table 1: Response of the electorates to the questionnaire as to whether INEC

adhered to the new electoral procedure in the conduct of the gubernatorial and
National Assembly elections in Benue State or not.
S/N ITEM SA (4) A (3) D (2) SD Ʃ N X Ð DECISIO
(1) N
1. Accreditation of 70 30 12 8
electorates was
done strictly using
card readers to
ascertain genuine (280) (90) (24) (8) 402 120 3.35 1.03 Accepted
electorates.
2. Accreditation was 80 30 6 4
done within the
approved time
period of 8.00am-
12.00 noon (320) (90) (12) (4) 426 120 3.55 1.11 Accepted
3. Voting at the 64 16 24 16
polling unit was
done within the
stipulated time
period of 12:00-
300pm
(256) (48) (48) (16) 368 120 3.06 1.02 Accepted
4. Machines were 7 13 20 80
used to count the
cast ballot papers
at the polling unit
(24) (39) (40) (80) 183 120 1.52 1.23 Rejected
5. Votes cast at the 92 18 6 4
polling unit were
not more than the
accredited voters
(368) (54) (12) (4) 438 120 3.65 1.13 Accepted
6. Only one result 112 3 2 3
sheet was
provided and used
to record the
election results at (44.8) (09) (04) (3) 464 120 3.86 1.32 Accepted
the polling unit
cluster mean 18.9
response 9
Accepted
6
=3.1
1
Mean bench mark = 2.50

Table 1 shows the mean ratings of the responses of electorates on whether
INEC complied with the mathematical principles inherent in the electoral process
or not. The analyses indicate that, the mean rating of items 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6 were
3.35, 3.55, 3.06 and 3.86 respectively. These means were well above the mean
benchmark of 2.5. Only item 4 with a mean rating of 1.52 was below the mean
benchmark of 2.5 hence, the cluster mean response of 3.11 was accepted,
indicating that INEC adhered to the mathematical principles inherent in the
electoral process during the gubernatorial and National Assembly elections in the
state.
Research Question 2
Were strict observance of time schedules and lack of adequate and functional
machines a problem in the smooth conduct of the polls?
Table 2: Response of electorates to whether strict adherence to time schedule and
lack of adequate and functional machines were problem to smooth conduct of
elections in the state.
S/N Item SA(4) A (3) D (2) SD( ∑ N X SD Decision
1)
1 Everybody voted at 3 2 37 78 170 120 1.41 1.2 Rejected

this rolling unit
(12) (06) (74) (78)
2 You did not vote 7 6 15 92 158 120 1.31 1.1 Rejected

because you came late
(28) (18) (30) (92)
3 You did not vote 62 29 9 20 373 120 3.10 1.3 Accepted

because card readers
(248) (87) (18) (20)
were faulty and you
were not accredited
4 You did not vote 64 26 14 16 378 120 3.15 1.3 Accepted

because card readers
were inadequate to (256) (78) (28) (16)
accredit electorates on
time
5. Can you say the use of 9 5 6 100 163 120 1.35 1.1 Rejected
card readers for
(36) (15) (12) (100
accreditation and strict
observance of time
schedules have
improved the conduct
of the elections
cluster mean response 10.3 Rejected

2/5
=
2.0
Mean bench mark =2.5

The analysis in table 2 show that not all electorates voted at their polling
units, since the mean response to item one was 1.41 less than the mean bench mark
of 2.5 with standard deviation of 1.2. The statement was therefore rejected.
Furthermore, some electorates did not vote because they came late to the polling
units as their mean response was 1.31 less than the mean benchmark with standard
and deviation of 1.1, hence the statement was similarly rejected. The mean
response to item 3 of 3.10 with standard deviation of 1.3 clearly shows that, some
electorates did not vote at the elections because card readers were faulty and they
could not be accredited. Similarly, the mean response to item 4 was 3.15 with
standard deviation of 1.3 indicating that some electorates did not vote because of
the faulty and inadequate number of card readers to accredit them on time to
participate in the election. Hence the cluster mean of 2.2 was rejected, indicating
that some electorates did not vote not because of strict observance of time schedule
for each segment of the exercise but due to faulty and inadequate number of card
readers for the exercise. On the other hand, the response of electorates to item 5
showed a mean response of 1.35 with standard deviation of 1.1. The item was
therefore, rejected by the electorates that the introduction of the card readers and
adherence to time schedules did not improve the conduct of elections in the state.
This is also evident on items 1 and 2 which were rejected.
The cluster mean of 2.0 for question two was therefore rejected indicating
that, lack of adequate and functional machines, the use of card readers for
accreditation at the polling units were some of the problems to smooth conduct of
Research Question 3
Did adherence to the new electoral procedure improve the conduct of the elections
in the state?
10 | ARTSCOPE: A Journal of School of Arts and Social Sciences
Table 3: Response of electorates as to whether adherence to the new electoral

procedure helped to improve the conduct of the elections.
S/N Item SA(4) A D SD( ∑ N - SD Decision
(3) (2) 1) X
1
Did electorates 6 13 65 36 216 120 1.8 1.2 Rejected
conduct themselves
(24) (26) (130 (36)
orderly as
)
accreditations and
voting were done
strictly within the
time frame allowed
for the exercise
2 Some electorates 72 26 13 9 401 120 3.34 1.5 Accepted
did not vote because
(288) (78) (26) (9)
of the strict
observance of time
for the exercise
3 Result of the 7 10 22 81 163 120 1.35 1.1 Rejected
election was
(28) (30) (24) (81)
announced on time
due to strict
observance of time
and the counting of
votes by machines
4 There was 64 29 07 20 377 120 3.14 1.3 Accepted
commotion at the
(256) (87) (14) (20)
polling unit after the
declaration of
results.
Cluster mean 9.58 Rejected

response /4
=
2.3
Mean bench mark= 2.5

The analysis in table 3 shows that, the electorates did not conduct themselves
in an orderly manner during accreditation and voting as the mean response was 1.8
below the benchmark of 2.5 with standard deviation of 1. 2. The question was
therefore rejected. On the other hand some electorates did not vote due to the strict
adherence to the time frame allowed for each segment of the exercise, as the mean
response of the electorates was 3.34 above the benchmark with standard deviation
of 1.5. The statement was therefore accepted. Furthermore, analyses of item 3
shows that, the result of the election was not announced on time at the various
polling units as the mean response to item 3 was 1.3 below the mean benchmark of
2.5. It was therefore rejected. Analyses of item 4 shows that, there was commotion
at the polling units across the state as the results were announced.
The mean response of electorates to item 4 was 3.14 above the mean bench
mark of 2.5 with standard deviation of 1.3. The item was therefore accepted. The
cluster mean response was 2.3 below mean benchmark of 2.5. It was therefore
rejected that adherence to the new electoral procedure did not improve the conduct
of elections in the state.
Hypothessis 1: INEC did not adhere strictly to the new electoral procedure
inherent in the electoral process during the conduct of the 2019 gubernatorial and
National Assembly elections in Benue State.
Table 4: Chi-square test based on the responses of electorates in the three
senatorial districts of Benue State as to whether INEC adhered strictly to the new
electoral procedure inherent in the electoral process.
Senatorial district SA A D SD Total
A 30 (30) 3 (5) 4 (3.3) 3 (1.6) 40

B 32 (30) 5 (5) 3 (3.3) - 40
C 28 (30) 7 (5) 3 (3.3) 2 (1.6) 40
Total 90 15 10 5 120
X2cal =13.36. With 6 d.f at 0.05 level of significance, the critical chi-square
value is 12.5. Since the calculated chi-square is greater than the critical table value
at 0.05 level of significance, null hypothesis one is not accepted. Hence INEC
actually adhered to the new electoral procedure inherent in the electoral process in
the conduct of the elections in Benue State.
Hypothesis 2:
Adherence to time schedules and lack of adequate and functional machines did not
constitute a problem to smooth conduct of election in the state.
Table 5: chi-square test based on the number and responses of electorates to the
questionnaire as to whether or not observance of time schedules for elections or
lack of adequate and functional machines was a problem to the smooth conduct of
Item SA A D SD Total
1. 3 (34) 2 (15.75) 37 (18.75) 78 (51.5) 120

2. 7 (34) 6 (15.75) 15 (18.75) 92 (51.5) 120
3. 62 (34) 29 (15.75) 9 (18.75) 20 (51.5) 120
4. 64 (34) 26 (15.75) 14 (18.75) 16 (51.5) 120
Total 136 63 75 206 480
X2 cal =251.1. With 9 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance, the

critical chi-square value is 16.9. Since the calculated chi-square of 2.51 is greater
than the critical table value of 16.9, we can conclude that the chi-square calculated
was significant at 0.05 level, hence hypothesis two cannot be accepted. We
therefore conclude that strict adherence to time schedules and lack of adequate and
functional machines constituted problem to smooth conduct of elections in the
state.
Hypothesis 3
Adherence to the new electoral procedure did not improve the conduct of
Table 6: chi-square test based on the number of electorates and their responses as
to whether adherence to the new electoral procedure helped to improve the conduct
of elections in the state or not.
Item SA A D SD Total
1. 6 (37.25) 13 (19.50) 65 (26.75) 36 (36.50) 120

2. 72 (37.25) 26 (19.50) 13 (26.75) 9 (36.50) 120
3. 7 (37.25) 10 (19.50) 22 (26.75) 81(36.50) 120
4. 64 (37.25) 29 (19.58) 7 (26.75) 20 (36.50) 120
Total 149 78 107 146 430
X2 cal =15.4, with 9 degrees of freedom at 5% level of significance; the

critical chi-square value is 16.9. Hence the chi-square calculated was less than the
critical table value of 16.9, it was therefore concluded that the calculated chi-square
value is not significant, hence null hypothesis 3 was not rejected and conclude that,
adherence to the new electoral procedure inherent in the electoral process did not
improve the conduct of the elections in the state.
Discussion
The analysis of the data collected has clearly shown that though INEC
adhered to the new electoral procedure enshrined in the electoral process during the
conduct of the elections in the state, there were some shortfalls in the process partly
on the side of the electorates and partially on the side of the electoral body.
Whereas some late comers to the polling units were not accredited to participate in
the elections, some electorates that came early were not accredited because of the
faulty nature of machines. At some polling units, the machines were inadequate to
cater for the large number of electorates available. As a result of these unfortunate
developments, there were commotions at some polling units. This delayed the
counting of the votes cast and subsequent declaration of results at those polling
units. Hence hypothesis three confirmed this when it was established that
compliance to the new electoral procedure did not improve the conduct of elections
in the state during the 2019 gubernatorial and national Assembly elections in the
state. Hypothesis two on the other hand substantiated the fact that, adherence to
time schedules, lack of adequate and functional machines were some major
setbacks in the conduct of the elections. However, the observance of mathematical
principles at the elections was a major step forward by INEC since voters would
subsequently adjust to time schedules in order to be able to exercise their franchise.
Conclusion
The findings of the study show that, though the incorporation and adherence
to mathematical principles in electoral process is commendable, most electorates
were not aware of the new development in the exercise and were therefore, not
comfortable with it. Nevertheless with time they would all become conversant with
the new development. It was therefore recommended that, INEC should intensity
its awareness campaign to the electorates on the new development in the electoral
process. In subsequent elections more competent ad-hoc staff with relevant
mathematical skills should be employed. Also sufficient machines for
accreditation, counting and transmission of results should be provided to help
improve the system.
In order to achieve this, government should give INEC full autonomy to
make the body really independent to conduct free and fair elections in the country.
References
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civilization.” Leonardo, 34(4): 327-32.
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Retrieved 15th July, 2019 from www.hillsdale.com.
Klimek, P. and Yegorov, Y. (2013). Statistical detection of systematic election

irregularities. Retrieved 30/3/2022 from www.pnas.org;>content
Obioma, G.O. (2009). The development and validation of diagnostic mathematics

tests for Junior secondary school students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
UNN. Retrieved 5th July, 2019 from http;//books.nap.edi/caralog/9605.html.
Okereke, S. C. (2006). Effects of prior knowledge of implications of mathematics

tasks/concepts to career types and gender of students’ achievement, interest
and retention, in Nzewi, U. (ed), STAN proceedings of the 4 th annual
conference 3 (2), 253-259.
Orrison, M. (2021). Mathematical Analysis of an electoral process – the adherence

to schedules. Ketrieved 30/3/2022 from www.hmc.edu>about-
hmc>2012/11/07.
Steen, I. &. Lynn A. (2001) “Numeracy; the new literacy for a Data-Drenched
society.” Educational leadership, 57: 2 8-13.
UNEMPLOYMENT HYSTERESIS IN NIGERIA: THE ROLES OF

POPULATION GROWTH AND GOVERNMENT SPENDING
Bridget Mlumun Akaakohol

Department of Economics,
College of Education, Katsina-Ala
234(0)8134751110
Bridgetakaakohol55@gmail.com
Adueti, Terver Andrew

+23407067918149
aduetiandy@gmail.com
&
Katyona Hubert Keghnen
07037093592
katyonahubert@gmail.com
Abstract
Due to persistent rise in the rate of unemployment in Nigeria, this study
was carried out to investigate the existence of unemployment hysteresis
or otherwise in the country. The study also investigated the possibility of
government spending restoring unemployment to its natural rate with, or
without population growth. Data for the study spanned from 1970 to
2018. Unit root tests and Markov’s Switching Regression were used in
examining the hysteresis of unemployment while Auto Regressive
Distributed Lags Model was used for impact evaluation. The study found
that hysteresis exists in Nigeria’s unemployment with no tendencies for
the scourge to revert to its natural rate any time soon. Also, population
growth was found to have significant positive effect on unemployment in
Nigeria, while government spending with, or without population growth
had no significant effect on unemployment in the country. It is therefore
recommended that for any effort aimed at reducing unemployment in
Nigeria to work, the rate of population growth has to be checked. This is
because efforts such as government spending might be over-shadowed by

the rapid rate of population growth in the country.
Introduction
Unemployment has been on the increase, at least in the last 30 years and has
become one of the major socio-economic problems confronting Nigeria.
Unemployment is pervasive in all economies, though some countries have been
able to keep it within tolerable rate; others are simply living with it. In fact, at any
moment in all free market economies, there are people who are willing and able to
work but unable to secure employment (Mankiw, 2010). It is a source of great
concern to policy makers in both developing and developed countries because
according to Kyei and Gyeke (2011), it worsens crime rates, makes misery and
social instability more acute and erodes human capital, with devastating effects on
economic welfare.
Given the negative consequences of unemployment, governments all over
the world have committed resources to reducing unemployment to its natural rate.
In Nigeria, several policies and programmes had been adopted by past governments
in the attempt to reduce unemployment rates to desired levels, with little or no
results. Unemployment has persisted, even after exiting recession in the second
quarter of 2017 (2017: Q2) after contracting for five consecutive quarters. In fact,
available data show that unemployment rate in Nigeria increased to 23.10 percent
in the third quarter of 2018 from 22.70 percent in the second quarter of 2018.
Unemployment rate in Nigeria averaged 12.31 percent from 2006 until 2018,
reaching an all-time high of 23.10 percent in the third quarter of 2018 and a record
low of 5.10 percent in the fourth quarter of 2010 (National Bureau of Statistics,
[NBS], 2018).
Numerous unemployment theories have tried to provide explanations for
high and persistent unemployment. For instance, the Natural Rate of
Unemployment Theory developed by Friedman(1968) and Phelps (1967; 1968), or
the Non-Accelerating Inflation rate of Unemployment (NAIRU), argue that,
although output fluctuations generate cyclical movements in the unemployment
rate, in the long run, the rate will tend to revert to equilibrium. This view was
challenged by two alternative theories of unemployment; the structuralists view
and the hysteresis hypothesis. The structuralists view argues that unemployment
rate is a stationary process subject to occasional, but persistent structural changes.
The hysteresis hypothesis states that cyclical fluctuations have permanent effects
on the level of unemployment.
One phenomenon that is usually overlooked by scholars while trying to

explain the persistence of unemployment is population growth. It could be that
government efforts to reduce unemployment might usually be neutralized by
persistent population growth. In some circumstances, population growth is
considered a favourable factor. However, when population growth supersedes
public infrastructure it gives rise to overpopulation and is likely to render
government efforts irrelevant and unproductive (Kazeem, 2018). According to
Tartiyus, Dauda and Peter (2015),as global fertility rates continue to outweigh
mortality rate, the world’s natural resources are being placed under a huge strain.
This, in turn, gives rise to negative consequences through the different aspects of
human lives which are being hampered, especially in developing nations.
The Nigerian government however continues with its efforts at reducing the
rate of unemployment in the country through increase in government spending.
According to Keynes, government spending may increase the aggregate demand
which further stimulates economic growth, employment and reduces poverty
(Mehmood & Sadiq, 2010).The high rate of population growth in Nigeria may
however hinder these efforts aimed at bringing unemployment to its natural rate. At
this point, one is moved to ask the following questions: (i) does hysteresis exist in
Nigeria’s unemployment? (ii) does population growth impact on unemployment in
Nigeria? (iii) could government spending restore unemployment in Nigeria
independent of population growth? These unanswered questions therefore form the
basis for this study.
The analysis presented in this study covers the period between 1970 and
2018 and uses data drawn largely from World Bank’s world development indices.
Section 2 presents a review of literature while the method is presented in section 3.
Section 4 covers results presentation and discussions while section 5 concludes and
makes policy recommendations.
Literature Review
Theoretical Review
From a theoretical point, there are two opposing views concerning the
behaviour of unemployment rates, namely: the structuralist and the hysteresis
schools of thought. The structuralist view is associated with the natural rate
hypothesis. The natural rate is the rate of unemployment towards which the
economy gravitates in the long run, given all the labour-market imperfections that
hinder workers from getting jobs instantly (Mankiw, 2010). The central theme of
the natural rate hypothesis attributed to the works of Phelps (1967) and Friedman
(1968) is that unemployment converges to a natural rate in the long-run and short
run deviations from the natural rate are expected to be temporary. This hypothesis
therefore, characterizes unemployment dynamics as a mean reverting process such
that a definite state of unemployment equilibrium exists in the long run and the
unemployment series are not affected by any shock or disturbance in the long run
(Leon-Ledesman, 2000; Chou & Zhang, 2012).
Unemployment hysteresis hypothesis is second and it is attributed to the
work of Blanchard and Summers (1986). Unlike the structural view, the hysteresis
hypothesis holds that transitory economic shocks will have permanent effects on
unemployment rate. This hypothesis thus views unemployment as a non-stationary
or a random walk process which implies that the series will not return to its initial
mean value after a shock or disturbance in the long run. In other words, once
unemployment rates are subjected to any distortions, the long run equilibrium is
affected. The hysteresis hypothesis captures the influence of past unemployment on
the long run equilibrium unemployment. It is concerned with the effect of current
market shocks on future market equilibrium conditions (Mohan, Kemegue & Sjuib,
2008). Both the natural rate and hysteresis hypotheses can be tested empirically by
ascertaining the time series properties of unemployment rates using the unit root
tests. The existence of unit root provides support for the hysteresis hypothesis
while evidence of nonexistence of unit root is in consonance with the natural rate
hypothesis.
The terms hysteresis and persistence are sometimes used interchangeably in
literature. However, Leon-Ledesma (2000) distinguishes between them stating that
while persistence is a special case of the natural rate hypothesis with
unemployment being a near unit root process, hysteresis is in fact a unit root
process. Mohan et al (2008) posit that for persistence, labour market rigidities
allow unemployment to linger as the speed of adjustment to the long run
equilibrium level is slower. This assertion is corroborated by Nyong (2013) who
asserts that in the case of persistence, unemployment eventually returns to natural
rate after a shock even though it takes long periods but for hysteresis, shocks have
permanent effect and there is no return to the natural rate. Macroeconomic policy
will have permanent effects on unemployment if there is hysteresis, while the
effect of macroeconomic policy on unemployment would not be permanent
although it may last long in the presence of persistence unemployment.
Generally, the existence of unemployment hysteresis is due mainly to market
rigidities and it is explained by three theories, namely; the insider-outsider theory,
the duration theory (also called depreciation of human capital) and the capital stock
theory. The insider-outsider theory is concerned with the loss of influence on wage
formation by the long-term unemployed. The so-called insiders (incumbent
workers) possess market power in determining wages independently of the

unemployment in the economy. The market power of the insiders is due to high
labour turnover costs, which make it costly for firms to replace an insider by an
outsider (an unemployed worker). This allows unions to influence wage
determination. Insider-Outsider models are based not on human capital but on the
differentiation between insiders and outsiders in a wage bargaining context
(Blanchard& Summers, 1986; Mikhail, Eberwein & Handa, 2003).
The duration theory is principally concerned with the negative effects of
unemployment duration on labour demand and supply of the unemployed. It
explains unemployment from the perspective that the longer prospective workers
remain unemployed, the less attractive they become because firms hold the belief
that the productivity of such workers have been reduced due to depreciation of skill
(Eisazadeh & Tabarsi, 2013; Marjanovic & Mihajlovic, 2014).The capital stock
theory on the other hand, focuses on the effect of a negative demand shocks on
capital stock. A negative demand shock will lead to reduction of capital stock since
firms will have to restrain their level of investment, thus giving rise to
unemployment. By implication, adverse capital stock shocks leads to increase and
persistent rise in unemployment rate. This theory explains the persistence of
unemployment from the point of view that since it takes time to increase the capital
stock, temporary shocks in the economy can have permanent effects on the
unemployment (Marjanovic &Mihajlovic, 2014).
The link between government spending and unemployment is evident from
the Keynesian theory which asserts that increases in government expenditure leads
to high aggregate demand and rapid growth in national income (Keynes, 1936).
This has the capacity of reducing unemployment among the populace. He favored
government intervention to correct market failures and criticized the classical
economists (Keynes, 1936). Keynes advocated a countercyclical fiscal policy in
which, during the boom periods, the government ought to cut expenditure, and
during periods of economic recession, government requires to undertake deficit
spending. Keynes categorized government spending as an exogenous variable that
can generate economic growth instead of an endogenous phenomenon. He believed
the role of the government to be crucial as it can avoid depression by increasing
aggregate demand and thus, switching on the economy again by the multiplier
effect. It is a tool that brings stability in the short-run but this need to be done
cautiously as too much of public spending lead to inflationary situations while too
little of it leads to unemployment (Keynes, 1936). From the Keynesian theory, if
government spending is categorized into recurrent spending and capital spending,
recurrent government spending will have direct effect on unemployment while
capital government spending on infrastructural project will impact on

unemployment through fixed capital formation.
For the case of population growth and unemployment, the optimum
population theory (referred to as the modern theory of population) provides the
necessary link. The optimum theory of population was propounded by Edwin
Cannan in his book, Wealth, published in 1924 and popularized by Robbins,
Dalton and Carr-Saunders (Gupta, 2010). The theory states that given the natural
resources, stock of capital and the state of technical knowledge, there will be a
definite size of population with the per capita income. The population which has
the highest per capita income is known as optimum population. Given a certain
amount of resources, state of technical knowledge and a certain stock of capital,
there will be a definite size of the population at which real income of goods and
services per capita will be the highest. This is the optimum size. The optimum
number can, therefore, be defined as the one at which per capita income is the
highest. If, however, the population still goes on increasing and the optimum is
exceeded, then we shall have a state of over-population. There will be too many
people in the land. The resources will not be sufficient to provide gainful
employment to all. This implies that population growth is capable of raising the
rate of unemployment.
Empirical Literature
A number of authors have empirically investigated the existence of
hysteresis, especially in the OECD countries. The usual conclusion is that cyclical
fluctuations have permanent effect on unemployment. For instance, Blanchard and
Summers (1986), Brunello (1990), Neudorfer, Pichelmann and Wagner (1990),
Jaeger and Parkinson (1994) and Røed (1996) used Augmented Dickey-Fuller
(ADF) and Phillips-Perron (PP) unit root tests for testing hysteresis. Generally,
these studies found that the unemployment series is non-stationary. In other words,
according to these studies, the unemployment series has a hysteresis effect.
According to Leslie, Pu, and Wharton (1995), the reason for this finding of a
hysteresis effect is the use of lower power pure unit root tests in the analysis
(Strazicich, Tieslau & Lee, 2001). Hence, they reconsidered hysteresis with more
powerful tests. These new tests include: (1) unit root tests with structural breaks
and (2) panel unit root tests with and without structural breaks. Mitchell (1993),
Arestis and Mariscal (1999; 2000), Papell, Murray and Ghiblawi (2000),Ewing and
Wunnava (2001) and Summers (2003) suggested that there are structural breaks in
unemployment rate series. Because of such structural breaks, they argued that
hysteresis hypothesis is not valid. Their results strongly reject the hysteresis null
hypothesis.
Song and Wu (1997; 1998) considered the hysteresis effect with panel data.
Song and Wu (1997) employed panel unit root test to reject the existence of a
hysteresis effect in the USA and in sixteen European Union (EU) countries.
However, when León-Ledesma (2002) used Im, Pesaran and Shin’s (2003) panel
unit root test, he did not find hysteresis in the US case, but found support for the
validity of the hysteresis hypothesis in EU countries. Smyth (2003) applied both a
pure time series and a panel data approach for Australia.
To Smyth (2003), it showed that the consequence of hysteresis is valid for a
pure time series, but according to the panel data, the hysteresis effect is not valid.
Similarly, Osterholm (2004) used Im, Pesaran and Shin’s (2003) (IPS) panel unit
root test and his results are in tandem with León-Ledesma’s (2002). Also Chang et
al. (2007)employed Levin, Lin and Chu (2002) (LLC), IPS, Taylor and Sarno’s
(1998) panel unit root tests, and they rejected the validity of the hysteresis effect
for Taiwan’s 27 regions. Mohan Kemegue and Sjuib (2007) used the ADF-Fisher,
IPS, LLC and Breitung panel unit root tests and showed that there is no hysteresis
effect in three regions of Massachusetts. Strazicich, Tieslau, and Lee (2001) used a
panel unit root test with structural breaks to investigate the hysteresis effect for
OECD countries. Their results rejected the existence of hysteresis effects in OECD
countries. However, Camarero, Carrion-I-Silvester & Tamarit (2006) found that the
hysteresis effect is valid for nineteen OECD countries.
In Nigeria, this issue is yet to be fully investigated; the only known study to
the best of our knowledge is that of Onwukeme and Opeloyeru (2019). They
interrogated the question of existence of unemployment hysteresis in Nigeria using
conventional pure unit root test for the period 1970 – 2013. Their findings suggest
that unemployment hysteresis exists in Nigeria. In this study, we attempt to
advance this knowledge further. The study is built on previous studies while
approaching the issue from three major perspectives through the use of
conventional pure unit root tests with/without structural breaks.
Theoretical Framework and Model Specification
The traditional approach for testing the existence of hysteresis in
unemployment rate is to examine the time series properties of the data to know
whether they are stationary or not. The existence of a unit root would therefore
suggest that unemployment does not revert to its natural rate after a shock.
According to Layard, Nickell and Jackman (1991) if the root is high but below one,
there is partial hysteresis and purehysteresisif the root is one. In the latter case,
equilibrium is not defined. This study followed the unit-root definition of
hysteresis as the first approximation, and then considers linear and nonlinear
variants.
Suppose we have the following AR(K) process for the unemployment rate
(y):
Yt = Ω0 + kYt-k + Ut
(1)
From equation 3.1 and following Leon-Ledesman and McAdamnn (2004),
we define the natural mean or equilibrium rate to which unemployment reverts
over time as: ÿ = with the assumption that ∑kΩK < 1 and no
intercept shifts, i.e. Ω0 = Ω0∀t. However, if ∑kΩK = 1 unemployment follows a
random walk and displays path-dependence (pure Hysteresis). Thus, shocks U t
either from supply or demand will have permanent effects.
In testing for unit roots in unemployment rates, the study uses a battery of
univariate tests; namely the Augmented Dickey-Fuller test (Said & Dickey, 1984),
the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) test with GLS de-trending, ERS (Elliot,
Rothenberg & Stock, 1996) test and KPSS (Kwiatkowski, Phillips, Schmidt &
Shin, 1992) test. The first two test whether the time series in question has a unit
root versus the alternative hypothesis of stationarity; the KPSS test on the other
hand has stationarity under the null, thereby reversing the burden of proof. The
three unit root tests provide a reasonably wide range of different null and
alternative hypotheses for a broad empirical investigation.
For the ADF and ADF-GLS, i.e. (ERS), the lag length in the test equations is
determined first. The Hannan-Quinn (1979) information criterion is used for this
purpose; this criterion seems like the best compromise between the Schwarz(1978)
criterion, which is well-known for choosing too low a lag length, and the Akaike
(1974)criterion, which lacks consistency properties and may be overly generous in
modelling dynamics. Just like the Schwarz criterion, the Hannan-Quinn criterion is
consistent in the sense that for large enough samples, it will choose the correct
model given that the true model belongs to the set of models one is searching. The
KPSS test is employed with a Newey-West estimator to correct for serial
correlation.
Leon-Ledesman and McAdamnn (2004) argue that testing for unit roots for
the presence of pure linear Hysteresis provides an upper bound test of the
hypothesis, given that this is an extreme case of path dependence where any shock,
large or small, matters. However, since unemployment rates are necessarily
bounded, unemployment should be stationary over longer time spans; as a
consequence, Hysteresis as a unit root should not necessarily be understood as a
‘true’ description of the underlying data generating process but as a local
approximation during a sample period. A less restrictive hypothesis considers

Hysteresis as a process by which unemployment switches equilibria whenever
‘sufficiently large’ shocks affect its value; that is, if only large shocks enter the
long-run memory of the unemployment series because they generate changes in the
‘natural’ or equilibrium level of unemployment (Leon-Ledesman & McAdamnn,
2004)).
Many studies have tested for unemployment hysteresis/persistence using unit
root approach. However, some studies have used Markov Switching Regression to
assess how fast a variable changes from one regime to another. Toeing this line,
this study analysed unemployment persistence using Markov switching
regressions. This allows us not only to test for hysteresis with a changing average
level of unemployment, but also to analyze the frequency of regime changes and
the behaviour of unemployment in each of these regimes. Another advantage is that
it accounts for non-linearity in the trend unemployment function accruing not only
from structural breaks but also from normal business cycle fluctuations.
Again, hysteresis involves stronger properties than those conveyed by the
use of the term to describe persistence or zero/unit roots. In the persistence case the
natural rate equilibrium is unchanged by shocks affecting actual unemployment,
whereas hysteresis implies that each new extreme value of the shocks experienced
will lead to new unemployment equilibrium. In the zero/unit root case all the
shocks experienced shape the equilibrium, whereas hysteresis involves only the
non-dominated extreme values of the shocks counting in the equilibrium selection
process.
Building on equation 1, it is assumed that a random variable of interest Y𝑡
(in this case unemployment rate) follows a process that depends on the value of an
unobserved discrete state variable 𝑠𝑡. It is assumed that there are M possible
regimes (we assume two regimes, high and low rate of unemployment), and it is
said to be in state or regime m in period t when 𝑠𝑡 = m, for m = 1, …, M. The
switching model assumes that there is a different regression model associated with
each regime, and that the regression errors are normally distributed with variance
that may depend on the regime. The first-order Markov assumption requires that
the probability of being in a regime depends on the previous state, so that
( = j | 𝑠𝑡−1 = i ) = (t) (2)
Typically, these probabilities are assumed to be time-invariant so that (t) =

𝑝𝑖𝑗 for all t, but this restriction is not required. We write these probabilities in a
transition matrix
P11(t) …………P1m(t)
.. ..
P(t)=
.. ………... .. (3)
.. ..
Pm1(t) ………..Pmm(t)
Where, the ijth element represents the probability of transitioning from
regime i in period t – 1 to regime j in period t. According to Diebold, Lee and
Weinbach, (1994)P11(t) = P(𝑠𝑡 = 1| 𝑠𝑡−1 = 1, 𝑋𝑡−1; 𝛽𝑖) = exp ( 𝑋𝑡−1ˊ 𝛽1) 1+exp
(𝑋𝑡−1ˊ 𝛽1); P1M(t) = (1 - P11(t)) .
Also, PMM(t) = 𝑝(𝑠𝑡 = 𝑀 | 𝑠𝑡−1 = 𝑀, 𝑋𝑡−1; 𝛽𝑀) = exp ( 𝑋𝑡−1ˊ 𝛽𝑀) 1+exp
(𝑋𝑡−1ˊ 𝛽𝑀); P𝑀1(t) = ( 1 - 𝑝𝑀𝑀(t) ).
This study assumes a two state Markov process which implies that M =2,
these two regimes or states are low unemployment rate (regime 1) and high
unemployment rate (regime 2). This equation 3.3 reduces to:
P11 P12
(4)
P(t)=
P 21 P22
Where the transition probabilities are define as follows:
P11is defined as the probability that current regime (regime 1) remains in that
regime; P12 is defined as the probability that current regime (regime 1) moves to
another regime (regime 2); P22 is defined as the probability that current regime
(regime 2) remains in that regime and P21is defined as the probability that current
regime (regime 2) moves to another regime (regime 1).
The two transition probabilities are time-varying, evolving as logistic
functions of 𝑋𝑡−1ˊ, i = 1,2, where the vector 𝑋𝑡−1 contains economic variables that
affect the state transition probabilities. The two sets of parameters governing the
transition probabilities are a (2k x1) vector, 𝛽= (𝛽1ˊ, 𝛽2ˊ). As in the simple
switching model, the probabilities may be parameterized in terms of a multinomial
logic. Note that since each row of the transition matrix specifies a full set of
conditional probabilities, a separate multinomial specification for each row i of the

matrix is defined thus:
P𝑖𝑗 ( −1, 𝛿𝑖 ) =
(5)
For, j = 1, …,M and i = 1, …, M with the normalizations 𝛿𝑖𝑀 = 0. The
Markov property of the transition probabilities can be evaluated recursively, each
step begins with filtered estimates of the regime probabilities for the previous
period.
To examine the impacts of population growth and government spending on
unemployment in Nigeria, a dynamic linear model was utilized. This model was
specified under Auto Regressive Distributed Lags (ARDL) framework. From the
theoretical review, both population growth and government spending were
identified as important factors affecting unemployment. The model therefore
expresses unemployment as a function of population growth and government
spending. This is stated implicitly as;
(6)
Where UMP is the rate of unemployment, PGR is the population growth
rate, and GSP is government spending.
Government spending is likely to impact on unemployment by first
influencing investment through gross fixed capital formation. This calls for the
introduction of gross fixed capital formation (GFCF) into the model as control
variable. The implicit equation of the relations between population growth and
government spending and unemployment becomes:
(7)
Where GFCF is Gross Fixed Capital Formation.
Equation 6 can be expressed explicitly as
(8)
The ARDL form of the model is stated as follows:
Assuming (p) maximum lag for UMP and q 1-3 maximum lags for the
explanatory variables, the model is re-specified in ARDL(p, q 1, q2, q3) as follows:
Where i = 1, 2… N.
Unit Root Test with Structural Breaks (the Case of Unemployment)
The empirical analysis uses annual data on unemployment, population
growth spanning from 1970 – 2018.
Traditional unit root tests ignore the presence of breaks in time-series. We
first apply unit root test with breaks on seasonally adjusted unemployment data in
Nigeria for the period 1970 – 2018. This ensures that we mitigate estimation bias.
Most importantly, this is necessary because Nigerian macro environment has not
been the same since 1970, it has gone through significant changes, and the
behaviour of unemployment rate may have changed as well. We test for structural
break in Nigerian unemployment data using Perron (1998) and Vogelsang and
Perron (1998) breakpoint unit root test.
The Dickey-Fuller t-statistics indicates that there is a breakpoint in Nigerian
unemployment rate from 1970 – 2018, which occurred in 2010. We therefore,
implemented the conventional unit roots based on evidence of structural breaks in
Nigerian unemployment. Consequently, we test for unit root on three set of data;
namely: the period from 1970 – 2018, this period covers the full sample period; we
then have two sub-samples, 1970 – 2010 and 2010 – 2018. These periods capture
the break in unemployment in Nigeria.
Unit Root Tests without Structural Breaks
In Table 4.1 we present the ADF, ADF-GLS detrending (ERS) and KPSS
unit root test results, which ignore structural breaks.While the Augmented Dickey-
Fuller (ADF) andADF-GLS (ERS) test for the null of a unit root, the KPSS test for
the null of stationarity.We report the tests with and without a time trend, and also
provide the estimated auto-regressive root for the ADF test together with the
derived half-life for the shocks.
Table 1: Unit root test
Note: ** indicates rejection of the null of a unit root at the 5% level for the ADF
and ADF-GLS test and not rejection of the null of stationarity for KPSS test at the
5% level. The half-life was calculated as: –log(2)/(δ), where δ is the auto-
regressive root of unemployment in the ADF test, and it is expressed in quarters.
Source: Researchers’ Computations, 2021
Table 1 reports the results of three conventional unit root tests. We split our
dataset in two in order to capture the revealed breakpoint in unemployment in
Nigeria. For each unit root test, we make two assumptions: (1) unemployment
series has intercept only (2) it has intercept and trend. We also report the estimated
auto-regressive root of ADF for each period and then derive the half-life of
unemployment in Nigeria. Calculating the half-life of a mean reversion time series
is very interesting because it gives us the measure of how long it takes to mean
revert. The results of the unit root tests indicate that we cannot reject the null of the
hysteresis hypothesis for unemployment series in Nigeria for the period; 1970 –
2018. By implication, there is hysteresis in Nigeria’s unemployment from 1970 –
2018. During this time, the calculated half-life of the ADF auto-regressive root is
about 18.8 quarters in 196 quarters (every 4.7 years in 49 years). This indicates that
any sudden shock in unemployment will have permanent effects on unemployment
rate. This speed of adjustment is slow. This result agrees with that of Onwukeme
and Opeloyeru (2019).
A look at our two sub-samples (1970 – 2010 and 2010 – 2018) revealed a
mixed evidence of hysteresis in Nigeria. For the period, 1970 – 2010, we can reject
the null of the hysteresis hypothesis with fast speed of adjustment, about 4.4
quarters in 164 quarters (every 1.1 years in 41 years). On the null of the hysteresis
hypothesis for unemployment series in Nigeria for the period 2010 – 2018 cannot
be rejected. Hence, there is hysteresis in unemployment between 2010 and 2018.
The calculated half-life of the ADF auto-regressive root is about 7.3 quarters in 36
quarters (every 2 years in 9 years), revealing a substantial slow adjustment. This
indicates that any sudden shock in unemployment will have permanent effects on
unemployment rate. This finding is in line with that of the full sample (1970- 2018)
estimates and further corroborate the earlier findings of Onwukeme and Opeloyeru
(2019).
Markov-Switching Regression Analysis
Table 2: Markov Switching Result

In Table 2 the Markov-switching result is presented. The Markov-Switching
model was estimated for three different time periods. The full sample model was
estimated with the assumption of no structural break in Nigerian unemployment
rate. Relaxing this assumption based on the outcome of the structural break unit
root result (see figure 4.1), we estimated two different models. In each model, we
identified two unemployment rate regimes; namely: low unemployment rate
(regime 1) and high unemployment rate (regime 2). In the full sample estimate, the
result shows that Nigeria has an average unemployment rate of 6.8% in regime 1
and 21.6% in regime 2.
During the period 1970 – 2010, Nigeria had an average unemployment rate
of 6.6% and 16.9% in regime 1 and regime 2 respectively, while average
unemployment rates of 21.5% and 24.1% in regime 1 and regime 2 respectively
during the period 2010 – 2018. The estimates in all the periods are statistically
significant at 5% level as indicated by the probability values (p<0.05). This implies
that the dynamics in the first regime and second regime are substantial for all the
periods.
Finally, both the constant transition probabilities and the constant expected
durations of unemployment in the two regimes (regime 1 = low rate and regime 2 =
high rate) for each of the sample space are presented. The result is shown below.
Transition Summary: Probabilities and Durations

Full Sample (1970 – Sub-Sample (1970 – Sub-Sample (2010 –
2018) 2010) 2018)
Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2

probabilities
Regime 1 0.99 0.01 0.98 0.02 0.92 0.08

Transition
Regime 2 0.03 0.97 0.08 0.92 0.09 0.91
Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2

Expected
duration
87.88 33.76 52.70 11.87 12.57 10.64

In Table 3, the transition probability matrix and the expected durations are
shown. Concentrating on the result for 2010 – 2018, the probabilityregime 1
remains in that regime is 0.92; while the probabilityregime 2 remains in that regime
2 is 0.91. This suggests that if we are in high unemployment, the probability of
staying there is high. The probabilitiesof moving from low unemployment to high
unemployment and vice versa are 0.08 and 0.09 respectively. Again, this result
shows that there is difficulty in moving from one unemployment regime to another
in Nigeria. The corresponding expected durations in a regime are approximately
12.6 quarters for regime 1 and 10.6 quarters for regime 2. This implies that the
unemployment rate will remain in the origin state for a very long time before
moving to the second state. This is similar to the result of the half-life calculated
using the auto-regressive roots of ADF for the period.
Impacts of Population Growth and Government Spending on Unemployment
in Nigeria
This sub-section analyses the impacts of population growth and government
spending on unemployment in Nigeria. The impact of government spending is
analysed in two ways: government spending with population growth and
population growth without population growth.
The Case of Government Spending with Population Growth
A long-run relationship was found among the variables considered in the
first case. This shows that there is a difference between the short-run and long-run
effects of population growth and government spending on unemployment in

Nigeria. Results of the long-run and short-run effects of population growth and
government spending on unemployment in Nigeria are presented in Table 4.
Table 4: Effects of Population Growth and Government Spending on
Unemployment in Nigeria
Variable Long-run Coefficient Short-run Coefficient
PGR 1.856797*** 0.521803**
GSP -0.002121 -0.000596
GFCF -0.018032 -0.005067
** and *** indicate statistical significance at 5% and 10% levels of significance.
Table 4 shows that population growth has positive and statistically
significant effect on unemployment in Nigeria, both in the long-run and short-run.
This indicates that rise in population growth will lead to increase in the rate of
unemployment in Nigeria in the long-run and short-run. This is because when
population increases, labour force increases with it, leaving heavy pressure on
available jobs. This hence results to increase in the number of jobless people. Thus,
increase in population growth leads to increase in unemployment.
Government spending and gross fixed capital formation have negative short-
run and long-run effects on unemployment in Nigeria. They are however not
statistically significant in both periods. This indicates that government spending
has no significant effect on unemployment in Nigeria both in the long-run and
short-run. It is therefore not a strong determinant of unemployment in Nigeria.
The Case of Government Spending without Population Growth
To ascertain if government spending alone without due consideration to
population growth would impact on unemployment in Nigeria, the ARDL model
was estimated without population growth. The model also established a long-run
relationship between government spending and unemployment in Nigeria. The
analysis of the effect of government spending on unemployment without
population growth was therefore done for the short-run and long-run.
Table 5: Effect of Government Spending on Unemployment in Nigeria without
Population Growth
Variable Long-run Coefficient Short-run Coefficient
GSP 0.071263 -0.000411

GFCF 0.441167 -0.002547
Source: Researchers’ Computations,2021
Table 5 shows that both government spending and gross fixed capital
formation have no significant effect on unemployment in Nigeria. This includes
both long-run and short-run. This result is same as in the first case where
population growth was considered. This indicates that government spending lacks
the capacity to influence changes in unemployment in Nigeria. This is possibly due
to the fact that a greater proportion of government spending in Nigeria is usually
channelled to recurrent expenditure. The minimal infrastructural and capital
government spending therefore does little to upset the rate of unemployment in the
country.
Conclusion and Policy Recommendations
Using the evidence as revealed by the recent dataset (2010 – 2018, the
conclusion is that Nigeria’s unemployment is generated by unit root process,
suggesting the existence of hysteresis, also unemployment is persistent in Nigeria.
Persistence implies a slow rate of adjustment towards a long-run equilibrium, and
both the half-life of auto-regressive roots of ADF and the constant transition
probabilities revealed this.
Population growth is a strong predictor of unemployment rate in Nigeria as it
has strong influence on unemployment both in the long-run and short-run.
Government spending, however, has no strong influence on unemployment in
Nigeria. Government spending may therefore do little to unemployment but lack
the capacity to revert it back to its natural rate.
The implication of this is that there is need for population growth to be
checked in any effort aimed at reducing unemployment in Nigeria. Government
attempts such as changes in government expenditure may appropriate, but for the
ever increasing population of Nigeria, increasing government spending in an
attempt to reduce unemployment may be an exercise in futility.
Also, it is possible that for government spending to reduce unemployment,
such spending has to be channelled to infrastructural development and capital
formation. However, since recurrent expenditure takes up more of government
spending in Nigeria, more recurrent government spending will do little to reduce
unemployment in Nigeria. It is therefore important for the Government to prioritize
capital expenditure. This will boost gross fixed capital formation and contribute to
reduction of unemployment in Nigeria.
Furthermore, since government spending alone cannot take unemployment
in Nigeria back to its natural rate, there is need to consider other options as well.
The private sector should also weigh in through private investment. This will offer
job opportunities to many unemployed, thereby reducing unemployment.
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THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER AND FOOD

SECURITY IN NIGERIA
Ugosor, P.T
Department of Chemistry,
College of Education, Katsina-Ala, Benue State
paulugosor@gmail.com
KoromTerna
Department of Geography
koromterna2015@gmail.com
&
Wada SimonTyohemba, PhD

Department of Chemistry,
School of Secondary Education Science Programme
Federal College of Education, Obudu
wadalastic@gmail.com
Abstract
The globe has witnessed increased average temperature in recent years as
documented by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
United Nations Environmental Protection (UNEP), World Meteorological
Organization (WMO) and other similar organizations. This rise in
temperature is an evidence of climate change which has serious impacts
on water resources and food security at present and will have even more
dire consequences in the future. Population growth, land-use changes and
urbanization, increasing demands for water and energy, rising standards
of living, changing dietary habits, changing agricultural practices,
increasing industrial activities, increased pollution, and changing
economic activities have also contributed to global warming. The aim of
this paper is to examine the relationship between climate change, water
scarcity and food security in Nigeria. The paper suggested among others
better management of water resources, planting of drought-resistant, early
maturing and high yielding crops, adjustment of planting dates as well as
assistance by government to small subsistence farmers to increase crop
production and ensure food safety and security, acquisition of damaged
coastal lands prone to damage by storms, building of dams and/or

installation of hard structures for shore defense system in areas
vulnerable to flooding and improved pest management strategies as well
as processing and preservation technologies to improve food security and
water conservation in Nigeria. The paper concluded that climate change
has impacted negatively on water resources and by extension food
security in Nigeria.
Key words: Climate change, water resources, food security.
Introduction
Food and water are important for the survival, growth and healthy living of
all forms of life. According to the United Nation`s declaration, food is recognized
as a basic right for all humans and is vital for the enforcement of all other rights.
Water is a precondition for life on earth and is essential for growth and
development. Safe drinking water and sanitation are also embedded in the UN
human rights (UN Food and Water Report, 2021). Non-availability of safe and
affordable food result to conflicts, starvation, malnutrition, hunger and diseases etc.
Water and sanitation are critical for socio-economic and cultural development,
food security and healthy ecosystems. It is also vital for reducing the global burden
of diseases and improving health, welfare and productivity of populations. Food
and water therefore have to be available, affordable and safe for all humans.
Global water use has increased by a factor of six over the past 100 years and
continues to grow steadily at a rate of about 1% per year with increasing
population, economic development and shifting consumption patterns (European
Union, 2000). A study by Alcamo (2003) concluded that the world could face a
40% global water deficit by 2030 under a business-as-usual scenario Freshwater
resources are limited, and therefore their protection and management are of utmost
importance. Sustainable management of freshwater resources depends on the
understanding of how climate, freshwater, biochemical, biophysical and
socioeconomic systems are interconnected at watershed, regional, and global scale
(Bates, 2008). On a global scale, basins are generally said to be water-stressed if
they have a per-capital water availability below 1,000 m 3/year (based on long-term
average runoff). Such water-stressed basins are located in Northern Africa, the
Mediterranean region, the Middle East, the Near East, Southern Asia, Northern
China, Australia, the USA, Mexico, North-Eastern Brazil, and the West coast of
South America (EU, 2000; UN,2021).
However, activities contributing to climate change can be a major challenge
to food security and the availability of freshwater quantity and/or quality. These
activities play critical roles in sectorial and regional vulnerability to food and water
resource mismanagement. Therefore, the relationship between climate change and
freshwater resources and by extension food security is of utmost importance.
Climate change leads to changes in the hydrologic cycle since different
components of the climatic system, including the atmosphere, hydrosphere,
cryosphere, land surface, and biosphere, are involved (Wang, 2005). Climate
change crisis is increasing variability in the water cycle, thus reducing the
predictability of water availability and demand, affecting water quality,
exacerbating water scarcity, threatening food security and sustainable development
worldwide. These impacts disproportionately affect poor and vulnerable
communities and are compounded by contributing factors, including population
increase, unmanaged migration, land-use change, reduced soil health, accelerated
groundwater extraction, widespread ecological degradation and biodiversity loss
(Allen, 2002).It can be argued that climate change culminating to global warming
has emerged as a challenge to all nations of the world and Nigeria as a nation is
vulnerable to the impact of the change both directly and indirectly.
The objective of this review paper is to highlight the causes and impacts of
climate on water resources and by extension food security and to suggest the way
towards mitigating the impacts of climate change on water resources and food
The Concepts of Climate Change, Water Scarcity and Food Security
Since the mid-20th century, changes in the intensity and frequency of
extreme weather and climate events have been observed, including a decrease in
cold temperature extremes, an increase in warm temperature extremes, an increase
in extremely high sea levels and an increase in the number of heavy precipitation
events in a number of regions (Alcano, 2003).
Climate projections indicate with high confidence that extreme precipitation
events will become more intense and frequent in many regions, but also that heat
waves will occur more often and last longer. The former will increase global flood
risk (Milly, 2005), while the latter is expected to make droughts more intense (EU,
2000). These risks are unevenly distributed geographically, and are generally larger
for vulnerable people and communities in countries at all levels of development
(FAO, 2010).
The American Meteorological Society glossary (AMS Glossary) defined
climate change as “any systematic change in the long-term statistics of climate
elements (such as temperature, pressure, or winds) sustained over several decades
or longer” (Strzepek, 2007).The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC) states that “climate change is a change in the state of the climate that can be
identified by changes in its properties and that persist for an extended period,
typically decades or longer, due to natural internal processes or external forcing or
to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land
use” (Cowley, 2000). The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC) defined climate change as “a change of climate which is
attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the
global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed
over comparable time periods (UN, 2000).Thus, climate change is the long time
changes in the composition or properties of the global atmosphere occasioned by
natural or anthropogenic factors or a combination of both factors.
Recent researches by Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC),
World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations
Environmental Protection (UNEP) have revealved average global temperature
increase during the last century. According to the studies, the average surface
temperature of the earth has increased during the twentieth century by about 0.6 ±
0.2oC, indicating that it is warmer presently in many parts of the world than at anty
time during the past one hundred years(Solomon, 2007). The studies predicted that
the world may record warmer years than the previous centuries in the next few
decades with a business-as-usual posture.
According to Global Water Partnership, GWP (2012), water security is an
over-arching goal where every person has access to enough self water at affordable
cost to live a clean, healthy and productive life, while ensuring that the
environment is protected and enhanced. Water Aid (2012) defines water security as
reliable access to water of sufficient quantity and quality for basic human needs,
small scale livelihood and local ecosystem services, coupled with a well managed
risk of water related disasters. Water security can therefore be said to be the
availability of reliable and acceptable quantity and quality of water for healthy
living, agricultural, industrial and domestic activities, without a compromise to the
environment.
The United Nation`s Committee on World Food Security (UNCWFS) and
the Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) defined food security to mean that
all people at all times have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food that meet their food preferences and dietary needs for an active
and healthy life (IFPRI, 2021). On the other hand, the United State Department of
Agriculture (USDA) defined food insecurity to meam “a situation of limited or
uncertain availability of nutrition by adequate and safe foods or limited or
uncertain ability to aquire acceptable fooods in socially acceptable ways (Illaboya,

2011; IFPRI, 2021).
Food security therefore means the availability of adequate and the right kind
of food and ones acess to it. Assuring food security in Nigeria therefore depends on
large scale food production, storage, processing and distribution as well as tackling
economic and social accessibility.
Causes of Climate Change
Climate change may be due to natural external forcings, such as changes in
solar emissions or slow changes in the earth’s orbital elements; natural internal
processes of the climate system; or anthropogenic forces (Solomon et al, 2009). It
can be regarded as a complex interaction between earth, atmosphere, ocean, and
land systems. The changes in atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
(GHG), aerosol levels, land use and land cover, and solar radiation affecting the
absorption, scattering, and emission of radiation within the atmosphere and at the
earth’s surface of any of these systems ( natural, anthropogenic or both).
The anthropogenic increase in greenhouse gas emissions, not natural
variability, is responsible for most of the warming in recent decades (Allen et al,
2002). Since the start of the industrial era (ca. 1750), the overall effect of human
activities on climate has been one of warming. The major greenhouse gases, for
example, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), dinitrogen oxide (N2O), and the
halocarbons, are the result of human activities, and they accumulate in the
atmosphere, and the concentration increases with time (Solomon et al, 2009). The
major causes of the increase in CO 2 are the increased combustion of fossil fuel
used in transportation, building heating and cooling, the manufacture of cement
and other products (Molina, 2009). Human activities, such as agriculture, natural
gas distribution, and landfills, result in increases in CH 4, whereas the use of
fertilizer and the burning of fossil fuels lead to increase in N 2O. The increasing use
of the principal halocarbons (chlorofluorocarbons) as refrigerants, coolants in
automobiles and electricity generating plants and other engines as well as in other
industrial processes has been found to cause stratospheric ozone layer depletion
(Cowley, 2000; Solomon, 2009).
Another cause of climate change is radiatve forcing. The energy balance of
the earth-atmosphere system can be measured based on radiative forcing, which is
usually quantified as the rate of energy change per unit area of the globe as
measured at the top of the atmosphere (Cowley et al, 2000). The earth-atmosphere
system gets warmer when radiative forcing is positive; for negative radiative
forcing, the energy will ultimately decrease, leading to a cooling of the system. The
major causes of forcing include increases in greenhouse gases; tropospheric ozone

increases contributing to warming; stratospheric ozone decreases contributing to
cooling; the influence of aerosol particles through reflection and absorption
processes; the nature of land cover around the globe principally through changes in
croplands, pastures, and forests; and persistent linear trails of condensation due to
aircraft in regions that have suitably low temperatures and high humidity (Solomon
et al, 2007). The human impact on climate during this era greatly exceeds that due
to known changes in natural processes, such as solar changes and volcanic
eruptions.
The original Milankovitch theory identifies three types of orbital variation
that could act as natural climate-forcing mechanisms: the obliquity or tilt of the
earth’s axis (which affects the distribution of insolation inspace and time), the
precession of the equinoxes, and the eccentricity of the Earth’s orbital round the
sun. Other natural processes are volcanic eruptions that release large amounts of
gases into the atmosphere which act by reducing the amount of solar radiation
reaching the earth’s surface, lower temperatures, and change atmospheric
circulation patterns (Cowley et al, 2000). Tectonic movements on the other hand
generate both atmospheric circulation changes and greenhouse feedback, directly
or indirectly (Cowley et al, 2000; IPCC, 2014a). The Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) projects that the average surface temperature of the earth is
likely to increase by 3.2 °F to 7.2 °F (1.8 °C to 4.0 °C) by the end of the 21st
century, relative to 1980-1990 (IPCC, 2014 a).
The Impact of Climate Change on Water Resources and Food Security in
Nigeria
Water resources respond to variations in climatic patterns (Bates et al, 2008;
Strzepek, 2007). Current observations and climate projections suggest that one of
the most significant impacts of climate change will likely be on the hydrological
system and, hence, on river flows and regional water resources, agriculture, forests,
fisheries and other economic and social activities of the world (Bruinsma, 2005;
Milly, 2005). Nigeria is not an exception. Warmer temperatures can affect water
quality in several ways, including decreased dissolved oxygen levels (as warmer
water holds less oxygen), increased contaminant load to water bodies, reduced
stream and river flows, increased algal blooms, and an increased likelihood of
saltwater intrusion near coastal regions as well as flooding. This variability in
climate causes flooding patterns in space and time (McCarthy, 2001).
Climate change in Nigeria has been responsible for seseaonal fluctuations in
surface and underground water sources. For example, between 1963 and 2013, the
Lake Chad has lost 90% of its water mass, shrinking from 25,000 km 2 to 2,500
km2. The reduction in the size of the lake has threatened the water resources and
food security of the 50 million residents in the region, Nigeria inclusive Mariama,
2017). Also the fluctuation in the volume of water in major streams and rivers such
as rivers Niger, Benue, Taraba, Kaduna, Sokoto and Katsina-Ala among others
have impacted negatively on water and food security for industrial, agricultural and
domestic uses.
The water security situation in Nigeria has been made worse by the general
pollution of surface and underground water through oil spillage, indiscriminate
dumping of refuse and poor application of herbicides, pesticides, fertilizers and
other gicultural chemical by farmers. The use of chemical like gamalin-20 by fisher
men for fishing has also contributed to water pollution in Nigeria with its attendant
consequences. Crude oil mining activities in the Niger-Delta have resulted in oil
spilages, poluting most of the Nigerian coasteal areas. Refuse dumps are common
in major Nigerian cities such Lagos, Makurdi, Ibadan, Port Harcout, Enugu, Kano
and so on. These reuse dumps produce leachates that percilate into the underground
water system, while the solid materials and other liquid pollutants are washed into
surface waters by surface flows and storms.
Additonally, deforestation and bush burning contribute to evaporation and
increase in temperature of both surface and underground water sources as well as
siltation of rivers lakes and oceans which ompact negatively on food and water
During the twentieth century, several studies examined potential trends in
measures of river discharge at different spatial scales. Some studies detected
significant trends in several indicators of flow and flood with some demonstrating
statistically significant links with trends in temperature and/or precipitation (Milly
et al, 2002). The causes of flood are many and include heavy rainfall, torrential
rain, poor drainage system, and obstruction of water channels etc (Kron, 2007).
Floods cause significant damage to the economies of affected areas, and this is
considered to be one of the commonly occurring natural hazards around many parts
of the world including Nigeria. Severe floods from high rainfall of (long or short
duration) have occurred in almost all humid regions of the world, as well as some
semiarid zones. Agricultural activities in most African countries like Nigeria
depend on the pattern of rainfall and the quality of the rainy season thereby making
the country more vulnarable to the impact of climate change. Extreme rainfall,
especially in areas where there is poor water management system will likely result
to water-borne, water-shed and water-related diseases like cholera, typhoid,
dysentry, malaria, traponomisa is, etc (Van, 2004). Vulnerability to diseases by
animals will affect livestock productivity. Man`s ability to utilize food effectively
is affected by altering the conditions for food safety and changing the disease
pressure from vector, water and food borne diseases. The number of labour hours
for farming will also be reduced, impact negatively on the income of farmer.
Flooding will also create unemployment by displacing most of the farmers and
lobourers, thereby relieving them of their means of livelyhood. A large population
of Nigerians is presently facing hunger, malnutrition, starvation, diseases and death
as a result of food insecurity.
Variations in stream flow characteristics will alter the transport of chemical
loads in rivers. Due to low flows in rivers, the dilution process between water and
wastes will be affected, which can increase the nutrients loads (mineralization) in
surface and groundwater (Kundzewiez, 2007). For example, higher nitrate
concentrations in crops may be taken up in food chain by most Nigerians already
plagued with malnutrition, poverty, diseases and huger, resulting to a “blue baby
syndrome” in children and eutrophication stagnant water sources (Kaste, 2006).
Increasing streamflow has been observed in Nigeria since 1940, though these
increases have not been uniform across the range of annual streamflows, nor have
they been uniform geographically or seasonally, as reported by the USGS using a
variety of approaches (Mohamed, 2002). Precipitation and temperature will have
direct effects as these combinations are useful for determining the availability of
freshwater and the level of soil moisture, which are critical inputs for crop growth.
Also, higher precipitation leads to a reduction in yield variability (Parry, 2004),
yield gap between rainfed and irrigated agriculture and flooding (World Bank,
2008). The combination of temperature and soil moisture determines the length of
the growing season and controls crop development and water requirements;
however, in arid and semiarid areas, higher temperatures will shorten the crop
cycle and reduce crop yields (Mohamed et al, 2002).
Acid rain principally caused by oxides of sulphur and nitrogen from natural
and human actions degrads water quality by decreasing the pH of the water and
soil. Since organisms and the ecosystem is adapted to narrow pH range, this will
create extincttion and disruption of food web and supply as well as food
quality(Psenner, 1992).Decreased soil quality as a result of increase in soil
temperature will threaten the survival of soil micro-organisms, leading to decreased
soil organic matter, soil texture and structure, poor water holding ability and
leached mineral content, consequently affecting soil fertility and crop yield (Zhu,
2005; Wilby, 2006).
Several studies investigated the impact of climate change on water quality in
future decades. An increase in water temperature of around 2 oC by 2070,
depending on the water source characteristics and the season, would lower the
depth of a stream, lake or river. In addition, the residence time of lakes would
probably increase in summer by 92% in 2050 for lakes with short residence times
(Psenner et al, 1992). An increase in water temperature would also affect lake
chemical processes with increases in pH and greater in-lake alkalinity generation.
The deepest lakes are most sensitive to climate warming over a long period of time
due to their greater heat storage capacity and will consequently show the highest
winter temperatures (Allen et al, 2002).
Drought, another consequence of global warming, especially in the Northen
region of the country have the greatest detrimental impact on the economic and
livelihood of farmers as a result of increased evapo-transpiration and lower soil
moisture levels, reduced livestock production due to higher mortality, reduced crop
yields, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, desertification and water scarcity in the
region (Sheffoeld, 2008; Mishra, 2010). Most cereal crops like maize, rice,
sorghum and millet as well as beans have become scarce and the prices have
skyrocketed due to reduced production in the area. The production of food in the
area and other regions of the country is further exacerbated by the activities of
insurgents like Boko Haram, Islamic State of West Africa (ISWA) and herdsmen,
thereby contributing to food crises that have enveloped the whole country. The
production of maize, one of the staple food crops in the world is estimated to be
lost by between 20 to 25 percent in Nigeria, Mexico, Tanzania, South Africa and
Brazil in a business-as-usual posture by 2030 due to drought (World Bank
Development Report, 2007; Mohamed, 2002). Less cereal production in the
country will mean less food for most of the vulnerable Nigerian population, less
feeds for livestocks, culminating to meat and milk shortages in the country and less
cash income to farmers.
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) and the International Institute for
Applied System Analysis (IIASA) report of 2020 as well as Intergovernmental
Pannel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2000) have estimated a shift in land suitable for
crop production of between 10 to 30 million hectares for double cropping and 5 to
15 million hectares for tripple cropping in Sub-Saharan Africa alone. This will
greatly impact negatively on food production and supply in Africa and
consequently food security. When temperature are too high for crops, most of the
vital enzymes are denatured which may result to plant death and even if the crops
are able to adapt and survive, they may be nutritionally defficient in proteins
(Fischer, 2001). Large-scale intensive droughts have been observed on all
continents in recent decades affecting large areas in Europe, Africa, Asia,
Australia, South America, Central America, and North America.
Approximately 70 % of the world’s freshwater use goes to agriculture, and

already some 30 developing countries including Nigeria are facing water shortages
(EU, 2000; UN,2021). It is projected that by 2050, this number will increase to
some 55 countries, the majority in the developing countries [UN, 2021]. This water
scarcity, together with the degradation of arable land, could become the most
serious obstacle to increasing food production. The vulnerability of agricultural
sectors to climate change is mainly due to changes in precipitation and
temperature, and, consequently, the likely impacts on the agricultural sector have
prompted concern over the magnitude of future global food production (World
Bank, 2007). Many countries, including Nigeria are agriculture dependent;
therefore, climate change could create a linkage between the agricultural sector and
poverty and is likely to affect many developing countries. For example, in Africa, it
is estimated that nearly 60–70 % of the population is dependent on the agricultural
sector for employment (World Bank, 2007: Bruinma et al, 2021). The agricultural
sector alone contributes on average nearly 34 % to the gross domestic product
(GDP) per country (Bruinma et al, 2021). In the case of the West African Sahel
alone, more than 80 % of the population is involved in agriculture in rural areas
(Parry, 2004).
Air pollution could also reduce crop yields since tropospheric ozone has
negative effects on biomass productivity (Maracchi, 2005). Elevated levels of CO 2
in the atmosphare lead to protein reduction in crops. Grains are most vulnerable to
higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere since they produce seeds once in their lifetime,
thus reducing crop yield and quality. It is projected that a decrease in cereal
production of 2 to 3 percent in 2030 is enough to put 20 million people at risk of
starvation (Solomon et al, 2009).
During the twenty-first century all of Africa is very likely to warm, and the
warming is very likely to be larger than the global, annual mean warming
throughout the continent and in all seasons, with drier subtropical regions warming
more than the moisture tropics. Annual rainfall is likely to decrease in much of
Mediterranean Africa, the northern Sahara, and southern Africa during winter,
whereas there is likely to be an increase in annual mean rainfall in East Africa
(Maracchi et al, 2005).
Climate change is expected to exacerbate critical water stress conditions
before 2025 due to rises in water demand and in population (IPCC, 2014a). Annual
temperature increases may lead to a longer crop (and grass) growing season and
vegetative growth and cover. High temperature could increase pest and disease
pressures and nutrient leaching and reduced soil organic matter (SOM) content and
water (IFPRI, 2021). There could be an increased demand for water for crop
irrigation (up to 10 %, depending on the crop type) (Mohamed et al, 2002).The

reduction in soil moisture could affect natural systems in several ways. For
example, significant extinctions in both plant and animal species as over 5,000
plant species could be impacted by climate change, mainly due to the loss of
suitable habitats (World Bank, 2007). In addition, the Fynbos biome is projected to
lose 51–61 % of its extent due to decreased winter precipitation. Based on the full
range of SRES scenarios, the population to be affected is projected to be 75–250
million and 350–600 million people by the 2020s and 2050s, respectively (UN,
2021).
Groundwater is the most common primary source of drinking water in
Africa, particularly in rural areas, and its recharge is projected to decrease with
decreased precipitation and runoff, resulting in increased water stress in those areas
(Delta Stewardshop Council, 2010). Global warming will likely affect groundwater
resources by altering precipitation and temperature patterns, which will likely be
further aggravated by overexploitation. Groundwater recharge is affected by land-
use and land-cover change, urbanization, loss in forest cover, changes in cropping
patterns and rotation, and changes in soil properties occurring over a long period of
time that may affect infiltration capacity (Fischer et al, 2001).Further, changes in
land use, land cover and changes in precipitation regimes (flash rainfall instead of
drizzles) could alter runoff patterns and further reduce recharge. This will have
serious impact on agricultural activities and hence food security. Similarly,
projections of hydroelectric power generation, conducted based on projections of
future runoff; indicate that hydropower generation would be negatively affected by
climate change, particularly in river basins situated in sub humid regions (IPCC,
2000; Otaha, 2013).
Findings of several investigations highlight that the degree of vulnerability
of the agricultural sector to climate change depends on local biological conditions,
moisture content, cropping patterns, extent of knowledge, and awareness of
expected changes in the climate, and the increased uncertainty of climate effects
represents an additional problem that farmers must address.
Climate Change, Water Scarcity and Food Security: The Way Forward
The following recommendations are required to mitigate the negative impact
of climate change on water resources and food security in Nigeria:
1. Better management of water resources by enhancing the use of traditional
and modern rainwater harvesting and water-conserving techniques to
conserve water as well as embarking on irrigation schemes.
2. Planting of drought-resistant, early maturity and high yielding crops,

adjustment of planting dates as well as assistance by government to small
subsistence farmers to increase crop production to ensure food safety and
security.
3. Acquisition of damaged coastal lands/ prone to damage by storms or
buffering other lands for agricultural activities.
4. Building of dams and/or installation of hard structures for shore defense
system in areas vulnerable to flooding.
5. Improved pest management strategies as well as processing and
preservation technologies will improve food safety and security.
6. Adoption of a national climate change action plan, integrating climate
change concerns into national policies, introduction of participatory risk
assessment, capacity building, adoption of Flooding Defense Act and
Coastal Defense Policy as precautionary measures, dissemination of
climate change research findings and allowing for the incorporation of
emerging trends in climate will help in mitigating the impacts of climate
change in Nigeria.
Conclusion
Various observations, including increases in global average air and ocean
temperatures and the melting of snow and ice, confirm that the climatic system is
getting warmer. The global climate change is inextricably linked to water and by
extension food security. Climate change is increasing variability in the water cycle,
thus inducing extreme weather, reducing predictability of water availability, water
quality and threatening sustainable development, biodiversity, food security, safe
water and sanitation as well as the socio-economic and cultural wellbeing of
Nigerians. Therefore, national and regional climate policy and planning must take
an integrated approach to climate change and water resources management.
Increased water stress and meeting future demand will require increasingly tough
decisions about how to allocate water resources among competing water uses,
including for climate change mitigation and adaptation activities. Increased
investment is needed in improving hydrological data, institutions and governance,
education and capacity development, risks assessment and knowledge sharing.
Policies need to ensure the representation, participation, behavioral change and
accountability of all stakeholders, including the private and public sector and the
civil society. Adaptation plans need to incorporate targeted strategies that assist
lower-income populations who are disproportionately affected by climate change
impacts to navigate new conditions.
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LOVE AS AN IMPERATIVE FOR THE CHURCH, RELIGIOUS LEADERS

AND NIGERIAN SOCIETY
Damap Helen Pochi

&
Ishaya Jan Shikleka
Christian Religious Studies Department,
Federal College of Education Pankshin
Abstract
The study is basically concerned with love which is the most difficult
terms in human life, to some people, love is love, but love is more than
that. This transposes love within the Church, among religious leaders,
and the Nigerian society. Pure and unconditional love for one another as
Jesus commanded has been a difficult thing for contemporary
Christianity to imbibe. They have failed to take up their responsibilities.
This work therefore looks at the effect of Christian love within the church
and the Nigerian society. It observes that, the Church which is the body
of Christ on earth is full of crisis and even those who weild the political
power are not practicing love. The study observes this trend with concern
and took deliberate attempt to respond to it. One upholds that Jesus’
command remains valid and relevant in every context of human life. And
his standard of love is not lowered or compromised. The purpose of this
article is to discover where love has failed among citizen and to establish
the love of God as the key to fulfillment of law. The crux of this is
toestablish the Kingdom on love and reconcile us to himself through
Jesus’ death deem helpful for the Church and all Christians all over
Nigeria and beyond to adhere to Jesus’ command.
Key words: Love, Church, Nigeria Society
Introduction
Loving one another is a command from God, “As I have loved you so you
must love one another. By this all men will know that you are my disciples, if you
love one another” (John 13:24-25). This was seen in the lives of the early
Christians. Love is not an act that ceases, but a continuous process. Jesus taught his
disciples to even love their enemies, do good to those that hate them, bless those
who curse them; above all they should pray for those who ill-treat them.
Darrel (1994), stated that what is required to possess true love is to
understand what it is to be loved by God and how God wants all believers to love.
This love cannot be reduced merely to the golden role of culture but it is love that
is golden even when everything around is not pleasant. Jesus wants his followers to
attain a standard which far excels all that sinners do. God says his followers cannot
be selective in love. The scripture states concerning those who know God and those
who do not know him. “Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows
God. Whoever does not love does not know God because God is love” (John 4:7-
8). God so much loves us that is why he had sent his son into the world that all men
might have life and live through him. Since God loves everyone, then we are to
extent this love to all men because “God lives in us and his love is made complete
in us” (I John 4:12). Therefore they are to give blessing because they themselves
have been promised blessing that they did not merit. (I Peter 3:19).
Love is from God. “God is love” (I John 4:8) Palmar (1962) defined love
as “the deepest possible expression of the personality and of the personal
relationship. Hulitt (2003) says, love is unselfish, loyal, and benevolent intention
and commitment toward another.
Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not
proud. It is not easily angered; it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does
not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protect, always
trust, always hopes, always persevere, love never fails (I Corinthians
13:4-8 NIV)
The expected Love to be seen, as pure and unconditionally love for one
another is not practiced in the church and the society today.
The Concept of Love
Love is an intense, deep affection for other persons. It can also be seen as
profound and caring affection toward somebody and it also means having strong
affection for one another arising out of kinship or personal ties. Love plays a huge
role in the life of everyone. Though some say, love is best defined by the person
who has the feeling and experience it himself. The concept of true love is hard to
define and one’s definition won’t do justice because love does not carry the same
weight as its true meaning. One can have deep affections for one another. But at
times it goes far beyond, it is much stronger, and when it ends up between you and
the other person you love, then it can be a train wreck. Love comes from God, it is
real and as a human being, you deserve to love and be loved.
The New Bible Dictionary defines love as “the deepest possible

expression of the personality and of the closeness of personal relationship.” While
the Holman Illustrated Bible Dictionary defines love as unselfish, loyal and
benevolent intention and commitment toward another. Kendra (2021), explained
some components of love as follows: intimacy, passion, and commitment.
Intimacy is the closeness between people in personal relationship, it is built
over time as you connect with someone, grow to care for one another, and you
become more and more comfortable during your time together. Intimacy can occur
in family bonds. It must not be sexual or romantic but is more of the bonds people
share. It can occur between those who share the same belief, personality. Affection
is a form of intimacy.
Passionate Love: Passion love a state of intense longing for union with one
another. This love is more common at the outset of a relationship. In this state of
relationship, people tend to experience powerful feeling for one another. They need
to be close to each other, they may think about the other person constantly and
“experience extreme distress when separated” Passionate love may attract sexual
desire in a long-term relationship. Any relationship without intimacy may fail, but
a lust-based relationship will eventually fade away if there is no love underneath
the sexual desire.
Commitment Love: Love cannot grow without commitment, if you truly love
someone, you will probably have some form of commitment to the person. For
example, a couple agrees upon a certain level of commitment to another in terms of
open relationship and the like. In life, one can be committed to someone without
feeling love for the other person, and one can also have love for one without
commitment.
Love is considered as a central element of Christianity. Love comes from
God “for God so loved the world that he gave his only begotten son, that whoever
believes in him shall not perish but have everlasting life” (John 3:16).
Love as an imperative for the Church
The Church is the body of Christ here on earth (Ephesians 5:23). It
represents Christ on earth God uses the Church as a means of accomplishing his
purpose in the world. (Reuel 1961). Therefore, it has been seen as centre of love
for God that reign supreme in the heart of all believers.
Today the Church is full of crisis, ministers among themselves, ministers
and elders, elders and members; in fact the love which needs to be visible in the
life of the Church is dying. Some Church ministers hate each other because of
titles. Some have poisoned others, to enable them will take over their positions.
This behavior does not show love at all. Ministers need to be one in Christ for they
were called to win souls for Christ. As Paul said “we are God’s workmanship,
created in Christ Jesus to do good works which God prepared in advance for us
today” (Ephesians 2:10). They should love each other, correct each other when one
does wrong, and do away with tribalism because it is one of the causes of crisis in
the Church.
The elders of the Church sometimes disrespect the ministers of God, they
tend to rule the minister. Instead of allowing the ministers to work in accordance
with the spirit of God. Thus, the minister fears to rebuke them on their wrongs.
Ministers should not be afraid, “do not fear the reproach of men or be terrified by
their insult’, since you know what is right. (Isaiah 51:7b). let love reign in the
Church because it is through love that things can be done rightly.
Today, the Church leaders and members have failed to live up to their
responsibilities such as lack of visitation, caring for widows, orphans, the poor and
sick ones. They are involved in ungodly activities like sexual immorality,
drunkenness and others. They have been carried away by the material things of this
world. If these can be found in the Church, then where is the Church heading to?
Each person in the Church needs to take his or her responsibility seriously. There
should be visitation to know the well being of the people; orphans, widows and
other less privileged people are to be cared for. The Church is to preach Christ by
putting love into practice, telling the truth, challenging sinners and doing away
with all kinds of evil. The Church must be strong in the Lord and in his mighty
power (Ephesians 6:10), tell the world what is good, shun all kinds of temptation
and live as one family and children of light (Ephesians 5:9).
Tribalism is one of the major problems in the Church. Some tribes have
dominated positions in the Church to the point that they do not want to expose the
sin of their fellow tribal people. This act is bad, and it is not love at all. God is not
happy with that, we should know that God disciplines those whom he loves
(Proverbs 3:12). People’s sin should be exposed so that they will repent and be
saved. God is omnipresent, no one can hide anything from him. Election in the
Church should also be done prayerfully. We should avoid tribal conflict, hatred and
envy, things that will do us harm causing trouble and disunity in the Church.
Many Christians nowadays do not have respect for ministers, elders and
leaders in the society due to lack of love. They have forgotten that it is God who
has placed them in their positions. The scripture says, everyone must submit
himself to the governing authority, for there is no authority except that which God
has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God (Romans
13:1).
This shows that ministers, leaders and societal leaders were elected by
God. So the Church should try by all means to bring to Christ the societal leaders
whose attitudes are ungodly. Christians are to respect every authority here on earth,
telling them what is right and what is not right. This is how we should show our
love to them, instead of rejecting them in the Church. The Church has been
established on earth for the sake of sinners. As Jesus told the Pharisees, “It is not
the healthy who need a doctor, but the sick. I have not come to call the righteous,
but sinners to repentance” (Luke 5:31-32). So also Christians are in the world to
call sinners to repentance. When the Church behaves ungodly, it will scare the
society away and hinder people from coming to the Church. “What has light to do
with darkness?
What is the relationship between God and Satan? (2 Corinthians 6:14), this
does not mean we should not relate with the sinners, but that we should not involve
in any ungodly deed as those in world do. The fact is that the Church is in the
society, so it needs to show light to the society to send away its darkness. The
Church is there to exercise love, not to see themselves so holy that they cannot
relate with the society because of it is sinful. Anyone who is in sin is not yet in
Christ and he that is in Christ should love all people including those seen as
enemies, Christians have been brought in to this relationship by God’s love and we
can grow in relationship only as guided by His spirit. The Church is to prove this
love by showing the world that the Church knows better than secular people
through the way the Church interacts. It is the Church that will set the pace for the
world, not the world for the Church.
All Christians are disciples of Christ, thus, Christians are to carry his cross
and follow him. Just as Jesus instructed his disciples, “if anyone would come after
me, he must deny himself and take up his cross daily and follow me”, (Luke 9:23
NIV).Those who lose their lives for Christ will save them eternally (Luke 9:24
NIV). The Church is the means of fulfilling our discipleship.
Let the spirit of genuine love reign in the Church. All Christians should
help the helpless people both within and outside the Church. Real love is an action,
not a feeling. It produces selfless sacrificial giving. The greatest action of love is
giving oneself for others to help those in need. The Church should be the place
where love can be found so that they will be able to serve the purpose of the
Church. All people are equal before the Lord so it should be same in the heart of
the Church. When there is love in the Church; then there will be unity and the spirit
of God will protect the Church from falling, God will guide, strengthen and
counsel the Church towards good deeds (Leo 1974).
Love as an Imperative for Religious Leaders
Religious leaders are there in their positions to induce followers to act for
certain “transcendental goals that embody the value, motivation and aspiration of
both leaders and followers” (Edgen 1992). This implies actions of love. But today
actions of love are weak and as such, leaders hardly have time to impart the real
religious knowledge to their followers. In some denominations, the struggle for
posts has become a habit among Christian leaders. Those who have money tend to
occupy the post of leadership in the Church, they bribe people to re-elect them.
Some want to be a religious leaders for life. This is as a result of lack of love
among Christians.
All religious leaders should act in love by allowing others to occupy the
posts that they have served in before. If leadership is enjoyment let others enjoy
too. People should not collect bribes, neither should Christian give bribes, the
Church should seek God first through prayer so that God will choose the right
person or people who will really work for His Kingdom on earth; that is an act of
love for people and God.
Most religious leaders are after money, with little or no attention paid to
the spiritual or moral life of their members. They seem to preach more on money
especially in Pentecostal Churches and some Protestants too. They love visiting
political leaders to beg for money instead of preaching to them. At times they
invite political leaders for Church occasions simply to get money from them, and
on these occasions, they preach only what the politicians want to hear. As a result
of all these negligence, souls are perishing. Let the Christians leaders preach Christ
not money, preach rebuking message to the political leaders, for they are sent by
God to rebuke, correct and mold through love as God has instructed them to bring
people to his salvation for Christ died for the salvation of all (I Thessalonians 5:9)
which shows his love to all people. No one can call someone to salvation in Christ
without loving the person first.
Some Church leaders are autocratic. They are selfish, that is why they
frustrate others unnecessarily. Some Church leaders do not want to suffer for the
sake of others; they want to gain from those who have little resources. They hate
correction and deal with those that correct them like they own the Church hence,
their decision is final. They also want people to call them by big names or titles.
They should embrace love and put away greediness and accept good correction
from all angles because he who corrects a person loves him, as it is stated that God
disciplines those he loves (Hebrews 12:16). Being authoritarian is bad. So let them
be humble in their attitudes which is the present of love.
Quite often, religious leaders are accused of extramarital sexual
relationship, drunkenness and others. This has led some people astray. They are to
show love by avoiding all kinds of behavior that can lead people astray. The
scripture says ‘he who loves his fellow-man has fulfilled the law” (Romans 13:8b).
They should bear in mind that their outstanding debt is the continuing to love one
another (Romans 13:8a).
However, Van (1958) observed that it is pathetic that some religious
leaders are not serving their people well, by not taking prayer seriously, which is
the chief cause of their falling apart. Some consult oracles for power and
deliverance instead of God.They should be prayerful and encourage people to pray
as they continue praying for them and others outside their religion, because they
are seen as the apostles of Christ on earth, they should be devoted to one another in
brotherly love, honouring one another and keeping their spiritual favour, serving
the Lord in serving the people (Romans 12:19).
In Nigeria, religious disagreement has split the nation’s objectives. We are
divided because there is no love. The religious and tribal crises in our country
Nigeria, which has claimed many lives, is not of love and is not of God. Luzu,
(2002) states that the physical conflicts of our country especially of the two major
religious groups Christianity and Islam have set the country backward: Religiously,
politically, economically to religio-political instability. More so, poverty and
unemployment and other disasters prevail because love is not practically seem in
our lives. Divided we continue falling but united we would stand, we are to
embrace love, reconcile and build Nigeria. We should learn to love and to live in
peace with all people because God is not a God of violence but of peace. “Flee
from evil acts and pursue righteousness, faith love and peace”. (2 Timothy 2:22).
All Christians, especially the religious leaders, should serve people well in
all aspects of life. This can be done if they love all people because love is not self-
seeking (I Corinthians 13:4) but considering others. Love “rejoices with the truth”
(verses 6); though it may suffer long but it never fails (verse 8). That is why Jesus
emphasized that we should love one another even our enemies and do good to
those who hate us (Luke 6:27). There may be persecution for doing right but no
one should shy away from love because love has no fear, perfect love casts away
fear. Paul also stated that love is the greatest (I Corinthians 13:13). Thus, let love
be the backbone of our religion and let it be in the heart of all our religious leaders.
Love as an imperative for the Nigeria Society
The Nigerian society is made up of many ethnic groups with various

customs, culture, languages and social organization. These can be classified into a
number of linguistic groups, in which there are believers (Christians) and non-
believers in Christ. (Common Wealth Governance 2015).
Out of God’s great love for us we have been made alive with Christ when
we were dead in sin (Ephesians 2:;4-5) our society is pluralistic and is dominated
by the policies of different units, since they operate under one political entity and
the individual political institutions dominate others as is clearly seen in the present
Nigerian political system, where some political groups dominate other ethnic
groups. This domination has not brought political, social cultural and religious
integration, Herbert (1963).
Those who wield political power such as government officials, and others,
do not put love onto practice. They usually promise but cannot fulfill. Some are
wife snatchers. Their judgment is fallible; most of them are at logger heads with
each other, especially the political leaders. They speak in public as if there is love
but in their hearts there is no love. Let the political leaders, government officials,
and all people embrace love and translate it into political activities, as Benard
(1979) observed that politics can be an effective means of improving social
relationship, unity/social justice which will yield to peace. We the Nigerians should
give our hearts to God so that the spirit of love and peace may reign both internally
and externally because God is the author of peace (I Corinthians 4:33). We are to
work in honesty, not in strife and envy (Romans 13:13). We should imbibe love in
our heart that we may live as an example to the next generation. Walk in love (2
John 6).
It is quite glaring that Nigeria is pervaded by diverse forms of electoral
malpractice. Right from 1999 till date no politician will say that there has never
been electoral malpractice. Steve (2019) observes that people get into offices
through rigging, favoritism, tribalism, nepotism and the like. Even to get
employment in government. This has been developed to the highest level and those
in favour have become the privileged classes in their religions. This too is the result
of the absence of love. There is the need to avoid sectionalism, tribalism, making
our own religion dominant and other things that will widen the gaps between us,
for we are all made in God’s image (Genesis 1:27). Politicians, government
officials all people should be one, united we stand divided we fall. Thus love
should not be forsaken. we must make our effort to save the world from eternal
damnation, decay and destruction. We are to preach the gospel to stop any
activities that will be disastrous to the physical environment such as exploitation of
our natural resources, for God in his loving kindness has commanded us to love
each other and our environment by controlling the world and everything in it,
socially, politically, economically, culturally. (Ephraim 2012).
Conclusion
All Christians in Nigeria and beyond are disciples of Christ, who has called
his followers to serve in love. Therefore, let people embrace love to live in unity
and peace with all people, to fight against the causes of hatred and divisions in the
Church. For we are “God’s field, God’s building” (I Corinthians 3:9b).We are also
to fight against temptation and its power through fervent prayer to stand the test of
our generation, for we shall “receive the crown of life that God has promised to
those who love him”. (James 1:12). We are to lay our lives down for one another in
participation in suffering for one another out of love. Since Christ suffered for us
all we are to do same. Love entails meeting people’s physical and spiritual needs,
seeking the spiritual welfare of each other. love must do all kinds of things that
Christ commanded his followers to do. Therefore, let the love for one another be
genuine because love shapes the Christians life. Love cannot be separated from
Christianity, let all the deeds of Christians be in love as Christ
References
Bock L. Darrel (1994). Luke 1:1-9, 50: Baker Exegetical Commentary on the New
Testament: Grand Rapids Baker.
Devline Karen (2021). What is love? The Definition Behind it. Retrieved from
https://www.regain.us/advice/love/what-is-love-the-definition-behind-it/
Dictionary by Merrian Webster (2022). Retrieved from https://www.merrian-

webster.com
Hendirckson, William (1978). The Gospel of Luke. Edinbergh: Banner of truth.
Kendra Cherry (2020). Compassionate and …. www.verywelmind.com
Morris, Leon Tyndale (1974). New Testament Commentary Intervarsity Press.
NIV Study Bible (1985). Edited by K. Barker. Grand Rapids: Zondervan.
Ruler, A.A Van (1958). The Greatest of these love. Grand Rapid: Eerdmand.
GLOBALIZATION AND DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES IN NIGERIA
Gbaeren Tersoo
Department of Political Science,
Abstract
Globalization has become the defining process of present economic and
socio-political order; it is thus a broad process permeating the entire
world with far-reaching ramifications covering economic, political and
social dimensions of contemporary life. The main driving forces of this
process are technology, policy and competition and its subordination of
domestic economies to global market conditions and practices.
Developed nations are the beneficiaries of globalization as their share of
World trade and finance has been expanded at the expense of developing
countries. Thus, the process exacerbates inequality between the world’s
regions and poverty in the developing World. Nigeria has not benefitted
from globalization due to single commodity export, inability to attract
increased foreign investments and huge indebtedness. The writer dwelt
on secondary sources of data and documentary evidence and made use of
dependency theory as the basis of analysis. The work has found out that
globalization has adversely ruined the Nigerian economy and its negative
impact has contributed to underdeveloping the state. The globalization
process is another phase of capitalist expansion and dominance. The
phenomenon presents many critical challenges in the drive for
development. The work suggests that globalization can be domesticated
in the country through diversification of exports, debt reduction and
expanded development cooperation with other countries. The Nigerian
state also needs to strengthen its anti-graft agencies and safeguard against
the dictates of foreign capital. With these measures in place Nigeria could
join the league of nations enjoying the benefits of globalization.
Keywords: Globalization and Development
Introduction
Globalization represents the emerging worldwide interdependence of
individuals and countries, which is characterized by various economic, political,
cultural and social relationships. The phenomenon is responding to an
unprecedented contraction of space and time occasioned by the development of
new means of communication and information across the globe. The engine of
globalization therefore consists of the revolutionary advances in Information and
Communication Technology (ICT). This has created a new order of information
and electronic telecommunication network through cable and satellite information
super highways such that any occurrence in the remotest part of the world can
simultaneously and potentially be shared in another (Khor, 2003; Kolodko, 2004 &
Agu, 2017).
The process of globalization has further led to the dismantling of national
barriers and boundaries. Trade barriers have been broken down such that the
world’s major financial markets have become integrated. The increasing
independence of countries in all spheres of relationships has further promoted a
greater integration of the world economy (Agu, 2017). The problematic of this
treaty is to interrogate the deteriorating economy of the Nigerian state amidst
global connection. Efforts will therefore be made to examine the argument of
structural maladjustment of Nigeria’s political economy as a function of the inner
logic of global imperialism which is commonly referred to as globalization. This is
within the framework that it is a phenomenon that has arrested development, in
Nigeria. Imperialism is the outward drive by certain people, nations or group of
nations to establish control of territories, build empires and exert privileged
positions in the control of markets, ensure protected sources of raw materials and
extended opportunities for profitable employment of labour (Barat, 1974). It is
therefore necessary to recall the logic of the incorporation of Africa in general and
Nigeria in particular into its vortex of politics and economic production as the
centre of raw material extraction and ready market for manufactures from
imperialist countries. Igwe (2002) observed that, globalization is a direct corollary
of the global village, itself the post-industrial society, which have made it possible
to flood the world's markets with western manufactured goods.
The work is organized into sections starting with an introductory section
which provides the context and sets the tone for the discourse. It is followed by a
conceptual clarification, where concepts that are susceptible to a variety of multiple
interpretations, especially the concepts of globalization and development are
clarified. The third section of the work discussed the dependency theory used to
analyze globalization and development phenomena with emphasis on historical
consideration. It also looks at basic features of globalization and benefits of
globalization in the context of Nigeria’s development and finally recommendations
and conclusions.
Globalization
Globalization is a widespread concept with a considerable degree of
ambiguity. This ambiguity does not mean that it remains unclear or obfuscated.
Rather it has been viewed from different perspectives and dimensions particularly
in relation to different interest’s subject areas and scope (Adesoji, 2006). In the
words of Simpson and Weiner (1969) as cited in (Okonkwo, 2008), it was first
used in 1959 in the Economist to refer to quotas of car imports. This inaugural
usage followed in 1962 by a prescient article in the spectator, which referred to
globalization as “a staggering concept”. Although no one at the time could have
fathomed the global and local effects that it would engender, globalization grew
slowly into a powerful concept that has become a household word. Hotly contested
and conveniently vague, globalization has taken on many meanings, from the
warm, fuzzy connotations of the global village, through the rule of transnational
corporations, to neocolonialism (summer, 2008)
Globalization has been defined by Anthony Giddens as “The
intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities or
communities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events occurring
many miles away and vice versa Giddens (1990:60)”. Globalization is the word
used to describe the growing interdependence of the world’s economies, cultures,
and populations, brought about by cross-border trade in goods and services,
technology, and flows of investment, people, and information. Countries have built
economic partnerships to facilitate these movements over many centuries. But the
term gained popularity after the Cold War in the early 1990s, as these cooperative
arrangements shaped modern everyday life (Ghose, 2004). Globalization has been
described as another phase of imperialism. It has significantly reduced the barriers
to inter-state relations among nations. The core of globalization lies in freeing a
country’s economic frontiers to allow unrestricted international trade in goods and
services entry and exit of foreign and technology and giving the foreign investors a
treatment similar to that given to domestic investors (Narula, 2003 as cited in
Okonkwo 2018). Globalization is the acceleration and intensification of interaction
and integration among the people, companies, institutions, organization, and
governments of different nations.
Ajekiigbe (2004)opines that globalization sits squarely at the interface
between politics and the economy, he further argues that its dominant form has
come to be known by many names which include; Corporate globalization,
economic globalization, financial globalization, mature capitalism, neo-
imperialism, neo-colonialism, or globalization from above. Globalization is a
phenomenon of capitalist expansion and accumulation. Certain characteristics
distinguish it from other historical forms of capitalist expansion such as

colonialism and neocolonialism. The first is the emergence of the transactional
corporation as the major agent for the worldwide expansion of private capital and
the capitalist market. (Okonkwo, 2008). It organizes increasingly integrated
economic and financial activities across national borders and produces, sources and
markets its raw materials and products worldwide in its unceasing quest for
competitive advantage. The second is the emergence of financiers and speculators
who are independent of production and trade that they were designed to service in
the first place. (Nnoli, 2006).
From the above analysis, it is clear that globalization is another stage of
capitalist development that has been propelled by the hegemonization of its
ideology and the intensification of unequal power relations on a world scale.
(Nabudere, 2004, Ibrahim 2002). Similarly, it could be seen that globalization
conjures up a picture of a borderless world. It has eluded the territorial integrity of
states. Although, it is a concept that means different things to different people
across time and space, it essentially means the growing increase in
interconnectedness and interdependence among the world’s regions, nations,
government, organizations, business and institutions. It is a process, which
engenders free flow of ideas, people, goods, services and capital thereby fostering
integration of the economy and its societies. Nevertheless, the views of extant
authorities in the existing literature is exhaustive as the term is increasingly
producing losers and winners, positive alongside negative consequences across the
globe.
Globalization covers all aspects of human life such as the economic, social,
political and cultural dimensions of human existence. Globalization in its true form
and processes spread its tentacles across all human endeavour and exert
tremendous influence on the international political system as virtually every aspect
of human activities cannot escape the forces of globalization. All people, societies,
groups and individuals feel the powerful impacts of globalization and as such the
trend has received different reactions and perceptions depending on the nature of
its effect, whether of benefit or adverse, on the recipients. In this vein, it was
assumed a contested concept in the North/South dialogue and is used to explain
developments in the countries of the Northern hemisphere and to rationalize the
developing countries of the South (Igwe, 2013 &Khor, 2005) as cited in (Obiora
2018). The international monetary fund (1997:15), defines globalization as
“growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through technology”.
In the same vein, Ohiorhenuan (1998:6) as cited in (Obiora, 2018) refers to
globalization as the broadening and deepening linkages of markets for goods and
services, especially capital. Tandon (1998:2) avers that globalization seeks to

remove all national barriers to the free movement of international capital and this
process is accelerated and facilitated by the supersonic transformation in
information technology. It is principally aimed at the homogenization of ideas,
culture, values and even life styles, as well as, at the deterriotorialization and
villagization of the entire world. In a related manner, Ohuabunwa (1999:20) opines
that globalization can be seen as an evolution which is systematically restructuring
interactive phases among nations by breaking down barriers in the areas of culture,
commerce, communication and several other fields of endeavour.
However, Odoziobodo (2014), views globalization as the process by which
more emphasis is laid on the economic, political and cultural relations among the
diverse and different peoples of the world whereby trade barriers are broken down
and market integration encouraged among different nations of the world. Similarly
Mbah (2008) contends that globalization is itself a phase capitalist development in
which the west and United States established political economic and cultural
military hegemony over countries of the world particularly through the activities of
the multinational corporations of advanced capitalist states. Asobie (2007) also
remarked that globalization is the ideology of the capitalist state of America and
Europe which they enjoy as a big leaf to mask the interest of the ruling class in
each of their countries. Amuwo, (2001; 15), went further to assert that
globalization is an economic orthodoxy that is failing the people and enriching
investors and big corporations. When Africa’s political leaders rein into it, it is
problematic; and when nation-states propose or seek to implement alternatives,
they are pundits. They are reminded by the rich and powerful nations, that there is
no alternative to the only way the market path of running the global economy.
Based on the foregoing, globalization is a capitalist instrument for
economic and socio-political domination of states with less capital by the states
with super capital high technology characterized by less restriction of goods,
services and cultural traits across national frontiers.
Development
Development may be identified as a process in which a system or
institution is transformed into a stronger, more organized, more efficient and more
effective form and proves to be more satisfying in terms of human wants and
aspirations. It may be distinguished from progress as development is subject to
empirical measurement whereas progress is concerned with moral judgment for
which it applies normative criterion (Gauba, 2003: p.476).
Development implies a conscious effort for the attainment of a specific

goal. The condition of society in terms of its distance from that goal may be
described as the level of its development. Thus, Mittelman (as cited in Gauba,
2003: p.476) defines development as the increasing capacity to make rational use
of natural and human resources for social ends, whereas underdevelopment denotes
the blockage which forestalls a rational transformation of the social structure.
Other important definitions of development also tend to convey this idea in
more or less elaborate form. Thus, Baran (as cited in Gauba, 2003:476) describes
development as a far-reaching transformation of society’s economic, social and
political structure, of the dominant organization of production, distribution and
consumption. He explained that it has never been a smooth, harmonious process
unfolding placidly overtime and space. Rodney (1972:9) identifies development as
a many-sided process, implying for the individual increased skill and capacity,
greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility, and material well-being.
Seers (1972) views development as a normative concept almost
synonymous with improvement. According to him, development is a process of
creating the essential condition for the realization of the human personality. Since
people (human resources) are the wealth of a nation, the basic objective of
development is to create an environment in which people live so that they can
enjoy long, healthy and creative lives. What cumulatively features as development
begins with the stimulus of increasing rationality of the people that enables them to
utilize the resources around their environment to achieve individual needs and
protection. Thus, development is a process of cumulative changes that results from
positive forces that raise productivity. In order words, development must be
productive-oriented.
Igwe (2002: p. 115) argues that “development is a comprehensive…..all-
round interconnected progressive transformation of man, society and nature made
possible by man’s incremental mastery over them.” It is a universal character of
man and matter, or society and nature, whose speed, direction or trend of change
can be controlled. It involves a network of ramified changes in the economic,
political, social and technical realms of society. The concept of development is
often used in a strict economic sense, the justification being that the economic
nature of society typifies the configuration of the social formation.
This paper adopts the dependency theory as framework of analysis.

Dependency Theory was developed in the late 1950’s under the guidance of the
Director of the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America, Paul
Prebisch and his colleagues who were troubled by the fact that economic growth in
the advanced industrialized countries did not necessary lead to growth in the poorer
countries (Mbah & Obiora, 2015). According to Theotonio Dos Santos (1971:226)
as cited in Obiora (2015) dependency is a historical condition which shapes a
certain structure of the world economy such that it favours some countries to the
detriment of others and limits the development possibilities of the subordinate
economies. Unlike the Marxist theory of imperialism which explains dominant
state expansion, the dependency theory explains underdevelopment which is a
wholly negative condition which is self-perpetuating. The globalization process
reinforces dependency in all facets and ramifications because as Andre Gunder
Frank (1972:3) cited in Obiora (2015), points out, the dependent states supply raw
materials, agricultural products, cheap materials which are produced from the
environment. The production of these products has far reaching implications on the
environment of poor countries like Nigeria.
A case in point is crude oil and other minerals which are produced by
multinational corporations. These multinational corporations are agents of the
globalization process and they fuel and sustain it with far reaching negative
consequences on the economies of developing countries like Nigeria.
The dependence theory is employed by this study because; it suitably
examines the position of the peripheral capitalist economy vis-à-vis international
capitalism.
The central thesis of this theoretical orientation is majorly concerned with
the interplay between internal and external structures (Palma as cited in Ayres,
1995) in Shima (2017). It sees the whole globe in a dependent exploitative
relationship between Developed (DCs) countries as the core or metropolis and
developing countries as peripherals and satellites. This dependency relationship
has a negative effect on the economic growth of peripheral economies because
historically, the word capitalist system produced under-development in the past and
perpetuates it today. Thus development of peripheral economics can only be
dependent because they lack internal dynamics or auto-centric development.
Dependency theorists have argued that the present socio-economic and
political conditions prevailing in peripheral economies are products of a historical
international process evident in these conditions:
a. Many countries of the peripheral axis have been incorporated into the
world capitalist economy since the colonial era. These peripheral states
have through this incorporation become capitalist economies.
b. This incorporation has created a "metropolis-satellite chain" in which the
surplus generated at each level in the periphery is successfully drawn to the
centers. Hence, the periphery is impoverished of its resources needed for
economic development for the development of the advanced ones.
c. The peripheral economies heavily depend on the centers or foreign capital
leading to "external orientation". This condition is compounded by the
presence of a weak ruling or unproductive class that facilitates the
penetration of Multinational Corporations (MNCs|). In this alliance foreign
capital influences the choice of projects and development patterns which
are not compatible with local needs.
d. Technical dependence is normally orchestrated by the use of capital-
intensive technologies without requisite funds and know-how by the
peripheral states because they cannot innovate on their own. Consequently,
these dependent economies rely on loans, trade technical aid etc which are
very strong instruments of exploitation in the hands of the developed
economies.
Baran (1957) in Palma, 1978: 182), argues that it has been drained in this
metropolis-satellite chain after all; "… what is decisive is that, economic
development of the dependent countries is profoundly inimical to the dominant
interest of the advanced countries''. This argument explains the absence of
investable economic surplus resulting from lack of working capital; general
infrastructural problems and overbearing political influence from a class that is
incapable of ensuring development in Nigeria. It could be argued that some
elements of the bureaucratic class behind this policy initiative seemed to have
ulterior interests. This suggests that development was not actually on their agenda.
This is in consonance with, Cardoso and Falleto (1977:2), as cited in Shima (2017)
postulation that:
… Local classes allied or clashed with foreign interests, organized
different forms of state, sustained distinct ideologies or tried to
implement various policies or defined alternative strategies to cope with
imperialist challenges in the diverse moment of history.
Globalization and Development Phenomena: Analytical and Historical

Considerations
There is a considerate agreement among scholars that, globalization is not
a new phenomenon but an integral process of capitalist development in its phases
of growth and expansion (Nabudere, 2004; Hoogvelt, 2003; Kwanashie, 1999;
Onulogu, 2004; Onimode, 2004) as cited in (Agu 2017). It is therefore contended
that capitalism as a mode of organizing social and economic life began not only in
one miniscule corner of globe namely North West Europe, but from its very
beginnings, while it was itself still in the process of being formed in the fiftieth and
sixtieth centuries, involved outward expansion, gradually encompassing ever-larger
areas of the globe in a network of material exchanges and accumulation (Hoogvelt,
2003). Onimode (1983) and Hoogvelt (2003) therefore identify four phases of
capitalist development and expansion.
The first phase is the mercantile era (1500-1800) which involves the
transfer of economic surplus through loosing and plundering, disguised as trade.
The second phase covered the colonial period (1800-1950) involved the transfer of
economic surplus through ‘unequal terms of trade’ by virtue of colonialism and
international division. The third phase is considered to be the neocolonial period
(1950-1970) was characterized by the transfer of economic surplus through
developmentalism and technological rents.
The fourth phase is referred to as post-imperialism (1970-to date) which
has been marked by the transfer of economic surplus through debt peonage, foreign
aid and direct foreign investment. It is within the context of these phases of
capitalist development and expansion that the phenomenon of globalization can be
discussed. The history of globalization is a history of capitalist development that
spans over five hundred years (Nabudere, 2000 as cited in Agu, 2017). Nabudere,
(2000) identifies five significant phases in the evolution of the process.
The first phase which he refers to as the period of Christian Universalism
and the new trade began in 1942. It was the period when Christian crusades and
persecution were carried out to universalize the Christian faith throughout the
world. Even though they were religious, these crusades were also cultural and
economic since they were led by Portuguese and Spanish Christian merchants and
they accompanied their missions only with the pursuance of trade that came to
include the plunder of the east as well as the enslavement of Africans for
transportation and exploitation in the new world.
The second phase which Dan Nabudere refers to as the scientific age was
the stage of which there was a shift from the Christian vision of the ‘coming of
salvation’ to the scientific thinking and rational attitude towards the world. That is,
rather than think of ‘end-time’ this phase emphasized conscious efforts towards
solving the problems of the present.
The third phase, which he calls the period of industrial and capitalist
revolution, transformed Europe from the primitive to modern conditions of life. It
was at this phase that Europe took the lead in industrial transformation which
subsequently led to the improvements and revolutionizing of other institutions such
as banking, commerce and transportation. Nabudere (2000) contends that this
development opened the whole world to Europe, especially Britain, Germany,
France, Belgium, Spain and Portugal.
Thus, banks and industrial monopolies held firmly on the capital
accumulated. This was done with the aim of controlling the markets in order to
make huge profits. The stage was characterized by monopolies such as cartels,
buying and selling syndicates as well as holding companies, mergers associations,
trusts (Orshi, 2004 as cited in Agu 2017). The drive towards monopoly capitalism
evident in the fourth phase provoked other developed capitalist states to join the
bandwagon of imperialist onslaught against developing societies of Latin
America, Asia and Africa etc which led to the fierce scramble for colonies and the
partitioning of Africa at the Berlin conference (1884-1885). The scramble for
territories brought more rivalry over who should exert absolute control of the
world’s market. This led to the first and second world wars. The final phase of
globalization began after the Second World War in 1945 pioneered by the United
States Globalization is therefore another stage of capitalist development that has
been propelled by the hegemonization of its ideology and the intensification of
unequal power relations on a world scale (Abutudu, 2000; Ibrahim, 2002; Schuftan,
2001; Nabudere, 2000 as cited in Agu 2017). What are the basic features of
globalization that makes it quite distinguishable or unique from other phases of
capitalist development and expansion? What are the forces propelling
globalization?
Basic Features of Globalization
Like every other phenomenon, globalization has certain features that make
it distinctive. Khor (2003) identifies these features to include transnationalization,
globalization of policy making, and integration of markets, increase importance of
private flows and direct investment and advances in telecommunication, transport
and information. Kwanashie (1999) and Nzekwu (1999) have further identified the
upsurge of trade and changing trade linkages, changes in the movement of labour,
increasing democratization and drive for good governance, cultural integration and
social orientation, etc as features of globalization. Aluko (2001) summarizes the
main features of globalization as the promotion of free markets, promotion of

individual initiative, promotion of private enterprises and ruthless composition in a
credo. According to him, the logic of the ‘survival of the fittest’ that was prevalent
in the late 18th and 19th century has once again become the norm of success of
capitalist dominance in the era of globalization.
a) Trans-nationalism: It implies the concentration and monopolization of
economic resources and power by transnational corporation resources and
by global financial firms and funds. According to Khor (2003) this process
entails fewer transnational corporations gaining a large and rapidly
increasing proportion and market shares. It has led to a situation where a
multinational company which used to dominate the market of a single
product now typically produces or trades in an increasing multitude of
products or services and even sectors.
b) Globalization of Policy: This involves the taking over of the policy
making mechanism of the various nation states by international agencies
and institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World
Bank. These institutions make policies that include economic, cultural,
political and technological issues. The takeover of policy making by this
institution of national sovereignty narrowed the ability of government and
people in making choices from options in economic, social, political and
cultural policies (Orshi, 2004). The effect of this has been on most
developing countries which have seen their independent policy making
capacities eroded and have to adopt policies offered by these agencies or
institutions even when such policies/actions are detrimental to their
development.
c) Information Web:the entire world has been integrated into an information
and communication network to the extent that a global village has been
created such that the constraints of geography on social, political and
cultural relationships have greatly receded.
Above all, globalization in the contemporary world is therefore
characterized by objects in motion; they include ideas and ideologies, people and
goods, images and messages, technologies and techniques. It is a world of flows. It
is also a world of structure and organization. Globalization is not a single unified
phenomenon but a syndrome of processes and activation, which embody a set of
ideas and policy framework organized around the global division of labour and
power.
Benefits of Globalization in the Context of Nigeria’s Development

Globalization presents both opportunities and challenges. The ways people

live and work are changing positively and negatively as a result of globalization.
Wolfenson (2001 as cited in Agu 2017:106) observes that globalization is about:
An increasingly interconnected and interdependent world. It has
accelerated international trade, investment and finance that have been
growing faster than national incomes. It has promoted revolution in
technologies that have transformed people’s abilities to communicate in
ways that would have been unimaginable few years ago. The
globalization process has promoted new opportunities for workers in all
process countries to develop their potentials and to support their families
through jobs created by greater economic integration etc.
The former Managing Director of the International Monetary Fund,

Michael Condensus (Agu 2017:106) also argues in favour of globalization where
he stated that “globalization is the continuation of the trend of growing openness
and integration among economies that has brought the world a half century
unparalleled prosperity” (Fwatshak, 2003. Shonekan 1997) as cited in (Agu 2017)
expressed a lot of optimism about the positive changes that globalization will bring
to African countries which includes “globalization in industrial efficiency’
competitiveness and efficient allocation of resources and speedy growth of the
African economy. Anyone therefore who believes that globalization can be stopped
has to tell us how he would envisage stopping economic and technological progress
in Nigeria''.
Effects of Globalization
The main effects of the transformation engendered by globalization
according to Abutudu (2000) and Ibrahim (2000) is that certain parts of the world,
the developing world in general and Africa in particular, are being increasingly
marginalized and subjected to the hegemonic control of the major actors on the
world scene while transnational corporations are reaping huge profits from the
flexibility and opportunities offered by globalization, the world, that is 45% of the
world population are living on less than two dollars ($2) a day (Stiglitz, 2002).
Nigeria history is replete with the attempts at democratization. The series
of attempts have met with outright failure or severe obstacles, namely; colonialism,
neo-colonialism, inter and intra struggle, inter and intra ethnic antagonisms
maladministration military rule, corruption and economic underdevelopment and
dependency.
In addition social provisioning associated with liberal democracy also
suffered as there was total dilapidation in infrastructures like roads, health facilities
(transnational’s of health related issues like Corona virus) and other cross border
diseases, decay of educational facilities and insecurity affecting the entire country
can be attested to cross border crime which is an aspect of globalization and other
crimes such as kidnappings, youth unrest, agitations for secession are on the rise.
Terrorism and counter insurgencies continue to decimate the lives of citizens
unabated. This has engendered poverty on an alarming proportion without
government interventions. The influence of globalization in bringing about this
sorry state of affairs and usurpation of resources through and other raw materials is
under the guise of globalization is on alarming proportion.
The objective conditions in Nigeria further makes the phenomenon of
globalization more worrisome. Since the beginning of the 1980s through the 1990s,
African countries have been facing severe economic crises. Most macroeconomic
indicators have been pointing downwards. Thus the realities about globalization
according to Usman (1997) are that:
 The absence of integration of the factors of production and labour,
industry, mining, agriculture and non-financial services and capital,
 The continuous dominance of national economic outlook of major
world economies, the management and control of world economies by
multinationals or transnationals with branches all over the world.
 The hegemonization of dominance by advanced capitalist countries in
a skewed global socio-economic order and power relations in which
only the fittest survives,
 The intensification of global poverty causes the gap between the rich
industrialized countries and the dependent, poor countries to widen
(low per capita income, low GDP, high debt profile, inequalities, high
unemployment and poverty, insecurity etc).
Globalization promotes inequalities and polarization in the distribution of
wealth at the global level as seen in the different study of intra-country and inter-
country income inequalities and substantial growth of poverty, misery and
distributions in most developing countries (Agu 2017).
Suggestions
The paper therefore recommends the following measures as remedies to
the developmental challenges confronting Africa’s and Nigeria’s in particular, that
development is an encompassing phenomena embracing all facets of life, political,
social and economic. Similarly for development to take place, the economy which
is the sub-structure (sub-base) and foundation which all other activities revolved
must be transformed radically to wipe out poverty, diseases, (covid-19 pandemics)
inequalities, oppression, social degradation, homelessness destitution,

unemployment, etc.
There is the urgent need to domesticate development policies in Africa.
The imperative of this contention is that externally induced policies from advanced
capitalist development agencies such as the International Monetary Fund (IMF),
World Bank, International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD),
have only ended up stifling development initiatives in Africa. We cannot forget the
destructive impact of externally induced policies such as economic stabilization,
structural adjustment, democratic liberation, privatization, deregulation, and
liberalization etc on Africa’s development. These policies and programmes instead
of improving the living conditions of the people, only end up deepening poverty,
and exacerbating inequalities across the landscape.
Development is not given; it has to be fought for, through a people’s
collective energies and struggle. African countries must be developed in order to
provide not only jobs and improved incomes for the teaming population. Efforts
must be directed towards providing goods and services to promote competitiveness
in the global economy and contribute to World output
Conclusion
In the final analysis therefore, the phenomenon of globalization has made
the world to become a global village that is driven by strong forces of change such
that health related issues are not restricted within portions of the globe as
evidenced in covid-19 pandemic. The central thesis of this paper is that
globalization has arrested development in Nigeria. The democracy and economy of
Nigeria today is one that is insensitive to the social needs of the people and their
aspiration. It is against this backdrop that the paper surmises that recourse to tenets
of globalization, the same scenario will continue to linger until they will be a
reversal on the present character of economic ties with the international financial
institutions and forge coherent and holistic economic and political policy that will
take into account in the first instance the developmental needs of the Nigerian state.
And this can only happen if the people are made the engine and ends of driving
forces of development. This is what can equip it to force the challenges of
globalization and also find its place in the emerging global order. The Nigerian
state can harness the gains of globalization through diversification of exports, debt
reduction and expanded development cooperation with other countries. The
Nigerian state also needs to strengthened its anti-graft agencies and safeguard
against the dictates of foreign capital. With some of these measures in place
Nigeria can be said to also trap the benefits of globalization among other League of
Nations enjoying its benefits.
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INDUSTRIAL DISPUTES AND THE IMPLICATION FOR TERTIARY

EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT IN BENUE STATE, NIGERIA
1.
Adueti,Terver Andrew
aduetiandy@gmail.com
+234 7067918149
2.
Isaac HomungaMamkaa PhD,
isaacmamkaa12@gmail.com
+234 703 774 6246
3.
Amande, Nelson Orya
amandeorya@gmail.com
+234 9061108826
Department of Economics
1.
Department of Political Science

2.
3.
Department of Social Studies
Abstract
The level of literacy and development which are functions of steady

educational advancement have become vital indices of measuring
academic development in relation to tertiary education. However, the
unsatisfactory achievement of students before and after school is no
longer new to researchers and policymakers. This, has been largely
blamed on the frequency of industrial disputes. Several remedial
approaches have been adopted to resolve this ugly trend to no avail. This
study therefore, highlights in Nigeria and its impact on tertiary education
and makes recommendations based on the findings. Tables and
percentages are used in the analysis of the data collected. Furthermore,
the chi-square analytical tool was used to test the null (H 0) hypothesis
postulated. By this, the impact of industrial disputes on the quality of
tertiary education in government owned tertiary institutions in Benue
state was assessed. The institutions are spread in the three (3) geopolitical
zones of the state given that education has become the priority of every
family, tribe or community in the State. It is pointed out in the conclusion
that an inclusive decision making process, prompt implementation of
various decisions/agreements negotiated and concluded with various
unions by the government, manpower training and retraining in the

institutions of higher learning, sincerity, probity, and accountability
should be by all stakeholders and the supporting efforts of Tertiary
Education Trust Fund should be encouraged, commended and sustained
in order to mitigate these challenges facing the educational industry.
Keywords: industrial disputes, tertiary Education, salary, students, staff.
Introduction
Industrial disputes in tertiary institutions of learning are fast becoming a

recurring phenomenon and a major challenge affecting the growth and
development of the required manpower in the 21st century (Badekale,
Ngige&Hamman, (2016). This suggests that, there will be no meaningful
development in a disharmonious system torn apart by disputes as witnessed in the
educational institutions in Nigeria today. This has of course dominated academic
discussions, concerning theimpact of disputes on students, academic and non-
academic staff of the institutions involved.
Swande (2011), earlier asserted that, the frequency of these disputes

usually stems from many issues that the stakeholders fail to address such issues as
the demand for salary increase, delay on the part of the government in honoring
agreements with various unions, poor conditions of service, poor working
environment, lack of basic facilities and other demands. It has also been alleged
that the education sector has been neglected in many states of the Nigerian
federation. The operators in the sector according to Achimugu (2005) have less
than what they offer and in line with the scope of their schedules, they can at most
take to work not home again, given the financial under-allocation (less than 24% of
their various budgets as prescribed by UNESCO), mismanagement and
embezzlement which characterize public sector financing in Nigeria and the
component states.
The attention that should be given to the educational sector should be in

view of its consideration as one of the most productive sector of the economy all
over the world. This, according to Ngustav (2005), education is regarded as both
consumer and capital goods because it offers utility to a consumer and also serves
as an input and service. As capital goods, it is used to develop the human resources
necessary for economic and social transformation. This means that, the
development of skills is equally an important factor in production as are finance,
natural resources and physical equipment (infrastructure). The acquisition of
education up to the tertiary level therefore, bestows both economic and non-
economic benefits on individuals and the society including gains whose benefits
according to Badekale, Ngige & Hamman (2016), Ogese (2004) in Ngutsav (2005),
range from literacy ability and intellectual development, receptiveness to new
ideas, skills acquisition and a creation of a more productive labour force,
acceleration of economic growth, upward social and economic stability for the
encouragement of modern attitudes on the part of diverse segments of the
population.
Benue as a component of the Nigerian-state has had a mixed share over

time as industrial disputes (crisis) remain one of its major challenges that culminate
into strikes and consequently low outputs on the part of students of the institutions
involved. It needs to be pointed out that industrial disputes affect students, teachers
as well as parents and other interest groups. These effects are more pronounced on
the participants in the public institutions than private institutions hence the focus of
this paper. This is capable of resulting in poor academic performance or the
students, fluctuations in the financial plans of their families thereby bringing about
a fall in the standard of education and attendant low productivity (Half-baked
graduates) as well as low standard of living generally.
It is therefore, the aim of this paper to investigate the impact of industrial

disputes on the quality of tertiary education in Benue State of Nigeria and make
recommendations. The rest of the paper is organized in five sections. After this
introductory section, is section 2 which addresses the conceptual, theoretical and
empirical component of the paper.Section 3 deals with the methodology, while
section 4 presents and discusses the results. Section 5, being the last concludes and
makes recommendations based on the findings of the paper.
Conceptual Review
There are two major concepts in this paper: Industrial disputes and tertiary
education. Tracing from the multidisciplinary field of industrial relations with
many words which have similar meanings as industrial dispute, strike, unrest,
disagreement, grievance among many, however, these words do not digress from
the true meaning as industrial dispute or action put simply, is either a strike or any
concerted stoppage of work. This includes any dispute of difference between
employee and employer or between employee and workmen or between workmen
and workmen, which is connected with employment or non-employment of the
terms of employment or the conditions of work of any persons. It also involves
‘working to rule’ refusing to do certain duties and not cooperating with the
employer. In schools and colleges, this could mean refusing to provide cover or
refusing to attend out-of-hour’s meetings. It could also include refusing to teach,
supervises students examination, thesis or project. Every human being or group of

human being (say a labourer or labourers) has economic, social and security needs.
When this needs do not get satisfied, there arises a conflict between the worker(s)
and the capitalists/employer. It is as a result of these and other effects that
industrial disputes attract condemnation (Okotoni & Okotoni, 2004).
A strike as a form of industrial dispute and principally the result of a

breakdown in negotiations and an organized refusal to work by the employees of
an organization, or an institution because of the disagreement over pay or other
conditions not favourable to the workers. It is usually a collective refusal by
employees to stay away from work as a means of making those concerned see to
their plight (Swande, 2011).
Education on the other hand is viewed by Nwogu (1977) as the process by

which every society attempts to preserve and upgrade the accumulated knowledge,
skills and attitudes in its cultural setting and heritage in order to foster continuously
the well-being of mankind, and guarantee its survival against the unpredictable and
at times hostile and destructive elements and forces of man and nature.
Specifically, tertiary education can be described from the above conception

to comprise all schools after the secondary school education (Universities,
Polytechnics, Colleges of Education and other specialized tertiary institutions).
These schools are legal entities and incorporeal personalities with fundamental
human rights, statutory functions and moral responsibilities as a incorporeal
person.They have authority and power. With authority, they have the right to give
orders and enforce compliance, with power, they have the ability to reward
complaints, persuade, recalcitrant, coerce intransigents and punish offenders. Their
use of authority and powers is guided by the act of such various institutions enacted
by the state Houses of Assembly.
The purpose of tertiary education therefore, is to ensure that youths

develop the knowledge, skills and personality traits that would allowed them to
respond adequately to the contemporary challenges and become contributing
members of their respective communities like Benue. Unfortunately, the various
unions existing in various institutions of higher learning are alleged to be
synonymous with disputes of strikes resulting to school closures than it is with
whatever agenda it is pursuing to make tertiary education better. In particular, the
strike is such a norm you would think that was the full name of various
organizations operating at that level (Omojuwa, 2015).
Theoretical Literature
The theoretical basis for this paper is both the Classical Economic and
Marxist theories of industrial disputes. This is due to the fact that, individual
dispute as a product of labour unrest is too elusive to allow for a single theoretical
explanation. The concept industrial dispute thus depends on different determining
variables and the consequences of this are also dependent on the kind of group it
affects.
For instance, the classical economic theory asserts that, an economy will
always be in a full employment state because the demand for labour will always
equal the supply of labour at the prevailing wage rate. If for any reason, there is an
increase in labour supply, the money wage would fall and more workers would be
employed. Similarly, if there is a shortage of workers, the money wage would rise
thereby, eliminating the shortage. Thus, in the classical notion, there will be no
cause for industrial dispute since workers would always be ready to accept wage
cuts.
However, with the emergence of the Great Depression of the 1930s, the
classical theory became suspect. Keynes (Keynesian theory) (1936) responded by
asserting that the workers were unwilling to accept a reduction in money wages but
he did not attribute this action to irrationality on the part of the workers. He
attributed it to what he termed “Money illusion” in which he noted that wages are
downward rigid, but upward flexible (CBN, 2006).
The implication of the Keynesian economic theory is that since wages are
downward rigid and upward flexible, any attempt on the part of the employer to cut
down worker’s wages will lead to industrial dispute. Benue workers in recent times
has been in a fierce battle of wage negotiations and re-negotiationthere by
promoting prolong strike actions resulting into other series of social ills and
attendant repercussion to individuals, groups and the government (there is ongoing
strike embarked upon by Academic Staff Union of Tertiary Institutions in Benue
State- ASUTIBS to Benue State government). This postulation is seems to be more
elaborate into the interplay of wage rate and worker’s actions in any economy like
ours hence its relevance. However, it does little emphasize the impact of such
industrial disputes, given room for Marxist-conflict theory advancement.
To the Marxist, there exists an enduring struggle between workers and

their employers over the control of various aspects of work. This, according to
Onyeonoru (2005), work place relation is structurally antagonistic as employee
vulnerability to employer’s high handedness is re-enforced by the fact that
capitalist development had eroded the morally sanctioned bonds preceding feudal
society while cash nexus linked the employers and the industrial workers in
contradictory social relations.This theory is found most relevant in tracing the

causes, nature and impact, of industrial disputes on the participant (students) of
tertiary institutions in Benue State. This is because it does explain that, such
challenges are inevitable as long as industrial and labour relations continue to exist.
It also notes that, industrial disputes can affect students or any other interest group
negatively, especially where Utomi (2002) in Olabe (2012) expounds that power
imbalance (among employers and employees) has created tension that is
debilitative of optional output, implying that such may even be of effect on the
Benue students.
Empirical Review
Badekale, Ngige and Hamman (2016) assert that industrial dispute is an

inevitable aspect of organizational development which, can solidify an organization
and bring about positive outcome when constructively managed but it can also
degenerate into confrontation resulting in dysfunctional outcome when
misperceived and mismanaged. An industrial dispute is therefore a constant
phenomenon in Nigerian higher institutions of learning. The authors strongly
recommend that agreement reached with academic and non-academic staff should
be honoured to avoid industrial disharmony.
To Alhaji (2016) the tertiary institutions in Nigeria such as universities,

polytechnics, colleges of education, monotechnics and their graduates may not be
able to compete with their counterparts abroad due to incessant strikes by the staff
unions in their various institutions, the issue of standard is no longer feasible. This
according to him , there is no gain stating the fact that too many industrial disputes
have tremendously contributed to the distortions of the academic calendar and as a
result so many of Nigerian graduates are half baked and of low standard. This he
suggests the government should be proactive and not reactive in initiating increase
in salaries and allowances as well as welfare packages of their workers as this will
put in check frequent agitations on salaries increase and welfare packages by
various unions so as to curb industrial dispute.
According to Olabe (2012) in his study “the effects of labour unrest on

students’ academic performance in College of Education, Katsina-Ala” from 2000-
2012, while adopting questionnaire and interview approaches under primary source
of data reveals that with a yearly ritual of Benue workers embarking on one form
of unrest or the other in various public schools, this is having far-reaching
implications on the students’ performance in and outside the school. He advocates
for a stable academic environment as being a prerequisite for a sustaining students’
high performance, impressive research and development in our institutions of

learning.
To Mullins (1990) in his study “Management and Organizational

behaviors” extreme crisis or disputes in organizations like academic institutions
can have upsetting or even tragic consequences for some people and adverse effect
on good-achievement of the organization which in this case is the high academic
performance of students. He adopted a primary survey approach.
Similarly, in a study on students crises in higher education in Nigeria

Okotoni and Okotoni (2003) using field survey method of research underscored
industrial disputes (unrest) asbeen responsible for disruption of academic
programmes inadequate staffing, unplanned transfers, hostility, suspicion and
withdrawal from active participation in institutions activities resulting into the
government suffering financial losses from closure of tertiary institutions while
students and their parents suffer unquantifiable losses. The author points out that
this leads to the steady decline in the quality of education as some students often
resorted to examination malpractice to make-up for lost time.
Ebuara and Eyo (2010) byusing the field survey method, discovered that,
relationship between nature of dispute (unrest) by workers/students and goal-
achievement of higher institutions, between incessant work stoppage and goal-
achievement; between workers/student participation in decision and tertiary
institution’s goal- achievement: between management attitude toward
workers/students plight and goal-achievement. The research among other things
recommends an all inclusive decision-making as it affects all educational
stakeholders. This research was conducted in south-south geo-political zone of
Nigeria which will consider too large for an authentic research finding(s).
Methodology
The study was conducted in Benue State which is one of the states created
in 1976 in the North central geo-political zone of Nigeria. The state has twenty
three (23) local government areas. And a total estimated land mass of 34,059
km2.Accordingto 2016 population estimates, Benue has a total population of
5,741,815 persons (Ministry of Information, 2016).
Educationally, the state since the creation had risen from the background of
a single tertiary institution-College of Education, Katsina-Ala to four (4)
universities, polytechnics, colleges of education, tertiary health institutions which
are both public and privately owned. These tertiary institutions therefore form the
fulcrum upon which this paper is anchored.
In carrying out this study, primary data was sourced with the
questionnaires as main instrument, interviews and observations from 5 prominent
schools owned by the Benue State government namely; Benue State University-
Makurdi, College of Education- Katsina-Ala, Akperan Orshi Polytechnic Yandev-
Gboko, College of Education- Oju and Benue State Polytechnics- Ugbokolo were
carried out. In each of the institution, forty (40) staff were randomly selected
making a total of two hundred (200) respondents selected from the study area. This
article focuses more on teachers given their central role in initiating and
persecuting industrial actions. The paper therefore used descriptive research
method, which describes and explores the activities (challenges) towards education
and its quality in the State.
Descriptively, the total mark of one hundred percent (100%) was assigned
to each question. Thus, a response to each question counted as a score. Percentage
is used to summarise the frequency of the responses to each finding. This was
determined by;
X x 100 = P%
N 1
Where:
X = total score for the each question; N = total sample size, and P% =
percentage arrived at.
Analytically, chi-square test was employed in testing the research hypothesis (H o:

there is no significant relationship between industrial disputes and quality of
tertiary education in the state), this method is considered suitable given the nature
of this research which took into consideration views of different categories of
people as needed.
The chi-square is computed using the formula:
X2 =∑ (O-E)2
Where:
O = observed value of the sample; E = expected value of the sample and ∑ =

summation sign.
The hypothesis is tested using the chi-square @ 5% confidence level. The

degree of freedom is defined by the formula:
df = (R-1)(C-1)
Where:
R = Number of rows; C = number of columns; and df = degree of freedom.
The decision rule for the chi-square (X2) test is that the null hypothesis (Ho)
would be rejected and the alternative hypothesis (H 1) accepted if the calculated (Xc)
is greater than the tabulated (X t) @ 5% level of confidence at given degree of
freedom [ (R-1) (C-1)].
Results and Discussions
As indicated, 40 copies of the questionnaire were distributed to each of the

five selected tertiary institutions who are publicly owned. Table 1 shows the
distribution of questionnaires to institutions. Out of the 200 questionnaires
administered, 187 were returned. This represents 93.5% of the questionnaire while
6.5% of the questionnaires were either not returned or not properly filled and
therefore were invalid. The crux of the investigation is about industrial disputes
and its impact on the quality of tertiary education and this quality can easily be
seen in the products (students) of such institutions. We therefore sought to
investigate the educational attainment level of the producers (staff) hence there
would be no product without a producer.
This level of educational attainment is shown in table 2. The table reveals

that 8 (4.3%) had doctorate degrees, 71 (38.0%) had their Masters degree, while 87
(46.5%) are first degree holders and 21 (11.2%) respondents have various
certificates; these are in various capacities as academic or non-academics staff.
From this investigation, it can be inferred that the development of a teacher to a
reasonable extent is left in the hands of the staff thereby hampering their
development as it may impact negatively on the quality of their output hence
affecting the performance of their beneficiaries (students). This has prompted us to
investigate the students’ achievement in terms of quality output in the face of
industrial disputes.
The table 3 shows 65 (54.2%) of the respondents strongly believe that

industrial disputes had negatively affected the quality of their products (students)
while 30 (25%) account for those who agree but not as strong as the above group,
bringing it to the total of 79.2% of the agreed parties and only 25 (20.8%) does not
agreed with the view of the respondents above given that other factors may exist
beside industrial disputes. The above positions will later form our yardstick in
testing our earlier hypothesis.
Given the above convictions, the paper also sought to investigate the
disruption on academic calendar as presented in table 4. This exhibited that, the
effect of industrial disputes on academic calendar is drastic given the response of
152 (81.3%) of the total sample leaving 35 (18.7%) to the opposing view. This
statistics reveals that in most of the institutions, they are rather doing “crash”
programme than a normal semester thereby producing mostly half-baked graduates.
This is to say the institutions spent less than the required period of learning but yet
awards academic certificates. What a negative impact!.
One may then ask, if such suspicions are real, what then are the real
causeof such disputes as we can see in table 5. The table reveals that, 121 persons
(64.7%) agreed that non-implementation of agreements reached with unions to a
great extent accounts for the disputes, 36 respondents (19.3%) agreed that
unsatisfactory conditions of service is the cause, 28 (15.0%) said fringe benefits of
staff made industrial disputes possible, while 2 (1.0%) submitted that, all points
highlighted affected in the same magnitude.
The unsatisfactory conditions of service brought us to the general

conditions of service of tertiary institutions in the state as presented in table 6.
From the table 185 (98.9%) of respondents agrees that, there is urgent need to
revisit the conditions of service of tertiary institutions with a view of placing them
among their pal in other professions, and 2 (1.1%) was much comfortable with the
present conditions of services. The above findings are similar to that of National
Primary Education Commission (NPEC, 1998) that, the teacher’s working
environment in Nigeria has been described as the most neglected of all sectors of
the labour force. They submitted that, failure to harmonize the salary and other
conditions of services of teachers in line with the major public services had
remained a source of major discord.
Consequently, the paper explored further in order to authenticate this line

of argument using a simple factor of salary as to whether the paid salaries are able
to take care of their families, research, development and other needs of life. This is
captured in table 7. The table shows that salary increments which is been laden
with multiple levies, donations, taxes, family (extended) burdens coupled with the
promotions and recognitions is what is responsible for continuous agitation for
salaries increment in various institutions of higher learning. This is supported by

180 (96.3%) of the respondents agreeing that their salaries were inadequate.
According to Achimugu (2005), modern Nigerian teachers will be dedicated to
their duties if their take home package is commensurate with their job evaluation
and analysis index.
These inadequacies promoted the problem of staff development, the

foundation upon which the society builds which we want to ascertain in the next
table 8. From the table 76 (40.6%) agreed with a narrow margin of 74(39.6%) who
did not agree with the submission and 37 (19.8%) of the respondents submitted
that, staff are normally allowed to further after spending some time with the
institutions or may be after confirmation and signing of bound. Given that, some
staff are allowed to further their studies, we therefore sought to know at whose
expense this was. The responses are captured in table 9.
The table demonstrated that 150 (80.7%) sponsored self if they so wish to
further, 27 (14.4%) were privileged to be sponsored by the institutions
fund/government and 10 (5.4%) respondents agreed that other means like
scholarship from international or local agencies as well as the emerging
intervention of the Tertiary Education Trust Fund is beneficial.
The above scenario points to the fact, that, an average staff will not be able
to take care of his/herself, family, relatives as well as pursing the educational
career which is necessary for greater productivity. No wonder, this Akade (2000)
sees teachers as the most poor of all labour force, and a job for those who have
nothing else better to do.
The question which arises therefore is, what then is the solution to all these
problems? as can be seen in table 10, from the table most of the respondents agreed
that early implementation of agreements reached with unions will be a way forward
constituting153 (81.6%), 31 (16.6%) were in favour of infrastructure development
and 03 (1.6%) said the problem can be solved through government sanction of the
striking members.
However, the views in majority were in agreement with Swande (2011)

that implementation of decisions reached with union’s leaders should be quick and
reasonable so as to carry the staff in the organization along in order to eradicate
crisis at source.
Testing of the Stated Hypothesis

The null hypothesis set in the methodology section was tested using the
descriptive information in table 3. The table seeks to capture the opinion that “Do
you strongly believe that poor academic achievement of student is associated with
incessant industrial disputes in the tertiary institutions?
Given our result in table 3, the dada as 3 classes with their corresponding
per class denoted by X1 X2 X3.taken the average give us the following:
X1 X2 X3 = ∑F
N N
We first calculate for percentage, thus:
65 x 100 = 54.2
120 1
30 x 100 = 25.0
120 1
25 x 100 = 20.8
120 1
Substituting in to: ∑ (0-E) 2
E
= (54.2 – 33.3) + (25.0 – 33.3)2 + (20.8 – 33.3)2
2
33.3 33.3 33.3
= 436.8 + 68.9 + 156.3

33.3 33.3 33.3
Therefore;
662
100 = 6.62
Giving the degree of freedom (df) equals the critical value of chi-square
statistics @ 95% (0.5) confidence level, our degree of freedom is 5.99 while chi-
square calculated is 6.62.
Decision Rule
Comparing the calculated value (XC2) and the tabulated (Xt2) value, thus
the decision rule. If the X c2> xt2 implies that there exists a relationship, therefore
accept the alternative and reject the null hypothesis. In this test the X c2 (6.62) is
greater than X2t (5.99) that is 6.62 > 5.99 @ 95% level of significance.
Consequently, we accept the alternative and reject the null hypothesis.
We then conclude that there is a significance relationship between

industrial disputes and student’s academic achievement in Benue State of Nigeria
hence facilitating our conclusions and recommendations.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The study, reveals that, the major cause of staff dissatisfaction in Benue
State is poor working environment, conditions of service, high tax, disparity
between academic profession and other professions, irregular payment of salaries,
low income profile and non-implementation of agreements. It was also established
that for the academic field to be recognized, respected as a profession, the average
annual income for an academician, as well as adequate provision for the
advancement, promotion and benefits (perks) enjoyed by those in other
occupations must be introduced in the profession.
Academicians according to Swande (2011) tend to remain contended and

reasonably motivated as long as salaries are paid on time and they are promoted
regularly. In order to realize improved performance that will be visible in academic
achievement of the students, the practicing teachers need to be re-tooled, the
potential staff of such institutions also need to be re-skilled and the committed staff
be re-motivated. The study also emphasizes adequate provision of modern
infrastructure facilities and full participation of these staff in taking decision in
matters affecting them right from initiation stage to the implementation stage; this
will surely put the future of education in Nigeria on the better side, thereby raising
a generation of the people that will be a pride of this nation. Infact, the above views
are not just important, but necessarily to motivate Nigerian teachers and spur them
to contribute maximally towards the achievement of a better educational system in
the country.
It is therefore recommended that, the implementation of negotiations

already agreed upon should not be politicized and should not be used to intimidate,
harass workers, and the staff unions should not be looked upon as opposition to the
sitting government. This implementation should be in the area of conditions of
services, professional growth, salaries, and fringe benefits like housing, health
schemes, and other environmental challenges.
A more serious war should be waged against corruption and embezzlement

of public funds in government owned institutions so as to free enough financial
resources for growth and development.
Government should also find various lawful and peaceful means of

discouraging industrial disputes bybeing sincere, transparent and accountable to all
educational stakeholders particularly teachers.
The current efforts by the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) in

terms of its interventionsand handling of resources allocated to should be
sustained. Other bodies needs to do same rather than the diversion of resources
meant for education to other unproductive ventures.
Also people who were once teachers and have cause to serve as political
appointees should take time to educate the heads of governments of the plight
ofteachers. This illustrates that; the past should not necessarily be seen as bad place
but as training ground that facilitated their present calling. They are capable of
making true presentation in order to ameliorate this daunting challenge in Nigeria’s
educational sector.
References
Achimugu,L. (2005). The Agonies of Nigerian Teachers’. Ibadan: Heinemann

Educational Book (Nig) Plc.
Alhaji, K. (2016). The Impact of Incessant Strikes on the Educational Sector in

Nigeria. International Journal of Education and Evaluation. Vol. 2(5)
Badekale, A.F, Ngigi C.V &Hamman J.I (2016). Assessment of the Impact of
Industrial disputes on the teaching effectiveness of academic staff in
Adamawa State Polytechnic, Yola, Nigeria. International Journal of
capacity building in education and management. Vol. 3(1):59-66
Benue (2016). Benue State Ministry of Information and Orientation, Makurdi.
CBN (2006): “Contemporary Economic Policy Issues in Nigeria,” In O.J.Nnanna,

S.O Alade& F.O. Oduko (eds), Central Bank of Nigeria, Abuja.
Keynes, J.M. (1936). The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money.
United Kingdom: Palmgrave Macmillan.
Mullins, L.J. (1990), Management and Organizational Behviour. London: Pitman

Publishing.
NPEC (1998), Challenges in Nigerian Primary Education, National Primary

Education Commission, Abuja.
Ngutsav, A.S.(2005), Education and Development in Nigeria: A Theoretical

Framework, in Journal of Economic and Social Research Vol. 3 No. 2
Aboki Publishers.
Nwagwu (1977), Universal Primary Education (UPE) Bulletin, Ministry of

Education, Lagos.
Okotoni, O. & Okotoni, A. (2004), “Conflict Management in Secondary Schools in

Osun State, Nigeria.” Nordic Journal of African Studies Vol. 12 No. 1.
Olabe, M (2012), The Effect of Labour Unrest on Students Performance in College

of Education, Katsina-Ala (2000-2012). A Research Proposal Presented at
Geography Department, Benue State University, Makurdi.
Omojuwa, J. (2005), “Education System in Nigeria: Rebuilding the Crumbled

House,” htt//www.naij.com. Retrieved 28th July.
Onyonoru, M.A. (2005), Labour Unrest and Students’ Productivity in Benue State.
A Case Study of Benue State University, Makurdi. A B.Sc Research
submitted to Psychology Department.
Swande, P.I. (2011), The Effect of Teachers’ Strikes on Post-Primary Schools in

Gboko Local Government of Benue State. Unpublished PGDE Research
Submitted to National Teachers’ Institute, Kaduna-Nigeria.
Table 1: Numbers of Questionnaires distributed to responding institutions

Institutions No. of % of Respondents % of No. of
Respondent Responden Received Total Unreturne
ts Received d
Benue State University, Makurdi 40 20 40 21.4 Nil
College of Education, Katsina-Ala 40 20 39 20.9 1
AkperanOrshi PolytechnicYandev- 40 20 37 19.8 3
Gboko
Benue State Polytechnic Ugbokolo 40 20 38 20.3 2
College of Education, Oju 40 20 33 17.6 7
Total 200 100% 187% 93.5% 6.5%
Source: Field Survey, 2021
Table 2: The level of educational attainment of respondents
Status No. of Respondents Percentage

PhD 08 4.3
Masters 71 38.0
1st Degree 87 46.5
Others 21 11.2
Total 187 100
Source: Field Survey, 2021.
Table 3: The impact on students’ performance
Views No. of Staff Percentage

Strongly agreed 65 43 54.2 50.7
Agreed 30 22 25.0 32.9
Disagreed 25 11 20.8 16.4
Total 120 67 100 100
Source:Field Survey, 2021
Table 4: The effects of industrial disputes on academic calendar.
Response Frequency Percentage

Yes 152 81.3
No 35 18.7
Total 187 100
Table 5: Causes of industrial disputes
Cause(s) Frequency Percentage

Non-implementation of agreements 121 64.7
Unsatisfactory conditions of service 36 19.3
Fringe benefits 28 15.0
All of the above 02 1.0
Total 187 100%
Table 6: Review of the conditions of service

Yes 185 98.9
No 02 1.1
Total 187 100
Source:Field Survey, 2021.
Table 7:Monthly deductions from salary

Yes 03 1.6
No 180 96.3
Indifference 04 2.1
Total 187 100
Table 8: Whether staff are allowed to further their education

Yes 76 40.6
No 74 39.6
After 37 19.8
Total 187 100
Table 9: Education of whose expense
Bearer Frequency Percentage

Self 150 80.2
School/Government 27 14.4
Others 10 5.4
Total 187 100
Table 10: How to avoid industrial disputes

Sanction by government 03 1.6
Infrastructure development 31 16.6
Implementation of agreements 153 82.8
Total 187 100
THE EFFECT OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS ON STUDENTS’

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE IN SELECTED SECONDARY SCHOOLS
IN MAKURDI LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREA OF BENUE STATE
Ali Susan Kpemiyol

Department of Curriculum Studies,
College of Education Oju, Benue State
08032748783
alimathiassusan@gmil.com
Abstract
This research was informed by the challenges posed by the

environment on the academic performance of senior secondary school
students in Makurdi L.G.A of Benue state. The observed situation was
that the students’ performance in academics has been discouraging. A
number of factors were identified from the environment and some
other personal factors which included the location of the school,
availability of school facilities, educational level of parents, low
number of classrooms and chairs, e.t.c. The instrument used for data
collection was questionnaire. A sample of 150 students was drawn
from10 secondary schools in Makurdi, and was analysed using the
chi-square statistics and the hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of
significance. The analysis revealed that environmental factors
significantly affect students’ academic performance, and some of the
recommendations given were; proper consideration of the location of
schools, adequate provision of facilities, provision of scholarships and
free education to ensure that children of parents from low socio-
economic status, also go to school.
Keywords: Environmental factors, Academic performance, and
Secondary schools.
Introduction
Modern society expects everyone to be a high achiever, and the key criteria
to judge one’s true potentialities and capabilities are perhaps academic
achievement/performance which has become an index of a child’s future. As a
result, there is great pressure on the minds of the child and their parents on how to
attain the societal expectations. The educational institution that is charged with the
responsibility of impacting teaching and learning processes do not exist in a
vacuum. It has been discovered that the student’s academic achievement is a
function of various factors based on the learning environment which comprises of

all the student is exposed to in the school and outside the school that can facilitate
or inhibit learning. Hence this study is geared towards examining the conditions
and possible influences of some home and school environmental factors that could
affect the students’ academic achievement in Makurdi Local Government Area of
Benue State.
The effect of environmental factors on students’ academic performance
requires a lot of issues to be considered as we are in a fast changing world that is
becoming more and more scientific and technical. As this transformation is taking
place, education in all ramifications is not left out. Schools as they are known today
do not exist as they did in the traditional pre-colonial Nigerian society. In those
days, everywhere was a training ground for persons who were expected to learn
good skills, functional vocations and life-long occupations from their parents, in
other to live peacefully in and contribute effectively to the general growth of their
society.
However, as time progressed, the system became more formal and
organised, with the introduction of several external examinations like the West
African Examinations Council (WAEC) and the National Examinations Council
(NECO). As such the enthusiasm of senior secondary students to pass these
external examinations have brought about several challenges in preparing for them.
The magnitude of environmental factors on students’ academic
performance is very difficult to determine because so many extraneous variables
impinges on the teaching skills and learning capacities of teachers and students in
the classroom at different times. Good education does not happen by chance. It is a
product of effective teaching and learning coupled with the teacher, the school, the
students, parents, and to a large extent, the environments. The high levels of
students’ academic performance may not be guaranteed where instructional space
and facilities such as classrooms, libraries, technical workshop rooms, and
laboratories are structurally defective and when the school is located in a noisy
environment such as motor parks, markets, places of worship as well as home
environmental factors. However, little is known on the impact or extent to which
these environmental factors affect students’ academic performance, particularly in
Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State.
This is what prompted the researcher to carry out this study, to find out the
effects and to what extent to which environmental factors affect students’ academic
performance in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State.
Research Questions
To find answers to the problem of this study, the following research
questions were raised:
1. To what extent do environmental factors affect students’ academic
performance in Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State?
2. What are the factors responsible for academic failure in Makurdi Local
Government Area of Benue State?
3. How can school facilities influence students’ academic performance in
Makurdi Local Government Area of Benue State?
4. Does the location of a school affect the academic performance of its
students?
Methodology
This study adopted the survey design. The survey design involves
collecting information about the effects of environmental factors on students’
academic performance in some selected secondary schools in Makurdi local
government area of Benue state.
For an effective investigation of this problem, the researcher adopted the
survey design, which entails drawing up a sample from the population of the study,
to analyse and draw conclusions.
Population and Sample of the Study
The population of this study constitutes of all the senior secondary schools
in Makurdi local government area of Benue state. The total number of secondary
schools in in Makurdi local government area is 170, which comprises of both
private and public senior secondary schools as the population of the study (Pre-
Survey, 2021).
The sample of the study consists of fifteen (15) senior secondary schools in
Makurdi local government area of Benue state.
These schools are as follows:
S/N NAMES OF SCHOOLS NUMBER OF STUDENTS

1. Government Model School, Makurdi 10

2. NKST Secondary School, High Level 10
3. Padopas Memorial School, Makurdi 10
4. Tilley Gyado College, Makurdi 10
5. Gaadi Secondary School, Makurdi 10
6. Angus Secondary School, Makurdi 10
7. Community Secondary School Apir 10
8. G.S.S North Bank 10
9. Ecwa Secondary School N/Bank 10
10. St Joseph Secondary School Nyiman 10
11. St Dominic Secondary School Sachi 10
12. Vertex College, Makurdi 10
13. Community Secondary School, 10
Wadata
14. Athans Secondary School, Wurukum 10
15. Makurdi Int’l Secondary School, 10
Makurdi
Total 150
Sampling Technique
The researcher used the stratified random sampling technique to select
fifteen (15) senior secondary schools in Makurdi area of Benue State, comprising
of both public and private schools.
Instrument for Data Collection
The researcher shall employ the tool of ‘questionnaires’ for data collection,
particularly, the structured questionnaire type. The structured type questionnaire
provides the respondents a choice of alternative responses to select the option that
applies to them.
Procedure for Data Collection
The researcher employed the direct delivery and personal contact method
in collecting data by visiting the schools personally, during school hours. The
cooperation of the class representatives to issue out the questionnaires to the
students, and goes ahead to explain each of the questionnaire items to the students
and the responding format to follow.
The direct delivery and personal contact method would help ensure
efficiency and accuracy of items, and to ensure that no questionnaire gets missing.
Procedure for Data Analysis

The study adopted quantitative procedure for data analysis where
frequencies, simple percentages, means and averages were applied in the analyses
of data.
Results and Analysis
Research Question One: To what extent do environmental factors affect students’
academic performance in Makurdi L.G.A?
Table 1: Showing Students Response to Research Question One
Items Response Frequency Percentage
Environment really affects the A 74 51%
academic performance of SA 65 45%
students D 4 3%
SD 2 1%
TOTAL 145% 100%
A quiet environment have effect A 57 39%

on the academic performance of SA 58 40%
students D 16 11%
SD 14 10%
TOTAL 145 100%
The home environment in which A 51 35%

a child grows up in can affect his SA 78 54%
or her academic performance. D 12 8%
SD 4 3%
TOTAL 145 100%
The level of educational level of A 16 11%

parents can affect the academic SA 20 14%
performance of their children. D 67 46%
SD 42 28%
TOTAL 145 100%
Source: Fieldwork, 2022.
Table 1 above has four questionnaire items used to answer research question
one. The first item seeks to determine whether environment has any effect on
students’ academic performance and from the above 51% which is above the
approved mean of 50% agreed that environment affects students’ academic
performance. Also the second item which seeks to find out if a quiet environment
affects students’ academic performance reveals that a higher percentage of the
respondents that a quiet environment affects students’ academic performance. The
next two items focuses on the effects of home environment and parents level of
education on students’ academic performance, also reveals that a higher percentage
of respondents, 54% and 46% respectively agrees to that assertion.
Research Question Two: What are the factors responsible for academic failure in
Makurdi L.G.A of Benue state?
Table 2: Showing Students Response to Research Question Two
Items Response Frequency Percentage
Lack of well trained teachers A 4 3%
SA 3 2%
D 60 4%
SD 78 54%
TOTAL 145 100%
Lack of discipline among students A 56 38%

and teachers SA 75 52%
D 10 7%
SD 4 3%
TOTAL 145 100%
Financial inability of parents to A 42 29%

adequately meet the educational SA 86 59%
requirements of their children D 11 8%
SD 6 4%
TOTAL 145 100%
Overcrowded classrooms which A 46 32%

Makes it difficult for teachers to SA 74 51%
carry all the students in class along. D 18 12%
SD 7 5%
TOTAL 145 100%
Source: Fieldwork, 2022.
Table 2 above has four questionnaire items used to answer research question
two. The first item attempts to find out whether academic failure in Makurdi L.G.A
can be attributed to lack of well trained teachers and from the above, 54% which is
above the approved mean of 50% strongly disagreed that academic failure in
Makurdi is due to the lack of well trained teachers. The second item seeks to
determine whether academic failure in Makurdi can be attributed to lack of
discipline among students and teachers. 52%whuchis above the approved mean of
50% strongly agreed to this.
Furthermore, the third item, attributes academic failure in Makurdi to the
financial inability of parents to the financial inability of parents to adequately meet
the educational requirements of their children, 59%which is above the approved
mean of 50% strongly agreed to this, and finally, the fourth item which attributes
academic failure to overcrowded classrooms, revealed that 51% strongly agreed.
Research Question Three: How can school facilities affect students’ academic
performance?
S/N Items Responses Frequency Percentage
1 Availability of school facilities A 50 34%
like computers and electricity can SA 85 59%
promote students’ academic D 3 2%
performance. SD 7 5%
TOTAL 145 100%
2 Well-equipped laboratories and A 52 36%
libraries can promote students’ SA 93 64%
academic performance D 0 0%
SD 0 0%
TOTAL 145 100%
3 The use of teaching aids and A 55 38%
practical can promote students’ SA 83 57%
academic performance D 6 4%
SD 1 1%
TOTAL 145 100%
4 Inadequate seats in a class can A 35 24%
affect students ‘academic SA 80 55%
performance D 19 13%
SD 11 8%
TOTAL 145 100%
Source: field work, 2022
Table 3 above also has four questionnaire items used to answer research
question three. The first and second item seeks to determine whether the
availability of school facilities can promote the academic performance of students.
The data collected revealed that 59% and 64% which are above the approved mean
of 50% strongly agrees to this. The third and fourth item seeks to find out whether
the use of teaching aid can promote academic performance and whether inadequate
seats in a class can affect performance, 57% and 55% strongly agrees to this
respectively, hence they are accepted as facts, since these scores are above the
approved mean of 50%.
Research Question Four: Does the location of a school affect the academic
performance of its students?
Table 4: Showing Students Response to Research Question Four
S/N Items Response Frequency Percentage
1 The location of a school affects the A 76 53%
academic performance of its SA 44 30%
students D 18 12%
SD 7 5%
TOTAL 145 100%
2 Locating a school near markets, A 42 29%

motor parks, and other noisy SA 85 59%
Places can affect students’ learning. D 12 8%
SD 6 4%
TOTAL 145 100%
3 Schools located in urban areas A 74 51%
(towns) have adequate learning SA 46 32%
facilities which promote students’ D 17 12%
academic performance SD 8 5%
TOTAL 145 100%
4 Schools located in rural areas do A 78 54%

not have adequate learning facilities SA 41 28%
which can promote students’ D 24 17%
academic performance SD 2 1%
TOTAL 145 100%
Source: Field work, 2022
Table 4 above also has four questionnaire items used to answer research
question four. The first and second items seek to determine whether the location of
a school can affect the academic performance of its students, especially those
located near markets, motor parks and other noisy places. Data collected revealed
that 535 and 59% of respondents agreed and strongly agreed respectively, these are
thus accepted since they are above the approved mean of 50%. The third and fourth
items seek to determine whether schools located in urban and rural areas affect
academic performance. 51% and 54% respectively agrees to that assertion, thus
they are also accepted as true, because they are above the approved mean of 50%.
Conclusion
Based on the analysis and findings of this study, it was concluded that
environment where a school is located, home which a child grows up, overcrowded
classrooms can affect students’ academic performance. The financial inability of
parents and lack of proper discipline can also negatively affect students’
performance.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the researcher hereby put forward the
following recommendations:
1. Education constitutes an important industry in developing countries like
Nigeria as it provides the required manpower in the development process,
thus it should not be toyed with, and so, effort should be made to make it
worthwhile by locating schools in serene environments devoid of noise and
distractions which could hamper learning.
2. The family is seen as the first agent of socialization of the child; hence the
home environment of the child should be made conducive, welcoming and
comfortable for the child.
3. Disciplinary measures should be inculcated in schools to curb acts of
indiscipline which tends to negatively affect academic performance. Also,
guidance and counselling services should be emphasized in senior
secondary schools to help guide and promote good behaviour.
4. The government should restructure all public schools across the country by
ensuring that qualified teachers are recruited and well paid, also basic
amenities should be provided for the less privileged to explore, such that
the children of parents who fall within the low socio-economic status can
equally get sound education.
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A COMPARATIVE INVESTIGATION OF THE PREVALENCE, CAUSES

AND AWARENESS OF FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION (FGM) IN
SOUTH WESTERN NIGERIA
Olufemi A. Adedokun
Department of Geography,
Federal College of Education (Special)
Oyo, Oyo State,Nigeria
babsjeje9667@yahoo.com
08051695485
Abstract
This paper investigates the causes, prevalence and awareness of Female
Genital Mutilation (FGM) in south western Nigeria which is one of the
zones in the country with high rate of FGM. The paper draws from the
2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey data collected from
questionnaire on women and ever-married women of age group 15-49
and girls of 0-14 years. It reveals that among the south western states,
awareness of FGM between all women and ever-married women is
highest in Osun, Lagos, Ekiti, Ondo and Oyo states and this is more than
the national average of 61% and 63% respectively Ogun recorded a less
than national average in awareness with 40.2% and 47.7% for the
different category of women. Also, the prevalence of FGM among
women reveal a higher rate in Ekiti (57.9%) and least in Ogun (8.2%).
Other states had a share of 45.9%, 43.7%, 31.1%, and 23.7% for Osun,
Ondo, Oyo and Lagos states respectively. Furthermore, majority (46.7%)
of the respondents in Ekiti states still believe FGM is required in their
religion while the least was found in Ogun state (3.8%). Moreover, the
opinion of women that FGM should continue differs geographically with
respondents in Ekiti state having the highest share (44.6%) while Oyo
state had the least of 5.7%. The paper recommends that, the on-going
drive to end FGM in southwestern Nigeria should not only be based on
legislation but on working on people’s perception which is a major
challenge with emphasis on the dangers of engaging in these acts. The
paper concludes that, if more efforts are made in educating and
empowering the women folks, the challenges of eradicating FGM will be
overcome.
Keywords: Female Genital Mutilation, Knowledge, Prevalence, Perception,

South western Nigeria
Introduction
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is defined as all procedures which
involves partial or total removal of the external female genitalia and or injury to the
female genital organs, whether for cultural or other non-therapeutic reasons (WHO,
2007; WHO, et al., 1997). FGM is an unhealthy age long cultural practice inflicted
on girls and women globally.
FGM varies globally among tribes, religions and from one cultural settings
to the other (Odoi, 2005). WHO (2005) estimates that between 100 and 140 million
girls and women have been genitally mutilated and that yearly, 3 million girls are
at risk of being subjected to FGM globally. In Africa, the practice exists among
different ethnic groups in more than 28 countries including Nigeria, Egypt, Mali,
Eritrea, Sudan, Central African Republic and Ghana (UNICEF, 2001; Odoi, 2005).
There are four categories of FGM in the world which depend on the extent
to which the tissue is removed. These are types I, II, III and IV (WHO, 1988).
Type I also known as clitoridectomy involves excision of the prepuce with or
without excision of part or all of the clitoris. That is, the partial or total removal of
the clitoris and in very rare cases only the fold of the skin surrounding the clitoris
is removed. Type II is the excision of the clitoris with partial or total excision of
the labia minora. The third, Type III involves excision of part or all of the external
genitalia and stitching or narrowing of the vaginal opening (infibulations). That is,
the narrowing of the vagina opening through the creation of a covering seal formed
by cutting and repositioning the inner or outer labia with or without removal of the
clitoris while the forth classified as Type IV takes other forms of harmful
procedures to the female genitalia for non-medical purpose including pricking,
piercing or incision of the clitoris and or labia; stretching of the clitoris and or
labia; cauterization by burning of the clitoris and surrounding tissue; scrapping of
tissue surrounding the opening of the vagina (angurya cuts) or cutting of the vagina
(gishiri cuts); and introduction of corrosive substances or herbs into the vagina to
cause bleeding or to tighten or narrow the vagina.
Mandara (2004) identified three major forms of FGM as being practiced in
Nigeria. These are female circumcision, hypnectomy (argurya cuts) and gishiri
cuts. The north east with 91% had the most common form of FGM to be Argurya
cuts. This is followed by northwest (81%) and least common in the south west
(5%). Also, it was reported that women in the rural areas had the likelihood of
having argurya cuts (51%) than women in urban areas (26%). However, the
percentage of women who have had argurya cuts decline in the country with
increasing education, from 71% to 18% among those with no education and those
with more than secondary education respectively (NPC[Nigeria] and ICF, 2019).
Furthermore, (NPC) [Nigeria] and ICF, 2019) statistics shows that 86% of women
aged 15-49 were circumcised at less than the age of 5 years. This shows that most
FGM occurs during infancy when the child is not even aware of the process.
As regards knowledge of FGM in Nigeria, 61% and 63% of all women and
ever-married women indicated that they have heard about FGM in Nigeria.
Disaggregating further, younger women of ages 15-19 show less likelihood of
knowledge of FGM when compared with women aged 45-49 with 48% and 71%
respectively (NPC[Nigeria] and ICF, 2019). In addition, between urban and rural
areas in the country, women in urban areas show more likelihood of the knowledge
of FGM (69%) than those residing in rural areas (54%). In terms of prevalence and
types of FGM, 20% of women of age 15-49 have been circumcised in Nigeria.
Moreover, the most common types of FGM is Type II (removal of some flesh) with
41% of women claiming to have undergone the procedure. Only 105 and 65 of
women underwent Type I procedure (Clitoris nicked, no flesh removed) and Type
III procedure (also known as infibulations) respectively (NPC [Nigeria] and ICF,
2019).
Though, the prevalence of FGM in Nigeria seems to be decreasing with
only 14% of women aged 15-19 when compared with 31% of women age 15-49
that have underwent FGM (NPC) [Nigeria] and ICF, 2019). However, the
prevalence is highest among Yoruba women (35%) in south western Nigeria. It is
against this background that this paper set out to undertake a comparative study on
FGM in south western Nigeria with the aim of ascertaining the prevealence, causes
and awareness pertaining FGM in the south western states of Ekiti, Lagos, Ogun,
Ondo, Osun and Oyo using the 2018 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey.
Justification
In 2018, the Nigeria National Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS)
was published. Among other statistics provided was the data on FGM in Nigeria.
The NDHS gave a general statistical data of the incidence of FGM in different
zones in Nigeria without a detailed analysis of focus on specific zones. This may
not be helpful for policy makers in having the knowledge, prevalence and
perception of specific location in order to focus attention on reducing the menace.
Also, the survey did not provide a comparative analysis of these issues especially
in south west Nigeria, the challenges and the way forward in stemming this
menace. Moreover, there is a need for evidenced-based analysis to ensure that
resources are directed where they are most needed in order to eliminate the
incidence of FGM practice. Therefore, this analysis delves into a comparative

analysis in order to provide a detailed and clearer picture of FGM knowledge,
prevalence and perception in south western Nigeria and the challenges among all
women and ever-married women of age 15-49, so as to make valuable
recommendations that will help in the elimination of FGM as one of the targets in
the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.
Research Questions
1. What is the prevalence level of FGM in the south western part of Nigeria?
2. What factors encourage FGM among states in south west Nigeria?
3. What is the level of awareness regarding the practice of FGM in south
western Nigeria?
Objectives of the Paper
The objectives are to:
1. Determine the prevalence level of FGM in south western part of Nigeria
2. Investigate the factors responsible for the continued practice of FGM
among women in South West Nigeria
3. Ascertain the level; of public awareness pertaining FGM in south west
Nigeria
Methodology
The paper made use of secondary data obtained from the 2018 Nigeria
Demographic and Health Survey (NDHS). The NDHS provides up-to-date
estimates of basic demographic and health indicators particularly on fertility,
awareness, use of family planning methods, breastfeeding practices, nutritional
status of women and children, maternal and child health, adult and childhood
mortality, women’s empowerment, domestic violence, FGM, prevalence of
malaria, awareness and behavior regarding HIV/AIDS and other sexually
transmitted infections (STIs), disability and other related health issues. For the
purpose of this analysis, information on Female Genital Mutilation (FGM)
particularly in the area of prevalence, causes and awareness in the South West
geopolitical zone was adopted for this paper. The sampling frame used for the
2018b NDHS is the Population and Housing Census of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria which was conducted in 2006 by the National Population Commission
(NPC). The sample for the 2018 NDHS was stratified into two. Firstly, the Federal
Republic of Nigeria (FRN) was stratified into 36 states and the Federal Capital
Territory. This was followed by the household listing in all selected states which
serves as the sampling frame for the selection of households. Afterwards,
questionnaire were administered on all women age 15-69 in the sampled

households. A total of 4,394 respondents serveds as the sample size for the south
west geopolitical zone, which was used for the comparative analysis. The
distribution of the total respondents for each of the states in the south west
geopolitical zone is as shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Distribution of sample size for states in the south west zone
S/No States Number of Respondents Percentage (%)
1 Ekiti 276 6.28
2 Lagos 1817 41.35
3 Ogun 555 12.63
4 Ondo 425 9.67
5 Osun 565 12.86
6 Oyo 756 17.21
Total 4,394 100
Source: 2018 NDHS: National Population Commission & ICF, 2019
The major data collected through the administration of questionnaire that
were used for the analysis include knowledge among all women and ever-married
women; type of FGM prevalent among the states; percentage of women with FGM
and the opinion of women on whether FGM is required or not based on their
religious believes.
Concept of Cultural Relativism: The concept of cultural relativism as put
forward by Kelly (1976) opined that different cultures have different practices,
standards and values. It stated that to fully understand other people’s culture, it
must be viewed the way the owners of the culture see it. That is, what motivates
and influence their thinking when they do things. Peoples culture should not be
judged using external standards but by understanding the uniqueness in the
cultural practices under consideration. In essence, a persons’ beliefs and practices
should be understood based on that persons’ culture. The norms and values of one
culture should not be evaluated using the norms and values of another. Cultural
relativism believes that our culture shapes what we consider to be beautiful, ugly,
appealing and disgusting. Our culture determines what we perceive as good or bad
practices. Relating the above concept to this paper, FGM is an age-long traditional
practices in south west Nigeria which beliefs among its adherent/practitioners have
been entrenched in their subconscious mind, thus shaping their lifestyle for long.
However, the disadvantages as stated in recent times far outweigh its age-long
belief of the advantages derived by the practitioners. Hence, the need for a change
in this practices through the identification of the knowledge, prevalence and
perception particularly as it relates to individual states in south west Nigeria where
the level of education is beleived to be high.
Review of Related Literature:
History of FGM
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) is as old as mankind in different
communities to maintain male dominance (UNFPA, 2015). Internationally, the
practice is recognized as a violation of human rights of girls and women (United
Nations, 2018). It reflects a deep-rooted inequality between the sexes, constituting
an intense form of discrimination against the women folks. The practice came to
international limelight as a result of the abuse it placed on the women folk and was
generally referred to as ‘female circumcision’ (WHO, 2016). However, the term
‘female circumcision’ was criticized for drawing a parallel with male circumcision,
thus creating confusion between two different practices. In addition, it was argued
that the term female circumcision hides the serious physical and psychological
effects of genital cutting on women (UNFPA, 2022).
As a result, the term Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) was adopted by a
wide range of women’s health and human rights organizations. It established a
clear distinction from circumcision. Also, the use of the word ‘mutilation’ also
emphasized the gravity of the act and reinforces that the practice is a violation of
women and girls basic human rights. Thus, this expression FGM gain support in
the late 1970’s and since 1994, it has been used in several United Nations
conferences (UNFPA,2022). Therefore, the United Nations in their words says ‘’ it
is time to accelerate the momentum towards full abandonment of the practice by
emphasizing the human rights aspects of the issue’. Therefore, each year of 6th
February, the United Nations observed the ‘International Day of Zero Tolerance for
Female Genital Mutilation’ (United Nations, 2018).
In 2015, Nigeria passed the Violence against Persons Prohibition (VAPP)
Act against FGM and all other gender-based violence. However, report shows that
about 20 million girls and women have undergone FGM. Specifically, 20% of
Nigerian women aged 15 to 49 have undergone FGM (United Nations, 2020). That
is, one on four women between the ages of 15 and 49 years has experienced FGM,
making the country number three in the world (WHO, 2017). FGM, which is one
of the age-long tradition of maintaining male dominance is found in both urban
and rural communities. It is performed to ensure women keep their virginity to

provide men with greater pleasure during sexual intercourse and to remove
genitalia that appears unattractive to the male eye.
Efforts to Stop FGM in Nigeria
Nigeria has been able to respond to the international call for the
elimination of FGM in several ways. In the first instance, the government in 2015
passed a federal legislation, the Violence against Persons (Prohibition) Acts. This
Acts banned FGM and other forms of gender-based violence. Similarly, in
continuity to stop the act of FGM, Nigeria adopted the Maputo Protocol in 2003.
That is, The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights on the Rights of
Women in Africa. This protocol is to ensure that Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
and other human rights violations can obtain redress before domestic or regional
courts such as the Economic Community of West African States courts. Another
efforts puts in place by the government is an inter-governmental department
committee launch of the 2013/2017 National Policy and Plan of Action for the
elimination of FGM in Nigeria. Despite all these efforts in terms of legislations put
in place, Nigeria is still recording incidence of FGM as a global player particularly
in south western Nigeria.
Reasons for the Perpetuation of FGM
Different reasons are responsible for the continued practice of FGM in the
country. Among these reasons are sexual and reproductive reasons which include;
inhibiting women’s sexual desire and heightening that of men to increase fertility
and assist child birth (Gallego and Lopez, 2010). Also, is to enhance hygiene and
provide aesthetic condition on female, purifying the female genitals and removing
some parts which serve as ugly to male, and they constitute a male organ in a
female body.
Another reason is socio-cultural reason such as social pressure, cultural
identity, and social status of the family (Freymeyer and Johnson, 2007). Lastly, is
religious or relating to myths (Kaplan, et a., 2011). That is, the beliefs that the
clitoris is home to an evil spirit which can grow and become dangerous to men or
foetus at birth (Kaplan, et al., 2011). Other reasons for its continuity are the belief
that it prevent early neonatal deaths during delivery, the rights of passage from girl
to womanhood. In addition, FGM is being practiced in order to make marriage an
effortless process and to increase sexual pleasure of the husband (Awusi,
2009;Ofor and Ofor, 2015)
Analysis and Discussion:

Awareness of FGM (Percentage of women age 15-49)
Fig 1 shows the distribution of percentages of women age 15-49 between
all women and ever-married women on their knowledge of FGM among south
western states. It shows that among all women who have knowledge of FGM, the
level of knowledge is highest in Osun state (90.6%). This is closely followed by
Lagos state (88.8%) and Ekiti state (81.1%); while the remaining women with
knowledge are found in Ondo (71.8%), Oyo (62.7%) and Ogun (40.2%). Also, the
percentage of ever-married women with knowledge of FGM across the states in the
zone show that Osun state (94.5%) has the highest number of women with
knowledge of FGM, followed by Ekiti and Lagos states with 87.2% and 86.1%
respectively. The proportion of ever-married women with knowledge of FGM is
found to be highest in Ondo state (78.4%), while Oyo and Ogun states had a share
of 65% and 47.4% respectively. Comparatively, between all women and ever-
married women with knowledge of FGM among the states in south west Nigeria,
women in Osun, Lagos and Ekiti states shows a significant knowledge in FGM
with more than 80%, while Ondo and Oyo had a share of above 60%, Ogun had the
least proportion with less than 50%.
Invariably, Osun, Lagos, Ekiti, Ondo and Oyo of all women and ever-
married women in these states that have heard about FGM passed the national
average of 61% and 635 respectively. However, only Ogun state has her all women
and ever-married who have heard about FGM was found to be below the national
average. In summary, variation in the knowledge of FGM shows the differences in
the level of awareness and other inert factors that may be peculiar to different states
in the zone.
100
90
80
70
Percentage (%)
60
50
40 ALL WOMEN
30 EVER-MARRIED WOMEN
20
10
0
Ekiti Lagos Ogun Ondo Osun Oyo
Fig 1:Knowledge of Women on FGM
Fig 1: Awareness of FGM in South west Nigeria

Source: National Population Commission (NPC)[Nigeria] and ICF. (2019)
Prevalence of FGM (Percentage of women age 15-49)
From fig 2, the prevalence and types of FGM differs among the states in
the zone. However, the percentage share of prevalence of women that have
undergone FGM among all states in the zone is less 60%. The prevalence rate of
FGM across the states shows that it is generally range between 8.2% to 57.9%.
Moreover, although it is declining, the proportion of women who have undergone
FGM is still above the national average of 30% in four (Ekiti-57.9%; Ondo-43.7%,
Osun-45.9%, and Oyo-31.1%) out of the six states that made up the zone. It is only
in Lagos (23.75 and Ogun (8.2%) that has a proportion of women with FGM that
less than the national average.
Furthermore, on types of FGM being practiced across the states in the
zone, those women that underwent cut with no flesh removed during FGM is
highest (33%) in Ogun but none in Oyo state (0%) was recorded. Other states such
as Lagos (10.9%), Osun (10.8%), Ekiti (2.8%) and Ondo (0.3%) had a share of less
than 15% of women who experience FGM with cut in the flesh removed. Among
those women with method of FGM with cut removed, the majority was found in
Oyo state (83.7%). That is, this type of FGM is prevalent in Oyo state but least
prevalent in Ekiti state (21.4%). Generally, among the states, women who
underwent FGM with cut flesh removed higher compared to other types of FGM
practiced such as cut no flesh removed and sewn closed.
Apart from Oyo state (83.7%), other state had a share of less than 50%
each of women who had experienced FGM with flesh removed. Moreover, types of
FGM which involved sewn closed is generally low among the states in the zone. It
ranges from 0.4% in Ondo state to 11,8% in Ogun state. Other states in the zone
had a proportion of less than 6% of the share with 0.4%, 0.6%, 1.2%, 2.3% and
5.3%for Ondo, Osun, Ekiti, Lagos and Oyo states respectively in ascending order
of importance.
However, women who do not know the type of FGM method used are still
significant in states like Ekiti (74.6%), Ondo (72.8%), Osun (55.2%), Lagos
(38.8%), Ogun (30.7%) and Oyo (11%). Data from the 6 states on prevalence
shows a significant variation in FGM across the states. The data indicates that the
prevalence among women was higher in the three states of Ekiti (57.9%), Osun
(45.9%), Ondo (43.7%) and Oyo (31.1%) than in the other two states of Lagos
(23.7%) and Ogun(8.2%). A major reason for the relatively low prevalence rate in
Lagos and Ogun states may probably be due to the level of urbanization in Lagos
state and a spillover effects of urbanization to Ogun state. Besides, there could be
other factors which can’t be deciphered now but could surface in future
investigation.
60
50
40
Percentage(%)
30 % of Women with FGM
20
10
0
Fig 2a: Percentage of Women with FGM

90
80
70
60
Percentage(%)
Cut no Flesh Removed

50
Cut-Flesh Removes
40 Sewn Closed
Don't Know/Missiong
30
20
10
0
Fig 2b: Prevalence of FGM by Types

Source: National Population Commission (NPC) [Nigeria] and ICF. (2019)
Perceptions:
(i). Opinion of Women on Whether FGM is required by Religion
The influence of religion on FGM cannot be overemphasized as research has
shown that some religious beliefs encouraged the carrying out of FGM in the
country (Kaplan, et al., 2011). Among the south western states investigated
(Fig.3a), the percentages of women age 15-49 who are of the opinion that FGM is
required by religion is in the majority in Ekiti state (46.7%) and least (3.8%) in
Ogun state. Other states where women are still of the opinion that FGM is required
by religion are Ondo (20.1%), Osun (8.1%), Lagos (7.6%) and Oyo (4.5%).
Contrary, among those that are of the opinion that FGM is not required, the
majority of such perception are found in Ogun state (94.9%); this is followed by
Oyo state (94.8%), Osun state (90.3%), Lagos state (78.8%), Ondo state (62.7%)
and Ekiti state (50.2%). From the foregoing, women in Ogun state are the least
respondents who opined that FGM is required by religion and also among those
who responded in the negative. Moreover, among women who do not know
whether FGM is required by religion is generally less than 20% in each of the
south western states.
In summary, there was a general increase on the opinion of women of age 15-49
that FGM is not required by religion in most states in the zone. While 3 of the
states had above 90% (Osun-90.3%; Oyo-94.8%and Ogun-94.9%), Lagos, Ondo
and Ekiti states had a proportion of 78.8%, 62.7% and 50.2% respectively.
100
90
80
70
Percentage(%)
60
Required
50 Not Required
40 Don't Know/Missing
30
20
10
0
Fig 3a: Opinoin of Women on Requirement of FGM by Religion

ii. Opinion of Women on whether the Practice of FGM should continue;
The opinion of women on whether the practice of FGM should continue or
not varies geographically. The majority (44.6%) of the respondents who are of the
opinion that FGM should continue is found in Ekiti state. Interestingly, this is
above the sum of all the respondents in other states with the exception of Ondo
state (25.1%). Also, states such as Osun (10.2%), Lagos (7.4%), Ogun (6.3%) and
Oyo (5.7%) have a proportion of women respondents that is less than 15%.
However, among these women who are of the opinion that the practice of FGM
should not continue, the majority (90.1%) was found in Oyo state. Furthermore,
only three states namely Ogun (87.1%), Osun (82.9%), and Lagos (75%) exceed
more than 70% while the remaining states of Ekiti (49.3%) and Ondo (48.1%) are
the least states with respondents having the opinion that FGM should not continue.
Similarly, among those women who are of the opinion of not knowing,
Ondo state had the highest response rate of don’t Know/depends (26.8%), this is
followed by Lagos state (17.6%). Other states in the zone such as Osun, Ogun,
Ekiti and Oyo had a share of 6.9%, 6.5%, 6.1% and 4.2% respectively.
In summary, the statistics shows evidence of changes in the opinion of
women on the continuity of the practice of FGM. The opinion of women on the
continuation of FGM is a good indicator of the prevailing social norms that is still
in place in these communities and the risk that the practice will still be in existence
from generation to generation. The percentage of all women who believed that
FGM should continue ranged from between 5.7% in Oyo state to 44.6% in Ekiti
state compared to 49.3% in Ekiti state to 90.1% in Oyo state that don’t support the
continuation of the practice (fig 3b). Moreover, the support for FGM practice was
higher among women in Ekiti state compared with other states of Ondo, Osun,
Lagos, Ogun and Oyo in the zone. Figure 3b also indicates that a higher percentage
of women in all sampled states in the zone wanted the practice of FGM to be
discontinued across the states during the same period. The implication of these
women’s support for the discontinuity of FGM is an important indicators for more
continued action to be undertaken in these state within the zone in order for them to
abandon the practice in the short or long term. Again, more advocacy should be
carried out especially in Ekiti state which is an hotspot states to dissuade them of
the danger of FGM especially at the grassroots.
100
90
80
70
60
Percentage(%)
Continued
50 Don't Continued
40 Don't Know/Missing
30
20
10
0
Fig 3b: Opinion of Women on whether the Practice of FGM should Continue
Female Genital Mutilation (FGM) of Girls age 0-14
Fig 4 present the distribution of current age of girls that have undergone FGM by
mother’s background across the states in the zone. The prevalence of FGM among
girls age 0-14 show a higher percentage of 30% found in Ekiti state and a decline
of 8.2% in Oyo state. In contrast, no data was represented Ogun state before
increasing to 22.8% and 17.5% in Ondo and Osun states respectively. A decline in
prevalence among girls was generally observed for each age group of between 0-4
and 0-14 for Lagos and Oyo states.
35
30
25
Percentage(%)
20 0-4YRS
5-9YRS
15 10-14YRS
ALL 0-14YRS
10
0
Ekiti Lagos Ondo Ogun Osun Oyo
Fig 4: Circumcision of girls age 0-14 across the states

Source: National Population Commission (NPC) [Nigeria] and ICF. (2019)
Causes of FGM
FGM in south western Nigeria is associated with ethnicity, culture and
prevailing social norms and religious beliefs in different communities.
Documented evidences has shown that immediate family members such as
mothers, grandparents and grandmothers of the girls are the perpetrators of these
acts (Inungu and Tou, 2013). Culture and tradition in the zone still have a greater
impact on the behaviour of people than the law hence one of the challenges of the
eradication of FGM.
Intense social pressure and fear of exclusion for the community has also
put pressure on some families to conform to this tradition. Sometimes, these girls
themselves desire to conform to peer as well as societal pressure out of fear of
stigmatization and rejection by their community (UNICEF, 2001). Hence, they
accept the practice as a necessary and normal way of life.
Older women in affected communities become the moral gatekeepers
favouring this rituals of FGM in the name of justifying their own experience of
FGM. This sets of older women sees any efforts to eliminate the practice as a threat
and sacrilege to the cult. Also, the gatekeepers of this act of FGM sees the need to
sustain economic value, hence its continuity.
FGM is still a practice in this zone in many communities as a mark of
superiority. Communities/household see it as a matter of pride to be able to pass
down this tradition across generations.
Conclusion
The study has looked at the challenges of eliminating the practice of FGM
in south western Nigeria with respect to the widespread knowledge and the
consequent high rate of prevalence. The finding from the NDHS reveals that
majority of the women interviewed had knowledge of the practice of FGM.
However, the negative perception has fuelled the continuity of the practice in the
zone. A key challenge in the zone is not only protecting girls who are currently at
risk from FGM but also ensuring that future generations are free from the dangers
of the practice. Therefore, to eliminate FGM practice in the zone, concerted and
sustained effort of community approach aimed at targeting individual household in
various communities have to be put in place by all stakeholders to work on the age-
long beliefs in the practice of FGM. Also, men being the head of the household
must be the arrowhead in order to dissuade the other household members from
indulging in this act.
Recommendations
In the light of this analysis of FGM in south western Nigeria, the following
recommendations are made:
i. New economic opportunities and programs should be given to those
performing FGM on women especially in the rural communities to give
them another source of livelihood after they are eventually persuaded out
their present jobs of performing FGM.
ii. Community approach to encourage social change should be implemented
across communities especially hotspots communities with negative
perception on FGM such as Ekiti state. Activities for the elimination of
FGM should be developed and implemented in a way that is sensitive to
the cultural and social background of the communities that practice it.
Behaviours can be changed when people are made to understand the
hazards of certain practices and when they realise that it is possible to give
up harmful practices without giving up meaningful aspects of their culture.
iii. The patriarchal nature of the south western part of the country makes men
important agents in the elimination of FGM practice. Men being the head
of the household should be carried along in the programmes meant to
eradicate FGM in the zone. This will enhance the effectiveness and
implementation of the strategies adopted at the household level.
iv. Intensive and sustained collaborations of all parts of the society including
families, communities, media, government agencies and religious bodies to
stop FGM should be encouraged.
v. Government should integrate all FGM response into reproductive,

maternal, and child health programmes in the country.
vi. Locally, religious leaders should help to demystify the myths that FGM has
a basis in religion.
vii. As a result of the facts that societal pressure is one of the drivers of the
practice, individuals and families need more information about the benefits
of abandoning it.
viii. Finally, testimonies shared by survivors will go a long way in building
understanding of the practice’s grim reality and the negative impact on
women’s lives.
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SPORTS AND GOOD NUTRITION: A MEDIUM OF IMPROVING

QUALITY OF LIFE OF YOUTHS IN NIGERIA
Ahula, Nyam Nathaniel

Department of Physical & Health Education
College of Education, Oju, Benue State
08065392182
Enyamahula@gmail.com
&
Unogwu, Ogbodanu Unogwu
Abstract
An individual’s quality of life depends on three major factors, good
nutrition, quality of physical activity involved and the environment or
community in whichthey grow up. Once there is good nutrition which
includes adequate diets involving physical activities the youths can live a
healthy and better life. This paper discusses the, importance of sports and
good nutrition in self-realization towards the improvement of health,
lifespan and lifestyles of youths in Nigeria. The paper concludes that
there is the need for good nutrition and adequate sporting programmes for
the teaming youths. The paper further recommended that accessibility,
adequate and standard physical activity and sport facilities and equipment
should be provided and in good condition to serve as motivation for
youths to participate in sports and physical activities in Nigeria in order
to enhance the quality of their lives.
Keywords: Sports, nutrition, quality, youths, physical activity, lifestyle.
Introduction
To say the quality of life of Nigerians generally and the Nigeria youths in
particular has degenerated to very frightening level is perhaps stating what is well
known to many. This steady degeneration of quality of life of Nigerians can be
attribute to many factors, among which includes general insecurity, poverty and
hunger, unemployment and to a good extent lack of good nutrition, recreational and
sporting activities.
For one to be physically and mentally balanced and be in great health, the
body needs good nutrition and balanced diet in addition to physical exercises,
recreation and even sporting activities. All these have however become luxury and
difficult to afford in our contemporary clime due mainly to poverty caused by
unemployment, political instability and many other factors. Against this
background however, it is our opinion that good nutrition and balanced dieting
along with physical exercise, recreation and sporting activities can all be used as
medium of improving quality of life of youths in Nigeria.
Sports
The word sport has no universally acceptable definition. According to
Haruna, (2013), sport means all forms of physical activity through which casual or
organized participation aims at expressing or improving physical fitness and mental
well-being, forming social relationships or obtaining results in competition at all
levels.
Physical activity on the other hand means any force exerted by skeletal
muscles that results in energy expenditure above resting levels (Haruna, 2013). He
went further to say that quality of life should not be confused with the concept of
standard of living which is based primarily on income. Instead, it should be also
the built environment, physical and mental health education, recreation and leisure
time, and social belonging. A healthy lifestyle such as involvement in physical
activity contributes to individual quantity and quality of life.
May (2021) had opined that sport is a human activity involving physical
exertion and skill as the primary focus of the activity with elements of competition
or social participation where rules and pattern of behavior governing the activity
exist formally through organization and is generally recognized as sport.
Wood (2013) on the other hand had maintained sport can be viewed as a
continuum of interacting relationships between organizations and individuals.
Sport, recreation, physical activity, exercise are all used interchangeably when they
have similar structures and outcomes.
Australian Sports Commission (ASC) in Wood (2013) had also defined
sport as a human activity capable of achieving a result requiring physical exertion
and, or physical skill which by its nature and organization is competitive and is
generally accepted as being a sport.
Furthermore, the Global Association of International Sports Federation

(GAISF) has contended that for an exercise to be called sport, it must satisfy
conditions such as:
a) Sport must include element of competition
b) It shall not rely on any element of luck
c) Sport should not be judged to pose an undue risk to health and safety of its
athletes or participants.
d) Sports should in no way be harmful to any living creature.
e) Sport should not rely on equipment that is provided by a single supplier.
Considering all above therefore, we can conclude that sports is physical
exercise that involves competition between individuals, groups, and or
organizations. Sport seen from above perspective is essentially a social activity that
may not only be for purpose of competition but also recreation and leisure.
Nutrition
Gillaspy (2021) holds that nutrition is the process where the body takes in
nutrients from the food it has ingested. In other words nutrition, whether good or
bad, adequate or inadequate to the body depends on what kind of food that we eat.
Invariably, if one eats healthy and balanced diet, such a person will enjoy improved
quality of life compared to one whose food lacks adequate nutrients.
Good nutrition in the opinion of Friend (2015) means eating a variety of
foods that give you the nutrients you need to maintain your health, feel good and
have energy. These nutrients include protein, carbohydrates, fats, water, vitamins
and minerals. Good nutrition therefore means avoiding processed foods as much as
possible because of unfamiliar ingredients such as sodium. It also implies
limitation on intake of substances such as sugar and also the need to strike balance
in food intake generally.
In summary therefore, we can say good nutrition is all about learning what
to eat to maintain a healthy body and mind. Sruthi (2021) holds that good nutrition
simply means eating a balanced and healthy diet. To eat balanced and healthy diet
accordingly implies;
a) Eating various diet that include plenty of whole grain products, vegetables
and fruits.
b) Drinking more water and other calories-free beverages along with fat-free
or low fat milk.
c) Eating seafood, lean meat, poultry, egg, beans, peas, nuts, seeds, etc.
d) Reduced intake of saturated and lean fats, sugar, etc.
Quality of Life
The concept of quality life though ambiguous and subjective can be seen as
the degree to which an individual is healthy, comfortable and able to participate in
or enjoy life events (Jenkinson, 2022). Quality of life as a concept is a
multidimensional phenomenon that encompasses emotional well-being, physical,
material and social wellbeing. Put the other way round, to enjoy good quality of
life does not only depend on money and material procession but also on our ability
to undertake necessary physical exercise, recreation activities and even sports to
spice up our life.
Regular physical activity provides youth with substantial physical, mental
and social health benefits. Regular practice of physical activity helps youth to build
and maintain healthy bones, muscles and joints helps control the body weight,
helps reduce fat and develop efficient function of the heart and lungs. It facilitates
developing the skills of movement and helps prevent and control the feelings of
anxiety and depressions (Haruna, 2013). Therefore, engaging in play and sporting
activities give youth opportunities naturals elf expression, self-confidence, relief of
tension, achievement, social interaction and integration as well as for learning the
spirit of solidarity and fair play. These positive effects also helps to counteracts the
risks and harm caused by the demanding competitive, stressful and sedentary way
of life that is so common among the youth lives today. Proper guided physical
activity and sports can also foster the adoption of other healthy behavior including
avoidance of tobacco, alcohol and dangerous drugs use and violent behavior as
well as the adoption of healthy diet, adequate rest and better safety practices.
(Haruna, 2013), Ogu, 2001 and Zill, Nord and Looms (1995).
Benefits of Good Nutrition
The need to eat proper and nutritious diet cannot be overemphasized if we
desire to live healthy life mentally and physically. It is on this premises that Styles
(2018) has identified benefits of good nutrition as follows:
a) Heart health: diets low in fats, cholesterol and sodium can lower risk of
heart diseases and are therefore appropriate for developing quality and
healthy life in youths and adults alike and this can positively improve level
of participation in sports.
b) Bone and teeth strength: diet rich in calcium are known to help the
formation and maintenance of healthy and strong bones and teeth, and also
prevent bone and teeth diseases. Low fat foods such as milk, cheese and
green vegetable which have high content of calcium are therefore good for
attaining healthy and quality life.
c) Higher energy level: Styles (2018) has maintained that increased energy
levels are the immediate benefits of switching to a healthy diet.
Unprocessed carbohydrates such as whole grain meals, fruits and vegetable
are not only very nutritious to the body but help to maintain steady blood
sugar and energy levels which is fundamental to attaining healthy and
quality life.
d) Brain health: good and proper nutrition increases blood flow to the brain.
Regular and proper blood flow to the brain protects it against brain
diseases such as Alzheimer diseases. It is therefore appropriate and
necessary to consume food such as fruits and vegetables, plums and nuts
and other foods rich in vitamins in other to attain good health and quality
life,
e) Weight control: good nutrition is one perfect means by which we can
prevent weight gains or overweight. Therefore, we must necessary have
adequate fruits, vegetable, wholegrain and other foods containing less
calories in our diets.
Other benefits of good nutrition includes improved memory and brain health,
better mood and happiness, long and healthy life, reduced risk of diseases,
better digestion health, better hydration (Jamieson, 2022).
Benefits of Physical Exercise and Sports
Sports has many effective psychological benefits, the most prominent of
which is that it protects individuals from psychological crisis resulting from
tension, it can make the person feel psychologically relaxed.
It also increases and builds self-esteem and confidence, especially if he or
she suffers from lack of confidence or competences. It cools down those who are
nervous and reduces depression and frustration. Most athletes, sportsmen or
women may tend to be less stressed than others by feeling more positive, happy
and energetic. Other benefits include: Social, educational, religion, military and
political.
Most people feel better after engaging in sports and physical activities
(Ajala, 2002). In support of this idea (Kayode, 2013) stated that sports and physical
activities can:
 Reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases
 Enhance efficient performance of motor tasks,
 Afford better means of relaxation and good sleep
 Increase lung capacity
 Strengthen the body, relax the mind and roughen the spirit
 Decelerate the aging process

 Increase physical performance capacity and wellness
 An increased feeling of well-being and improved cardio-vascular and
muscular function.
 Protection against cardio-vascular diseases, agility and joint flexibility.
 Avoiding obesity and developing a trim, muscular and attractive physique.
 Increased appetite and food intake in elderly people to avoid nutritional
deficiencies.
 It accelerates speed in whatever an individual wants to do.
Benefits of Physical Activity to the Youths
Regular physical activity helps to prevent cardio-vascular diseases (heart
diseases, high blood pressure and stroke) which account for one-third of deaths
among youth around the world (Haruna 2013). Cardio-vascular disease causes half
of all deaths in the youth in developing countries (U.S. Department of Health and
Human Services, 2002).
Diabetes affects more than 70 million youths in the world. Recent studies
show that even modest physical activity and dietary changes can prevent more than
half of the cases of non-insulin dependent diabetes. Physical activity can also
greatly help to prevent and manage osteoporosis, a disease in which bone become
fragile and more likely to break (Haruna, 2013).
Reducing stress anxiety, depression and loneliness through regular
physical activity is particularly important for youths in Nigeria, as rates of
depression for youths are almost double those of old men in both developed and
developing countries (Amuchie, 1986 and Haruna, 2012).
Fitness and Quality of Life of the Youths
Being physically fit has real well-being and wealth benefit. People who
keep fit greatly enlarge their fullness of living. They can do a day’s work with ease,
they can meet emergencies and they can extend their recreational activities to a
second set of tennis, an extra nine holes of gold or swim extra 300 metres. Life is
much more enjoyable when you are fit and healthy. You look good and feel good
and you are more productive in everything you do. In other words your quality of
life is improved (Money, 2013) and (Callaghan, 2004). Physically active
individuals tend to be in better health.
They report more stamina, have more positive attitudes towards work and
report greater ability to cope with stress and tension. College students participating
in an endurance conditioning programme reported significantly higher quality of
life than the non exercises. The older adults who are physically active report
greater life satisfaction due to less dependence on others and better overall physical
health than those who are not physically active, (Uzoalor and Mohammed 2013).
Conclusion
In conclusion, the above mentioned points show a wide range of routes
through which involvement in physical activities and sports can enhance or
improve quality of life and consequently improve wellbeing. Furthermore, the
maintenance of a reasonable amount of fitness and activity throughout the lifespan
helps delay the ageing process of the youth in Nigeria. There is crucial need more
than ever before to raise the level of awareness in society about the multiple
benefits of physical activity and appropriate sports, particularly among policy and
decision makers, health professionals, the media, education and sports community
local leaders and the public at large. The national physical activity programmes and
initiative should be adequately designed and coordinated with clear and realistic
objectives to increase the participation of Nigerian youths in physical activity and
sport over a given period of time to support the prevention of chronic diseases,
health promotion and sustainable socio-economic development.
Recommendations
Based on the above mentioned points the following recommendations are
hereby made;
1) The government should encourage participation in regular physical activity
and sports by providing enough facilities and equipment.
2) Seminars, workshops should be organized to sensitive workers on the
benefits of physical activity in relation to prevent diseases and improving
the quality of life.
3) Youths should be encouraged to attend conferences and workshops on
physical activity.
4) Accessible, adequate and standard physical activity and sport facilities and
equipment should be provided and in good condition to serve as additional
motivation for youth to participate in sports and physical activities.
5) Nutrition is important at all ages and that quality should be maintained.
6) Youths should avoid unhealthy habits like alcoholism, smoking and drugs.
References
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Ibadan. Maybest Publication.
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and Outcomes: An Analysis of Rational Data. Rockville, MD: Westatt.
EFFECTS OF INSURGENCY ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT OF KATSINA-ALA AND UKUM LOCAL
GOVERNMENT AREAS OF BENUE STATE, 2005-2020
Terver, Mnda
08165414927
tervermnda@gmail.com
&
Matthew Terwase Tyonongo

08060211507
tyomatt2014@gmail.com
Abstract
Insurgency has become pervasive and has permeated the political and
socio-economic milieu of Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas (LGAs) in recent times. This research has taken a critical look at
the effect of insurgency on socio-economic development in the two local
government areas. It has used the political economy approach generally
and the frustration – aggression theory in particular as its frameworks of
analysis. It has also used the survey method as its research design in the
collection of primary data. Together with secondary data the study has
shown that, insurgency has had a very negative impact on socio-
economic development in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas as it has uprooted the indigenes of these areas from their ancestral
land and made them internal refuges. It has also drastically increased
poverty in the area with attendant unemployment, hunger and
malnutrition. The study suggested inter alia that agro-allied industries
should be established by the local and state governments to generate
employment, the security infrastructure should be strengthened and
politicians should stop inducing able – bodied youths into political
thuggery from where they graduate into armed militants/insurgents.
Key words: Insurgency, Socio-economic development.
Background to the Study

It is a known and common fact that the Katsina-Ala – Ukum axis of Benue
State has been firmly in the grip of insurgency in recent times (Field Work, June
2021). The continued existence of this phenomenon has affected not only peace
and security but has also undermined the socio-economic development of the two
local government areas.
In the Katsina-Ala – Ukum axis generally known as the Sankera axis, the rise
of insurgency can be traced to the inter-state communal crisis between the Tiv and
their neigbours such as the Jukun and Kuteb of Taraba State. This was followed by
the do-or-die politics of the then president, Olusegun Obasanjo who declared it in a
January, 2007 interview carried in the Nation newspaper. The former president had
proclaimed that the 2007 election will be a fight to the finish between the People’s
Democratic Party and the other political parties. This gave rise to politics of
violence and thuggery throughout the country. These two crises – the communal
and the political – then gave rise to the proliferation of small arms in the affected
areas which has in turn given rise to different groups of armed militia that tend to
terrorise both external enemies and peaceful residents who are their kith and kin
(Field Work, June 2021). This has therefore created a situation of insecurity and
lack of peace and has also seriously slowed down economic activities in the
Sankera axis during the period under review thereby necessitating this research.
Statement of the Problem
According to Mimiko (1999), one of the most prominent faces of insurgency
is violence and this violence – prone insurgency has given rise to problems such as
the phenomenon of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs), poverty, disease and
malnutrition among others. Generally, in the time period under review, violence
has totally permeated the Katsina-Ala/Ukum landscape leading to wars and other
violent conduct. Genyi (2014) contends that, since war and violent conduct have
overshadowed peaceful existence in recent times, it may seem that people have
become used to violence, but since most people are not direct perpetrators of war, it
can be safely assumed that most people would like to live in a peaceful
environment than a conflicting one.
Efforts at trying to resolve the Sankera crisis have proven intractable. From
one of the first efforts in 2001 at a tripartite meeting between the traditional
institutions of Benue, Nasarawa and Taraba states to several peace meetings
between Sankera elite and the militia groups, the problem has not been resolved.
Essentially, therefore, this research seeks to unravel the nexus between this long-
term insurgency and socio-economic development in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local

Government Areas also known as the Sankera axis.
Research Objectives
a. To find out the extent to which the phenomenon of insurgency has
increased poverty levels in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas of Benue State between 2005 – 2020.
b. To determine the effect of insurgency on employment generation, nutrition
levels and disease in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas of
Benue State between 2005-2020.
c. To find out the extent to which insurgency has led to increase in the
number of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Katsina-Ala and Ukum
Local Government Areas of Benue State between 2005-2020.
Research Questions
a. In what ways has insurgency been able to increase poverty levels in
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas of Benue state between
2005-2020?
b. What has been the effect of insurgency on employment generation,
nutrition levels and disease in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas of Benue State between 2005-2020?
c. To what extent has insurgency led to increase in the number of Internally
Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas of Benue State between 2005-2020?
Significance of the Study
The study is significant in the following ways:
The study will enable policy makers to have an increased amount of
knowledge about insurgency at their disposal when they are evolving policies that
should have positive impact on the lives of indigenes of Katsina-Ala/Ukum, Benue
State and Nigeria at large.
The study is also significant in drawing comparative inferences between
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas and other areas in terms of
poverty reduction, economic infrastructure, unemployment and provision of quality
healthcare.
The study will serve as a reference tool for students of politics and
administration and also other researchers who may want to undertake similar
studies about insurgency as it provides useful and up-to-date information on
development and more specifically socio-economic development in Nigeria.
The political economy approach and the frustration – aggression theory
reviewed here. This study contends that, in general terms, the political economy
approach is the most suitable framework of analysis for this study. Ake (1981)
posits that political economy is concerned with the study of classes and the ways in
which production and distribution of surplus is done. He continues that when one
looks at the historical development of any society, it is a history that is concerned
with the struggle for materials that have to do with the livelihood of the people.
According Marx (1986), the principles that govern all human relations is not
politics, religion and ideas but the production of the means to support life.
Mimiko (1999) argues that without denying the meta-economic factors
facilitating the outbreak of insurgencies in Africa in the post-cold-war era, the
political economy approach allows us to perceive all the major security crises
bedeviling the continent as merely manifestations of underlying economic crisis.
He goes further to state that, it is always a case of lack and/or loss of economic
opportunities. This in turn breeds alienation, frustration, rebellion and ultimately
violence and instability.
Specifically, this research adopted the frustration – aggression theory
formulated by Dollard J, Doob L, Miller N, Mowrer O and Sears R. (1939) and
popularized by Feirabends and Nevoid (1971). Fundamentally, the theory contends
that aggression is always the result of frustration; that systematic frustration is
derived from the inability of the political system to meet the legitimate aspirations
and expectations of the people both materially and financially.
It is the contention of Fawole (1994) that, ordinarily, frustration engenders
aggression but the problem for the political system arises when the dispossessed,
disgruntled and frustrated members of the polity realize that it is the political
system that is short – changing them.
The theory is relevant to the work because it helps to explain the rationale
behind the rise of insurgency in Katsina-Ala and Ukum LGAs. The implication is
that the political system has failed to meet the legitimate aspirations of the people
thus breeding frustration and leading to aggression that ultimately results in
violence and instability.
Methodology
This section of the study offers an outline of the steps and procedures that
were used in carrying out the study.
Research Design
This work employed the survey design which falls under the broad category
of descriptive research and employs both qualitative and quantitative methods. A
survey research is one in which a group of people or items are considered to be
representative of the entire group. Survey design specifies how data will be
collected and analysed.
The survey design is not only concerned with describing unfolding
phenomena, but most importantly, proving factual explanation on why they occur.
Thus, it focuses on answering the why questions. The researcher used survey
design because according to Tarnande (2011), it guarantees the collection and
analysis of a large amount of data with relative ease. The survey research also
helps in quantifying large data in a study such as this. Finally, the utilization of this
method made it possible to empirically asses the opinions of the people on the
topic under discourse. Also, the choice of the survey design was informed by its
considered suitability to this study.
Description of the Research Population
According to the 2006 National Population Census, the population of
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas was 225,471 and 216,983
respectively. This gives the total population of the two local government areas as
four hundred and forty-two thousand, four hundred and fifty-four people (442,454).
This is an infinite population that has the requisite information for this study.
Selected groups for this study included public/civil servants, farmers, small
scale business people, taxi drivers, motorcycle hirers popularly known as Okada,
students of various schools, and traditional rulers and elders in the two local
government areas.
Sample Size and Sampling Technique
The total population of Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas
according to the 2006 National Population Census was four hundred and forty-two
thousand, four hundred and fifty-four people (442,454). This is a large population
that is difficult to study in its entirety.
The study used Taro Yamane’s 1967 formula to determine the sample size as
follows. The formula states-
N
n=
1+ N ¿ ¿
Where n = the sample size required
N = the population size
E = Level of Significance (Limit of the tolerable error)
I = Unit (a constant)
∴ given that N = 442,454
E = 0.5
N
n=
1+ N ¿ ¿
442,454
n=
1+ 442,454 ¿ ¿
442,454
=
442,455 x 0.0025
442,454
=
1,106.138
= 399.99
Approximately 400
This study adopted a purposive or judgmental sampling technique. This was
to make sure that, it will be only those people who have direct relevance to the
research who were selected from the study population. The study groups included
public/civil servants who were allotted 20%, of those purposively sampled,
traditional rulers and opinion/community development leaders were also allotted
20% while taxi drivers and motorcyclists were allotted 15%. Small scale business
people and students of various schools were allotted 15% each and farmers were
also allotted 15%.
Instruments of Data Collection
Two major instruments of data collection were used and these were the
questionnaire and the interview. The questionnaire contained a set of close – ended
questions with a set of responses that allowed the respondents to choose from.
Eighty (80) civil servants were chosen purposively and interviewed. This group is
relevant to the research because they are educated and have the requisite
knowledge about the topic under review.
Personal visits were undertaken to the homes of eighty (80) traditional rulers
and opinion/community leaders who were randomly selected in the two local
government areas. This group is relevant because they are the people who receive
various complaints from their subjects once there is breakdown of law and order.
Sixty (60) taxi drivers and motorcyclists popularly known as Okada were
randomly chosen and interviewed. They are relevant to this research because they
are the group that carry all manner of people and goods both intra and inter within
Katsina-Ala and Ukum LGAs.
Also, Sixty (60) small scale entrepreneurs were randomly sampled. This
includes sole proprietorship businesses such as barbing salons, hairdressing salons
and beer parlours. They are relevant to this study because they are an important
economic indicator in the area under study.
Moreover, the group made up of students formed 15% of those that were
purposively sampled. This translates into sixty (60) students from secondary and
tertiary institutions of learning in the Sankera axis. They are relevant to the study
because they are an elite group that will have knowledge about the study under
review.
Finally, sixty (60) farmers in the area were randomly chosen and
interviewed. Farmers form the bulk of people living in the rural areas and who are
critically impacted in the event of any insurgency or conflict. Thus they are very
relevant to the study.
Apart from the primary data, secondary data was also used. This is data
found in books, academic journals, speeches of government officials, budgets,
gazettes, bulletins, newspapers and magazines. These were obtained in libraries
and relevant internet websites and were carefully studied, analysed and matched
with the primary that was gotten from the field.
Socio-economic development was measured in terms of socio-economic
variables such as employment, poverty, nutrition levels, disease and the number of
Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs). Unemployment was measured using statistics
of the number of jobs created by the public and private sectors in relation to the
number of unemployed youths taking into cognizance the pre-and-post insurgency
periods. Poverty was measured first of all by people’s income which is the amount
of money coming into your bank account which determines your standard of living.
It is also measured by your access to health care services, potable water, education
and other critical infrastructure.
Data Presentation and Analysis Technique
After the generation of data from both primary and secondary data, it was
carefully classified based on quality and attribute. After classification, the data was
presented in labeled tabular rows and columns to enhance its understanding. This
was then followed with the application of simple percentages as descriptive
statistical tool, to summarize, describe and anlalyse the data collected, supported
with explanations. This was then used to test how the data has answered the
research questions negatively or positively so as to be able to make generalizations
and draw conclusions.
Literature Review
Insurgency
According to Powell and Abraham (2006), insurgency refers to a violent
move by a person or group of persons to resist or oppose the enforcement of law or
running of government or revolt against constituted authority of the state or of
taking part in insurgency. Insurgency as defined becomes violative of the
constitution’s criminal law and the international treaty obligation of a nation in the
following circumstance:
When it constitutes an attack on defenseless citizens and other property
resulting into injuries, loss of lives and properties as well as forced or
massive internal displacement of people out of their habitual places of
residences, when it drives business/investors away from an insecure area
and also when it constitutes domestic and internal crimes punishable by
law such as treasonable felony, terrorism, murder, crimes against
humanity and genocide (Powell and Abraham, (2006).
Arnold (2012) posits that insurgency could be looked upon as the act of
individuals who rise in forcible opposition to lawful authority especially when it
engages in armed resistance to a government or to the execution of its laws. Also,
David (2012) states that, insurgency is “an organized resistant movement that uses
subversion, sabotage and armed conflict to achieve its aims”.
Generally however, Gompert and Gordon (2008) posit that, insurgency seeks
to overthrow an existing order with one that is commensurate with their political,
economic, ideological or religious goals. This is in line with the argument by
Kilcullen (2006) when he contends that, insurgency is a struggle to control a
contested political space, between a state (or group of states or occupying powers)
and one or more popularly based non-state challengers. He goes ahead to draw a
line between classical and contemporary insurgency showing that the latter seeks to
replace the existing order, while the former sometimes strives for expulsion of
foreign invaders from their territory or seek to fill an existing power vacuum.
This paper sees insurgency as a situation where individuals and groups arm
themselves and seek to overthrow a legitimately constituted authority with the aim
of establishing their own quasi-government.
Socio-Economic Development
According to Ake (1981), the economic development of any nation is the hub
around which other kinds of development revolve. It is the sub-structure on which
the superstructure rests. Burkey (1996) looks at development as involving human,
socio-economic and political development. Human development is a process by
which an individual develops self-respect and becomes more self-reliant, self-
confident, cooperative and consciously disposed to national economic and political
values. Economic development is a process by which people through their own
individual and/or joint efforts boost production through the mobilization and
management of some combination of all or some of the factors of production.
Development is also political and social. Political development is a process of
gradual change over time where the people increase their awareness of their own
capabilities, and their responsibilities and use their knowledge to organize
themselves so as to acquire real political power in order to participate in decision –
making, plan and share power democratically and create and allocate resources
fairly and efficiently among individuals and groups. For social development, it
refers to those investments and services carried out or provided for the mutual
benefit of the people.
Social development is usually joined together with economic development to
produce the word socio-economic. This is because, social development is seen to
go hand in hand with economic development. As explained by Sear in Ujo (2008),
development has three inter-related aspects which include the fact that, there must
be increased acquisition of skills by the people; the citizens must have access to a
high level of food and nutrition which is necessarily got from actual production of
food by farmers.
Thirdly, the citizens must have access to good health, electricity, education,
good roads and pipe-borne water. These are referred to as social services while
production of food is a core economic activity which will enhance a high level of
Gross National Product (GNP).
Socio economic development therefore is seen as activities involving both
socio and economic factors which results in the growth of the economy and
societal progress and is measurable in both economic and social terms such as
growth in the number of jobs created and increase in life expectancy. Moreover,
socioeconomic development incorporates public concerns in developing social
policy and economic initiatives. The ultimate objective of social development is to

bring about sustained improvement in the wellbeing of the individual, groups,
family, community and society at large.
Fundamentally therefore, once the socio-economic base of an entity is
undermined by insurgency, then that entity is inevitably facing development
extinction.
Discussion
Data obtained through field work and secondary sources has been carefully
presented, analysed and discussed in line with the framed research questions and
the objectives of the study. A total of four hundred (400) questionnaires were
issued to respondents out of which three hundred and seventy four (374) were
returned so this analysis is based on the 374 returned questionnaires. Secondary
data is used to further substantiate or debunk what has been obtained from the
field.
Table 1: Age Distribution of Respondents
AGE FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
15 – 30 years 31 8.29
31 – 40 years 97 25.93
41 – 50 years 100 26.73
51 years and above 146 39.00
Total 374 100
Source: Researchers Field Survey June, 2021
The implication of the statistical data from Table 1 above is that, the
dominant respondents were in the age bracket of 41 years and above representing
246 (65.73%) of the total respondents. This means that those respondents were
mature enough to comment on effects of insurgency on socio-economic
development in the Sankera axis of Benue State.
Table 2: Sex Distribution of the Respondent
SEX FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
Male 224 59.89
Female 150 40.11
Total 374 100
From Table 2 above, 224 respondents representing 59.11% were male, while
150 representing 40.11% were female allaying the fear of gender disparity in this
study.
Table 3: Educational Distribution of Respondents

EDUCATIONAL STATUS FREQUENCY PERCENTAGE
FSLC/SSCE 92 24.59
Diploma/NCE 136 36.36
HND/Degree 90 24.06
Higher Degrees 56 14.97
Total 374 100
Table 3 above shows that, a greater number of respondents had diploma
certificate and above implying that the respondents were literate enough to have
much knowledge of the study under review.
Analysis of Research Objectives/Questions
In this section, efforts would be made to critically present and analyse the
three research questions earlier stated. This would enable the researcher arrive at
some conclusions regarding the effect of insurgency on socio-economic
development in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas of Benue State.
Research Objective 1: To find out the extent to which the phenomenon of
insurgency has increased poverty levels in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Governments of Benue State between 2005 – 2020.
Table 4: On the Level of Poverty in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Governments
during the Period under Review
Rating Frequency Percentage
Very high 140 37.43
High 170 45.45
Low 36 9.62
Very Low 28 7.48
Total 374 100
Source: Research Field Survey June, 2021
From the information in Table 4 above, 82.88% rate poverty as being high in
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Governments Area while only 17.1% rate is as being
low during the period under review. The implication here is that, more than three
quarters (3/4) of the respondents rate poverty as being very high in the area over
the years. Thus a greater number of the population is living under the poverty line
as evidenced by the above data.
Agreeing with the above data, the National Bureau of Statistics in its data on
household assessment of livelihood in Nigeria contends that Benue State tops states
in North-Central Nigeria by having the highest percentage of people classified as

being very poor with 12.6% followed by Plateaus and Nasarawa State having 7.6%
and 9.0% respectively. In the whole of Nigeria, Benue State ranks 10th on the list
of states whose household assessment of livelihood is very poor. This is after
Bayelsa (32.6%) Ebonyi (27.6%) Imo (20.3%) Cross River (17.0%) Abia (15.8%),
Zamfara (15.3%), Akwa Ibom (14.0%) Delta (13.6%) and Enugu (13.2%)
(National Bureau of Statistics 2000:28).
In terms of derived subjective poverty measure, Benue State is ranked first in
North-Central Nigeria among those classified to be “Core Poor” with a percentage
of 63.0 with the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) coming next with 42.4%, while
her people classified as moderately poor are 32.7% with the “non-poor” being just
4.3%. This data can be extrapolated to cover Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas since they are an integral part of Benue State.
Generally, findings reveal that there has been little improvement in the
poverty situation of these two local governments as compared to the days of the
military. Moreover, the surge in activities of insurgents has further lowered the
living standards of the people. According to oral interviews with, Jita Gberindyer,
Teran Kwaghbo, Jacob Tsav and Orbuter Ayua in June 2021, the only people who
have started parting ways with poverty are politicians and their acolytes as well as
top civil/public servants who are the only class of people who can afford to build
good houses, drive good cars, afford good medical care and send their children to
good schools within and outside the state and country leaving a greater majority
impoverished. Thus the implication of the above data is that, insurgency has
actually increased poverty levels in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas of Benue State during the period under review.
Research Objective 2: What has been the effect of insurgency on employment
generation, nutrition levels and disease in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas of Benue State between 2005 – 2020.
Table 5: On Employment Generation in Katsina-Ala and Ukuma Local
Government Areas of Benue State
Very High 120 32.09
High 169 45.19
Low 44 11.76
Very Low 41 10.96
Total 374 100
Source: Researcher’s Field Survey, June 2021.
The information in Table 5 above shows that 77.28% of the respondents rate
the level of unemployment as being very high in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas while 22.72% rate it as being low. In oral interviews with
Anum Ihyo, Clement Yange and Cuba Amenger in June, 2021, they all contend
that the rate of unemployment in the two local governments have skyrocketed due
to activities of insurgents. They argue that the major employers of labour in
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas are the farming industry, the
public sector and elements of the private sector such as proprietors of private
schools. However, most farm and farm related services such as the major markets
in Sankera axis such as Zaki-Biam, Gbor, Tor-Donga, Kyado and Jootar were
uprooted by activities of these militants and everything was thrown into disarray.
Moreover, because of insurgency, most taxi-drivers and motorcyclists
popularly known as Okada stopped operations because of the fear for their lives
hence many of their members had been ambushed and killed by the militants while
for others, their means of livelihood had been impounded. Also most private
schools in the two local governments had stopped operations because of fear of
marauding insurgents and their staffs were thrown out of service. Finally, the
government at the local and state levels had stopped recruiting staff since the
present administration came on board in 2015.
Agreeing with the above, the National Bureau of Statistics has alleged that,
the rate of unemployment in Nigeria in 2020 was 33.3% meaning that at least half
of employable Nigerians were out of jobs. This can be extrapolated to cover Benue
State and Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas also.
Table 6: On Malnutrition Levels and Disease in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas during the Period under Review
Very High 115 30.75
High 150 40.11
Low 59 15.78
Very Low 50 13.36
Total 374 100
The data in Table 6 above indicates that 70.86% of respondents rate
malnutrition levels and disease to be on the high level in Katsina-Ala and Ukum
Local Government Areas during the period under review while 29.14% rate them
as being low.
According to Adejo (2009), despite the fact that agriculture is the largest
employer of labour in the state and the state has a physical environment that is
conducive for all shades of agricultural activities, less than half of the cultivable
land is actively utilized. He contends that, Benue farmers still rely on traditional
practices of cultivation, poor processing and storage facilities, poor land
management and high cost of agricultural inputs as well as low level of
mechanization.
Also Thaddeus Ugese, Audu Maza, Anum Ihyo and Jita Gberindyer when
asked in oral interviews asserted that, even during normal times, farmers found it
difficult to access fertilizers and other agricultural inputs as a result of sharp
practices perpetrated by politicians and top civil servants in the state’s Ministry of
Agriculture and its agencies. The argument is that, most of the time, these
facilities/inputs are diverted and sold to business men in the course of distribution,
who in turn take in to nearby states for sale. They continued that, in this time of
insurgency, it has become nearly impossible to access these inputs and coupled
with limited access to farmlands due to fear of attacks by militants, the food yield
had become quite low thus leading to hunger and starvation, hence massive
malnutrition levels.
On access to health, Cuba Amenger, Orbuter Ayua and Anum Ihyo stressed
that most public health establishments in the two local government areas were in a
sorry state in the first place and then most of them together with some private
health establishments were vandalised and destroyed by insurgents. Moreover,
majority of the health workers were also chased away and some killed by the
militants. This has made access to health – care services in the area under review
very difficult also considering the economic status of a greater number of the
Sankera people. Thus coupled with malnutrition, there has been proliferation of
diseases in the area under review. These include kwashiorkor, typhoid and malaria
fevers and diarrhea amongst others. Other people who have underlying health
problems such as HIV/AIDs, Diabetes, Cancer and hepatitis have also found it very
difficult to maintain their drug/medication regimes.
Research Objective 3: To find out the extent to which insurgency has led to
increase in the number of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Katsina-
Ala and Ukum Local Govenrment Areas of Benue State between 2005-
2020
Table 7: On the Number of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in Katsina-Ala

and Ukum Local Government Areas during the period under review.
Very High 110 29.4
High 152 40.6
Low 62 16.6
Very Low 50 13.4
Total 374 100
From the information in table 7 above, 70% of the respondents agree that the
number of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) is quite high in the Sankera axis
during the period under review while 30% agree that it is low.
The Benue State Emergency Management Agency (SEMA) has stated there
are 27 IDP camps in the state accommodating more than half a million displaced
citizens. Eight of these camps are classified as official while 19 are unofficial.
According to Medecins San Frontiers (2019), in Benue State, intercommunal
violence resulting from disputes over land for grazing and farming has been
happening for years but the situation in the past two years has escalated. The
scarcity of land, due to environmental changes has increased the level of violence
which has forced thousands of people to flee their village.
However, in the Sankera axis, the argument is that, the causal factor of this
internecine violence was actually intercommunal violence among the people of
these two local government areas and their neighbours in Taraba State. This then
led to the formation of militia groups that then turned round to terrorize their kith
and kin leading to the uprooting of thousands of people from their ancestral homes.
(Field Work, June 2021).
Medecins San Frontiers (2019) contend that, the exact number of displaced
people across the state and the wider region is unknown. This is because most are
living outside the eight official camps for internally displaced persons.
Anum Ihyo, Teran Kwaghbo, Jita Gberindyer and Thaddeus Ugese in oral
interviews have argued that, before the entrenchment of insurgency in Katsina-Ala
and Ukum Local Government Areas, the number of internally displaced persons
was negligible and these were produced by intercommunal clashes over land. Once
those clashes were over, the refugees would go back to their homes. However the
internally displaced persons increased astronomically with the coming of insurgent
activities. Now thousands have found refuge with relatives or other people in
communities outside the Sankera axis that so far have remained unaffected by the
conflict. Many are surviving thanks only to their hosts who share their houses, food
and other resources with them. Generally, these are able – bodied persons who
were contributing to the socio-economic development of Katsina-Ala and Ukum
Local Government Areas but now can no longer do so because they have been
uprooted from their homes.
Conclusion
This research has taken a critical look at the dynamic relationship between
insurgency and socio-economic development in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas from 2005 – 2020. The data gathered from both primary and
secondary sources has answered the research questions and verified the research
objectives.
Firstly, the answer to research question one is that insurgency has actually
increased poverty in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas during the
period under review. This has led to loss of revenue and the lowering of living
standards.
Secondly, from data gathered, there has been a surge in unemployment in
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas during the period under review
such that at least half of employable indigenes of these two local government areas
are out of jobs. Also, majority of respondents rate malnutrition levels and disease
to be on the high side in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government during the
period under review.
Finally, research question three has been positively affirmed by the data that,
before the advent of insurgency in the area under study, there were a negligible
number of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs) in the area. However due to
insurgency, the numbers of IDPs has skyrocketed with thousands uprooted from
their villages and finding refuge elsewhere.
Generally therefore, insurgency has negatively affected the socio-economic
development of Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas during the period
under review leading to poverty, high rate of unemployment, hunger, malnutrition,
disease and a sharp increase in the number of Internally Displaced Persons (IDPs).
Recommendations
This study has shown that, insurgency in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas has been very destructive in terms of human and material
losses. Therefore, certain suggestions have been made as measures aimed at
resolving the issue.
i. Agro allied industries should be established by the state and local

government councils to mop up idle hands that could be induced into
criminality at any time.
ii. There should be continuous dialogue among all stakeholders including the
militants and would-be-militants to discourage them from taking up arms
against constituted authority and resorting to violence at the slightest
provocation.
iii. There should be devolution of Nigeria’s security infrastructure with the
establishment of a functional state police apparatus.
iv. The traditional institution in Tiv land in general and in Katsina-Ala and
Ukum Local Government Areas in particular should as a matter of urgency
wake up to their responsibilities of conflict-resolution to try and nip in the
bud any brewing problem to prevent escalation as happened in the Sankera
axis.
v. The political class should stop stoking the fire of violence by recruiting
political thugs to help them win elections and dumping them once elections
have been won. It is some of these thugs that turn into militants once their
sponsors stop giving them stipends and handouts.
References
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Arnold, D. (2012) The Implications of Insurgency in the World Global System,
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Burkey, S. (1996). People First: A Guide to Self-Reliance Participatory Rural
Development. London: Zed Books
David, A. (2012) The Upsurge of Insurgency and the Quest for National
Development. London: Oxford University Press.
Dollard, J., Doob, L., Miller, N., Mowrer, O., and Sears, R. (1939) Frustration and
Aggression. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Genyi, G. (2014) What is Peace Studies? In Member George-Genyi (ed)
Introduction to Peace Studies and Conflict Resolution. Makurdi: Gwatex
Publishers.
Gordon, J. and Grompert, D. (2008) War by Other Means: Building Complete and
Balanced Capabilities for Counterinsurgency. California: Rend
Corporation.
Kilcullen, D. (2006) Counterinsurgency Redux in Survival. doi IISSQ4814.
Mimiko, N. (1999) The Political Economy of Multilateral Conflict Management
Efforts in Africa. Nigeria Journal of Political and Administrative Studies,
Volume 1, No.1.
National Bureau of Statistics (2012) Nigeria Poverty Profile. Retrieved Online.
National Population Commission (2006) Report of the 2006 National Population
Census. Lagos: Federal Government Printer.
Powell, C. and Abraham, G. (2006) Terrorism and International Humanitarian
Law. 1st African Yearbook of International Humanitarian Law, 118:127.
Tarnande, T. (2011) Guidelines for the Presentation of a Research Report in the
Department of Political Science of Benue State University. Makurdi:
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Ujo, A.A. (2008) Theory and Practice and Development Administration. Kaduna:
Joyce Graphics Printers and Publishers
www.medecinssanfrontiers.org
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Section “A”: Personal Data of Respondents
1. Sex: (a) Female [ ] (b) Male [ ]
2. Age: (a) 18-20 [ ] (b) 21-39 [ ] (c) 41 and above [ ]
3. Educational Qualification: (a) FSLC [ ] (b) WAEC/SSCE [ ] (c)
ND/NCE/HSC/BSC and Above [ ]
4. Occupation: (a) Student [ ] (b) Farmer [ ] (c) Civil servant [ ] (d)
Civil Servant [ ] (e) Businessman [ ]
5. Marital Status: (a) Married [ ] (b) Single [ ].
Section B: Research Questions
1. How do you rate the level of poverty in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas of Benue State from 2005-2020? Very high [ ] High
[ ] Very low [ ] Low [ ]
2. How do you rate the level of unemployment in Katsina-Ala and Ukum

Local Government Areas of Benue State from 2005-2020? Very high [ ]
High [ ] Very low [ ] Low [ ]
3. Rate the level of income of residents of Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local
Government Areas of Benue State from 2005-2020? Very high [ ] High
[ ] Very low [ ] Low [ ]
4. How do you rate the level and availability of food in Katsina-Ala and
Ukum Local Government Areas of Benue State from 2005-2020? Very
high [ ] High [ ] Very low [ ] Low [ ]
5. What is the level of access to health care facilities of resident of Katsina-
Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas of Benue State from 2005-2020?
Very high [ ] High [ ] Very low [ ] Low [ ]
6. In your opinion, how was the level of infectious diseases high or low in
this area from 2005-2020?
Appendix B: Interview Questions
i. What impact has Insurgency had on socio-economic development in
Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas of Benue State?
ii. In what ways has Insurgency affected employment generation in order
to reduce poverty levels in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government
Areas of Benue State thereby leading to a more equitable and just
society?
iii. Has insurgency increased the number of Internally Displaced Persons
(IDPs) in Katsina-Ala and Ukum Local Government Areas of Benue
State from 2005 – 2020?
Appendix C
List of those interviewed
Jita Gberindyer 05.06.2021 Farmer
Teran Kwaghbo 05.06.2021 Traditional Ruler
Thaddeus Ugese 05.06.2021 Traditional Ruler
Jacob Tsav 05.06.2021 Opinion Leader
Orbuter Ayua 07.06.2021 Taxi Driver
Audu Maza 07.06.2021 Opinion Leader

Anum Ihyo 07.06.2021 NURTW Leader
Cuba Amenger 10.06.2021 Public Servant
Clement Yange 10.06.2021 Public Servant
THE ROLE OF CHRISTIAN ETHICS IN PROMOTING INTEGRITY

AMONG CHRISTIANS
Gonsur Peter Deshi

Federal Department of Christian Religious Studies
School of Arts and Social Sciences
Federal College of Education Pankshin, Plateau State
petergonsur@gmail.com
08065391597
Abstract
A critical look at the place of Christian ethics in promoting integrity or
virtues among Christians is the concern of this paper. Christian
personality can be well improved when ethical values are given
desired place among Christians. The paper relied on the use of extant
literature for its analysis. The significance of the study is adequately
discussed likewise the challenges confronting the study is also looked
into. Recommendations were made to enhance good moral behavior or
integrity among Christians. The relationship between Christian ethics
and integrity is also stressed in this paper.
Key words- Christian ethics, Integrity, Morality and Christian values
Introduction
Christian ethics refers to a set of code of conduct guiding the behavior and
operation of Christians on earth. Christians have a unique way to live and work.
The Christian pattern of life is rooted in Jesus Christ’s teachings and instruction
given for living to please Him. Christian ethics teaches Christians the values of life
and could clearly be seen in their lives or described in the way a Christian behaves.
Christian values and principles of life produce Christian integrity which can be
clear seen in our behavior and attitude.. Christian ethics is cardinally based on three
principles. It is Bible-based which means that the source of its revelation,
teachings, illustration, methodology, concepts, etc comes from the Bible. It is also
God’s centered. This means that God is the authority, the revealer of all truths, the
moral perception and the ideal way of how to live. The third nature of Christian
ethics is that it centered on Christ. Christ is the perfect revealer of God. Whatever
good attributes found or demonstrated by Christ while on earth are equally that of
God. Jesus is full of love and compassion, full of mercy and forgiveness, full of all
morals you can get all over the world which Christians are admonished to imbibe
in their lives.
The biblical concept of integrity is hereby examined and discussed and
finds out the impact of Christian ethics in promoting it among Christians.
Adequate knowledge of the two that is Christian ethics and integrity will go a long
way in shaping the lives of Christians.
However, the role of Christian ethics in developing integrity among
Christians has not been properly appraised. Why there are many rotten or bad
characters, attitude, behavior among Christians which ruins their integrity stems
from lack of proper grasp of Christian ethics in promoting integrity. Therefore
the purpose of this study is to underline the role of Christian ethics in promoting
integrity among Christians since Christian ethics has the capacity of building high
morals and good values in the life of an individual.
This study is very imperative and significant for it will reveal the need and
importance of Christian ethics in building of Christian integrity. The importance of
this study cannot be overemphasized because knowing its importance can help
Christians to address the rotten character, indecency, and drifting away from the
teaching of the Bible that has led into spiritual bankruptcy where the society today
is nothing to write home about.
On the other hand American Heritage Dictionary (1978) defines integrity
as “steadfast adherence to a strict moral or ethical code.” The word “Christian” is
used only two times in the Bible. It was translated from the Greek word Christianos
(khris-tee-an-os'), which means “follower of Christ.” (Acts 11:26; I Peter 4:16). It
further says a Christian is one who professes belief in Jesus as Christ or follows the
religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus. The word “ethics” is not used in
the Bible directly; however, the principles of ethics are treated throughout the
Scriptures. Ethics according to American Heritage Dictionary is a set of principles
of right conduct or a system of moral values. From these definitions, we can
conclude that “Integrity is “completeness and innocence as one follows the life and
teachings of Jesus, maintaining principles of right conduct and moral values.”
Although integrity is defined as adherence to a strict moral or ethical code, this
definition is not to infer that the code is a written set of rules to which one adheres.
It relates to one’s internal belief system. Integrity comes from within. A person of
integrity has a standard within himself that he refuses to violate. Integrity is not
moved by circumstances, peer pressure, or privacy. A person of integrity will be
the same, whether alone or being observed. When one thinks of integrity, one
thinks of consistency and commitment. A person of integrity is predictable in
behavior. Some ethics are taught, but ethics of integrity come from the heart. .
Right principles in the heart will produce right behavior. Teaching and demanding
respect may produce a desired result, but it does not mean that a person truly
respects. His actions may be based upon consequence rather than desire. Ethics
cover a very broad area of behavior. Attitude, consideration, dependability, and
action are all a part of ethics. Ethics should start in the home. Husbands and wives
and parents and children should respect one another and practice proper attitude,
dependability, consideration, and conduct. Ethics are not only taught; they are also
caught. Integrity is seen as the quality of being honest and having strong moral
principles."It’s also "the state of being whole and undivided." This concept comes
from "integer," which is Latin for untouched, pure, honest, and sound.
The Role of Christian Ethics in Promoting Integrity
Christian ethics are principles or code of conduct set in place for the
operation of Christians on earth to live a sound moral life for the glory of Christ.
Christian ethics is fundamentally rooted on three cardinal points. Christian ethics is
centered on God who is the author of all things including morality and integrity.
Man is created in the image of God and therefore he is expected to behave like Him
in all ramifications. God institutes law to .guide man in his daily operation. Man is
expected to live with high integrity pleasing God in all he does anywhere and at
anytime. Christian ethics is also Bible base. This means that the Bible contains the
word of God and the teachings of God. The Bible is the source of Christian
knowledge and foundation for sound Christian education and values of life.
Another cardinal point concerning Christian ethics is centered on Christ. Christ is
the full revealer of God to humanity. The nature, the character, attitude, behavior of
God is fully seen in Christ Jesus. Therefore the distinctive nature of Christian
ethics can’t be complete without Christ. Christ came to reveal to us what God
wants man to do and live a life acceptable to him. Christ is the source of Christian
integrity and morality, therefore Christians are to emulate from him in all their
deeds and characters. This can lead to promoting good behavior and integrity.
According to Geisler (1989), Ethics is imperative to maintain a Christ-like
character at work as well as in the church. The church should be a place of peace
and tranquility. It should be a place where respect and consideration are found.
Love is the motivating force behind ethics. . One cannot walk in love and be
unethical. Unethical practices come from selfishness and inconsideration.
In John 13:35, Jesus said that everyone would know that we are His
disciples because of our love for one another. I Corinthians13:4-8 defines the love
that produces right conduct. How we treat people reveals a great deal about our
character. Opening doors for others and allowing them to go ahead of us is
practical ethics; it is called preferring the brethren. Proper training will generally
produce respect, if the training is supported with appropriate disciplinary action
when a violation occurs. Ethics begin with wisdom, knowledge, and understanding.
Fear (reverence) of the Lord is the beginning of these attributes. The American
Heritage Dictionary defines reverence as “a feeling of profound awe and respect
and often love.” It also means
1. “To consider or treat with profound awe and respect.”
2. We must love and respect the Word of God.
3. We must love and respect the Spirit of God.
4. We must love and respect the house of God.
5. We must love and respect God-ordained authority.
6. We must love and respect the people of God.
One who does not truly love and respect the Lord will probably not
display love and respect for others. Ethics and humility are closely related; one
who is humble is modest in behavior and attitude. A humble person is not arrogant
or prideful; he will actually exhibit deference or submissive respect. One who
practices Christian ethics will not seek preferential treatment.
Humility is meekness, not weakness; it is demonstrated in consideration
and a kind disposition. A kind and considerate person will conduct himself
appropriately; he will not be offensive. A humble person will treat others in the
way he desires to be treated; humility is not demanding or self-centered. A humble
spirit will manifest ethical practices, even when mistreated. The conduct or
character of Christ will not emanate from the proud.
Those who follow the teachings and practices of Jesus will be honest and
free from guilt—they will do what is right, and they will treat people fairly and
with respect. People of integrity know the importance of time; they are prompt,
and they honor the time of others. The honest and innocent are reliable and
trustworthy. Integrity is not what you convey with words; it is what is perceived by
others with whom you have interaction. Integrity in Christian ethics is personified
through the life and ministry of Jesus.
For example the following are epitome of integrity coming out from sound
ethics. God viewed Abraham as a man of integrity. He made this statement about
Abraham: “...I know him that he will command his children and his household after
him...” (Genesis 18:17-19 Darby Translation). God knew the consistency and
dedication of Abraham. The pattern of Abraham’s life had proved him to be
trustworthy. Joseph also proved himself to be a man of integrity. His integrity and
good attitude resulted in favor and promotion. Moses was also a man of integrity.
We learn from his lifestyle and actions that he was a man upon whom God could
depend.
David was identified as a man after God’s own heart. (Acts 13:22). God
was confident that David would fulfill the will of God. David had proved himself
as both a shepherd and a soldier.
Job was a man who held fast to his integrity. He did not let circumstances
change his character; he remained consistent. (Job 2:3) Daniel was a man of
impeccable character. The only fault his enemies could find in him was his
dedication to the God Whom he served. (Daniel 6:4-5)
Abigail was a woman of integrity. Although her husband was an evil man,
she did not allow his ungodly character and actions to influence her decision to do
what was right. (I Samuel 25:2-42)
Esther was also a woman of integrity. From the information that we can
gather about her, we find that she was a woman who was consistently submissive,
she was obedient to her authority, she took counsel from the one who attended to
her, and she risked her life to save her people. (Esther 2; Esther 4). These biblical
patterns were just ordinary people who chose to be extraordinary in character.
From the patterns of behavior of these godly people, we learn that integrity is a
choice—a choice to be faithful to both God and to oneself.
One who operates with integrity will gain favor with both God and people.
One who operates with integrity will be at peace with himself. One who operates
with integrity will do what is in the best interest of all concerned. Integrity is
rewarded with respect, confidentiality, honor, and promotion. Doing what is right
does not go unnoticed by God, nor are people ignorant of the fact.
Integrity is a standard by which one’s life emanates from the inside and
manifests outwardly. Integrity is an inward code of ethics. Ethics is a set of rules or
principles by which one governs his life. A Christian, in the true sense of the word,
is one who seeks to follow the teachings and lifestyle of Christ. Integrity in
Christian Ethics is manifesting an outward life that is governed from the inside by
character Jesus.
One cannot portray the life of Jesus without demonstrating integrity in
Christian ethics. We must develop a standard by which to live that depicts the
character of Jesus. Doing unto others as we want them to do to us is an excellent
starting point. We must respect the privacy of others and avoid meddling into their
affairs.
Integrity is highly taught in the New Testament building on what is taught

in the Old Testament. For example Luke 3:13-14 “Don't collect any more than you
are required to," he told them. Then some soldiers asked him, "And what should
we do?" He replied, "Don't extort money and don't accuse people falsely-be
content with your pay." Christians are not to cheat but admonished to be contented
for this is the true test of Christianity.
Luke 6:31 Do to others as you would have them do to you. Christians must
remove selfishness if we want to be the light of the world. For through it many may
come to know Christ (Matt.5:12).
Luke 11:42 “Woe to you Pharisees, because you give God a tenth of your
mint, rue and all other kinds of garden herbs, but you neglect justice and the love of
God. You should have practiced the latter without leaving the former undone. Love
must be a watch dog of any true Christian.
Luke 16:10 “Whoever can be trusted with very little can also be trusted
with much, and whoever is dishonest with very little will also be dishonest with
much. This means that Christians are to be honest and sincere even to the point of
death for this was the demonstration of Christ to the cross. He was falsely accused
but humble and truthful in character and approach to things
1 Peter 2:12 says live such good lives among the pagans that, though they
accuse you of doing wrong, they may see your good deeds and glorify God on the
day he visits us.
1 Peter 3:16 says keeping a clear conscience, so that those who speak
maliciously against your good behavior in Christ may be ashamed of their slander.
These and many more are sound ethics that promote integrity among Christians.
“A person is not given integrity. It results from the relentless pursuit of
honesty at all times.” (Shield, 2004)
This is why Casanova (2012) says we study ethical principles to strengthen
and validate our own inner value system…it gives direction to what one calls our
moral compass. It is the understanding of ethics that becomes the foundation upon
which we can deliberately commit to inviolate principles. It becomes the basis of
what we are…of what we include in our character. Based on it, we commit to
doing what is right. We expect such commitment from our leaders. But most
importantly, we must demand it of ourselves.
Sound morals and ethical behavior cannot be established or created in a
day…a semester…or a year. They must be institutionalized within our character
over time…they must become a way of life. They go beyond our individual
services and beyond our ranks or positions; they cut to the heart and to the soul of
who we are and what we are and what we must be...men and women of character.
They arm us for the challenges to come and they impart to us a sense of wholeness.
They unite us in the calling we know as the profession of arms. Out of all the
moral and ethical guideposts integrity stands above the rest. For example Jesus
stressed the ethics of the inner mind as a guide to right conduct and right character.
Jesus did not come to destroy (katalusai) the Law or the Prophets but to fulfill
them (Matt 5:17-19). He requires internal righteousness empowered by the
indwelling Spirit of God as the prophets predicted (Jer 31:31-34; Eze 36:26-27). It
must exceed the external righteousness of the scribes and Pharisees (Matt 5:20)
which lacked inward reality and basic humanity (Matt 23:2-33). They devoured
widows' houses and, though appearing outwardly righteous, they were inwardly
full of hypocrisy and lawlessness (Matt 23:14, 28) (Shields, 2004, p. 101).
Jesus quotes nine of the Ten Commandments. The fourth he supports when
he said "The Sabbath was made for man" (Mark 2:27) (Shields, 2004, p. 101).
Jesus sums up Old Testament morality in the two greatest commandments
requiring love for God and love for neighbors (Matt 22:34^0; Markl2:29-31).
Jesus' teaching is known as the Law of Christ (1 Cor. 9:21). It upholds the
moral absolutes of the Decalogue and puts greater stress on inward morality as the
ethical foundation for good behavior. Jesus reveals that moral failure proceeds
from within the heart (Mark 7:20-23) and produces moral defilement. He taught
that sin comes from a self-centered heart that puts self before God and neighbors.
Jesus' ethical demands require self- denial. Virtue begins with right inner attitudes
(.Beatitudes Matt 5:3-10). Blessed are those who inwardly pursue these ideals.
Jesus exemplified a sinless life (John 8:46) and a forgiving spirit to those sinning
against him (Luke 23:34).At the judgment, Jesus will present the righteous as those
who served him by meeting the needs of "the least of these brothers of mine" (Matt
25:34^0,46b). Those failing to serve Christ by not meeting the genuine needs of
"the least of these" are cursed to everlasting punishment (Matt 25:41-46a).
(Shields, 2004, pp. 121-132).
Like Jesus, Paul stresses the two great moral absolutes
a) Love for God he transfers to love for Christ (Eph 6:24; 1 Cor. 16:22) and
so Paul sees no need to quote Deut 6:5 "Love the Lord your God..."
b) Love for one's neighbor. Paul quotes Lev 19:18 in Gal 5:14 and again in
Rom 13:9 after quoting the last 5 commandments of the Decalogue in
Romans 13:8-10.
Since sound belief is needed for good behavior, Paul's ethical exhortations follow
doctrinal exposition. He exposes sin in four areas (Gal 5:19-21; Rom 1:24-32; 1
Cor. 6:9-10; Eph 5:3-5):
i. Attitudinal sins - covetousness, envy, deceit (Rom 1:29).
ii. Religious sins - idolatry, witchcraft (sorcery) (Gal 5:20). quoting the last 5
commandments of the Decalogue in Romans 13:8-10.
iii. At work, we are to obey "with respect and fear, and with sincerity of
heart", as we "obey Christ" (Eph 6:5-8).
iv. Right relationship:.
Right relationships: As citizens we submit to and pray for civil authorities (Rom
13:1-7; ITim 2:1-2). In marriage, each must love his wife "as Christ loved the
church" and "as he loves himself' and the wife "must respect her husband" (Eph
5:21-32). In the family, children "obey your parents in the Lord." Fathers "do not
exasperate your children.. Jesus laid down the principle that the greatest
manifestation of love is to lay down one's life for another (John 15:13). He, the
good shepherd, gave his life for his sheep (John 10:11). These principles build and
promote integrity among Christians.
Bingel (2021) on the other hand stated that Integrity stands for soundness
of moral principle and character—uprightness—honesty. Yet there is more.
Integrity is also an ideal…a goal to strive for…and for a man or woman to "walk in
their integrity" is to require constant discipline and usage.
The word integrity itself is a martial word that comes to us from an ancient
Roman army tradition. During the time of the 12 Caesars, the Roman army would
conduct morning inspections. As the inspecting Centurion would come in front of
each legionnaire, the soldier would strike with his right fist the armor breastplate
that covered his heart. The armor had to be strongest there in order to protect the
heart from the sword thrusts and from arrow strikes. As the soldier struck his
armor, he would shout "integritas" (in-teg-ri-tas), which in Latin means material,
wholeness, completeness, and entirety. The inspecting centurion would listen
closely for this affirmation and also for the ring that well-kept armor would give
off. Satisfied that the armor was sound and that the soldier beneath it was
protected, he would then move on to the next man.
Practical Application of Christian Ethics that Promotes Integrity among

Christians
Nelson (1997) stated that in John 13:35, Jesus said that everyone would
know that you are His disciples because of our love for one another. I
Corinthians13:4-8 defines or describes the love that produces right conduct. How
we treat people reveals a great deal about our character. Opening doors for others
and allowing them to go ahead of us is practical ethics; it is called preferring the
brethren. Proper training will generally produce respect, if the training is supported
with appropriate disciplinary action when a violation occurs. Ethics begin with
wisdom, knowledge, and understanding. Fear (reverence) of the Lord is the
beginning of these attributes. The American Heritage Dictionary (1978) defines
reverence as “a feeling of profound awe and respect and often love.” It also means
“to consider or treat with profound awe and respect.” In order to produce the above
qualities that lead to promotion of integrity among Christians the following must
be taken into consideration
i. We must love and respect the Word of God.
ii. We must love and respect the Spirit of God.
iii. We must love and respect the house of God.
iv. We must love and respect God-ordained authority.
v. We must love and respect the people of God.
vi. We must go back to the drawing board of teaching our young ones the
word of God
vii. We must love and respect our moral values
viii. One who does not truly love and respect the Lord will probably not display
love and respect for others.
Ethics and humility are closely related; one who is humble is modest in
behavior and attitude. A humble person is not arrogant or prideful; he will actually
exhibit deference or submissive respect to God and others. One who practices
Christian ethics will not seek preferential treatment. But today Christians are very
selfish and think only about themselves even where opportunity is open to share.
Humility Breeds Christian Ethics
A. Humility is meekness, not weakness; it is demonstrated in consideration
and a kind disposition. If this is maintained it promotes high integrity in the
life of a Christians.
B. A kind and considerate person will conduct himself appropriately; he will
not be offensive. A humble person will treat others in the way he desires to
be treated; humility is not demanding or self-centered. A humble spirit will
manifest ethical practices, even when mistreated. The conduct or character

of Christ will not emanate from the proud therefore integrity is not part of
him.
Honesty & Innocence Produce Right Conduct
Those who follow the teachings and practices of Jesus will be honest and
free from guilt—they will do what is right, and they will treat people fairly and
with respect.
He who imbibes Christian ethics in his life will help him to maintain high
integrity thereby helping him to Know the importance of time; they are prompt,
and they honor the time of others. The honest and innocent are reliable and
trustworthy. Integrity is not what you convey with words; it is what is perceived
by others with whom you have interaction. Integrity in Christian ethics is
personified through the life and ministry of Jesus.
The Benefits of Christian Ethics in Promoting Integrity among Christians
When Christian ethics is given a proper place there is no doubt that it
promotes integrity among Christians and the fruit of integrity in the lives of
Christians is far beyond description.
Integrity is a medicine to Christians and its fruits are far beyond measures
i. One who operates with integrity will gain favor with both God and people.
ii. One who operates with integrity will be at peace with himself.
iii. One who operates with integrity will do what is in the best interest of all
concerned.
iv. Integrity is rewarded with respect, confidentiality, honor, and promotion.
v. Doing what is right does not go unnoticed by God, nor are people ignorant
of the fact.
Summary
Integrity is a standard by which one’s life emanates from the inside and
manifests outwardly. Integrity is an inward code of ethics. Ethics is a set of rules or
principles by which one governs his life. A Christian, in the true sense of the word,
is one who seeks to follow the teachings and lifestyle of the Christ. Christian
Ethics promotes integrity which manifests outwardly in life that is governed from
the inside by character that is becoming like that of Jesus.
Recommendations
It is a matter of fact based on the findings Christian Ethics has a lot to offer
to Christians in promoting their integrity; therefore it must be properly taught in all
institutions of learning and also churches, communities etc to inculcate morality in
the lives of people especially the young ones coming up. It may go far to curb the
gross immorality that is the talk of the day and promote integrity.
Christian educators should develop a blue-print on how to inculcate
Christian ethics in the lives of Christians in order to produce sound integrity and
morals in the society. God wants people redeem the rotten world, so the method of
how to redeem it must be properly redefined and it lies in the sound teaching of
Christian ethics.
Parents who are the custodians of morality must sit up to properly bring up
their children and wards in the fear of the Lord so that we may have a better society
to live in. There is no any place to live more than the one given to us by the creator
where we will live in and enjoy life to the brim before moving to the world of
unknown.
Conclusion
One cannot produce integrity without sound teaching of Christian ethics.
Integrity is an integral part of Christian life and this can happen when the principles
of teaching sound Christian ethics is intensified in all places of Christians
endeavor. This work tried to seek the place of Christian ethics in promoting
integrity among Christians. Recommendations are made to provoke research by
other scholars in the area not covered in the paper.
References
American Heritage Dictionary, Revised Edition (1978), University of Chicago
Press,
Bingel, D. (2021), Morality and Human mind, unpublished Lecture notes, FCE
Pankshin.
Britten, Bruce & Carol (2003). Answers for your Marriage. Lagos: Oranga
Publishing (AFYM) This book is for adults and the right time to read it is a
week before their wedding
Casanova, J.,( 2012), Public religions in the modern world, University of Chicago
Press, Chicago, IL.
Geisler, N. L. (1989). Christian ethics: Options and issues. Grand Rapids, MI:
Baker Book House.
Goldingay, J. (2006). Old Testament theology: Israel’s faith. Downers Grove, IL:
Intervarsity Press.
Goldratt, E. M., & Cox, J. (1992). The goal: A process of ongoing improvement
(2nd ed.). Great Barrington, MA: North River Press, Inc.
Gonsur, P.D. (2009). Unpublished Lecture Notes on ethical issues concerning
Christian life, Christian College of Education, Jos.
Gonsur, P.D. (2016). Lecture notes,Christian virtues, conduct, behavioral patterns
of Christian students in Nigeria Education, Christian college of education
Jos campus.
Gonsur, P. D.(2020), Lecture Notes unpublished, Introduction to Christian Ethics,
FCE, Pankshin.
Nelson T. (1997), Holy Bible (NKJ). Vines's Expository Reference Edition: New
King James Version Nashville, TN:
Kunhiyop, S. W. (2004) African Christian Ethics. Kaduna: Baraka Press.
O'Donovan, Wilbur (2000). Biblical Christianity in Modem Africa, Carlisle, UK: &
Waynesboro GA: Paternoster Press.
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Shields, N. (2004).Christian Ethics. Bukuru: ACTS. Plateau State.
FACTORS INFLUENCINGTHE PARTICIPATION OF FEMALE

STUDENTS’ IN SPORTS IN BENUE NORTH-WEST SENATORIAL ZONE
Ahula, Nyam Nathaniel

Department of Physical & Health Education
College of Education, Oju, Benue State
Mobile Phone: 08065392182
E-mail:nyamahula@gmail.com
&
Geri Tor Godfrey PhD
Department of History
Abstract
This study investigated thefactors influencing the participation of
female students’ in sports in Benue North West Senatorial Zone (Zone
B). The study was a survey research involving 365 female students
drawn from 70 secondary schools in the study area. Three research
questions were used for the study. Factors influencing the
participation of female students’ in sports questionnaire (FIPFSSQ)
was used to collect data from the female students. The instrument was
validated by Physical and Health Educators. Internal consistency was
calculated using Cronbach’s Alpha and was found to be 0.744. Data
collected were analyzed using frequency, percentages, mean, standard
deviation and the chi-square test of goodness of fit test. The results
showed that parental influence, teachers’ influence and influence of
sports facilities were significant determinants of female students’
participation in sports. Based on the findings, part of
recommendations include the continued involvement of teachers
themselves in training and supervision of female students’
participation in sports activities during school sports programme
among other suggestions.
Introduction
The need for gender equality now pervades all sectors of human society
including sports.Little wonder then that an increasing number of women are getting
involved in sports at all levels. This is because even at the world levels, women are
found participating in all sports freely. Sport organizers always make efforts to
encourage women to participate in sports due to its intrinsic and extrinsic values
(Opadiji, 2002). In spite of these efforts, there is still a clear general apathy shown
by women towards sports. It is also apparent that Nigeria’s sports development
over the years has been one sided in favour of men. One will easily recall names of
Nigerian national and international sportsmen in their hundreds, while Nigerian
sports women can be enumerated on the finger tips (Adamu, 1993: Adeyanju,
1999). The cols attitude exhibited by women in sports participation led to the
formation of the Nigerian Association of Women in Sports (NAWIS) on December
1st, 1990 (Omoruan, 1996). This has remained the concern of the people interested
in sports such as sports organizers, sports sociologists and those who carry out
researches in sports.
In Nigeria today, sporting activities are gradually gaining recognition as a
way of life of the people. However, Ikhioya (2001) noted that the number of sports
in which females participate are few and the frequency of this participation is also
low. Dike (2005) confirming the above observed that the extent to which the
females get involved in sports leaves much to be desired because while only a few
of them take active part in the competitions, majority of the females do not even
watch others perform. One of the problems associated with female sports
participation is that of uneven distribution of attention to the female students. In a
survey, Dubois (1990) observed that over emphasis was laid on the training of star
athletes at the expense of mass participation and hindered many girls from
participating in sports. The ultimate effect of this undue emphasis is that new
talents are not discovered.
Sports as competitive games are found in most societies. Sports have
formed a way of life of Nigerians and therefore a part of their culture. This is
reflected in the space allotted to sports in the print media, radio and television, the
number of stadia and amount of time spent in the evening at sports areas. If one
includes the rate of involvement in terms of participation in competitive sports,
school physical education classes, sports spectatorship and followership in the
mass media, then sports in industrial societies have become institutions of modern
life (Porter, 2002).
Culturally in Nigeria, boys and girls are brought up to internalize from
early stages, their adult sex roles. The boys are expected to participate in sports and
other activities requiring physical exertion and prowess that are marks of maleness.
The girls as future mothers are taken to be fragile and attractive since their roles are
perceived to be mainly those of child bearing and home keeping (Dzongor&Anom,
2008). It is possible that recent female sports mobilization organized by different

sports associations throughout the federation such as the 2004 female soccer
competition, the 2004 female basketball competition and the all-female students’
soccer competition respectively has influenced female participation in sports
(Ladani, 2006).
In view of the review above, this study is poised to identify the
determinants of female students’ participation in sports. The study aims to bring
out the factors that encourage female participation in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial
District of Benue State. For better achievement, the study will also make efforts to
investigate the influence of parents and teachers including the influence of facilities
as perceived determinants for female students’ participation in sports.
One’s feelings of personal competence at a task is a crucial determinant of
success or failure in that task, it is in line with this that Harter (1978) proposed a
theory named after him, the Harter’s competence motivation theory which is purely
a theory of achievement, motivation and competence. In sports, if an athlete feels
that she has put in enough of her time and energy into the training she then goes
into the competition with high feelings of competence and vice-versa. The serious
training therefore in turn becomes a motivational factor that leads to success in
sports. Since secondary schools exist under cultural settings, it could be rightly
argued that such background may influence female perception, orientation as need
for choice for rejection of certain practices in sports. According to Frosts and
Moore (2006) the teacher’s perception of need and encouragement for or pressures
on the female will play a significant role in their general sports participation as well
as choice of activity.
The purpose of this study is to investigate the factors that determine
female students’ sports participation in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue
State.
Specifically, the study is set to determine if:
- Parental attitudes influence female students’ participation in sports

in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State.
- Teachers’ attitude determines female students’ participation in sports in

Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State.
- Facilities influence female students’ participation in sports in Zone “B”

Senatorial District of Benue State.
To have a focus and clear directionfor the study, the following research
questions guided the study:

- Does parental influence determine female students’ participation in
sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State?
- Do teachers’ influence determine female students’ participation in
sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State?
- Do sports facilities influence female students’ participation in sports in
Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State?
Method:
The survey research design was adopted for the study. The sample of the
study comprised 365 female students from 70 secondary schools in Zone “B”
Senatorial District of Benue State which comprises seven Local Government Areas
(Anom, 2014) see table 1 below.
Table 1: The sample used for the study
Total No. of Female students
S/N LGA No of Schools per LGA
1 Makurdi 11 62
2 Gboko 13 69
3 Gwer-East 15 73
4 Gwer-West 9 45
5 Buruku 8 40
6 Guma 8 40
7 Tarka 6 36
Total 70 365
Source: Field Data collected between 2009 and 2014.

All the sampled 365 female students from the population of 3,650 female
students were used for the study. The researcher considered the above sample size
adequate because according to Nwana (1982) 10 percent ofsample is allowed if the
population is a few thousands. Also Krisejie and Morgan (1970) agreed that all
samples equivalent to 10 percent of the population are fully allowed to be used in
carrying out a research. A researcher structured questionnaire named Determinants
of Female Students’ Participation in Sports Questionnaire (DFSPSQ) was used to
collect data for the study.
The questionnaire was divided into three sections as follows: Section A of
the DFSPSQ consisted of 3 items on personal data such as name of school, level of
study and parents educational background. Section B 1 was made up of five

statements on parental attitudes towards female students’ participation in sports.
Section B2 was made up of 5 items on teachers’ attitude towards sports
participation by female students. Section B 3 was made up of 5 items on facilities
influence on female students’ sports participation.
The subjects were expected to respond to the statements on a five point
Likert-type scale of strongly agree (SA) 5 points, agree (A) 4 points, undecided (U)
3 points, disagreed (d) 2 points, strongly disagree (SD) 1 point, by ticking in the
column against each statement that described their opinion.
The instrument was validated by lecturers from the Physical and Health
Education Department of College of Education Katsina-Ala and lecturers from
Human Kinetics and Health Education Department of Benue State University,
Makurdi. Cronbach’s Alpha was considered adequate. The copies of the
questionnaire were distributed by the researcher to 365 female students of SSI and
SSII in their schools and collected back on the spot after completion of all the
questionnaires.
The questionnaires collected were carefully inspected and all the 365 were
found to be fully completed and were used for data analysis. The criterion mean of
3.00 was established, against which all calculated mean scores were judged to
answer research questions.
Conclusion on each of the items was based on the scale computed along
the 5-point likert scale used in the study, a mean of 3.00 or more was adopted but
the right mean was 3.50. Since 3.50 could be approximated to 4.00, which stand for
agreement in a 5- point likert scale, scales lower than 3.50 were regarded as
disagreement. The hypotheses were tested using the chi-square goodness of fit
statistics at 0.05 level of significance.
Results and Discussion of Findings
Analysis of Mean Responses Table 2: Mean responses of research variables
S/No Variable Mean SD Remarks
1. Parental influence 4.40 0.68 Strong determinant

2. Teachers’ influence 4.70 0.74 Strong determinant
3. Facilities influence 4.14 2.07 Strong determinant
Analysis of parental influence on female students’ participation in sports

showed that parents were interested in their female students’ participation in sports.
This is evident from an aggregate mean of 4.40 which is greater than the criterion
mean of 3.50.
Research question 2 sought to find out if teachers’ influence determine
female students’ participation in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue
State. Mean analysis of this variable showed that teachers’ influence determined
female students’ participation in sports in Zone “B” since the mean score of 4.70
obtained was greater than the established mean of 3.50.
The study finally sought to find out if facilities determined female
students’ participation in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State.
Mean analysis of the variable showed that facilities are a determinant of female
students’ participation in sports in zone “A: since the mean score of 4.14 obtained
was greater than the established mean of 3.50.
Data collected to test the determinants of female students’ participation in
sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State was analysed using chi-
square goodness of fit test. The results are presented below:
Hypothesis I: Female students’ participation in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial
District of Benue State is not significantly determined by parental influence.
TableIII: summary of chi-square test of goodness of fit test on parental influence
as determinant of female students’ participation in sports.
Response fo Fe X2cal X2tab Df P Remarks
SD 0 73.0
D 7 73.0
UD 17 73.0 568.249 7.83 3 0.000 Significance
A 286 73.0
SA 55 73.0
Total 365 365
X2 = 568,249, df =3, P<0.05

Table III above provides the result of the chi-square test of goodness of fit
test on parental influence on female students’ participation in sports. We can see
from this table that our test is statistically significant. Since the calculated chi-
square of 568.249 is greater than chi-square table value of 7.82 at df 3, with a P
value of 0.000 which is less than 0.05 (X 2= 568.249. df = 3, P < 0.05), we can
therefore reject the null hypothesis which stated that female students participation
in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State is not significantly
determined by parental influence. This means that female students’ participation in
sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State is significantly determined by

parental influence.
Hypothesis II: Teachers’ influence does not significantly influence female
students’ participation in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue.
Table 3: Summary of chi-square test on teachers’ influence on femalestudents’
participation in sports.
Response Fo Fe X2cal X2tab Df P Remarks
SD 6 73.0
D 6 73.0
UD 15 73.0 771.397 9.49 4 0.000 Significance
A 282 73.0
SA 56 73.0
Total 365 365
X =771.397, df = 4, P=0.00
2
The table above provides the results of the chi-square test of goodness of
fit test on teachers’ influence on female students’ participation in sports. We can
see from this table that our test is statistically significant. Since the calculated chi-
square 771.397, is greater than the table value of 9.49 at df 4 with a P value of
0.000 which is less than 0.05 (X2=771.397, df =4, P<0.05), we can therefore reject
the null hypothesis which stated that female students’ participation in sports in
Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State is not significantly determined
by teachers’ influence. Instead we can assert that female students’
participation in sports is significantly determined by teachers’ influence.
Hypothesis III: Female student’s sports participation in Zone “B”Senatorial
District of Benue State is not significantly determined by facilities influence.
Table V: Summary of chi-square test on facilities influence which determine
Response fo fe X2cal X2tab df P Remarks
SD 0 73.0
D 7 73.0
UD 17 73.0 620.247 9.49 4 0.000 Significance
A 286 73.0
SA 55 73.0
Total 365 365
X2=620.247, df=4, P=0.05
The table V above provides the result of the chi-square test of goodness of
fit test on facilities influence as determinant of female students’ participation in

sports. We can see from this table that our test is statistically significant. Since the
calculated chi-square of 620.247 is greater than the chi- square table value of 9.49
at df 4, with a P value of 0.000 which is less than 0.05 (X 2=620.247, df=4,P<0.05).
We can therefore reject the null hypothesis which stated that female students’
participation in sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State is not
significantly determined by the influence of facilities. This means that female
students’ participation in sports is significantly determined by facilities influence.
The results obtained in the analysis are in line with the research questions
and hypotheses. The determinants of female students’ participation in sports in
Zone “B” Senatorial District of Benue State was the purpose of the study. For the
above purpose to be achieved, the study sets some variables as perceived
determinants of female students’ participation in sports. These included parental
influence, teachers influence and influence of facilities. These variables are
discussed in the paragraphs that follow:
The finding on parental influence showed that parental influence is a
determinant of female students’ participation in sports. In support of the above
results, Frost and Moore (2005) state that sports involvement in childhood, is
reinforced by parents’ encouragement, continues into middle age and diminishes
only in the fast stage of the life cycle. Again, Gupta (1987) stated that parents’
educational level is positively linked to motivation of their children to participate in
sports. Supporting the above claim again, Akintunde (2001), stated that no other
agent of socialization is as important to the total makeup of the child as his family,
her primary socialization begins in the family set up. Siedentop (1998) regarded the
family as more influential than the teacher in that if helps to mould the life of a
child. It is therefore to conclude that parental influence strongly determined female
sports participation in the above mentioned study area.
This research also identified teachers’ influence as a determinant of female
students’ participation in sports. In support of the above findings, Nayeek (2007),
Morakinyo (2007) and Watt (2004) have identified the school as the second home
of the child and an important socializing agent as a result of teachers’ positive
performance in all fields. In addition to the above, Omoruan (1996) found that
athletes and non-athletes alike receive more encouragement from teachers than
from other persons. In Uti and Ojeme’s (1997) opinion, instructional programme
prepared by teachers provides encouragement and pressure on their students
through varied interesting sporting activities. Also Olajide (2007) maintained that
activities in sports including success and the extent of participation are determined
by the practical man (the teacher) on one hand and the sports scientist (Physical
educator) on the other hand.

Again, in support of the above concerning teachers influence, Ladani
(2000), stated that in order to perfect the performance, the teacher or coach must
always be present for the practical activities and offer full supervision of the
activities. Poor programming of physical education activities by teachers can
hinder sports participation. In support of this statement Fasan (2002), stated that for
females to be fully involved in the evening programmes of physical education,
parents must fully be involved in the planning with the teachers. Also concerning
teachers’ influence on female sports participation, Dada (2005) opined that there
should be a sound teacher-student relationship which must always promote
effective teaching and learning in all courses including sports.
The results of this research also proved that the influence of facilities is a
determinant of female sports participation. In support of facilities that they
influence sports participation, Watt (2004) noted that for an environment to
become highly involved and continue effectively in sports participation area, there
must be well constructed fields, courts, halls and swimming pools etc. In support of
the above Olajide (2004) stated that appropriate facilities are essential to meet the
needs of women participation in sports. Again, Dishman (1981) opined that major
accesses to facilities were related to physical activity participation by both males
and females. On the whole, sports facilities are very important for both male and
female athletes throughout the world. Rao (2004), advocates that all institutions of
learning throughout the world should provide adequate sports facilities which will
encourage the students to take part in physical activities. Greendorfer (1992) noted
that for an individual to become involved and continue in sports effectively, he or
she must be in an environment, which is highly supportive of sports facilities. In
addition to the above, Udoh and Jona (1992), opined out that it would be
impossible to achieve satisfactory results from students whose training sports
facilities were inadequate or substandard. It can finally be concluded that an
environment with standard sports facilities will surely enhance sports participation.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions have been drawn:
- Parental influence positively determines female students’ participation in
sports in Zone “B” Senatorial District.
- Teacher influence is a significant determinant of female students’
participation in sports in Benue North East Senatorial Zone of Benue State.
- Facilities are a significant determinant of female students’ participation in
sports in Benue North East Senatorial District of Benue State.

Recommendations
Based on the findings the following recommendations were made:
- Parents should continue to involve their daughters in the school sports
programmes.
- Teachers should continue to involve themselves in training and supervision
of female students’ sporting activities during school sports programmes.
- Adequate facilities should continue to be given to the teachers and female
students to sustain their momentum of interest in physical education
activities.
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THE IMPACT OF PRIVATIZATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION ON

AFRICA’S DEVELOPMENT
Johnson Aba Ame Obekpa

Department of Social Studies
College of Education Katsina- Ala
08104191404
Abstract
This paper examines the impact of privatization and commercialization
on the development of Africa.It contends thatprivatization and
commercialization are components of the liberal and neo – liberal
ideology of capitalism. The paper posits that the origin of privatization
and commercializationin Africa can be traced to the conditionalities of
Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) introduced to the continent
following the challenges that trailed the nationalization of enterprises.
The paper shows that prior to the introduction of privatization and
commercialization, the economy of African states was almost a command
one with a wide range of government control. However, following poor
performance leading to low output, poor returns and an over-bloated
workforce, as well as corruption, privatization and commercialization
became the panacea to the challenges to these economies.The paper
shows that to some extent, privatization and commercialization enhanced
the output of some enterprises and promoted efficiency but overall, it
failed to achieve the touted objectives. The paper shows that in spite of
the theoretical arguments in favour of privatization and
commercialization, the policy has not been able to impact significantly on
development of African states due to major lapses in the implementation
process. The paper therefore calls for more efforts to address corruption
and increased prudence in the management of the Africa’s resources.
Introduction
Soon after their independence, a large number of countries on the African
continent ascribed a central role to public sector for economic development. Thus,
the public sector continued to expand not only as a result of creation of new public
enterprises but also due to large scale nationalization of private enterprises
(indigenous, foreign and multinational) motivated by ideological, political or
preferred development policy and development planning considerations. Towards
the end of the 20th Century as a result of continued poor performance of public
enterprises, the collapse of communism, and advocacy of Structural Adjustment

Programs by donor agencies, the state and the public sector agencies in these
countries started rolling back and a shift of emphasis from public sector to private
sector continued to unfold. A significantly different approach towards private
sector was noticeable. The private sector earlier considered to be an instrument of
exploitation and creator of disparities between rich and poor, was recognized as an
engine of growth.1 Divestiture and privatization in different forms became
common. The governments of different countries started encouraging private and
even foreign investment. New forms of partnership between public and private
sector also started developing.2
The idea that in order to be able transform into an industrialized economy,
an underdeveloped economy had to be privately and commercially developed was
mainly what led African countriesto embrace privatization as a way of eliminating
low performance and inefficiency in the public enterprise sector.This was because
most government owned industries and establishments had become citadels of
corruption, inefficiency and a heavy drain on the economy. As a means of
combating this menace, theInternational Monetary Fund (IMF) and (World Bank)
advocated the twin policies of privatization andcommercialization. To this end, the
privatization of state-owned enterprises (SOEs) became a key component of the
structural reform process and globalization strategy in many economies including
those in Africa.
It can therefore be observed that several developing and transition
economies have embarked on extensive privatization programmes in the last one
and a half decades or so, as a means of fostering economic growth, attaining
macroeconomic stability, and reducing public sector borrowing requirements
arising from corruption, subsidies and subventions to unprofitable SOEs. By the
end of 1996, all but five countries in Africa had divested some public enterprises
within the framework of macroeconomic reform and liberalization. 3Sufficient time
has elapsed since the start of reforms to warrant an assessment of the extent to
which privatization and commercialization have realized the intended economic
and financial benefits, especially with the fact that African countries have
continued to remain within the bracket of Third World Economies. This paper
therefore examines the impact of privatization and commercialization on
development in Africa.
Conceptual Clarifications
Privatization can be defined in several ways depending on the form it
takes. The World Bank defines the concept as “a transaction or transactions
utilizing one or more of the methods resulting in either the sale to private parties of
controlling interest in the share capital of public enterprises or of a substantial part

of enterprises or of a substantial part of its assets”. Privatization has become an
important instrument for streamlining the public sector and promoting economic
development in countries all over the world. It is a strategy for reducing the size of
government expenditure and transferring assets and service functions from public
to private ownership and control.4Indeed, there is a very wide range of initiatives
usually discussed under the term privatization. Such initiatives include: the
substitution of user charge for tax finance, the letting of management contracts
while retaining ownership, and liberalization for the promoting of competition in
markets previously reserved for statutory monopolies.
Etukudo defines privatization as the transfer of productive asset from
public to private ownership and control. 5This means privatization can as well be
considered as the transfer of ownership of public resources or assets to private
individuals and firms through various options which include: sale of state-owned
enterprises to the private sector through private placement, public offerings or
competitive bidding by strategic investors, allowing private operators to compete in
sectors that have been the exclusive domain of private enterprises, breaking up a
monopoly into various branches of activities to stimulate competition and
transferring the management of private enterprises from public to private through
contracts, leases or concessions.
It has been argued that the concept of privatization is an emotive concept
which is controversial and ambiguous. The Nigerian Privatization and
Commercialization Act of 1988 and the Bureau of Enterprises Act of 1993 6 define
privatization as the relinquishment of part or all of the equity and other interests
held by the Federal Government or any of its agencies in enterprises whether
wholly or partly owned by the federal government. This definition may be
considered as lopsided because it tends to ignore the fact that other tiers of
government like the state and local governments can also embark on privatization.
Iheme7on his part defines privatization as; any of a variety measures
adopted by government to expose a public enterprise to competition or to bring in
private ownership or control or management into a public enterprise and
accordingly to reduce the usual weight of public control or management. Starr
defines privatization as a shift from the public to the private sector, not shift within
sector According to him, the conversion of state agency into an autonomous public
authority or state owned enterprise is not privatization, neither is conversion of
private non-profit into a profit making firm. Privatisationcantherefore be
considered as the transfer of ownership and control from the public to the private
sector. This can be executed in a number of different ways. In countries where
capital markets are developed, privatisation is effected through the sale of the
enterprise's equity to the public. In developing countries where capital markets are
underdeveloped, divesture is likely to involve the sale of the enterprise as a
complete entity or through some form of a joint venture. In cases where the
government fails to sell the state owned enterprise or enter into a joint venture
agreement with private interests, liquidation measures can then be instituted. 8
Commercialization
Commercialization on the other hand constitutes an integral part of
restructuring which takes the form of reorganization and restructuring of public
enterprises under a management contract with a private sector company so as to
turn such businesses into profit – making commercial ventures without government
subsidy. The goal of commercialization is the promotion of greater efficiency and
productivity even if government still retains ownership of the enterprise.
Development
Development as a concept also defies a universal definition. To some
scholars like Walter Rodney, development is a normative concept which relates to
time, place and circumstances hence it cannot be reduced to a universally accepted
formula.9 Rodney therefore considers development as man’s mastery of his
environment as a result of the interactions which exist between humans and their
social and physical environment. In his opinion, development is a universal
phenomenon because the economic features leading to economic expansion were
also universal. To this end development being the interplay between man and
nature is not absent in any human society rather it has gradations as a result of the
extent to which the various human societies have been able to master their
environment. According to Rodney, certain human societies have been able to
advance more than others due to their ability to exploit other parts of the world. To
this end, development is considered as a relative concept because various societies
across the world have varying levels of endowment. 10
Rodney also contends that development is multi-faceted and as such it has to
be viewed at three levels which are namely; individual, group and societal levels.
Rodney explains that at the level of individual, development refers to increased
skills, creativity and capacity, greater freedom, self-discipline and responsibility as
well as improved material well – being. According to Rodney, development at the
group level implies a greater capacity to regulate internal and external relations
while at the societal level, the concept implies the ability of a society to tap its
natural resources for use by the people in that society. 8
The variations in the definitions of development seem to be representations

of ideological inclinations. For instance, classical materialists conceive
development as the accumulation of wealth. This school of thought interprets the
concept as the ability of a state to generate wealth from the economic perspective
in a manner which transforms the state from an agricultural or subsistence status to
a point where the bulk of the state’s wealth is obtained from the production of
manufactured goods and services.
The most common definition of economic development is that it represents a
growth in average income usually defined as per capita income. A closely related
idea is that economic development occurs when output per worker increases. 11
According to Goulet;
Economic development must be conceived as a multi-dimensional process
involving changes in structure, attitudes and institution as well as
acceleration of economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication
of absolute poverty.12
There is often the tendency by people to interchange the concepts of growth

and development as if they mean the same thing. This is probably because
theoretically, having an increasing output should mean greater material welfare but
this does not always translate into improved standards of living. Although
economic growth and development tend to be similar in meaning, they have some
essential differences. While economic growth refers to the increasing ability of a
unit to produce more goods and services, economic development basically implies
improved living conditions by taking into account changes in economic and social
structures that will reduce or eliminate poverty.
This perhaps may be the reason why economic growth is sometimes
considered as an indicator of development even as growth refers to quantitative
improvement while development is a qualitative expression. Kindleberger however
acknowledges the entwined nature of the two concepts which warrants their being
used in tandem but he goes further to explain that;
Growth without development leads nowhere, it is also impossible to
contemplate development without growth because change in function requires
change in size….. That is, until an economy can produce enough to feed its
population ... self-sufficiency in food production through growth, it will be unable
to allocate a portion of its resources to other types of activity in order to enhance
development.13
Growth here can therefore be referred to as increased productivity or more
output as a result of the increased efficiency or enhanced exploitation of the factors
of production. By extension growth means quantitative increase in output which is

proportional to the output within a given economy. Thus, it is an increase in
capacity utilization especially of the factors of production. Development on the
other hand refers to both increase in output and changes in the technical and
institutional arrangement by which it is production takes place and this should lead
to enhanced living conditions which should include improvements in human
capacity.
Privatization and commercialization are neo-liberal development strategies
designed by the capitalist – backed international financial institutions to
incorporate national economies into the global market. To this end, the theoretical
foundation of privatization draws largely from the general equilibrium theory
which among other things indicates the relevance of efficient pricing in ensuring
optimal allocation of society’s limited resources for efficient production of the
various needs of society and efficient distribution of the commodities and services
among various consumers.14 Thus, the concept of perfect competition and free
market imply that the general equilibrium analysis will tend to yield an optimal
allocation of resources since competitive equilibrium prices ensures that supply and
demand are equal and in the long-run, all firms which can produce profitably will
enter the industry to ensure long-run stable and sustainable growth. It is obvious
that such optimality results cannot be achieved under centralized planning or
command economies which depend on elaborate control. This is because such
system is hardly able to arrive at a set of efficient prices which will ensure that all
firms maximize their profits by covering their costs and earning reasonable
margins, while consumers maximize their unity. And even in recent times, there
has been some ferment in economics about the role of the state in economic life. 15
Government’s argument on deregulation of the downstream oil sector is premised
on the expectation that it will improve the efficient use of scarce economic
resources by subjecting decisions in the sector to the operations of the forces of
demand and supply.
It has also been argued that privatization has several benefits such a
reduced government bureaucracy, reduced state monopolies and financial
structures, increased competitiveness increase in quality of goods and services,
reduced corruption and control by government, increased staff quality and
supervision, improved market analysis, the freeing up of government funds for
more pressing problems, creation of employment and the re-invigoration of the
local economy as well as the expansion of local businesses. Others include the
attraction of direct foreign investments, expanded capital market redistribute
wealth, improved technological transfer and enhanced trade regulations. To this

end, it is argued that privatization is likely to instill account ability in the
management of privatization enterprises. They are no longer dependent on the
government for financial subvention, rather the shareholders look up the them for
their dividends annually and this will make them to become more profit conscious
in order to be able to satisfy the yearnings of their numerous shareholders.
Privatization is an instrument for economic mass mobilization and
democratic control of the economy. This is because with privatization, shares of the
enterprise will be sold to numerous investors across the whole country and the
control of enterprise will now be in the hands of many owners rather than in the
hands of the government appointed nominees into governing boards which is
nothing more than state monopoly.The scheme is a means of encouraging
productive efficiency. A number of factors can make this possible. First, the veil of
state monopoly would have been lifted and competitive pressure would have set
in.Secondly, the regular financial subvention from the government coffer would
cease and the enterprises will have to provide for themselves alone without further
assistance from the government.Thirdly, their activities will now become more
open to public scrutiny and the colane of secrecy formerly enjoyed will be a thing
of the past.16 This will stimulate innovation rather than apathy from the
shareholders and consumers alike. This would make them to be more cost
conscious and consumer oriented.
Privatization will lead to a positive enhancement of allocation efficiency in
the economy. In the past when government was financially buoyant, it engaged
itself in many businesses, a large number of which are quit inefficient and still the
scarce resources of the economy were being allocated to maintain these ceiling
enterprises on the premise that they performed some welfare functions. For the
citizens, privatization allows the allocation of government resources to efficient
projects in the economy.The privatized enterprises if successful will be a source of
revenue to the government when it pay taxes of various types to the government.At
a time of declining government revenue and inadequate funding, these enterprises
may not have the capability to expand. With privatization, however a new source
of capital through shares subscription will enhance motives which in the long run
will culminate into a vigorous drive for employment of more personnel.
It can therefore be argued that, privatization gives ownership to a large
percentage of the population. Given the level of established property rights,
individuals become more motivated and driven to work on and invest in their
property since they are directly compensated for their efforts. Therefore,
privatization will cause an increase in vest for yet another reason. Furthermore,
state ownership leads to crowding out of investment from the private sector. In
order to retain a monopoly in a particular industry, state enterprises prevent the
private sector from getting to credit. Additionally, privatization leads to an
increase in foreign direct investment which can potentially play a significant factor
in the quest for growth. Foreign investment has “positive spillovers of proved
technology, better management sills, and eases to international production
networks.”17Easterly stresses the importance of the possible benefits from
technological improvements as well as the spillover effect created from new
innovations. In fact, easterly presents the theory and examples of how
underdeveloped countries might have an advantage over developed countries have
less invested in old technology, and are therefore, more willing to invest in new
technology. Thus, foreign direct investment could potentially have multiple
positive effects on the growth of underdeveloped countries.
The Origins of Privatization and Commercialization
Privatization as an economic policy is a product of neo-liberal economic
reforms that became popularised and globalised through the World Bank and
International Monetary Fund (I.M.F). The importance of establishing public
enterprises or corporations began during the 19 th century with the British Telecom
in 1884 under the Telecommunication Act before it gained worldwide support. As
an innovative economic policy, privatization started in Chile under the Military
Government of General Augusto Pinochet in 1974 and was adopted in Britain
between 1986 and 1987 as a central part of economic policy shift. Prior to the
adoption of privatization and commercialization, public enterprises were
considered as the engine of development and as such the establishment of
government corporations was considered as a basic responsibility of governments
the world over. In Africa however, towards the end of the 1980s, public enterprises
had grown too large and were sufferingfrom the fundamental problems of defective
capital structures, excessive bureaucratic control and intervention, inappropriate
technologies, gross incompetence and corruption. With the deep internal crises that
included the high rate of inflation and employment, external debt obligation and
foreign exchange misalignment, many African countries were strongly advised by
the World Bank and International Monetary Fund to divest (privatize) their public
enterprises as conditions for economic assistance. 18 Thus, by the end of 1996, all
but five countries in Africa had divested some public enterprises within the
framework of macroeconomic reform and liberalization.
In Nigeria, privatization and commercialization began in 1986 as an
integral part of the Structural Adjustment Programme (SAP) which was part of the
conditionalities prescribed for the country like other African countries before they
could get the assistance they sought from the Bretton Woods institutions. Thus,
privatization in Nigeria was formally introduced by the Privatization and
Commercialization Decree of 1988 as part of the Structural Adjustment
Programme.19 We have observed in our introduction that the Oil Glut had led to
build up of large fiscal and external deficits and other macroeconomic imbalances
in Nigeria. In order to address this problem, the government introduced several
policy measures which started with the Stabilization Act or 1982, budget-
tightening measure of 1984 and finally the ‘Structural Adjustment Programme
(SAP) of late 1986.
The challenge of mismanagement as outlined in Nigeria above led to the
adoption of privatization and commercialization by African governments amid
resistance from the citizens and labour unions who had become used to the
nationalization of most enterprises. Thus by 1996, the countries in sub Saharan
Africa could be divided into 2 groups, first according to the degree of privatization
– major, modest as well as minimal privatisers – and secondly, according to when
countries embarked on privatization programmes – early starters, not so early ones
and late starters. Indeed major privatizers where majority of state enterprises have
been divested include Benin, Guinea and Mali. Modest privatizers are those cases
where less than 10 percent of the total value of the public assets has been sold:
Burkina Faso, Cote d Ivoire, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Mozambique
Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, the United Republic of Tanzania, Togo Uganda and
Zambia. The rest of sub-Saharan Africa therefore constitute minimal privatizers.
Furthermore early privatisers started from the late 1970s up to the middle of the
1980s and include Benin, Guinea, Niger, Senegal and Togo. This group was
followed by those whose privatization programmes took effect from the late 1980s
and include Cote d Ivoire, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawai Mali Mozambique
Nigeria and Uganda. The late starters who did not privatise until the 1990s include
Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Sierra Leone, the United Republic of Tanzania
and Zambia.
Impact of Privatization and Commercialization on Development in Africa
Theoretically, it is argued that privatization and commercialization can
have a positive secondary effect on a country’s fiscal situation more so as it can be
used to finance new government expenditures and pay off future debts. It is also
argued to enhancethe efficiency and profitability of enterprises. Practically, the
Nigerian breweries changed from the most inefficient and loss-making company
before privatization to one of the most profitable business after it was privatized. In
Zambia, it was reported that the country was for the first time exporting coffee and
cotton as a result of privatization while the export of cut flowers had increased
from $5million in 1991 to $54 million in 1996.20
In Uganda too, it has been noted that Ugandan companies were performing
better under private sector management and were at the same time providing
regular tax revenues. In referring to the Nigerian capital market after privatization
and commercialization, Zayyad21 points out that there have been more offerings of
primary issues in the last five years than in the previous thirty years of the of the
existence of the stock exchange. To this end, the number of shareholders has
rapidly increased and became more even spread across the country. Also, some
enterprises such as Flour Mills, Africa Petroleum, National Oil and Chemical
Company Limited (NOLCHEM) that were partially privatized began doing well in
terms of production and profit making. Bala22 also observed that many of the
privatized Ghanaian enterprises have been modernized and brought back into
production. ABC Brewery for instance, increased its production between 1992 and
1995 while Ghana Agro Food Company (GAFCO) increased employment from
500 – 700 by July, 1996. In Zimbabwe the Grain Marketing Board came from a
loss of more than $100 million to a profit of $21 million in 1995.
While it may be argued that privatization had improved the performance of
some of the privatized companies (even though its production costs are lower than
those in the public sector by 20 – 40 percent) especially in the efficiency of
resource utilization hence, a higher profit to capital ratio was witnessed,
employment levels tended to be adversely affected by privatization.In Nigeria, the
commercialization of enterprises such as National Electric Power Authority
(NEPA) and Nigerian Telecommunications Company (NITEL) showed any
significant improvement in their operational and economic performance in addition
to several job losses.23Between 1989 and 1993, the public sector accounted for a
large number of job losses more than in private companies. This led to lose of
income and decreased spending as well as purchasing power. The rise in
commodity prices between 1992 and 1994 therefore did not create sufficient
increase in gross earnings. Profits actually increased but the extent to which this
increase can be attributed to a reduction in government involvement is not clear.
It is clear that privatization itself has complex problems with each country
having its own peculiar solutions. For instance, private corporations are profit
driven and as they find it difficult to render public services such as water, public
health and transportation services at rates that are affordable hence privatization
usually creates wealth for the rich while making the poor poorer while the process
reduces public accountability as private companies replace public corruption with
state corruption. To this end, the expected trajectory of the entirederegulation and
privatization exercise in Nigeria immediately took a dangerous derailment after the

first five years of implementation. Many Nigerians alleged that the privatization
process was biased such that some companies were sold out to incompetent people
for selfish gains or for patronage.
It had also been alleged that only 10% of 400 privatized firms in Nigeria
wereproperly functioning a situation that can be attributed to several technical
complications inherent in the gamut of the exercise. 24This can be attributed to the
lopsided asset acquisition and share purchase agreements, non-enforceable clauses
and breach of share purchase agreements. Some of the problems that characterized
the privatization exercise were, government enterprise and the acquiring firm
operating and competing in the same market, the lack of capacity of the acquiring
private firm, lack of technical knowledge or experience of the particular industry
by the acquiring firm, inability of the competing firms to meet the financial
benchmarks, creation of an industrial monopoly, unnecessary retrenchment public
officers by the acquiring firminexplicable or unfair assignment of the properties of
the state agencies or subsidiaries and favouritism. For instance, a labour stike was
called to compel the government to reverse the sale of the nation’s refineries which
the labour union saw as a way of out of public assets to Obasanjo’’s friends under
the guise of privatization. Obasanjo had earlier been accused of selling African
petroleum, to his business stooge, Femi Otedola’s Zennon Oil at a cost many
considered as a giveaway price. This is because AP was first sold to Global Group
through a near due process at the cost of N17.5billion but Obasanjo is accused of
having overruled the transaction and single handedly offered the prime shares of
the federal government in AP to Zennon Oil at a value far below its actual value. 25
The privatization commercialization of the Nigerian economy reveals the
capitalist undertone with the notion that capitalism produced colonialism and
imperialism. Indeed, right from the time the Nigerian economy began to be
privatised as part of SAP in 1986, it only succeeded in pauperizing a larger
population of the country. This explains why the material condition of the citizens
is yet to improve in spite of the process. The efficiency of the power sector has not
improved in spite of rising tariffs. This goes to show that the privatization is based
on maximization of profit and further opening the economy up to plunder. The
whole process has been corruption – ridden and lacks transparency such that,
majority of Nigerians who are also below the poverty line might not be able to
afford those deregulated and privatized goods and services. Given the fact that the
initial impetus for privatization in Africa came from creditor institutions especially
the IMF and the World Bank, as part of the push for there is no surprise that
deregulation and privatization in Nigeria process in Nigeria has neither been able to
improve in terms of efficiency nor transform the economy of the country into a
better one. . For
Conclusion
This discourse shows that the desire to meet the conditions for loan
facilities from the Bretton Woods institutions had combined with the
mismanagement and under-utilization of government - owned corporations leading
to wastage of resources and manpower potential informed the decision by African
States to embark on privatization and commercialization. Although, privatization
and commercialization of other economies have been successful in developed
countries, it has been a failure in Africa due mainly to differences in socio-political
environment. This discourse shows that the process lacked credibility and
transparency as it could not yield the touted benefits. If the policy had been
implemented with sincerity, it would have worked as workers could have become
shareholders. Consumers would have also been better off as a result of better
services. Graduates and the unemployed would have also become employed due to
expanded opportunities as government too would have been relieved of the burden
of subsidies. Investors would have also gained in terms of increased investment
opportunities. To this end, the process should be reviewedto make it more
transparent and it should be based on competency rather than ethnicity and
patronage more so an economic system that cannot improve the material condition
of the majority ofthe citizens does not deserve to endure for long.
Endnotes
THEATRE FOR DEVELOPMENT: A HISTORICAL AND

DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES IN NIGERIA
Ephraim Aga Shimsenge

Department of Theatre Arts
Benue State
&
Gbilekaa Richard Kurayol
Benue State
Abstract
This paper traces the historical development of Theatre for
Development (TFD) in Nigeria. The concepts of ‘Development’ and
‘Theatre for Development’ which are considered as indispensable tools
that can be used in provoking change in human communities are
discussed. This mode of theatre is recommended to all and sundry if the
development we keep yearning for is to be achieved. The paper
concludes with a charge to theatre artists and those genuinely interested
in the arts of the theatre to persuade government at all levels as well as
corporate organizations to use this potent tool to effect social, economic
and political change..
Introduction
Theatre for Development has come a long way as a viable medium for the
sensitization and mobilization of a target community towards development. As a
potent tool for development communication, it has been effectively used by
governments, social workers, politicians, doctors, educationists and other fields of
human endeavour to influence attitudinal change. Indeed, theatre-for-development
remains the most effective medium for reaching a target audience as it provides
opportunities for a lively, participatory and spontaneous communication effect.
However, emphasis has continues to be laid on the mobilization of the ruler masses
by theatre-for-development practitioners to the neglect of other equally relevant
segments of the study such as the urban masses and the bourgeois class.
Furthermore, there seems to be a growing attempt to over-radicalize theatre-for-
development process in which the target audience is urged to adopt violence as the
only way of addressing their situation.
However, in frontiers of theatre for development are to be pushed forward
to ensure collective participation by all segments of the social classes towards
achieving sustainable community development, then a critical examination of the
areas highlighted above must be carried out. This should be with a view to carrying
along all segments of society, be they peasants, the elite class, rich or poor, adult or
youth and the masses in the ruler urban areas. This paper holds that, this is the only
way to ensure a comprehensive and sustainable development of the community in
which the awareness of a component segments is effectively raised without
government or corporate organization interference.
Conceptual Issues
Development: Development is a term that is multi-faceted. While some people
associate it with the acquisition of western education and civilization; others see it
from the standpoint of availability of infrastructures like schools or roads and the
provision of social amenities like electricity, pipe-borne water, hospitals, etcetera.
For economic planners, the index of development may be mere rapid establishment
of industries as well as “the process whereby the per capita income of a country
increases over a long period of time “(Meier, 1971 in Kumbur 1995, p. 101). Going
by the above views, the term ‘development’ can be seen to be controversial and
complex in terms of definition.
In this essay, and indeed for the purpose of Theatre for Development in
Nigeria and elsewhere these writers accept the view of Cockfrot (1972, p. 16)
definition, which states:
Development involves a structural transformation of the economy, society,
polity and culture of the nation that permits the self-generating and self-
perpetuation use and development of the people’s potential”.
In a similar vein, Todaro (1981) affirms:

“Development is a process involving major changes in social structures,
popular attitudes and National Institutions, as well as the acceleration of
economic growth, the reduction of inequality and eradication of absolute
poverty” (Todaro,1981, p. 87).
What the above-mentioned scholars are talking about is that, development

results from a people’s frontal attack on the oppression, poverty and exploitation
that are meted out to them by the dominant class and the system. This attack brings
about a radical change in the living conditions of the people from abject poverty
levels to a materially better situation. True development therefore is the

development of man, the realization of his creativity by using the available
resources to him (Iortiom, 1999, p. 18). Such a development is capable of
enhancing a creatively organized and disciplined personality. The disciplined
personality becomes a moving force behind the socio-economic transformation of
his society.
To transform a society by bringing development to it entails embarking on
several approaches since development, as noted earlier in this essay, is
multifaceted. One of these approaches is the use of theatre, which from time
immemorial has been relevant and adopted in several human endeavors for
different purposes. The history and development of the theatre through the ages
reveals that, the Greeks who are credited with being the originators of the art of
drama used it to address issues of the day in the classical period. Alexander the
great used theatre to mark the victory festival, after him, other leaders too
employed the use of theatre to perpetrate self-worship. The Roman era that
succeeded the Hellenistic age was not an exception in adopting theatre for its own
usage. From the above it can be deduced that theatre at different ages has
contributed greatly to society’s development.
In his discussion on theatre and development Etherthon (1982, p. 317)
States:
There is a desire by the contemporary African playwright to participate in
social change through their arts and perhaps by direct political intervention
as well. Some of these playwrights are no doubt, mere rhetoricians of
revolution, but others do care about the oppressed in the society and in their
lives are prepared to become involved.
The Concept of Theatre for Development (TFD):

The term or concept ‘Theatre for Development’ (TFD) is synonymous with
community Theatre, Popular Theatre for Integrated Development (TIDE), Theatre
for Integrated Rural Development (THIRD), etc. Some of these nomenclatures
have their limitations, but they refer to the same practice and in broader terms are
talking about Community theatre or Theatre for Development.
This mode of theatre aims at mobilizing people irrespective of their
economic. Political, social, religious and class status to unite and commonly pursue
a common goal for either self or collective upliftment. Gbilekaa (1977, p. 5),
opines:
Popular theatre is a theater of conscientization. It aims at awakening the
consciousness of the rural folks to understand the societal configurations as
well as to have faith in themselves as vectors of change.... As a poly-

functional theatre, community theatre is a theatre of pedagogy, liberation and
revolution where it is underlined by Marxist aesthetics.
In most developing countries such as Nigeria people lack the basic

necessities of life to improve their lot. They live in abject poverty out of either
ignorance or superstition or both. Meanwhile, their social, economic, cultural and
political resources are misappropriated and used to benefit a select few who
sometimes happens to be in the helms of affairs. Years of subjugation make the
people to accept these without question and this keeps them in a state of
powerlessness. What they may not be sure about are the causes and their solutions.
These problems, however, are human problems and what they deserve is human
solutions. This is where Theatre for Development, in the words of Okwori (1992,
p. 51), intervenes to motivate, animate or catalyze the people so that they can
dialectically question their existing reality, critically determine the roots of their
problems and work out strategies for solving them. To this end Hagher (1990 in
Obianenue 2001, p. 71) states:
The practitioners of this theatre are committed to social transformation
through cultural action, using the theatre through its practice it hope to
involve the peasants and workers in finding solutions to their common
problems through research, dramatization, analysis and follow up action.
Theatre for Development as an art form meant for performance does not
require any formal literacy, nor does it requires professional skills to be able to do
its performance. What is demanded are the body resources of the people. And these
are already present in their traditional abilities to sing, dance and to drum. A little
more co-ordination and restructuring into dialogue and the end result is “total
theatre”; a theatre which Oga Abah described as ‘a hybridization from both the
western type dialogue drama and the traditional performative arts’ (Oga 1992, p.
4).
The importance of this theatre lies in the fact that, it serves as a catalyst for
social education, it awakens the critical consciousness of a people as well as their
abilities so that they begin to learn to analyze their own problems with a view to
finding solutions to same in their communities. Theatre for Development,thus,
sensitizes the creative impulse and gives motivation for action. It is in essence a
potent tool for enhancing sustainable development in both urban and rural settings.
The Evolution and Development of TFD in Nigeria
The origin of Theatre For Development can be traced to the work of two
Latin Americans from Brazil, namely, Paulo Friere’s Pedagogy of the Oppressed
(1970) and Augosto Boal’s Theatre of the Oppressed (1974). Thetwosome, who
worked with the oppressed and landless peasants in Peruvia, took the oppressed
through experiences of varied natures and made them aware of their individualistic
and collective potentials of which if not underestimated should make them capable
of reasoning and been considered by others as rational human beings. Boal taught
the peasants how they can manipulate theatre effectively and thereby communicate
their feelings, yearnings, aspirations and predicaments, and at the same time
sharpen their consciousness critically. He sees in the theatre a revolutionary
weapon and that it is the people who should wield it. Furthermore, Boal (1988, p.
48) states:
In this book, I offer some proof that theater is a weapon, a very efficient
weapon... for this reason, the ruling class strive to take permanent hold of the
theatre and utilize it as a tool for domination..., but theatre can also be used
as a weapon for liberation.
Boal’s ideas prodded the people of Brazil into action. Through the National
Literacy Organization, Labour Unions, and the church among others, they
commissioned public performances of folk poetry promoting their respective
interests. Since then, this mode of theatre has been universally acknowledged as a
tool for conscientization. It sprung up in different parts of the developing countries
of the world with African countries having a fair experience of it.
Okpanachi (1992) in a scholarly paper opines that, in Zambia, with the
establishment of the ‘Chikwakwa theatre’ in 1970, an attempt of this form of
theatre was introduced for the people through their existing cultural and social
traditions. In 1974 in Botswana, another experiment which centred on the annual
festival “Laedza Botanani’ was created. It was a form, which was popular, free,
engaging and adaptable. In the late 1970’s, Theater for Development was
introduced in Sierra Leone. The Planned Parenthood Association and health
educators in Segbwema and Serabu experimented with drama and other folk media
for disseminating their family planning and health care messages. In Kenya, theatre
workers and adult educators worked on programmes of community education
prominent among which was the one facilitated by Ngugi Wa Thiong’o in a
community education theatre programme involving hundreds of landless Kenyans.
Back here in Nigeria, according to Iortiom (1999), Community Theatre for
Development owes its origin and development to the efforts of Michael Etherton,
then, a lecturer in English and Drama section of the Ahmadu Bello University,
Zaria. Etherton borrowed heavily from the “Chikwakwa Theatre” in Zambia and
the “Laedza Botanani’ in Botswana, which were his earlier pioneering work in
those countries to start community theatre efforts in Nigeria. At its inception in
1975, this theatre form came under the name “Wassan Manoma” (Plays for
farmers). By 1977, this experiment was taken to Soba Village and was based on the
Federal Government’s Policy on agricultural development tagged ‘Operation Feed
the Nation’ (OFN), the aim was to see the input the villagers will make on the play.
“The Theatre Collective” of Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, have pursued this
experiment to a situation where the people themselves are making the theatre.
A follow up from the Zaria experiment came up in 1981 when the Benue
State Council for Arts and Culture under Iyorwuese Harry Hagher, organized the
First Benue International Theatre for Development in Gboko Local Government
Area of Benue State. Another workshop organized by the same council came up in
December 1982 to January 1983, this time around it was held at Katsina-Ala, with
College of Education, Katsina-Ala, playing the host. Participants at this workshop
worked in four communities.
The effectiveness of this theatre in provoking change has been identified
by many in Nigeria and other developing nations. Its popularity made the
development workers, non-governmental organizations and institutions of higher
learning in Nigeria to embrace it. Experiments such as the one at Otobi in Benue
State (1989), Mushin – Lagos (1990), Benin – Edo State (1992), Obudu – Cross
River (1993) are a few examples among others. At institutional level, Theatre Arts
(a course which deals with Theatre for Development) is now offered in many
higher institutions of learning, examples, the College of Education, Katsina-Ala
has been holding series of community theatre workshops and teaching same soon
after the second Benue International Theatre for Development Workshop. From
1990 till date community theatre is taught at the University of Benin, and the
Department in collaboration with the Nigerian Popular Theater Alliance (NPTA)
has organized many Workshops in both urban and rural areas using theatre mode
for the purposes of development, enlightenment, sensitization and empowerment
(Asagba, 2001, pp. 167-168). This development to gain grounds as the number of
students offering the course has increased tremendously.
Due to the success stories of the various efforts towards entrenching (TFD)
an effective umbrella organization to co-ordinate the activities of popular theatre
practice resulted into the formation of the Nigerian Popular Theatre Alliance
(NPTA), in Zaria in March 1989, which has the following as her objectives:
i. To promote popular theatre work in Nigeria.
ii. To organize training, cultural exchange, publication etc., in the field of
popular theatre.
iii. To facilitate ways of using popular theater for development purpose.
iv. To seek the collaboration and support of National and International

Organizations in the search for solutions to the rural and urban
development problems through popular theatre in conjunction with other
community development strategies.
v. To associate by participation and involve Nigerian popular theatre artists in
theatrical, cultural and artistic events in Nigeria and other parts of the
world.
Since its formal inception, theatre for development trainings, networking
workshops and establishing linkages, with non-governmental organizations, that
are development oriented in order to evolve development of the people from inside
out instead of outside in (lortyom, 1999: viii).
The Interface between Theatre and Theatre for Development
Theatre being a powerful medium of communication towards effecting
positive behavioural change has a role to play in the sensitization and cultural re-
orientation of the dislocation urban masses. Theatre as a means of empowering has
been used as a powerful social language in conveying societal messages over the
years in human development. People have used this medium as a voice through
which they can protest against any form of suppression, or reclaim their right as
citizens and contribute to social growth.
John O’Tool (26) mentioned ways in which theatre has been used in some
societies to effect changes and proffer progress for the people. According to him,
the participatory and contributory nature of theatre is used as an effective method
for the training of community and development workers and educational
programmes or as literacy training to improve on performance, especially in offices
and social sectors. Furthermore, theatre has the potentials for raising social
consciousness and awareness of any group of people on issues affecting their social
life, policy and cultural consciousness as well as empowering them on actions that
will better their life.
The interface between theatre, and theatre for development dated back in
the early 70s and 80s with scholars like Ross Kidd’s pioneering Laedza Batanani
TfD Project in Botswana and Michael Etherton’s Chikwakwa Theatre Project in
Zambia. Ahmadu Bello also led the way in transforming the idea of touring
readymade plays to communities into a new practice which started involving
communities at various play production stages in the 1970s (see Byram and Kidd)
1973, Mlam 1984, Etherton and Grow (1979). Theatre for development (TfD) is a
theatre practice which purposely and deliberately concentrates on the improvement
of the condition of life. It incorporates the flexibility of indigenous performing arts
forms of the people; music, song, dance, etc. its nature is participator and it aims
for a collective action for change.
TfD popular theatre and community theatre as the case may be, are
nomenclatures only. They overlap in ‘development popular’ and ‘community’.
Development refers to the improvement of the quality of the life of an individual,
food, health and shelter. ‘Popular’ mean that which the people easily identify with
and by ‘community’ is meant a group of individuals who live together and share a
common destiny. Theatre for development is a means as well as a scheme in the
mode it employs to aboriginal art forms as essentials of its practice. Similarly, it is
that genre of theatre which talk about people’s life and experience and aims to
make them respond to their social, political and economic situations.
Essentially, then, TfD is a people’s theatre addressing their own troubles in
their own words, using their own expression and their particular phrases. This is so
because TfD clearly works towards generating a way of life where people at the
grassroot level are conscious of the influence at work and which determine their
living condition. It strives towards making the people to get vigorously involved in
the development process by expressing their view points. The intention is to
empower an ordinary man with a critical consciousness. This is crucial to the
struggle for the liberation against poverty. From the picture so far painted of TfD
and its nuances, one can safety say that it entails efforts towards enhancing
people’s awareness on issues detrimental to their development.
Conclusion
Although comparatively young, in this part of the world, Theatre for
Development has done much in improving the lot of Nigerians. The experiments so
far conducted attests to this fact. It has come to stay and its importance cannot be
overestimated, as such, it is not only apt but ripe to pave way for this mode of
theatre to occupy a position of prominence in this country. This can only be
achieved if governments at all levels, and corporate bodies embrace it by using it to
inform, educate or sale out their programmes to the society in order to enhance self
and environment improvement. Theatre Artists in the corridors of power or other
positions of influence should equally, remember to persuade government to use this
potent tool that enhances development.
References
Asagba, A.O. (2001): “Theatre for sustainable development in Nigeria: Issues,

performances and learning points,” in Theatre Arts Studies: A Book of
Reading. A publication of the Department of Theatre Arts, University of
Benin, Benin — City, Lagos: AMEITOP Books.Boal, A. (1988): Theatre
of the oppressed. London: Pluto Press.
Cockcroft, J. et al (1972): Dependency and underdevelopment. New York: Anchor
Books.
Etherton, M. (1982): The development of African drama. London: Hutchison.
Gbilekaa, E.T. (1977): Radical Theatre in Nigeria. Ibadan: Caltop Publications
(Nigeria) Limited.
lortiom, M. (1999): Popular theatre module. Katsina-Ala: ZED Computers.
Kumbur, E. (1995): “Popular/community theatre: The alternative theatre for
sustainable development in Nigeria” in Ecoscope. A Journal of
Economics, Vol. 4 No. 2 College of Education, Katsina-Ala.
Obianenue, O. (2001): Theatre studies: A book of readings: A publication of the
Department of Theatre Arts, University of Benin, Benin-City.
Oga, S.A. (1992): “Participatory theatre and rural development: issues and cases”
in Nawe. A Journal of the Nigerian Popular Theatre Alliance, Vol. 1, No.
1.
Okpanachi, J. (1992): “Community theatre in Nigeria: An analysis in Nawe. A
Journal of Nigerian Popular Theatre Alliance, Vol. 1 No. 1.
Okwori, J.Z. (1992): Empowering the disempowered: Using popular theatre for
rural transformation in Nigeria” in Nawe. A journal of the Nigerian
Popular Theatre Alliance, Vol. 1. No. 1.
O’Tool, John Drama, Culture and Empowerment. IDEA Publication. Routledge,

London. 1996
Todaro, M.P. (1981): Economic development in Third World: London: McGraw I-I
ill Publishers.
A PROGNOSTIC ANALYSIS OF NIGERIA’S PENSION REFORMS AND

SOCIAL SECURITY OF RETIREES
Gbaeren Tersoo
Abstract
The treatment meted to retirees in Nigeria’s public service, particularly
with regard to payment of their pension and other related benefits has
set a scaring signal to workers in service. Sadly, pensioners are treated
with disdain. The procedure for processing and payment of their
entitlements has not only been cumbersome but astonishingly
embarrassing. Apart from been grossly inadequate, the process of
payment of such benefits has been characterized by anguish and
squalor. Indeed retirees are now roaming around streets at the Federal
Secretariat, States and Local Government headquarters begging for
alms. Most of them end up sleeping under shields of trees, starving and
incapable of faring themselves back to their destinations. These untold
hardships ultimately result to untimely death. The enormous challenges
mentioned above mostly associated with the old pension scheme,
defined benefit: prompted pension reform agenda of Federal
Government in 2004. This paper interrogates the extent to which this
policy approached the challenges. The paper thus, utilizes the Marxian
alienation theory and relies on secondary sources of data collection
involving the use of documentary. The paper discovered an existing gap
bothering on unresolved issues in the old Defined Benefit Scheme and
the new Contributory Pension Scheme and consequently suggests that
Nigerian pension commission (PENCOM), which is the regulatory body
be tasked to close the looming gap.
Keywords: Pension reforms, social security and retirees.
Introduction
The payment of retirement benefits remains the greatest challenge faced by
retirees in Nigeria. Employees are confronted with this abstruse throughout their
working life and after retirement. Retirement concerns emotional, psychological, as
well as financial challenges that workers have to prepare for, well ahead of time
(Garba and Mamman (2014). Nigeria and other developing countries, have
restricted working age of public civil servants to prevent an ageing labour force by
allowing the entry of only young-able-bodied labour for efficiency and

productivity. It is perceived that as workers becomes older;their marginal physical
productivity of labour (mppl) declines. Thus retaining such a worker in
employment at this point will amount to running the organization at a loss. As this
also creates opportunity for the younger generation to also showcase their talent by
replacing retired workers. This explains why in Nigeria, the statutory working age
in the public service is fixed at sixty (60) years or thirty five (35) years of unbroken
active working service before retirement. However, the Retirement Age
Harmonization Act of 2012 puts the retirement age of judicial officers and
academic staff of tertiary institutions at 70 and 65 years respectively because of the
belief that the “older, the wiser” in these sectors (Garba and Mamman 2014).
There is a plethora of challenges faced by retirees in Nigeria which
attracted pension reforms to offer succor for these retirees whose unobtrusive
decimation is pathetic. As stated above the problems rangefrom the anxiety
generated by nonpayment of gratuities and monthly stipend, to deteriorated health
condition. It also includes the inability to afford medical care leading to loss of life,
idleness, dwindling status, decreased strength and, physical disabilities as well as
aging. The delay and denial in payment of pensions and gratuities has brought
untold hardship and death to many retirees, thereby making retirement something
that is dreaded by workers. Workers therefore resort to falsification and forgery of
age in other to remain in service. This has further been compounded by lack of
investment culture, planning and management of post-retirement conditions.
Suffice it to say that retirement takes many people unaware, without cogent plan or
pre-retirement counseling. Governments and employers of labour on their own part
have not done much to enlighten and give proper orientation to the labour force on
the need for effective planning for retirement. A large part of the work force enters
into retirement as destitute and have become objects of ridicule as many are more
like beggars especially those who retire without effective planning (Garba and
Mamma, 2014).
The Pension Reforms Act 2004 and Pension Reform Act 2014 that ushered
in the contributory pension era in the Nigerian pension landscape therefore
provides a roadmap towards surmounting the deteriorating challenges faced by
retirees. This is a search for a viable solution to halt the menace of retirees roaming
the streets and transporting themselves from one place to another for series of
screening exercises that yield no tangible results but rather results to the deaths of
retirees.The work is arranged as follows: introduction, conceptual definition,
history of pension administration in Nigeria, Marx Theory of Alienation, Forms of
retirement, challenges of retirees in Nigeria, pensions and social security
administration. Other subthemes include trajectory of pension reforms in Nigeria,

recommendation and conclusion.
Conceptual Definition
Adams (2005) defines pension as the monthly money paid to a worker by
the government or corporation after a specified period of employment. Ozor (2006)
opined that pension comprises of a lump sum payment to an employee on a
monthly basis after retirement from active service. Ayegba, James and Odoh
(2013) defined pension as a term used to denote an individual’s remittance upon
retirement, typically under specified legal and contractual terms.
Pension is a sum of money regularly paid to a person who no longer works
because of old age, disability or retirement or to his widowed or dependent children
by the state, former employers or from a provident fund to which he and his
employer both contributed.Pension systems are generally grouped into defined-
benefit (DB) and Defined Contribution (DC) pensions. The former promised
retirement pension payout. Based on the final contributions and number of years of
service. While the latter elicits contributions from employers and employees and
benefits. The advent of pension scheme in Nigeria is credited to colonial
administration (Sunday & Ehiogu, 2014, Uzoh & Anekwe, 2018). The authors
maintained that pension was founded on the premise that, after retirement, British
citizens-employed in Nigeria could be provided with old age revenue and
protection. The historical development of pension and its reforms in Nigeria is
documented in several studies such as Ekpulu and Bingilar (2016), Odia, and
Okoye (2012). The focus of this paper is on the recent reforms - Pension Reform
Act 2004 and Pension Reform Act 2014 that ushered in the contributory pension
era in the Nigerian pension scheme. All forms of pension scheme in Nigeria prior
to June 30th 2004, were under the defined benefit plan and were non-contributory.
The new contributory pension scheme, however, came into existence because of
the 2004 Pension Reform Act (PRA), which created for all public and private
workers a compulsory and contributory funded pension scheme. The Act is
contributory in nature and is mandatory for all categories of workers in the public
and private sectors.
Eromonsele and Analo (2017) acknowledged the features of the pension
Reform Act of 2004 as follows;
(i) Provides established rules, regulations, standards and for the management
and for the payment of retirement benefits;
(ii) Every employee receives his or her retirement benefits;
(iii) Employer and employee each contribute 7.5% to the retirement fund every
month.
(iv) Establishment of the National Pension Commission (PENCOM),
(v) Employees were required to open a Retirement Saving Accounts (RSA),
(vi) Employees can choose their own pension administrators;
(vii) Employees can move freely in the labour market with their funds still
secured;
(viii) Professional pension fund administrators are to control and invest pension
funds privately.
(ix) Allows for an increase in the rates of monthly contributions, subject to
agreement between the employer and the employee.
History of Pension Administration in Nigeria
Nigeria, being a former colony of Britain inherited the pension
administration tradition in her public sector that is entirely modeled after the
British structure. The pension system in Nigeria, according to Adeniji, Akinnusi,
Falola and Folakemi, (2017) was introduced into Nigeria by the Colonial
Administration. The first legislative document on pension in Nigeria was the 1951
Pension Ordinance which had retroactive effect from January 1, 1946. The
Ordinance provided public servants with both pension and gratuity. The National
Provident Fund (NPF) Scheme established in 1961 was the first piece of legislation
to address pension matters of private organizations in Nigeria. First, this was the
social protection scheme for the non-pensionable private sector employees in
Nigeria.
Moreover, pension administration in Nigeria was mainly a savings scheme
where both the employees and employers contributed certain sums on monthly
basis. The scheme provided for only one-off lump-sum benefit, (Ahmad, 2007).
The NPF was followed by the Armed Forces Pension Act No. 103 of 1972
and by the Pension Acts No. 102 of 1979. Other Pension Acts include; Pension
Rights of Judges Act No. 5 of 1985 which states that other than the Chief Justice of
Nigeria who has held office as a judicial officer for a period of not less than fifteen
years shall be entitled to pension for life at a rate equivalent to his last annual
salary plus his consolidated allowances. The Police and other Government
Agencies Pension Scheme enacted under Pension Acts No. 75 of 1987, the Local
Government Pension edict which culminated in the setting of the Local
Government Staff Pension Board of 1987 which was established to take care of
pension matters among local government employees.
In 1993, the National Social Insurance TrustFund (NSITF) Scheme was set
up by Decree No. 73 of 1993 to replace the defunct NPF Scheme with effect from
1st July, 1994 to take charge of employees in the private sector of the economy,
(Balogun, 2006). In 1997, parastatals were allowed to have individual pension
arrangements for their staff and appoint board of trustees (BOT) to administer their
pension plan as specified in the Standard Trust Deed and rules prepared by the
office of Head of Service of the Federation. The first private sector pension scheme
in Nigeria set up for the employee of the Nigeria Breweries was in 1954. The
United African Company (UAC) Scheme followed in 1957. Pension scheme is
broadly divided into the defined contribution plan and the defined benefits plan.
Under the defined benefits plan, the retirement benefits is stipulated usually as a
percentage of average salary, but the contribution will vary according to the
percentage of the average compensation a participant receives during his or her
three earning years under the plan, (Owojori, 2008). A major problem of the
pension fund administration in Nigeria was the non-payment or delay in the
payment of pension and gratuity by the Federal and State governments.
Pension found administration became a thorny issue with millions of
retired Nigerian workers living in abject poverty and they were often neglected and
not properly catered for after retirement, (Orifowomo, 2008). Basically, the old
scheme has been plagued by lots of challenges and problems.Some of the problems
were demographic challenges, funding of outstanding, pensions and gratuities,
corruption administrative bottlenecks, to mention just a few. However, the problem
of the old pension scheme led to the Pensions Reforms of 2004. The Pension
Reforms Act (PRA) of 2004 as amended in 2014 is the most recent legislation of
the Federal Government of Nigeria which is aimed at reforming the pensions
system in the country. It encompasses employees in boththe public and private
sectors. The PRA of 2004 came into being with a view to reducing the difficulties
encountered by retirees in Nigeria under the old pension scheme. The new scheme
is regulated and supervised by the National Pension Commission. The Commission
has the power to formulate, direct and oversee the overall policy on pension
matters in Nigeria.
What are the Objectives of the New Pension Scheme?
The objectives of the scheme according to section 2, part 1 of the PRA of
2004 include;
(1) Ensure that every person who worked in either the public service of the
federation, federal capital territory or private sector receives his retirement
benefits as at when due.
(2) Assist improvident individuals by ensuring that they save in order to cater
for their livelihood during old age.
(3) Establish a uniform set of rules regulations and standards for the
administration and payment of retirement benefits for the public service of
the Federal Capital Territory or private sector.
(4) Stem the growth of outstanding liabilities.
Marx’s Theory of Alienation
The alienation from the self as a consequence of being a mechanistic part
of a social class, the condition of which estranges a person from their humanity.
The theoretical basis of alienation within the capitalist mode of production is that,
the worker invariably loses the ability to determine life and destiny when deprived
of the right to think (conceive) themselves as the director of their actions; to
determine the character of actions; to define relationship with other people; and to
own those items of value from goods and services, produced by their own leader.
Although the worker is an autonomous, self-realized human being, as an economic
entity, this worker is directed to goals and diverted to activities that are dictated by
the bourgeoisie who own the means of production in order to extract from them the
worker the maximum amount of surplus value in the course of business
competition among industrialists.
In the economic and philosophic manuscripts of 1844 (1932), Karl Marx
expressed the Entifremdung theory of estrangement from the self. Philosophically,
the theory of estrangement relies upon the essence of Christianity (1841) by
LudwigFeuerbach, which states that idea of a supernatural god has alienated the
natural characteristics of the human being. Moreover,Max Stirner extended
Feuerbach’s analysis in the Ego and its own(1845) that even the idea of humanity
is an alienating concept for individual’s to intellectually consider in its full
philosophic implication Marx and Freedrich Engels responded to these
philosophical proposition’s in the German ideology (1845).
Alienation in general can be seen as a surrender of control through
separation from an essential attribute of the self, and more specifically, separation
of an actor or agent from the condition of meaningful agency. In capitalist society
the most important of such separation, is the one that ultimately underlies many if
not most other forms, is the separation of most of the producers from the means of
production.Most people do not themselves own the means necessary to produce
things. That is they do not own the means that are necessary to produce and
reproduce their lives. The means of production are, instead owned by a relatively
few-most people only have access to the means of production when they are
employed by the owners of the means of production to produce under conditions

that the producers themselves do not determine.
In the Marx-Humanist Theory of State-Capitalism (1992), Raya
Dunayevskaya discuss and describes the existence of the desire for self-activity and
sefl-actualisation among wage labour workers struggling to achieve the elementary
goals of material life in a capitalist economy. Marx said that capitalists and
proletarian are equally alienated by that each social class experiences alienation in
a different form.
Marx Theory of Alienation is criticized by Louis Althusser as it rendered
the proletariat as the subject of history, an interpretation tainted with the Hegelian
Idealism of the philosophy of the subject”, which he criticized as the ‘bourgeois
ideology of philosophy”.
Forms of Retirement
Retirement can be of different forms. In Nigeria three major forms of
retirement are identified. They include, voluntary retirement (Denga, 1996;
Okechukwu and Ugwu, 2011 as cited in Garba and Mamman 2014) voluntary or
self-retirement occurs when the individual decides to quit active service for
personal reasons) respective of age, experience, length of service of retirement
policies. This type of retirement depends more on the employee than the employer,
Compulsory or forced retirement is a situation in which the individual is forced or
compelled to retire against the individual’s expectation and when he is ill-prepared
for it. This type of retirement is perceived to be negative since it is unplanned.
Reasons for such retirement stem from certain factors which include inefficiency
old age, ill-health; indiscipline and its usually done in the interest of the
organization. (Ugwu 2011 as cited in Garba Mamman 2014). Mandatory or
statutory retirement is the normal (or expected form) in the sense that the person
involved has attained the statutory age of retirement as specified in the conditions
of service of the establishment. For instance in Nigeria the age is specified for
other civil servants while judges and lecturers retire at 65 years or when an
individual was put in 35 years of service
Challenges of Retirees in Nigeria.
Planning and Management Stage:
As a result of their unpreparedness, many have faced lots of psychosomatic
problems and some exhibit pschophobic reactions .Today, civil servants in both
public and private sectors in Nigeria perceive retirement as most intractable
problems.According to IBTC pension manager (2008) as cited in Garba and

Mamman (2014),
……. retirement planning as an exercise the world over is fraught with many
challenges. For Nigerian civil servants who are especially challenged by low
level of income and savings as well as huge family and social
responsibilities, retirement planning can be more complicated. Some of the
social issues that affect effective retirement planning in Nigeria include the
size of the family, polygamy, and the additional responsibilities of the
extended family, and inadequate access to medical facilities.
The Exit Stage

The exit stage was quite challenging where payment procedure was often
very tedious, sometimes the retirees had to wait for days and years, to collect their
entitlements. Similarly, the reimbursement process for the split of pension and
gratuity payments between Federal and State services and other agencies was very
clumsy, untidy and sometimes fraught with bribery and corruption. There were
undocumented cases where the reimbursing agency holds the recipient to ransom.
Corruption at the Pension Board
Despite several moderations of retirement benefits for workers in Nigeria,
pension fund has been characterized by outright corruption and embezzlement,
mismanagement and diversion of fund over the years. Corruption in the Pension
Scheme has become so pervasive and had worn an iron clad. The embezzlement
and corruption manifests in different shades and colours.
Fapohunda (2013) as cited in Garba and Mamman (2014, p96), revealed
recently the multi-million pension fund scandals pervading many strata of the
Nigerian society like the Pension unit of the Office of the Head of Civil
Service of the Federation, PENCOM and the Nigerian Police Pensions. A
recent National Assembly public hearing on pension revealed that six civil
servants stole N24 billion from the Police Pension Funds. The same persons
were alleged accompliances in the illegal diversion of another N24 billion
from the Police Pension Funds. Similarly, N151 billion and another N32.8
billion and another 6 million pounds were recovered after the conduct of
Biometric Data Capture exercise on pensioners since 2010.
Physical disabilities and Aging

According to Simone (1973), recounts that the worst thing about getting
retired and or becoming old is not getting sick but receiving the dehumanizing
looks of others.
Anxiety about Residential Home

Another challenge faced by retirees is the anxiety about residential home.
A lot of retirees in Nigeria reach theage of retirement without personal residential
home. This problem persisted due to the fact that Nigerianworkers are paid law,
which make investment to have residential home very low.
Discrimination by the Society
Retired persons are usually subjected to discriminatory designs intrinsic in
‘ageism’. Ageism refers to thesystematic stereotyping or discrimination against
people because they are old. This is becoming a realphenomenon in the Nigerian
society.
Domestic Violence
Domestic violence is another challenge to retirees. Here domestic violence
refers to control by one partner overanother in a dating, marital or live-in
relationship. The means of control include physical, sexual, emotional
andeconomic abuse, threats and isolation. Retirees face many obstacles in trying to
end the abuse in their livesalthough most are able to psychological and economic
entrapment, physical isolation and lack of social support,religious and cultural
values, fear of social judgment, threats and intimidation over custody or separation
etcRetirees are subjected to internal domestic violence with their family’s
members.
Sudden Death
Another issue that comes to mind regarding challenges to retirement is
sudden death in service or as well asdeath during retirement. Here Retirement Act
provides that where a contributor dies during employment, thebalance on his RSA
will be transferred to his known beneficiary named in the will, which is his or her
spouse,children, next of kin or the administrator of his estate as determined by the
pension. The same provision alsoapplies to retirees who have started receiving
retirement benefits through programmed withdrawal. A provisionof the Act makes
it uniquely different from the administration of retirement benefits under the old
Public ServiceScheme Pension. Payments cease and are not made to
retirees’beneficiaries at their deaths (Garba and Mamman, 2014).
Pensions and Social Security Administration
The United States Social Security Administration (SSA) is an independent
agency of the US Federal Government that administers social security a social
insurance program consisting of retirement disability, and survivor benefits.To
qualify for most of these benefits, most workers pay social security taxes on their
earnings, the claimant’s benefits are based on the wages earner’s contributions.
Otherwise benefits such as supplemental security income (SSI) are given based on
need.
It was formed on August, 14 1935, authorized by the Federal Government
of the United States with headquarters in Woodlawn, Maryland U.S. The Chief
Executive of SSA is Andrew Saul. The SSA was established by a non-positive law
codified of 42 US 901 (49 stat. 635).It was created in 1955 as the “Social Security
Board”, then assumed its presence name in 1946. Its current leader, Commissioner
Andrew Saul, has served since June 2019, succeeding Acting Commissioner Nancy
Berryhill. Social security is the largest social welfare program in the United States.
For 2014 the net cost of social security was $906.4 billion, an amount
corresponding to 21% of US Federal Government expenditures. By 2020, it had
increased ot $1.10trillion made of the actual processing of initial benefits and
subsequent adjustments to benefits is done in six large program service centers
located around the country.
By the late 1960s, the payment centers had acquired a reputation as a
source of poor bureaucratic performance that people did not want to work in and a
reorganization under a modules system was undertaken during the 1970s in an
effort to improve matters. Each module was be assigned a certain block of social
security numbers and it would process all aspects of a claim, from initial
entitlement through various changes notifications to beneficiaries, and so forth.
According to Amelia (2021) people who have pensions from a government
employer may not be eligible to receive social security benefits, or they may
receive only partial benefits. This is because some public-sector workers who have
pensions to look forward to are not subject to social security payroll taxes. Because
they don’t pay into the fund, they don’t receive full benefits.
For those who worked part of their career in the private sector, but also
spent time working a public-sector job with a pension, brace themselves for the
social security Wind Fall Elimination Provision (WEP). The WEP limits social
security retirement benefits for people who also have pension income coming their
way. There’s also the Government Pension Offset (GPO), which limits the spousal
or survival benefits available to people who have government pension income.
The purpose of the WEP and GPA is to make social security benefits apply
more fairly across the board. In turn, years you spend working in the public sector
job count for nothing, meaning its as if you were unemployed. And since social
security bases benefits on a person’s 35 years of highest earning work, public
workers will receive either limited benefits or none at all.The GPO and WEP save
social security money which is always a big concern in Washington D.C.

regardless of how you feel about the GPO and WEP, its important to be aware of
how the two provisions can affect your retirement plans.If you had a government
job with a good salary you likely have other benefits to count on. For this reason,
congress decided you could do without some social security benefits. On the
assumption that your government pension was already providing you with
retirement income from government coffers (Amelia, 2021).
Trajectory of Pension Reforms in Nigeria
The Pension Reform Act 2004, which was repealed and replaced with the
Pension Reform Act 2014, established a mandatory contributory pension scheme of
workers in both the public and private sectors. In the words of (Takor 2022) section
4 of pension reform act 2014, provides for a mandatory minimum contribution of
ten and eight percent of employee’s monthly emolument by the employer to open a
Retirement Saving Account (RSA) into which the contributions are to be paid, with
a Pension Fund Administrator (PFA) licensed by the National Pension
Commission, established under sector 17 of the Act, to regulate and supervise
pension schemes in the country. The PFA is to manage and invest the fund in the
RSA, from where a contributors will draw benefits on retirement, in line with the
provision of the Act. The foregoing therefore implies the accruable funds in the
RSA are not to be denied remittance upon his/her retirement. Suffice it to say, the
contributory pension scheme being a mandatory scheme, has compelled employees
and employers in the public and private sectors to collectively save a minimum
eighteen percent of an employee’s monthly emolument into the employee RSA,
from where employees will be paid retirement benefits. This has increased national
savings pensions fund liabilities have a long maturity period, consequently, they
are open to long term investment through long term investment through long term
equity stakes.
According to (Takor 2021), investment of pension fund in Federal and
states governments securities fund in Federal and States government securities has
assisted these governments to cost-effectively manage their national debts, thereby
contributing in the solving of their financial needs and contributing this to the
stability in the market of government debts. Other state’s governments have abused
this privileges provided by the contributory pension scheme.
They have diverted the funds and those whose emoluments were deducted
periodically to cushion the effects of their suffering after retirement are left to
undergo untold hardship. A greater proportion of the pensioners roam street of state
headquarters and Federal secretariat in pursuance of their retirement benefits. This
is the situation in our contemporary society. It is unarguable that, pension funds
have come in as an independent financial intermediary, as the nation’s private

business enterprises no longer rely on banks as the sole sources of outside capital
for the financing of their businesses. The fund is getting into real estate,
infrastructure and natural fund. The funds are gradually been, misappropriated as
primitive accumulation by dubious political office holders who leverage on such
funds as surplus value.Ordinarily these pension funds supposed to provides a
domestic source of borrowing, which does not attract excessive high interest rate,
but should be reimbursed to serve the purpose for which it was originally set to
achieve.
The Pension Reform Act 2014 provides that the contributory pension
scheme should be privately managed and to this end, the law made provision for
specific institutions that will manage the scheme principal among the institutions is
the National Pension Commission (PENCOM), established under section 17 of the
Act. The principal objectives of PENCOM are to enforce and administer the
provision of the Act; co-ordinate and enforce all other laws on pension and
retirement benefits; and regulate, supervise and ensure the effective administration
of pension matters and retirement benefits in Nigeria. PENCOM with headquarters
in Abuja has regional offices in the five geopolitical zones of the federation.
Section 51 of the Act provides for Closed Pension Fund Administrators
(CPFAS). They were private pension schemes existing in the private sector before
the introduction of the CPS in June 2004. However, the Closed Pension Fund
Administrators were allowed to continue operating as CPFA, subject to guidelines
issued by PENCOM. The companies are required to have operated a fully funded
existing. Pension scheme with assets of at least N500 million. There are currently
six CPFAS. Section 54 of the Act also provides for Pension Fund Administrators
(PFAS). PFAS are limited liability companies whose sole objectives are
management of pension fund, including investment; and payment of benefits.
There are twenty two licensed PFAS, with their headquarters in Abuja or Lagos,
including branch offices in most states capitals. The Act in section 56 further
provide for pension fund custodians (PFCS). There are four PFCS that are
responsible for keeping safe custody of pension assets in all, there are 32 licensed
pension operators in the pension industry today.The contributory pension scheme
has grown significantly over the years and is proposed to have cater for retirement
income of members of the scheme. This is supposed to give succor to the plight of
retired members of the scheme.
The Pension Reform Act 2014 expanded coverage of the contributory
pension scheme to self-employed and persons working in organizations with less
than 3 employees. This category of workers constitutes a large percentage of the
working population in the informal sector of the country. In order to extend

coverage of the contributory pension scheme to this important segment of Nigeria
economy, PENCOM has introduced the micro pension plan with effect from
January 2019. (Takor 2021). In implementing this initiative, the informal sector has
been segmented into three broad categories; the law income earners, the high
income earners and the SMEs. Each of these categories is targeted with appropriate
pension products that meet their peculiarities.
Recently the Director General of National Pension Commission
(PENCOM) Aisha Dahir-Umar reacted to the suggestion made by House of
Representatives Committee on Pension that “75 percent” lump sum payment be
remitted to retiring workers under the contributory pension scheme (CPS).
According to the PENCOM boss the suggestion is currently before the pension
reform amendment Bill of the National Assembly. She advance reasons why the
suggestion with contradict the establishment of the PENCOM. This suggestion
according to her violate the worms contributory pension scheme as the amount left
after the lump sum withdrawal is suppose to be sufficient to fund a programmed
will drawal or annuity over 10 years or the expected lifespan of the retiree.
In the premium times of April 11, 2022, Mrs. Dahir-Umar observed that
with this suggestion it will be possible for a retiring worker to withdraw 100
percent of the money in his or her Retirement Savings Account (RSA). She had
vehemently debunked this suggestion. The PENCOM boss said the proposed
amendment contravened the 1999 constitution, which guaranteed the right to
pensions for all public officers.She avers that “the suggestion also converts the
CPS into a Provident Fund and leaves such a retiree with no periodic pensions,
contrary to the requirement of section 173 of the 1999 constitution”. (Premium
Times April, 11, 2022). Her views were expressed in apresentation at a public
learning organized by the House of Representatives; Committee on Pensions. The
hearing focused on a Bill for an Act to amend Section 1(C) and Section 7(2) of the
Pension Reform Act 2014. Section 7(1)(a) of the Pension Reform Act (PRA) 2014
allows for only 25 percent of the retirement saving to be paid as a lump sum to a
retiree.
The provision of monthly pensions’ is central to the lives of retiring
workers. One of the basic objective of this is to surmount the challenges
confronting a retiree and mitigating old age poverty under the CPS.Suffice to say
that, the PENCOM retirement benefits payment template ensures that, the
retirement saving account (RSA) had enough balance and should be sufficient to
provide at least 50 percent of retiree’s terminal pay as monthly pension.It was the
residue after this provision was made that could be taken as a lump sum.
Consequent upon the above, it will be right to agree with the PENCOM
boss were she made the assertion that “it is inaccurate to suggest that there is a
fixed lump-sum for all retirees, rather the lump sum is determined after securing a
minimum replacement ratio of 50 percent of last pay as monthly pensions
(PremiumTimes April 11, 2022)”
The foregoing therefore implies that, if the proposed amendment sailed
through the legislative arm of government, only 25 percent will be spread for
pension thus resulting in meager monthly pensions. This will put the retirees into
an agonizing situation that will be life threatening. The 25 percent balance in a
retiree’s RSA, after the propose 75 percent lump sum will be grossly inadequate to
cater for the livelihood in old age.It is important to note that the payment of 75
percent of RSA balance as a lump sum upon retirement is not obtained in other
jurisdictions operating the CPS. This is due to its resultant effect of rolling back the
principal objectives of the CPS. The objective of CPS is to provide a pool of
pension funds that are capable to invest for the benefit of retirees throughout their
retirement life and not just to satisfy immediate desires upon retirement.
PENCOM was established to among other issues, supports the
improvement of living conditions of retirees as evidenced by the periodic pension
enhancement for retirees under the programmed withdrawal mode of monthly
payment. Every other thing is to support the continued operation of this scheme
and not to advance measures that would scuttle the healthy operation of the
scheme. According to Aisha Dahir-Umar the remedy for the agitation of the
payment of “at least 75 percent lump sum” lies in the implementation of the
provision of section 4(4)(a) of the PRA, 2014 dealing with payment of additional
benefits upon retirement. It provides that notwithstanding any of the provisions of
this Act, an employer may agree on payment of additional benefits to the employee
upon retirement”. Through this provision, employers may establish gratuity or end
of service benefit schemes that are to be managed by licensed pension funds
administrators for the exclusive benefit of employees at retirement. These funds
she emphasized are usually separate from the RSA balance of employees and are
paid directly to them at retirement; ultimately, this would considerably enhance the
amount available to employees as retirement benefits.
Recommendations
The way forward is for the strict implementation of the scheme by state
governments, full compliance with the provisions of the Pension Reform Act 2014
by the Federal Government, enhanced service delivery by pension operators and

increased public awareness. Pension operators should develop a mechanism to
ensure funds deducted by state government as pension funds should be remitted to
the commission.
a. Planning for retirement, estimating your sources of income, developing
friendship, establishing business in own area of specialization and
development an entrepreneurial skills are the most viable options for
workers-preparing for retirement.
b. Period of retirement. During retirement, some choose to continue in a very
active work, supporting communities, participating in politics or even
running of full-time businesses. Others in other hand, may choose to limit
their activities, and may prefer to spend their retirement travelling, visiting
children and grandchildren. While some desire to go back to the village
waiting for their monthly little token. It is important to plan ahead for how
you will like to spend your retirement, and prepare yourself mentally and
financially or whichever row you choose to follow.
c. Financial needs during retirement. Planning adequately and determining
how much your financial need in retirement is very important. In planning
towards this, one must gauge his family responsibilities, state of health,
and expected life expectancy. For example, if you still have children, your
financial needs will out strip those who do not. If you already live in your
own house and will not rent during your retirement, then your financial
needs will differ from someone who does not own a house.
d. Expected income during retirement: For someone that planned, this could
consist income from investments such as dividends, capital appreciation,
vital income as well as pension and retirement benefits.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the contributory pension scheme was established for
payment of retirement benefits of employees whom the scheme applies under the
Pension Reform Act 2014. The scheme being a funded scheme has accumulated a
huge amount of long-term investable funds, which is being usurped by political
office holders for their personal aggrandizement.
As fabulous as the contributory pension scheme appeared on the veneer of
its face value, it is confronted with challenges ranging from low, coverage and lack
of political will power especially on the part of state governments. Out of the 36
states, only 24 states are operating the pension contributory scheme as enacted by
laws. Even amongst the twenty four, only four states are fully implementing the
scheme. It is sad to note that, both the Federal and State governments are very
insensitive to the plight of pensioners. Despite its well-conceived objectives,
pensioners suffer and die at headquarters of pension head offices across the
country.
References
Adeniji, A.A., Akinnusi, D.M., Falola, H.O. & Olunakin Folakemi (2017).
Administration of Retirement Benefits in Nigeria’s periscoping the effects
on retirees. International Journal of Applied Business and Economic
Research. Vol. 15, (15). Serials Publications Ltd. ISSN: 0972-7302
Ahmad, S. (2007). The contributory pension scheme: sensitization of key
stakeholders of Benue State. Makurdi. Nigeria: Benue State Government.
Amelia, J. (2021). Pension Plans: Definition, Types, Benefits and Risks.
https://smartasset.com/retirement/what-is-apension-plan.
Amiens, E. & Abusamwan, R.E. (2020). Pension Performance in Nigeria:
challenges and prospect.
Balogun, A. (2006). Understanding the New Pension Reform Act (PRA) 2004,
CBN Bullion, 30, 7-18.
Denga, D.I. (2006). Human engineering for high productivity in industrial and
other work organizations. Calabar: Rapid Educational Publishers.
Ekpulu, G. A. & Bingilar, P.F. (2016). Pension fund in Nigeria: An Appraisal.
Journal of Contemporary Research, 1 & 2 (March), 196-209.
Eromonsele, P.E. & Analo, N.V. (2017). Nigerian pension reforms and
management. International Journal of Human Resouce & Industrial
Research, 4(3), 37-45.
Fapohunda, T.M (2013), The Pension System and Retirement Planning in Nigeria.
Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences (4)2.
Garba, A. & Mamman, J. (2014). Retirement Challenges and Sustainable
Development in Nigeria. European Journal of Business and Management.
Vol.6, No.39.
IBTC Pension Managers (2008). Planning for your retirement.
Ivor Takor, (2021). Contributory Pension Scheme and Nigeria’s Economic
Development. Vanguard December 9, 2021.
Karl Marx (1927). The Alienation Theory. En.m.wikipedia.org. En.m.wikipedia-
org>wiki>marx’s.
Odia, J.O. & Okoye, A.E. (2012). Pensions reform in Nigeria: A comparison
between the old and new scheme. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences,
3(3).1), 1-17.
Okechukwu, E. & Ugwu, S.C. (2011). The law and administration and retirement
in Nigeria: A historical approach. Kuwait chapter of Arabian Journal of
Business and Management Review. (1)2. 27-41.
Okechukwu, I. & Osadebe, N. (2014). A review of the promises and challenges of
the 2004 Pension Reform in Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social
Sciences. 5(15): 472-482. Doi: 10.5901/mjss.2014.v5n15p412.
PENCOM kicks against bill seeking payment of “at least 75 percent” lump sum to
retirees. https://www.premiumtimesng.com/needs/topnews/523251-
pencom-kicksagainst-bill-seeking-payment-of-atleast-75-percent-lump-
sum-to-retiree-html.
PREMIUM Times (2022). PenCOM kicks against bill seeking payment of “at least
75 percent” lump sum to retirees: a bill seeking to amend the Pension
Reform Act is currently before the National Assembly.
www.premiumtimes.com April 11, 2022.
Simone, D.B. (1973). The coming of Age, New York: Warner Paperback Library
Sunday, C.N. & Ehiogu, C.P. (2014). Highlight on the differences between 2004
and 2014 Pension Reform Act in Nigeria. International Journal of World
Research. 1(8), 17-26.
TOWARDS TEACHING FRENCH IN PRIMARY EDUCATION

STUDIES DEPARTMENT OF COLLEGES OF EDUCATION KATSINA-
ALA, BENUE STATE
Kpagh Michael Tsavbeeh

Department of French
Email: mikekpagh@gmail.com.
07036821692
Abstract
This paperexamines the teaching/learning of French language as an
elective course in Primary Education Studies Department of the Collage
of Education, Katsina-Ala. The paper focuses on the need for French
language in the Department and major problems militating against the
effective teaching of the language. The paper therefore concluded that the
National Commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE) should as a
matter of urgency make French a core course of study in the Department.
The paper however makes the following suggestions that NCCE should
introduce PED117and 228 in the first and second semesters of NCE one
and tworespectively. They should also make the samecourses 2 credit
units including PED 328 of NCE three. Finally,Teachers of French
should be employed to handle the course in the department.
Keywords: French Language, Teaching/Learning, Primary Education
Studies, problems.
Introduction
Language is the primary means of human expression and this differentiates
humans from other animals with the use of language, humans are able to
communicate and express their feelings with the cultural norms. The potentials of
language in all facets of life indicate its centrality role. Different opinions have
been formed by scholars and linguists about the meaning and nature of language in
speech community. These definitions of language are wrought with some
ideological and semantic differences as Elugbe (1991:42) says “it is impossible to
find a definition against which we could not raise at least one objection”.
The definition of language given by Greenberg (1971:156) sees language

as something unique to humans. Thus, theability to use language creatively as
against the use of the same by other living creatures delineates human communities
from other animal communities. In his definition of language, Greenberg is of the
view that: “Language is to man. No other species possesses a truly symbolic means
of communication and no human society, however simple is material culture, lacks
the basic human heritage of a well developed language”
Another important aspect that can be seen from the position of Greenberg
is that language is a universal property of human quality and that every human
language has the same utilitarian functions irrespective of race and ethnic
nationality. Susan (2010:71) sees language as a mechanism of control. In her view,
language is “the sole machinery used by man to manipulate and control his bio-
cultural sphere and linguistic domains at micro and macro levels”. Man is able to
control his environment through the ability to communicate meaning through what
is said in terms of order and instruction. Through the use of language, man has
been able to maintain decorum and orderliness as against what is obtainable in the
world of other animals.
Thomas (1971) is of the view that “language is systematized combination
of sounds which has meaning for all persons in a given cultural community. The
deduction from the position of Thomas is that meaning is central to the use of
human language through the carefulness of the combination of speech sounds.
Language therefore, can be seen as a mirror of mind in a deep and significant
sense. It is a product of human intelligence created by the combination of words.
Sapir (1970) defines language as a purely human and non-instinctive
method of communicating ideas, emotions and desires by means of a system of
voluntarily produced symbols, it is the tool significantly experienced. In essence,
language is a means or process of understanding the experience, ideas and
emotions of others.
Thus, language does not develop in a vacuum: it cannot be separated from
culture. It is part of the culture of the people and the only available means by which
the members of a society communicate. We may say that language is an
embodiment, a component of culture and a central network through which the other
components are expressed. Ajiboye (2002) buttressed the above view when he
stressed further that language is a critical element of culture through which it
reveals its fascinating power.
All these inform the goals of leaning a language as the ability to use it,
understand its meaning and connotations, ideas and achievements. This could be
the reason why Ogunbuyi (1998) insists that language is the key to the heart of the
people, if we lose a key; we lose the people if we treasure the key and keep it safe
it will unlock the door of untold riches which cannot be guessed out from the other
sides of the door. With all these definitions and meanings of language, as given
here, it can be said that there are key features that can describe language and these
are:
i. Language is an element of culture
ii. Language is a medium of communication
iii. Language is a universal property of human community
iv. Language is used in spoken and written discourses.
This article intends to examine the problems associated with French
Language Teaching/Learning in Primary Education Department of the College of
Education, Katsina-Ala.This is because French is one of the elective courses in the
N.C.E Programme of the department alongside Arabic.
The French Language in Nigeria
The French language, as distinct from any other language and the first used
in any official language document in A. D. 842 is one of the leading languages of
the world, Ojo (2002:1). It owes its origin to France, which formally adopted it as
its official language in 1539 and was made to serve as the country's national
language after the 1789 French Revolution. It should be noted that through
colonization French language came to Africa in the 19 th century.
In West Africa, French is one of the official languagesof communication in
eight countries as a result of their link to their former colonial master France
because the latter is the most unifying language for each of the multiethnic and
multi-lingual former colonies. This status became pronounced particularly in 1903
when the decree outlining proposals for teaching French in West Africa was
signed-into law, David (1975) has it that it was formally introduced as a subject in-
schools in Africa at the Yaounde Conference held in 1961 calling for the teaching
of English-French. He contended that this policy on bilingualism was eventually
signed by theOrganization of African unity (OAU) now Africa Union (AU) in
1963. Since then, French language has been recognized in Nigerian schools.French
language is an imperialist legacy of French colonial masters. Quite a number of
Nigerians continue in varying degrees to express negative attitudes they have
towards French as an imperial language of the francophone imposed on Nigerians
by late General Sani Abacha who in 1996 made French a second official language
of Nigeria. Nevertheless, it is pertinent to say that French has that kind of heritage,
which unfortunately is part of African history.
Another factor equally important is that the status of French in the world
today goes far beyond mere France influence. French has become the world second
language of commerce, sports, science and technology-areas of which the French
isplaying aleading role today. Ojo (2002:2) stresses further that French is the
language with the second largest number of speakers in the European Union (EU),
coming after German. French is also one of the three languages that are used by
African Union (AU) for official transactions and publication. Lastly, French is the
working language of UNO, the Security Council, NATO and indeed, the Vatican.
Thus, for the Nigerian learners of French, the points raised above
are indispensable for the status given to French language in Primary Education
Studies Department since they ought to be fully aware of numerous advantages that
would accrue to them by learning this very important language that has spread all
over the globe.
French Language in the Primary Education Studies Department
Having X-rayed the need for French language in the world and Nigeria in
particular, its inclusion in Primary Education Studies Department as one of the
elective courses is not in error. French language education is relevant in Primary
Education Studies Department for certain reasons. They include education, socio-
political, intellectual and economic.
Educationally, language scholars who have thought over the importance of
French to the Nigerian learners have contended that the language can assist both
the individual development of the Nigerian learners. Gundu (1990:28) in Miller
and Ihenacho declares:
The learning of French can contribute to intellectual development of Nigerian
learner. He is of the opinion that an exposure to a new language like French
offers the Nigerian learner an extension of his own personality and form part
of the continuum of language experience. It enriches, and is enriched by his
learning of the mother tongue and non-mother tongue like English, German
or Arabic.
On the socio-political point of view, French being a foreign language is a

neutral language selected purely outside our indigenous languages, which have
hitherto generated the controversial issues of the “language question”. The
adoption of French as second official language in 1996 by late presidentSani
Abacha as mentioned elsewhere in this article is aimed at helping to bring about
common means of communication. French is to be regarded as an alternative
means of communication aimed at breaking language barriers existing between
different tribes in Nigeria. Solanke as cited by Ashiko (2002:4) maintains that
Nigeria is home to some estimated 400 languages; it is a common place to learn

and read about the language situation in Nigeria as Nigeria’s “language problem”.
More importantly, French is the official language of all our francophone
neighbours: Benin, Niger, Cameroon and Chad. This underpins the imperative need
for Nigerians to understand and speak French for cordialrelationship, reciprocal
and rewarding socio-political rapport and the vision of achieving complete regional
integration between all countries of West African sub-region, French cannot but
plays a very vital role. It inline with this that Policy on Education, 4 th Edition 2016
states:
For smoothinteraction with our neighbours, it is desirable for every
Nigerian to speakFrench. Accordingly, French shall be the second official
language in Nigeria and shall be compulsory in primary and Junior
Secondary Schools...
Onyemelukwe and Adie-Offiong (2004) buttressed the point by claiming that:

"French is relevant to communication not only with our francophone
neighbours but with other French speaking countries of the world. In
short, it promotes global communication in all spheres of life, education,
commerce, religious and politics".
On the economic front, the importance of teaching French in Primary

Education Department cannot be overstressed. This point is made clear when we
take into cognizance our country's involvement in business transaction with
Frenchspeaking Nation. Ojo (2002:3) opines that France is one of the four
biggesttrading partners of Nigeria;France has about one hundred and fifty
multinational companiesin Nigeria such as Air France, Peugeot Automobile Plant,
ELF Oil, SAIPEM,Chuvie Décore, Michelin, Dumez among others.This will place
bilingual Nigerians at advantage vis-à-vis securing juicy jobs in these companies.
Faniran (2016) buttress this point“good knowledge of French language may serve
as catalyst for economic empowerment and development of Nigerian
graduates”.Ojo (2002) argues further that the importance of French does not
depend only on the nearness of French speaking countries, France, the mother
country of these neighbouring francophone countries, has longsince realized the
necessity to disseminate her language in Nigeria as wellas realized its importance
to her economy.
Therefore, one of the principal functions of the language in this era of
globalization is to act as a base of commerce. Any Nigerian who speaksFrench can
easily venture into business with the French speaking countries.
Problems of Teaching French in Primary Education Studies Department of

the College of Education, Katsina-Ala
Despites the presidential proclamationofEnglish-French bilingual status for
Nigeria and subsequently the introduction of the teaching of French in Primary
Education StudiesDepartment by NCCE there are some problems that need to be
addressed. They include:
Lack of French Language Teachers
Lack of French language teachers has indeed contributed to ineffective
teaching and learning of French language in Primary Education Department of
College of Education, Katsina-Ala, and Benue State. Although, on 12 th February,
2016 the Federal Government made French language a compulsory subject at all
levels of the country’s education system, from primary to tertiary students must
offer courses in French language (Daily Trust, 2016). Many schools if not all do
not teach French language at all this is because teachers are not available. In
college of Education, Katsina-Ala for example the Department of Primary
Education Studies borrows teachers from the Department of French to teach PED
127, PED 218 and PED 328 respectively.
Ineffective implementation of French
The ineffective implementation of French teaching/learning particularly in
the Department of Primary Education of the College of Education, Katsina Ala due
to inadequate teachers and lack of political will of the state government have
seriously hindered effective teaching of French in the department.
Poor Admission Policy
Since French is sparingly taught in majority of the secondary schools,
students who gain admission into Primary Education Department through Direct
entry do not have "0" level French which is supposedto be one of the pre-requisite
for direct admission in Colleges of Education therefore this cause a lot of problem
for primary studies students.
Lack of Learners' Interest
Lack of learner's interest on the part of Primary Education studies students
is another problem. Many of the students are seeing themselves as victims of
circumstance. They do not see any prospect in French as a course which they are
studying but they are justdoing the course to fulfill all righteousness or cannot do
otherwise. Thus, theydo not have interest in the course. Meanwhile, interest is an
essential tool in learning. Any student who lacks interest cannot learn effectively.
Attitudinal problem of parents

The attitude of many Nigerians, most especially parents towards French
language are very poor. Most parents and guardians see the learning of French
language as not a profitable course leading to the one who studies it to a wider
scope of career choice but only to the teaching profession, (Adebayo, 2010).The
attitude of the policy makers towards the teaching ofFrenchisdiscouraging. The
insertion of change in the policy such as French as non-vocational elective shows
lack of seriousness by the policy makers.
Lack of infrastructures
Lack of necessary infrastructures like language laboratory, internet
facilities and lexical materials are not provided by the College. Even as the College
has a language laboratory the Department of English Language of the College
claims that they are the owners of the language laboratory therefore, no one should
go there. This has made things very difficult for the French language students in
the Primary Education Studies Department to make adequate use of the laboratory.
Suggestions
For the French language to take its rightful place in the Department of
Primary Education studies in College Education, Katsina Ala, the following
suggestions should be considered.
1. National Commission for Colleges of Education, (NCCE) should as a
matter of urgency give French Language the status of a core course in
Primary Education Studies Department.
2. NCCE should also make all French courses PED 127, PED 218 and PED
328 2 credits course units.
3. NCCE should also introduce French in first and second semesters of NCE I
and NCE II: PED 117 first semester and PED228 second semester.
4. Teachers of French should be employed to teach the course in primary
Education Department.
5. French should be made a compulsory subject at the secondary school level
so that students admitted to study PED should have prior knowledge of
French.
6. The College through NCCE should liaise with the French Embassy in
Nigeria to reward excellence in French course in Primary Education
Department. The best graduating students in PED in French should be
handsomely rewarded at the end of each academic session.
Conclusion
In this article, discussion dwelt on the teaching and learning of
Frenchlanguage in the Primary Education programme in College of Education
Katsina-Ala, Benue State.The stand of this article is not that French language
should be taught more than other courses in the Department. However, having
observed that language is a tool for fostering national and international unity, it
therefore means that complete unity cannot be achieved in Nigeria with diverse
languages and this will hinder educational, socio-political and economic
developments. The status of French language in Nigeria as second official language
and its inclusion in particular is timely and indispensable as far as language issue in
Nigeria isconcerned.This article believes that teaching/learning French language as
an electivecourse in the Primary Education Studies Department is therefore a
welcomed development. French should be made a core course in all the courses
and 2 credits inthe department like English language.
References
Adebayo, L.(2010). French Language Teaching and Productivity. Enhancement in

Nigeria: Issues and Challenges, Gale: International Academy press.
Ajiboye, T. (2002). Nigeria and French: A paradox of closeness and Distance
Ashiko, J.B. (2002). “Language and Democracy in Nigeria” Makurdi Journal of
Arts and Culture 3(1) BSU, Makurdi.
David, J. (1975). A Guide to the Teaching of French as Foreign Language.
London: Evans.
Elugbe,B.O.(21991)Nigerian Pidgin:Problems andProspects.In Bamgbose A. et al
(eds) New Englishes: A West African Perspective. Ibadan, Musoru:284-
299
Faniran, K.F. (2016). The Role of French Language in Developing 21 st Century
Nigerian Graduates. Journal of Literature, Language
andLinguisticsVol.23.(iiste.org/journals/index/phd/JLLL/article/viewfile/
31282/32120)
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National Policy on Education (4th Edition)
Abuja: NERDC press.
Greenberg, J .H. (1971). The Language of Africa. The Hague: Mouton.
Gundu, G.A. (1990). French in Nigeria’s 6-3-3-4 System of Education and Practice
in Okafor (Ed). Journal of the Association of Francophone Studies
(JOFRAS) Onitsha 1(1) Harmattan.
Ogunbiyi, O. (2012). Implementation of the Senior Secondary School French

Curriculum in Lagos State: Problems and Prospects. British Journal of Arts
and Social Sciences 5(1) Inc. http://journal.co.uk/BJASS.aspx.
Ojo, S.A. (2002). A Comprehensive Revision Handbook of French Grammar.
Ibadan: Signed Education Service Ltd.
Onyemelukwe, I. & Adie-Offiong, V. (2004). Deceptive Cognates in a French
Class in Nigeria Education Societies.Plurilinguistique. 17(18).
Sapir, E.(1970).An Introduction to the study of Speech. London: Grenada.
Susan, J.B. (2018). Understanding Language Use in the Classroom Including
Teaching Materials for College Educators. New York: Multilingual
Matters.Thomas, M.O.(1971).Problems in the Philosophy of Language.
(Ed).New York:Winston.
PEACE AS A CORRELATE FOR NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT:

DRAMATIC STATEMENTS IN REGINA ODE’S THE MASQUERADE
CALLED RELIGION
Ephraim Aga Shimsenge

Benue State
Abstract
In 2014, Nigeria celebrated her centenary of corporate existence as a

nation-state. Out of ninety-nine years she lived at that time, fifty-two
of these she has been independent country. By implication, Nigeria is
now 62 years as an independent nation. What actually pre-occupied
the minds of the nationalists prior to and after the attainment of
independence was the issue of national development in every facet of
life. To achieve this noble objective, development plans or economic
blue prints were fashioned at different times to take the country to
greatness. Despite all these efforts, Nigeria is still miles away from the
desired development she hungers for. What is the clog in the wheel of
Nigeria’s development crisis? What can be done to get her out of this
quagmire? It is against this backdrop that this paper x-rays issues
impeding national development in Nigeria through textual analysis of
Regina Ode’s “The Masquerade called Religion”. The literary
landscape in explored here because the social commitment of the
writer (Playwright) cannot be underestimated because she is the
mirror and conscience of her society as well as a strategist for
development. The paper draws lessons for Nigerians that only peace
can take the country to her dream land of Eldorado and that no
country can attain national development in an atmosphere of chaos.
Introduction
Since the end of World War II in 1945, no issue has received so much
attention as “peace and development”. Musa (2010, p.1) opined that:
The urgent need to rebuild Europe as well as the emergence of the new
nations of Africa and the growth of old nations of Latin America and
South East Asia underscore the importance attached to peace and national
development.
The above view explains why nationalists in Nigeria were so much

concerned with national development prior to and after independence. Dimensions
of national development at that time and even now include economic prosperity,
policy stability, social harmony as well as environmental protection. In as much as
Nigeria is endowed with abundant human and material resources to propel these
indices to work, reverse if the case as they are malfunctioned and the nation is
miles away from development. What is the reason for this?
Nigeria’s underdevelopment can be attributed to a catalogue of problems;
prominent of these is lack of peaceful coexistence. As a country, Nigeria is a
flashpoint of all sorts of violence-ethnic, social, economic, political and religious.
These crises situations date back soon after Nigeria’s independence in 1960. Since
then, the country has witnessed one form of crisis or the other resulting to wanton
destruction of lives and property brining about poverty and underdevelopment in
the land. This is accrued to the desire of one ethnic group or the other to do
dominate. Doki (2004, p.142) succulently captures some of these crises thus:
Upon the attainment of independence, Nigeria has been plagued with one
crisis or the other. Civil war in 1967-1970; Sharia crisis in 1977;
Maitatsine crisis in 1980; the oil crisis in 1986; the declaration of Jihad in
Kaduna in 1966; the Kaduna and Abia Religious riots in 2000; Tiv/Awe
communal clashes in 2001; Tiv/Udam crisis in 2002, and a host of other
sporadic attacks at different time and places.
As if the above is not enough, the Boko Haram insurgents are currently
terrorizing the norther parts of Nigeria with reckless abandon and this has
continued unabated with scores of people killed while others are dehumanized.
With this, no one can be left in doubt as to whether our country can develop in the
face of chaotic atmosphere.
To address the twin issue of peace and national development, different
approaches have been employed at one time of the other. Nigerian Playwrights
such as Wole Soyinka, Iyorwuese Hagher, Tor Iorapuu, Femi Osofisan, etc., have
on their parts used the literary dimension in proffering solutions to peace and
national development. Their position is anchored on Ojaide’s assertion that:
In African tradition, literature is deployed to play a transformative role in
the society. The quest for peace has always been a literacy objective of
African culture from the oral traditions of abuse and praise … Literature
affirms, freedom, and sensitivity as ideals to promote peace in society.
African literary artists from traditional through modern to contemporary
times understand that peace will not come if they fold their arms and only
wish and pray for it …. (Ojaide 2010, pp. 10-11).
It is against this backdrop that this paper examines the relationship

between peace and national development using Regina Ode’s play. “The
Masquerade called Religion”. The paper implores the leaders and the led to use
subtle ways of addressing their problems instead of resorting to any form of crisis
which makes peace and development to elude us.
The concepts of peace and national development will be explained at this
juncture so as to put into proper perspective the premise of this article:
Peace
This concept of peace in simple terms can be explained as total absence of
war or hostility. In a similar vein, the Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (7 th
Edition), describes peace as freedom from war or violence. It could also mean a
state of calm or quiet for that of harmony and friendship. Collaborating these
views, Okpaga (2009:27) defines peace as the absence of war, fear, conflict,
anxiety, suffering and violence. He further maintained that, peace is primary
concerned with creating and maintaining a just order in the society and the
resolution of conflict by non-violent means. The Norwegian peace theorist, John
Galtung, cited in Okpaga (2009:28), outlines two dimensions of peace, ‘negative
peace’ i.e., the absence of direct violence, war, fear and conflict at individual,
national, regional and international levels; and ‘positive peace’ i.e., the absence of
unjust structures, unequal relationships, justice and inner peace at individual level.
It can be deduced from the above views that peace is an ideal for unity and
cooperation among and within all nations of the world. Meaningful progress and
national development can only thrive best in times of peace since people all over
the world covet peace, continually, restraining war and violence which are the root
causes of underdevelopment. It is hoped, with the absence of hostility, violence and
conflict, our society will develop and grow.
National Development
The concept of national development is a multidimensional phenomenon.
Economists Rich (1974), ascribe national development to be a country’s socio-
economic growth and rise in its real output head and the attendant shifts in
technological, economic and demographic characteristics. Sociologists and social
anthropologists on their part consider national development purely in terms of the
process of differentiation that characterises societies. To Adams (1970), political
scientists view national development based on political instability, national
consciousness, and political participation as the plain indicators of national

development.
Aggregating with the above views, it can be deduced that national
development is a process of change at the level of economic, political, social
cultural sphere that encompasses transformation that results in general
improvement in the welfare of the people of a nation. That is why all of Nigeria’s
development plans such as vision 20:2020 as well as the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) project focus on economic, social, cultural and political
development of the country.
The question that begs for answer is, with the moribund security situation
in Nigeria, where are the chances of the country attaining her development goals?
Your guess is as good as mine. If Nigeria is to move forward and compete
favourable with other nations of the world in the realm of development, ‘Peace’
must be her watch word which must be guarded jealously. But on the contrary,
Nigeria is a flash point of different forms of unrest. What is responsible for this?
Factors Militating Against Peace and National Development
It is common knowledge that Nigeria has not developed to full capacity as
envisaged by her founding fathers after so many decades of existence as a nation.
The reasons are legion, but the one that readily comes to mind is lack of peace
occasioned by political crises, bad leadership, ethnic violence, religious
intolerance! conflict, among others. These are examined below:
Political Violence: Political power is one of the main causes of conflicts in
Nigeria. This is because political power enables people who wield it to control
economic resources, political processes, social institutions, etc. It is also associated
with reputation, fame, prestige or supremacy in human affairs. To acquire political
power or consolidate on it, some people resort to violence to outdo others.
In Nigeria, politics is a lucrative and big time business pursued with deadly
seriousness. As desperation rage among the contenders, crude means of outwitting
the other person or people is employed. This triggers off violent conflicts and it
assumes different dimensions such as intra-party clashes or inter-party violence,
electoral violence, political assassination, etcetera.
It is noted that political violence in Nigeria date back to colonial time,
examples, include the Aba Market Women Riot of 1929, the Egba uprising of
1931, the Kano riot of 1953, etc. This ugly trend reared its head in the early years
of Nigeria’s independence in the Western Region and the Middle Belt. This
resulted to the collapse of the first republic (Anifowase, 1982). The intervention of
the military in 1966 rather aggravated the situation because of political

assassinations which eventually led to the civil war that claimed a lot of lives and
destroyed valuable properties.
The above political crises constituted a bane to peace and national
development. It is thus, not possible to have dividends of development where
political violence/crisis reign supreme but in Nigeria political competition assumes
the character of warfare thereby paving the way for the ascendancy of specialists of
violence.
Bad Leadership: Closely related to political violence is bad leadership which
negates peace and national development. Lamenting on inept leadership, a frontline
African literary icon, the late Professor Chinua Achebe once opined that:
There is nothing basically wrong with the Nigerian land or climate or
water or air, or anything else. The Nigerian problem is the unwillingness
or inability of its leaders to rise to their responsibility and to the challenge
of personal example, which are the hallmarks of true leadership (Achebe
1993, p. 12).
Achebe’s observation holds sway in Nigeria because apart from a

microscopic few of our leaders who are desirous to make things happen positively,
majority of them are politically servile, economically subservient and socially
ineffective. Bad leaders have taken our country the doldrums as
Oddiri (2007, p. 39) rightly captured:
Bad leadership destroys the economic and political foundations of the
nation. It breeds chaos, neglect of social infrastructure, low per capital
income, technological underdevelopment, divide and rule tactics, ethno-
religious violence, brigandage, corruption, sectionalism, rot in the entire
life of a nation, and of course lack of cooperation...
From the above, it is an open secret that Nigerian leadership has failed
woefully because of its inability to guarantee goals that would translate aspirations,
hopes and ideals into reality, It rather indulges in self-satisfying and aggrandizing
ventures. It can thus be best described, as parochial, myopic and insensitive. With
this, how can there be peace in the to usher in the national development that
Nigeria yearns for?
Ethnic Violence: This is another cankerworm that impede peace and national
development. it is a negative force that has thwarted many efforts aimed at national
development such that fifty-two years after independence Nigeria is toddler
crawling. Most of her peers such as Malaysia, Japan, Korea,
Taiwan, etc., are ahead of her in terms of economic growth and development.
Apart from the Nigeria Civil War (1967-1970) which possessed serious
ethnic undertones, there are other innumerable ethnic violence that have worked
against peace and national development. Usman and Aba, cited in Tse (2005, p.
101) listed these skirmishes to include among others:
i. Numan and parts of Adamawa in 1986-1988;
ii. Kafanchan and parts of Kaduna in 1987;
iii. Wukari, Takum and other parts of Taraba in 1990;
iv. Tafawa Balewa in Bauchi State in 1991;
v. Kano city in 1991;
vi. Zango Kataf and parts of Kaduna State in 1992; and,
vii. The Ogoni and Andoni areas of Rivers State in 1993.
Very recent ones include:
i. Tiv-Jukum crisis in Taraba State in 2020;
ii. Tiv-Fulani crisis in Taraba State in 2021;
iii. Tiv-Fulani crisis in Katsina-Ala and Kwande Local Governments of Benue
State in 2021-2022;
iv. Fulani-Kagoro crisis in Kaduna State in 2021; and,
v. Fulani-Angas crisis in Jos Plateau State in 2021.
The list is endless because apart from the above, many of such upheavals
have taken place at different times and different places. Ethnic violence has had a
chequered history in Nigeria and have even threatened the corporate existence of
this country making peace and national development to elude the nation.
Religious Intolerance/Conflict: It is glaring that religious intolerance which
manifests in different modes have come to stay in Nigeria. This intolerance is
always between Christians and Muslims. Apeabu, (2007, p. 18), observed that
Nigeria’s religious challenges are so devastative and destructive. He mentioned the
case of Maitastsine Riot in Kano in 1980, whose death toll was enormous. The
issue of ethno-religious conflict has become a recurring decimal in Plateau State.
The once acclaimed “Home of Peace and Tourism” is now” Theatre of war”.
Religious conflicts have caused great havoc to the country ranging from
loss of lives, destruction of properties to burning of churches and mosques.
Gwamma (2010, p. 27), decried that religious crises have brought untold hardship
on the people in places such as Kano, Kaduna, Jalingo, Zango-Kataf, Jos,
Maiduguri, Bauchi, etc. Most recently, on the 5 th June 2022, Federal Radio
Corporation of Nigeria, Network News, mentioned that about 25 Christians were
killed in cold blooded in a Catholic Church in Owo, in Ondo State by Islamic
religious extremists. Same is the faith of Christians in Kaduna and Sokoto States.
Continuous religious crises cannot emancipate Nigeria, it rather compromises
peace and national development.
Synopsis of “The Masquerade Called Religion”: The play is set in Airegin, a
metaphor for Nigeria. Its actions revolve around some political opportunists who
are all out to grab political power for their selfish motives. The playwright, through
a character (Narrator) tells us that these politicians resort to all kinds of deception,
deliberate misinterpretations, wanton destruction of lives and property, and
whatever you can think of to have their way.
As the play opens, the traders (the masses) are busy selling and interacting
freely irrespective of the fact that they are from different religious affiliations,
ethnic backgrounds, political leanings and socio-economic status. The political
class, on the other hand is busy mapping out strategies on how to hoodwink the
masses with material gifts so as to obtain their mandate. As this approach fails to
yield the expected result, they employ divide and rule tactic where religious
dimension is used to fuel crisis between Christians and Muslims. This leads to
wanton killings and destruction of property unquantifiable in monetary terms.
Unfortunately for the politicians, their diabolical act is later revealed to the
masses by Adah and Ahmed who were earlier recruited by them to carry out
thuggery on their behalf but rather reneged. As the masses came to know that their
predicament is the handiwork of the politicians they resolve to embark on a
revenge mission against their common enemy (the political class). This is opposed
to by Adah who cautioned against violence as a means of resolving conflict. It
takes Mal Gworo, Adah and Ahmed a great while to convince the masses to tow a
non-violent approach which they followed by forming an alternative party (The
Great People’s Party, GPP) The new party fields credible candidates and the
election that defeated the People’s Interest Party (PIP) which lacks the leadership
wherewithal to lead the people of Airegin out of the wood.
Textual Interpretations: The play depicts political disorder of Airegin as
perpetrated by the ruling class to feather their nest. This propensity is so high that it
means nothing to them even if the people are maimed or killed to pave way to
acquire political power. In the meeting of the People’s Interest Party (PIP), its
Chairman propose to set Christianity and Islamic religious sects against each other
in order to cause social unrest and rehabilitate the casualties and win their favour
and subsequently their votes during elections. The play aptly captures thus:
Chairman: I am actually proposing that we adopt the divide and rule tactic. And
the divisive weapon now will become religion. We... we...will just tell them that,
er… Islam and er... Christianity are not the same and that one sector is not
worshiping the true God (P.11).
Following the above proposition, Pastor Ndubisi and Hajia Zainab, both
people of high religious connections are drafted to plan, prepare, and set operation
divide and rule in motion between Christians and Muslims.The following is one of
the situation reports to the party hierarchy after executing the deadly assignment.
Hajia Zaina:
“... Just listen to the piece that let hell loose upon this land. I carefully,
quietly and cunningly slipped a full page of theQuran among the
wrapping sheets of one akara hawker. For your information...A few of my
friends in the markethad already been alerted the previous night that some
ofthe sellers were committing abominable acts against thename of Allah,
by using the Quran indiscriminately, especially as wrapping sheets, so it
was only natural for them to watch out ... Ladies and gentlemen, I was in
the safety of my house when I overheard the announcement on radio that
the war had begun (p.22).
The above scenario shows how Airegin political leaders employ deceptive
means to set people against each other in order to ascend the mantle of leadership.
All this is done for selfish motives. The people are blatantly manipulated to corner
juicy positions. The people’s interest is never in the front burner. The picturesque
created here is that Airegin’s(Nigeria) leadership is inept. It is self-centred, it
doesn’t care about what happens to the masses and the country at large. This kind
of leadership cannot guarantee peace and national cohesion. That is why Suleiman
(2003, p. 3) faults, the Nigerian political class and leaders contending that:
“... The Nigerian political class has come to institute a cash and carry
political system. The leaders we have are highly self-centred. None of
them is interested in solving the poverty crises in the country. They are
there to make money... they do invest money to seek power. They also
exploit primordial loyalties and affiliations like ethnicity and religion to
make their way into power and address their personal grievances.
The Nigerian leadership, just like the ones in the play in view, use their
positions to foster their gain. But reverse is supposed to be the case as Rotimi, cited
in Unuora (2002, p.280):
A good leader, above all, must act for the benefit of others, not for him
alone. This expectation unfortunately, seems to be the reverse... to most
leaders., it is self-first, rather than the people first.
From the above, it is crystal clear that our leaders are not ready to carry the
people along. They rather sow seeds of discord to set the people apart in other to
have their ways. The implication here is that our country will know no peace and
by extension national development. The above, notwithstanding, the play cautions
against violence as a means of addressing our lingering problems. This is captured
thus:
Trader 1: (Angrily) so na de thing wey dis people carry us do be
this. Make we go fight them.
Trader 2: Yes, make we go burn their houses like they burn our own
(the crowd agrees).
Adah: No, no, no you can’t do that... please, don’t take laws into
your hands.
Trader 3: How you go say make we just sidondey look dis people
for all the wahalaweydem don cause for dis town? We no
go agree oh, we must revenge!
Balogun: Make una wait... We go fight dem but no be with hand, we
go fight them. Na with sense... (PP.32-33).
The above lines from the play are meant to conscientize the masses on the
need not to use violence against violence to settle squabbles but to use subtle
approach in bringing about positive change in the polity.
Conclusion
The close affinity which peace has with development is not in doubt. They
are like Siamese twins which cannot be separated, as such development cannot take
Place in an atmosphere of war (violence). This is because violence destroys life and
property without limit.
At sixty-two, Nigeria as a corporate entity is still crawling in terms of
development. She has refused to progress as expected because of myriad of
problems which include bad leadership, political violence, ethnic upheavals,
poverty, ethno-religious crises, among others. All these factors contribute in no
small measure in working against peaceful co-existence thereby entrenching
underdevelopment in Nigeria. The countries of South East Asia such as Malaysia,
Japan, etc., who took off in terms of development on the same pedestal with
Nigeria are far ahead. They have liberated their people from poverty, ignorance and
other forms of underdevelopment, in Nigeria this has not been the case.
If Nigeria is to move forward and compete favourably with other countries

among the comity of nations in every sphere of development, it means PEACE
must be seriously sought for. To achieve this, the followings are specifically
recommended:
(i) Political leadership made up of people who are focused with genuine
aspirations to contribute to national development must be put in place,
rather than the leadership with myopic ideas who think only for themselves
and leave the country to drift.
(ii) Governments at all levels, should create a peaceful and orderly
environment that would promote religious tolerance and mutual respect.
This can be done either formal or informally using government
megaphones such as the radio, television and newspapers where Nigerians
will be educated on religious tolerance as enshrined in the Nigerian
constitution. The schools, through civic education should continue to
hammer on the basis for tolerance. Religious leaders on their part should
embrace dialogue aimed at having mutual understanding.
(iii) The beauty of democracy is for the political class especially those in power
to tolerate opposition, those contesting for political offices must imbibe the
spirit of accepting defeat so that politics will not be a “do or die affair”
which results into intra or inter-party skirmishes where people are killed
and violence perpetrated.
(iv) It is also the submission of this paper that, all provisions that guarantee
ethnicity such as indigeneship, quota system, etc., be removed from
Nigerian constitution to pave way for citizenship and merit.
(v) Efforts should be made by governments at all levels as well as well-
meaning Nigerians and captains of industries to reduce the level of poverty
among the youths. For an idle mind is the devil’s workshop. If jobs are
created and made available for gainful employment this can help in
checking youth restiveness. In a related vein, poverty reduction
programmes such as N-Power, should be more proactive than paying lips
service to the people. There is therefore need to open up skills acquisition
centres where the unskilled youths will be trained after which loans will be
given to them to establish businesses that would make them resourceful to
contribute to national development. If the youths are made comfortable to
live a standard life, they will not prefer violence to a decent means of
livelihood.
(vi) Last but not the least, the political class in the helm of governance should
understand that they have the responsibility to pursue party programmes to
the latter in the interest of the Country and the people. it is their failure to
uphold these standards that invite unrests of different kinds.
It is hoped, if the above suggestions are taken into cognizance there will be
absence of hostility, violence and conflict, and Nigeria will develop peacefully
under a serene and conducive atmosphere.
References
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Company Limited.
Anifowase, A. (1982):Violence and politics in Nigeria:The Tiv and Yoruba
experience, London: Nok Publishers.
Apeabu, J.A. (2007): “Nigerian religious challenges”, in Zaria Journal of
Education Studies, Vol. 9 No. 1.
Crowther, J. et al (2002):Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English, (seventh edition) Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Doki, G.A. (2004): “Culture, theatre and national question: A critical appraisal of
Saint Gbilekaa’s Prized Chickens are not Tasty. “In Jenkeri Okwori (ed)
Nigerian Theatre Journal, Madol Press Limited.
Gwamma, J.D. (2010):Religion and politics in Nigeria, Bukuru: Acts Publishers.
Musa, D.l. (2010):“Education, Politics and national development: Partnership for
effective participation,” in T. Terver Udu et al (eds) Education, Politics
and National Development, A Publication of the Academic Staff Unions
of Tertiary Institutions in Benue State, Makurdi: Gold Ink Company.
Ode, R. (2007):The masquerade called religion, Makurdi: Bookmakers.
Oddiri, I.E. (2007).“Bad Leadership, A Burden on the nation,” Sunday
Tribune April 22nd, Vol. 5. No. 3.
Ojaide, T. (2010):“The dreamers distant love: Contemporary African
literature, globalization, and the quest for peace” in Ododo S. and
Bodunde C. (eds) Obaconfab: Book of Proceedings, Abuja: National
Commission for Museums and Monuments.
Rich, J.M. (1974):Challenge and response: Education in American culture,New
York: John Willy and Sons.
Suleiman, Y.O. (2003): “Leadership and the crises of poverty in Nigeria” in Daily
Trust, January, 28. Vol. 1 No 2325.
Tse. A.P. (2005): “The Menace of ethnicity and ethnic violence to a sustainable
Nigerian polity”. In Artscope, A Journal of the Arts and Social Sciences,
College of Education, Katsina-Ala, Benue State, Nigeria, Vol. 3 No. 3.
Unuora, O.E. (2002): “Leadership stains and distilling historical truth into dramatic
truth,” in Effiok, B.U. (ed) Playwriting and Directing in Nigeria, Lagos:
Apex Books Limited.
AFRICA’S SOCIO-ECONOMIC CHALLENGES IN THE FACE OF

GLOBALIZATION AND COVID-19 PANDEMIC
Augustine Toom Jembe

&
Jembe Raphael Terhemen

Collge of Education, Katsina-Ala
Benue State
Abstract
The COVID 19 pandemic ushered in a new climate of uncertainty
which fuelled protectionism that plays into nationalist narratives.
Globalization is under significant threat as governments scrambled to
reduce their vulnerability to the virus by limiting global trade and
flows of people. With imposition of border closures and strict
migration measures, there has been major disruption in Africa's global
supply chains with adverse impacts. The African economies over
reliant on single export oriented industries such as oil and gas are
severely hit. This situation is further aggravated by tumbling oil prices
and lowered global demand for Africa non-oil products. The
agricultural sector which should buffer the shock is also affected by
the enforced lockdowns which threatened people's livelihood and food
security. Lockdowns may have not been the answer in Africa, the
issue of public health pandemic response needed to be addressed by
enacting context-specific policies which should be implemented in a
humane way. In addressing the socio-economic impact of COVID 19
on African nations, the paper argue that governments should prioritize
social protection programmes to provide people with resources to
maintain economic productivity while limiting job loses. International
funders are to commit assistance to Africa for this purpose generally
as grants rather than loans which would add to debt burdens.
Maintaining cross- border trade and cooperation to continue
generating public revenues is also desirable. New strategies for
diversifying African economies and limiting their dependence on
external funding by promoting trade with more regionalised focus as
prompted by the African Continental Free Trade Agreement while not

without limitation should be explore.
Introduction
Even before COVID 19, globalization was already under significant threat
from rising nationalism forcing governments and businesses to define new
constructs and priorities Birla (2020). This response to the conflicting forces of
globalization and nationalism has given rise to the term "slowbalization" coined by
economist to describe declines in trade, multinational profits and foreign
investment and leading to arguments that we have now passed ' peak of
globalization'. The COVID 19 pandemic appears to have introduced additional fear
and uncertainty among populations, resulting in new behaviours and beliefs
(James, 2020). People are becoming more suspicious and less accepting of foreign
things and all this is occurring on a background of increasing anarchy in global
governance.
The economic interdependence and multilateral norms or rules that
globalization emphasised over the past decades, creating global supply chains that
contributed to the economic growth many low and middle income countries
experienced since 1990s is facing formidable and existential threats. Although,
arguments that the globalization era is over or at least on the wane, may be
premature, the economic impact of the pandemic are rattling its inherent
assumptions with little or clear indication of what may follow in its (eventually)
subsiding wake. Meanwhile, the economic interdependence that characterised
recent globalisation is becoming unglued and with it the policy assumptions of
many government worldwide and the already fragile livelihoods of billions of
people. Nowhere is the concern over the health impacts of this greater than in
Africa. Whilst governments across Africa hasten to reinforce measures to contain
the spread of COVID 19 in the context of fragile health systems, several pertinent
questions arise; how can socio-economic development stimulated by globalization
practices related to increased international trade be sustained, or if not, reformed in
ways that still enhance livelihood opportunities? How might African governments
successfully limit community transmission of COVID 19 while also providing
economic relief to families and business affected by physical distancing or
lockdown strategies? this paper thus explore challenges facing African countries in
improving the population health outcomes in the current COVID 19 and future
pandemics, while promoting a renewed globalization based upon health and social
development goals and not solely on economic growth.
Concepts Clarification
Globalization
Globalization is often used to mean a concept through which nations of the
world are interconnected and a method through which goods, people, produce and
information moved through the world on a global scale. According to Martin
(2002) globalization refers to all those processes which the people of the world are
incorporated into a single world society. To Rosabeth (1995), globalization is the
world becoming a global shopping mall in which ideas and products are available
at the same time. Todaro and Smith (2011) defined globalization as the increased
openness of economies to international trade, financial flows and direct foreign
investment. Globalization is an integral part of human history. Emphasis today
however focused on the economic aspect of the process. In this context,
globalization is a process of increased integration of national economies with the
rest of the world to create more coherent global economy.
In a simpler form, globalization is the spread of products Technology,
Information and Jobs across National Borders and Cultures. In economic terms, it
describes interdependence through free trade. Globalization is a social, cultural,
political and legal phenomena. In essence, globalization is about the world
becoming increasingly interconnected. Countries today are more connected than
ever before due to factors such as air travel, containerised sea shipping,
international trade agreements and legal treaties and the internet. In the word of
business, globalization is associated with trends such as out sourcing free trade and
international supply chain.
Corona Virus Disease 2019
Corona Virus Disease 2019 (COVID 19) is a an illness caused by a novel
corona virus called severe acute respiratory syndrome (Sars-Cov-2) which was first
identified amid an outbreak of respiratory illnesses cases in Wuhan City, Hubei
Province China. It was initially reported to World Health Organization (WHO) on
December 31, 2019. On January, 30, 2020 the WHO declared the COVID 19
outbreak a global health pandemic. The name was chosen to avoid stigmatizing the
virus’s origin in terms of populations, geography or animal associations.
Corona Virus crisis is primarily a public health issue. COVID 19 brought
the global economy to a sudden stop, causing shocks to supply and demand,
starting in January 2020. The country suffered outbreaks of the new corona virus
with each facing epidemiological shocks that led to economic and financial shocks
as consequences.
The Challenges of Globalization for Africa

Globalization will continue to reinforce the interdependencies between
different countries and regions. It can also deepen the partnership between
advanced countries and the rest of the world. And to support these partnerships in a
mutually beneficial way, the advanced countries could help to further open their
markets to the products and services in which the developing world has a
comparative advantage. In addition, the reform efforts of the African countries will
need to continue to be supported by adequate financing on concessional terms. The
challenge facing African countries in particular is the design public policies so as
to maximise the potential benefits from globalization and to minimize the
downside risks of destabilization and or marginalization maintaining
macroeconomic stability and accelerating structural reforms.
The emphasis must be to maintain economic stability and to reinforce the
implementation of structural policies that will make the economies more flexible,
encourage diversification and reduce their vulnerability to exogenous shocks.
These include; further reforms in the areas of public enterprise activity, the labour
markets and the trade regime.
Government must also ensure that public services including transportation
networks, electricity, water and telecommunications but also health services and
education are provided in a reliable and cost-efficient fashion.
Ensuring Economic Security: Establishing the right frame for economic
activity addresses the second requirement of policy, removing the sense of
uncertainty that still plaques economic decision making in most of Africa. The
direction and orientation of future policy must be beyond question. This requires
the creation of a strong national capacity for formulation, implementation and
monitoring.
Impact of COVID 19 on Globalization
Globalization has altered the way we live and earn a livelihood.
Consequently, trade and travel have been recognized as significantly determinants
of the spread of disease. Additionally, the rise in urbanisation and the closer
integration of the world economy have facilitated global interconnectedness
(Belinguer, 1999). Therefore, globalization has emerged as an essential mechanism
of disease transmission (Saunder, 2016). In view of these, we will examine the
potential impact of COVID 19 on globalization on a general note before it will be
narrowed to African and then discuss how African countries could be repositioned
to meet their remote and immediate challenges in terms of the COVID 19.
Historically, pandemics have been observed throughout the history of

human movement and communication (Twu, et al, 2017). Over the years,
globalization has amplified disease transmission and has significant economic
implications. The close integration of the economy in modem times has therefore
emerged as an essential mechanism of disease transmission (Tatem, 2006).
The consequences of a pandemic are not only defined in terms of mortality
but also by their impact on our daily livelihood and economy, with globalization
accelerating this loss and costing billions in expenditures. Pandemic affects
economy in terms of demand and supply. Consumers and investors tend to lose
confidence in market places affected by the pandemic depreciating the demand side
of the market. Secondly, absenteeism and reduction in work force negate supply
side.
Lastly, public health and international response to the pandemic affects
economies and development policies in trade, travel and health response. Pandemic
can also affect the economy in terms of decelerating the economic growth of
affected countries leading to a reduction in trade and increase in poverty (Brown,
2008). Another significant impact emerges in form of workforce reduction.
Absenteeism in schools and workforce were considered a direct economic impact
on the COVID 19. Pandemics have led to a notable reduction of human and
economic capital. East Asia had an estimated economic loss of $18 billion during
the SARS pandemic.
The end of 2019 challenged the world with an epidemic of a novel corona
virus (SARS- COV-2) which on March, 2020 the World Health Organisation
(WHO) declared COVID 19 a global pandemic and as October, 21, 2020 over 41
million confirmed cases of Covid 19 and 1.13 million deaths had been reported
worldwide (WHO, 2020).
This unprecedented time COVID 19 and the implemented locked down
measures had influenced uncertainties regarding economic growth. The lockdown
measures had also increased teleport and telecommuting, cancelled operations and
restricted supply and demand. The impact that COVID 19 exerted on the health
systems of the world varies, low and middle income countries with less developed
health systems faced more significant challenges and remained vulnerable in
controlling C0VID19, compared to high income countries (Peters, 2020).
The world drastically changed since the onset of the covid-l9 pandemic,
social distancing led to the cancellation of numerous events across the world, for
instance, the 2020 Summer Olympic that was to be held in Japan, Sports events
such as athletics cycling, soccer, golf etc. With lockdown and travel restrictions
during the COVID-19, the work force had been affected universally. About 62% of
the global employment constitutes of an informal economy characterised by lack of
social security benefits, health care access, income security or the possibility of
working remotely thus exposing the most vulnerable groups in the labour market.
Almost 1.6 billion informal economy workers were significantly impacted by the
lockdown measures (Washington Post,2020)
Manufacturing, accommodation, food services and retail were most
affected and these groups account for 30% of average GDP worldwide. The
unforeseen COVID 19 pandemic had challenged the health systems worldwide
especially Africa. Though, some countries were impacted less than others.
Academic Institutions were observed to have had major disruptions similar
to other industries. Most institution resorted to moving to online and cancelling in-
person classes. Transitioning to online classes brought many logistical problems,
because most institutions especially in Africa do not have the facilities and
infrastructures in place to conduct online classes.
Globalization led to the spread of the disease owing to mobility channels
such as air and ship travel. Restricted travel mobility regulations and lockdown of
economies and trade limited and in some cases halted globalization to reduce the
rapidly rising number of COVID 19 cases. The COVID 19 pandemic has also
exposed and exacerbated disparities between low to middle income countries and
high income and developed nations and between the poor and Africa's fragile
economic situation, one in which as many as 422 million people (one in three
Africans) are estimated to be living below the international poverty line i.e. $1.90
dollar per day (Kitenge, 2020).
Many African countries adopted some international policy trends such as
border closures, strict migration measures, imposition of quarantines, and
enforcement of stay-at-home orders, all these in an attempt to fight the COVID19.
These measures embody the dialectal quality of contemporary globalization. On
the one hand, they reflected the rapid communicative and even hegemonic nature
of global knowledge exchange while on the other hand, they accentuate boundaries
instead of eroding them and limit interactions across socio-economic, political and
technological spheres. This substantial disruption in globalization economic
integration has led to retardation of the key sectors such as air transportation and
tourism with a concomitant reduction in trade, remittances and investments. In the
face of waning official development assistance to the continent and capital flight,
unemployment and food insecurity is likely to be exacerbated across continent.
Economic Policies and Collaborative Efforts in Mitigating the Effects of

COVID 19 in Africa
In dealing with the pandemic and its social impact on African nations, it is
vital that interventions focus on women, children, individuals with disabilities,
youth, older people, low income workers and small and medium enterprises. These
and other vulnerable groups such as those working in informal sector, internally
displaced individuals and refugees suffered the devastating social and economic
consequences of the virus (Gutteres, 2020). According to World Bank Report
(2020), providing loans and credit guarantees with limited conditionality could be
one means to invigorate private sector participation in continuing economic
productivity, increase in the liquidity of small scale businesses and limit job losses.
Such financial assistance may have to be provided directly by African governments
by utilizing innovative strategies. Groups such as World Bank, International
Monetary Fund (IMF) and the European Investment Bank are making funds
available to Africa but primarily as loans. This can only increase the debt burdens
already being carried by most of these countries. Already, many African countries
have risky debt profiles as 24% of the 47 countries of the Africa have current
deficits that exceed 5% of their GDP, with the external debts of six countries
exceeding 40% of their GDP.
Ikouria (2020) stated that, the existing weak fiscal capacity of African
countries, however could be bolstered by providing international or multilateral
financial assistance as grants, rather than as loans and by suspending or cancelling
much of their current debt owed to relevant financial bodies such as development
banks, the IMF, and bilateral donors. The G20 countries also agree to suspend debt
payments for poor countries most of which are in Africa; which will free up US$20
billion for government COVID 19 interventions.
This one year suspension as explained by International Trade Union
confederation (2020) will provide some fiscal space for governments to focus on
crafting economic relief packages with limited policy conditionalities notably
renewed austerity that would otherwise be likely to constrain future health and
social protective spending. Though, the amount is considered woefully inadequate
relative to need and should be extended to all forms of multilateral and privately
held debts.
The pandemic also presented an opportunity to explore new strategies for
diversifying African economies and limiting their dependence on external funding
whether loans, grants or investments by promoting trade and a more regionalised
form of globalization. The African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AFCFTA)
hold some promise in this regard. The driving force behind AFCTA is to eliminate
tariffs over a five year to eight year period for 90% of goods with eventually all
tariffs on all goods removed, to promote trade in goods and services between
African countries (The Economist, 2020).
This agreement could be activated though its economic benefits are being
investigated stimulus packages could be provided to facilitate cross-border trade in
the continent. Akeyewale (2018) argued that not all countries within the same
continent are equal like in Africa only Nigeria, South Africa and Egypt account for
over 50% of the continental GDP and that the large wealthier ones could dominate
continental markets without compensatory social agreement. Past history of trade
agreements further suggests that benefits generally accrue to already economically
elite groups and Africa is already one of the world's most economically unequal
regions. Specific policies will need to be built in to circumvent such unfavourable
outcomes.
Maintaining cross-border trade and cooperation could also potentially
maintain some financial resources to assist many high risk African countries to
fight pandemics, although, an overhaul of trade agreements to ensure equitable
gains and ecological sustainability is to be more likely undertaking. African
countries could unite in collectively reducing their tariffs on all medical supplies
related to COVID 19 and regulating their domestic prices. Under African Union
and or the World Health Organisation, regional office for Africa auspices, member
states could enter into cost sharing agreements to ensure that larger African
counties with deeper fiscal pockets or borrowing capacities do not outbid small,
poorer nations, whether such safeguards measures are entered into new AFCFTA
rules, or become part of African wide demands in new or amended agreements
with countries beyond the continental borders is moot; but trade agreements and
increased trade do not necessarily overcome inequalities in wealth and power.
Politics and Governance: The Focus of African Leaders in the Wake of
COVID 19
The pandemic pose a daunting challenge to African leaders and it is
imperative that they work very closely with scientist, policy experts and medical
specialists to design feasible plans. High level political advocacy combined with
multi-sectoral and multi-national globalization efforts such as the Africa Task
Force for Corona Virus Preparedness and Response (AFTCOR) are vital. An
example of this is captured in the statement of USAID Administration on the
commitment of million in assistance to response to COVID 19 (2020) US $3billion
fight COVID-19 Social Bound provided by African Development Bank to alleviate
social and economic impact of the pandemic on African countries. The US agency
for International Development (USAID) announced a commitment to finance 25
affected or high priority countries which include Angola, South Africa, Zambia,
Zimbabwe, Ethiopia and Nigeria. This is to help prepare laboratories for large scale
testing, investigate and implement contact tracing, train health workers and
implement public health emergency plans among other policy actions.
Mckinsey (2020) suggested that short term policy redirecting government
expenditure to back economic relief to families and businesses will need to be
drafted and deployed. Wage subsided, credit guarantees and postponed financial
obligations like loan repayments will be of immense benefit especially for the
vulnerable segments of the population.
Although, African government generally lack the same options to create
new money via qualitative and easing government bond purchases by Central
Banks, that high income countries have innovative ways of providing this relief
from available limited resources will need to be sought. Economic development
plans could be revised with a view to reallocation of existing planned budget to
tackle COVID 19. This reflects a more sustainable approach as even some high
income countries beginning to re-impose fiscal austerity or to broach the idea of
doing so, to begin reducing the scale of publicly assumed debt.
Natulya (2020) is of the opinion that, ensuring transparency and
accountability is of paramount importance for securing buy in from the populace.
In Nigeria for instance, the government failed to provide vital details for cash
transfer program implemented to cushion household expenditure and this raised
questions and doubts about the criteria for selecting beneficiaries, many sense
political influences in the decision making process leading to a crisis of confidence
in leaders.
Intersection of COVID 19 in Socio-Economic Indices and Health Care
The efficacy of any country's response to the COVID 19 is largely
dependent on the competence of its health system. The fragile nature of Africa's
health system has been associated with perennial inadequacies in public health
spending and critical shortages of health professionals. According to Watkins
(2020), statistics shows that from Africa, there is just one Doctor and seven
hospital beds per 1000 persons. 1.06 mid wives and nurses for every 1000 persons
and less than 50% of the population have access to modern health care services.
Against this backdrop of abysmal health indices, specific policies are required to
bolster capacity for surveillance, mass testing management of severe cases of
COVID 19, health workers training, supply chain management and community
engagement. Oqubay (2020) writing on how Africa can fight the pandemic
suggested that, an estimated amount of US $ 10.6 billion increase in health

spending will be needed to curb the spread of the virus in Africa.
This means, funds will have to be re-routed from other development
activities to focus on the unanticipated and unplanned health spending. Though
such moves are likely to impair economic growth, new sources of public revenue
are to be quickly developed including, like new forms of capital control, such as
avoiding capital flight, closure of offshore financial centres like 'tax havens' and
more extensive, progressive and transparent systems of national taxation. The need
for international transfer is also required. Gupta (2020) discussing tax revenue in
Africa is of the view that Africa will be unable to self-finance her development
goals without development assistance. Studies have shown that most African
countries facing high burdens of diseases like HIV, TB and Malaria on average
relies upon international financing.
Africa's Adoption of Strict Lockdown and Physical Distancing Measures to
Control COVIID 19 Africa's approach to the imposition of measures aimed at
achieving physical distancing in COVID 19 had varied widely across the continent
based on beliefs and other reasons. Like Tanzania, Burundi and Zimbabwe, their
government officials had viewed the virus as a punishment and a disease of the
western countries like Tanzania even failed to close churches based on claim that
the virus was very satanic therefore cannot advance in churches.
However, in China, the government approach to the COVID 19 strict
imposition of quarantine, deployment of mass testing and meticulous contact
tracing appeared to have had dividends, although, without human and economic
cost. The lockdown of fresh markets in many African countries had changed the
eating habits and diets of many individuals. School closure impacted more than
87% of school population in Africa resulting to children missing out on school
meals which were source of nutrition for those vulnerable households.
Excessive lockdown measures also limited access to vial medical supplies
and other necessities of life and impacted on people's welfare. It is argued that, self
quarantine and physical distancing measures are literally impossible to achieve in
Africa given that up to 70% of city dwellers lived in overcrowded slums, as such
careful consideration is needed to establish policies that will back -lock down and
physical distancing strategies. These measures cannot stop the pandemic but can
slow down community transmission and prevent overwhelming intensive care
units, where severe cases are managed.
It was argued that, estimated population of farmers in the sub-Saharan,
Africa alone constitute more than 60% and agricultural activities account for about
23% of the GDP in the region (Kitenge, 2020). Therefore, imposing lockdowns in
such settings will likely results to declined in GDP and threat to food security with
attendant consequences. Lockdown measures in response to COVID 19 could
cause imminent starvation.
Public health issues in Africa in response to the COVID 19 pandemic need
to be addressed by enacting context specific policies which should be implemented
in a humane way. In countries like Kenya, DRC, Uganda and South Africa,
excessive force used by the security to implement lockdown stay at home order
resulted too many civilian deaths. Enforcing actions violate human rights to dignity
and equal treatment and life. Governments and political leaders should not use the
pandemic as excuse to constrain individual’s freedom but as an opportunity to
increase trust in government institution as they manage public health crisis. And
since part of the health negative socio-economic fallout of the pandemic is a result
of lockdown measures in high income countries, it is reasonable for African
governments to seek specific assistance as grants to compensate for some of the
economic cost of their lockdown measures.
Global Spotlight on African Public Health Management
African Public Health Management capability for containing outbreaks has
certainly improved over the last decade following experiences of dealing with
outbreaks such as EBOLA, Lassa fever,, meningitis cholera and measles, however,
COVID 19 presents a more profound danger as asymptomatic individuals can
infect others. The most vulnerable being those living in highly populated areas or
underserved areas working in the precarious informal economy and simply those
who are poorest. Such individuals form a large proportion of Africa's population
with lack of stable water and sanitation in rural areas and the existence of urban
slums i.e. informal settlements in many African countries, frequent hand washing
as a basic and effective preventive measure against COVID 19 is not attainable it
will rather increase the risk of infection within and across countries.
Conclusion
Though African countries had marshalled a robust response to Covidl9 by
implementing screening exercises for suspected cases at entry ports and public
places, the actual levels of testing have remain low. The importance of global
health focus on what remains the poorest and most resource-constrained region of
the world cannot therefore be overstated, just as the capacities and historic
strengths of African societies cannot be understated. How well and how equitably
African leaders within their own means respond to the pandemic and how well they
are assisted in doing so by leaders of the world's wealthier nations, remain the
litmus-test of our collective ability to strengthen global health security for all.
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1| ARTSCOPE: A Journal of School of Arts and Social Sciences

TOWARDS A MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS OF NEW ELECTORAL

Apav, Godwin Gemma

Ako Benjamin Tavershima

therefore designed to assess the impact of adherence to the electoral procedure on

Table 1: Response of the electorates to the questionnaire as to whether INEC

Mean bench mark = 2.50

1 Everybody voted at 3 2 37 78 170 120 1.41 1.2 Rejected

2 You did not vote 7 6 15 92 158 120 1.31 1.1 Rejected

3 You did not vote 62 29 9 20 373 120 3.10 1.3 Accepted

4 You did not vote 64 26 14 16 378 120 3.15 1.3 Accepted

cluster mean response 10.3 Rejected

Mean bench mark =2.5

Table 3: Response of electorates as to whether adherence to the new electoral

Cluster mean 9.58 Rejected

Mean bench mark= 2.5

A 30 (30) 3 (5) 4 (3.3) 3 (1.6) 40

1. 3 (34) 2 (15.75) 37 (18.75) 78 (51.5) 120

X2 cal =251.1. With 9 degrees of freedom at 0.05 level of significance, the

1. 6 (37.25) 13 (19.50) 65 (26.75) 36 (36.50) 120

X2 cal =15.4, with 9 degrees of freedom at 5% level of significance; the

Gagne, R. (2018). Instructional technology foundation. Hillsdale associate.

Klimek, P. and Yegorov, Y. (2013). Statistical detection of systematic election

Obioma, G.O. (2009). The development and validation of diagnostic mathematics

Okereke, S. C. (2006). Effects of prior knowledge of implications of mathematics

Orrison, M. (2021). Mathematical Analysis of an electoral process – the adherence

UNEMPLOYMENT HYSTERESIS IN NIGERIA: THE ROLES OF

Bridget Mlumun Akaakohol

Adueti, Terver Andrew

because efforts such as government spending might be over-shadowed by

One phenomenon that is usually overlooked by scholars while trying to

workers) possess market power in determining wages independently of the

capital government spending on infrastructural project will impact on

approximation during a sample period. A less restrictive hypothesis considers

Typically, these probabilities are assumed to be time-invariant so that (t) =

conditional probabilities, a separate multinomial specification for each row i of the

Table 1: Unit root test

Source: Researchers’ Computations, 2021

Transition Summary: Probabilities and Durations

Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2

Regime 1 0.99 0.01 0.98 0.02 0.92 0.08

Regime 2 0.03 0.97 0.08 0.92 0.09 0.91

Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2 Regime 1 Regime 2

87.88 33.76 52.70 11.87 12.57 10.64

Source: Researchers’ Computations, 2021

effects of population growth and government spending on unemployment in

GSP 0.071263 -0.000411

College of Business and Administration University of Central Florida,

Røed, K. (1997). Hysteresis in unemployment. Journal of Economic Surveys, No.

THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON WATER AND FOOD

Wada SimonTyohemba, PhD

coastal lands prone to damage by storms, building of dams and/or

uncertain ability to aquire acceptable fooods in socially acceptable ways (Illaboya,

major causes of forcing include increases in greenhouse gases; tropospheric ozone

Approximately 70 % of the world’s freshwater use goes to agriculture, and

irrigation (up to 10 %, depending on the crop type) (Mohamed et al, 2002).The

2. Planting of drought-resistant, early maturity and high yielding crops,

Bruinsma,J. (2003).World agriculture: towards 2015/2030. An FAO perspective.

Delta Stewardship Council, Delta Science Program. (2010). Measuring the