EEPP #11 (Small)

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The ANSWERS to
ALL the Questions
RNAV; RNP ................. ... .................................. ........ 33
Preflight action ; flight plan ........................................ 34
Chapter 1 Preferred routes ... ............................................... ..... 34
Seat belts & shoulder harness ................................. 34
Airspace and Airport Do you need an ALTERNATE? ••••••••••••••.••• 35
Operations •••••••••••••••••••••..••••••• 1 Alternate airport weather ••••••••••••••...••.•••• 35
Fuel supply ......................................................... 36, 37
Graphic overview of airspace .... ...... ....... ... ................. 2
Void time; IFR takeoff limitations; taxiing ................. 38
Class A & B Airspace ................................................. 3
Takeoff briefing & TOLD card •••••.•••..•....•• 39
Class C & airport beacons ..........................................4
Class D ...................... ................................................. 5 Wake turbulence .. .................................................... 40
Class E ................................................. ...................... 6 Climb gradient .......................................................... 41
VFR in Class E .. .........................................................6 Pilotage ........................................................ ............ 41
Surface based Class E ............................................... 6 Dead reckoning ......... ... ............................................ 41
Cl ass G ... ... ................................. ............................... 7 RCO ; RTR; GCO ........ .... .................................. ....... 42
Class G control towers ................... ........... .. .... .......... 7 Departure Procedures (DP) ••••.•..•.........•••• 43
T rans1't'ion area .......................................... ................. 8 VFR-On-Top; VFR-Over-The-Top ......................... .. 44
TR SA . .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... .... 8 M'1n1mum
. f ue I a d v1sory
. ............................................. 44
Airport Advisory Area ................................................. 8 VFR flight following .................................................. 44
Void time .................................................................... 8 Non-radar position reporting .................................... 45
VFR in all Classes & Special VFR •.•••..••••••• 9 Additional reports; pilot's discretion ............ ............. 45
Prohibited; Restricted; MOAs; Warning areas; VOR ......................................................................... 46
Alert areas, etc ...................... 10 Class I & Class II navigation ............................. ....... 46
Class F airs pace ...................................................... 1O Federal (Victor) airways ........................................... 4 7
Aero ba tic f Ii g ht . .. ... ... . ... ... .. ... .... .. .. .... .. ... .. .. ... . .. . .. .. .... 11 Colored airways ....................................................... 4 7
Normal; Commuter; Utility & Jet routes .... ....... .................................................. .. .. 47
Acrobatic category Aircraft .... .. .. ... 11 Crossing restrictions ................................................ 4 7
AD IZ; DEWIZ; mountainous areas .......................... 12 §.tandard Ierminal Arrival (STAR) ........................... 48
Intercept procedures ................................................ 13 Timed approaches .. .... .... ................................. ........ 48
Fl ap sett'1ng .1n Cl ass G airspace . ...... ........ ................ 14 Cruise clearance .. ... ................................................. 49
Land And Hold Short Operations (LAH SO) ............. 14 Cruise climb .... ... ...................................................... 49
Radar service terminated ......................................... 49
Turns at airports without an
NACO (NOS) approach plate revision date ............. 49
operating control tower ...•••••• 15 D-ATIS ............. ........................................................ 49
Traffic pattern entry ••••••••••.....•••••••..•.. 16, 17 Approach Briefing ••••••••••••••••••••••.•••..•....••• 50
Traffic pattern altitude & glide slope 18, 19 TOLD card approach side ................................... 51
Runway markings •••••••••.••...•...••••••••.... 20, 21 Cleared for approach ....................................... ........ 52
Airport signs , markings ............................................ 22 ADF/GPS ................................................................. 52
Runway weight bearing capacity .... ......... ................ 22 Minimum Vectoring Altitude MVA ..................... ... 52
Holding position markings: ILS critical area ............ 23 RADAR .... ..................... ............................................ 53
Runway lights •••••••••••••.............••••••....• 24, 25 Procedure turn .....•.•••.•••••••••••••••............••• 54
Airport elevation & reference point .................... ...... 26 DME arc ....•••••••.......••••••••••••••••••.•..•..•.....••• 54
Low altitude alert ................................. ...... ... ........... 26 Approach categories ................................................ 55
Braking action I runway friction reports •• 26 Full scale deflection ................................................. 55
Exiting the runway after landing .............................. 26 Pilot controlled runway lights ................................... 55
Formation flight ........................................................ 27 Final Approach Fix ••••••••••••••••••••••••.....••.••• 56
GlideSlope Intercept Altitude (GSIA) ...•••• 56
False GlideSlopes .•••••••••••••••••••••.••........••• 56
Final Approach Point ................................................ 57
Chapter 2 Final Approach Segment ......................................... 57

ILS critical area ........ ................................................ 57
CAT I, 11 , 111 ILS minimums ............................... ........ 57
Flight Rules & Approach p rec1s1on
. . approac h .. ... ............................................. 58
N onprec1s1on
. . approac h .................................... ........ 58
Procedures ..•.....••................•. 29 p rec1s1on-
. . l'k 1 e approach ............................................ 58
Is the Al RP LANE Legal? ..•..•.•.•••••••.•.•.•••••• 30 ILS ....................... ................................................... .. 59
Is the Pl LOT Legal? •••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••••• 31 Marker beacon ......................................................... 59
Equipment suffixes; flight plan information .............. 32 Localizer antenna ..................................................... 59
x EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot
Glideslope antenna .................................................. 59
Traffic pattern altitude & glideslope .......................... 60
Localizer approach ................................................... 61 Chapter 3
Localizer backcourse approach ............................... 61
ASR approach .......................................................... 61 Navigation & Radios ...••••••••. 89
PAR approach .......................................................... 61
Compass stuff ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 90
D ME arc procedures ................................................ 61
VOR ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
LNAV I VNAV approaches ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 62
VOR check ...............................................................91
Contact approach ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 62 VOT ..........................................................................91
Option approach ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 62 Class I & Class 11 navigation ..................................... 92
Low approach ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 62 DM E ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 93
NDB .......................................................................... 63 Portable electronic devices ....................................... 93
NDB/VOR approach & holding •••••••••••• 64, 65 GPS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 94, 95
Holding Pattern Speeds •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 65 Wide Area Augmentation .§.ystem (WAAS) .............. 96
LOA .......................................................................... 66 .b,ocal Area Augmentation .§.ystem (LAAS) .............. 96
SDF .......................................................................... 66 .§round §.ased Augmentation .§.ystem (GBAS) ........ 96
Straight-in approach ................................................. 67 ANTENNAS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 97·99
Circling approach ..................................................... 67 Transponder codes ................................................. 100
Terminal arrival area GPS approaches ........... 68, 69 Frequencies ............................................................ 100
Landing under IFR ................................................... 70 NDB ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101
Missed approach ...................................................... 70 UNICOM ................................................................. 102
Standard rate turns .................................................. 71 Automated UN ICOM ............................................... 102
No-gyro approach .................................................... 71 EFAS I Flight Watch I FSS frequencies ............. 102
Missed approach prior to MAP ................................. 71 ADS-B ..................................................................... 103
RVR ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 72 High Frequency (HF) Radio ••••••••••••••••••••• 104
Braking Action •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 72 Telecommunication terms Datalinks .................. 105
Exiting the runway after landing ............................... 72
Approach lighting •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 73-7 4
VASl ......................................................................... 75
PAPI ......................................................................... 75
Visual approach •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 76 Chapter 4
Low altitude alert ...................................................... 76
Visual Descent Point (VDP) •••••••••••••••••••••• 77
Speed, Altitude & Jet
Planned Descent Point (PDP) .................................. 77 Operations ••••••••••••••••...••••••• 107
Vertical Descent Angle (VOA) .................................. 77
Charted Visual Flight Procedure (CVFP) ................. 77
Speed limits ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 108-110
FMS Flight Management System 101 ............ 78 Holding pattern speeds ........................................... 109
I LS PRM approaches ............................................... 79 Aircraft approach categories ................................... 110
Simultaneous converging instrument approaches ... 80 Circling radii ............................................................ 110
Side-step maneuver ................................................. 80 Speed limits cross-reference ............................... 110
Canceling IFR .......................................................... 81 Crossing restrictions ............................................... 111
Exiting the runway after landing ............................... 81 How to meet a crossing restriction ......................... 111
Communications failure ............................................ 82 V-speeds ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 112, 113
Communications with control towers in Class G ...... 83 Airspeed errors, types & colors .............................. 114
Instruments & equipment ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 84 Speed of sound & Mach •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 115
Satety belts .............................................................. 84 Flight regimes ......................................................... 116
Clock ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 85 Troposphere; Tropopause; Stratosphere ............... 116
Aircraft lights ............................................................ 85 Temp lapse rate ...................................................... 116
Interference with crewmembers ............................... 86 ISA International .§.tandard Atmosphere ............ 117
Dropping objects ...................................................... 86 Kollsman window .................................................... 118
Right-of-way rules .................................................... 86 Altitude types (Pressure, Density, Indicated, etc.) .118
Overhead approach maneuver ................................ 87 Altimeter setting ...................................................... 119
Same runway separation ......................................... 88 Altitude temperature correction chart ..................... 119
Pressure/temperature & altimetry .................. 120, 121
Density altitude ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122-125
Decompression sickness after scuba diving .......... 123
•
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot XI
LOW & HIGH altimeter setting restrictions ............ 126 Transport category turbine LANDING criteria ........ 159
Transponder Mode C •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 127 TOLD Card •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 160, 161
IFR altitudes minimum altitudes for I FR .............. 128 Windmill start I airstart ........................................... 162
,21ide§Jope Intercept 8,ltitude (GSIA) .................... 128 Altitude alerting system turbojets ........................ 162
Min/max & mandatory altitudes ............................. 128 Fire detection and protection ................................. 162
Minimum Safe Altitudes ......................................... Wing lets ................................................................. 162
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-Minimum ~ectoring 8,ltitude (MVA) ....................... 129
129 Windshield heat ..................................................... 163
Minimum §.ate/Sector 8,ltitude (MSA) ................... 129 Tires ....................................................................... 163
Changing altitudes ................................................. 129 Swept wing ............................................................. 163
Pi lot's discretion............... .... ... ..... . .. .... .... ... ..... . ... ... 129 Dutch roll ................................................................ 163
Traffic pattern altitude Class B, C, or D .............. 130 Yaw damper ........................................................... 163
GlideSlope in Class B, C, or D airspace ................ 130 RAT TAT SAT OAT •••••••••••••••••••••• 164
Traffic pattern altitude @ uncontrolled airports ..... 131 Noise standards ..................................................... 165
Cruising altitudes ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 132 Airman Certification Standards .............................. 166
B.educed ~ertical .§.eparation Minimums (RVSM) . 133
Altimeter setting and the flight levels ..................... 134
Mountain flying the "venturi effect" ...................... 134
Altimeter pitot/static check ..................................... 135
Radar altimeter ...................................................... 135 Chapter 5
Altitude cross-reference ••••••••••••••••• 136-138
Oxygen altitudes .................................................... 139 Pilot Certificates, Log Books,
Altimetry (QNH, QNE, QFE) •••••••••••• 140, 141 Medical, Drugs & Alcohol .• 167
Convert inches of mercury to millibars .................. 141
Pilot certificate category I class I type ............... 168
Rapid decompression ............................................ 142
Aircraft category I class ..................................... 168
Altitude chambers .................................................. 142
Flight review (BFR) ................................................ 169
Pressurized aircraft basic components ................. 142
Basic "CURRENCY" requirements ........................ 169
Oxygen systems ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 143
PIC instrument currency (6 month) ••••••• 170
Jet & turbine operations 101 ••••••••••••••• 144 Safety pilot ............................................................. 171
Jet fuel pounds vs. avgas gallons ......................... 145 Recent flight experience PIC (3 bounces) ..... 172, 173
Jet I turbine engines •••••••••••••••••••••• 146, 147 Airplane Flight Manual I Limitations I
Jet engine starting ................................................. 148
Markings and Placards •••••• 174
Jet I turbine engine terminology ............................ 149
Electrical terminology ............................................ 150 Documents on board aircraft ••••••••••••••••• 175
Fuel terminology .................................................... 151 Certificates required in pilot's possession .............. 175
Hydraulic terminology ............................................ 151 Logbooks / logging time ••••••••••••••••• 176, 177
Air conditioning terminology .................................. 151 Logging SIC Navajo, King Air, Citation ....... 178, 179
Flight control terminology ...................................... 151 Change of address ................................................. 180
Avionics terminology .............................................. 152 Replacement of airman certificates ....................... 180
TCAS ..................................................................... 152 Falsification of logbooks or records ....................... 181
Pressurization •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 153 Lost or stolen log book ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 181
Jet takeoff •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 154 SIC qualifications ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 182
Balanced field length ............................................. 155 Student pilot ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 183
Critical field length ................................................. 155 Sport Pilot, Recreational pilot ................................. 184
Stopway ................................................................. 155 Private pilot ............................................................ 185
Clearway ................................................................ 155 Instrument rating; instrument currency .................. 186
First segment definition variations ......................... 155 Commercial pilot .................................................... 187
Screen height......................................................... 155 Airline Transport Pilot •••••••••••••••••••• 188, 189
Critical engine ........................................................ 155
Flight instructor .............................................. 190, 191
Takeoff distance .................................................... 156
Flight examiner ...................................................... 192
Accelerate-STOP distance ••••••••••••••••••••• 156 Status of an examiner ............................................ 192
Accelerate-GO distance ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 156 Cross-country time ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 193
Takeoff run ............................................................. 157
Temporary certificate •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 193
Takeoff path ........................................................... 158
Type rating ... .. .. .. .. .... ... .... .. ... . ... .... .. .. .. .. .... ... .... .. ... . . 194
Net takeoff flight path ............................................. 158
Complex endorsement ........................................... 194
Additional miscellaneous terms ............................. 158
High performance endorsement ............................ 194
Driftdown ................................................................ 159
Obstacle-clearance criteria .................................... 159 High altitude endorsement •••••••••••••••••••• 195
••
XII EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot
Tailwheel endorsement •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 195 Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station (LAWRS)
P IC Proficiency Check for a type rating ................. 196 ................................................................................218
MEDICAL certificate ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 197 METAR identifiers ................................................... 218
Operations requiring a medical certificate .............. 197 METAR/TAF explanations ••••••••••••••••••••••• 219
Operations NOT requiring a medical certificate ..... 197 Wind direction true north vs. magnetic .............. 220
Prohibitions on operations during METAR/TAF & flight plan WALLET SIZED
medical deficiency ..................... 198 CHEAT-SHEETS ••••••••••••••• 221
Duration of a medical certificate ••••••••••• 199 Color codes ............................................................221
Vision requirements ............................................... 199 EFAS I Flight Watch I FSS Frequencies ............ 223
SODA ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 200 Standard briefing ....................................................223
Lasik eye surgery ................................................... 200 Abbreviated briefing ................................................223
Contact lenses ....................................................... 200 Outlook briefing ......................................................223
Eye (required vision) .............................................. 200 lnflight briefing ........................................................223
Ear, Nose, Throat, and Equilibrium ........................ 201 Turbulence reporting criteria ..................................223
Mental ..................................................................... 201 AIRMET (WA) ......................................................... 224
Neurologic .............................................................. 201 SIGMET (WS) .........................................................224
Cardiovascular ....................................................... 201 Convective SIGM ET (WST} ....................................224
Diabetes mellitus general medical condition ....... 201 Severe weather forecast alerts (AWW) .................. 224
Kidney stones ......................................................... 201 Center Weather Advisories (CWA) ......................... 224
Hypertension .......................................................... 201 Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) ...... 224
Special issuance-discretionary issuance ............. 201 Pilot Automatic Telephone Answering Service
Drugs or alcohol ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 202, 203 (PATWAS) .......................224
Transcribed WEather Broadcast (TWEB) .............. 224
Motor vehicle action ............................................... 202
Hazardous lnflight Weather Advisory Service
Speeding tickets ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 203 (HIWAS) .......................... 224
Over-The-Counter medications .............................. 204 Pilot REPort.§. (PIREP)(UA)(UUA) .......................... 225
Radar weather reports (SD) ...................................225
Aviation area forecast (FA) .....................................225
Winds and temperatures aloft forecast (FD) .......... 225
Chapter 6 Convective outlook (AC) .........................................225

Stability chart ..........................................................225
Radar summary chart .............................................225
Weather & NOT AMS ••••••••••• 205 Severe weather outlook chart ................................. 225
Windshear, microburst ........................................... 206 NOTAMs •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 226, 227
Thunderstorm avoidance I penetration .................. 207 Fog ..........................................................................228
Extreme turbulence ................................................ 207 Lockheed Martin AFSS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 229
ICE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 208, 209
Carburetor icing ...................................................... 210
Fro st ....................................................................... 211
Rimeice ................................................................. 211
Clear ice ................................................................. 211
Freezing rain .......................................................... 211
Chapter 7
Ice pellets ............................................................... 211 An Overview of Commercial
Trace, light, moderate, severe icing ....................... 211
Ground icing conditions ••••••••••••••••••••••••• 212 Operations •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 231
(FPD) de-ice/anti-ice fluids ••••••••••••••••••••• 212 Definitions Commercial •••••••••••••••••••••• 232
Holdover times ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 212 Common/Noncommon or Private •••••••••••• 232
Braking action •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 213 Com muter ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 233
Contaminated runways .......................................... 213 On-Demand ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 233
"Iced-over" sparkplug electrodes ........................... 213
Domestic ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 234
Jet stream •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 214
Flag ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 234
Clear Air Turbulence .............................................. 215
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Wind chill factors .................................................... 216 Supplemental •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 234
AWOS vs. ASOS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 217 Scheduled ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 235
Domestic, Flag, Supplemental, Part 121 ................ 235
METAR vs. TAF ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 218
Part 125 ..................................................................235
Ceiling .................................................................... 218
Wet Lease vs Dry Lease ........................................236
Virga ....................................................................... 218
•••
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot XIII
Part 135 or Part 121 does not apply to ................. . 236 International flights between
Business names .................................................... 237 Mexico or Canada and the U.S .... 277
Common carriage .................................................. 237
Small & large Aircraft .......................................... .. . 278
Noncommon carriage .......................... ..... ............. 237
Type rating required ............................................... 278
Aircraft requirements ................................. ............ 237
Operational control ................................................ 237
Accelerate-STOP Distance ••••••••..•••••..••• 278
~ertificate-!folding Q.istrict Qffice (CHOO) ............ 237 Accelerate-GO Distance ••••••••••••••.•.....••• 278
Direct air carrier ..................................................... 237 Landing limitations 60°/o, 70°/o, 80°/o ..... 279
Part 91 vs. Part 121 vs. Part 135 .................. 238, 239 Effective runway length •••••••••••••••••.......• 279
PIC qualifications •••••••••.••.•...•.•••••••.•••.•••• 240 Subpart F large and turbine-powered
SIC qualifications ••••••••••••.•.••••••••••••.••.•••• 241 multiengine airplanes ............... 280
SIC required ••••••••••••••••••.••••.••••••••••••.•.•••• 241 Autopilot minimum altitudes for use ....... ........... 281
Training, testing & checking a quick synopsis .... 242 Alcoholic beverages ............................................... 282
Passengers during cargo only operations ........ ... .. 243 Stowage of food, beverage .............................. ...... 282
Exit seating .. ........................................................... 282
Load manifest (W&B) •............•••••••.......•. 243
Smoking prohibitions .............................................. 283
Load man ifest, W &B; record keeping ... ....... ........... 244
Justifiable aircraft equipment ..................... ............ 244
Subpart K of Part 91 ....................... 284, 285
Maximum payload capacity ................................... 244 Effect of Subpart K on Part 135 ............. 286
Standard average passenger weights ................... 244
Cargo floor limits •••••••••••••.•.•..••••••••...••.••• 244
Weight I Balance & Center of Gravity .................... 245
Pilot record keeping W&B load manifest ........... 246
CO MAT .................................................................. 246 Chapter 8
Effects of forward I aft CG ..................................... 24 7
Reporting mechanical irregularities ....................... 24 7 More Commercial Stuff •••... 287
Airworthiness check ............................................... 24 7 Operations Specifications •••••.••............• 288
Cargo compartment classification .. .. ................... .. 248 Operations Manual (GOM) •••••••••.•... 289, 290
Sterile cockpit ••••••••••••.•..........•••••••........• 249 Management personnel qualifications ................... 291
Manipulation of controls ........................... .............. 249 Ramp check ••••.••.••.••••••••••••••••••••.•.••.••.••• 292
Admission to flight deck ....................... ... ............... 249
Checklists ••••••••.•.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•.••.• 293
Pl C/S IC designation required ................................ 249
Charts ..................................................................... 293
Fuel supply •••••••••••••••••••••••.......••••••. 250, 251
Performance data .................................................. 293
Destination & alternate Passenger occupancy of pilot seat ........................ 293
airport weather.•••••••. 252, 253 Briefing of passengers before takeoff .................... 293
Do you need an alternate? .•.•.•••••••.•.•.•••• 254 Proving runs ........................................................... 294
~ockpit ~oice Recorder (CVR) .............................. 294
Alternate airport weather minimums •••• 255
flight Q.ata Recorder (FDR) ................................... 294
People Express Exemption (3585) ................ 256, 257
§round froximity Warning ~ystems (GPWS) ....... 294
Takeoff minimums ••••.•..•..........••••••. 258, 259 Initial, Transition & Upgrade GROUND training ..... 295
Approach weather required ...•••••••......•.• 260 Recurrent training .......... .. ...................................... 295
Descent below DH or MDA ............. ............ ........... 260 Group I & Group II airplanes .................................. 296
Approach weather NOT required for Part 91 ......... 260 Training TYPE DEFINITIONS (Initial, Transition,
Landing under I FR .............................. ................... 261 Upgrade, Differences, Recurrent, etc.) .... 296
RVR ....................................................................... 261 Grace month ••••...•••.•••••••••••••••••••.••••.•.••.•• 296
Approach lighting ................................................... 262 EMERGENCY training ........................................... 297
High minimums captain •..••...••••••••....•.••• 263 Fire extinguishers ................................................... 297
Special Exemption 5549 ........................................ 263 HAZMAT ........................................................ 298, 299
Arrival at airports with Company flight instructors ..................................... 300
no weather reporting .•••••••• 264 Authorized instructor means .................................. 300
Check airman .. .. ..... ................................................ 301
Departing airports with
CHECKRIDES I TRAINING •••••••••...... 302-307
no weather reporting ....•.•.• 265
!nitial Qperating ~xperience {IOE) ......................... 308
Flight Time & Duty •••••.•..........•••••••.. 266-275 Flight attendants ........ ...................................... ...... 308
Flight locating procedures .......................... .... ... .... 276 Weapons ...... ........ ................................................. . 308
Regular airport .................................... .. .... ............. 276 Aircraft tests & inspections ..................................... 309
Provisional airports ............................... ................. 276 100 hour inspection ••••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••• 309
Runway lighting ..................................................... 276
•
XIV EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot
Progressive inspection program ............................ 309 Area of decision ...................................................... 333
Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program ...... 309 Single-engine service ceiling .................................. 333
Approved Aircraft Inspection frogram (AAIP) ....... 309 Single-engine absolute ceiling ................................ 333
Annual inspection ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 309 Driftdown ................................................................. 333
VOR check ............................................................. 309 VPAf: •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
Service difficulty reports ................................. 31 0, 311 Left engine is critical because ................................ 335
Time in service ....................................................... 311 How to CRASH an airplane equipped
Mechanical interruption summary report ................ 312 with a perfectly good spare engine ••• 336
Approved Aircraft Inspection frogram (AAIP) .... ... 312
Common multiengine accident scenarios ............... 336
Operation after maintenance ................................. 312
Emergency equipment ...... ....... ...... ....... ...... ............ 337
Maintenance required (owner, operator) ................ 312
Fire extinguisher ..................................................... 337
Operable condition ................................................. 312
First aid kits ............................................................ 33 7
Mechanical irregularity ........................................... 312
Megaphone ............................................................. 33 7
Instruments & equipment required ......................... 313
Safety belts ............................................................ 313 Minimum fuel advisory ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 337
Radio & nav equipment extended overwater ...... 314 Immediately ............................................................ 337
Emergency equipment extended overwater ........ 314 Emergency .... ....... ...... ................... ....... ...... ............ 337
Performance requirements-over water ................ 314 Emergency frequencies .......................................... 337
Extended overwater weather ................................. 315 Priority .....................................................................337
Airborne weather radar ....... ...... ....... ...... ....... ...... ... 315 Mayday ...................................................................337
TCAS ...................................................................... 315 Pan, pan, pan ......................................................... 337
,5mergency bocator Iransmitter (ELT) ....... ....... ..... 338
Flashlight •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 315
ELT changes in the works ...................................... 339
Aircraft airworthiness .............................................. 316
Reporting mechanical irregularities ........................ 316
NASA reports •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 340
Flight crewmembers at stations ............................. 316 Aviation safety reporting program .......................... 340
Seat belts & shoulder harness ............................... 316 Careless or reckless operation ............................... 340
Enforcement action ........................................ 342, 343
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) ••••••••••••••••• 317
Accident or incident ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 344
Pilot Operating Handbook (POH) •••••••••••• 317
Major or minor damage .......................................... 344
Limitations I Markings I Placards ••••••••••• 317 Notification of accidents .......................................... 345
Minimum ,5quipment ,bist (MEL) ..................... 318-321 Notification of incidents & overdue aircraft ............. 345
~onfiguration Qeviation ,bist (COL) ........................ 320
NTSB phone numbers ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 345
Inoperative means .. ...... ....... ...... ....... ...... ................ 320
Preservation of Wreckage; reports ......................... 345
Ferry permit (special flight permit) ................. 322, 323
Pilot record sharing (PRIA) ••••••••••••••••••••• 324 - -
Aeronautical Information Manual-
-only an advisory? .......... 346
Access investigation check (airport badge) ........... 325
Copies of ATC Tower/Center-
Closing & locking of flightcrew door ....................... 325
Aircraft dispatcher .................................................. 326 audio/radar track tapes •••• 346
Dispatch release I flight release ....... ...... ....... ...... ... 326 FAA "Hot Line" ........................................................ 34 6
Age ......................................................................... 327 AOPA "Hot Line" ..................................................... 346
Chapter 9 Chapter 10
Emergencies & Legal •........ 329 Miscellaneous, Definitions,
Compliance with ATC clearances .......................... 330 Aerodynamics & Trivia •••••• 293
Deviating from a rule due to an emergency ........... 330
Piper Numbers & Names •••••••••••••••••••• 348
Confirm it! ............................................................... 330
Do not mumble ....................................................... 330 Beechcraft Numbers & Names ••••••••••• 349
EMERGENCY allowed to Hypoxia ...................................................................350
Hyperventilation .......... ...... ....... ...... ......................... 350
IMMEDIATELY deviate •••• 330
Carbon Monoxide ................................................... 350
EMERGENCY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 331 Ear block ................................................................. 350
Responsibility and authority of the PIC .................. 331 Air ambulance flights "Life Guard" ..................... 350
Engine failure •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 332, 333 Aerodynam1·cs •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 351 ·353
Critical engine ........................................................ 333 Forces acting on an aircraft in flight ....................... 351
Accelerate-STOP I Accelerate-GO ........................ 333
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot xv
Angle of attack ................................ .. ..................... 351 Tango ...... ..................... .............................. ...... ...... 359
Angle of incidence ............................................... .. 351 Flight check ................... .. ................................ ... .... 359
Camber ...................................................... .. .......... 351 Manifold pressure and the
Chord or chord Ii ne .............................. ..... ............. 351 constant speed propeller ••••• 360
Relative wind ............................................. ............ 351
Supercharged I turbocharged engines .................. 361
Wing planform ....................................................... 351
Horsepower ••••••...•••••••••••••••••••••••••••.•.•.•.• 362
Aspect ratio ............................................................ 351
Lift-Drag ratio UD .............................................. 351 Wattage vs. Kilowatts vs. Horsepower .................. 362
Gravity ................................................................... 352 Power and weight .................................................. 362
Center of Gravity ................................................... 352 Brake horsepower .................................................. 363
Bernoulli ................................................................. 352 Shaft horsepower ................................................... 363
Center of lift ........................................................... 352 Time in service ....................................................... 363
Center of pressure ............................. ..... .. ............. 352 PMA .................. .. ... ........................................ ...... .. 363
Drag ........ .. .... ................................... ................... ... 352 FAA 337 Form-
Induced drag .................................... ...................... 352 Major Repair and Alteration ... 363
Effect of air density on lift and drag .......... .... .... ..... 352 TBO .••.........••••••.....•.•.•••••••••••••••••••...•....... 364
Effect of altitude, temperature & humidity ............. 352
STC •••.••••••••••••••.•••••.•••••••••••••••••••••••...••.••• 364
Parasite drag .......................................... ............... 353
Form drag .............................................................. 353 TSO •••••••.••••••••••..••••••••••••••••••••••••.•.•••••••.•• 364
Skin friction drag .................................................... 353 Preventive maintenance ........................................ 365
Interference drag ................................................... 353 Oil mineral vs. ashless dispersant •...•.. 366
Angle of attack and lift ........................................... 353 Oil viscosity ••••....•••••••••••••••••••••••••••.••..•• 366
Critical angle of attack ........................................... 353 Piston engine smoke .............................................. 366
Load factor ............................................................. 353 Backfiring ............................................................... 366
Flaps/Slots/Slats & Clearway .••••••••••.•..••••.••••••••••••••.••.•••••..••• 367
Boundary layer control ••••• 354, 355 Stopway ...••••••••.•......••••••••••••••••••••.•....•...• 367
Plain flap .. ..... .................................. ....................... 355 Flight visibility .............. ... .. .................................. .... 367
Split flap .... ............................................................. 355 Visibility and the Earth's horizon ...................... ...... 367
SI otted flap ................................................ ............. 355 Radar reflectors ... .................................................. 367
Fowler flap ............................................... .............. 355 lfotice of f_roposed ,Buie Making (NPRM) ............. 368
Aerodynamic twisting caused by flap ... ... .............. 355 Shadows ......... ....................................................... 368
Fixed slot ............................................................... 355 Mountains ....... ........................................................ 368
Automatic slot ........................................................ 355 Empire State building ............................................. 368
Boundary layer control ........................................... 355 Charts ..................................................................... 369
Laminar flow .......................................................... 356 Sectional charts runways longer than 8,069' ...... 369
Boundary layer ...................................................... 356 Night four definitions ............................................ 370
Reynolds number .................................................. 356 Aircraft lights .......................................................... 371
Adverse vs. Proverse Yaw •.•••••••••.••••••••• 357 Hydroplaning .......................................................... 372
Dutch roll ........................................... ...... ............... 357 Test to detect contamination of jet fuel .............. .. .. 373
Yaw damper................................ .. .. .................... ... 357 Specific Gravity ....•..•••••••••••••••••••..•........• 373
Trim tabs .. ... ............................... ..... .................. ... .. 357 Control towers .......... ..... ......................................... 373
Service ceiling •••••••••••..•..........•••••••........• 358 Aircraft [weight] classes-
All engine service ceiling ..................... .... .............. 358 (heavy, large, small) ............. 373
Single-engine service ceiling ................................. 358 Crosswinds ... ..... .. ................................................... 373
Certified ceiling ...................................................... 358 Simulators four levels •••••••••••••••.•••..••.•• 374
Maximum certified ceiling ...................................... 358 Gold seal flight instructor certificate ....................... 375
Maximum certified altitude ..................................... 358
Absolute ceiling ..................................................... 358
Single-engine absolute ceiling ............................... 358
Driftdown ................................................................ 358
Fastest and highest flying airplane ........................ 358
Contrails .............................................. .... .. ............. 358
Pilot In Command •••••....•.........•••••••.......•• 359
Pilot In Command seating position ........ 359
Active pilots in the United States •........• 359
English ..................................................... .............. 359
Wilco ...................................................................... 359
•
XVI EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot
Chapter 11 INDEX •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 413
Reference, Rules of Thumb,
Conversions .•....••••••••••••••.••. 377
ICAO airport identifier country prefix •••• 378
Aircraft country registration number codes ............ 378
Airport identifier logic .............................................. 379
A few interesting identifiers .................................... 379
ZULU time ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 380
Pitot-static system malfunctions ............................. 381
Effects of forward I aft CG ...................................... 381
Fuel & fluid colors ................................................... 381
Draining fuel sumps ............................................... 381
Crosswinds ............................................................. 381
Cutouts (placards) .................................................. 382
°C to °F (placard) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
Reciprocals (placard) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
TAKEOFF mnemonic ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
Flight plan (wallet-sized) •••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
Measurements (1/64-1/32-3/64-1/16, etc.) ............ 382
Spin recovery PARE ............................................ 382
SHUTDOWN mnemonic ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
Quickie conversions ............................................... 383
POUNDS to GALLONS ......................................... 383
POUNDS of Jet A to LITERS ................................. 383
CELSIUS to FAHRENHEIT ................................... 383
Liquid measures (ounce, cup, pint, quart, etc.) ..... 383
Radio call ................................................................ 383
Acre ........................................................................ 383
Reciprocals 22 Rule ............................................ 383
Fuel weight ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 384
Conversions, Comparisons,
Formulas & Weights ••••••••••• 385
Formulas & Rules of Thumb •••••••••••• 386-389
Conversion Tables .......................................... 390-394
Chapter 12
Lengel's Radio Manual .••••.. 395
Key Words to Avoid ................................................ 397
Clearance Large Airports ............................ 398-400
Taxi I Takeoff I Departure ...................................... 401
E nroute ............................................................ 402-404
Approaching your Destination ......................... 405-406
Approach & Landing ........................................ 407-409
I FR Arrival at Small Uncontrolled Airport ............... 408
VFR Arrival at Large, Class B or C Airport ............. 409
Emergencies ................................................... 410-411
Miscellaneous ........................................................ 412
••
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot XVII
Chapter 1
•
• • • •
Airspace &
Alrighty boys and girls ...
let's get started. Airport Operations
The Foundation
Airspace Graphic Overview •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 2
Class A & B Airspace ....................................................................................................... 3
Class C & Airport Beacons .............................................................................................. 4
Class D ............................................................................................................................. 5
Class E, VFR in Class E, Surface Based Class E ........................................................... 6
Class G, Class G Control Towers .................................................................................... 7
Transition Area ................................................................................................................. 8
TRSA ................................................................................................................................ 8
Airport Advisory Area ....................................................................................................... 8
VoidTime ......................................................................................................................... 8
VFR in all Classes & Special VFR •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 9
Prohibited; Restricted; MOAs; Warning Areas; Alert Areas, etc .................................... 10
Class F Airspace ............................................................................................................ 10
Aerobatic Flight .............................................................................................................. 11
Normal; Commuter; Utility & Acrobatic Category Aircraft .............................................. 11
ADIZ; DEWIZ; Mountainous Areas ................................................................................ 12
Intercept Procedures ...................................................................................................... 13
Flap Setting in Class G Airspace ................................................................................... 14
Land And Hold Short Operations (LAH SO) ................................................................... 14
Turns at Airports Without an Operating Control Tower ••••••••••••••••••••••• 15
Traffic Pattern Entry ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 16, 17
Traffic Pattern Altitude & Glide Slope ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 18, 19
Runway Markings ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 20, 21
Airport Signs, Markings .................................................................................................. 22
Runway Weight Bearing Capacity ................................................................................. 22
Holding Position Markings: I LS Critical Area ................................................................. 23
Runway Lights •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 24, 25
Airport Elevation & Reference Point .............................................................................. 26
Low Altitude Alert ........................................................................................................... 26
Braking Action I Runway Friction Reports ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 26
Exiting the Runway After Landing .................................................................................. 26
Formation Flight ............................................................................................................. 27
Fl600
Class B
Class C
Class G
Class D ·
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 1

Chap 1 - Airspace & Airport
Class E
FL 600
Class A
No VFR
DME required at and above FL 240 [91.205(e)]
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
••• •
l• One-third of all ~•
• •
;• Americans believe in
: (but they sure do : : aliens and UFOs. .• ~~~
•
:. have great dancers). }
••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••• •• ~ (Apparently there are more than ;
: 100 million mentally challenged ;
:. individuals living amongst us!) .:
18,000' MSL (FL 180) - Altimeter 29.92 ••
•• •• • • •• ••••• ••••••• •••••• ••• • ••• • •• • •••• • ••
•
1,000'
Class E
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Class E : 1. Class E starts at 1,200 AGL (at
: times lower or higher) and extends
: up to but not including 18.000 MSL
: the base of Class A.
.__.,.. ........14,500' MSL : 2. In some areas of western U.S .
Class E 1,000' : Class G extends from the surface
10,000' MSL : up to but not including 14.500 MSL
or above : where Class E takes over
/ : (shaded on enroute charts).
: 3. In other words - in the vast
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •, • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •. :• ma1or1 · ·t y of the U .S . - J:I-~~-"-=
Class E
c ......
::
•
12,500 MSL
••••••••••••••••••••••
····· .... -
• •' • starts at ..........
1 200
~
AGL and extends YQ
• : to but not including 18,000 MSL ...
• • • EXCEPT for a few mountainous
:• Ceiling of Class B •: :• areas in the west where Class G
: can be anywhere : : extends from the surface up to but
,n...,. ~~,~~-~·••~.~-~.::.:':~~.'"!~P.~':1!!~.r.!'!1.<?~C:.~.<~~~~~ ?)................... .:. ... from 7,000' to •• ;~ not including 14,500 MSL where
0 0 00' MSL 12,500' MSL. : : Class E takes over.
Speed Limit - 250 kts below 1 • : : : 4. Around an airport ... Class E can
•
CI E : ::
or ~
go down to 700 AGL (faded
""I ass 1,000• : • • • • • •••• •. • • • • • • : : Magenta line), the surface
Speed Limit Below • •••• • • • • • • , • • • • •. • : (dashed Magenta line).
200 kts below 10,000' MSL •••• 7,000 MSL • • • • • • • • : s. A faded Blue line fades in the
2.500' AGL 2,000' / ·"'·a/sril visibility ••••••••••••••••••••• :• direction where Class _ E begins at
within 4 nm of : 1.200 AGL abutting an area of
500' : Class G airspace.
an airport in Class B ··~111¥i'#t4lilllll;dldtill#llllgllll;jlil;lii111111111d!io1!~_,,,,,illllllllll
Class C or D
airspace.
- VFR:
1,000' ceiling Class E
(does not apply to •• •• 3 sm visibility
~
Class 8) ~ .... clear of clouds
' ::::::::::::::::::~ 4,000' AGL

••• ••••
Class E
~-- ----- ··..
2,500' AGL
.........
Class C
Class D 1,200' AGL
700' AGL Class E
Class G
Class G
..
•
x Class G
• • •• •• •• • •
• • • • •• • •
• : • • ••••• A ••••• Ji.••••••••••••••• •• • •
: : •••••••••••••• : •• : :· Class E can go down to • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••
• • • • • ••••••••• 11. •••••••••••••••••
: Class E to the surface: ••
• : : Class D-tower : : 700' AGL to accommodate : :· Class B - Individually
• • • • h : Dashed Magenta line, •
. .....•..•.••..•...•.••..••.... .-····················
•
•
:
•
:
•
no radar.
~~lr#i~~~~~
•
•
: instrument approac es.
•..~... .....Ni~
: : tailored. 250 kts below
• •
• : 10,000' (200 kts below the
: weather reporting &
•
: radio communications
•
••
••
:• :• Class E - 700' AGL within : Class o with radar : : floor or in VFR corridor).
:• •·~u-.#ili~--jlr#i~~IN4#r
:• with ATC to the surface. •
:
:
: faded Magenta border.
: (instrument approaches)
: is called a TRSA.
··~••~~~~~w~ ·············"··.
: VFR operations to, from, or in the traffic :•
.. .......................... ..
•
Class E:
•·~MA~llllillil~'1#1N'tltiM#l/ll. •
••....•.•...... ,• ...
: Class C - Radar. Individually
Class G - Uncontrolled. • pattern of an airport having any type of : 1,200' AGL when
: tailored but usually 5 nm Core
Surface to 14,500' MSL. :• from surface to 4,000' AGL,
: *Surface-Based Controlled Airspace* : no inst approach.
Shaded on enroute charts : 1 O nm Shelf from 1.200' to 4,000' : (i.e., Class B, C, D or E) requires at least
(mostly western US). • a 1,000 ft ceiling and 3 sm visibility.
: AGL, Outer Area 20 nm radius.
·~~#N#N~~~Nr#~
2 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot
(Chap 1 - Airspace & Airport J
CLASS A Airspace: (11.1 , 11 .31 , 11.33, 11 .15, 11.133, 91 .135, 91 .155, AIM 3-2-1 , 3-2-2, FAA-H-8083-25)
1. All airspace from 18,000 ft MSL (FL 180) up to and including FL 600 within the 48 contiguous States,
District of Columbia, most of Alaska, and the airspace within 12 NM offshore. There is no Class A
airspace over Hawaii and the Victor airways have no upper limit in Hawaii.
2. All aircraft MUST be IFR unless otherwise authorized. No VFR (unless for purposes of lost communications).
3. No minimum flight visibility or distance from clouds is specified.
4. Altimeter setting for all aircraft operating in US controlled Class A airspace 29.92.
CLASS B Airspace: (11 .41 , 91 .111, 91 .126, 91 .121, 91 .129, 91 .130, 91 .131 , 91 .155, 91 .215, AIM 3-2-1 , 3-2-3, 8083-25)
1. Surface to 7,000' (Miami) or up to as high as 12,500' MSL (Atlanta) surrounding the busiest airports.
2. Individually tailored upside-down wedding cakes contain all instrument approaches. < < >s ,
3. Clearance into Class B required. (91 .131 , Chief Counsel interp Jan 1o, 201 O)
4. VFR operations Ceiling: 1,000 ft Visibility: 3 sm Clear of Clouds (or Special VFR).
5. IFR operations An operable VOR or TACAN receiver is required. (91 .131)
6. Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, a LARGE TURBINE-POWERED airplane operating to or from a
primary airport in Class B airspace MUST operate AT or ABOVE the FLOORS of the Class B airspace
while within the lateral limits of that area even when operating on a visual approach.
7. A LARGE (more than 12,500 lbs) or TURBINE-POWERED airplane shall, unless otherwise required by
distance from cloud criteria, enter the TRAFFIC PATTERN at an altitude of at least 1,500' AGL and
maintain 1,500' AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing. [Noise abatement]
8. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an ILS shall fly at or
above the GLIDE SLOPE between the outer marker and the middle marker.
9. Any airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VASI shall maintain at or above the glide
slope (aka glide path) until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing.
10. Mode C veil All aircraft operating within 30 nm of a Class B airport, from the surface to 10,000' MSL
must have Mode C (unless the aircraft was originally certified without an electrical system and still does not have one).
11. SPEED LIMIT 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet (200 KIAS below the floor or in VFR corridor).
a. 250 KIAS MUST NOT BE EXCEEDED even if you are told to ''MAINTAIN BEST FORWARD
SPEED."
b. ''Maintain best (or maximum) forward speed'' means "maximum or best forward
*LEGAL* speed." ATC does not have the authority to lift the 250 below 10,000 ft speed
restriction [91.11 ?(a)]. You cannot be cleared to violate a regulation, and you cannot accept
such a clearance.
c. If a controller assigns you 300 kts or greater inbound (10,000 ft or above), and he later
descends you to 8,000 ft, it is UNDERSTOOD that you must slow to 250 KIAS BEFORE
descending below 10,000.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ································~
: "At or above the glide slope" does •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• : OpSpec C077 requires commercial
: not prohibit normal bracketing
· : "Normal bracketing maneuvers" : operators to remain within Class B, C, or
•• maneuvers above or below the : are maneuvers which remain within
•• : the limits of the higher and lower : Q airspace or within Class E airspace
glide slope for the purpose of
• glide slope signals . : when within 35 miles of the destination.
remaining on the glide slope. \
•• ··································································································~········· •
• •
: Do you have to hear the words ''Cleared into Class B'' when VFR?
•
: 1. The short answer is yes. You must hear the magic word ''cleared' at least somewhere in the instructions given to you
: by the approach controller. Radar identification and instructions to maintain a specific altitude and heading that will put
: you in their airspace can no longer be considered an implicit, implied, or understood clearance into Class B (although it
•
: happens all the time). A Letter of Interpretation addressed to my good friend Bridgette Doremire from the Office of
: Chief Counsel dated January 10, 2010 serves to rescind previous policy.
: 2. So ... if you can get a word in edgewise, alwavs ask for confirmation , just to get it on the tape .
•• 3. That being said ... if you've been radar identified by the approach control having jurisdiction (e.g., Charlotte
•
: Approach; NOTE: "flight following" from "center" cannot clear you into Class B); the terms "cleared as requested" or
: even "proceed as requested," or a clearance to a specific point inside the Class B will also suffice. Example: ''Citation
: 5CM , radar contact, remain VFR, cleared direct Charlotte, climb and maintain four thousand, expect 36R."
•: 4. 91.131 [Operations in Class B airspace] (a)(1) "The operator must receive an ATC clearance from the ATC facility
: having jurisdiction for that area before operating an aircraft in that area." It does NOT say - "The operator must
: specifically hear the magic words 'Cleared into Class B' in that precise order... " If the frequency is totally saturated
••• and you're truly paranoid about the magic words, then turn around and run away. Now that will get their attention!:o)

(Chap 1 - Airspace & Airport)
Class C Airspace: (71.s1 , 91 .117, 91 .126, 91 .127, 91 .129, 91 .130, 91 .215, AIM 3-1-4, 3-2-1 , 3-2-4, 4-1-19, 8083-25)
1. Surface to 4,000 AGL above an airport with: ·-················································
~Mode C required within and above
a. An operating Control Tower, and : all Class cup to 10,000 ft MSL.
b. Radar Approach Con tro I. ·'U.u&llillililililililtl:UiUilliUA&ltUAAl~liltUliiUJtlAU&Ud
2. VFR operations Ceiling: 1,000 ft Visibility: 3 sm - Cloud Clearance: 500'
below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontally (or Special VFR).
3. Individually tailored but usually consist of:
a. 5 nm radius CORE (aka inner circle, or inner ring) that extends from the
surface to 4,000 AGL (rounded off to the nearest 100 ft).
b. 10 nm radius shelf (aka outer circle, or outer ring) that extends from 1,200' to 4,000' AGL
(rounded off to the nearest 100 ft).
c. Outer Area 20 nm radiusextends from the lower limits of radar/radio coverage up to the
ceiling of the approach control's airspace. ·-··········································
~ See NOTAMs or A/FD ·•
4. Two-way communication must be established before entry: ~for Class c effective hours ~
a. If controller responds with ''(callsign) standby'' Radio ·---~-----161
communication has been established and the aircraft can enter the Class C unless the
controller has informed the pilot to remain clear of Class C.
b. If the controller responds to the initial call WITHOUT using the aircraft CALLSIGN Radio
communications have NOT been established and the aircraft may NOT enter the Class C.
5. A LARGE (12,500 lbs or more) or TURBINE-POWERED airplane shall, unless otherwise required by
distance from cloud criteria, enter the TRAFFIC PATTERN at an altitude of at least 1,500' AGL and
maintain 1,500' AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing. [Noise abatement]
6. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an ILS shall fly at or
above the GLIDE SLOPE between the outer marker and the middle marker.
8. SPEED LIMIT Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no aircraft may operate at or below
2,500' AGL within 4 nm of the primary airport of a Class C at an indicated airspeed of more than 200
kts. '' ... maintain best forward speed'' is NOT an authorization to exceed the 200 kts in Class C (or
Class D). Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be SPECIFICALLY assigned by ATC (e.g.,
'' ... maintain 220 kts''). :•• •"At
• • •or
• •above
• • • • • •the
• • •glide
• • • • •slope"
• • • • • •does
• • • •not
• • • ••
•••••••••••••••••••••••••• : prohibit normal bracketing maneuvers
: When departing a satellite
.-························~ : above or below the glide slope for the
: airport within Class C or Q • OpSpec C077 requires commercial
• purpose of remaining on the glide slope.
: airspace, you must establish : operators to remain within Class B, C, or
• radio contact "as soon as
• • Q airspace - or within Class E airspace
• when within 35 miles of the destination. •
: "Normal bracketing maneuvers"
•
practical" after departing.
: are maneuvers which remain within
: the limits of the higher and lower
glide slope signals.
White Green • •11-•..-m • • • • • • • • • • • ~

Rotating beacons rotate clockwise
: Radio Call:
(when viewed from above) at approximately 12 RPM
which means you see 24-30 alternating : • Who you are
green and white flashes per minute. •• Where you are
•" • What do you want
White & Green (or green alone*) Lighted Land Airport (total flashes 24 to 30 per minute)
Two White flashes and One Green Military airport (2 quick white flashes between the green flashes)
Green, Yellow, and White Lighted Heliport (total flashes 30 to 45 per minute)
White & Yellow (or yellow alone*) Lighted Water Airport
Note: Operation of the airport beacon in a Class B, C, D, or E airspace during daylight hours often indicates a
ceiling less than 1.000 feet and/or visibility less than a, statute miles (IMC conditions for controlled airspace).
*Green alone or yellow alone is used only in connection with a white-and-green or white-and-yellow beacon display, respectively.

Class D Airspace - Non-Federal Control Towers:

(71 .61 , 91 .117, 91 .129, 91 .155, 103.17, 103.23, AIM 3-1-3, 3-1-4, 3-2-1 , 3-2-5, 3-5-6, 4-3-2, 8-1-8, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Surface to 2,500' AGL surrounding an airport with an operating Control Tower (but . ... ,,. - -- -
usually NO RADAR). ----
2. Individually tailored, but normally a circular area with a radius of approximately 5 sm
around the primary airport and any extensions necessary to include instrument approach ' - - - - -
and departure paths. Delineated with a ''dashed Blue line'' · \
surrounding the airport. \ <& a ~
3. VFR operations Ceiling: 1,000 ft Visibility: 3 sm · ~
Cloud clearance: 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal!
(or Special VFR). --
- · -
4. Two-way communication must be established before entry.
• If the controller responds with ''(callsign) standby'' - 1
Radio communication has been established and the
aircraft can enter the Class D, unless the controller
has informed the pilot to remain clear of Class D.
5. A LARGE or TURBINE-POWERED airplane shall, unless
otherwise required by distance from cloud criteria, enter the
TRAFFIC PATTERN at an altitude of at least 1,500' AGL and
maintain 1,500' AGL until further descent is required for a
safe landing.
6. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a
runway served by an ILS shall fly at or above the GLIDE SLOPE between the outer marker and the
middle marker.
8. SPEED LIMIT Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no aircraft may operate at or below
2,500' AGL within 4 nm of the primary airport of a Class D at an indicated airspeed of more than
200 kts. '' ... MAINTAIN BEST FORWARD SPEED'' is NOTan authorization to exceed the 200 kts in
Class C or D. Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be SPECIFICALLYassigned by ATC (e.g.,
'' ... maintain 220 kts'').
9. By definition, Class D airspace must have WEATHER REPORTING. After the tower closes for the
evening, the airspace will revert to either Class E (controlled), or Class G (uncontrolled) usually
depending on the availability of a certified WEATHER observer or automated system (AWOS, ASOS).
Again by definition, Class E airspace cannot exist without weather reporting. Therefore, when the
TOWER CLOSES for the evening:
a. If continuous WEATHER REPORTING is maintained, the Class D airspace will normally revert
to Class E (controlled).
b. If WEATHER REPORTING is NOT available after the tower closes, the Class D airspace will
revert to Class G (uncontrolled).
c. The Airport Facilities Directory (A/FD) shows which type of airspace will exist after the
tower ceases operations.
··· ··· · ····· · ··· ··· ~··· · ··· ······ · ···· ·· · ··· ··· ··· ·
: Class D- Dashed Blue line.

~_u;;;;;:;;.;;;;...~~--~~~
.......................................... ·······························~
•: Some Class D towers have a
:
•
Ceiling of Class D airspace in
: hundreds of feet. A minus ceiling
~
~~
-....,
: ''repeater'' scope that allows them to
• : value (e.g. , -40) indicates surface ~:.__-----.. '40' \
: monitor someone else's radar screen, : up to but not including that value.
• I L :.a
:.but mostly they just look out the window.
- - I \
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Often the controllers who work Class D airports are
: not FAA employees. These ''VFR towers'' can
.: Towers are shown in
~ Blue, all others Magenta .
...____ "'- /
,
~
•
: handle I FR traffic but are referred to as ''NFCT'' on ~' t
• sectional charts (Jion federal ~antral Iower).
•
--·
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
p tJll1f"
• ••••••••••••••••
~ Tick marks around the airport
:.~
sy~m~b~o~
I i~
nd~ic~a~te~f~
ue~l.;.;.is~a~v~
ai~
la~
bl~
e.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: OpSpec C077 requires commercial operators to remain within Class B. C, or Q •••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
airspace - or within Class E airspace when within 35 miles of the destination. :• See A/FD or NOTAMs
: for Class D effective hours.
•'oUMUMIUilililMMl--tlilMll&lilllil~~

Class E Airspace:
(71 .71 , 91.127, 91 .155, 135.205, AIM 3-1-4, 3-2-1 , 3-2-5, 3-2-6, 4-1-18, 4-3-26, 4-4-12, 5-5-6, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. CONTROLLED airspace that is not Class A, B, C, or D within the 48 contiguous States and Alaska.
2. The vast majority of the time Class E begins at 1,200' AGL and includes upwards to, but not including 18,000 ft
(Flight Level 180, the base of Class A). Theoretically Class E airspace begins again above FL 600.
3. Types of Class E:
a. A SURFACE AREA designated for an AIRPORT designed to contain all instrument approaches. The primary
requirements for a Class E airport are approved weather reporting (FSS or ASOS/AWOS) and a means of
communications with ATC all the way to the ground. Area surrounded by a dashed Magenta line.
b. EXTENSIONS to a SURFACE AREA of Class 8, C, or D airspace to contain instrument approaches.
c. TRANSITION AREAS beginning at either 700 or 1.200 ft AGL, used to/from the en route environment.
d. EN ROUTE AREAS that provide controlled airspace for IFR but are NOT Federal airways.
e. Federal AIRWAYS from 1,200 AGL upward to but not including 18,000 MSL.
f. Unless designated at a lower altitude-Class E begins at 14,500 MSL up to, but not including, 18,000 MSL.
2400 AGL
• Differing floors of
VFR 1n Class E (controlled) Airspace: Class E areas.
(91 .155, 91 .157, AIM 3-1-4, 3-2-6, 5-4-23, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25, OpSpec C077) 4500 MSL
1. Less than 10,000 ft MSL - 3 sm visibility - Cloud separation: 500 below, 1,000 above, 2,000 horizontally.
2. At or above 10,000 ft MSL - 5 sm visibility - Cloud separation: 1,000 below, 1,000 above, 1 mile horizontally.
3. 91.155(c) ''Except as provided in§ 91.157 [Special VFR], no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling
under VFR within the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when
the ceiling is less than 1.000 ft."
4. NOTE #1: Do NOT cancel in the air while on approach to an airport with Class E to the surface unless the
weather meets the basic VFR weather and cloud separation requirements of 91.155 (see #1. above) unless you
have received a "Special VFR" clearance (91.157).
5. NOTE #2: A ''Special VFR" clearance is treated almost the same as an IFR clearance as far as separation is
concerned. It is not likely to save you or the guy behind you any time. So, if the visibility is below 3 miles
and/or the ceiling is below 1.000 ft, or there's a chance that cloud separation could be a problem, just wait till
you're on the damn ground to cancel. You never know who might be lurking in the weeds just waiting for a
chance to make your life miserable.
6. NOTE #3: To conduct a VISUAL APPROACH in Class B, C, D, or E airspace under Part 91 you need only
maintain ''clear of clouds" (AIM 5-4-23). Part 135 (turbojets) and Part 121 are restricted by OpSpec C077 and
must maintain the cloud separation required by 91.155 (see 1. above).
Surface· Based Class E: (Ac 90-66A, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)

1. Brings Class E, controlled airspace, to the surface in order to raise the weather minimums and restrict VFR
traffic during poor weather. Especially important for ILS approaches. -
2. Must have approved weather reporting and communications with ATC to the surface. / ~ ' ' Dashed
3. The airport manager must also request and receive Class E approval from the FAA. I \~~gent::
4. Most airports with weather reporting and communications with ATC never request Class E I ; t:~~e
status because it would make VFR traffic illegal when the visibility drops below 3 sm and/or \ / Surface
ceiling below 1,000 ft. Not good for business, especially if there's a flight school on the field. ' \ ,_
5. When weather reporting is unavailable, Class E reverts to Class G with CLASS E 700 ft AGL \ \
6.
(magenta shading encircling the area), or 1200 ft AGL (blue shading).
Represented by dashed Magenta lines on sectionals and enroute charts. a
·--------> \
\ , "
\
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
7. Surface-based Class E was formerly known as a control zone (FYI). : see A/FD and/or NOTAMs
•
8. ''RECOMMENDED'' traffic pattern SPEED LIMIT is 200 kts. : for Class E (sfc) effective hours.
··~iU:!Sl'lUrlil!:u.!:IOl:UU:~l:l:U::!!:l:e!<I
' ' l:l:U:6U;l:l;!!il!i!
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Possible reasons why many airports with weather reporting and a way to communication with ATC ·
to the surface do not apply for Surface-Based Class E status. Thoughts to consider:
1. The expense and hassle of dealing with the FAA's out of control bureaucracy(?).
2. Class E weather minimums are: 1,000 ft ceiling and 3 miles visibility.
3. Class G weather minimums are: Day-1 mile, clear of clouds. Niqht-3 miles, or 1 mile
when operating in an airport traffic pattern within 1/2 mile of the runway, clear of clouds.
4. So it's legal to fly VFR in the airport traffic area at or below 700 ft with only one mile visibility.
Not necessarily a safe practice, but flight schools and instructors make more money when they
can fly airplanes. There are also quite a few daredevils that enjoy the adrenaline rush of scud
running at or below 1.200 ft AGL around the hills, valleys, high-voltage power lines, and
•
•• broadcast towers enroute to their favorite burger joint. Hey, if it's legal it must be safe, right?
•···················································••••••4 ••·····················································~························· · ···················· ... ·······•··••··••·······••
:• A VFR takeoff or landing at an airport having any type of surface-based controlled airspace requires at least a
:• 1,000 ft ceiling and 3 miles visibility unless you have requested and received a Special VFR clearance.
•. .......
, _,,,~~...__... ........,_-.a,..--..........
._.._,,.~tMM:Hil!lll-... .,_*--.e:!~~..-.-..~~~~~-.it:!~9'!:MlllllAM~IM!H~~~-...-..---

(Chap 1 - Airspace & Airport J
CLASS G Airspace: (71 .9, 91 .13, 91 .126, 91 .155, 91 .177, 91 .185, 135.205, AIM 3-1-3,__________
3-2-1 . 3-2-6, ....
3-3-1 thru 3-3-3, 5-5-8, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25, OpSpec A014 & C064) All VFR weather minimums
1. UNCONTROLLED airspace not designated as Class A, B, C, D, or E. 91.155 - Next
2. When ''shaded'' on enroute charts, Class G extends from the surface to 14.500' MSL.
All airspace above 14.500' MSL is controlled (Class E, then Class A beginning at 18,000').
3. The vast majority of the continental US (not "shaded" or not an airport) is covered by Class G below 1.200 AGL.
4. Class G VFR visibility and cloud clearance requirements for aircraft other than helicopters:
a. 1.200' AGL or less: DAY - 1 sm, clear of clouds. NIGHT - 3 sm, 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000'
horizontally; or 1 sm, clear of clouds when in an airport traffic area within 1/2 mile of the runway.
b. More than 1,200' AGL but less than 10,000' MSL: DAY - 1 sm, 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000'
horizontally. NIGHT - 3 sm; 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontally.
c. More than 1.200' AGL and at or above 10.000' MSL: DAY or NIGHT - 5 sm; 1,000' below, 1,000'
above, 1 sm horizontally.
5. It is perfectly legal to flv in UNCONTROLLED airspace without an IFR flight plan or clearance. In fact, no
clearance is required (or even possible) to operate IFR in Class G airspace. Therefore, when receiving an IFR
clearance on the ground at an uncontrolled (aka Class G) airport, the clearance will usually include the phrase
''upon entering controlled airspace ... " (91.173). You are, in fact, operating in Class G without a clearance until
you get above the 700 foot transition altitude EVERY TIME you take off with a void time! Your IFR clearance does
not actually begin until you enter the Class E airspace.
6. 91.173 states only that ''no person may operate an aircraft in 'CONTROLLED airspace' under IFR UNLESS that
person has filed an IFR flight plan, and received the appropriate ATC clearance." It says nothing about
operating in UNCONTROLLED airspace, so the regulation does not apply.
7. In UNCONTROLLED airspace, no flight plan or ATC clearance is required (or possible to get). You can still
operate under Instrument flight fiules without a flight plan or any clearance from ATC. You must be instrument
current and the aircraft must be approved for IFR flight. You must cruise at an appropriate IFR altitude (91.179),
adhere to minimum altitudes for IFR flight (91.177), and comply with the other IFR requirements of 91 subpart B
that apply to IFR such as fuel reserves and VOR checks, however the altimeter, Mode C, and static system
checks of 91.411 (a) need NOT be current. (How 'bout that for a money saver!)
8. You do NOT have to maintain cloud separation (in Class G) because the flight is being conducted under Instrument
flight fiules, which do NOT require cloud separation.
9. There are many places in the continental U.S. (and certainly in Alaska) where an entire IFR flight might be
conducted in uncontrolled airspace without an ATC clearance. Happens all the time, especially in the western
states and Alaska, with the full knowledge and cooperation of the local FAA. Many times there is no radar or radio
coverage and often no telephone or even cell phone service. There is the risk that someone else is doing exactly
the same thing , not talking to anyone while in the clouds, and doing the same approach to the same airport at
the same time. (I'm gonna bet the ones that are still alive make regular position reports.) Hey, it ain't much different than
being on an IFR flight plan, breaking out at a Class G airport, and finding someone right in front of you scud runnin'
in the pattern. Not exactly perfectly safe, but it's all perfectly legal (it's a big sky and you're in a little airplane,
right?!;o ). It is also standard practice for Salt Lake and Denver centers to manage traffic that transitions from
uncontrolled airspace, to controlled airspace, then back to uncontrolled. It's understood that IFR separation
cannot be provided in the uncontrolled areas even though, at times, the aircraft may be visible on radar.
10. Does this mean I can launch from a small Class G airport (let's say, in a flat area of the Midwest, with a 700-foot
transition area) into a 100 ft overcast in 1A mile visibility with the intent of picking up my IFR clearance once I
punch through a thin layer and still be leqan
The answer is a resounding HELL NO: (See - http://www.ntsb.gov/legaValj/OnODocuments/aviation/3935.PDF)
a. The overlying CONTROLLED (Class E) airspace requires basic VFR cloud separation of 1000 feet
ABOVE the clouds (91.155). Impossible to do when starting from the ground with a low overcast.
b. You also could [will] be busted for "CARELESS and RECKLESS operation" [91.13(a)]. The judge could
decide (and has) that only a homicidal maniac would take off and climb through the clouds into controlled
airspace without a clearance, and without knowing who else was flying around out there.
c. Remember, there's always the chance that some self appointed "Air Cop" is lurking in the weeds just
waiting to turn in what they perceive as a lunatic breaking the law. Just get your clearance on the ground.
11. Part 135 or 121 operators are NOT allowed to operate "IFR" in Class G terminal (airport) airspace UNLESS the
airport has WEATHER REPORTING .
•
..............................................• .-·· · ·· ~·· ·· ···· · · · ··~ · ···· · ····~ · · ·· · ·· · ·· · ···· · ····· ·· ···· · ···· ·· ··· ··· ····· · ·· · ···· ~· ···· · ····· ··· ·· ··· ·· ~· ····· · ······ ~·· · · · ··· · ···· · ····· ·
: Notwithstanding restricted or : With one mile visibility and clear of clouds (day), it's perfectly legal to fly VFR in the that slim
•
: prohibited airspace - The ~ sliver of Class G airspace at or below 700 ft in the airport traffic area and at .Q.[ below 1,200 ft AGL
:• only place you won't find ~ in "sparsely populated areas" (or open water) as long as you remain at least 500 ft from the
: Class G near the surface is ; nearest person, vessel, vehicle or structure. Bird and drone traffic may also be problematic .
•
:• within the boundaries of •...._...__.........~.......11111111111....--....-111M1111.-.i-..1M11~-...111M111~-.tM1M-.......-.-=.-....-......-...-~-..Mfill..-.-....lliM!I
:• any surface-based
.,- • • ••••4 ••····· · · · ··---· ·· · · ·· · ····· · · · ··· · ~···· · ··· · · .... ····
: controlled airspace : A VFR takeoff or landing at a Class G
•
: surrounding an airport. ~ airport where Class E starts at 700 or Temporary control towers are sometimes
•
.............. ........... ................ ......... ......
· _....,.......,......111111111,..._1111111111....,.1M111111111111M
~
~
1,200 ft AGL requires only 1 mile established at Class G airports to handle
: There is virtually no Class G ~ visibility and clear of clouds (day) . major public events. See Page 83.
•
: airspace above 1,200 ft AGL
~-
eaM;lsi:i:it~o.._f.;,;.
th;..;,e.:;Ri:i;ioi:i;ic:.ik:=
y..:Mr:a:o:=u..:.n~ta*li:M
nM.s .ii...:

(Chap 1 Airspace & Airport)
TRANSITION AREA The CLASS G & CLASS E Boundary:
(71 .71 , AIM 3-2-1 , 3-2-6 , 3-3-1 thru 3-3-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Class E CONTROLLED airspace areas beginning at either 700 or 1,200 ft AGL used to transition
to/from the terminal or en route environment.
2. Designated to contain I FR operations in controlled airspace during terminal operations and while
transitioning between the terminal and en route environments.
3. 700 ft or more above the surface in conjunction with an instrument approach. A magenta faded line
surrounds Class E airspace with floor 700 ft above the surface on
sectionals charts. Airspace below 700 AGL is Class G (uncontrolled).
4. Airspace beginning at 1,200 ft AGL or greater that laterally abuts uncontrolled (Class G) airspace for
the purpose of transitioning to the terminal or enroute environment. Indicated by a blue faded line.
The direction the blue border fades indicates where Class E (controlled)
airspace begins at 1,200 ft AGL. Class G exists on the other side.
5. Except for some sections of the western U.S. where Class G airspace extends from the surface to
14,500 ft (shaded areas on enroute charts), all airspace above 1,200 ft AGL is Class E (controlled).
6. Normally a transition area (magenta faded line) is the 700 ft AGL area surrounding an airport with an
instrument approach that brings Class E, controlled airspace, to within 700 ft of the surface. This
area is designed to protect approaching IFR traffic by raising the visibility minimums for any VFR
traffic in the neighborhood. f ii~~~ o~iiis~~·~-;~ci~ci·iv1~9~~i~ ii~~-~~ci· ~~-;~ci-~ci-81~~··
a. VFR in Class G 1 sm visibility & clear of clouds (daytime). ~ 1ine,youcan assu~.e t~e airspace on~he otherside ot
. Cl E ''b'I' & Oft . . . the fadedMagenta 1ne1s ClassE start1ngat 1.200 AGL.
b. VFR 1n ass 3 sm v1s1 11ty 1,0 0- ce11ng. 1 ··- - - - - - - - - - - - - - . -
7. The Class G airspace below 700 ft AGL (or 1,200 AGL) allows a VFR pilot to practice takeoffs and
landings with only one-mile visibility. Of course this does raise a slight concern for an aircraft
conducting an instrument approach to that airport. But it's a big sky ain't it? What are the chances of
a jet on an instrument approach popping into view just as you lift off for your next touch & go?
Terminal Radar Service Areas TRSA: (AIM 3-5-6, 4-1-18, Ptc Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25)
1. Radar is available to assist the tower outside its Class D airspace. Mode C not required.
2. TRSA radar and the tower function independently, but as a rule of thumb treat it like a Class C airport.
3. Radio participation in the TRSA is voluntary but strongly recommended. If you're a total idiot and
would rather not receive TRSA service, just say ''negative TRSA service'' when departing.
4. If you're IFR, your experience will be identical to a Class C arrival or departure.
5. Can be thought of as Class D airspace surrounded by radar coverage.
6. Not busy enough to be a Class C, but too busy to be just a Class D. No equivalent in the ICAO world.
AIRPORT ADVISORY AREA/Information Services: (AIM 3-5-1 , 4-1-9, Ptc Glossary, Ac 90-66A)
1. Within 10 miles of an airport where a control tower is not operating but where a FSS is located.
2. FSS provides advisory service to arriving and departing aircraft.
3. Participation is not mandatory but is strongly recommended.
4. Usually surface-based Class E with an active FSS.
5. "Recommended" traffic pattern speed limit is 200 kts.
VOID TIME (Clearance Void Times): (91 .173, AIM 5-2-6, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, opspec co64)
1. Pilot may receive a clearance when operating from an airport without a control tower, which contains a
provision for the clearance to be ''VOID IF NOT AIRBORNE BY'' a specific time.
2. A pilot who does not depart prior to the void time must advise ATC as soon as possible.
3. Failure to contact ATC within 30 minutes after clearance void time will result in the aircraft being
considered overdue and search & rescue procedures will be initiated.
4. Other IFR traffic is suspended until the aircraft has contacted ATC or until 30 minutes after the void time.
5. CLEARANCE is automatically CANCELLED if TAKEOFF is NOT MADE PRIOR TO the
CLEARANCE VOID TIME.
6. Pilots who depart at or AFTER their void time are NOT afforded IFR separation and may be in
VIOLATION of 91.173, which requires that pilots receive an ATC clearance before operating IFR in
controlled airspace. Being five minutes late is like being a thousand feet off your assigned altitude. If
for some reason you cannot make the time, call FSS or ATC and get another release.
NEVER launch AFTER the VOID TIME.
7. Unless the airport has WEATHER REPORTING Part 135 operators cannot depart with a void
time because most Part 135 operators are not allowed to operate IFR in Class G uncontrolled-
airspace unless the airport has WEATHER REPORTING (tower reported, FSS, ASOS or AWOS-3).

91.155 Basic VFR weather minimums.
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (Q) of this section and § 91.157, no person may operate an aircraft
under VFR when the flight visibility is less, or at a distance from clouds that is less, than that
prescribed for the corresponding altitude and class of airspace in the following table:
Class A N/A N/A

Class B 3sm Clear of Clouds
Class C 3sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal
Class D 3sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal
3 sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal

1,000' below, 1,000' above, 1 sm horizontal
1 200' or less above the surface re ardless of MSL altitude

For Aircraft other than helicopters:
Day, except as provided in 91.155(b) 1 sm Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in 91.155(b) 3sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal
For Helicopters:
Day 1/2 sm Clear of clouds
Night, except as provided in 91.155(b) 1 sm Clear of clouds
More than 1 200' above the surface but less than 10 000' MSL
Day 1sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal
Night 3 sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal
More than 1,200' above the surface and
5sm 1,000' below, 1,000' above, 1 sm horizontal
at or above 10 000' MSL
(b) Class G Airspace. Notwithstanding the provisions of paragraph (a} of this section, the following
operations may be conducted in Class G airspace below 1,200 feet above the surface:
(1) Helicopter. A helicopter may be operated clear of clouds in an airport traffic pattern within 1/2 mile
of the runway or helipad of intended landing if the flight visibility is not less than 1/2 statute mile.
(2) Airplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control aircraft. If the visibility is less than 3 statute miles
but not less than 1 statute mile during night hours and you are operating in an airport traffic pattern
within 1/2 mile of the runway, you may operate an airplane, powered parachute, or weight-shift-control
aircraft clear of clouds.
(c) Except as provided in§ 91.157, no person may operate an aircraft beneath the ceiling under VFR within
the lateral boundaries of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport when the ceiling
is less than 1,000 feet.
( d) Except as provided in § 91.157 of this part, no person may take off or land an aircraft, or enter the traffic
pattern of an airport, under VFR, within the lateral boundaries of the surface areas of Class B, Class .Q,
Class Q, or Class .5 airspace designated for an airport -
(1) Unless ground visibility at that airport is at least 3 statute miles; or
(2) If ground visibility is not reported at that airport, unless flight visibility during landing or takeoff, or
while operating in the traffic pattern is at least 3 statute miles.
(e) For the purpose of this section, an aircraft operating fil the base altitude of a Class E airspace area is
considered to be within the airspace directly below that area.
SPECIAL VFR Summary: [1 .1, 91.157, 91 .205(d), Part 91 Appendix D, AIM 3-1-4, 4-4-6, 5-4-24, 5-5-3]
1. Available only upon reguest at Class D, E, most Class C and some Class B airports. ATC clearance
must be obtained (see Part 91 Appendix D, section 3 Special VFR prohibited).
2. A "reported" visibility of at least 1 sm (except for helicopters) and the aircraft must remain clear of clouds.
3. SVFR at NIGHT also requires pilot be INSTRUMENT RATED and aircraft INSTRUMENT EQUIPPED.
4. If ground visibility is not reported, 1 sm flight visibility may be used. For the purposes of Special
VFR (only), flight visibility includes the visibility from the cockpit of an aircraft in takeoff position,
operating under Part 91, at a satellite airport that does not have weather reporting capabilities.

PROHIBITED AREAS: (73.1thru73.5, 73.81thru73.85, 91 .133, AIM 3-1-1 , 3-4-2, 3-4-3, FAA-H-8083-25)
1. Flight of aircraft is prohibited. - - - - - -R
---Re- s-tr-ic-t-ed- - -W
- -W
- o-rn- i-ng-
2. No person may operate an aircraft within a prohibited area unless
authorization has been granted. P·Prohibited A-Alert
3. Established for security or other reasons associated with the national
welfare.
RESTRICTED AREAS: (73.1thru73.19, 91 .133, AIM 3-1-1 , 3-4-1 , 3-4-3, 3-5-3, FAA-H-8083-25)
p .55
1. Flight of aircraft, while not wholly prohibited, is subject to restrictions. R·6401
Of
2. No person may operate an aircraft within a restricted area unless advance permission has W·Sl8
Of
been granted.
3. Hazards to aircraft may include: artillery firing, aerial gunnery, or guided missiles.
4. If the restricted area is not active and has been released to the controlling agency (FAA), ATC will allow an
aircraft to operate in the restricted airspace without issuing specific clearance for it to do so.
5. If the restricted area is active and has not been released, ATC will issue a clearance, which will ensure the aircraft
avoids the restricted airspace.
MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS (MOAs): (1.1 , AIM 3-4-5, FAA-H-8083-25)

VANCE 2 MOA
1. Established for the purpose of separating certain non-hazardous military activities from
IFR traffic.
2. When a MOA is hot, nonparticipating IFR traffic may be cleared through a MOA i! IFR
separation can be provided by ATC. Otherwise, ATC will reroute nonparticipating IFR traffic.
3. Technically not restricted. VFR pilots may enter, but entering an active MOA is ''not recommended."
4. Prior to entering an active MOA, pilots should contact the controlling agency for traffic advisories.
WARNING AREAS: (1 .1, AIM 3-4-4 , FAA-H-8083-25)

1. Defined dimensions extending from 3 nm outward from the coast of the U.S.
2. Purpose is to warn pilots of activity that may be hazardous to nonparticipatin
~
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ra=ft:: .: :;::::::::;:::::::=:::::;~
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ds~u:p~
Don't shoot!
.
ALERT AREAS: (1 .1, AIM 3-4-6, FAA-H-8083-25)

ALERT AREA
1. These areas may contain a high volume of pilot training A-631
or an unusual type of aerial activity. CONCENTRA TEO STUDENT
HELICOPTER TRAINING
2. Participating aircraft as well as pilots transitioning the area
shall be equally responsible for collision avoidance.
CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS: (1 .1, AIM 3-4-7, FAA-H-8083-25)

1. Activities are suspended immediately when spotter aircraft, radar, or ground lookout positions
indicate an aircraft may be approaching the area.
2. No need to chart CFA's since they do not cause a nonparticipating aircraft to change its flight path.
MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES MTR: (AIM 3-5-2, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25)

1. VFR Military Training Routes - VR - Example: VR1223:
a. Generally flown below 1.500 ft AGL but may have some portions above 1,500 AGL.
b. Visibility shall be 5 miles or more and should not be conducted below a ceiling of less than 3,000 feet AGL.
c. May involve speeds in excess of 250 kts below 10.000 ft MSL.
d. All MTRs are charted on Sectionals. Low Altitude Enroute charts depict all MTRs that accommodate
operations above 1,500 ft AGL.
2. IFR Military Training Routes- IA - Example: IR292
a. Above 1,500' AGL and mostly below 10,000' MSL. ~--· "
~29 I
b. Conducted in accordance with IFR regardless of weather
c. May involve speeds in excess of 250 kts below 10.000 feet MSL.
d. Low Altitude En Route charts depict all MTRs that accommodate operations above 1,500 AGL.
3. Route Identification:
a. MTRs with no segment above 1,500' AGL shall be identified by FOUR number characters; example
VR1207 , IR1206.
b. MTRs that include one or more segments above 1.500' AGL shall be identified by THREE number
characters; e.g., VR207, IR206. (If the assigned number starts with a zero, the zero is dropped from charts.)
4. Nonparticipating aircraft are NOT prohibited within an MTR, however extreme vigilance should be exercised for
well-armed, low altitude traffic traveling at speeds that could potentially exceed Mach 1. HELLO!
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Class F Airspace - Special use airspace that may be classified as either Class F ADVISORY or Class F RESTRICTED. Airspace
: of defined dimensions within which activities must be confined because of their nature, or within which limitations are imposed upon
: aircraft operations that are not a part of those activities, or both . This airspace, as adopted by ICAO, does not have a U.S. equivalent .
•
··~~f'Afj,'fNld~llAlll~~~itA'~liiVINli.l'dl!N~flN,~~fltA,9,~
~ ~~~AAl~liM~'ilfNIAtloiflt#,'>NJAl!i~'iAN~lliiVi"ANl#ll~~~~~~l;;tldJ,j~~'AN~~

AEROBATIC FLIGHT: (91 .119, 91.303, 91.307, AIM 3-4-5, 8-1-7, AC 91-45C, AC-91-61, AC 91-72, P/C Glossary)
an abrupt change in an
aircraft's altitude, an
~ -·
abnormal attitude, or abnormal .............
acceleration, not necessary for
normal flight.
2. Steep turns, stalls, and unusual attitudes that are incidental to, and necessary for
training flights are not considered aerobatic in the sense that they are part of "normal"
training and do not involve an "abrupt" change in attitude. "Spins, loops, or rolls" would be
considered outside the definition of normal training and would be considered aerobatic. A
steep climbout after takeoff with a sharp turn at very low altitude or even a high-speed, low pass
down a runway may be considered aerobatic by certain (anal) inspectors in the sense that these
maneuvers are ''not necessary for normal flight.''
3. No person may operate an aircraft in aerobatic flight:
a. Over any congested area. For Vomit and
b. Over an open-air assembly. Urine Disposal.
c. In Class B, C, D, or E airspace designated for an airport.
d. Within 4 nm of the centerline of any Federal airway.
e. Below 1,500 ft above the surface; or
f. When flight visibility is less than 3 miles; or NJTES. NOSTRIHGS. NDWSS.
g. If the aircraft is not certified for aerobatic flight; or

h. Without parachutes for all occupants (unless all occupants are required crew members) if
any intentional maneuver will exceed 60° of bank or 30° nose up or down except this does
not apply during FLIGHT TESTS for pilot certification/rating or during TRAINING for spins and
other maneuvers reguired by regulations for any certificate or rating when supervised by an
authorized flight instructor. (91.307c. & d.)
i. Without parachutes for ALL occupants !f the AIRCRAFT is CERTIFIED for flight only if
ALL occupants wear parachutes (certain aerobatic aircraft).
························~
• PARACHUTES
•• If a pilot is performing aerobatics by
: himself, he is not required to wear a
• parachute. But if he brings someone
•• else along that is not a required
: crewmember, then everyone, including
• the pilot must have one on.
• Exception - certain high-performance
( •• aerobatic aircraft are certified requiring
' the pilot to wear a parachute all the time .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
c_
: "Provided no additional aerobatic flight
•:
··········· ~···· ..... ~ ..........•
•: "Tex" Johnston rolled a Boeing 707 twice :
•
maneuvers are performed, spin training to
meet the requirements of a CFI certificate
: over Seattle in 1955 essentially proving that
: or associated with upset recovery trai ning
: virtua lly any airplane can be rolled (view it : are not considered aerobatic maneuvers,
• •••••••••••••••••••••••••
: on YouTube). I wonder if everyone was : and the requirements of 91.303 do not
: For packing & rigging
: wearing their parachutes! ;o)? :• apply." (Legal lnterp Sep 28, 2012)
: requirements see 91.307
. .......""""............"""'""""'___"""""..................flttlliili.___..... ..""""'._...............f/flltil..#q/J'#fNtAfti........Mlll~i'#'fANllllll!ltNfttllrl
•¥fN'##iJ~rttMN¥.it#'#N't111N~
§ 23.3 Airplane Categories:

NORMAL Category aircraft 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 lbs or less. A single-pilot
turbojet (e.g. CE-501 , CE-551) will also be certified in the normal category. Normal non-aerobatic operations
including stalls, steep turns, angle of bank not more than 60°, +3.8Gs to -1.52Gs.
COMMUTER Category 19 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 19,000 lbs or less. Limited to multiengine
airplanes. Stalls, steep turns, angle of bank not more than 60°.
UTILITY Category 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 lbs or less, intended for limited
aerobatics. Spins if approved, angle of bank not more than 90°, +4.4Gs to -1.76Gs.
ACROBATIC Category 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 lbs or less, +6.0Gs to -3.00Gs.

ADIZ Boundaries and Mountainous Areas

·····································~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~•
. TheWashington , DCflightfiestricted~ne(DCFRZ)and
• ~pecial flight Bules Area (DC SFRA) are now permanent from
: the surface to FL 180 around DCA. Anyone planning a VFR
• flight within 60 NM of this area must complete the FAA's online
•
1~ : ADIZ training course (www.faasafety.gov) (91.161 ) -the
I
105° ~: discussion of which is beyond the scope of this book.
(93.331 thru 93.345)
Check your NOTAMS!
1£0BND
·
- - ·.
_.__,
-
126°
I
•ta•
... -
7~
(NOT DaAWHTO SCAl.!) ! \
Air Defense -Identification Zones - ADIZ & DEWIZ:

(91 .1 37 thru 91 .141, 91 .161 , 93.331thru93.345, AIM 3-5-3, 5-1-4 thru 5-1-8, 5-6-1thru5-6-6, P/C Glossary, AC 91 -63C, Part 99,
International Flight Information Manual)
1. The area of airspace over land or water, extending upward from the surface, within which the ready
identification, the location, and the control of aircraft are required in the interest of national security.
a. Domestic Air Defense Identification Zone an ADIZ within the United States along an
international boundary of the U.S.
b. Coastal Air Defense Identification Zone An ADIZ over the coastal waters of the U.S.
c. Distant Early Warning Identification Zone (DEWIZ) An ADIZ over the coastal waters of the
State of Alaska.
d. ADIZ locations and operating and flight plan requirements are specified in Part 99.
2. An IFR or DVFR (Qefense Y,isual flight B.ules) FLIGHT PLAN must be FILED for all operations that
enter an ADIZ. The very few exceptions can be found in the AIM 5-6-1 (d., & e.) and Part 99.
3. An operating two-way radio is required for most operations. A radio is not required if the aircraft
does not have a two-way radio; and is operated in accordance with a filed DVFR flight plan; and the
aircraft departs within 5 minutes of the E,stimated Qeparture !ime contained in the flight plan (see 99.1).
4. An operating transponder with Mode C is required for all operations.
5. For DVFR flights The estimated time of ADIZ penetration must be filed with the aeronautical
facility at least 15 minutes prior to penetration except for flight in the Alaskan ADIZ in which case report
prior to penetration.
6. ADIZ Penetration Position Tolerances:
a. Over land ±five minutes and within 10 nm from the centerline of intended track.
b. Over water ±five minutes and within 20 nm from the centerline of intended track.

INTERCEPT SIGNALS I PROCEDURES: (AIM 5-6-1thru5-6-6, Table 5-6-1 & 5-6-2)

If you are intercepted by a U.S. Military or law enforcement aircraft, immediately:
1. Follow the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft. See chart below.
2. Notify ATC, if possible.
3. Attempt to communicate with the intercepting aircraft and/or ATC on the emergency frequency 121.5 MHz (or 243.0
MHz), giving the identity and position of your aircraft and the nature of the flight.
4. If equipped with a transponder, squawk 7700, unless otherwise instructed by ATC. If any instructions received by
radio from any sources conflict with those given by the intercepting aircraft by visual or radio signals, request
clarification while continuing to comply with the instructions given by the intercepting aircraft.
Approaches pilot-side of aircraft and (Daytime) Rock wings to acknowledge.

matches speed and heading. You have been intercepted. (Nighttime) Rock wings and flash
Ni httime Will also flash navi ation Ii hts. navi ation Ii hts to acknowled e.
Match heading and follow. Continue on
Initiates a slow, level turn. Follow me. Fly this way.
headin in direction of fi hter.
Initiates abrupt turn across nose; may Warning! Turn now in
Immediately match heading and follow.
dis ense flares. direction of fi hter.
Circles airport, lowers landing gear, and
Lower landing gear (if equipped) and
overflies runway in direction of landing. Land at this airport.
land on runway.
Ni httime Will also turn on landin Ii hts.
If cannot comply, switch on and off all
Fighter understands
available lights at regular intervals.
Performs the breakaway maneuver. intercepted aircraft's
If in distress, switch on and off all
intentions.
available Ii hts at irre u/ar intervals.
Approach & Identification Fly This Way Breakaway Maneuver

Typically two fighter jets approach from A slow turn by a fighter jet indicates that Fighter jets will abruptly break
the rear. One fighter flies around to you should follow in the same direction. away from pursuit when they
make visual contact with the pilot. Be cautious of wake turbulence. understand our intensions.
This may also be conducted with a law
enforcement helicopter.

FLAP SETTINGS Class G Airspace: [91 .126(c)l
91. 126(c) Except when necessary for training or certification , the Pilot In Command of a civil turbojet-
powered aircraft MUSTuse, as a final flap setting, the minimum certificated landing flap setting set forth
in the approved performance information in the Airplane Flight Manual for the applicable conditions.
However, each Pilot In Command has the final authority and responsibility for the safe operation of the
pilot's airplan e, and may use a different flap setting for that airplan e .if th e pilot determines that it is
necessary in the interest of safety.
-One of the most RIDICULOUS paragraphs th e FAA has ever written-
-DO NOT LET the FAA FLY YOUR AIRPLANE!-
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• The FAA reportedly came up with this "rule" in an effort to
: reduce the noise made by older low-bypass turbojets during
• approach. Less flaps means less drag and therefore a lower
: power setting necessary on final. Consequently - less noise -
• but more speed. Unfortunately, this attempt by the FAA to be
: nice to the neighborhood whiners increases the risk that some
• studious jet pilot will actually know about this rule - land a little
: hot without full flaps - and run off the end of a runway.
• Jets run off the ends of runways all the time even with fu ll flaps
: selected! It is the most common jet accident scenario.
• When flying a turbojet ... E VERY landing should be considered a
Aircraft cleared to land using : short field landing " ... in the interest of safety."
the full length of the runway •
' ' I
""
II
.
. .
t t'
a
"
---=:J
-
f I
"
Aircraft cleared to land

and hold short
Land And Hold Short Operations - LAH SO: (AIM 4-3-11 , AFto , FAA-H-8083-25)
1. LAH SO operations include landing and holding short of an
intersecting runway, an intersecting taxiway, or some other
designated point on a runway other than an intersecting runway or
taxiway.
2. The Pilot In Command has the final authority to accept or
decline a LAHSO clearance. The PIC must determine that the
aircraft can safely land and stop within the Available Landing
Distance (ALO). The pilot should also take into consideration the
possibility and RAM-ifications of a BRAKE MALFUNCTION or a
lousy "floater" of a landing when accepting this clearance.
3. 8,vailable banding Q.istance (ALO) data is published in the ''special notices'' section of the A/FD and on
approach charts. Controllers will also provide this data upon request.
4. A LAHSO clearance does not preclude a rejected landing. If a rejected landing becomes necessary, the
pilot, not the controller, is responsible for separation from other aircraft or vehicles. The pilot should also
promptly notify the controller this call is critical to alert the other pilot as well.
5. Controllers must have a full read back of all LAHSO ''hold short'' clearances.
6. A pilot should only receive a LAHSO clearance when there is a minimum CEILING of 1,000 ft, 3 sm
VISIBILITY, a DRY runway and no TAILWIND. Pilots should also consider reduced visibility when landing
into the sun.
7. Visual aids can include yellow hold-short markings, red and white signage, or in-pavement lighting.
Not all airports have installed all or any of these visual aids.
8. The FAA requires each air carrier who wants to participate in LAHSO have a training program in place for
all their pilots before any of the operator's aircraft can participate in the program.
9. As a result of haggling between the FAA, the Air Line Pilots Association and Air Transport Association over
the safety issue, very few airports continue to conduct Land And Hold Short operations.

(Chap 1 Airspace & Airport J
TURNS - LANDING at AIRPORTS in CLASS G or E AIRSPACE -
AIRPORTS WITHOUT OPERATING CONTROL TOWER:
[91 .126(b), 91.127(a), AIM 4-3-1thru4-3-5, P/C Glossary, AC 90-66A, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25]
1. Even pilots on an instrument approach once they have visual contact with the
airport MUST follow the regulatory and/or local rules concerning left or right turns in
the traffic pattern at airports WITHOUT an operating control tower.
2. Aircraft approaching to land at an airport in Class G or E airspace must make
ALL TURNS to the LEFT unless visual markings or lights (or
the Airport facility Q.irectory) indicate RIGHT turns.
3. ''STRAIGHT ·IN'' approaches ARE permitted and ARE legal as long as they do NOT
interfere with other aircraft operating in the appropriate left or right traffic pattern.
4. Generally speaking ''STRAIGHT ·IN'' if the aircraft is
an approach is considered to be
aligned within 30 degrees of the runway centerline at/easts miles out.

5. However, according to FAA and NTSB decisions, size and speed of the aircraft matters:
a. A 74 7 might be in violation if it made a non-standard turn as far as 6 miles out.
b. While a J-3 Cub would still be considered to be in its cross-country phase at that distance.
6. Aircraft remaining in the traffic pattern should not commence a turn to the crosswind leg until
beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic pattern altitude.
7. Again, you MUSTmake ALL TURNS to the LEFT unless visual markings or
lights (or the Airport facility Q.irectory) indicate RIGHT turns Even if ATC sets you up
for non-standard traffic at a non-towered airport, the controller does not have the authority to permit you
to deviate from the FARs.
8. You WOULD be permitted to make a non-standard approach from the "wrong side" of the airport for
bona fide SAFETY REASONS such as a Level-5 thunderstorm immediately off to "that" side of the
airport or maybe confirmed reports of some dude on "that" side of the field practicing with his brand
new shoulder-launched heat-seeking missile system .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: May qualify as a bona fide safety reason to fly a non-standard pattern .
•
• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Each pilot of a helicopter must avoid
: the flow of fixed-wing aircraft.

ace & Air
(AIM 4-1-5, 4-1-9, 4-3-1thru4-3-5, 91 .126 & 91 .127, AC 90-66A)
Every Private pilot is aware of the standard ''45° at mid-point of downwind'' traffic pattern
entry, but how do you enter the pattern when approaching from the ''OTHER SIDE?''
1. The FAA recommends the standard traffic pattern for all non-towered airports, but the recommended
pattern does not have the force of a regulation. You can do any pattern you like as long as all
TURNS are made in the PROPER DIRECTION (91 .126 & 91 .127).
2. ''STRAIGHT-IN'' approaches (aligned within 30°) ARE permitted and ARE legal as long as
they do NOT interfere with other aircraft operating in the appropriate pattern.
3. When approaching from the "other side" the PREFERRED METHOD is to ''CROSSOVER 500
to 1000 ft ABOVE pattern altitude,'' go a few miles away from the airport, then do a
descending turn back towards the airport and the standard 45° entry. The idea is to avoid descending
on top of aircraft established in, or entering, the pattern. Rather time consuming but safe. You should
also be aware that SOME LARGE or TURBINE POWERED airplane drivers will be in the traffic
pattern at 1,500 feet AGL (as recommended by AC 90-66A a flawed recommendation in my
opinion because many small and large aircraft operate at similar speeds but apparently the FAA feels
it's OK for a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft during base to final).
4. ''UPWIND at PATTERN ALTITUDE, turn CROSSWIND at MIDFIELD''
entries are also acceptable but controversial. The upwind leg is PARALLEL TO the runway but NOT
DIRECTLY OVER the runway. It is to the side of the runway opposite the downwind leg. Assuming
left traffic, the pilot should be able to look below the left wing and see the runway to observe traffic.
Enter the pattern on the upwind leg at pattern altitude and turn crosswind somewhere near MID-
FIELD to avoid arrivals and departures. Yield to aircraft on the downwind or about to enter downwind
from the normal 45° entry. NOTE: This may not be the best plan if there's a lot of traffic, but it is legal.
5. Another variation is the ''CROSSOVER MIDFIELD at PATTERN ALTITUDE.''
Crossover the airport mid-field at pattern altitude from the upwind side, perpendicular to the landing
runway, and enter the downwind with a left turn (assuming left traffic). Again, yield to aircraft on the
downwind or about to enter downwind from the normal 45° entry. NOTE: Again this may not be the best
plan if there's a lot of traffic, but it is perfectly legal.
6. If the sun is out, your aircraft will be automatically equipped with the latest device called the ''SHADOW
DETECTOR.'' Look for your shadow on the ground. If you see TWO shadows DO SOMETHING!
7. Of course, if you ARE approaching from the downwind side of the airport, a simple
''BASE LEG TO FINAL'' is "legal," but some would argue not quite as safe.
8. During a typical year there are about 20 midair collisions, the majority of which are near airports. This
works out to be just a little more than 1o/o of all aviation accidents. A comforting thought is that only
approximately 55o/o involve fatalities and a whopping 60o/o of the aircraft landed safely! Of course
that also means that 40o/o of the aircraft DID NOT land safely. • •••••••••••••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
• Maximum
••
: The A/FD includes SOME : recommended
••
pattern altitudes.
DOWNWIND LEG
• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••••• : SPEED
••• ••• •
(:> ~ 200 knots
c.:>
•
•• •• w
w •• .....
.... •• Q
w DIRECTION OF LANDING--..-) •• z
U> •
• 3:
= :
..•••••••••••••••••••••• •. ·~ RUNWAY
tn
tn
: ''RECOMMENDED'' •• FINAL
••••••••••• lco------ · ~ ~ 0
•
: ALTITUDES APPROACH
)I a=:
: 1000' AGL ALL aircraft DEPARTURE : CJ
:
•
unless otherwise
•• established. AC 90-66A ..-.. ......................
••
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •: The MOST DANGEROUS
: "recommends" 1500 AGL •
: for large & turbine aircraft. UPWIND LEG : place to be at pattern
••
: It's your choice to decide if altitude
• \
..
•• this is a safe practice .

•••••
•• ••
8~ ~ •• 8~
I
I
•
•• •
•• I
•• •
••. •
••. I
•• I I
•• I •. • I
•• •••••••••••••••••
•
•• I
I
·····-:-····
•
... • •••••••••
•• •• I
: The 45-degree
I I
: entry could itself •• I •• I
: be considered a • 36 ••
:• violation of • 1. The FARs do not say 36
•• ••
: 91.126. ltis ANYTHING about a 45°
•
: certainly in the
•
•• ~ traffic pattern entry. •• A
••
•• 2. The AIM does not require ••
: "vicinity" of the
• •• • •
: airport, but • • a 45° entry. • •
: ALWAYS in the ••••••• 3. 91.126 says: "each
•
•••••••
•
•• OPPOSITE person operating an
•
•• DIRECTION to aircraft on or in the
: the established vicinity of an airport in a
•
•• traffic pattern!;o) Class G airspace ...
• must... when
8~ approaching to land at 8~
I an airport without an I
I operating control tower ... I
I make all turns to the left I
I
I
unless the airport
displays approved light •
•
•••• •I
• ••••••••••
I signals or visual •• I
I markings indicating that •• I
I turns should be made to • I
36 the right ... ." This would • 36
also apply for an airport in
••
•
••• Class E airspace. See
91.127(a) .
••
••
A
•
•
•• ••
•• •
•• •• ••
•• •• •
••••• •
8~
8~
I
I
I
I
I
I • a.
~· ••••••
••
I
I
••• I •
I •• I ••
I •
•• I ••
I
I
•• I
••
36 • 36 ••
•
•• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
• ••
••
~ :· Common sense and
•• ~ ••
• : courtesy should be the ••
•• • •• •• •
: guiding principles when •
• : approaching to land. • •
•• • • •
••••••••••••• • :
•
These terms are ••••••
difficult to regulate.

ace & Air
at
an
(91 .126 thru 91 .131 , 91 .155, AIM 4-3-3, 4-3-4, AC 90-66A, FAA H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. At most airports and military air bases, traffic pattern altitudes for propeller-driven aircraft
generally extend from 600 ft to as high as 1,500 ft AGL. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for military
turbojet aircraft sometimes extend up to 2,500 ft AGL. Therefore, pilots of en route aircraft should
be constantly on the alert for other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas whenever possible.
Traffic pattern altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from
cloud criteria (NOTE: there is different VFR distance from cloud criteria for Class G or Class E airspace).
2. 1,000' AGL is the recommended pattern altitude unless established otherwise ... (AIM 4-3-4 [1])
3. There is a ''RECOMMENDATION'' (in AC 90-66A) that large and turbine powered airplanes should
enter the traffic pattern at 1.500' AGL or 500 ft above the established pattern altitude. Apparently
someone at the FAA feels it's OK for a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft (very
possibly moving at a similar speed) during base to final. WAKE TURBULENCE could also be a major
concern if a VERY large aircraft is flying around 500 ft above everyone else.
4. Traffic pattern altitudes are occasionally listed in the Airport/Facility Directory, in which case the
published altitudes would be somewhat regulatory. In some cases these airports actually have different
altitudes for small and large or turbine-powered aircraft. In other cases there is only one altitude
published, and that would be the altitude for ALL aircraft (unless you accept the recommendation of
AC 90-66A and fly your large and invincible turbine 500 ft above everybody else until you turn
base to final then descend on top of the other aircraft that was in the pattern below you the whole
time flying at just about the same speed!).
5. Other unofficial published sources of traffic pattern altitudes are produced by ForeFlight, Jeppesen,
and AOPA, etc. These commercial publications list far more pattern altitudes than the A/FD, but very
often disagree as to what these altitudes actually are.
6. The majority of Class G or E airports do not have ''officially published'' {in the A/FD) pattern
altitudes. In which case you have your choice of the 1,000' AGL {for ALL aircraft) as recommended
by the AIM and/or 1,500' AGL for large and turbine powered as recommended by AC 90-66A or
personally calling the airport manager and asking if he has "established" a "recommended" altitude for
"his" airport (an obviously imperfect system).
7. Large and turbojet aircraft are also governed by 91.515 which states those aircraft are required to
maintain at least 1,000 feet AGL during the day and the altitudes prescribed in 91.177 at night (IFR).
However this rule does not apply during takeoff or landing. There is another reference to minimum safe
altitudes in 91.119 that states ''Except when necessary for takeoff or landing .... '' A traffic pattern
would certainly be considered a necessary part of landing.
beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 ft below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic pattern altitude. (AIM FIG 4-3-3)
9. "Recommended" traffic pattern speed limit is 200 kts. (AC 90-66A)
It's a good thing they

only let real smart people
like me fly these big
complicated airplanes. 1,500 AGL
140 kts
The Class G/E Booby·Trap

I wonder what •••••••••••••••••••••••
that Unicom • Traffic Detector
•• When the sun 's out and
frequency is?
~ • somewhat overhead, it's a great
00 1,000 AGL
% idea to occasionally check your
: shadow while in the pattern .
•• 140 kts If you see TWO shadows ...
DO SOMETHING!

Chap 1 - Airspace & Airport
&
When Operating to an
in Airspace: (91 .126 thru 91 .131)
1. A LARGE or TURBINE-POWERED airplane shall, unless otherwise
(12,SOOlbsormore)
required by distance from cloud criteria, enter the TRAFFIC PATTERN at an altitude of at least
1,500 feet AGL and maintain 1,500' AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing.
[Noise abatement]
2. NOTE: Many Class B, C and D airports have non-standard traffic pattern altitudes listed in the
,Airport/facility Q.irectory.
3. A large or turbine-powered airplane approaching to land on a runway served by an I LS shall fly at
or above the GLIDE SLOPE between the OUTER marker and the MIDDLE marker.
4. Any airplane approaching to land on a runway served by a VASI shall maintain at or above
the GLIDE SLOPE (aka glide path) until a lower altitude is necessary for a safe landing .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: ''At or above the glide slope'' does not
: prohibit normal bracketing maneuvers above
~ or below the glide slope for the purpose of
: remaining on the glide slope.
. .., 0 ... 0
: "Normal bracketing maneuvers"
•.....
•e>
•C
•o
.o
.Ml
••
•
•
....-....................................... ~
•
•••••••••••••• .111. . . . . . . . . . . . . ...
: You must remain at or above the glide slope between the
• OUTER marker and the MIDDLE marker.
: LARGE or TURBINE-powered
•• Once you pass the middle marker all bets are off. : aircraft must maintain at least 1,500
: Remember- Runway behind you, altitude above you , : feet AGL in the traffic pattern in
~ and air in the fuel tanks are totally worthless . • Class B, C, or D airspace.
...................................................... .
: LOW ALTITUDE ALERT: (JO 7110.65 para 2-1-6)
: (See "Low Altitude Alert System" and "Safety Alert" - P/C Glossary)
Threshold Crossing Height • 1. Controllers will issue an alert to an aircraft if they feel it is too low (information
- The theoretical height above : received from Mode C). It is the pilot's prerogative to determine what course
the runway threshold at which the • of action to take ... if any.
•• 2. At larger airports, an automated function called MSAW (.Minimum ~afe Altitude
aircraft's glideslope antenna would
: ,W,arning) also calculates your descent rate - if it exceeds what is considered
be if the aircraft maintains the • to be a safe closure rate with the terrain - a very annoying alarm sounds in the
trajectory established by the mean : tower and the TRACON. In addition, the letters LA (,bow Altitude) flash in your
ILS glideslope or MLS glidepath. • radar data tag. Normally the call from the controller would sound somethin' like
• this:
•• "Low altitude alert, Freight Dog 123, check altitude immediately." If you
: get one of these calls (e.g., while executing a screaming high-speed dive in
• order to recapture the glideslope) an acceptable response might be .. . "We're
good. Just gettin' on back to the glideslope, thanks for the call!"

PRECISION INSTRUMENT RUNWAY MARKINGS:
(AIM 2-1-4, 2-3-3, AC 150/5340-1H, AC 150/5340-24, FAA-H-8083-16)
•••
more runway
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS: (AIM 2-1-4 & P/C Glossary [Airport lighting])
White lights, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the
last 2,000 feet or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution
zone. Runway lights are uniformly spaced at intervals of approximately 200
feet not more than 10 feet from the edge of the full strength pavement.
Lights marking the end of the runway emit red lights toward the runway.
TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKINGS:

On longer runways there will be two sets of single markings
spaced at 500-foot increments. Shorter runways may eliminate
one or more pairs of markings. Touchdown Zone the first
3,000 feet of runway beginning at the threshold.
TouchDown Zone Elevation the highest elevation in the CENTERLINE MARKINGS are
first 3,000 ft of the landing surface. white; 120 ft long, with 80 ft gaps.
Width is 36" for precision runways,
18" for nonprecision runways, and
---------------------------t 12" for visual runways.
On most runways there will be two sets of double markings
spaced at 500-foot increments.
NOTE: All runway markings are WHITE with glass beads and/or
silica sand embedded in the paint for added visibility and traction.
AIMING POINT MARKING:

Aiming point for landing. Two rectangular broad white stripes starting
at 1,020 feet from the landing threshold. They are 150 feet long and
normally 30 feet wide. The FAA feels you should leave that 1,020 feet
behind you, just in case you might need it later for something else other
than stopping the aircraft! Maybe you can throw a picnic there after you
lose the brakes and subsequently run off the other end!

Identify the touchdown zone for landing and are coded to
provide distance information in 500 foot increments.
Groups of three, two, and one, rectangular bars arranged in
pairs about the centerline. Approximately 75 feet long.
RUNWAY DESIGNATION MARKINGS:

The whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the
centerline of the runway, measured clockwise from magnetic north.
THRESHOLD MARKINGS:
150 feet long starting at 20 feet from the end of the runway.
THRESHOLD:
Threshold lights are fixed green lights left and right of the centerline.

THRESHOLD BAR is a
ten-foot wide white bar that
marks the beginning of the
runway available for landing
when the threshold has been
relocated or displaced.
WHITE ARROW
Reference: HEADS are located across
AIM 2-3-2 thru 2-3-6 the width of the runway just
AC 150/5340-1 prior to the threshold bar.
This portion IS available for

takeoffs in either direction and
landings from the opposite WHITE ARROWS
direction. This portion is NOT are located along the
centerline in the area
available for landings in the between the beginning
direction of the arrows. of the runway and the
displaced threshold .
A three-foot wide, YELLOW

DEMARCATION BAR
delineates a runway with a
displaced threshold from a
blast pad , stopway or taxiway
that precedes the runway.
.. .-·············~···· .._
•.._
.•• • YELLOW paint means •••
•••
• taxi only.
•' •
YELLOW Chevrons you
cannot even taxi on.
YELLOW CHEVRONS are

used to show pavement areas
aligned with the runway that
are UNUSABLE for landing, This area marked in YELLOW
takeoff, and taxi . can be used as a taxiway only.

AIRPORT SIGNS: (AIM 2-3-1thru2-3-13, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Runway Distance Remaining BLACK background I WHITE numerals

- Indicate distance (in thousands of feet) of landing runway remaining and
may be installed along one or both sides of the runway. The last sign, the (3,000 ft of runway remaining)
si n with the numeral one, will be located at least 950 ft from the runway end.
2. BLACK background with YELLOW inscription and a -----------
yellow border, no arrows. Used to identify a taxiway or runway location,
to identify the boundary of the runway, or identify an instrument landing
s stem ILS critical area.
3. RED background I WHITE
inscription. Denote an entrance to a runway, critical area, or Taxiway Location Sign collocated
prohibited area. with Runway Holding Position sign
4. Direction YELLOW background I BLACK inscription. Identifies the designation of the
intersecting taxiway(s) leading out of an intersection. Each designation is accompanied by an arrow
indicatin~ the direction of the turn.
5. Destination YELLOW background I BLACK inscription and also contain arrows. Information
on locating things, such as runways, terminals, cargo areas, and civil aviation areas. When two or more
destinations having a common taxiing route are placed on a sign, they are separated by a "dot" ( • ).
6. l1nformationl YELLOW background I BLACK inscription. Provide the pilot with information on
such things as areas that cannot be seen from the control tower, applicable radio frequencies, and
noise abatement procedures.
THRESHOLD MARKINGS: (AIM 2-3-3h., FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

1. Runway Threshold Markings come in two configurations.
2. They either consist of EIGHT longitudinal STRIPES of uniform dimensions disposed symmetrically
about the runway centerline, as shown on the previous page (by far the most common) or the number
of stripes is related to the runway width as indicated in TBL 2-3-2 (i.e., 60 ft wide= 4 stripes;
75 ft wide = 6 stripes; 100 ft wide = 8 stripes; 150 ft wide = 12 stripes; 200 ft wide = 16 stripes.
3. Consult the airport diagram or the AF/D for more complete information.
DISPLACED THRESHOLD: (AIM 2-3-3h .1. & 2., FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

1. Located at a point on the runway other than the beginning of the runway.
2. Reduces the length of runway available for landings.
3. The portion of runway behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs in either direction and
landings from the opposite direction.
4. A ten foot wide white threshold bar is located across the width of the runway at the displaced threshold.
5. White arrows are located along the centerline in the area between the beginning of the runway and
displaced threshold.
6. White arrow heads are located across the width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar.
RUNWAY DESIGNATION MARKINGS: (AC 150/5340-1J, AC 150/5370-2E, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

1. The whole number nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the runway,
measured clockwise from magnetic north.
2. Parallel runways can be designated as ''b'' (left); ''.Q" (center); ''B." (right); or ''W'' (water).
RUNWAY WEIGHT BEARING CAPACITY: (A/FD Legend)

1. The A/FD lists for each airport the appropriate category, code and weight capacity for each runway
immediately following the runway length and surface information.
2. The legend in the front of each A/FD will explain the categories and assigned codes. Examples:
• .§. Single-wheel type landing gear. (DC-3, C-47, F-15, etc.)
• Q Dual-wheel type landing gear. (BE1900, 8737, A319, P3, C9, etc.)
• 2S Two Single wheels in tandem type landing gear. (C130)
• 2T Two Triple wheels in tandem type landing gear. (C17).
• 2D Two Dual wheels type landing gear (B707, B757, KC135)
• 2D/D1 Two Dual wheels in tandem/Dual wheel body type landing gear (KC10)
3. Add 000 to the figure following S, Q, 2S, 2T, etc., for gross weight capacity (e.g., S60 =Single-
wheel type landing gear gross weight capacity 60,000 pounds).
Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area
YES you may cross to

exit runway
NO you may not cross Holding Position

Markings Yellow
--
without CLEARANCE
ILS Holding Position

Markings - Yellow
··-···
ILS Critical Area
Holding Position Sign
(RED background with WHITE lettering)
AIRPORT SIGN SYSTEMS

TYPE OF SIGN AND ACTION OR PURPOSE TYPE OF SIGN AND ACTION OR PURPOSE
Runway Safety Area/Obstacle Free
Taxiway/Runway Hold Position :
Hold short of runway on taxiway == Zone Boundary:
Exit boundary of runway protected areas
Runway/Runway Hold Pos ition : ILS Critical Area Boundary:

Hold short of intersecting runway Exit boundary of ILS critical area
Runway Approach Hold Position: Taxiway Direction :
Hold short of aircraft on approach

J • Defines direction & designation of intersecting
taxiway(s)
~
0
Runway Ex it:.
<(
ILS Critical Area Hold Position:
Hold short of I LS approach critical area

.t'L Defines direction & designation of exrt taxiway
from runway
...J
m
"'C
No Entry: c
Outbound Destination: co
Identifies paved areas where aircraft entry fs
prohibited
22t Defines directions to takeoff runways 3:
0
Taxiway Location : Inbound Destination : ...J
...J
Identifies taxiway on which aircraft is located Defines directions for arriving aircraft w
Runway Location:
>
Tax iway Ending Marker
Identifies runway on which aircraft is located
Indicates taxiway does not continue
Runway Distance Remaining Direction Sign Array:

Provides remaining runway length
in 1,000 feet increments
t/A[IL Identifies location in conjunction with
multiple intersecting taxiways

RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS: (AIM 2-1-4 & P/C Glossary [Airport lighting], AC 150/5340-24, 121 .590, 125.49, 135.229)
1. White lights, except on instrument runways yellow replaces white on the last 2,000
feet or half the runway length, whichever is less, to form a caution zone.
2. Runway lights are uniformly spaced at intervals of approximately 200 feet not more than
10 feet from the edge of the full strength pavement. Lights marking the end of the
runway emit red light toward the runway.
3. Runway lights are reguired for all Part 121, 125, and 135 PASSENGER operations at
night.
CENTERLINE LIGHTS: (AIM 2-1-5, AC 150/5340-4C)

1. Runway centerline lights are installed on some precision approach runways to facilitate landing under
adverse visibility conditions.
2. The lights are located along the runway centerline at 50-foot intervals. The line of lights is offset a
maximum of 2 feet to either the right or left side of the runway [centerline] marking and should be to
the opposite side of the centerline marking from the major taxiway turnoffs.
3. When viewed from the landing threshold, the runway centerline lights are white until the last 3,000 feet
of the runway. The white lights begin to alternate with red for the next 2,000 feet, and for the last
1,000 feet of the runway, all centerline lights are red.
TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS (TDZL): (AIM 2-1-5)

1. Installed on some precision approach runways to indicate the touchdown zone when landing under
adverse visibility conditions.
2. They consist of two rows of transverse (lying across; crosswise) light bars arranged symmetrically
about the runway centerline.
3. The system consists of steady-burning white lights which start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold
and extend to 3,000 feet beyond the landing threshold or to the midpoint of the runway, whichever is
less.
.••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
The airport sketch contains the 748 e
• •• all
HIRl R:w-ys
: information pertaining to runway lighting. -----l e REIL Rwys 18L and 23
.• ~DZ/CL Rwys 36L and 36R
•
-t-
~at ~ 896 • • ~ ft j 91t .
8 /')..
©
•
910
@
.....
0
'§
~ V'. /')..806
~. ~ ~
/').. ~
'
0 ~~
(;;\
765± c TOZE \!I
~ -~ 707 36R oo ~
v:,;· 36l 003° 6.6 NM 1
----- from FAF
FAF to MAP 6.6 NM

Knots 60 90 120 150 180
Min:Sec 6:36 4:24 3:18 2:38 2: 12
Pilot Controlled Lighting HARLOITE, NORTH CAROLINA
UNICOM
123.05 (CTAF) I
......_~~~~~~~~----~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ·-· -~~~~~~~~~~~~~---
• MALSR
Coupled approach NA below 1120 feet.. • = • MISSED APPROACH: Climb to 1500 then climbing
ADF REQUIRED. • @ -=:= • right turn to 2500 direct TWL NDB and hold.
'
• •
------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------
11
A dot portrayed with approach lighting letter ident.ifier indicates sequenced flash ing lights (F) installed with the
•"
approach lighting system e.g., ~· Negativ·e symbology, e.g., 6,

0 indicates Pilot Controlled lighting (PCL).

Runway LIGHTING:
--- ·
Q
0 ~·
:::::::; • Last
2
RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS: ::c 1000'
0
YELLOW replaces white on the last : : • All
~: . RED
0
2000 feet or half the runway length.
XI •I
0 0
fa
• 0
0
0
D:
oew • 0 0
!::: 2000' f
i ~HITE
~o &
·- t
,; • RED
c
Q;
0
....Ci . 0
0
-
Oo
0
CENTERLINE LIGHTS: ~ .
0
1. White until the last 3,000 ft of runway.
2. WHITE lights ALTERNATE with RED 0 0
for the next 2,000 ft of runway.
3. The last 1,000 ft of runway,
ALL centerline lights are RED.
-----WHITE
0
}-sott
0
L
A
TOUCHDOWN ZONE LIGHTS (TDZL):
Start 100 feet beyond the landing threshold and extend to
0 N
3,000 ft beyond the threshold. D
RUNWAY TOUCHDOWN ZONE I
AND CENTERLINE
LIGHTING SYSTEMS
N
0
G
TDZ/CL RUNWAY
••• CENTERLINE
••
:'
LIGHTS D
TDZL
••
=~
•••
••
Cl ""' I
:• :•
•• ••
TDZL 0 R
E
AVAILABILITY of TDZ/CL will be $hown by
NOTE in SKE1CH e .g . ,.TDZ/CL Rwy 15•
0
G
Tr
I
GREEN 0
N
AIRPORT ELEVATION & REFERENCE POINT: (Ac 15015300-13)
1. Airport ELEVATION - The highest point on an airport's usable runway expressed in feet (MSL).
2. Airport geographical REFERENCE POINT - A specific spot on the airport used to determine the
overall latitude-longitude location of the airport. Reference points are typically near the middle of the
airport, but as the airport grows and expands over the years, normally the reference point does
not move, even though the actual center may no longer be in exactly the same place.
LOW ALTITUDE ALERT: (See "Low Altitude Alert System" and "Safety Alert" - P/C Glossary)
1. Controllers will issue an alert to an aircraft if they feel it is too low (information received from Mode C).
It is the pilot's prerogative to determine what course of action to take ... if any.
2. At larger airports, an automated function called MSAW (Minimum §.ate Altitude Warning) also calculates
your descent rate if it exceeds what is considered to be a safe closure rate with the terrain a very
annoying alarm sounds in the tower and the TRACON. In addition, the letters LA (,bow Altitude) flash in
your radar data tag. Normally the call from the controller would sound like this:
''low altitude alert, Freight Dog 123, check altitude immediately.'' Again it's your prerogative as to
the course of action. If you get one of these calls (e.g., while executing a screaming high-speed dive in
order to recapture the glideslope) the correct phraseology is ... ''We're good, thanks for the call."
BRAKING ACTION I RUNWAY FRICTION REPORTS:

(AIM 4-3-8, 4-3-9, P/C Glossary, AC 150/5200-30C, AC 91-79)
1. BRAKING ACTION reports are provided by ATC to
pilots using the terminology ''good," ''fair," ''poor,"
and ''nil.'' Either pilots or airport management
provides these reports to ATC.
2. ''Braking action advisories are in effect'' a statement broadcast on ATIS when weather conditions
are conducive to reported poor, nil or deteriorating runway braking conditions.
3. RUNWAY FRICTION reports are provided to ATC by airport management at airports with friction
measuring devices. At these airports, reports for ATC advisories and NOTAMs will be given using
Greek letter MU (pronounced ''myew'') in values ranging from 0 to 100. The lower the MU value, the
less effective braking performance becomes. A MU value of 40 or less is the level when braking
performance starts to deteriorate and directional control begins to be less responsive. This seems to
parallel the definition of ''fair."
EXITING the RUNWAY AFTER LANDING: (AIM4-3-18,4-3-19,4-3-20)

1. Pilots are expected to exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or taxiway as
instructed by ATC.
2. Do NOT exit onto another runway unless authorized to do so by ATC.
3. Never stop on the runway unannounced there may be another aircraft on short final.
4. If you would like to land long for some reason, politely ask the tower if it is OK. Any deviation from the
normal traffic flow can jam up the works. Of course if you just happen to land long because you suck,
there's not much anyone can do about that ... it's your runway. They're just gonna have to deal with it!
5. Do NOT change to ground frequency until you are instructed to do so by the tower.
6. You are not technically ''CLEAR OF THE RUNWAY'' until ALL PARTS of the aircraft are on the
OTHER SIDE of the HOLD-SHORT LINE.
7. After clearing the runway, come to a complete stop on the other side of the hold-short line. Do NOT
continue taxiing unless taxi clearance has been issued by A TC.
8. A clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runway. ATC will issue an explicit clearance for
all runway crossings. ATC will not use the word "cleared" in conjunction with taxi clearance.
Controllers cannot issue multiple runway crossing clearances fil the same time, unless the
distance between two runway centerlines is less than 1,000 ft.

OPERATING NEAR OTHER AIRCRAFT - FORMATION FLIGHT:

[91 .1 11 , 91.153(a), AIM 5-1-8(f. 14.), P/C Glossary, AC 90-48C, AC 91-45C, 7110.65V]
(a) No person may operate an aircraft so close to another aircraft as to create a collision hazard.
(b) No person may operate an aircraft in formation flight except by arrangement with the Pilot In
Command of each aircraft in the formation.
(c) No person may operate an aircraft, carrying PASSENGERS FOR HIRE, in formation flight .
. -····················~
• " ... the agency has publicly held the
•• position that parachutists are not
• passengers within the meaning of
•• Section 91 .111 (c) for a significant
• period of time." "Without further
•• action by the agency, Section
: 91 .111 (c) should not be viewed as
• prohibiting formation flight carrying
: parachutists on the basis of a
• conclusion that they are passengers."
• (FAA Legal lnterp July 31 , 1992)
D········ ..........
D................... ·····~~···· ••
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••
• 1. Formation flight is defined as two or more aircraft intentionally flying together and within visual
•
•• range of each other which, by prior arrangement between each of the pilots involved, operates as a •
•• single aircraft with regard to navigation and Air Traffic Control procedures .
• 2. Separation between aircraft within the formation is the responsibility of the flight leader and the
•• pilots of the other aircraft in the flight .
: 3. A standard formation is one in which a proximity of no more than 1-mile laterally or longitudinally •
• and within 100-feet vertically from the flight leader is maintained by each wingman .
•• 4. Normally the flight leader handles all A TC communications and once the flight has ''joined-up,'' all
: aircraft except the flight leader will be asked to switch off their transponders.
• 5. Although not specifically addressed in FAA documents, a formation flight involving two aircraft is
•• typically referred to as a ''flight of two'' by ATC. •
• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •

FLYING
FOR,
U I~

Chapter 2
Flight Rules Approach Procedures

Crank Up to Shutdown
Is the AIRPLANE Legal? ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 30
Is the Pl LOT Legal? •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 31
Equipment Suffixes; Flight Plan Information .................................................................. 32
RNAV; RNP .................................................................................................................... 33
Preflight Action; Flight Plan; Preferred Routes; Seat Belts & Shoulder Harness .......... 34
Do You Need an ALTERNATE? Alternate Airport Weather •••••••••••••••••• 35
Fuel Supply .............................................................................................................. 36, 37
Void Time; IFR Takeoff Limitations; Taxiing .................................................................. 38
Takeoff Briefing & TOLD Card •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 39
Wake Turbulence ........................................................................................................... 40
Climb Gradient; Pilotage & Dead Reckoning ................................................................. 41
RCO; RTR; GCO ............................................................................................................ 42
Departure Procedures (DP} •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 43
VFR-On-Top; VFR-Over-The-Top; Minimum Fuel Advisory; VFR Flight Following ...... 44
Non-Radar Position Reporting; Additional Reports; Pilot's Discretion ........................... 45
VOR; Class I & Class 11 Navigation ................................................................................ 46
Federal (Victor) Airways; Colored Airways; Jet Routes & Crossing Restrictions .......... 4 7
Standard Terminal Arrival (STAR); Timed Approaches ................................................. 48
Cruise Clearance; Cruise Climb; Radar Service Terminated ........................................ 49
Approach Briefing ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 50
TOLD Card Approach Side ....................................................................................... 51
Cleared for Approach, ADF/GPS & Minimum Vectoring Altitude .................................. 52
RADAR ........................................................................................................................... 53
Procedure Turn; DM E Arc ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 54
Approach Categories, Full Scale Deflection, Pilot Controlled Runway Lights ............... 55
Final Approach Fix, GlideSlope (GSIA}, False GlideSlopes •••••••••••••••••• 56
Final Approach Point, Final Approach Segment, ILS Critical Area, CAT I, II, 111 ........... 57
Precision, Nonprecision & Precision-Like Approaches .................................................. 58
ILS, Marker Beacon, Localizer & GlideSlope Antenna .................................................. 59
Traffic Pattern Altitude & GlideSlope ............................................................................. 60
Localizer, Backcourse, ASR, PAR & DME Arc Procedures .......................................... 61
RNAV I LNAV I VNAV I LPV, Contact, Option & Low Approaches •••••••• 62
ND B ................................................................................................................................ 63
Nonprecision NDB/VOR Approach & Holding ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 64, 65
LOA, SDF, Straight-In, Circling Approaches ............................................................ 66, 67
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) GPS Approaches ................................................... 68, 69
Landing Under IFR, Missed Approach, Standard Rate Turns, No-Gyro ................. 70, 71
RVR, Braking Action, Approach Lighting •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 72· 75
Visual Approach, VDP, PDP, VDA, CVFP •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 76, 77
FMS Flight Management System 101 .................................................................. 78
ILS PRM Approaches .................................................................................................... 79
Simultaneous Converging Instrument Approaches, Side-Step Maneuver .................... 80
Canceling IFR, Exiting the Runway after Landing ......................................................... 81
Communications Failure, Communications with Control Towers in Class G .......... 82, 83
Instruments & Equipment, Clock, Aircraft Lights •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 84, 85
Interference with Crewmembers, Dropping Objects, Right-Of-Way Rules .................... 86
Overhead Approach Maneuver ...................................................................................... 87
Same Runway Separation ............................................................................................. 88
(chap 2 Flight Rules & Approach)
LEGAL STUFF:
The focus of this chapter is a typical instrument flight, crank up to shut down. However before we go flying there
are a few LEGAL issues that need to be addressed. See§ 91.7 Civil Aircraft Airworthiness.
Basic PAPERWORK 1. ,Airworthiness Certificate (must be displayed). (91 .203)

2. B,egistration - Must be renewed every 3 years. A temporary registration is not acceptable for
(must be on board) international travel. (47.40, 91 .203)
(Chapter 5) 3. fiadio Station License - NOT required within the U.S . - IS required outside the U.S.
4. Qperating Limitations - ,Aircraft flight .Manual. [91 .9(b ), 23.1581]
5. yteight & Balance data - ,Aircraft flight Manual. (91 .103, 135.185, 23.1581 )
6. NOTE #1: The AFM must be current and available in the cockpit. (91 .9)
7. NOTE #2: An approved "~ompany flight .Manual" (CFM) may be substituted for the AFM.
8. Charts -Are the in the air lane? Are the current? Is the GPS database current?
Additional 1. Load Manifest (W&B). Required for every leg with cargo or passengers on board (multiengine
aircraft). See Chapter 7. (135.63, 135.87 135.185, 121 .693, 121 .695, 91 .525)
PAPERWORK 2. Dispatch Release aka Flight Release. See Chapter 8.
(commercial ops) 3. Checklist (normal and emergency). See Chapter 8. (135.83, 91 .503, 121 .315, 121 .549)
MARKINGS and 1. The airplane must be operated in compliance with the operating limitations as set forth in the AFM and
any markings or placards required by the AFM must be installed. (91 .9)
PLACARDS 2. A com ass deviation lacard aka com ass card must be installed on or near the com ass. a e 90
EQUIPMENT (MEL) All eguipment in the aircraft must be in operable condition unless allowed by the aircraft's
MEL or COL to be ino erative for the endin fli ht. See Cha ter 8.
1-----------4--.oil--iiii....l.~---'-~...;.:_;:,---
VOR Equipment W ithi n the last 30 Days for IFR Flight. Qate, ,Error, flace and .§.ignature (DEPS) in the aircraft
Check log or other reliable record. See Chapter 3. (91 .171 , AIM 1-1-3 thru 1-1-8)
GPS An IFR certified GPS should have a current database if it is the primary source of navigation.
Annual Inspection 12 calendar months. An ANNUAL inspection is acceptable to use as a 100-hour inspection,
but a 100-hour ins ection cannot be used as an annual. See Cha ter 8. [91 .409 a ]
100-Hour 100 flight hours when carrying persons for hire or flight instruction for hire. The 100-hour
Inspection limitation may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place where
the inspection can be done. It is acceptable to exceed the 100-hour during a commercial
operation lf the aircraft is INADVERTENTLY delayed (due to weather or traffic). However,
INTENTIONALLY dispatching an aircraft on a commercial operation knowing that the 100-
hour limitation will be exceeded is NOT legal. Commercial operations must be halted at the
100-hour oint. See Cha ter 8. [91 .409 b ]
Other Inspections Annual or 100-hour inspections do not apply to aircraft inspected in accordance with an
in Lieu of the 100· ,Approved ,Aircraft !nspection frogram (AAIP), a Progressive Inspection Program, a ~ontinuous
,Airworthiness !nspection frogram (CAMP), or several other inspection programs listed in
Hour or Annual 91.409. See Cha ter 8. 91 .409
Engine Overhaul - For Part 91 operations - !ime lietween Qverhauls is a RECOMMENDED time (for
TBO reciprocating engines). TBO recommendations also have a calendar limit in addition to the
flight hours limit. For Part 135 operations, engines normally must be overhauled at the
(!ime lietween
manufacturers recommended TBO (an extension is possible). For Turbine Engines - TBO (or
Qverhaul)
replacement of life-limited engine components) is a REQUIREMENT, not a recommendation,
whether it is o erated under Part 91 135or121. See Cha ter 10. [91 .409 e , AC 21-40]
Transponder & Tested and re-certified within 24 calendar months (IFR or VFR).
Mode C See Chapter 4. (91 .215, 91 .411 , 91.413)
Altimeter & Static Tested and re-certified within 24 calendar months (for IFR in controlled airspace).
System See Chapter 4. (91 .215, 91 .411)
EL T Inspection Inspected within 12 calendar months. See Chapter 9. [91 .207(d)]
ELT Battery Must be replaced or recharged when in use for more than 1 cumulative hour; or when 50°/o of
their useful life has ex ired. See Cha ter 9. [91 .207 c]
Next AD Due based
As published in AD. (Part 39 - Airworthiness Directives)
on DATE
Next AD Due based
As published in AD. (Part 39 - Airworthiness Directives)
on TIME
OXYGEN Supply adequate for the mission and the bottle(s) within dated limits. See Chapter 4.
Portable Fire As marked on unit. If a portable fire extinguisher is installed it must be operative.
Extinguisher (25.851 , 91 .213, 91.513, 121 .309, 121 .417, 135.155, AC 20-42C)
Flotation Device As marked on unit for overhaul or inspection. [91 .205(b)(12), AC 20-56A, AC 91-70] { Required when operated ·
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - + - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----· for hire over water &
Pyrotechnic Device As marked on the unit but no more than 42 months from date of manufacture. 1beyond power-off gliding
91 .205 b 12 , AC 91-58A, AC 91-70 ~. distance from shore.

(chap 2 - Flight Rules & Approach)
See Chapter 5 for Additional Information:
Basic 1. B.adio permit (FCC license) - FCC Form 605 - NOT required for operations WITHIN the
PAPERWORK U.S. but IS required for operations OUTSIDE the U.S. (ICAO rules).
2. f.ilot certificate - in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft - the
RPM original only - a copy will not do - and a PHOTO IDENTIFICATION such as driver's
(Chapter 5) license, Government or State ID card, U.S. Armed Forces ID, Passport, Airport Security
Badge, or "other form of identification that the Administrator finds acceptable." (61 .3)
3. Medical certificate - in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft - the
original only - a copy will not do. (61 .3)
RATINGS 1. The pilot must be rated for the CATEGORY (Airplane, Glider, Rotorcraft, etc.), CLASS (Single
(Chapter 5) Engine, Multiengine, Land, Sea, etc.) and TYPE (DC-3, 8-737) if a type rating is required.
2. For flight under instrument flight rules the pilot must be instrument rated.
3. A Commercial certificate is required to carry cargo or passengers for hire.
4. An Airline Transport Pilot certificate is required to fly PASSENGERS [for hire] in a
TURBOJET, an airplane having 10 or more passenger seats, OR a MULTIENGINE airplane
in a COMMUTER o eration.
ENDORSEMENTS 1. Complex;
2. High-performance;
Required for PIC
3. High altitude;
(61.31, Chapter 5)
4. Tailwheel.
MEDICAL 1. A current medical certificate applicable to the operation to be conducted.
Considerations 2. A person shall not act as a required pilot flight crewmember while that person knows of any
medical condition that would make the person unable to meet the requirements for the
(Chapter 5)
medical certificate necessary for the pilot operation; or is taking any medication that results in
the person being unable to meet the requirements for the medical certificate necessary. [61 .53,
61 .23(b)]
3.
No person may attempt to operate an aircraft: (91 .17)
a. Within 8 hours after consuming an alcoholic beverage.
b. While under the influence of alcohol.
c. While having .04°/o by weight or more alcohol in the blood.
~~~~~~~~~~~~d~·~W~h~ile~u~si~n~a~n~d~r~u thata~ctsthe ilot'sfaculties in an wa contrar tosa~t.
Basic 1. FLIGHT REVIEW (or equivalent) within the previous 24 calendar months. (61.56) Examples
CURRENCY of substitutions for the flight review requirements could be:
a. A 61.58 Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check (for type rating currency); or
(Chapters 5 & 7)
b. A Part 121, 135 or Subpart K of Part 91 Pilot Proficiency Check (or Competency Check); or
c. A checkride for any certificate or rating; or
d. Several other substitutions are listed in 61.56.
2. LANDING CURRENCY - For the carriage of PASSENGERS - The PIC must have made
and LOGGED 3 takeoffs and 3 landings in the previous 90 days in the same CATEGORY
(airplane, glider, rotorcraft, etc.), CLASS (single engine, multiengine, land, sea, etc.) and
TYPE (DC-3, B-17, B-777) (if a type rating is required)- these landings must be made to a
full stop if in a tailwheel aircraft or at night (and as "sole manipulator" of the controls). (61 .57)
3. INSTRUMENT CURRENCY - For any particular IFR flight, the pilot must be able to count
backwards - 6 months - to be sure he or she has accomplished (and LOGGED) as "sole
manipulator" of the controls at least 6 approaches and holding during that time period.
NOTE #1: For commercial flights, IFR currency is covered by the f.ilot !n ~ommand ' s
6-month instrument proficiency check. (61 .57)
NOTE #2: For commercial flights, IFR Currency is covered for a Part 121 SIC but is NOT
covered for a Part 135 SIC. A Part 135 SIC must maintain his own IFR currency.
4. f.ilot-!n-~ommand Proficiency Check - Operation of Aircraft Requiring More Than One Pilot
Flight Crewmember (aircraft that requires a type rating). The f.ilot-!n-~ommand of an aircraft
type certificated for more than one pilot must have a proficiency check in that aircraft every
12 calendar months can be 24 months if the ilot is t ed in two different aircraft . 61 .58
Commercial 1. The pilot must meet the current training and checking requirements applicable to the type of
CURRENCY operation being conducted (i.e., 121, 135, Subpart K of Part 91, etc.). See Chapters 7 and 8.
2. NOTE #1: The INSTRUMENT experience CURRENCY requirements of 61.57(c)
(Chapters 7 & 8)
(i.e., 6 months; 6 approaches; holding), DO NOT APPL Yto a Pilot In Command who is
employed by a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier while flying under Part 91, 121, or 135
for that air carrier. [61.57(e)(2), 121 .401 , 121 .441 , 135.301(a)]
3. NOTE #2 : ''GRACE MONTH'' - A PIC for a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier, who has a current PIC
check, and while flying under Part 91 , 121 , or 135 for that air carrier, is legal (i.e. instrument current)
for 7 months (under the "grace month" provisions of 121.401 and 135.301) even if he or she has not
done a sin le instrument rocedure aside from the checkride durin that 7-month eriod.

Chap 2 - Flight Rules & Approach
Aircraft Equipment Suffixes (Domestic)(AIM 5·1·8)
(Domestic flight plans and aircraft with RNAV capability Domestic and International Flight Plans:
not requiring a Performance Based Navigation [PBN] routing.) AIM 5-1-8 & 5-1-9 (Page 222)
RVSM Navigation Transponder
Suffix
Status Capability Capability
No GNSS, No RNAV With Mode C /W
RVSM RNAV, No GNSS With Mode C IZ Operators should only use the RNAV
GNSS (GPS) With Mode C IL suffixes in this chart when they have
No Transponder IX RNAV capability, but do not require
No DME No Mode C IT Performance-Based Navigation (PBN)
With Mode C IU routing (e.g., RNAV SIDs and STARs).
Operators that desire PBN routing
No Transponder ID should file an ICAO format International
DME No Mode C IB Flight Plan including the appropriate
With Mode C IA PBN equipment information.
TACAN No Transponder IM (Page 222, 223, AIM 5-1-9)
No
(Tactical Air Navigation No Mode C IN
RVSM System-Military) With Mode C IP
• •••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
No Transponder IV •• FAA Press Release
•
•••
RNAV, No GNSS No Mode C IC ••
••
"Beginning on October 1, 2015, the FAA will
implement flight plan filing for civil aircraft
With Mode C II ••
exclusively under the format used by the
••
No Transponder IV : International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)."
•
•• (Page 222, 223, AIM 5-1-9)
GNSS (GPS) No Mode C IS •
With Mode C IG
•••••
Departure Enroute Arrival Approach

AREA NAVIGATION (RNAV): (1 .1, AIM 1-2-1 , FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)

1. A method of navigation that permits aircraft operation on any desired flight path.
2. Present day RNAV includes INS, LORAN, VOR/DME, and GPS systems.
3. RNAV allows aircraft to fly point-to-point, without having to follow airways or zigzag in order to over-fly VORs.
The aircraft's flight management system computes position and route using a combination of VOR radials, DME,
and/or GPS.
4. RNAV that is based solely on VOR/DME technology, without other augmentation, may NOT be appropriate for
flight outside VOR or DME service volume.
·-···································································································································································································
fAlaska Airlines, Qantas, Southwest and many other airlines now use RNP extensively.·1
~• Boeing and Airbus offer packages and it is now filtering down to corporate jets. ~•
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Required Navigation Performance {RNP)

Performance-Based Navigation {PBN) [ICAO]:
(AIM 1-2-1thru1-2-3, 4-7-1 , 4-7-6, 4-7-7, 5-1-8, 5-1-9, 5-1-16, 5-4-5, 5-4-18, 5-5-16, AC 20-130A, AC 90-96A, AC 90-100A, AC 90-101 ,
FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. RNP is RNAV with on-board navigation monitoring and alerting . RNP is also a statement of
ferformance-§.ased lfavigation (PBN) necessary for operation within a defined airspace.
2. A critical component of RNP is the ability of the aircraft navigation system to monitor its achieved
navigation performance, and to identify for the pilot whether the operational requirement is, or is not
being met during an operation.
3. On-board performance monitoring and alerting capability allows a lessened reliance on air traffic
control intervention (via radar monitoring, ADS-8, communications, etc.).
4. RNP capability of the aircraft is a major component in determining the separation criteria. It also
refers to the degree of precision with which the aircraft will be flown.
5. RNP Level or Type is a value typically expressed as a distance in nautical miles from the intended
centerline of a procedure, route, or path. RNP applications also account for potential errors at some
multiple of RNP level (e.g., twice the RNP level). For aircraft equipment to gualify for a specific RNP
type, it must maintain navigational accuracy at least 95 percent of the total flight time.
6. Aircraft meeting RNP criteria will have an appropriate entry including special conditions and limitations
in its 8,ircraft flight Manual (AFM), or supplement. Aircraft Capability + Level of Service = Access.
7. All RNAV RNP 0.3 approaches in the U.S. require SAAAR (.§.pecial Aircraft and Aircrew Authorization
.B.equired). For Part 91 operations you may not fly RNP approaches without a better Qf 8,uthorization.
RNP 0.3 represents a distance of 0.3 NM either side of a specified flight path centerline. At the
present time, a 0.3 RNP level is the lowest level used in normal RNAV operations. Specific airlines,
using special procedures, are approved to use RNP levels lower than RNP 0.3, but those levels are
used only in accordance with their approved Operations Specifications (OpSpecs).
8. Some aircraft have RNP approval in their AFM without a GPS sensor. The lowest level of sensors
that the FAA will support for RNP service is DME/DME. However, necessary DME signal may not be
available at the airport of intended operations. For those locations having an RNAV chart published
with LNAVNNAV minimums, a procedure note may be provided such as ''DME/DME RNP 0.3 NA.''
This means that RNP aircraft dependent on DME/DME to achieve RNP 0.3 are not authorized to
conduct this approach. Where DME facility availability is a factor, the note may read ''DME/DME RNP
0.3 Authorized; ABC and XVZ Reguired. '' This means that ABC and XYZ facilities have been
determined by flight inspection to be required in the navigation solution to assure RNP 0.3.
U.S. Standard RNP Levels
Primary Route Width (NM)
RNP Levels Typical Application
Centerline to Boundary
RNP SAAAR Approach Segments
0.1 to 1.0 (.§.pecial Aircraft and Aircrew 0.1 to 1.0
Authorization Required
0.3 to 1.0 RNP Approach Segments 0.3 to 1.0
1 Terminal and En Route 1.0
2 En Route 2.0
RNP Levels Supported for International Operations

RNP Level Typical Application
4 Oceanic/remote areas with 30 NM horizontal separation
10 Oceanic/remote areas with 50 NM lateral separation
(Chap 2 - Flight Rules & Approach)
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
;:' . •••••••• ·-· ••••• ·-· ..................... .
froperfreparationfreventsfiss~or~~rmance.
PREFLIGHT ACTION: (91 .103) •
Before beginning a flight, each Pilot In Command shall become familiar with all available information
concerning the flight including weather reports and forecasts, fuel requirements, alternatives available,
traffic delays aircraft performance for expected airport elevation, runway slope, wind, temperature
and aircraft gross weight runway lengths, takeoff & landing distance information, and NOTAMS.
ATC CLEARANCE and FLIGHT PLAN REQUIRED: (91 .173, AIM 5-1-6 thru 5-1-9)
No person may operate an aircraft in CONTROLLED airspace under I FR unless that person has-
( a) Filed an IFR flight plan; and
(b) Received an appropriate ATC clearance .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: It is perfectly legal to fly in UNCONTROLLED [Class G] airspace without an IFR flight plan or clearance.
•Therefore, when receiving an IFR clearance on the ground at an uncontrolled (Class G) airport, the
: clearance may include the phrase ''upon entering controlled airspace... ''
: NOTE: See Page 7 for more details about flying under I FR in UNCONTROLLED [Class G] airspace.
PREFERRED ROUTES: (P/C Glossary, A/FD)

1. Established between busier airports to increase efficiency and capacity.
2. Preferred routes are listed in the Airport/Facility Directory. 800·992·7433
. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••--. .·· -........................................··. IFR (VFR)
: A pilot operating under Part 91 can file an IFR flight plan :· FAA Press Release (Tail#) --------,.-- -
••
•
to an airport that does not have an instrument : "Beginning on October 1, 2015, the
•
(AC Type)_ _ _ _ /_A/_G
_ru
__
: approach (or does not have an instrument approach that : FAA will implement flight plan filing Knots
•
: the aircraft can legally execute) if the pilot includes in that : for civil aircraft exclusively under the
: flight plan an alternate airport, which meets the alternate
• (Where am ,.-t---
I?) - - ;- - - -
: format used by the International Civil
~ airport weather requirements of 91 .169(c).
•
: Aviation Organization (ICAO)." Qeparture ~ ...ime (or ASAP)
•
.,~#IJ.l"JAN!iAN~~~~~N'.A~'#JA,fll#'JltNIAN~~ ~. (Page 222, 223, AIM 5-1-9) - thousand
•
D-+ D-+ & Lndg,._ _
FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS at STATIONS - - -hours enroute

Remarks
- -- -- - - - -
(PILOTS in their SEATS) - SAFETY BEL TS - - -hours fuel
~lternate i __ _
SEAT BEL TS SHOULDER HARNESS: Name
-
SJ2elled __
(91 .105, 91 .521 , 135.128, 121 .311 , 121 .543) Based in Phone#
(a) During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight - -onboard - -
crewmember shall -(c-olo-r)- &
(1) Be at the crewmember station unless the absence is necessary --- ---
to perform duties in connection with the operation of the aircraft or
in connection with physiological needs; and
(2) Keep the SAFETY BELT fastened while at the crewmember station.
(b) Each required flight crewmember shall, during takeoff and landing, keep his or her SHOULDER
HARNESS fastened while at his or her assigned duty station. This paragraph does not apply if -
(1) The seat is not equipped with a shoulder harness; or
(2) The crewmember would be unable to perform required duties with the shoulder harness
fastened.
Physiological functional ''Physiological needs'' using the
• •
processes 1n an organism or restroom, stretching your legs briefly,
any of its parts. or "other" physiological requirements.
c b
91 .203(b) - No person may

operate a civil aircraft unless the
airworthiness certificate required
or a special flight authorization is 91.107 requires that you
displayed at the cabin or cockpit brief your passengers to
entrance so that it is legible to fasten their seatbelts before
passengers or crew. taxi, takeoff and landing.

Do You Need an ALTERNATE? 91.169
For Fixed Wing Aircraft Weather reports or forecasts, or a combination of them must indicate:
(1) 1 hour BEFORE & 1 hour AFTER Estimated Time of Arrival;
(2) CEILING required to NOT need an alternate at least 2000 ft above airport elevation;
(3) VISIBILITY required to NOTneed an alternate at least 3 miles.
For Helicopters Weather reports or forecasts, or a combination of them must indicate:
At the Estimated Time of Arrival and for 1 hour after the estimated time of arrival, the CEILING will be at
least 1,000 feet above the airport elevation, or at least 400 feet above the lowest applicable approach
minima, whichever is higher, and the VISIBILITY will be at least .2, statute miles .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: NOTE: There are a few airports in the U.S. with instrument
.................... --· ... ..................... --· ..............
:
----·
An ALTERNATE is ALWAYS required
•
•approach procedures that have MDAs HIGHER than 2,000 ft •: EXCEPT when: [91 .169(b)]
•
: and/or require VISIBILITIES MORE than 3 miles: : 1. An instrument approach is published and available for the
: South Lake Tahoe, CA (KTVL), Bishop, CA (KBIH), : destination; AND
: Aspen, CO (KASE), Telluride, CO (KTEX) : 2. The worst case forecast for 1 hour before and after the ETA
• •
: It may be possible to legally file IFR to these airports (Part 91 ) : indicates at least a 2000 ft ceiling and 3 miles visibility.
: and not file an alternate, even though the weather might be : 3. NOTE: An alternate is always required when the destination
: below IFR landing minimums for an instrument approach that •• airport has no published approach procedure .
•~ the aircraft (or pilot) is equipped to perform . (AIM 5-1-10) • •• ' '> ' • • 0 • ~ j • '• • • - • • ~ • ~ • • v ~ - ,. •c •• 4 •·
-·······································
: You may file IFR to an airport without an
··············~··············································· · •
: The worst weather condition in any of the reports or forecasts is : instrument approach as long as you also
: controlling. Any " CHANCE OF," " occasional ," " intermittent," : include an appropriate alternate airport.
9
: "tempo," or "possibility" of weather fa lling below these minimums 'VfN'r/ltN!#llNlrJllN~~rflttNWlatli'6¥1~rlkN'#.N~~'/lfN
:• means - You WILL need an ALTERNATE. This must also be ·······~···························

•• considered when designating an airport as an alternate . •
• Alternate Airport Considerations
t (FAA Order 8900.1 Para 3-2049, FAA Legal Interpretation) : GPS users (without WAAS) may flight plan to use GPS-
• based approaches at either their destination or
........................................................... : alternate, but not at both locations.
: Although the Terminal Area Forecast (TAF) is preferable, if one
• • WAAS users withOUT baro-VNAV may flight plan for the
: isn't available, the Area Forecast (FA) may be used. Also, for
: flights less than an hour, a current METAR may be used. : use of LNAV approaches (without vertical guidance) at
................................................
,i::•_,f_ ~ -~il_ _ ."_. t-i:-' - - - ... ~ - --•'(-"-" ~~ • any airport, whether the destination , alternate, or both.
: WAAS users equipped WITH baro-VNAV may flight plan
: You may use an airport without approaches as , • for LNAVNNAV or RNP 0 .3 DA approaches (using
•
: your alternate as long as the weather will permit •• vertical guidance) at both the destination and the
: descent from MEA to landing under basic VFR. alternate. (AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-18g., 1-2-3d., OpSpec C055)
·'~NlfA;N N~
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: ALTERNATE AIRPORT- means an airport
•
: at which an aircraft may land if a landing at the
• intended airport becomes inadvisable. (1.1) Alternate requirements for Part 135 and
Part 121 commercial operations are
located on Page 254.
(91 .169)
Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, no person may include an alternate airport in an IFR
flight plan unless appropriate weather reports or weather forecasts, or a combination of them, indicate
that, at the ,5stimated Iime of 8,rrival at the alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility at that airport will be
at or above the following weather minimums -
For FIXED WING aircraft, the alternate minimums specified in that procedure, or if none are
specified, the following minimums:
• PRECISION approach Ceiling 600 feet & visibility .2, statute miles.
• NONPRECISION approach Ceiling 800 feet & visibility g statute miles.
For HELICOPTERS: Ceiling 200 feet above the minimum for the approach to be flown, and visibility at
least 1 statute mile but never less than the minimum visibility for the approach to be flown, and
For ALL AIRCRAFT If NO INSTRUMENT APPROACH procedure has been PUBLISHED for the
alternate airport, the ceiling and visibility minima are those allowing descent from the MEA,
approach, and landing under basic VFR .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Also check£ ''Alternate Minimums not standard'' (front of NOS approach book) or ... ''NA'' .tfot 8,uthorized
: and/or the ''FOR FILING AS AN ALTERNATE'' box (back of airport diagram chart Jeppesen) .
•
·~##.#lll#Jlr;Mflf.~~IJtJ!tl¥1Nt#NWiJl##'###il.##-.##.##t~~llN.J~~t#J~~'r##'i#siJ##.NiJt..##.Nr.1£.~ll##i~~tA*.ilt#Nt#N'##'#N~##.N#l.~
·············· ~························· ~-----~·---··················· ~························ ·----·· ... ·····················•·•••··••··•·•······•·· ••
: Remember an Alternate is required on your flight plan for planning purposes only in the case of radio failure .
: Once you 're enroute, all bets are off. If it becomes impossible to land at your original destination ... with a new clearance
: you can land anywhere you like using any and all approach procedures that would normally be available to you.
IFR FUEL SUPPLY (Domestic): (91.151 , 91 .167, 135.223, 121 .639 thru 121 .647)
1. Fly to the destination shoot an approach~o on to the (most distant) alternate and
fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruise.
2. Helicopters Fly to the destination shoot an approach go on to the
alternate and fly after that for 30 minutes at normal cruise.
VFR FUEL SUPPLY (Domestic):

(91.151 , 135.209, 121 .639 thru 121 .647)
1. DAY To the destination+ 30 minutes.
2. NIGHT To the destination + 45 minutes.
3. Rotorcraft To the destination + 20 minutes. TEXACO
FLAG Operations - NONTURBINE and

TURBOPROP: (121 .641 )
1. Fly to and land at the airport to which it is dispatched;
2. Thereafter, fly to and land at the most distant alternate; and
3. Thereafter, fly for 30 minutes plus 1So/o of the total time required to fly to
the destination and most distant alternate or 90 minutes at normal cruise whichever is less.
4. ALSO ... No person may dispatch a nonturbine or turbo-propeller airplane to an airport when an
alternate is not specified, unless it has enough fuel to fly to that airport and thereafter to~ for
THREE HOURS at normal cruising fuel consumption.
FLAG or SUPPLEMENTAL JET Operations

Outside the U.S.: (121 .645)
1. Fly to and land at the airport to which it is released;
2. After that. To fly for a period of 1Oo/o of the total time required to fly from the
airport of departure to, and land at, the airport to which it was released; Shell
3. After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight release, if an
alternate is required; and
4. After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 feet above the alternate airport (or
destination airport if no alternate is required) under standard temperature conditions.
FLAG or SUPPLEMENTAL Operation when

NO ALTERNATE is SPECIFIED (JET): [121 .645(c)l
• When an alternate is not specified under 121.621(a)(2) or 121.623(b), a jet aircraft must have enough
fuel, considering wind and other weather conditions expected, to fly to the destination airport and
thereafter to~ for at least 2 hours at normal cruising fuel consumption.
~Observation•
I've noticed the majority
of airplanes that crash
due to fuel starvation do
so within two miles of
thei r destination.
I wonder what their first
two words are when
the engines quit.

It sure got REAL quiet!

I thought you said you
were gonna get some gas
back there in Roanoke?
. ..
Noooooo...
I thought you said YOU were
gonna get the gas!!
~·
.
.• ····························~··········~············································-~
: With ample runway available ... it's a virtual certainty an airplane will fly a little over gross.
: However ... without enough gas onboard ... it will most definitely not reach its destination.
Z -+ Someday that forecast for a tailwind will turn into a headwind .
: -+ Someday ATC will assign a ridiculously low altitude 150 miles from your destination.
: -+ Someday that forecast for great weather at your destination will turn sour when you get
: there forcing a diversion to your alternate with even worse weather .
•
•: -+ Someday during a late night approach in miserable weather, the plane in front of you will
• crash and they'll close the airport leaving you with few options.
% -+ Someday the gear will fail to lock down on approach ... wouldn 't you love to have
•: abundant time to troubleshoot properly?
: -+ All of the above have been experienced by me personally during my tenure as a freight dog.
: If you find yourself thinking about gas at any time during a flight ... you didn't buy
•• enough! AND .. . if you 're even slightly worried about gas, you'll find yourself making
foolish ... possibly even stupid decisions. Don't put yourself in that position!
• • • • ••••••••••••••
: You can never have too
: much fuel, too much altitude,
• •
: or too many engines.
: (i.e., unless you're on fire)

VOID TIME (Clearance Void Times): (91 .173, AIM 5-2-6, opspec co64)
1. Pilots may receive a clearance when operating from an airport without a control
tower, which contains a provision for the clearance to be ''VOID IF NOT
AIRBORNE BY ... " a specific time. 23 24 13
I'
11 12 ' I I, ,,
. ,_
2. A pilot who does not depart prior to the void time must advise ATC As .§.oon As -
Possible.
3.
-
Failure to contact ATC within 30 minutes after clearance void time will result in
the aircraft being considered overdue and search & rescue procedures will be
initiated.
4. CLEARANCE is automatically CANCELLED if TAKEOFF is NOT made PRIOR
TO the CLEARANCE VOID TIME.
5. Pilots who depart at or AFTER their void time are NOT afforded IFR separation and may [will] be in
VIOLATION of 91.173, which requires that pilots receive an ATC clearance before operating IFR in
controlled airspace. Being five minutes late is like being a thousand feet off your assigned altitude. If
for some reason you cannot make the time, call FSS or ATC and get another release.
NEVER launch AFTER the VOID TIME.
6. Other IFR traffic is suspended until the aircraft has contacted ATC or until 30 minutes after the void time.
7. Unless the airport has WEATHER REPORTING Part 135 operators cannot depart with a void
time because most Part 135 operators are not allowed to operate IFR in Class G uncontrolled-
airspace unless the airport has WEATHER REPORTING (tower reported, FSS, ASOS or AWOS-3).
IFR TAKEOFF LIMITATIONS: (135.219, 121 .61 3)

No person may takeoff an aircraft under IFR or over the top operation unless the latest weather reports
OR forecasts, or any combination of them, indicate that weather conditions fil the ,5stimated !ime of
Arrival at the next airport of intended landing [or at the ETA at the alternate] will be at or above authorized
IFR landing minimums [or at or above required alternate minimums]. (135.219)
TAXIING: (AIM 4-3-18 thru 4-3-20, 5-2-4, FAA-H- 8083-25, JO 7110.65U- Para 3-9-4)
1. A clearance must be obtained prior to crossing any runway. ATC will issue an explicit clearance for
all runway crossings. ATC will not use the word "cleared " in conjunction with taxi clearance.
Controllers cannot issue multiple runway crossing clearances fil the same time, unless the
distance between two runway centerlines is less than 1,000 ft.
NOTE: Of course it's still good common sense to look both ways before crossing any runway, and also not a
bad idea to mention to the controller that you are ''now crossing Runway XX'' just to make sure everyone is
sti II on the same page.
2. ATC is required to obtain from the pilot a READBACK of ALL runway HOLD SHORT INSTRUCTIONS.
3. Pilots should always read back the runway assignment and runway hold short instructions when taxi
instructions are received from the controller. Controllers are required to request a readback of runway
hold-short assignment when it is not received from the pilot.
4. ,bine Y.P And Wait (LUAW) an air traffic control (ATC) procedure designed to position an aircraft
onto the runway for an imminent departure. The ATC instruction "LINE UP AND WAIT" is used to
instruct a pilot to taxi onto the departure runway and line up and wait. (AIM 5-2-4)
r--~~
, ~~~~~~--
······················· ~
•• Dancing Attitude Indicator?
\
•• An attitude indicator may take as
• long as 5 minutes to stabilize
(normally 2-3 minutes). It also
should not bank more than
5° during taxi turns.

(Chap 2 Flight Rules & Approach)
TAKEOFF BRIEFING: (AC 120-71APPENDIX17)
AC 120-71 - Standard Operating Procedures for Flight Deck Crewmembers:
The purpose of the pilot briefing is to enhance communications on the flight deck and
to promote effective teamwork. Each crewmember is expected to perform as an '
integral part of the team. The briefing should establish a mutual understanding of the ·- - --
specific factors appropriate for the flight. A pilot briefing should be given prior to
starting engines for the first flight of the day (and any subsequent flight, if applicable).
A TAKEOFF BRIEFING should be given prior to each takeoff.
The captain (typically) determines the length and detail of the briefing. Factors to
consider include:
• Experience level of the pilots.
•
.• -.... ·--· ....................................•........... ·--· ............... ·--
Special MEL procedures as a result of inoperative components .
! TAKEOFF BRIEFING (typical)

•• (PF) ''Alrighty mate This is your Captain speaking The Departure Procedure is-
•• fly runway heading to 3,000 then a left turn to 270° on course , climb and maintain 9,000.
: On my command I'll have you set takeoff power then you call out Power Set, Airspeed Alive,
: 80 knots Crosscheck, V 1 , Rotate, Positive Rate, Gear Up, and Flap Speed.
: Monitor the gauges any-major malfunction (such as engine fire, engine failure , thrust reverser
: deployment, loss of directional control, or other catastrophic malfunction) below V 1 we'll abort-
: any malfunctions after V 1 , we'll continue. If we do lose an engine after V 1, we'll return to land on the
: most convenient runway nearest the FBO with those free chocolate chip cookies. Any Questions?"
z
• Pilot Not Fl in (PNF) "Are we gonna get some lunch when we get to Albuquerque?"
•
•
Pilot Flying (PF) "Affirmative. Takeoff briefing complete."
Other considerations could be:

• Runway conditions
• Terrain
• Abort procedures (e.g., drag chute, thrust Lengel Executive Airlines
reversers)
• Anti-ice TAKEOFF FALCON 20
• Takeoff alternate
ATIS:
TOLD Card (!ake-Qff & ,banding Qata)

(TAKEOFF side) Typically provides spaces for:
1. ATIS WEIGHT
2. Takeoff weight V1
3. Flap setting FLAPS TIME TO 100
4. Time to 100 knots VR
5. Power settings IakeQff and .Max .Qontinuous p T.O.
6. Runway required Balanced Field Length V2 0
w
(BFL), aka Required Runway Length, Takeoff
Field Length, Accelerate-Stop/Go distance or VFR •R M.C.
Critical Field Length RWYRQD

7. Speeds: VFs
• V1 Takeoff decision speed RETURN
• VR B.otation speed
• V2 Takeoff safety speed & best VENR VREF
single engine climb gradient
• VFR flap B.etraction speed CLEARANCE:
• VFS final .§.egment climb speed
• VENA ENRoute climb speed
.. Return VREF Emergency RETURN
for landing REFerence speed
8. Clearance

[chap 2 - Flight Rules & Approach)
WAKE TURBULENCE: (AIM 4-6-7, 7-3-1 thru 7-3-9, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 90-23, Order 7110.65U, SAFO 12007)
1. Landing behind a large aircraft:
• Stay at or above the large aircraft's final approach flight path - note its touchdown point - land beyond it.
2. Departing behind a large aircraft:
• Rotate prior to the large aircraft's rotation point - continue climb above the large aircraft's climb path until
turning clear.
• This may not be an option when following a lightly loaded high-performance jet. Wait a little longer or
request an immediate upwind turnout for wake avoidance.
WAKE TURBULENCE TRAFFIC SEPARATIONS: (91 .3, AIM 4-6-7, 4-6-9, 7-3-9)
1. Two minutes (or the appropriate 4 or 5 miles) - when departing behind a heavy jet (or 8757) from the same
threshold (may NOT be "waived" by the pilot of the departing aircraft). Add 1 minute departing behind A380/A388.
2. Three minutes - when departing from an intersection on the same runway behind a heavy jet (or 8757) (may
NOT be "waived" by the pilot of the departing aircraft). Add 1 minute behind A380/A388.
WAKE TURBULENCE ENDS I BEGINS

•••••••••••••••••••••••
• The greatest vortex strength
• occurs when the generating aircraft • Rotation
: is HEAVY, CLEAN, and SLOW.
~ -· - -- ··~« Touchdown
••
Wake Ends Wake Begins
Vortex Flow
Sink Rate
Several Hundred feet per minute ~urbulence
~ WHERE THE FUN BEGINS
3. ENROUTE separation is applied to aircraft operating directly behind a heavy jet (or 8-757) mthe same altitude or
less than 1,000 feet below:
a. Heavy jet behind heavy jet - 4 miles. Heavy behind A388 (super) - 5 miles.
b. Large or heavy behind 8-757 - 4 miles. Large behind A388 (super)- 5 miles.
c. Small behind 8-757 - 5 miles. Small behind A388 (super) - 5 miles.
d. Small or large aircraft behind heavy jet - 5 miles (6 miles in the terminal area).
Departure & Arrival Separation (at threshold)

MEM, SDF, MIA, CVG, SFO, ATL, PHL
Follower NM
Super Heav_y 8757 Large Small
L Super 2.5 6 7 7 8
E Hea~ 2.5 4 5 5 6
A
D 8757 2.5 4 4 4 5
E Lar e 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 4
R Small 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
··············································································~
:
• Aircraft Classes (P/C Glossary, JO 7110.65T, N JO 7110.582, SAFO 12007)
: SUPER -Airbus A380-800 (A388)(MTOW may be as much as 1,433,000 lbs)(N JO 7110.582)
: HEAVY -Aircraft capable of takeoff weights of 300.000 lbs or more whether or not they are operating at this weight
: during a particular phase of flight. NOTE: A 8-757 usually weighs less than 255.000 pounds, but is (essentially)
: considered heavy for wake turbulence separation purposes.
: LARGE - Aircraft of more than 41,000 lbs, max certificated takeoff weight, up to but not including 300,000 pounds.
~ SMALL - Aircraft of 41.000 lbs or less max certificated takeoff weight.

CLIMB GRADIENT: (AIM 5-2-8, 5-4-18, 5-4-21, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)

1. Climb Gradient The ratio between distance traveled and altitude gained.
2. Standard climb gradient is 200 feet per nautical mile. When no gradient is specified,
you are expected to climb at least 200 feet per nautical mile until required to level off.
3. Greater climb gradients are specified when required for obstacle clearance.
4. Converting climb gradient to feet per minute:
Ground speed x climb gradient + 60 = feet per minute
100 knots x 200 ft er NM + 60 333 feet er minute
"; ·······-·······--····················
Climb Gradient in °/o
"""
•
•• Rise Over Run = o/o
:
• 440 ft per NM - 7 2010 Cl" b G d" t
~ 6076 (ft in a NM) - • ' im ra ien
PILOT AGE: (1.1, FAA-H-8083-16, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 61-23C)

Pilotage means navigation by visual reference to
landmarks. It is a method of navigation that can be used
on any course that has adequate checkpoints, but it is
more commonly used in conjunction with dead reckoning and
VFR radio navigation.
DEAD RECKONING: (P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25)

Navigation of an airplane solely by means of computations
based on airspeed, course, heading, wind direction & speed, ground speed, and elapsed time. The word
''dead'' in dead reckoning is actually derived from ''ded," or deduced (or deductive) reckoning.
The ultimate example of superior PILOTAGE, flawless DEAD RECKONING,

extreme desperation, dumb luck, and incredible stupidity ever recorded.
This dude brought new meaning to the definition of BRAVE.
Only those who risk going too far will ever know how far they can go.

Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) & Remote Transmitter/Receiver
(RTR): (P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25, AC 00-45G) 123.6
1. An unmanned communications facility remotely controlled by air traffic
personnel. OLYMPIA RCO
2. RCOs serve FSSs.
3. RTRs serve terminal ATC facilities. l_McCHOF!Qj
4 . An RCO or RTR may be UHF or VHF and will extend the communication range
of the air traffic facility.
5. There are several classes of RCOs and RTRs. The class is determined by the number of transmitters
or receivers. Classes A through G are used primarily for air/ground purposes. RCO and RTR class 0
facilities are nonprotected outlets subject to undetected and prolonged outages.
6. RCO (O's) and RTR (O's) were established for the express purpose of providing ground-to-ground
communications between air traffic control specialists and pilots located at a satellite airport for
delivering enroute clearances, issuing departure authorizations, and acknowledging instrument flight
rules cancellations or departure/landing times.
7. As a secondary function, they may be used for advisory purposes whenever the aircraft is below the
coverage of the primary air/ground frequency.
Ground Communication Outlet ( GCO ): (P/c Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

1. An unstaffed, remotely controlled, ground to ground communications facility.
2. Pilots at uncontrolled airports may contact ATC and FSS via VHF to a TELEPHONE connection to
obtain an instrument clearance or close a VFR or IFR flight plan.
3. They may also get an updated weather briefing prior to take-off.
4. FOUR (slow) "key clicks" on the VHF radio to contact the appropriate ATC facility; or ...
5. SIX (slow) "key clicks" to contact the FSS (will ring phone).
6. The GCO system is intended to be used only on the ground .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•: ''Climb/Descend Via'' SID/STAR
: Order 7110.65, AIM 5-2-8, 5-4-1 , 5-5-9, 5-5-16, P/C Glossary
Click, click, click, click ... ; • An abbreviated ATC clearance that requires compliance with
One ring-a-dingy ... two ring-a- : the procedure's lateral path , associated speed restrictions,
dingy ... three ring-a-dingy : and altitude restrictions published on the SID or STAR.
: • You are required to respond to a climb or descend via
''Hello, this is New York Center, : clearance by reading back the " Climb/Descend Via"
•
: clearance verbatim.
what can we do for you today?''
: •The controller may clear you to climb or descend contrary to
; the altitudes on the procedure ( "descend and maintain" vs .
•: "descend via') , however published Speed Restrictions are
: always mandatory unless the controller tells you to "delete
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: FYI : speed restriction," or assigns you a speed to maintain.
: The GCO system has a habit of : • ATC anticipates pilots will begin adjusting speed the minimum
: hanging up the phone if it doesn't : distance necessary prior to a published speed restriction so as
: hear anything on the frequency for : to cross the waypoinVfix fil the published speed.
: a while. So if FSS or ATC puts : •NOTE - " Cleared Via" is only a lateral clearance ...
•: you on hold for some reason , it's a •
: " Climb Via" is both a lateral and vertical clearance.
: good idea to click the mic once ·~""""'............"""'flltllll/l.ilf/¥""""'""""'............flttllllli.~rNVW'fNl#ll......flfllttlltilfN',#J/14
% every 30 seconds or so to ensure
: you don't get dumped.
HAVE YOU
" Ah ... yeah ... looks like Speed Bird 340 has
CLOSEO somehow missed JFK and inadvertently landed
YOUR at Podunk Municipal, so I guess we need to
CANCEL our flight plan ... and ah ... could you
FLIGHT chaps send over a couple of ladders?"
PLAN?

Chap 2 Flight Rules & Approach
Yo, yo! What the hell's that dude on
~tA~r~e~y~a~r~ea~d~y~ffuo~r--'.::::::::::::::~~;· the mountain bike doin' up here?
gear-up yet Captain?
DEPARTURE PROCEDURES:
[AIM 5-2-6, 5-2-8, 5-5-14, 91.175(f), 91 .605, 121 .189, 135.181 , 135.367, 135.379 thru 135.383, OpSpec C077, AC 120-91 , FAA-H-8083-16]
1. ATC-coded procedures established to simplify clearance delivery procedures.
2. Provide a transitional procedure from the terminal to the enroute structure. The PRIMARY reason is
to provide obstacle clearance when a ''Diverse Vector Area'' (OVA) departure is not possible due to
obstacles penetrating the 40: 1 departure obstacle clearance plane. A SECONDARY reason, at busier
airports, is to increase efficiency and reduce communications and departure delays.
3. .§.tandard Instrument Qeparture (SID) Provide "obstacle" clearance and reduce P/C workload.
4. Qbstacle Qeparture frocedures (ODP) "Obstruction" clearance via the ''least onerous route.''
5. You are not required to accept a DP. If you do not possess a textual description or graphic depiction
of the DP you cannot accept one. Let ATC know about it in the remarks section of your flight plan.
6. Part 91 contains no specific rules that require a person to use the DP or the DP climb gradient when in
VMC (or in IMC if ATC lets you). If you accept the DP, the DP climb gradient must be met, but this only
applies to all-engine operations (for Part 91 ).
7. DPs ensure obstacle protection if you're at least 35 ft AGL crossing the end of the runway. Obstacle
clearance responsibility rests with the pilot when choosing to climb in VMC in lieu of flying a DP.
8. Transport category Part 135 operations must comply with 135.379 and 135.381 obstacle clearance
requirements. You must meet the climb gradient even if you lose an engine! (135.181 , 135.381)
9. OpSpec C077d.&e. Part 121 operations and Part 135 turbojet operations require compliance with
Qeparture frocedures established by the FAA. VMC climbs are allowed (OpSpec C077e.), but obstacle
clearance data would need to be provided and performance must meet 135 and/or 121 requirements
(which would require a detailed obstacle clearance analysis by your company). Just fly the damn DP!
10. An airport without a Vin the notes section will have standard commercial takeoff minimums [91.175(f)]
T with no restrictions. Once you have reached at least 400 feet AGL on runway heading, you are free to
turn directly towards your first enroute fix.
11. When an approach chart labels a runway V ''NA,'' that runway cannot be used by commercial
T operators for instrument departures.
12. If an airport has more than one DP, the takeoff minimums for a runway apply to all Departure
Procedures, except when a specific DP has its own charted takeoff minimums.
13.
.............. ·-- ............... ·-- ............... ·-- ............... ·-- ............... ·-- ........
If no climb gradient is specified, a standard minimum of 200 feet per NM applies (30: 1 ):
: CLIMB GRADIENT: Groundspeed x feet per NM (climb gradient from DP) then divide by 60. :
•
•• :- • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• 140 kts x 200 ft/NM ·
= 466 ft/min :
: ·Standard
•• • •• •• • • •• •Climb
•• • • ••Gradient=
• •• • • •• • •• •200 • •• • •feet
• • • •per
• • ••NM:
• •• • 60 :•
·· ~················ ~················ ~················ ~················ ~················ ~···
(400 fVmin@ 120 kts) (466 fVmin@ 140 kts) (533 fVmin@ 160 kts) (666 fVmin@ 200 kts)
14. An airport that has been assigned an instrument approach has been evaluated for a DP. If there are no
obstacles to obstruct a 200 feet per NM climb, no departure procedure is required or established. An
airport with no major obstructions meets what's called ''DIVERSE DEPARTURE'' criteria; meaning that
after reaching 400 feet AGL on runway heading, it's safe to climb in any direction at the leisurely pace
of 200 feet per NM. No DP will be published unless otherwise needed for air traffic purposes.
15. Procedures requiring a climb gradient in excess of 200 feet per NM shall also specify a ceiling and
visibility to be used as an alternative for aircraft incapable of achieving the gradient. The ceiling
value shall be the 100-foot increment above the controlling obstacle or above the altitude required
over a specified point from which a 40: 1 gradient will clear the obstacle. Ceilings of 200 feet or less
shall not be specified. The visibility shall be at least one mile.
16. If the DP has a specified climb gradient, compliance with the climb gradient is mandatory.
17. If the DP requires a turn of more than 15°, and no turning fix or altitude is specified, the turn should
begin at 400 feet AGL.
18. A mandatory ''EARLY TURN'' (begin turn at less than 400 feet AGL) is required for certain runways
because of close-in obstacles. In such cases, the takeoff minimums must be at least 300-1, and the
early turn to a heading or to intercept a course is specified ''turn left (right) as soon as practicable."
NOTE: ''Practical'' or ''feasible'' may exist in some existing departure text instead of ''practicable."

VFR·ON·TOP IFR CLEARANCE: (91 .155, AIM 4-4-8, 4-4-11 , 5-3-2, 5-3-3, 5-5-13, 7-5-6, P/C Glossary)
1. A pilot on an IFR flight plan operating in VFR conditions, may request VFR-on-top in lieu of an assigned
altitude, permitting the pilot to select a VFR altitude of their choice (subject to any ATC restrictions).
2. Can be useful in order to fly above, below, or between cloud
layers to avoid turbulence or ice when an appropriate IFR altitude JULY Ne
is not available due to traffic or other restrictions.
3. Must comply with IFR and VFR regulations.
4. Must report [request] any altitude changes.
5. Must meet cloud separation and visibility requirements of the
airspace you're flying in.
6. The pilot is responsible for traffic avoidance (ATC is relieved of
normal IFR separation requirements).
7. Appropriate VFR altitude for direction of flight above 3,000 feet AGL & minimum IFR altitudes (MEA).
8. Does not imply cancellation of the IFR flight plan must adhere to ATC clearance.
9. If VFR conditions can no longer be maintained, you must tell ATC you want to resume flight at an IFR
altitude.
VFR·OVER·THE·TOP: (1 .1, 91 .503, 135.159, 135.211, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)

Not to be confused with VFR-ON-TOP. VFR-OVER-THE-TOP is simply an aircraft flying VFR above a solid
cloud layer when it is not being operated on an I FR flight plan.
~·····~··················································~····················
• ••
% ''MINIMUM FUEL ADVISORY'': (AIM 5-5-15)
:. .... After stating your call sign, the term "Minimum Fuel" should be used. ''Falcon 48A-Minimum Fuel." :
This is not an emergency-but an advisory that an emergency is possible should any undue delay occur. •
.• .. This term does not imply the need for traffic ''priority.'' •"
:. .... Really getting nervous? Te// them you need ''PRIORITY" - or declare an ''EMERGENCY'' (means the same). :
NEVER use this as a ploy to cut in front of other traffic when you really don't have a problem. :
•
• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
VFR ''FLIGHT FOLLOWING'' aka ''RADAR FLIGHT FOLLOWING'':
[P/C Glossary, 91 .127(c), 91 .129(c), 91 .130(c), 91 .131(a), AIM 3-2-1(d), 4-1-21 , 5-1-8, 5-1-9, 5-5-11 , 6-2-7, PC Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25]
1. The observation of the progress of radar identified aircraft, whose PRIMARY NAVIGATION is being
PROVIDED BY the PILOT.
2. VFR ''Flight Following all the way'' is a great idea if you're going more than a hundred miles or so. If
the clearance guy isn't too busy, he'll create a ''strip'' on you and you'll be handed off from controller to
controller almost like you're IFR. Until you get up in the Northeast they go by a different set of rules
than the rest of the country in fact it IS a different country it's called ''YANKEE LAND.'' Get
used to the term ''sguawk 1200 cleared from Center frequency {I ain't got time to mess with your
ass)'' just as you're fixin' to enter somebody's Class B airspace!! I love those guys. I bet they have a
great time watching you do ''360's'' trying to sort things out after they dump you!! Now you know
the reason WHY you spent all that time practicing steep turns when you were learning to fly!!
3. ATC provides flight following on a workload-permitting basis only.
4. There are no 100°/o ''guarantees''with flight following. Technically it's your responsibility to avoid
violating airspace. You must keep an eye on the charts for Class B. C, D, and Special Use Airspace
areas. Although the controllers will normally hand you off or steer you around in a timely manner 99.9o/o
of the time, they have no real responsibility to do so. The ''Air Traffic Control Handbook'' mandates
that the controllers keep track of all Special Use Airspace and not let either IFR traffic, or traffic on
VFR Advisories penetrate any ''hot'' areas. BUT, it's still up to you to keep track of where you're at!
5. A center controller has NO AUTHORITY to clear you into someone else's Class B airspace. You
must receive the Class B clearance from *the ATC facility having jurisdiction for that area.* [91 .131(a)]
6. Be proactive. Query the controller. Don't forget to file a NASA report if there is a screw up. Generally
speaking, ATC will not file for a violation if another ATC may be partially at fault. An educational phone
call usually takes care of the situation UNLESS there is a loss of separation with another aircraft.
7. If you need to climb or descend. You certainly can TELL them you are climbing or descending, but it's a
little more politically correct (and a little nicer and safer) to ASK them if it's OK (there may be other
traffic out there that you're not aware of):
=> m 38LW would like to descend to four thousand five hundred if it's OK with y'all.
=> them 38LW VFR descent is approved remain VFR at all times.
=> - -All righty-thanks.

NON-RADAR - POSITION REPORTING: (91 .183, AIM 5-3-2)
1. A ''COMPULSORY'' reporting point is indicated on charts by a SOLID triangle:
2. An ''ON REQUEST'' reporting point is indicated on charts by an OPEN triangle:
NON-RADAR - POSITION REPORT ITEMS: (91 .183, AIM 5-3-2)

1. Identification.
2. Position.
3.
-
Time.
-
4.
-
Altitude.
5. !ype of flight plan (not required when IFR and report is made directly to ATC).
6. ,5TA and name of next reporting point.
7. !fame only of the next succeeding reporting point.
8. Any pertinent remarks.
ADDITIONAL REPORTS - AT ALL TIMES: (AIM 5-3-3, 91 .187)

1. When vacating a previously assigned altitude for a newly assigned
altitude.
2. When an altitude change is desired while on a VFR-on-top clearance.
3. Unable to climb/descend at a rate of at least 500 feet per minute.
4. A MISSED APPROACH.
5. Change in true airspeed (during cruise) when it varies by 5°/o or 10 knots
(whichever is greater) from that filed on the flight plan.
6. Time and altitude upon reaching a holding fix.
7. Leaving an assigned holding fix.
8. Any MALFUNCTIONS of navigational, approach, or communication equipment occurring during flight
(loss of VOR, ADF, ILS, etc., or impairment of air/ground communications). (91 .187)
9. Any other information relating to the safety of flight.
10. Weather conditions that have not been forecast.
ADDITIONAL REPORTS when NOT IN RADAR CONTACT: (AIM 5-3-3)

1. When leaving the final approach fix inbound on final approach for a non-precision or precision
approach.
2. A corrected estimate of time if the previous estimate is in error in excess of 3 minutes.
''PILOT'S DISCRETION'' The controller has offered you the option of starting the
descent (or climb) whenever you wish and at any rate of descent (or climb) you want. You have
the freedom to temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude, but once you have vacated
an altitude, you cannot go back up (or down). If you decide to stay at the previously
assigned altitude for a while before starting the descent, you should initiate an additional
call to report leaving the previously assigned altitude. Example: ''Falcon 123 is
descending now to 230." The controller will appreciate this as a courtesy call. It is possible
for a controller to forget that he has given you a lower altitude at pilot's discretion , and may
have inadvertently allowed traffic to cross through your altitude "block" in the time between your
acceptance of the clearance and the beginning of your descent [AIM 4-4-1 0, 5-3-3 & P/C Glossary].
To paraphrase AIM 5-3-3(a)(1 ): The pilot should report without a specific request ''when
vacating any previously assigned altitude for a newly assigned altitude.''
1...,
RATE of CLIMB or DESCENT If they do NOT say the words ''PILOT'S DISCRETION," you are
expected to climb or descend ''at an optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the
aircraft to 1,000 feet above or below the assigned altitude, and then A TTEMPTto descend or climb at a
rate of between 500 and 1,500 FPM until the assigned altitude is reached." [AIM 4-4-10 & P/C Glossary]
L

VOR (Very High Frequency Omnidirectional Range): (AIM 1-1-3 thru 1-1-8, FAA-H-8083-16)
1. VORs operate in the VHF frequency band between 108.0 and 117.95 except the odd tenths &
hundreds within the 108.10 thru 111.95 band that are reserved for ILS and localizer frequencies.
ILS/localizer frequencies will always have an odd number to the right of the decimal point (e.g.,
108.10, 108.15, 108.3, 108.35, 108.5, 108.55, 108.7, 108.75, 108.9, 108.95, 109.1, etc.). (AIM table 1-1-4)
2. Almost all VORs will also be VORTACs. A VORTAC also gives distance information for DMEs .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• •
: ANGULAR DEVIATION: (FAA-H-8083-15)
•
1,000 to 12,000 AGL 25 NM
-Terminal VOR : • Full scale deflection = 10°
: • Half-scale deflection = 5°
Low-Altitude
- 1,000 to 18,000 AGL 40NM •
: DISTANCE OFF-COURSE:
.High-Altitude 1,000 to 14,500 AGL 40NM : • Off course is approximately 200 feet
•
14,500 to 18,000 AGL 100 NM : per dot per mile.
: • 1 dot 30 miles out = 1 NM off course
18,000 to 45,000 AGL 130 NM
~ • 1 dot 60 miles out = 2 NM off course
45,000 to 60,000 AGL 100 NM ••
CLASS I NAVIGATION: (OpSpecs A002, 8032, 8034; AIM 1-1-8, AC 90-45A, AC 90-96, AC 91-70A, AC 120-280)
1. Class I navigation is any en route flight operation or portion of an operation that is conducted entirely
within the designated Qperational §.ervice Y,olumes (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway
navigation facilities (VOR, VOR/DME, NOB). Class I navigation also includes en route flight
operations over routes designated with an ''MEA GAP'' (gap in nav signal coverage). En route flight
operations conducted within these areas are defined as "Class I navigation" operations irrespective of
the navigation means used. Class I navigation includes operations within these areas using pilotage
or any other means of navigation which does not rely on the use of VOR. VOR/DME. or NOB.
2. In plain English Class I navigation must be conducted entirely within the Qperational §.ervice Y,olume
of "standard" VOR or NOB navaids. You must be within the OSV of at least one VOR or NOB at
all times, even though you need not be using that particular navaid for navigation at that time. And you
do not need to be proceeding directly to any of these navaids.
3. Qperational §.ervice Y,olume is that volume of airspace surrounding a NAVAID, which is available for
operational use and within which a signal of usable strength exists. Qperational §.ervice Y,olume
includes §.tandard §.ervice Y,olume, E,xpanded §.ervice Y,olume, or any published instrument flight
procedure (victor or jet airway, DP, STARS and IAPs).
4. If you're outside the Qperational §.ervice Y,olume of a VOR or NOB, and you're off an airway, you are
conducting Class II operations, and must possess OpSpecs for Class II operations regardless of
what navigational equipment is on board and regardless of how good a signal you happen to be
receiving from the VOR or NOB.
CLASS II NAVIGATION: (OpSpecs A002, 8032 , 8034, 8035, 8054; AC 90-45A, AC 90-96, AC 91-70, AC 120-280)
1. Class 11 navigation is any en route flight operation or portion of an en route operation (irrespective of
the means of navigation) which takes place outside (beyond) the designated Qperational §.ervice
Y,olume (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway navigation facilities (VOR, VOR/DME, NOB).
However, Class II navigation does not include en route flight operations over routes designated with an
"MEA GAP" (gap in nav signal coverage).
2. For example, an aircraft equipped with only VOR conducts Class II navigation when the flight
operates in an area (off an airway) outside the operational service volumes of federal VORs/DMEs.
3. Class 11 navigation involves operations conducted in areas where the signals from ICAO standard
navaids have not been shown to meet signal strength, course quality, and/or frequency protection
standards. Therefore, ATC cannot predicate aircraft separation on the use of these facilities alone and
must apply larger separation criteria. When operating outside the operational service volume of ICAO
standard navaids, signals from these stations cannot be relied upon as the sole means of conducting
long-range operations to the degree of accuracy required. Therefore, when operating outside the
designated operational service volumes of ICAO standard navaids, operators must use Long-Range
Navigation Systems (LRNS) (GPS, Loran C, Omega, INS) OR ''special navigational techniques''
(Dead Reckoning, pilotage, flight navigator, celestial) or both. These systems and/or techniques are
necessary to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for the control of air traffic and to avoid
obstacles.
4. The definition of Class II navigation is not dependent upon the equipment installed in the aircraft.
All airspace outside the operational service volume of ICAO standard navaids is a three-dimensional
volume of airspace within which any type of enroute navigation is categorized as Class II navigation.
FEDERAL (VICTOR) AIRWAYS: (71 .73, 71 .75, AIM 2-2-2, 3-2-6, 5-3-4, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Extend upward from 1,200 feet AGL up to, but not including, 18,000 feet MSL.
2. East/West airways have an even number (e.g. V74).
3. North/South airways have an odd number (V73).
4. Each Federal (Victor) airway is 8 miles wide and includes the airspace within parallel boundary lines
4 miles each side of the centerline. At all times you are expected to fly on the centerline.
When approaching a course change at a VOR, pilots

may ''lead the turn'' (begin turning prior to reaching the
VOR) to the extent necessary to adhere as closely as
possible to the airway centerline. (AIM 5-3-5, 91.181)
COLORED (Federal) AIRWAYS (L/MF aka ADF): (71.73, 11 .15, AIM 5-3-4)
1. Predicated solely on UMF navigation aids [.bow/Medium frequency (ADF) (kiloHertz)] and are depicted
in brown on aeronautical charts and are identified by color name and number (e.g., Amber One).
2. Green and Red airways are plotted east & west.
3. Amber and Blue airways are plotted north & south.
4. Except for G13 in North Carolina, the colored airway system exists only in the state of Alaska.
5. Colored airways are the same width as VOR (victor) airways, 4 NM each side of the centerline .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• T-routes (below FL 180) and Q-routes (FL 180 and above)
G 13 •• are defined solely by GPS (RNAV) waypoints. (AIM 5-3-4)
•
'
JET ROUTES: (71 .13, 71 .15, AIM 5-1-8, 5-3-4 , 5-3-6, 9-1-4, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Extend from FL 180 to FL 450, inclusive, and are designated to indicate frequently used routings.
2. Jet routes in the U.S. are predicated solely on VOR or VORTAC navigation facilities, except in Alaska
where some are based on L/MF [bow/Medium frequency (ADF) (kiloHertz)] navigation aids.
3. All jet routes are identified by the letter''~" and followed by the airway number; e.g., ''J105."
4. Specific charts have been designed for flight at FL 180 and above. Enroute high altitude charts
delineate the jet route system, which consists of routes established from FL 180 up to and including FL
450. The VOR airways established below FL 180 found on low altitude charts must not be used at
FL 180 and above.
5. High altitude jet routes are an independent matrix of airways, and pilots must have the appropriate
enroute high altitude charts before transitioning to the flight levels.
6. Jet routes have no specified width. However, it is generally accepted that alignment should be planned
using the same protected airspace specified for VOR airways; i.e., 4 miles each side of the centerline.
7. With respect to position reporting, reporting points are designated for jet route systems. Flights using jet
routes will report over these points unless otherwise advised by ATC.
CROSSING RESTRICTIONS:
[AIM 4-4-10(9), 5-2-8, 5-4-1 , 5-4-16, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25,]
1. The guiding principle is that the last ATC clearance has
Ground Speed (kts) I Miles per Minute precedence over the previous ATC clearance.
120 2 2. When the route or altitude is amended, the controller will
180 3 restate the applicable ALTITUDE RESTRICTION.
240 4 3. If altitude to maintain is changed or restated, whether prior
300 5 to departure or while airborne, and previously issued altitude
360 6
restrictions are omitted, those altitude restrictions, are
420 7
480 8 canceled, including DP and STAR altitude restrictions.
540 9
•
·- .................................................................................... . .
•• To Meet a CROSSING RESTRICTION
•
: 1. Miles to descend to meet crossing restriction (3° descent) + Altitude to lose (in thousands) x ~ + 10°/o. •
: 2. 3° rate of descent + 1/2 the ground speed and add a zero.
: 3. Rate of descent+ Altitude to lose+ time to fix= rate of descent (FPM) .
•• 4. To simplify for most jets + Determine minutes from the fix, plan on descending at 2.000 FPM .
• Example: It will take 5 minutes to lose 10,000 ft at 2,000 FPM. See Chapter 4.

Standard Terminal ARrival (STAR), Flight Management System Procedures
(FMSP) for Arrivals: (AIM 5-1-8, 5-4-1 , 9-1-4, PC Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. A STAR is an A TC coded IFR arrival route established for application to arriving I FR aircraft destined
for certain airports. FMSPs for arrivals serve the same purpose but are only used by aircraft
equipped with FMS. The purpose of both is to simplify clearance delivery procedures and facilitate
transition between en route and instrument approach procedures.
2. STARs/FMSPs may have mandatory speeds and/or crossing altitudes published. Other STARs
may have planning information depicted to inform pilots what clearances or restrictions to "expect."
"EXPECT" altitudes/speeds are NOT CONSIDERED STAR/FMSP CROSSING RESTRICTIONS until
VERBALL V ISSUED by ATC.
3. The "EXPECT" altitudes/speeds are published so that pilots may have the information for planning
purposes. These altitudes/speeds should NOT be used in the event of lost communications unless
ATC has specifically advised the pilot to expect these altitudes/speeds as part of a further clearance.
4. Pilots navigating on a STAR/FMSP shall MAINTAIN LAST ASSIGNED ALTITUDE UNTIL receiving
AUTHORIZATION to descend so as to comply with all published/issued restrictions. This authorization
will contain the phraseology ''DESCEND VIA."
5. A "DESCEND VIA" clearance authorizes pilots to vertically and laterally navigate, in accordance
with the depicted procedure, to meet published restrictions. Vertical navigation is at pilot's
discretion, however, adherence to published altitude crossing restrictions and speeds is
MANDATORYunless otherwise cleared. (Minimum En Route Altitudes [MEAs] are not considered
restrictions, however, pilots are expected to remain above MEAs).
TIMED APPROACHES from a HOLDING FIX: (AIM 5-3-8, 5-4-10, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. TIMED APPROACHES may be LOM
conducted when the following LMM
conditions are met:
a. A control tower is in operation
at the airport where the
approaches are conducted. 1000 ft
b. Direct communications are
maintained between the pilot Report leaving
previous altitude for
and the center or approach new assigned altitude .
controller until the pilot is 1000 ft
instructed to contact the tower.
c. If more than one missed i
approach procedure is
available, none require a
course reversal.
d. If only one missed approach 1000 ft
procedure is available, the I've GOTto
remember to put
following conditions are met: the gear down
(i) Course reversal is not next time!
required; and, 1000 ft

(ii) Reported ceiling and
visibility are equal to or
greater than the highest
prescribed circling
f.--
One minute --9!~1~•-- Approximately 5 miles -
flying time
---.i AIRPORT
minimums for the IAP.

e. When cleared for the approach, pilots shall NOT execute a procedure turn. (91.175)
2. Although the controller will not specifically state that ''timed approaches are in progress," the
assigning of a time to depart the final approach fix inbound (nonprecision approach) or the outer
marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker inbound (precision approach) is indicative that timed
approach procedures are being utilized, or in lieu of holding, the controller may use radar vectors to the
Final Approach Course to establish a mileage interval between aircraft that will ensure the appropriate time
sequence between the final approach fix/outer marker or fix used in lieu of the outer marker and the airport.
3. Each pilot in an approach sequence will be given advance notice as to the time they should leave the
holding point on approach to the airport. When a time to leave the holding point has been received, the
pilot should adjust the flight path to leave the fix as closely as possible to the designated time.

''CRUISE'' CLEARANCE: (AIM 4-4-3d.3, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Used in an ATC clearance to authorize a pilot to conduct flight at any altitude from the minimum IFR
altitude up to and including the altitude specified in the clearance.
2. The pilot may level off at any intermediate altitude within this block of airspace.
3. Climb/descent within the block is to be made at the discretion of the pilot.
4. However, once the pilot starts descent and verbally reports leaving an altitude in the block, he may
not return to that altitude without additional ATC clearance.
5. Further, it is approval for the pilot to proceed to and make any approach he or she desires at the
destination airport.
CRUISE CLIMB: (P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)

A climb technique employed by aircraft, usually at a constant power setting, resulting in an increase of
altitude as the aircraft weight decreases.
''RADAR SERVICE TERMINATED'': (P/C Glossary, AIM 5-3-2, 5-5-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. Means you are no longer receiving radar service from Air Traffic Control.
2. The majority of the time this expression is used by the controller after you've cancelled your IFR or your
flight following is being terminated.
3. This is often used as a legalistic phrase to fill a gap between the current controller's radar and another
controller's radar.
4. You are usually in radar contact with the new controller even though the previous controller made the
statement "radar service is terminated."
5. When the new controller says "radar contact," you are again officially receiving radar service.
N123GO - I have to go on my
break now - so ''radar
service is terminated,''
squawk 1200, cleared from
center frequency.
Oh yeah, by the way, the New

York Class B airspace begins
at 12 o'clock and one mile.
Have a nice day!
''AeroNav'' (aka NACO aka NOS) Approach Plate REVISION DATE:

1. The revision date of AeroNav (formerly known as NOS; NACO) approach plates is found in the lower
left corner of each approach. It's a five digit number, following the amendment number.
2. EXAMPLE: 06159 The first 2 digits are the last two digits of the year of the revision (2006), the
last 3 digits are the day of the year, that is, the 15gth day of 2006 aka June 8, 2006.
3. New Format The above format is slowly being changed to something a little more logical. As each
approach is updated it will look like this example Arndt 7 11 FEB10 .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
CHARLOTTE, NORTH CAROLINA : Ain't it a lot more fun to do it this
• way than to just say:
Arndt l 5A 06159 : Amendment 1SA June 8, 2006?
.:•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
AeroNav has discontinued direct sales of printed charts, although
: they are still available through authorized chart sales agents.
- - ,. -·"' ... _.... ~. ·- _... _,._.,,._, -
D·ATIS: (FAA-H-8083-16)
1. When the letter Q precedes ATIS on a Jeppesen chart, the ATIS is transmitted digitally as well as by
•
voice.
2. For cockpits so equipped, the digital ATIS signal can be received and displayed in text form.

APPROACH BRIEFING A TIS-ATS: (FAA-H-8083-16)

·P••••••••••••••••••••••••··~
1. ''ATIS'' - : Another Acronym to Consider
a. "WIND is ... : AHARMMMS
b. ALTIMETER SETTING is ... •• ATIS, Heading, Altitude, Radios,
c. Glideslope out of service; •
d. Approach lights out of service; Markers, Minimums, Missed, Speed.
e. Locator Outer Marker out of service;
f. Snack machine at the FBO out of Fritos."
When the altimeter setting on
2. ''A'' = Approach - which an I FR approach is based is
a. DATE and chart NUMBER - "This chart is dated July not available, the approach is
5th 20XX revision # 31-1." NOT authorized. (AIM 5-4-5)
b. NAME and LOCATION of approach "ILS 18R at CLT,
Charlotte Douglas."
c. Navaid FREQUENCY "Localizer frequency is 111.3. I'm putting it in both boxes now and
identifying." (also a good time to tune and identify any other frequencies that may be applicable
such as the Locator Outer Marker, etc.)
NOTE: ALWAYS set BOTH approach capable navigation radios to the localizer freguency.
NEVER trust your life to just one approach radio. If you only have two approach capable
nav radios, NEVER set one of them to the missed approach frequency before the approach
(therefore trusting your life to only one nav radio for the approach).
Remember, EVERY missed approach begins EXACTL Ythe same way -
CLIMB like a mofo. Sort out the details later.
d. FINAL APPROACH COURSE "The final approach course is 183° and I'm putting it in both
HSls (or OBSs) now."
e. Glide Slope Intercept Altitude "Qlide .§.lope Intercept 8,ltitude will be 4600 feet at 'TOMME'
which is the CLT VOR 14.3 DME fix and I'm putting CLT 115.0 in the DME now."
f. Decision Height or Minimum Descent Altitude and Missed Approach Point "Decision
Height will be 943 feet on the Glide Slope and that will be our missed approach point."
g. IouchQown ~one g,1evation (TDZE) "The touchdown zone elevation is 743 feet. Do NOT
descend below this altitude at any time!"
h. MISSED APPROACH PROCEDURE "Missed approach is a climb to 3600 feet via the CLT
186° radial, basically straight ahead. I'll give you the rest of the holding instructions when and if
we need them."
i. RUNWAY LENGTH "The runway is 10,000 feet long and 150 feet wide."
3. ''T'' = Terrain ,Minimum .§.ector 8,ltitude and the highest obstacle. Any interesting TOWERS
or MOUNTAINS in the area that you may want to avoid during the approach or the missed approach?
4. ''S'' = Speeds & Special "Approach speed (VAP) will be 126 and VREF will be 118. Initial
go-around speed is 132 (VAc), I'll give you that speed again and flap retract speed (VFR) should we have
to go missed."
• V AP APproach target speed VREF +configuration and wind
• V REF REFerence speed for final approach
• V Ac Missed 8,pproach .Qlimb speeds for flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1 o/o
climb gradient)
• V FR flap B.etraction speed - minimum speed required for flap retraction (after missed
approach)
Special Anything that merits special attention. Like maybe the 3 inches of ice hanging off the
wings that could call for an increase in the approach speed or maybe that enormous thunderstorm
right off the opposite end of the runway, either of which could warrant special
attention to making this particular approach work. . . ·-
Noise abatement procedures might be another issue
especially on some visual approaches.
• •
s. ''Any QUESTIONS?''
Typical answer ... "Yup, where we gonna eat?" •

TOLD Card
(!ake-Qff & banding Q.ata)
(Typical for Approach)
Lengel Executive Airlines

APPROACH FALCON 20
ATIS:
WEIGHT
VREF
FLAPS
VAP
10° FLAP 25° FLAP p T.O.
VAc 0
w M.C.
E
VFR R
NOTES:
LANDING
---------DISTANCE:
LANDING FIELD
---------LENGTH:
LANDING side (approach side) of a TOLD card provides spaces for:

1. ATIS
2. Landing weight
3. Flap setting
4. Power settings IakeQff and ,Max ~ontinuous (for missed approach)
5. Landing distance from 50 feet AGL to a full stop
6. banding field bength landing distance multiplied by 1.67
7. Speeds:
• V REF REFerence speed for final approach
• V AP APproach target speed V REF +configuration (flaps/slats setting) and wind factor.
Typically add (to V REF) lithe headwind component+ all the gust factor (to a max of 20 Ids)
V Ac Missed A,pproach ~limb speeds for flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1 °/o
climb gradient, 21 ft UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD)
• V FR flap B.etraction speed minimum speed required for flap retraction (after missed
approach)

CLEARED FOR APPROACH: (91. 175, AIM 5-4-6, 5-4-7, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16)
+ THE most frequently 8,sked .Question - At what point may you start a descent from
last assigned altitude?
+ Answer When cleared for the approach and established on a segment of a
published route or instrument approach procedure.
AIM 5-4-7b. When operating on an unpublished route or while being radar vectored,
the pilot, when an approach CLEARANCE is received, shall, in addition to complying
with the minimum altitudes for IFR operations ( 14 CFR Section 91.177), maintain the last assigned
altitude unless a different altitude is assigned by ATC, or until the aircraft is established on a
segment of a published route or IAP. After the aircraft is so established, published altitudes apply
to descent within each succeeding route or approach segment unless a different altitude is assigned by
ATC. Notwithstanding this pilot responsibility, for aircraft operating on unpublished routes or while being
radar vectored, ATC will, except when conducting a radar approach, issue an IFR approach clearance
only after the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or IAP, or assign an altitude to
maintain until the aircraft is established on a segment of a published route or instrument approach
procedure. For this purpose, the Procedure Turn of a published IAP shall not be considered a
segment of that IAP until the aircraft reaches the initial fix or navigation facility upon which the
procedure turn is predicated.
+ At times ATC may not specify a particular approach procedure in the clearance, but will state
"CLEARED APPROACH." Such clearance indicates that the pilot may execute ANY one of the
authorized IAPs for that airport. This clearance does not constitute approval for the pilot to execute a
contact approach or a visual approach.
Except when being radar vectored to the final approach course, when cleared for a specifically
prescribed IAP; i.e., ''cleared ILS runway one niner approach'' or when ''cleared approach'' i.e.,
execution of any procedure prescribed for the airport, pilots shall execute the entire procedure
commencing at an IAF or an associated feeder route as described on the IAP Chart unless an
appropriate new or revised ATC clearance is received, or the I FR flight plan is canceled.
+ NOTE: See also ''Instrument Approach Procedure'' and ''Instrument Approach Procedure [ICAOJ''
in the P/C Glossary.
:;:::&:·:::: NOB (Non-directional
· .. ~:.-:." Radio Beacon)
ADF/GPS: (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-9, 1-1-18, AIM Table 1-1-6, FAA-H-8083-16, more in Chapter 3)
1. An IFR-certified GPS (with a current database) may be used as a substitute for DME and ADF in all
operations except NOB approaches that do not have a GPS overlay.
(FAA-H-8083-15 Chapter 7)
2. Frequency band 190 to 535kHz identified by two- or three-letter
Morse code identifier.
3. Some NDBs can also broadcast voice transmissions; most often
transcribed weather.
4. When co-located with the outer marker of an ILS, it's called an
''outer compass locater'' or LOM.
5. Subject to disturbances from lightning, precipitation static and [at
night] distant radio stations.
6. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic.
Voice, music or erroneous identification may be heard when a
steady false bearing is being displayed.
7. Since ADF receivers do not have a ''flag'' to warn when erroneous bearing information is being
displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's identification.
8. ''ADF'' mode The pointer is activated and tries to point to the station.
9. ''ANT'' mode Provides clearest audio for listening to the ball game. Pointer does not point to the
station but (for most brands) usually parks itself at the 90° position. This mode also doubles as the
''TEST'' mode if your ADF does not have a "TEST" button.
10. ''BFO'' mode Stands for ''§.eat frequency Qscillator. '' Used to generate an audio tone so as to
identify beacons identified by using "interrupted-carrier keying." Seldom found in the United States.
MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE (MVA): (AIM 5-4-5, 5-4-16, 5-5-11, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16)
The lowest MSL altitude at which an I FR aircraft will be vectored by a radar controller except for radar
approaches (PAR). Only the controller knows what the MVA is for your area. This altitude meets IFR
obstacle clearance criteria (1,000 feet obstacle clearance over flat terrain 2,000 feet obstacle clearance
over mountainous terrain can be lowered to 1500 feet in some eastern mountainous areas).

RADAR
OMNIDIRECTIONAL
SECONDARY (transponder beacons)
(stationary)
PRIMARY (skin paint & weather)
RADAR: (AIM 4-1-15, 4-5-1thru4-5-5, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)

1. PRIMARY Radar:
a. A minute portion of a radio pulse transmitted from a radar site is reflected by an object and
received back at that site. A transponder is not involved.
b. A large parabolic-shaped dish antenna spins at a rate of 10 times a minute (for approach
radar) or 6 times a minute (for long-range radar). The antenna emits powerful microwave
pulses and then listens for echoes.
c. This type of radar works best with large all metal aircraft but not so well with small composite
aircraft. It can also detect weather to some extent.
2. SECONDARY Radar aka ''ATC Radar Beacon System'' or ''ATCRBS'' (pronounced ''at-crabs''):
a. The object to be detected must be fitted with a transponder (aka ''beacon'').
b. Microwave pulses transmitted from a radar site are received by the transponder and used
to trigger a distinctive transmission from the transponder. The reply transmission, rather
than the reflected signal, is then received back at the transmitter/receiver site.
c. In response to the type of interrogation, the transponder sends back it's beacon code (Mode A)
or it's altitude information (Mode C).
d. Secondary radar uses a horizontal bar-shaped ''directional antenna'' that normally seats on
top of the large primary radar dish and spins along with it.
e. A third stationary antenna called an ''OMNIDIRECTIONAL antenna'' sends out its own (P2)
signal equally in all directions which helps to make sense of all that spinning and pulsing.
f. When you ''SQUAWK IDENT," your target ''blooms'' on the approach radar screen or
becomes a ''flashing ID'' on center radar. Controllers use this to help locate or verify your
target.
3. Whether aircraft are vectored to the appropriate final approach course or provide their own
navigation on published routes to it, radar service is automatically TERMINATED when the landing is
completed or when instructed to ''change to advisory frequency'' at uncontrolled airports,
whichever occurs first. (AIM 5-4-3)
which an I FR approach is based is
not available, the approach is
NOT authorized. (AIM 5-4-Sa.4.

PROCEDURE TURN:
--------------------------------------------------
[91 .175U), 97.3, 121 .651 , 135.225, AIM 5-3-8, 5-4-6, 5-4-9, 5-5-4, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16]
1. Controllers do NOT particularly care how you do the course reversal The only exceptions are when
the IAP shows a teardrop pattern or a holding pattern in lieu of a procedure 0
165
turn In these cases you MUST do it as published using the one-minute time
limitation or DME distance as specified (unless you are specifically being radar 345°
vectored to intercept the inbound course at the prescribed altitude). Procedure Turn
2. Normally must be completed within 10 NM of the fix it is started from. In lieu of
3. A procedure turn barbed arrow indicates the direction or side of the outbound Procedure Turn
course on which the procedure turn is made. Headings are provided for course 2700- - 1111111
reversal using the 45° procedure turn. However, the point at which the turn may (IAS)
be commenced, and the type and rate of turn is left to the discretion of the ....__ 0 0
90
pilot. Some of the options are the 45° procedure turn, the racetrack pattern, the - - - - - - - - - - -
teardrop procedure turn, or the 80°/260° course reversal. (FAA-H-8083-15)
4. When a descent is involved while tracking outbound or inbound, you are reminded to ''maintain the
last assigned altitude until 'ESTABLISHED' (i.e., on the centerline more or less) on a segment of a
published ''ROUTE." (AIM 5-5-4)
a. ON COURSE Used to indicate an aircraft is ESTABLISHED on the ROUTE CENTERLINE.
b. ON-COURSE INDICATION An indication on an instrument, which provides a visual means of
determining that the aircraft is located on the CENTERLINE of a given navigational track.
(P/C Glossary)
5. Speed limit 200 knots. (AIM 5-4-9a.3.)
········~··············~·········~~························~··············~······~
: When there is a ''HOLDING PATTERN in lieu of a PROCEDURE TURN'' for a course reversal , the maneuver
: is completed when the aircraft is established on the inbound course after executing the appropriate entry.
• If cleared for the approach prior to returning to the holding fix, AND the aircraft is at the prescribed
altitude, additional circuits of the holding pattern are not necessary or expected by ATC. (AIM 5-4-9a.4.)
PROCEDURE TURN INBOUND: [91 .175U), 97.3, AIM 5-4-9, FAA-H-8083-16, P/C Glossary]
Course reversal has been completed and the aircraft is established inbound (on the CENTERLINE more
or less) of the intermediate or final approach course. NOTE: Begin any required descent only when
established on the inbound course centerline.
PROCEDURE TURN NOT REQUIRED: [91 .175U), 97.3, AIM 5-4-9, P/C Glossary]
1. When being ''radar vectored'' for approach ''This will be 'VECTORS' for the approach."
2. If ATC clears you for a ''straight-in'' approach.
3. If ''No PT'' is noted on the chart for your arrival route.
4. If you are doing a ''timed approach'' from a holding fix (page 48).
5. In the case of a radar vector to a final approach course or fix, a timed approach from a holding fix, or
an approach for which the procedure specifies ''No PT," no pilot may make a procedure turn unless
cleared to do so by ATC. [91 .175U)l
------------------------ • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
INSTRUMENT APPROACH or HOLD
.:· .·-····················· ········ •. •• You must ALWAYS be able to answer these two questions:
•
Never let an
:• airplane take you : 1. WHERE am I going?
: someplace your • 2. WHAT EXACTLY am I going to do when I get there?
~ brain didn't get to : a. EXACTLY what heading am I going to turn to?
:.. five minutes earlier. • b. EXACTLY what altitude am I going to maintain?
• c. EXACTLY what power setting or speed am I going to need or
• what item of drag (gear/flaps) am I going to need.
DME Arc Procedures: (AIM 1-1-7, 1-1-19, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25, Ac 90-94, TERPS)
If a feeder route to an Initial A_pproach fix is part of the Instrument Approach Procedure, it is considered the
MANDATORY starting point for the approach. In other words you cannot just pick up the DME Arc
anywhere you like and then fly the rest of the approach. You must start the DME Arc at a PUBLISHED
Initial A_pproach fix.

Aircraft APPROACH CATEGORIES: [97.3, AIM 5-4-7, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, P/C Glossary]
1. Speeds are based on VREF, if specified, or if VREF is not specified, 1.3 times Vso at max landing weight.
2. If maneuvering at a higher airspeed, you SHOULD use the category for the airspeed you are using.
The higher turning radii of the higher speed may take you beyond the obstruction clearance area provided
during a circling approach or even during a straight-in approach if a missed approach becomes
necessar the missed a roach obstacle clearance area is redicated on the aircraft's s eed.
Approach
Category
A B c D E
Speed
knots
0-90 91-120 121-140 141-165 Abv 165
CDI FULL-SCALE DEFLECTION: (FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)

There is no regulation that reguires a missed approach if a pilot gets a
full-scale deflection on an ILS, LOC, or VOR approach it's a good and
safe operating procedure but not a regulation. A full-scale deflection
on certification flight test (checkride) would fail that maneuver (you would be
outside of the PTS standards), but you cannot be held in violation of an FAR
for getting a little too far off course during normal operations (if you lose
the localizer go back over there and find it or get the hell out of
there!). Full-scale deflection occurs at approximately 2.5° from the
centerline of a localizer course, which is about 4 times more sensitive than
when tuned to a VOA where full-scale deflection is 10° to 12° from
centerline.
By the way ... the PTS standard for an NOB approach is ±10° .
.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •.,
: From FAA Order 8900.1
: 1. " ... An AWOS cannot be used as an authorized weather source for Part 121 and
• Part 135 IFR operations if the visibility is reported missing ... "
: 2. OpSpec C077 (Part 121 operations or Part 135 turbojet operations) requires
• ''REPORTED" ceiling & visibility for IFR or VFR operation·s .
•• 3. If "reported" is not available, you will need a specific procedure in your Operations
Manual accepted by your company's frinciple Qperations Inspector (POI).
PILOT CONTROLLED RUNWAY LIGHTS - Pilot Controlled Lighting (PCL):

(AIM 2-1-8, 5-1-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25, AC 150/5340-27A)
Key the microphone on the appropriate frequency: Lights should stay on for
• 3 Clicks (within 5 seconds) Lowest intensity 15 minutes
• 5 Clicks (within 5 seconds) Medium intensity
• 7 Clicks (within 5 seconds) Highest intensity
Suggested use is to always initially key the mike 7 times; this assures that all controlled
lights are turned on to the maximum available intensity. If desired, adjustment can then be
made, where the capability is provided, to a lower intensity or the REIL (.B.unway £nd
!dentifier bights) or SFL (.§.equenced flashing ,bights aka the rabbit) turned off by keying 5
and/or 3 times.
UNICOM
123.05 (CTAF) I
''ESTABLISHED'' ''on Course'' or ''on the Approach''
• ESTABLISHED To be stable or fixed on a route, route segment, altitude, heading, etc. (P/C Glossary)
• Another generally accepted definition is published by the International ~ivil Aviation Qrganization
(ICAO)(Document 8168): ''ESTABLISHED is considered as being within half full scale deflection for
the ILS and VOR, or within +/-5 degrees of the required bearing for the NOB."
• In other words more or less on the centerline.

Final Approach Fix (FAF) & GlideSlope Intercept Altitude (GSIA):

(P/C Glossary, AIM 1-1-9, 5-4-5, 135.225, 121 .651) ILSorLOCAPPROACH
1. The fix from which the final
apprOaC
h (IFR} · ·
to an airport !§. c1"' (
1
LOM G11c.tes1opeA1t1rude
atOuterMarker/FAF
FAF (vertically guided approaches)
executed and Which identifies the Procedure Tum e.'~ 215
FAF (non-precision approaches)
beginning Of the final approach 2400 "'

Glide Slope
127° • ?•
~
__..- Glid~~lope MlssedApproachPoint
4
Segmen. t Threshold Crossing Height
GS3.vv
TCA 55
nn.o
2400 ..
_.-:.-MlssedApproac;hTrack
2. After passing the final approach Glid~Slope Intercept Altitude/ •.....··
fix on final approach, aircraft are Airport Pror.1e
expected to continue inbound on the final approach course and Glide Slope/G.lide Path Intercept
,,/ Altitude and final approach fix
complete the approach or effect the missed approach procedure 24b~ for vertically guided approach
published for that airport. (AIM 5-4-3) procedures.
3. It is designated by the ''Maltese Cross'' symbol for nonprecision approaches and the ''lightning bolt''
symbol (''end of the feather'' on Jepps) for precision approaches.
4. GlideSlope Intercept Altitude (GSIA) The minimum (and maximum) altitude that you are authorized
to intercept the glideslope/path on a precision approach (unless an alternate lower altitude is depicted,
and ATC clears you to that altitude for the glideslope intercept). The intersection of the published
intercept altitude with the glideslope/path. The altitude and location of the ''lightning bolt'' symbol
(''end of the feather'' on Jepps) is the highest altitude at which the glide slope can be used for
primary guidance (the G/S is only flight checked to be intercepted from below at GSIA). Any descents
to fixes outside the GSIA should be flown using the ''dive & drive'' non-precision method.
NOTE: GSIA would also be the point (FAF) at which pilot's operating 135/121 would determine if the
approach could be continued if newly reported weather goes below minimums. (135.225, 121 .651)
5. Final Approach Segment (on an ILS) shall begin at the point where the glideslope is intercepted, and
descend to the authorized decision height (DH). Where possible, this point shall be coincidental with a
designated FAF. At locations where it is not possible for the point of glideslope intercept to coincide
with a designated FAF, the point of glideslope interception shall be located PRIOR to the FAF. Where a
designated FAF cannot be provided, specific authorization by the approving authority is required.
6. When the approach chart shows an alternative lower glideslope intercept altitude, and ATC directs a
lower altitude, the resultant lower intercept position becomes the FAF.
7. 98°/o of the time you'll be vectored to intercept the localizer and glideslope so as to intercept the
glideslope ''from below'' at the GSIA position.
8. Tracking the glideslope from an altitude higher than the published glideslope intercept altitude and
tracking it down to GSIA will USUALLY result in being at or above the minimum published altitudes on
the approach. However, you should never completely trust glideslope information when you're above
GSIA. Always crosscheck against the various fixes to determine your progress, use these fixes as
your primary information. Tracking the glideslope from an altitude higher than the published
Qlide.§.lope Intercept Altitude can/may/could result in the tracking of a ''FALSE GLIDESLOPE. '' Step-
down fixes (the non-precision ''dive & drive'' method) or ATC vectors are necessary for proper
glideslope altitude interception. Certain approaches at certain airports (e.g. ILS 27 @IAH) have
5500 MANDATORY step-down altitudes that are essential for traffic separation (i.e., altitude at fix is
underscored and overscored 5500 ).
9. The GS is only flight-checked to a fixed distance, generally in the range of about 10 miles (sometimes
only 5 miles). GS intercepts beyond this point may be affected by false glideslope signals. !f the pilot
chooses to track the GS prior to the GSIA, they remain responsible for complying with published
altitudes for any preceding stepdown fixes encountered during the subsequent descent.
More About FALSE GLIDESLOPES:
1. The glideslope transmitter creates a mirror image "side lobe" that may produce false signals in multiples
of the appropriate glide path angle. that is:
a. 3 degrees= REAL (true) glideslope.
b. 6 degrees = FALSE glideslope (Fly up/down commands may be reversed).
c. 9 degrees= FALSE glideslope (Fly up/down commands same as true glideslope).
2. By following proper procedures and always approaching from below at Qlide.§.lope Intercept Altitude,
you ensure you should never encounter a false glideslope.
3. If you were to inadvertently follow a false glideslope, it should be quickly recognized due to either
reverse sensing or the aircraft's extremely high rate of descent.
-·······························································
: Rule of Thumb - The approximate rate of descent for a 3° glide slope can be
•: calculated by multiplying the aircraft's groundspeed (in knots) by§.

Final Approach Point (FAP): (121.651 , 135.225, AIM 5-4-5, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. The point, applicable only to a nonprecision approach with no depicted FAF (such as an on-airport
VOR), where the aircraft is ''ESTABLISHED'' inbound ''ON'' the final approach ''COURSE'' from the
procedure turn and where the final approach descent may be commenced.
2. ''ESTABLISHED ON COURSE," means on the CENTERLINE (more or less) of the inbound course.
See "ON COURSE" and "ON COURSE INDICATION" in the Pilot Controller Glossary.
3. The FAP serves as the FAF and identifies the beginning of the final approach segment.
Final Approach Segment (FAS): (121 .651 , 135.225, AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-20, 4-1-9, 5-4-5, 5-4-9, P/C Glossary)
1. ILS The Final Approach Segment begins at the Qlide.§Jope Intercept feint. When ATC directs a
lower than published GSIA, the FAS begins at the actual point of glideslope intercept.
2. NONPRECISION Approach FAS begins at the ''Maltese cross." When no depicted FAF (e.g., on-
airport VOR or NOB), the FAS begins inbound on final descent.
3. TEARDROP procedure with no depicted FAF FAS begins 10 miles from the on-airport navaid.
ILS CRITICAL AREA: (139.311 , AIM 1-1-9k., 2-3-5, 2-3-8, 2-3-9, FIG 2-3-16, FAA-H-8083-25, 8083-16)
1. When weather conditions are below 800 ft ceiling and/or visibility below 2 miles
visibility - Taxiing aircraft (or vehicles) are not authorized past the Localizer I Glide
Slope I ILS Critical Area signs when an aircraft is between the I LS final approach fix
and the airport (due to possible signal distortion).
2. Holding position markings for ILS critical areas consist of two yellow solid lines spaced
two feet apart connected by pairs of solid lines spaced ten feet apart extending across
the width of the taxiway. A sign with an inscription in white on a red background is
installed adjacent to these hold position markings. (AIM 2-3-5b., FIG 2-3-16)
3. The pilot should stop so no part of the aircraft extends beyond the holding position marking.
4. A pilot should not cross the marking without ATC clearance.
5. Regardless of the weather, if you intend to fly a coupled approach, tell the tower about it so they can
keep traffic out of the ILS Critical Area. Don't take the chance of spilling coffee on the boss!
CATEGORY I, II, and Ill ILS MINIMUMS (Authorization): (AIM 1-1-9i.)

The lowest authorized ILS minimums, with all required ground and airborne systems components operative, are:
(a) Category I: DH 200 feet and RVR 2,400 feet (with TZ and CL lighting, RVR 1,800 feet),
(b) Category II: DH 100 feet and RVR 1,200 feet,
(c) Category Illa: No DH or DH below 100 feet and RVR not less than 700 feet,
(d) Category lllb: No DH or DH below 50 feet and RVR less than 700 feet but not less than 150 feet,
(e) Category Ille: No DH and no RVR limitation.
A large or turbine-powered
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - airplane approaching to land on
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• a runway served by an ILS shall
: A Category II approach to a DH
A Pilot In Command may be approved : below 150 feet requires
fly at or above the GLIDE
for Category II operations after that : IouchQown ~one ,bighting, runway SLOPE between the outer
pilot has logged at least 100 hours as • centerline lights, and RVR. marker and the middle marker.
PIC in the type of airplane he is
operating under Part 121. (121.652)
.......................................
: Category Ille operations in zero visib.ility may ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: never be authorized . They would require the : "At or above the glide slope" does
: capability to land, stop, and automatically taxi : not prohibit normal bracketing
: to parking . Unfortunately, should there be a •• maneuvers above or below the
Threshold Crossing Height : problem, it would be extremely difficult for •• glide slope for the purpose of
• emergency personnel to find the aircraft. • remaining on the glide slope.
- The theoretical height above
the runway threshold at which the •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Timing for any non-precision approach is
aircraft's glideslope antenna would based on qroundspeed not airspeed. : "Normal bracketing maneuvers"
be if the aircraft maintains the : are maneuvers which remain within
trajectory established by the mean FAF to MAP 5.4 NM • glide slope signals.
ILS glideslope or MLS glidepath. Knots 60 90 120 150 180
~in:Sec 5:24 3:36 2:42 2: 10 1:48
PRE CI SI 0 N APPROACH: (1.1, AIM 4-5-4, 5-4-5, 5-4-11, P/C Glossary, 135.225, OpSpec C052)
1. A standard instrument approach procedure in which an ~1

electronic glide slope/glide path is provided, such as
ILS and PAR (frecision A,pproach B.adar).
2. Descent minimums are normally expressed as
Decision Height (DH) the height at which a
decision must be made to either continue the
approach or execute a missed approach.
3. An LOA with a glideslope could be considered a
precision approach because an electronic glide slope
is provided, but OpSpec C052 refers to an LOA w/GS
as a nonprecision ''PRECISION-LIKE'' approach. For
air carrier operations at least, an LOA w/GS will have
to remain a nonprecision approach.
4. A TLS approach (!ransponder ,banding .§.ystem) is a
precision approach that requires Special aircrew
training (see Page 78, AIM 1-1-21 & AC 120-29A).
5. Minimums for approach are predicated on VISIBLITY
NOTCEILING. Although the ceiling must be
"considered" for Part 135 (135.225).
NON PRECISION APPROACH: (P/CGlossary,OpSpecC052)
1. A standard instrument approach procedure in which NO glide slope is provided; e.g., VOR, TACAN,
NOB, LOC, ASR, LOA, or SOF approaches.
2. Descent minimums are normally expressed as Minimum Descent Altitude (MDA) The lowest
altitude to which descent is authorized on final approach or during circle-to-land maneuvering
when no glide slope is provided.
3. Minimums for approach are predicated on VISIBILITY NOT CEILING. Although the ceiling must be
"considered" for Part 135 (135.225)(FAA opinion) but not for Part 121.
''PRECISION-LIKE'' APPROACH -
ROANOKE REGIONAL/WOODRUM FIELD
LDARWY 6
(ROA)
Approach with Vertical Guidance (APV):
[FAA Order 8900.1, OpSpec C052; AIM 1-1-9, 1-1-20, 5-4-5a.7.(b),
FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16]
1. An approach procedure that provides vertical guidance (glide slope) but is not as accurate as a true
precision approach. In air carrier OpSpecs, these approaches are listed under ''approaches other
than ILS and MLS'' aka ''NON PRECISION.'' (OpSpec C052)
2. Primary examples are the LOA w/glide slope (or SOF w/glide slope).
3. Although an LOA w/glide slope certainly fits the definition of a precision approach, it is considered
nonprecision, at least for air carriers. FAA policy is that even though a glide slope is available, the
accuracy is not the same as an ILS or GLS.
4. A,pproach with Y,ertical !a,uidance (APV) An instrument approach based on a navigation system that
is not required to meet the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10 but provides course and
glidepath deviation information. For example, Baro-VNAV, LOA with glidepath, LNAVNNAV and LPV
are APV approaches. [AIM 5-4-5a.7.(b)]
···········································································~
•• When receiving ''VECTORS for the LOCALIZER,'' pilots should NOT turn inbound unless
•
: specifically cleared to ''JOIN the localizer'' and/or ''CLEARED for the approach.''
: Unless specifically told to ''EXPECT VECTORS ACROSS FINAL for [spacing, etc.],'' the pilot
•
: should QUERY the CONTROLLER prior to blowing through the LOCALIZER.
Chances are he just forgot about you!;o(

ILS (Instrument Landing System):

[91 .175(k), AIM 1-1-9, P/C Glossary, OpSpec C074, FAA-H-8083-16]
1. A precision instrument approach system which normally
consists of a localizer, glide slope, OM, MM, approach
lights. An inoperative OM or MM does not preclude doing the
approach.
2. Frequency range Odd tenths & hundreds within the 108.10 thru
111.95 band are reserved for ILS and localizer frequencies. ILS/localizer
frequencies always have an odd number to the right of the decimal point
- Examples: 108.10, 108.15, 108.3, 108.35, 108.5, 108.55, 108.7, 108.75, 108.9,
108.95, 109.1, etc. (AIM table 1-1-4).
3. Visibility values below 1/2 mile are not authorized.
4. Mid RVR may be substituted for TOZ RVR if TOZ RVR is not available.
5. RVR value (if available) takes precedence over tower visibility.
6. The final Approach fix is glide slope intercept at Qlide §.lope Intercept Altitude (the "lightning bolt
symbol" on NOS charts or the "end of the feather" on Jepp charts). When the approach chart shows an
alternative lower glideslope intercept altitude, and ATC directs a lower altitude, the resultant lower
intercept position is then the FAF.
7. Minimums for approach are predicated on VISIBLITY NOT CEILING!
8. When the glide slope fails, the ILS reverts to a nonprecision localizer approach.
I
~\Gkr
~ \ N
MARKER BEACON: (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-9, 91.175) INNER N
E
1. ILS marker beacons have a rated power output of 3 watts or less and an antenna array R
designed to produce an elliptical pattern with dimensions, at 1,000 feet above the M
antenna, of approximately 2,400 feet in width and 4,200 feet in length. \ ~
2. Outer Marker Blue Light-dull tone slow speed ''dash dash ... " (2 per second) MIDDLED
AMBER L
a. A compass locator, PAR, ASR; or OME, VOR or NOB fixes may be substituted.
E
b. An aircraft on the glideslope will normally be approximately 1,400 feet above the
0
runway elevation at the outer marker. u
3. Middle Marker Amber Light medium tone & speed ''dot dash dot dash ... " (2 per second) . T
E
a. A compass locator or PAR may be substituted. R
b. An aircraft on the glideslope will normally be approximately 200 feet above the
runway elevation at the middle marker (and about 3,500 ft from the threshold).
4. Inner Marker (Fan) White Light high tone high speed ''dot dot dot dot ... " (6 per second)
The inner marker is associated with Category II & Ill ILS approaches.
5. Back Course Marker White Light high tone ''dot dot (slight pause) dot dot ... "
A back course marker (when available) normally indicates the ILS back course final approach fix where
approach descent is commenced. :·A~ i~~~~;;ti~; ·~icidi; ·~~·rk~·r· h~~ ·~~ --.
: affect on straight-in landing minimums.
LOCALIZER I TRANSMITTER ANTENNA: (AIM 1-1-9b.)

1. The localizer antenna is located at the far end of the approach runway.
2. The localizer signal is usable from a distance of 18 NM from the antenna site.
3. The localizer signal provides an angular width of between 3° to 6°, as necessary to provide a linear
width of 700 feet at the runway threshold (full-scale fly left to full-scale fly right).
4. Full COi deflection occurs at approximately 2.5° from the centerline of the localizer course.
GLIDE SLOPE ANTENNA: (AIM 1-1-9d.)

1. The glide slope antenna is located between 750 feet and 1,250 feet from the approach end of the
runway (near the ''aiming point marking''), and offset 250 feet to 650 feet from the runway.
2. The glide slope is normally usable to a distance of 10 NM (at some locations further than 10 miles).
3. The normal glide slope angle is ~ so that intersects the Outer Marker at about 1,400 feet and the
0
Middle Marker at about 200 feet.

4. The glide slope beam is normally 1.4 degrees wide (full fly-up to full fly-down).

&
When Operating to an
in Airspace: (91.126 thru 91.131)
1. A LARGE or TU RBINE·POWERED airplane shall, unless otherwise
(12,500 lbs or more)
1,500 feet AGL and maintain 1,500 AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing.
[Noise abatement]
•••••••••• • •••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••• • ••••
•
: or below the glide slope for the purpose of
0 ... 0
•: "Normal bracketing maneuvers"
•....
•c.:>
•CC
•o
.o
.ut
•'
•
•
•
.: You must remain at or above the glide slope between the
-···································· ~ •
····························~
• OUTER marker and the MIDDLE marker. : LARGE or TURBINE-powered
: Remember- Runway behind you, altitude above you , : feet AGL in the traffic pattern in
and air in the fuel tanks are totally worthless. • Class B, C, or D airspace.
•·-·············································~
: LOW ALTITUDE ALERT SAFETY ALERT:
Threshold Crossing Height : (AIM 4-1-16, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16, Order JO 711.65T)
- The theoretical height above • 1. Controllers will issue an alert to an aircraft if they feel it is too low
the runway threshold at which the : (information received from Mode C). It is the pilot's prerogative to
• determine what course of action to take ... if any.
aircraft's glideslope antenna would •• 2. At larger airports, an automated function called MSAW (Minimum .S,afe
be if the aircraft maintains the • Altitude ,Warning) also calculates your descent rate - if it exceeds what is
trajectory established by the mean •• considered to be a safe closure rate with the terrain - a very annoying alarm
ILS glideslope or MLS glidepath. : sounds in the tower and the TRACON . Jn addition, the letters LA (.bow
• Altitude) flash in your radar data tag. Normally the call from the controller
• would sound like this:
•• "Low altitude alert, Freight Dog 123, check altitude immediately." If you
: get one of these calls (e.g., while executing a screaming high-speed dive in
order to recapture the glideslope) a suitable response might be ...
"Just gettin' back down to the glideslope, thanks for the call!"

LOC Approach: (AIM 1-1-9, 1-1-10, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)

1. Basically an ILS without glideslope information (a nonprecision approach).
2. ILS approach with an inoperative glideslope When the glideslope fails, the ILS reverts
to a nonprecision localizer approach. ATC will clear pilots for the approach as it is
named on the chart (ILS). It is up to the pilot to make adjustments for the inoperative glideslope (i.e.,
localizer only approach).
3. Start time at the final 8,pproach fix (Maltese Cross) inbound to determine the missed approach point.
4. After passing the final 8,pproach fix, descend as guickly as possible (i.e., DIVE & DRIVE) so as to
reach Minimum Qescent 8,ltitude well before the missed approach point. This will allow ample time to
find the airport and descend in a normal manner to the runway.
FA F to MAP 5.4 NM ------------
Timing for any non-precision
Knots 60 90 120 150 180 approach is based on
in :Se 5:24 3:36 2:42 2: 10 l :48
1
groundspeed not airspeed.
ILS or LOC APPROACH

LOM Glide SIOfJe Altitude
at Outer Marker/FAF
Procedure Turn
2400 _... _ _ Glid~L~lope ~ssed Approach Point
127...•-7.....i
0
/
Glide Slope - -- CS J.ooo /Y .·~ Missed Approach Track
Tl1reshold Crossing Height TCH 55 2400 ••
•• •
•
Glide Slope Intercept Altitude / - ···

- ===-Airport Profile
Localizer BACKCOU RSE Approach: (P/C Glossary [course], FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)

1. Some ILS installations provide a mirror image of the localizer for the reciprocal runway.
2. The .Qourse Qeviation Indicator in the aircraft will show the opposite of the correct indications (of a
normal localizer) unless fitted with a backcourse selector switch that reverses the signal internally
allowing normal right and left indications.
3. Without a backcourse selector switch, you must imagine that the NEEDLE is the AIRPLANE and
you must fly the airplane over to the centerline.
4. A .t!orizontal §,ituation Indicator (HSI) without a backcourse selector switch can be rotated 180° so
as to make the backcourse indications act in the same way as a front course.
5. A glideslope is normally not associated with a backcourse approach.
6. Some backcourse approaches utilize a Back Course Marker... White Light high tone ''dot dot
(slight pause) dot dot ... " A back course marker (when available) normally indicates the ILS
backcourse final approach fix where approach descent is commenced.
7. If crosshatched markings appear on the left-hand side of the arrowhead, a back course (BC)
signal is transmitted.
ASR Approach (Airport ~urveillance Radar): (AIM 4-5-3, 5-4-3, 5-4-5, Ptc Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16)
1. 8,irport .§.urveillance B.adar approach.
2. ATC gives you heading and descent instructions to the airport basically a vectored approach.
PAR Approach (f,recision Approach Radar): (AIM 4-5-4, 5-4-3, Ptc Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16)
1. Almost exclusively found at military fields also known as Qround .Qontrol 8,pproach (GCA).
2. Controller tells you or corrects you with respect to your vertical & lateral approach path.
DME Arc Procedures: (AIM 1-1-1, 1-1-19, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25, Ac 90-94, TERPS)
If a feeder route to an Initial 8,pproach fix is part of the Instrument Approach Procedure, it is considered the
MANDATORY starting point for the approach. In other words you cannot just pick up the DME Arc
anywhere you like and then fly the rest of the approach. You must start the DME Arc at a PUBLISHED
Initial 8,pproach fix.

RNAV (GPS) Approaches - LNAV I VNAV I LPV I LP /LNAV+V I WAAS I RNP:

(AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-20, 1-2-1thru1-2-3, 5-3-4, 5-4-5, 5-4-7, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, AC 20-138, AC 90-105, AC 90-107)
1. RNAV (GPS) (afiea NAVigation) standalone instrument approaches are becoming more commonplace as
GPS and the ~ide Area Augmentation .§.ystem (WAAS) are further developed.
2. Virtually all GPS approaches require an RNP (,B.equired Navigational ferformance) of 0.3 which means an
aircraft tracking the final approach course with a centered needle can be expected to be within 0.3 NM of the
centerline 95°/o of the time. All IFR certified GPS units meet 0.3 performance.
3. Some RNAV units use DME cross referencing (DME/DME) to achieve RNP 0.3. Certain RNAV (GPS) approaches
are not available to these type units as the airplane could be beyond the service volume of a necessary DME
facility. Check the chart notes [e.g., DME/DME RNP-0.3 NAJ.
4. LNAV minimums are published for ,bateral NAVigation only and will be published as a ,Minimum Qescent Altitude
(MDA) because vertical guidance is NOT provided.
5. LNAVNNAV (aka UVNAV) minimums accommodate an RNAV APproach with Y,ertical guidance (APV), but with
integrity limits larger than a precision approach. VNAV stands for Y,ertical NAVigation. Aircraft using LNAVNNAV
minimums may descend to landing via an internally generated glideslope based on satellite or other approach
approved VNAV systems. Since electronic vertical guidance is provided, the minimum is published as a DA. If
your airplane depends on Baro-VNAV (Barometric Y,ertical NAVigation) instead of WAAS for VNAV, you may be
restricted by temperature from using the (sometimes) lower VNAV minimums. Check the chart notes [e.g.,
Baro-VNAV NA below -15°C (5°F)J. You'll notice that some LNAVNNAV minimums are HIGHER than LNAV
minimums!
6. LPV (,bocalizer ferformance with Y,ertical guidance) minimums require a WAAS receiver in the airplane and can
have minimums as low as 200 HAT and 1/2 mile visibility with proper approach lighting. WAAS receivers provide
RNP-like accuracy of 0.3 nm without special operational approval from the FAA as required for RNP SAAAR
(.§.pecial Aircraft and ,Aircrew ,Authorization fiequired) approaches now called fiequired fiavigation frocedure with
Authorization fiequired - RNP AR. If the approach doesn't have WAAS, LPV minimums will not be listed.
7. LP (,bocalizer ferformance) - Non-precision WAAS approach. Lateral-only WAAS guidance found at locations
where terrain or obstructions prevent vertically guided LPV procedures. Older WAAS receivers do not contain LP
capability unless the receiver has been upgraded. Receivers capable of flying LP procedures must contain a
statement in the Flight Manual Supplement or Approved Supplemental Flight Manual stating that the receiver has
LP capability, as well as the capability for the other WAAS and GPS approach procedure types.
8. WAAS units are designed to evaluate the lowest minimums possible based on meeting required horizontal and
vertical limits. The approach mode annunciator on the unit will notify you of which minimums you may use.
9. LNAV+V - LNAV approach with ADVISORYY,ertical guidance. If you see LNAV+V displayed on your unit's
annunciator, you may fly the glideslope to the LNA V MDA.
10. APV (,Approach with Y,ertical Quidance) - RNAV (GPS), RNAV (GNSS) and RNAV (GPS) PRM are all considered
to be non-precision (aka "precision-like") approaches with vertical guidance. (OpSpec C052, Page 58)
CO NT ACT Approach: (AIM 5-4-25, 5-5-3, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16, OpSpec C076)
1. Must be requested by pilot -ATC cannot initiate this approach.
2. Reported ground visibility must be at least 1 SM (and 1-mile flight visibility from the cockpit).
3. The airport must have a published instrument approach and you must remain clear of clouds.
OPTION APPROACH: (AIM 4-3-22, P/C Glossary)

1. The ''Cleared for the Option" procedure will permit an instructor, flight examiner or pilot the option to make a
touch-and-go, low approach, missed approach, stop-and-go, or full stop landing.
2. The pilot should make a request for this procedure passing the final approach fix inbound on an instrument
approach or entering downwind for a VFR traffic pattern.
This ultimate "low pass"

LOW APPROACH: (AIM 4-3-12, P/C Glossary) grounded the pilot for 30 days
1. A go-around maneuver over an airport following a but the picture was well worth it!
practice instrument or visual approach where instead
of landing or making a touch-and-go, the pilot
intentionally does not make contact with the runway
(sometimes called a low pass).
2. When operating in Class 8, C, or D airspace, the pilot
should request the low approach prior to starting the
final approach.
3. When operating to an airport in Class E or G airspace,
a pilot intending to make a low approach should, prior
to leaving the final approach fix inbound, broadcast
intentions on the UNICOM or FSS frequency.

Non Directional Radio Beacon (NDB): - -
...- - - - - - - - - - -
(AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-8, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16) :·.::::·dJ·:·:.::: NDB (Non-directional
1. Frequency band 190 to 535kHz identified by ·::·-:·::::.::·: Rad io Beacon)
two or three-letter Morse code identifier. __·_ · ·- - - - - - - - - - -
2. Some NDBs can also broadcast voice transmissions; most often transcribed
weather.
3. When co-located with the outer marker of an ILS, it's called an ''outer compass
locater'' or LOM (,bocator Quter Marker). Compass locator transmitters are often
situated at OM or MM and sites. The transmitters have a power of less than 25
watts, a range of at least 15 miles and operate between 190 and 535 kHz.
4. An OUTER COMPASS LOCATOR transmits the first two - -••- - - - - - - - - - - - - -
letters of the localizer identification group. <~.::~~:·> LMM , LOM (Compass locator)
5. A MIDDLE COMPASS LOCATOR transmits the last two ....____._ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __.
letters of the localizer identification group.
6. At some locations, higher-powered radio beacons, up to 400 watts , are used as OM compass locators.
These generally carry Iranscribed WEather §.roadcast (TWEB) information. (1-1-9g .)
7. An !FR-certified GPS (with a current database) may be used as a substitute for DME and ADF in all
operations except NOB approaches that do not have a GPS overlay. [AIM 1-1-19e. TBL 1-1-6]
8. Subject to disturbances from lightning, precipitation static and [at night] distant radio stations.
9. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music or erroneous
identification may be heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed.
13. ''BFO'' mode Stands for ''§.eat frequency Qscillator." Used to generate an audio tone so as to
identify beacons identified by using "interrupted-carrier keying. " Seldom found in the United States.
NDB Service Volumes

CLASS DISTANCE (Radius)
Com ass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
··---
~.,,,,.
... °"'_
uf or-...- °'"'K«'( .,__ . . .
""""'
•t~'·
n • ss
• .... ,... 1t"'"'1y
... Y't.Av •
t~ . . . ., , ... .,
Y\~-~
* Service ranges of individual facilities may be less
than 50 NM. Restrictions to service volumes are
• ..._1'1• a '
•l"MO ....... • • &

first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with
the al habetical listin of the NAVAID in the A/FD.
PRIMARY NDB CONCEPTS: (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-8, FAA-H-8083-1 5, 8083-16, 8083-25)

1. PARALLEL the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound ):
• The HEAD of the needle ALWAYS points to the COURSE (and the wind ).
2. While PARALLELING the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound ):
If the HEAD of the needle is:
- • LEFT of Center Turn LEFT 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is usually much too wimpy, it will NOT work in
any significant wind).
• RIGHT of Center Turn RIGHT 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is again much too wimpy).
FAF to MAP 5.4 NM Timing for any non-precision

groundspeed not airspeed .
• Se~
r_.-,1n:
IAA 5:24 3:36 2:42 2: 10 1:48

NON PRECISION NDB/VOR APPROACH & HOLDING
PRIMARY NDB CONCEPTS: (AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-8, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. PARALLEL the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):
• The HEAD of the needle ALWAYS points to the COURSE (and the wind).
2. While PARALLELING the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):
- • LEFT of Center - Turn LEFT - 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is usually much too wimpy, it will NOTwork in any significant wind).
RIGHT of Center - Turn RIGHT - 30° or 45° for a few seconds
h
(turning only "double the deflecti~a~~ };, P.~f.: a~2~J~.~.~~.~ 1}¥, r1},~f }?.?a'::i,rr1,8t}i a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a acu a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a as a a•
NDB OUTBOUND: : Since ADF receivers do not have a "flag" to warn when erroneous information is
. Parallel the outbound course. ~ being displayed, the pilot should continuously monitor the NDB's identification .
1
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle - 30° or 45° for a few seconds.
3. When the TAIL (superimposed on the DG) points to the outbound course - YOU'RE ON IT - turn back to the
outbound heading and see what you got - repeat if necessary (it's just like shampooing!).
4. NOTE: The Procedure Turn is always AWA Yfrom the fix (unless you're nearing the 1o mile limit).
NDB INBOUND:
1. Parallel the inbound course.
2. Turn towards the HEAD of the needle - 30° or 45° for a few seconds.
3. When the HEAD (superimposed on the DG) points to the inbound course - YOU'RE ON IT - turn back to the
inbound heading and see what you got - repeat if necessary.
NDB or VOR ON the Field:
1. When established on the inbound course - DROP the GEAR I FLAPS & DESCEND to MDA as quickly as
possible - AT LEAST 1.000 FPM - Don't forget to add power if necessary when you reach the MDA.
2. If this is a Single Engine CIRCLING app-be ready to get the gear I flaps back UP before reaching MDA.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• This is called Dive & Drive. IMHO it is by far the best method for non-precision approaches of this type in smaller aircraft because it gets you
: down to the MDA sooner ... so you have time to locate the airport and set up for landing. If you descend too slowly you'll often find yourself
• breaking out right at the missed approach point ... often too high to make the runway from MDA. You must remember to monitor your Airspeed
: and add power as necessary when you level off. AIRSPEED must always be your primary instrument at low altitude. If you don't feel
comfortable with your ability to level off from a 1,000 FPM descent and maintain altitude and airspeed, I suggest some additional training.
NDB or VOR OFFthe Field:

1. When crossing over the NOB IVOR inbound-start TIME-DROP the GEAR I FLAPS & DESCEND to MDA as
quickly as possible - AT LEAST 1.000 FPM - Don't forget to add power if necessary when you reach the MDA.
2. If this is a Single Engine CIRCLING approach - be ready to get the gear I flaps back UP before reaching MDA.
·············-----············~····································-----············~·······
: Hold Entry - So you're on your way direct to your assigned holding fix. Put a dot on the chart that represents where you are in
• relation to that fix (you do know your heading don't you?). Now imagine the holding pattern is an airfoil with the fix representing the
: front wheel (at the bottom of the airfoil, duh!). Place your 70°/110° line so that it seems to blow back over the TOP of the wing
: where ... according to Bernoulli anyway ... the wind evidently blows faster. You should now be able to easily visualize which quadrant ...
• Qirect, f arallel, or I eardrop ... you're in and plan the proper heading to turn to after you cross the fix. With a little practice you should
• be able to instantly name the entry and then quickly figure out the initial heading for that entry. Remember you must always know
WHERE you're goin' and EXACTLY WHATyou ' re gonna do when ya get there (i.e., heading, altitude, etc.).
HOLDING Direct I .e_arallel I Ieardrop:

(91 .159, 91 .179, AIM 4-4-3, 5-3-8, 5-4-5, 5-4-9, 5-4-10, 5-4-21, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
STANDARD (RIGHT turns) NON-STANDARD (LEFT turns)
IImaginary wind I
p
110° 70° 70° 110°
----->- ,
,...... .... -- ~
<··-:': • '••• '
~
~
..
.\..
..... .....
J.
........
.. ~
0 ,~.
, IE. ....c Imaginary
:\ ·~'
' Airfoil
·• '--~ '"
, , 30° "'-... --
... •: •••
·~
30°',
•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ••
.....,. ........................
p ) . •••••••••••••••••••••••••
( p
• • • •• • • • • • •• •• • • • •
T Imaginary wheel D D
Maximum Holding Pattern Speeds
(AIM 5-3-8, TBL 5-3-1 , FAA Order 7130.3A)
ALTITUDE (MSL) AIRSPEED (kts)

6,000' and below 200
6,001 - 14,000' 230
14,001 and above 265
NOTE: A maximum holding speed other than standard may be depicted
either inside or just outside the charted racetrack symbol.
HOLDING PATTERN SPEEDS and TIMING: (AIM 5-3-8)

1. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not
been received, the pilot is expected to START a SPEED REDUCTION so that the aircraft will cross the
fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed. (AIM 5-3-?d .)
2. Make all turns during entry and while holding at:
a. 3° per second; or.. .
b. 30° bank angle; or .. .
c. 25° bank provided a flight director system is used.
(NOTE: Use whichever reguires the LEAST bank)
3. TIMING for INBOUND leg:
a. At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.
b. Above 14,000 feet MSL: 1 Y2 minutes.
4. TIMING for OUTBOUND leg begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.
5. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
published minimum holding altitude and subseguently cleared for the approach, the pilot may
descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a segment
of the IAP if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.
6. When a CLIMB-IN HOLD is specified by a published procedure (e.g., "Climb-in holding pattern to depart
XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000." or "All aircraft climb-in TRUCK holding pattern to cross TRUCK Int
at or above 11,500 before proceeding on course."), additional obstacle protection area has been
provided to allow for greater airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft
1
1· f
Pro;ed~~e urn
0
requiring them. The airspeed limitations in 91.117 still apply. r
7. !f the maximum airspeed for the hold is other than standard, it may be 270°- -....
depicted either inside or just outside the charted racetrack symbol. (IAS)
...._-090°
··········~·~························~·······················
: Unless you're being radar vectored to the final (or it says No PT) ... When a holding pattern is published
: in place of (in lieu of) a procedure turn (heavy bold racetrack), pilots must make the standard entry and
% follow the depicted pattern to establish the aircraft on the inbound course . If cleared for the approach
prior to returning to the holding fix and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the
holding pattern are not necessary nor expected by ATC. (91.175U). AIM 5-4-9, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
HOLDING at a FIX where the PATTERN is NOT CHARTED: (AIM 5-3-8, FAA-H-8083-16)
Will include the following information:
1. Direction of holding FROM the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i.e. , N, NE, E, SE, etc.)
2. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
3. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used or otherwise in minutes.
4. Direction of turn if LEFTturns are to be made (standard pattern is RIGHT turns).
5. Time to ,5xpect further _Qlearance. ~-~<---- ....
'' Hold WEST of 'Elvis' on the 270° radial, LEFT turns, 1O mile legs,
,5xpect further _Qlearance at 1520Z, time now 1420Z. ''
< West
Elvis

LDA Approach (1:.ocalizer-type Directional Aid):

(1 .1, AIM 1-1-9, 5-4-5, 5-4-16, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16, OpSpec C052)
1. A navaid used for nonprecision instrument approaches.
2. The LOA is of comparable utility and accuracy to a localizer but is not part of a complete ILS.
3. LOA course width is between 3° and 6° and thus provides a more precise approach course than an
SOF installation.
4. The LOA course is not aligned with the runway, but STRAIGHT-IN MINIMUMS may be published
where the angle between the runway centerline and the LOA course does not exceed 30°.
!f this angle exceeds 30°, only CIRCLING minimums are published.
5. May have Glide Slope if noted. By definition qualifying it as a PRECISION approach. FAR 1.1 and the
P/C Glossary define a ''precision approach procedure'' as ANY standard Instrument 8,pproach
frocedure with an electronic glide slope.
6. May incorporate a Qecision 8,ltitude I Qecision !feight. DA(H) by definition is the decision altitude on a
PRECISION approach (P/C Glossary).
7. An LOA with a Glide Slope could be considered a ''PRECISION'' approach due to the fact that it
provides an ''electronic glide slope'' and may also LDA RWY 6
inc?rp?rate a Qec_ision 8,ltitud.e (~eight) .. Ho.wev~r the ROANOKE REGIONAL/WOODRUM FIELD (ROA)
def1n1t1on of Localizer Type D1rect1onal Aid given 1n the P/C -,
Glossary conflicts with these two statements, calling it "a
navaid used for NONPRECISION instrument approaches." _ _ _ _._
LDA GLIDE SLOPE
, _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Of course the P/C Glossary does not define a "Localizer Type Directional Aid w/GS."
8. As an additional side note see AIM 1-1-22 ''Precision Approach Systems other than ILS, GLS,
and MLS'' "Approval and use of precision approach systems other than ILS, GLS and MLS require
the issuance of special instrument approach procedures ... "
9. From an air carrier OpSpecs standpoint, an LOA w/GS is classified as a ''PRECISION-LIKE''
approach that provides vertical guidance but is not as accurate as a true precision approach. FAA
policy is that even though a glide slope is available, the accuracy is not the same as an ILS, MLS, GLS,
or TLS. OpSpec C052 lists "precision-like" approaches as Instrument Approach Procedures other than
ILS, MLS, and GLS (i.e., NONPRECISION approaches), at least for air carriers.
10. From a practical standpoint an LOA with a glide slope normally brings you right down to the end of the
runway, that's pretty darn precise. Who cares if you have to make a slight jog just before touch down ...
you've probably done worse jogs at the end of many of your ILS approaches!
11. AIM 5-4-Sa.7.(b) ''8,pproach with Y,ertical Quidance (APV) An instrument approach based on a
navigation system that is not required to meet the precision approach standards of ICAO Annex 10
but provides course and glidepath deviation information. For example, Baro-VNAV, LOA with
glidepath, LNAV/VNAV and LPV are APV approaches." When it's all said and done, it's merely a
question of semantics. The only time it could become an issue is when choosing an alternate.
Would that be 600 & 2 or 800 & 2? Since an LOA w/glide slope is not addressed as a PRECISION
approach in the AIM, it would have to be considered a NONPRECISION approach.
SDF Approach (~implified Directional facility):

(AIM 1-1-10, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16) ~==~~~~~~~~=~S~D~FJc~o~u~r~s~e
1. A navaid used for nonprecision instrument approaches. ~
2. Provides a final approach course similar to the ILS localizer except that the SDF course may be offset
from the runway, generally not more than 3 degrees.
3. All SDF approaches in the U.S. are aligned within 3° of the runway. The course may be wider than a
standard ILS localizer, resulting in slightly less precision, but an SDF flown with the needle centered
can be just as accurate as a localizer.
4. The course width of the SDF signal emitted from the transmitter is fixed at either 6° or 12°, as
necessary, to provide maximum flyability and optimum approach course quality.
5. The SDF antenna may be offset from the runway centerline. Because of this, the angle of
convergence between the final approach course and the runway bearing should be determined by
reference to the instrument approach chart. This angle is usually not more than 3°.
6. Usable off-course indications are limited to 35° either side of the course centerline.
7. May have Glide Slope if noted (refer to the LOA w/GS discussion above).

STRAIGHT-IN Approach: (5-4-5 thru 5-4-9, 5-4-20, 5-4-26, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. The final approach segment is begun without having first executed a procedure turn.
2. In order to allow straight-in minimums to be published, the final approach course must be within 30° of the
landing runway, AND the descent gradient must not exceed 400 fVNM from the FAF to the runway. Exceeding
either requires the approach to be published as a circling approach.
3. The fact that a straight-in minimum is not published does not preclude pilots from landing straight-in if they
have the active runway in sight and have sufficient time to make a normal approach to landing.
CIRCLING Approach: (91 .129, 91 .175, 121 .621 , 135.223, 135.297, AIM 5-4-20 thru 5-4-22 , 5-5-4, P/C Glossary)
1. An approach is considered a circling approach if it requires a turn of more than 30° from the final approach course.
Another clue is a LETTER instead of a number (e.g. VOR-A).
2. A circling approach is also designated if the final approach descent is unusually STEEP because of high terrain
or obstacles near the airport requiring a descent rate greater than 400 ft per NM. In this case, you can still land
straight-in if you can do it comfortably using normal maneuvers.
3. Normally, circling MDA only offers 300 feet of obstacle clearance. This can be an important consideration when
flying above the airport in extremely LOW temperatures - the actual (true) altitude of the aircraft can be
significantly lower than indicated. This can be especially important when approaching to land at an airport
surrounded by HIGH TERRAIN. At -22°F (-30°C) flying at 2000 feet (AGL) indicated above the airport - Your
true altitude is approximately 380 feet lower than indicated ... or ... 1620 feet true. Obstruction clearance could get
EXTREMELY TIGHT! During extremely low temperatures - ADD SOME ALTITUDE during any part of an
approach where you might question your obstacle clearance. Of course, when you reach the RUNWAY, a
perfectly set altimeter should be exactly correct no matter what the temperature.
4. Circling approach protected areas are defined by ARCS drawn from the END of each RUNWAY. The arc radii
distance differs by the aircraft approach category (and if developed after late 2012 - Altitude).
STANDARD (Previous aka Old)
Circling Approach Radius
(Developed prior to late 2012)(AIM 5-4-20)
(Over time all ''Standard'' circling radii will be
r
replaced b ''Ex anded'' circlin radii.
Approach Category I Radius (NM)
A 1.3 r
B 1.5
c 1. 7 r
D 2.3
Circling ~ proach Area
E 4.5
EXPANDED Circling Approach Maneuvering Airspace Radius r

(Developed late 2012 identified by a [fl symbol on circling line minima)
Accounts for true airs eed increase with altitude AIM 5-4-20
-
Circling MDA Approach Category & Circling Radius (NM)
in feet MSL Cat A Cat B Cat C Cat D Cat E .. ························~··················· ·~
: When an approach procedure doesn't meet the
1000 or less 1.3 1.7 2.7 3.6 4 .5 • criteria for a straight-in authorization, it is
••
1001-3000 1.3 1.8 2.8 3.7 4 .6 • identified by the type of navigational aid w hich
•• provides final approach guidance and an
3001-5000 1.3 1.8 2.9 3.8 4 .8 ••
5001-7000 1.3 1.9 3.0 4.0 5.0 • alphabetical suffix starting with the beginning of
•• the alphabet (i.e., VOA-A). As additional
7001-9000 1.4 2 .0 3.2 4.2 5.3 •
•• procedures are formulated, they are identified
9001 and above 1.4 2 .1 3.3 4.4 5.5 • alphabetically in sequence (i.e., VOR-8).
••
5. DIRECTION of TURNS - Unless you are adhering to specific instructions from ATC - You must still comply with
91.126(b )(1) - "all turns must be made to the left unless approved signals indicate turns should be made to the
right." Nothing in this rule restricts its applicability to VFR operations only.
6. You cannot descend below MDA until the aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a
landing can be made at a normal rate of descent using normal maneuvers. Pilots should use ''SOUND
JUDGMENT" as to when to leave MDA for final descent to the runway. There is no "within 30° of the centerline"
rule! The ''BANK ANGLE should not exceed 30°" according to the Airline Transport Pilot/Type Rating PTS
and Appendix F to Part 121 [NOTE: the Instrument Pilot PTS says nothing about bank angle].
7. You must also have:
a. Flight visibility that is not less than the visibility prescribed in the approach.
b. At least one of the specific runway visual references for the intended runway must be distinctly visible
and identifiable.
8. If VISUAL reference is LOST while circling to land, the pilot should make an initial climbing TURN TOWARD the
landing RUNWAY and continue the turn until established on the missed approach course.
9. Additional circling approach ''Authorization'' is required for Part 91 (k), 121, 125, 129, and 135 operators.

Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) RNAV (GPS) Approaches: (AIM 1-1-18 thru 1-1-20, 5-3-5,
5-4-5, P/C/ Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. The objective of the T AA is to provide a
seamless transition from the en route
structure to the terminal environment for
arriving aircraft equipped with flight YLOC
117.95
,Management §ystem (FMS) and/or Qlobal 108.oo
fositioning §ystem (GPS) navigational
equipment. The underlying instrument
approach procedure is an afiea NAVigation
(RNAV) procedure. The TAA provides the
pilot and air traffic controller with a very efficient method for routing traffic into the terminal environment
with little required air traffic control interface, and with minimum altitudes depicted that provide standard
obstacle clearance compatible with the instrument procedure associated with it. The TAA will not be
found on all RNAV procedures, particularly in areas of heavy concentration of air traffic. When the TAA
is published, it replaces the MSA for that approach procedure (obstacle clearance 1000 feet or more).
2. The RNAV procedure underlying the T AA will be the ''!'' design (also called the ''Basic T''), or a
modification of the "T." The "T" design incorporates from one to three IAFs; an Intermediate Fix (!E)
that serves as a dual purpose IF (IAF); a Final Approach Fix (FAF), and a Missed Approach Point
(MAP) usually located at the runway threshold. The three IAFs are normally aligned in a straight line
perpendicular to the intermediate course, which is an extension of the final course leading to the
runway, forming a "T." The initial segment is normally from 3-6 NM in length; the intermediate 5-7 NM,
and the final segment 5 NM. Specific segment length may be varied to accommodate specific aircraft
categories for which the procedure is designed. However, the published segment lengths will reflect the
highest category of aircraft normally expected to use the procedure.
a. A standard racetrack holding pattern may be provided at the center IAF, and if present may be
necessary for course reversal and for altitude adjustment for entry into the procedure. In the
latter case, the pattern provides an extended distance for the descent required by the
procedure. Depiction of this pattern in U.S. Government publications will utilize the ''hold-in-
lieu-of-PT'' holding pattern symbol.
b. The published procedure will be
annotated to indicate when the Basic ''T'' Design
course reversal is not necessary
when flying within a particular
TAA area; e.g. , ''NoPT. "
Plan View ~ ~
Otherwise, the pilot is expected to IF (IAF)
execute the course reversal
under the provisions of 14 CFR IAF IAF
(3 to 6 Nautical Miles) (3 to 6 Nautical Miles)
Section 91.175. The pilot may Initial Segment Initial Segment
elect to use the course reversal
Intermediate Segment
pattern when it is not required (5 Nautical Miles)
12.v the procedure, but must
inform Air Traffic Control and
receive CLEARANCE to do so.
FAF
Flyby Waypoint Final Segment

Req uires the use of turn anticipation to (5 Nautical Miles)
avoid overshootin the next fli ht se ment.
MAP
Runway
Flyover Waypoint
Premature turns can reduce obstruction clearance I
........ J
•
•• ••
and/or prevent the GPS from sequenci ng between •
waypoints. Typically found at missed approach

and holding points. Missed Approach
Holding Fix

Basic ''T'' Design

Plan View
Missed Approach
Holding Fix
IF (IAF) ................._
-...- ...............
I ..
IAF ... .. J
···-····-..·
•
(3 to 6 Nautical Miles) (3 to 6 Nautical Miles)

Initial Segment Initial Segment r
t
,•
Intermediate Segment :
(5 Nautical Miles) 1
'''
'
J.
~>
FAF ,'
'''
r
Final Segment
(5 Nautical Miles) ,''
t
,,'
t
, t
See Page 62 for more extensive I
'r
information concerning RNAV (GPS) •
approaches including LNAV, MAP t''
LNAVNNAV, and LPV approach ''
Runway,',,
, ,
..
I
, , ,
.'' , ,, ,
,, '
,,
' .. --- -
,, ,
Modified Basic ''T''

Plan View
IF (IAF)
PT required for aircraft IAF

Initial Segment
approaching from this side
due to descent gradient.
Intermediate Segment
FAF
•••··•·················•···· · ··········~ ····· · ···· · ······ · ·········· ... ······•
f Computer Navigation Fix (CNF). A point used to
: define a navigation track for an airborne computer Final Segment
•
: system such as GPS or FMS. It is a point defined by
~ a lat/long coordinate and is required to support area
: navigation (RNAV) system operations. CNFs are not
•
: recognized by ATC and currently may or may not be
: charted on FAA aeronautical navigation products.
They have five-letter unpronounceable identifiers
depicted in parentheses with a small x. Plans are to MAP
standardize CNF names with a CF prefix and three
:• consonants (e.g., CFLGT). They will eventually
:•
•• appear on enroute and approach charts . Runway
:• (AIM 1-1-18, FAA-H-8083-16)
•

LANDING UNDER IFR: (91 .175, AIM 5-4-21 , 5-4-22) An Enhanced
-
flight ~ision
1. OPERATION BELOW DH or MDA No pilot may operate an aircraft .§.ystem (EFVS)
may be used on
at any airport below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the straight-in
authorized DH unless: approaches [only]
a. The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a landing to descend below
on the intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent using MDA or DH, but
not below 100
normal maneuvers, and for operations conducted under Part 121 or Part 135 feet above the
unless that descent rate will allow touchdown to occur within the touchdown TDZE unless
zone of the runway of intended landing; actual FLIGHT
b. The flight visibility (or gnhanced flight Y,isibility) is not less than the visibility VISIBILITY is
sufficient to
prescribed in the instrument approach being used; and continue the
c. Except for a Category II or Category Ill approach, at least ONE of the approach without
use of the EFVS.
following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible and
identifiable to the pilot:
• The Approach Light System, except that the pilot may not descend below 100 feet above
the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a reference unless the red
terminating bars or the red side row bars are also distinctly visible and identifiable;
• The threshold;
FLIGHT VISIBILITY (1.1) The
• Threshold markings;
average forward horizontal distance,
• Threshold lights; from the cockpit in flight, at wh ich
• B.unway ,5nd Identifier ,bights (REIL); prominent unlighted objects may be
• Y,isual 8,pproach .§.lope Indicator (VASI); m" seen and identified by day and
• Touchdown Zone or Touchdown Zone markings; prominent lighted objects may be
• IouchQown ~one ,bights (TDZL); seen and identified by night.
• Runway or runway markings; or
• Runway lights.
2. LANDING No pilot operating an aircraft may land that aircraft when the FLIGHT VISIBILITY (or
,5nhanced flight Y,isibility) is less than the visibility prescribed in the instrument approach procedure.
3. MISSED APPROACH Each pilot operating an aircraft shall immediately execute an
appropriate missed approach procedure when either of the following conditions exist:
a. Whenever the requirements of paragraph #1 are not met at either of the following times:
• When the aircraft is being operated below MDA; or
• Upon arrival at the missed approach point and at any time after that until touchdown.
b. Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible to the pilot during a circling
maneuver at or above MDA, unless the inability to see an identifiable part of the airport results
only from a normal bank of the aircraft during the circling approach .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Even though flight visibility is controlling, the reported ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• weather could be used in an enforcement action when it is : 91 .175 does NOT require the use of
•• doubtful that the flight visibility reported by the pilot could : ''reported visibility'' for Part 91 operations.
: have existed. This would be extremely difficult (but not : The pilot is the only person who can
: impossible) for the FAA to "prove." Flight visibility can : determine what the ''flight visibility'' is/was.
• vary greatly from ground visibility.
•• FAA Legal Interpretation (Mar 1O, 1986 & Sep 1O, 201 O):
: " ... Enforcement action would be taken only in those cases
: in which the pilot could not reasonably conclude flight
•• ···································~
• If you LAND when the ''reported visibility'' is '
• visibility was at or above approach minimums, but the
••
•• below minimums, usually the only thing that
•• pilot nevertheless proceeded to land ... "
•• might happen is the controller may ask:
Comment - Don't do or say somethin' stupid .
''what altitude did you break-out?'' Of course
•
.: ·····································~
For the purposes of Special VFR (only) during operations
.
- . :
your answer should be ''right at minimums, we
had the runway in sight'' or '' just above
• from a satellite airport that does not have weather • minimums, we had the runway in sight."
: reporting - If ground visibility is not reported, 1 SM flight % It was wasn 't it?
: visibility may be used. For the purposes of Special VFR :
: (only), FLIGHT VISIBILITY includes the visibility from : Of course if you CRASH when the reported visibility
• the cockpit of an aircraft in takeoff position, operating • is below minimums it doesn't matter what you say.
• under Part 91, at a satellite airport that does not have ; If you 're still alive, you're gonna get spanked!
weather reporting capabilities. [91.157(c)] '

Boy that landing sure was interesting.
Now the hard part's gonna be finding the ramp!
Hey Skippy, can you see anything out of your window?
Proposed new 91.176 rule will permit approved operators

to use an £nhanced flight ~i sion .§.ystem (EFVS) in lieu
of natural vision to continue descending from 100 feet
above touchdown to the runway and land . When it is
0
finalized , it will affect numerous regulations.
D
0
"
0
"
0
0
oO OOOOfJ
0
STANDARD RATE TURNS: (PICGlossary)

1. 3° per second.
2. 10 seconds for 30°.
3. 2 minutes for 360° (1 minute for 180°).
4. To find the bank angle for standard rate turn:
Divide the true airspeed (knots) by 1O and add
50o/o of that value. Example: if true airspeed is 200 kts, 20 plus 50°/o of 20
equals a 30° bank angle for a standard rate turn.
NO-GYRO Approach: (AIM 5-4-11 , P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)

1. Use standard rate turns until final approach then 1/2 standard rate turns.
2. Controller says ''Start turn'' ''Stop turn."
MISSED Approach PRIOR to MAP: (91 .175, AIM 5-4-5, 5-4-21 , P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. EVERY missed approach begins EXACTL Ythe same way CLIMB like a Mutha F#©k£®!
2. Must continue along the final approach to the MAP but may climb immediately to the altitude specified.
3. Turn towards the airport if necessary then comply with the missed approach procedure.
4. It is prudent (but not mandatory) to execute a missed approach with full COi or glide slope needle
deflection.

Comparable Values of RVR and GROUND VISIBILITY: [91 .11s(h)l
If RVR minimums for takeoff or landing are prescribed in an instrument approach procedure, but the RVR
is not reported for the runway of intended operation , the RVR minimum shall be converted to ground
visibility in accordance with the table below and shall be the visibility minimum for takeoff or landing on
that runway. ····•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• • •••
RVR Visibility •
: RVR Runway Visual Range: (AIM 1-1-1 s )
(feet) (statute miles) ••
• There are currently two configurations of RVR-
1,600 1/4 •• a. TASKERS The existing system RVR values are measured by
• projector & receiver ''transmissometers'' mounted on 14-foot
2,400 1/2 •
••
3,200 5/8 • towers, 250 feet apart along the runway. A known intensity of light
• is emitted from the projector and measured by the receiver. Any
4,000 3/4 ••
• obscuring matter such as rain, snow, or fog reduces the light intensity
4,500 718 ••
• arriving at the receiver. Readouts to a minimum of 600 ft in 200-ft
5,000 1 • increments to 3,000 ft 500-ft increments from 3,000 to a maximum
••
• of 6,000 ft. These values are updated once every minute.
6,000 1-1/4 •
•• b. NEW GENERATION Currently replacing the old taskers Still
• mounted on 14-foot towers but use ''forward scatter'' technology .
•
•• Can measure down to 150 ft RVR in 100-ft increments below 800 ft
•
•• - 200-ft increments between 800 ft & 3,000 ft 500-ft increments
•• between 3,000 ft to a maximum of 6,500 ft .
•
MOW - December 2005

(AIM 4-3-8, 4-3-9, P/C Glossary, AC 150/5200-30C, AC 91-79)
1. BRAKING ACTION reports are provided by ATC to pilots using the terminology ''good," ''fair,"
''poor," and ''nil." Either pilots or airport management provides these reports to ATC.
·········································~·························~~
•
! EXITING the RUNWAY after LANDING: (AIM 4-3-20)
• 1. Pilots are expected to exit the runway without delay at the first available taxiway or taxiway as instructed by ATC.
: 2. Do NOT exit onto another runway, or stop, or reverse course on the runway unless authorized by ATC.
• 3. You are not technically " CLEAR of the RUNWAY" until ALL PARTS of the aircraft are on the OTHER SIDE of the
• HOLD-SHORT LINE .
•• 4 . After clearing the runway, come to a complete stop on the other side of the hold-short line. Do NOT continue
• taxiing unless taxi clearance has been issued by ATC .
: 5. Do NOT change to ground freguency until you are instructed to do so by ATC.
~ 6. Immediately change to ground control frequency when advised by the tower and obtain a taxi clearance.

.- · ••••• • •..
A pilot may not descend below 100 feet
ALSF-2 : above the touchdown zone elevation when
•• using the approach lights as a reference unless
Green Threshold Lights : the
••••••••••••••••••
••• 00000 •••
: RED TERMINATING BARS
•• or the
••• 00000 •••
• RED SIDE ROW BARS
... • • • 00000 ••• •• are also distinctly visible and identifiable .
~ ••• 00000 ••• •if! [91.175(c)(3)(i), AIM 2-1-1]
II. • • • 000 00000 000 • • •
0 ••• 00000 •••
•
g ••• 00000 •••
~ ••• 00000 •••
~ ••• 00000 •••
00000000 00 00 00000000
00 ' 00 A1 Green Threshold Lights

,.
~ I
~
'
~
•••••••••••••••••
OOQOO
~: ••••• • •••
00000 ••• •••••
00000 • •• ...w
'
'Q'
... .. 00000 w
00000 II.
WHITE a _.,.. 00:&00
00000 0
0
00000
'' t
J
00000
00000
...
0
'
00000 00000
.. '' ... 00000000 OOQOO 00000000
''
00000 ~~
a ff\
oonoo
.,, ...
.l1,..
00000
~ OOQOO
00000 ~
00000
~: ~~
00000 00000
u ,,,..
~f , . ...
~
00000 00000 ~ a
;tff ''
...
~,
t
WHITE
00000 00000
00000
••••••••••••••••••••••• •
; SEQUENCED FLASHING :
LENGTH ~ ••••••••••••••••••••••••
2400/3000 FEET 00000
'
ALSF - ~pproach ~ight l_ystem with Sequenced flashing Lights
••••••••••• •••
:• A DOT''•'' portrayed with approach lighting
: letter identifier indicates sequenced flashing
• lights (F) installed with the approach light
•: system, example: A
1
••
• NEGATIVE SYMBOLOGY, example: .-
..,
~
•
•• 00000
••
•• ~
LENGTH 00000
•• Indicates filot ~ontrolled .bighting (PCL) 2400/3000 FEET ., ...,..,
...a'
•
Approach Light Systems (ALS)
(AIM2-1-1)
ALSF-2 A LSF- 1 SSALR MALSR
-..-- -- ---- - ---•... -- -
A --- -- Green
--- ---
•
.,I
- -- •
' - ~ - •I
oooooooaoooaooooooooo 00000000000000000 00000000000000000

•• •
•• •
•••••
•••••
• ••
• ••
•••••
• • • ••••• • • •
...... •••••
••• ••••• • •• •••••
••• • •• .....
~ lh~~~
•••••
....... ····· ······· ::::: ...................
.....,,,.
..... ... ~ Red

~ •••••
$
......
•••••
•••••
• ••
• ••
•••••
••••• .....
••••• • ••
......... ........ ••••••••
•••••
......... ..... ........
......
.
•••••
•••••
• Flashing
light •
•••••
•Flashing
light •
•••••
• Flashing
light •••••
•
••••• •
•••••
• Steady ......• • Steady •..
•••••
• Steady
burning
• burning
..... burning
white light
• Steady
•••••
.....•• white light
• Steady
......
•...
.......
white light
• Steady
.....
•
burning ••••• burning burning
... •
red light •••••
• red light .•••••
••••• red light
•
NOTE: Civil ALSF-2
•••••
•...
•••• ...... •..
may be operated as
SSALR during
....• -. Sequenced * ··•••••!. ·· •
••••• e
favorable weather • Flashing • Sequenced
conditions
Flashing
ODALS MALSF ODALS

REIL
---: ~-.
-
•.., • Flashing
light
•••••
0 0
• Steady ..... 0 Omnidirectional 0
MALS Landing
approach burning ~ flashing light O
white hght
..... l~~t®
-
-
--- I
• Steady
burning 0 ODALS
-- I
15° 10° '
10° 15°
red ligflt
•••••
...... ........ 0 ••
--
••••••••
SALSF MALSF Sequenced
0 ••
-
•••••
• Flashing
•••••
•
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• •
SSALR : Approach ,bight §ystems (ALS) are a configuration of signal lights starting at the landing threshold
: and extending into the approach area a distance of 2400 - 3000 feet for PRECISION instrument
---
-
-
---
-- : runways and 1400 - 1500 feet for NONPRECISION instrument runways. Some systems include
•
:;: : sequenced flashing lights which appear to the pilot as a ball of light traveling towards the
I
•
• ••• runway at high speed (twice a second) - aka- ''the rabbit'' (aka "wabbit") .
CHARlOTI'E, NORTH CAROLINA AL·78 (FAA)
LOC 1-0QG APP CRS Rwy ldg 10000

ILS or LOC RWY 36L
UNICOM
111 7
--
·
Q
003 TDZE
Apt
707
Elev 748 .-. CHARLOTIE/ DOUGlAS INTI (CLT)
123.05 (CTAF)
11
A dot portrayed with approach lighting letter ident.ifier indicates sequenced flash ing lights (F) installed with the
•"
approach lighting system e.g., ~· Negativ·e symbology, e.g., 6,

0 indicates Pilot Controlled lighting (PCL).

Visual Approach Slope Indicators
Far Bar
DD
=Red
Near Bar
D =White
DD DD
Below Glide Path On Glide Path Above Glide Path
Two-Bar Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI): (AIM 2-1-2)

Two-Bar VASI installations provide one visual glide path which is normally set at 3 degrees. VASI lights are
visible from 3-5 miles during the day and up to 20 miles or more at night. Provides safe obstruction
clearance within ± 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline and to 4 nm from the runway threshold.
1
'
Far Bar
DD
Middle Bar
DD DD
Near Bar
DD DD DD
Below Both On Lower On Upper Above Both
Glide Paths Glide Path Glide Path Glide Paths
Three-Bar Visual Approach Slope Indicator (VASI): (AIM 2-1-2)

Three-Bar VASI installations provide TWO visual GLIDE PATHS. The LOWER glide path is provided by
the near and middle bars and is normally set at 3 degrees while the UPPER glide path, provided by the
middle and far bars, is normally 1/4 degree higher. This higher glide path is intended for use only by high
cockpit aircraft to provide a sufficient threshold crossing height. Although normal glide path angles are
three degrees, angles at some locations may be as high as 4.5 degrees to give proper obstacle
clearance. Provides safe obstruction clearance within± 10 degrees of the extended runway centerline
and to 4 nm from the runway threshold.
0000 000 00 0
High Slightly High On Glide Path Slightly Low Low

(More than (3.2 degrees) (3 degrees) (Less than (Less than
3.5 degrees) 2.8 degrees) 2.5 degrees)
0 White
Red
Precision Approach Path Indicator (PAPI): (AIM 2-1-2)

The precision approach path indicator (PAPI) uses light units similar to the VASI but are installed in a single
row of either two or four light units. These systems have an effective visual range of about 5 miles during
the day and up to 20 miles at night. Provides safe obstruction clearance within ± 10 degrees of the
extended runway centerline and to 4 sm from the runway threshold.
4••·················································
: Other variations of VASI systems are found in AIM 2·1 ·2

VISUAL Approach: (AIM 2-1-2. 3-2-3, 3-2-4, 5-4-3, 5-4-4, 5-4-23,
5-5-11 , 91 .155, 135.205, 135.213, 121 .649, OpSpec C077, FAA-H-8083-16)
1. Must be on an IFR flight plan ATC may assign and
you may or may not accept. This is a controller
requirement; you should not get clearance for a visual
unless the proper conditions exist.
2. The airport must be reporting at least a 1,000 ft ceiling
and 3 miles visibility. An additional controller
requirement is that the ceiling is at least 500 feet above
Minimum ~ectoring 8,ltitude.
3. The flightcrew must have either the airport or the
preceding aircraft in sight (the pilot is responsible for
wake turbulence separation).
4. This IS an instrument approach in the sense that it can
[and should] only be assigned when on an IFR flight
plan however it is NOT an instrument approach in the
sense that it does not have a missed approach point It
is NOT an instrument approach, but it IS an IFR
authorization, the flight is still IFR.
5. For Part 135 non-turbojet (even with OpSpec C077) and all Part 91
operations you must only remain clear of clouds.
6. Part 121 operations and Part 135 turbojet operations are ruled by
OpSpec C077 you must have 91.155 VFR cloud clearance applicable
to the airspace involved. That means ... Class B clear of clouds. Class
C, D & E 500' below, 1000' above, 2000' horizontally (when below 10,000
feet MSL) (higher cloud clearance and visibility is required when at and above
10,000 feet MSL).
7. Additional requirements of OpSpec C077 (Part 121 operations & Part 135 turbojet operations) include:
a. The flight remains in Class B. C. or D airspace, within 35 miles of the destination airport in
Class E airspace, or the airspace beneath the designated transition area.
b. Ceiling and cloud clearance must be as such to allow the flightcrew to maintain the minimum
altitudes prescribed in 91.129, 91.130, or 91.131, as applicable for the Airspace Class in which
the flight is operated. Generally for large or turbine powered aircraft this means -
[91.129(e )(1 )] '' ... unless otherwise reguired by the applicable distance from cloud criteria,
enter the traffic pattern at an altitude of at least 1,500 AGL and maintain at least 1,500 AGL
until further descent is reguire for a safe landing."
···································••-+-••·····································~
•• WEATHER REPORTING & 135.213
•
: 1. The FAA considers commercial pilots (etc.) competent to provide weather information for Part 135
•• VFR operations (on/v). However, in order to use this concession , "the operator's GOM must
•• specify the circumstances under which PICs may use the provision of§ 135.213(a)." "If observers
• other than PICs are used , operators must specify the training and qualifications of these observers."
••
(8900.1) OpSpec C077 may impose further restrictions (Page 265) .
•
• 2. To conduct IFR operations, pilots must use weather observations (from official sources) taken at
•• the airport where those operations are conducted .
•• 3. Reminder A visual approach is an IFR operation .
'
•····························~
• From FAA Order 8900.1
•• " ... An AWOS cannot be used as an
: authorized weather source for Part 121 and
• Part 135 IFR operations jf the visibility is
: reported missing ... "
•
: OpSpec C077 (Part 121 operations or Part 135
• turbojet operations) requires ''REPORTED''
ceiling & visibility. (Page 265)

--------------------------------------------------
VISUAL Descent Point (VDP): IY
Visual Descent Point (VDP~
[AIM 5-4-5, P/C Glossary, 121 .651 (c)(4)]
1. A defined point on the final approach course of a nonprecision straight-in approach from which
normal descent from the MDA to the runway touch-down zone may commence, provided the runway or
approach lights, etc., are clearly visible to the pilot.
2. The VDP is almost always located so that it coincides with a VASI, PAPI, or other ground-based
descent aid. The VDP is identified on the profile view of the approach chart by the symbol: V.
3. To calculate a 3° descent angle from the VDP to the runway Divide the groundspeed by 2, then
multiply the result by 10 [100 kts (GS) + 2 x 10 = 500 fpm descent].
4. Another good method is to look at the end of the runway-drive the airplane over to it and then land!
5. 121.651 (c )(4) A pilot may descend below the MDA prior to the published VDP only where a
descent to the runway cannot be made using normal procedures or rates of descent if final descent
is delayed until reaching that point.
PLANNED Descent Point (PDP): (AC 120-71A)

1. That point during an approach where a pilot MUST begin the descent to the runway or he will NOT
land in the landing zone. My guess is a woman will have the same problem. (A small gift for the PC police;o)
2. RULES of THUMB: When using DME for distance information, the DME
{a) TIME Method 10 feet per second. distance of the MAP or runway threshold must be
{b) DISTANCE Method 300 feet per mile. added (or subtracted) to the calculated PDP.
FAF 2 min & 40 sec to PDP PDP MAP ······················· ~

•• ••• : TIME Method
•• 502 ft to descend
: MDA to RWY: = 50 sec
•• 10 ft/sec
50 sec • •
•
MDA = 502 ft AGL •
•
3 min & 30 sec TOTAL from FAF to MAP
FAF 2.8 miles to PDP PDP MAP ·······················~

•• : DISTANCE Method
•• • •: 502 ft to de_scend = _ miles
: MDA to RWY : 17
• • ~ 300 ft/mile
1.7 miles :
•
•
MDA = 502 ft AGL
4.5 miles TOTAL from FAF to MAP
3. Of course once again, the alternate method is to look at the end of the runway drive the airplane over
to it and then land! Works every time for most pilots ... boys and girls!;o).
Vertical Descent Angle (VDA): (AIM 5-4-5, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)

1. A computed path from the final 8,pproach fix and altitude to the runway threshold at TCH. The
optimum descent angle to be used is 3.00 degrees.
2. Pilots can use the published angle and estimated/actual groundspeed to find a target rate of descent
from a rate of descent table published with the instrument approach procedure.
3. The published angle is for information only and is strictly ADVISORYin nature. The tried and true
''Dive and Drive'' method is still perfectly legal (and preferred by most pilots).
Charted VISUAL Flight Procedure Approach (CVFP): (AIM 5-4-24, P/C Glossary, opspec co??)
An approach conducted while operating on an IFR flight plan which authorizes the pilot of an aircraft to
proceed visually and clear of clouds to the airport via visual landmarks and other information depicted
on a charted visual flight procedure. The approach must be authorized and under the control of the
appropriate air traffic control facility. Weather minimums required are depicted on the chart.

FMS Flight Management System - 101
The UNS-1 ESP used in this example is common to the Cessna Citation,
Beechcraft King Air, and many other aircraft. The following is a greatly
abbreviated general overview of the peculiar logic typical of all FMSs.
1. Flight Management Systems utilize GPS, DME's, VOR's, and inertial
reference systems to determine position based on the signal accuracy
and geometry of the nav aides available.
2. The unit automatically uses the nav aide, which will provide the most
accurate navigational solution.
3. FMSs usually provide ancillary (secondary) functions, in addition to
navigation, such as: performance and fuel calculations, weight and
balance, and even radio tunin '------.
. •
4. Control keys: ON/OFF/DIM, ENTER, BACK, NEX , PREV and+/- keys.
5. Function or Mode keys: MSG, DAT , FPL, NAV, VNA , OTO, FUEL,
m
!LISTI, IMENUI and IPERFI keys
6. Line select keys: Located to the left and right of screen, these keys allow
for selection of data on the screen and cursor control. A line select key
may be referred to by its position to the screen. For example, "3L'' would
be the third key from the top on the left side.
7. Alphanumeric keys: allow direct input to fields( e.g., I!] or~).
8. The ''INITIAL POS'' screen displays the latitude and longitude and the source.
If "<GNSS>" or ''<GPS>" is displayed, the source for the position is GPS.
9. After initialization has completed, press the "IFuEQ" mode key to enter the weights
of the aircraft's occu ants, cargo and fuel on FUEL page 1.
10. Press the ''FPL" key, and the ICAO identifier for the departure airport will be
displayed as the first wa oint.
11. Press the ''MENU'' mode key while !FPL! page 1 is displayed to access de artures.
12. A .§tandard Instrument Qeparture (SID) is loaded via FPL MENU page 1.
13. DEPARTURE 1 page should be displayed which is where you 'd select the runway.
14. The number of the assigned SID should then be entered using line select key.
15. Press the line select key next to "IFPL+I" to return to the FPL page.
16. Once the SID is loaded, or if no SID is required, enroute waypoints are then
entered by typing in the letters of the identifier of any VORs, NDBs, intersections
and destination airport defining the route OR by selecting the waypoints using
the ''ILIS 1I" mode key.
17. After typing in each identifier, press the ''IENTERI" key. A page confirming the
waypoint information will then be displayed.
18. !! the waypoint information is correct, press the ''IENTERI" key or the line select key
to add the fix to the flight plan.
19. To load routing that consists of Victor and/or Jet airways or T-routes, place the
cursor below the last waypoint assigned prior to the airway route and press
the ''ILISTJ'' key.
20. From the LIST 1/1 page, press the line select key next to ''IAIR+WAV$1." A listing
of the airways from the last fix will be dis la ed. In some cases, more than one
AIRWAYS page may appear. Press the ''NEX "key to see any additional a es.
21. Type in the number that corresponds to the airway assigned. Press the ''ENTER''
key to add the airway. Then select the wa oint where the airwa will be exited.
22. To insert a waypoint in a flight plan, press the ''FPL'' key. Use the "PRE "or ''NEX ''
as needed to reach the page where the new waypoint is to be added.
23. Press the line select key next to the waypoint that will FOLLOW the new waypoint.
24. Type in the identifier of the new waypoint and press the "ENTER'' key. Verify that the
information for the new waypoint is correct and press the "ENTER" key again.
25. To delete a waypoint in a flight plan, press the ''IFPLI" key. Use the "IPREVI'' or "INEXlj''
control keys as needed to reach the page where the waypoint is to be deleted.
26. Press the line select ke next to the wa oint that will be deleted to place the
cursor on the waypoint. Press "DEL+" twice to delete waypoint. ~
27. Prior to loading an Arrival Procedure (STAR) in a flight plan or ,,,.,......~
route, the four letter ICAO identifier of the destination airport
must be entered as the last waypoint.
28. Press the ''MENU" key and then line select key next to
''!ARRIVE-+'' to display the Arrival page 1.
29. Continue the logic above to enter arrival and approach .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Now do you see how incredibly simple the FMS is?!;o)
·##4w....W.iil!lllNWllll~""""~....,,,,,,,.,.,#lrtl~,,.,,,,#1#4~N#""'4~lll#oll

ILS PRM (f!recision Approach Monitor) Approach

1--------------------------li:j --------- ------------
I ,lio Iransgression ~one (NTZ) (2,000 feet wide) I
I
1--------------------------1~ --- ---------
:
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
A nonrotating electronic antenna
.--·········································
: *SPECIAL PILOT TRAINING REQUIRED
~
Current PRM locations: : provides a one second radar update : before accepting a clearance for an ILS/PRM
•
ATL, CLE, DTW, MSP, : speed on two high definition displays. : approach. Pilots shall notify ATC no less than
: The displays also show a 10 second •: 100 NM from the destination if they cannot
PHL, SFO, and STL.
L : prediction of the aircraft's position if : meet equipment or training requirements.
~ its current course is continued. •
.. . "' _.... " ... . ':" , . . ·. ~. •. . "'- ~ ~" ~
•• (see * below)
I LS PRM Approach New Name for ...

SIMULTANEOUS ''CLOSE PARALLEL'' APPROACH: (AIM 5-4-13 thru 5-4-16, Ac 90-98, 8083-16)
1. ''Close parallel'' refers to approaches to runways with less than 4300 feet between runway
centerlines. (FAA-H-8083-16)
2. ''ILS PRM Approach'' is derived from the frecision B.unway ,Monitor System that is required for
simultaneous close parallel approaches. The use of this shorter name makes it easier for controllers
and pilots to refer to the approach. For example, it takes less time for the controller to clear pilots for
an ''ILS PRM approach'' than for a ''simultaneous close parallel ILS approach."
3. For pilots, an ILS PRM approach is like any other simultaneous parallel ILS approach with one
exception aircraft are flying alongside one another less than 4300 feet apart.
4. If an aircraft leaves the localizer and heads toward the adjacent parallel approach course, the controller
has less time to recognize the problem and keep two airplanes from colliding.
5. You must fly accurately down the localizer centerline.
6. The controller will direct you to return to the localizer should you begin to stray off course.
7. When an aircraft penetrates the ''NO TRANSGRESSION ZONE'' (NTZ), a 2000-foot wide rectangular
't . • -----· ............................... ~
area cent ere d b e tween approach courses, 1 1s : ''TRAFFIC ALERT_ USAir 343
mandatory for the controller to breakout endangered : TURN LEFT IMMEDIATELY HEADING 330
aircraft on the adjacent approach course. Breakout : CLIMB AND MAINTAIN FOUR THOUSAND''
phraseology will begin with TRAFFIC ALERT:
8. Communications problems such as stuck microphones and two transmissions at the same time must
be avoided. Some airports will use TWO FREQUENCIES assigned to each runway to overcome
these problems. If this method is used, your cue will be a note on the approach chart stating that dual
communications are required and the identity of the second frequency. In this case your aircraft must
have the capability to allow you to listen to two separate freguencies at the same time. The
controllers will transmit on both freguencies while the pilots will transmit only on the primary
frequency. In other words, when the controllers key their mies, they will automatically be
transmitting on two freguencies at the same time. Pilots must maintain strict radio discipline by
eliminating lengthy, unnecessary radio transmissions.
9. Iraffic .Qollision Avoidance .§.ystems (TCAS) provides an additional element of safety. Should a TCAS
RA be received, the pilot should follow the RA, even if it conflicts with instructions. If following an RA
requires deviating from an ATC clearance, the pilot must advise ATC as soon as practical (Duh!).
10. The ''BREAKOUT MANEUVER'' ALL BREAKOUT MANEUVERS ARE TO BE HAND
FLOWN. Although you are encouraged to use the autopilot during an ILS PRM approach, you must
disconnect the autopilot and hand-fly the breakout procedure. Simulation studies have shown that
the hand-flown breakout is performed consistently faster than the breakout maneuver performed using
the autopilot. The maneuver can include a descent if the controller feels that a descending turn is the
only way to keep you away from the blundering aircraft.
11. *NOTE SPECIAL PILOT TRAINING REQUIRED. All pilots must complete ILS/PRM Approach
Training before accepting a clearance for a simultaneous close parallel ILS/PRM approach. For
operations under Part 121, 129, and 135 pilots must comply with FAA approved company training.
For operations under Part 91, pilots must be familiar and comply with the information as provided in
the AIM or as provided at http://www.faa.gov/training testing/training/prm/.
SIMULTANEOUS ''CONVERGING'' INSTRUMENT APPROACHES:
(AIM 5-4-17, FAA-H-8083-16)
1. ATC may conduct instrument approaches simultaneously to converging runways; i.e., runways having
an included angle from 15 to 100 degrees, at airports where a program has been specifically approved
to do so [example: PHILADELPHIA INTERNATIONAL (PHL) ''ILS V RWY 9R (CONVERGING)'' and
''ILS V RWY 17 (CONVERGING)'']. Identified by the letter ''Y.." in the title.
2. The basic concept requires that dedicated, separate standard instrument approach procedures be
developed for each converging runway included. Missed Approach Points must be at least 3 miles
apart and Missed Approach Procedures ensure that missed approach protected airspace does not
overlap.
3. Other REQUIREMENTS are: radar availability, nonintersecting final approach courses, precision
(ILS/MLS) approach systems on each runway and, if runways intersect, controllers must be able to
apply visual separation as well as intersecting runway separation criteria. Intersecting runways also
reguire minimums of at least 700 foot ceilings and 2 miles visibility. Straight in approaches and
landings must be made.
4. Whenever simultaneous converging approaches are in progress, aircraft will be informed by the
controller as soon as feasible after initial contact or via ATIS. Additionally, the radar controller will have
direct communications capability with the tower controller where separation responsibility has not been
delegated to the tower.
5. NOTE: The ''CONVERGING ILS'' approach procedure for a particular runway will typically have a
higher Decision Height, higher visibility minimums, and very often a completely different missed
approach procedure than the ''NORMAL ILS'' procedure assigned to the same runway.
····································~~
••
: ''CONVERGING ILS'' Approach Procedures ••
:
•
Example: Runway 9R and Runway 17@ Philadelphia (PHL)
=> Missed Approach Points at least 3 miles apart.
••
•• => Missed Approach Procedures ensure that missed ·~
• approach protected airspace does not overlap .
•• => Radar available. ~\
•• => Nonintersecting fi·n al approach courses .
• => ILS approaches for both runways .
•• => HIGHER MINIMUMS and different Missed Approach
•• Procedures for the "CONVERGING ILS" as opposed to
the "NORMAL ILS" procedure assigned to each runway
(see approach plate for the details).
Identified by
the letter ''V"
17 (CONVERGING)
PHllADELPHIA INTL (PHL)
SIDE·STEP MANEUVER: (AIM 5-4-19)

1. ATC may authorize a nonprecision approach procedure which serves either one of parallel runways
that are separated by 1,200 feet or less followed by a straight-in landing on the adjacent runway.
2. Aircraft that will execute a side-step maneuver will be cleared for a specified nonprecision approach
and landing on the adjacent parallel runway. Example, ''cleared ILS runway 7 left approach, side-
step to runway 7 right." Pilots are expected to commence the side-step maneuver as soon as
possible after the runway or runway environment is in sight.
3. Landing minimums to the adjacent runway will be based on nonprecision criteria and therefore
higher than the precision minimums to the primary runway, but will normally be lower than the
published circling minimums.

CANCELING IFR FLIGHT PLAN:
[91 .123(a), 91 .155, 91.157, 91.169(d), 121 .649, 135.205, AIM 5-1-15, 5-4-23, FAA-H-8083-16, OpSpec C077]
1. You may cancel with ATC at any time in VFR conditions below 18,000 feet.
2. You may cancel with ATC or FSS upon completing flight (on the ground).
3. Do NOT cancel in the air while on approach to a surface-based Class E airport unless
the reported weather meets the basic VFR weather requirements of 91.155: Visibility 3 sm; Cloud
clearance - 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontally. No person may operate an aircraft beneath
the ceiling under VFR within the limits of controlled airspace designated to the surface for an airport
when the ceiling is less than 1,000 feet (except "Special VFR" - 91 .157).
4. Do NOT cancel in the air while on approach to an airport in Class B, C, D, or E airspace if that airport
does not meet the basic VFR weather minimums and cloud separation requirements of 91.155 (unless
you receive a "Special VFR" clearance). Of course, canceling on approach to an airport with an operating
control tower is quite simply a stupid waste of time.
5. NOTE: A ''Special VFR'' clearance is treated almost the same as an IFR clearance as far as
separation is concerned. It is not likely to save you or the guy behind you any time. If the weather
is below 1000' & 3 miles, just wait till you're on the ground to cancel. You never know who might be
lurking in the weeds just waiting for a chance to make your life miserable.
6. If arriving at an airport with an operating control tower, the flight plan is automatically closed upon
landing.
7. If you fail to cancel your IFR (or VFR) flight plan within 30 minutes of your ETA, search and rescue
procedures will be initiated. The Sheriff WILL come looking for you!
8. Additional requirements of OpSpec C077 for Part 135 turbojets and Part 121 aircraft include:
a. The flightcrew must maintain 91.155 VFR cloud clearance applicable to the airspace involved.
That means ... Class B clear of clouds. Class C, D & E 500' below, 1000' above, 2000'
horizontally (when below 10,000 feet MSL)(higher cloud clearance and visibility is required
when at and above 10,000 feet MSL).
b. Ceiling and cloud clearance must be as such to allow the flightcrew to maintain the minimum
altitudes prescribed in 91.129, 91.130, or 91.131, as applicable for the Airspace Class in which
the flight is operated. Generally for large or turbine powered aircraft this means -
[91.129( e )( 1 )] '' ... unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from cloud criteria,
enter the traffic pattern at an altitude of at least 1,500 AGL and maintain at least 1,500 AGL
until further descent is require for a safe landing."
c. For CONTROLLED airports The flight must be operated within Class B. C. or D
airspace, or within 10 miles of the destination airport in Class E airspace; and remains
within controlled airspace and in direct communications with ATC.
d. For UNCONTROLLED airports The flightcrew must be in direct communications with an
air/ground communication facility or agent of the certificate holder that provides airport
traffic advisories and information that is pertinent to conditions on and around the landing
surface during the terminal phase of flight; and the flight is operated within 10 NM of the
destination airport, OR visual reference with the landing surface is established and can be
maintained throughout the approach and landing.
•·····~ ···················································· ·
t At a Surface-Based Class E Airport
: Be Courteous-But Legal
• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• : 1. The aircraft behind you cannot be cleared for an
•
:·EXITING the RUNWAY after LANDING: : approach until you cancel IFR.
: (AIM 4-3-20) : 2. In order to cancel in the air-you must have at least a
: 1. Pilots are expected to exit the runway without delay at : 1000' ceiling , 3 miles visibility, and cloud clearance
• the first available taxiway or taxiway as instructed by : - 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontally.
•• ATC. : 3. Cancel as soon as possible-but no sooner.
•• 2. Do NOT exit onto another runway unless authorized . •"'lldll"""11fjft/l#rfl#t""""''1Jllt#rfl#t"""11fjfr##rfl#t"""11fjft/l#rfl#t""""'f#IJr/l#t#lt/ft#t
: 3. You are not technically "CLEAR OF THE RUNWAY"
•• until ALL PARTS of the airc.r aft are on the OTHER
• SIDE of the HOLD-SHORT LINE .
•• 4. After clearing the runway, come to a complete stop on
•• the other side of the hold-short line. Do NOT
•• continue taxiing unless taxi clearance has been
•• issued by ATC .
: 5. Do NOT change to ground frequency until you are
• instructed to do so by the tower .
•• 6 . Immediately change to ground control frequency
•• when advised by the tower and obtain taxi clearance .

IFR:
(91.185, 91 .125, 91 .126, 91 .127, 91 .129e, 91 .177, 7110.65, AIM 4-2-13, 4-3-13, 6-1-1 , 6-4-1thru6-4-3, 8083-16)
VFR Conditions:
1. SQUAWK 7600
2. Continue flight under VFR at a VFR altitude (even in Class A airspace) and
LAND As Soon As Practicable at the nearest airport ''suitable'' for your aircraft.
3. Do NOT continue on to your destination if there is a ''suitable'' airport for you to
land at, UNLESS you're just ''minutes'' from your original destination. Flying another 30 minutes after
losing the radios, passing several "suitable" airports in VFR conditions along the way, would probably
not be considered "just minutes from your original destination." Use "good judgment."
---------------mt.
INSTRUMENT Conditions:
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
A portable GPS with spare batteries,
: preferably one with a fu ll database, is the ··············~ ······························
: • Controllers can transmit on some
: cheapest life insurance you can buy. Of course •
• : VOR, NOB, and Localizer frequencies
1. SQUAWK 7600 : a portable transceiver is also a nice touch. : • Try broadcasting in the blind on 121.5
•....,....##ll#lll##;#;l#id¥r#l#dll##it##Wlll#"4!dl#llM~~
2. ROUTE:
• Last assigned; or
• If being radar vectored direct to the fix, route, or airway specified in the vector clearance;
• In the absence of an assigned route route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance; or
• In the absence of an assigned route or a route that ATC has advised may be expected in a
further clearance by the route filed in the flight plan. ........ ............... ............
3. ALTITUDE - HIGHEST OF: •·········· --········· --······ --················· • :• Another Brilliant Idea
.. Last assigned; or : 91 .185(c) supersedes any crossing : Whip out your smartphone
. ·
.. M 1n1mum En route Al t1tu
· d e; or •. restrictions. Which means ... Do not •• and give 'em a call. At lower
- - - : descend via a STAR unless you've actually altitudes this might actually
.. The altitude told to expect. ~ been cleared to descend via that STAR. work. If you don't have the
number just ask Siri;o)
WHEN Can You DESCEND for APPROACH? (91 .185, AIM 6-4-1thru6-4-3)
1. !! you've been cleared to your destination (i.e., your destination is your clearance limit). Upon arrival at your
destination, proceed to an IAF of your choice. You may begin descent upon reaching the IAF but NOT before
you are ''as close as possible" to the ETA you filed or as amended with ATC Estimated Time Enroute (ETE).
2. IF EARLY - Enter the DEPICTED HOLDING PATTERN at an IAF. If NONE is DEPICTED, holding shall be in a
holding pattern on the PROCEDURE TURN SIDE of the FINAL APPROACH COURSE. You may then begin your
descent and approach ''as close as possible'' to your ETA.
3. OR ... As long as you're in a RADAR environment, no one's gonna be looking at a stopwatch to see if you dare to
start down 10 minutes early. ATC won't have a clue what that time is anyway (and you probably won't either).
So ... When you reach an IAF at your destination ... Just go ahead and start your descent, shoot the approach,
and land. That's what they're expecting you to do anyway. You've got more than enough to worry about already.
Losing communications in hard IFR can most definitely be considered an emergency situation. Use "good
judgment" as encouraged in AIM 6-4-1. The nav radios could go next! WTF ya gonna do then?! (see 91.3)
The controllers are clearing all traffic away from you anyway. Just get the damn thing on the ground as soon as
possible so everyone else can get back to work (and vou can get some hard earned lunch!). Ask most any
controller and that's exactly what they'll tell you. They want the chaos to end ASAP.
4. IMPORTANT NOTE (aka dirty little secret): When filing your flight plan, it's ALWAYS good practice to
UNDER-estimate your time enroute somewhat Uust be pleasantly optimistic!;o) in order to eliminate any thoughts
of this ridiculous detail. You'll have far more important things to worry about if you lose communications IMHO.
If Communication Lost in HOLDING PATTERN:

1. Commence descent and approach at EFC time.
2. If no EFC time given commence descent at ETA or as amended with ATC ETE.
3. If holding at a fix that is not an IAF Leave holding at EFC time or if none has been received -
upon arrival over the fix.
4. Then proceed to an IAF and commence descent and approach as close as possible to the ETA
filed or as amended with ATC Estimated Time En route (ETE).
TOTAL ELECTRICAL FAILURE in IMC Conditions:

1. Climb or descend to a VFR ALTITUDE and proceed to the NEAREST VFR CONDITIONS.
2. You do know WHERE the nearest VFR is, don't you? You do have ENOUGH GAS to get there,
don't you?
3. GOOD LUCK!

COMMUNICATIONS with TOWER when RADIO INOP:
(91 .125, 91.126, 91 .127, 91.129d, 91.185, AIM 4-2-1 3, 4-3-1 3, 6-4-1thru6-4-3)
1. Class B or C airspace When in VFR conditions, STAY OUT of Class B or C airspace unless you
have a bona fide EMERGENCY (such as low fuel) that cannot be resolved except by entering that
airspace. If you're already inside Class B or C unless you're pretty much on final approach -
squawk 7600; leave the airspace at a VFR altitude and land at an uncontrolled (or Class D) airport.
Then call ATC and/or the tower to let them know you're OK. If you're already in the ''pattern'' at a
Class B or C airport when you lose communications you could elect to continue and hope that
you get a green light at the appropriate time from an on-the-ball controller (squawk 7600 of course).
2. Class D airspace Remain outside or above the airport traffic area until direction and flow of
traffic has been determined, then join the traffic pattern and maintain visual contact with the tower
to receive light gun signals.
3. Rock the wings in the daytime or flash landing or navigation lights at night to acknowledge.
ATC Light Signals (AIM 4-3-13)
Color & type Meaning on SURFACE Meaning in FLIGHT

Steady GREEN Cleared for takeoff Cleared to land.
Return for landing (to be
Flashing GREEN Cleared to taxi followed by steady green
e at ro er time .
Give way to other aircraft
Steady RED STOP
and continue circlin .
Taxi clear of runway in use Airport unsafe do NOT
Flashing RED
land
Return to starting point on
Flashing WHITEQQQ Not applicable.
air ort
Alternating 9
Exerci e extreme caution Exercise extreme caution.
RED & GREEN
Hey Vinnie,
ya reckon we otta
give him a GREEN
LIGHT this time?
Naw, I'm still busy on the 'land line.'
Give him another red light.
Temporary Control Towers Class G Airspace: [91 .126(d)l

1. ''Temporary'' control towers (per NOTAM) are sometimes established at Class G airports to handle
increased traffic due to a major public event. The tower would ''control'' the flow of traffic but the
weather requirements of Class G "control" the airports use by VFR traffic. Meaning during the
daytime, you only need ''1 mile & clear of clouds'' in order to operate in the "tower-controlled" Class G
airspace as long as you stay within ''uncontrolled'' airspace (normally below 700' or 1200' AGL).
2. 91.126(d) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person may operate an aircraft to, from, through,
or on an airport having an operational control tower unless two-way radio communications are
maintained between that aircraft and the control tower. Communications must be established prior to
4 NM from the airport, up to and including 2,500 feet AGL. However, if the aircraft radio fails in flight,
the Pilot In Command may operate that aircraft and land if weather conditions are at or above basic
VFR minimums, visual contact with the tower is maintained, and a clearance to land is received. If the
aircraft radio fails while in flight under IFR, the pilot must comply with 91 .185.
INSTRUMENTS & EQUIPMENT REQUIREMENTS:
(91 .205, 91 .507, 91.1045, 121 .157, 121 Subpart K , 135.149, 135.157, 135.159, 135.163, 135.173, 135.175, 135.177, AIM 3-2-2 thru 3-2-6)
1. VFR DAY:
a. Airspeed indicator.
b. Altimeter.
c. Compass.
d. Engine gauges Tachometer, oil pressure gauge, oil temperature gauge, temperature gauge
and manifold pressure gauge (for altitude engine) for each engine.
(for liquid cooled engine),
e. Fuel gauge indicating quantity in each tank.
f. Landing gear position indicator (if retractable landing gear).
g. Anticollision light system for small civil airplanes certificated after March 11, 1996 under Part 23.
h. If for hire over water & beyond power-off gliding distance from shore approved flotation
gear readily available for each occupant and at least one pyrotechnic signaling device.
•
I. Safety belt for each occupant 2 years of age or older.
•
J. Shoulder harness for each front seat for small airplanes manufactured after July 18, 1978
and all normal, utility, and acrobatic airplanes seating 9 passengers or les actured after
December 12, 1986.
k. ,5mergency ,bocator Iransmitter, if required by 91.207.
It sure is great to be
••
... ...
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• - . ~
two years old.
Finally I get my own
:: SAFETY BEL TS: (91.107, 121 .311 , 135.128)
seat.
~ Each person (2 years of age or older) must occupy an approved My mama sure was a
~ seat or berth with a safety belt properly secured about him or her cheap bastard when I
~ during movement on the surface, takeoff, and landing (unless it is a
was younger.
:• person pushing off a seaplane or float equipped rotorcraft from a
: dock). See 91.107 for the specifics of child restraint systems .
•
:• FOR PART 91 OPERATIONS ONLY:
••
•• A person may use the FLOOR of the aircraft as a seat, provided
••
••
•
the person is on board for the purpose of engaging in
••
•• SPORT PARACHUTING .
• ~
2. VFR NIGHT ALL OF THE ABOVE, PLUS:

a. Position lights.
b. If for hire, one electric landing light.
c. Adequate source of electrical energy for all installed equipment.
d. One spare set of fuses, or three spare fuses of each kind required.
,
3. IFR:
a. All instruments and equipment required for VFR day -
and for night flight, all equipment required for VFR night.
b. Communications radio and navigation eguipment appropriate for the ground facilities to
be used.
c. Gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator (not needed if there is a third attitude indicator installed).
d. Slip-skid indicator. .• • •• • • • • • • • • • • --· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •.
Sensitive altimeter adJ'ustable for barometric pressure. • Instrument Training (8900 -1 Para 5-439)
e. : !! the aircraft is not approved for IFR
f. Clock with sweep-second pointer or digital : operations under its type certificate, Qr if the
representation. : appropriate instruments and equipment are
g. Generator or alternator with adequate capacity. : not installed or are not operative,
h Attitude Indicator (artificial horizon). : operations in !nstrument ,Meteorological
· • ~onditions(IMC) are prohibited.
i. Directional Gyro or equivalent. : However, provided the PIC is properly
4. At and above 24,000 feet MSL (FL 240): z certificated to operate under IFR, the
DME · · d 'f VOR b d • aircraft may nevertheless operate on an
a. IS require I s are to e use · • IFR flight plan (in VMC), but must cancel
b. An I FR certified GPS (with a current database) can : the IFR flight plan and remain VFR !! flight
substitute for DME. (AIM 1-1-18, TBL 1-1-6) ;. into IMC becomes probable.
5. NOTE: Pilots must REPORT any loss of VOR, ADF, ILS, etc.,
capability or impairment of air/ground communications and any other information relating to the
safety of flight (AIM 5-3-3).

CLOCK: (91.205, 91 .21 3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, FAA Legal Interpretation dated April 23, 1981)
1. A clock displaying hours, minutes, and seconds with a sweep-second pointer or digital representation is
required for instrument flight rules flight.
2. The specified clock must be installed either under the aircraft STOP
type certificate, or an STC, or via a field approval.
3. !f the installed clock [the one listed on the equipment list] breaks
or is removed, just Velcroing a different clock to the instrument
panel or using your wristwatch does not meet the
requirements of 91.205. Only the clock listed on the equipment
list will do. Installed equipment cannot be substituted for by
portable equipment.
4. Also, to maintain the validity of the airworthiness certificate without
a change to the type certificate, if a clock is installed, it must be
operating for ALL operations unless the aircraft is operated
under a MEL and the MEL provides a way to operate with the clock
inoperative. (91 .213)
5. One more time it can't be just ANY clock it has to be the one installed under the aircraft type
certificate, an STC, or a field approval.
•
• •••••••••••••••••••••
AIRCRAFT LIGHTS: (91.209)
: POSITION LIGHTS:
No person may: : RED Left wing
(a) During the period from sunset to sunrise (or, in Alaska , during the period a : GREEN Right wing
prominent unlighted object cannot be seen from a distance of 3 SM or the ; WHITE Tail
sun is more than 6° below the horizon)- •
(1) Operate an aircraft unless it has lighted position lights;
(2) Park or move an aircraft in, or in dangerous proximity to, a night flight operations area of an
airport unless the aircraft-
(i) Is clearly illuminated:
(ii) Has lighted position lights; or RED GREEN
(iii) Is in an area that is marked by obstruction lights;
(3) Anchor an aircraft unless the aircraft-
(i) Has lighted anchor lights; or WHITE
(ii) Is in an area where anchor lights are not required on vessels; or
(b) Operate an aircraft that is equipped with an anticollision light system, unless it has lighted anticollision
lights. However, the anticollision lights need not be lighted when the Pilot-In-Command determines
that, because of operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to turn the lights off.
- _,__.--. ~--
--
~
. ~-
~- -- _...,.,,~...._
' ..... -
..........·--'''-· ., ----
) _...
•
''Always trust your instruments Sonny ...

. . . ya see how this baby's climbin' like a rocket right now?''

Interference With Crewmembers: (91 .11 , 121 .580, 125.328, 135.120)

This regulation prohibits any person from "assaulting," "threatening," "intimidating," or "interfering" with a
pilot in the performance of his or her piloting duties aboard an aircraft.
Dropping Objects: (91 .15)

A pilot may drop things from the aircraft as long as it does not create a
hazard to persons or property. This section does not prohibit the dropping of
an object as long as reasonable precautions are taken to avoid injury or
damage to persons or property.
Right-Of-Way Rules Except water operations: (91 .113)

1. IN DISTRESS An aircraft in distress has the right-of-way over all other air traffic.
2. CONVERGING When aircraft of the same category are converging at approximately the same
altitude (except head-on or nearly so), the aircraft to the other's right has the right-of-way. If the
aircraft are of different categories-
a. A BALLOON has the right-of-way over any other category of
aircraft; Yield
b. A GLIDER has the right-of-way over an airship, airplane, or Student Pilot
rotorcraft; and On board
c. An AIRSHIP has the right-of-way over an airplane or rotorcraft.
d. However, an AIRCRAFT TOWING or REFUELING other aircraft has the
right-of-way over all other engine-driven aircraft.
3. APPROACHING HEAD·ON When aircraft are approaching each other head-on,
or nearly so, each pilot of each aircraft shall alter course to the right.
4. OVERT AKI NG Each aircraft that is being overtaken has the right-of-way and each pilot of an
overtaking aircraft shall alter course to the right to pass well clear.
5. LANDING Aircraft, while on final approach to land or while landing, have the right-of-way over
aircraft in flight or operating on the surface, except that they shall not take advantage of this rule to
force an aircraft off the runway surface which has already landed and is attempting to make way for an
aircraft on final approach. When two or more aircraft are approaching an airport for the purpose of
landing, the aircraft at the lower altitude has the right-of-way, but it shall not take advantage of this
rule to cut in front of another which is on final approach to land or to overtake that aircraft.
Right-of-way over
Right-of-way over an
all other air traffic Right-of-way over any airship, airplane, or rotorcraft
other category of aircraft
Right-of-way over all other

engine-driven aircraft
Right-of-way over an
airplane or rotorcraft
Let me see now ...

If you push the wheel forward, the houses get
bigger.
If you pull the wheel back, they get smaller.
That is, unless you pull the wheel too far back,
then they get bigger again.
It sure is complicated learning how to be a pilot.
One Last Exciting Approach You Should Try Sometime -

The OVERHEAD APPROACH MANEUVER: (AIMS-4-27)
1. Pilots operating in accordance with an IFR flight plan in visual meteorological conditions (VMC)
may reguest A TC authorization for an overhead maneuver.
2. An overhead maneuver is not an instrument approach procedure.
3. Overhead maneuver patterns are developed at airports where aircraft have an operational need to
conduct the maneuver.
4. An aircraft conducting an overhead maneuver is considered to be VFR. The IFR flight plan is
cancelled when the aircraft reaches the initial point on the initial approach portion of the
maneuver.
5. The existence of a standard overhead maneuver pattern does not eliminate the possible requirement for
an aircraft to conform to conventional rectangular patterns if an overhead maneuver cannot be
approved.
6. Aircraft operating to an airport WITHOUT a functioning control tower must initiate CANCELLATION
of an IFR flight plan prior to executing the overhead maneuver.
7. Cancellation of the I FR flight plan must be accomplished after crossing the landing threshold on the
initial portion of the maneuver or after landing.
8. Controllers may authorize an overhead maneuver and issue the following to arriving aircraft:
a. Pattern altitude and direction of traffic. This information may be omitted if either is standard.
PHRASEOLOGY PATTERN ALTITUDE (altitude). RIGHT TURNS.
b. Request for a report on initial approach. PHRASEOLOGY REPORT INITIAL.
c. "Break" information and a request for the pilot to report. The "Break Point" will be specified if
nonstandard. Pilots may be requested to report "break" if required for traffic or other reasons.
PHRASEOLOGY BREAK AT (specified point). REPORT BREAK.
Overhead Maneuver
INITIAL APPROACH
180° TURN ·~--- 3-5 NM
BREAK POINT
ROLL OUT INITIAL POINT
180° TURN

SAME RUNWAY SEPARATION DEPARTING: (FAA0rder7110.65, Chapter3)
The controller must separate a departing aircraft from a preceding departing or arriving aircraft using the same
runway by ensuring that it does not begin takeoff roll until:
1. The other aircraft has departed and crossed the runway end or turned to avert any conflict. If the
controller can determine distances by reference to suitable landmarks, the other aircraft needs only be
airborne if the following minimum distance exists between aircraft:
a. When only Category I aircraft are involved 3,000 feet.
b. When a Category I aircraft is preceded by a Category II aircraft 3,000 feet.
c. When either the succeeding or both are Category II aircraft 4,500 feet.
d. When either is a Category Ill aircraft 6,000 feet.
e. When the succeeding aircraft is a helicopter, visual separation may be applied in lieu of using
distance minima.
Same Runway Separation [View 1] Same Runway Separation [View 2]
_ .......- ___
-~-....... ... · _,_, ____ _ __ .
_..... _ .,.. ... --- -
-___ , ------~--
+- -- --- ----- --
...
-~---- - - - - - -M · - - - - - - - - -
-+ 14 3,000 feet
feet - - - . .
M,.__~--· 4,500 ..
M
M - - - - - -- - - 6,000 feet ~I
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: ~ame .Runway ~eparation (SRS) Categories are based upon the following definitions:
: => Category I - small aircraft weighing 12,500 lbs. or less, with a single propeller driven engine, and all helicopters.
: => Category II - small aircraft weighing 12,500 lbs. or less, with propeller driven twin-engines .
•
: => Category Ill - all other aircraft including high performance singles, large multi-engine aircraft and all turbine powered aircraft .
• , • '· •· - ·- -·• - • r. "!" - •·., - -· - • -•, - ~ '- ..... -~-- --~ - 'r. .... ···- ·-·- -.-
2. A preceding landing aircraft is clear of the runway.
SAME RUNWAY SEPARATION ARRIVING: (FAA0rder7110.65, Chapter3)

1. Arriving aircraft must be separated from another aircraft using the same runway by ensuring that the
arriving aircraft does not cross the landing threshold until one of the following conditions exists:
a. The other aircraft has landed and is clear of the runway; or
b. Between sunrise and sunset, if the controller can determine distances by reference to suitable
landmarks and the other aircraft has landed, it need not be clear of the runway if the following
minimum distance from the landing threshold exists:
Category I aircraft landing behind a Category I or II 3,000 feet.

',,~
,,
' ----------
1-. 3,000 feet •J

Category II aircraft is landing behind a Category I or II 4,500 feet.
---~
-~
---- --
............
4,500 feet ~1
When either is a category Ill aircraft - 6,000 feet .
..
..
···.::·~·-··········--~--
.... ....
....
-··. .......--·....,.....
.. .,,,J.::::::::::::::_.~- ...... ........ . ...... ·-
,.
·-···· ········
~ · 3,000 feet----.j
1'4 4,500 feet .i
i-. 6,000 feet ~1

Chapter 3
Navigation Radios
''Options 491 ... WHERE YA GOIN'?''
Compass Stuff ......................•....•.•..•.•..•....•....•.....................•....•....•.•..•. 90
V OR ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 91
VOR Check .................................................................................................................... 91
VOT ................................................................................................................................ 91
Class I & Class II Navigation ••...••....•....•..•.•..•.•..•.••.•.••.••.•.•..•.•..••....•.... 92
DME ............................................................................................................................... 93
Portable Electronic Devices ........................................................................................... 93
GPS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 94, 95
Wide 8,rea 8,ugmentation .§.ystem (WAAS) ................................................................... 96
,bocal 8,rea 8,u gme ntatio n .§.ystem (LAAS) .................................................................... 96
Qro un d §.ased 8,u gme ntation .§.ystem (GBAS) ............................................................. 96
ANTENNAS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 97-99
Transponder Codes ..................................................................................................... 100
Frequencies ................................................................................................................. 100
NOB ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 101
UNICOM ....................................................................................................................... 102
EFAS I Flight Watch I FSS Frequencies ................................................................. 102
ADS-B Automated Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast .......................................... 103
High Frequency (HF) Radio ...•..........................•....•....•....•....•............. 104
Telecommunication Terms Datalinks ...................................................................... 105
COH
136.973
YLOC
117.95
108.oe
Founders of Garmin:
Gary Burrell and Min Kao

Chap 3 - Navigation & Radios
••••••••••• •
: Rollout :
COMPASS STUFF: (91.205, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-25) - - - - ---.:.
: Early :
·- - - - - -
The magical navigational device.
• ••••••••••••••••••••••
NO BATTERIES NECESSARY! ••
•• UNOS
•
: -Undershoot -North
•·-···············································• •
: On an East or West heading : .Qvershoot §.outh
•
:• ANDS
•
•• •••••••••••••••••••••
:• Accelerate (compass shows a turn to the) .North
• : ANDS
: ]lecelerate (compass shows a turn to the) §.outh •
• : Anticipate .North
•
• ]lelay .§.outh
COMPASS DIP ERRORS: (FAA-H-8083-15)

1. Acceleration error: On east or west headings, while accelerating,
•
compass shows a turn to the north and when decelerating it smows
a turn to the south.
-------.
: Rollout :
: Late :
.,~~~~--
2. Northerly turning error: LAG North .............. LEAD South ......................~~.'!.'!.'!.'!.'!.'!.'!.'!.'!.~:............................. ..

3 ROLL OUT f t l Early compasses were filled with alcohol
. rom a compass urn: ~ (i.e., " whiskey" compass); today's compasses
a. 30° BEFORE the compass gets to North (lag) : are tilled with white kerosene or silicone.
··-~~~~~~~~~~~ . ... . . . . . . . 11&&.a.&&• I ' II &I W • .a.&• & ........................... • 4 • ll & • • a . . .a • • ·
b. 30° AFTER the compass gets to South (lead) _24 -20 -15 -10 -5 0+5+10+15+20+24
c. ON the heading for East or West (relatively accurate) ·::-~---<.':....·...._;[:r--i'~:--.;:Li-~! ~
- #I
°'· ·,, -.. I
4
,
·\ , t \
'+24W
-24E.... ,,
.: .. ' I '. ', '
, I
tI •I '
OTHER COMPASS ERRORS: ,' -

• ., # ..
+20W
~' I
I
••
1. Oscillation error Erratic movement caused by .............. ,'' ; I
•
•
turbulence or rough control technique. -2oe·.. .'' : ~
•
, I
'\
2. Deviation error Electrical and magnetic disturbances ,, .. "
#
:
I
•
•
in the aircraft. ,. .. '.. .·
• J
3. Variation error Angular difference between true and _ E .. :'
15
••.......•••••.............•..•...•.•...............• ...••
magnetic north, reference isogonic lines of variation.
~~' :
:
: To convert from TRUE to MAGNETIC north, note the variation shown by the •
•
I
10E -SE
: nearest isogonic line. If the variation is west, add; if east, subtract.
: East is Least (subtract)
•• West is Best (add)
• 91.205 requires a "magnetic
direction indicator" (i.e., wet
compass) installed and
operational in EVERY aircraft.
Use of COMPASS during GYRO FAILURE:
When on a heading of SOUTH as the airplane starts to bank, the compass moves in the proper
direction IMMEDIATELY. This makes SOUTH the most suitable heading for maintaining a
wings-level attitude when descending through a layer of clouds
during a failure of all gyroscopic instruments (DG & 8,ttitude Indicator). 0
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• ••
•• COMPASS CARD
: PARTS 23.1547, 25.1547, 27.1547 & 29.1547 & AC 43.13-1 B -
: AIRWORTHINESS STANDARDS Require that a PLACARD
: ("compass card") must be installed on or near the compass showing
: its CALIBRATION in level flight with the engines operating for
: virtually ANY aircraft (normal , utility, acrobatic, commuter & transport
: category airplanes and rotorcraft} to be airworthy regardless of the
: type of operation (VFR or IFR). The placard must state whether the For N 30 60 E 120 150
• calibration was made with the radio receivers on or off. If the
•• compass has a deviation of more than 10° caused by the operation of Steer 358 029 060 090 120 149
•• electrical equipment, the placard must state which electrical loads For S 21 O 240 W 300 330
•• would cause that deviation of more than 10° when turned on .
• Steer 180 208 238 267 299 326
Date - 11-14-20XX (Radios ON)

(Chap 3 Navigation & Radios)
VOR (Very high frequency Omnidirectional Range): (AIM 1-1-3 thru 1-1-9, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. VORs operate in the VHF frequency band between 108.0 and 117.95 except the odd tenths &
hundreds within the 108.10 thru 111.95 band that are reserved for ILS and localizer frequencies.
2. ILS/localizer frequencies always have an odd digit to the right of the decimal point 108.10,
108.15, 108.3, 108.35, 108.5, 108.55, 108.7, 108.75, 108.9, 108.95, 109.1, etc. (AIM table 1-1-4)
3. Most VORs will also be VORTACs which also give distance information for DMEs. O voR -----
4. Some VORs have voice weather. [ ] voR/ DME
5. OBS Qmni §.earing §.elector Bearing selected by the pilot.
6. COi .Qourse Qeviation Indicator Needle that indicates any deviation. Q VORTAC
7. VORs are identified by their Morse Code ID and/or by recorded voice ID (e.g., "Charlotte VOR"
alternating with the Morse Code ID). VO Rs without voice are indicated by the letter "W" (i.e., VORW).
8. Properly working VORs transmit their Morse Code ID every 10 sec with a 1020 Hz tone (between B & C).
Properly operating DMEs transmit that same code every 30 sec with a 1350 Hz tone (between E & F).
Durin maintenance, the facilit ma radiate a T-E-S-T code(-••••-) or the code may be removed .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
VOR/DME/TACAN Standard Service Volumes •
•ANGULAR DEVIATION: (FAA-H-8083-1 5)
•
-Terminal VOR 1,000 to 12,000 AGL 25 NM : • Full scale deflection = 10°
Low-Altitude 1,000 to 18,000 AGL 40NM :+ Half-scale deflection = 5°
- •
: DISTANCE OFF-COURSE:
1,000 to 14,500 AGL
High-Altitude
14,500 to 18,000 AGL
40NM
100 NM
=•
•
••
Off course is approximately 200 feet per
dot per mile.
:• 1 dot 30 miles out= 1 NM off course
18,000 to 45,000 AGL 130 NM :+
•
1 dot 60 miles out= 2 NM off course
45,000 to 60,000 AGL 100 NM
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••• ••
: A proposed Minimum Q perational
: ,Network (MON) of VORs will be
Standard Se.r vice Volumes are
: maintained well into the future as a
applicable only to " random " (i.e. ,
: backup for VCR-equipped aircraft in
direct) routes. They never apply
: case of a GPS outage. All VORs will
to published IFR routes.
: be retained in Alaska, the Western US
: Mountainous Area, and US islands
VORs are aligned iliib=~~ and territories. In case of an outage,
(approximately) with aircraft will be able to navigate using
Magnetic North . VORs at or above 5,000 ft AGL (or
•
: less) to an airport within 100 NM and
I • land using ILS, localizer, or VOR
:. based approaches.
VOR CHECK: (91 .171 , AIM 1-1-4, 2-3-6, FIG 2-3-20, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16) ·~NMNMNINl~Willl!IWlllllWlllllW..'1##.,,,.,
1. Required within the previous 30 days for IFR flight: •••••••••••••••••••

% The Pilot In Command is responsible
a. VOT surface (or airborne) check ±4°; or • for determining whether the aircraft is in
b. Radio repair station Max permissible variation ±4°; or an airworthy condition [91.7(b)] .
c. Surface VOR checkpoint ±4°; or
d. Airborne VOR checkpoint ±6° (if neither a. , b., or c. is available); or
e. Airborne over prominent landmark ±6° (if no check signal or point is available) over a
prominent ground point; along the centerline of an established airway; preferably more than 20
NM from the VOR; at a reasonably low altitude; or
f. Dual VOR system check 4° between each other (a person may check one system against the
other in place of all the other above checks).
2. All checks can be performed and signed off by the pilot EXCEPT a radio repair station check. A radio
repair station can use a radiated test signal , but only the technician performing the test can make an
entry in the log. Locations of airborne & surface checks can be found in the A/FD.
3. Each person making a VOR check must enter:
DEPS ~ate , ~rror, f.lace, and .~Jgnature in the aircraft log or other reliable record.
4. The COURSE SENSITIVITY can be checked by recording the number of degrees of change in the
course selected as you rotate the OBS to move the CDI from center to the last dot on either side.
This should be between 10° and 12°.
VOT CHECK: (91 .171 , AIM 1-1-4, 2-3-6, FIG 2-3-20, FAA-H-8083-15)
• VOR !est facility. Locations and frequencies of VOTs are published in the A/FD and Jeppesen airport
charts. With the COi centered , the OBS should read 180° TO & 360° FROM within ±4°. VOT checks
are permitted in flight limited to areas/altitudes authorized in the A/FD or supplement.

CLASS I NAVIGATION: (OpSpecs A002, 8032, 8034; AIM 1-1-8, AC 90-45A, AC 90-96, AC 91-70, AC 120-280)
1. Class I navigation is any en route flight operation or portion of an operation that is conducted entirely
within the designated Qperational .§.ervice Y,olumes (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway
navigation facilities (VOA, VOR/DME, NOB). Class I navigation also includes en route flight
operations over routes designated with an ''MEA GAP'' (gap in nav signal coverage). En route flight
operations conducted within these areas are defined as "Class I navigation" operations irrespective of
the navigation means used. Class I navigation includes operations within these areas using pilotage
or any other means of navigation which does not rely on the use of VOA, VOR/DME, or NOB.
2. In plain English Class I navigation must be conducted entirely within the Qperational .§.ervice Y,olume
of "standard" VOR or NOB navaids. You must be within the OSV of at least one VOA or NOB at
all times, even though you need not be using that particular navaid for navigation at that time. And you
do not need to be proceeding directly to any of these navaids.
3. Qperational .§.ervice Y,olume is that volume of airspace surrounding a NAVAID, which is available for
operational use and within which a signal of usable strength exists. Qperational .§.ervice Y,olume
includes .§.tandard .§.ervice Y,olume, E,xpanded .§.ervice Y,olume, or any published instrument flight
procedure (victor or jet airway, DP, STARS and IAPs).
4. If you're outside the Qperational .§.ervice Y,olume of a VOA or NOB, and you're off an airway, you are
conducting Class II operations, and must possess OpSpecs for Class II operations regardless of
what navigational eguipment is on board and regardless of how good a signal you happen to be
receiving from the VOR or NOB.
CLASS II NAVIGATION: (OpSpecs A002, 8032 , 8034, 8035, 8054; AC 90-45A, AC 90-96, AC 91-70, AC 120-280)
1. Class II navigation is any en route flight operation or portion of an en route operation (irrespective of
the means of navigation) which takes place outside (beyond) the designated Qperational .§.ervice
Y,olume (or ICAO equivalents) of ICAO standard airway navigation facilities (VOA, VOR/DME, NOB).
However, Class II navigation does not include en route flight operations over routes designated with an
"M EA GAP" (gap in nav signal coverage).
2. For example, an aircraft eguipped with only VOA conducts Class II navigation when the flight
operates in an area (off an airway) outside the operational service volumes of federal VORs/DMEs.
3. Class 11 navigation involves operations conducted in areas where the signals from ICAO standard
navaids have not been shown to meet signal strength, course quality, and/or frequency protection
standards. Therefore, ATC cannot predicate aircraft separation on the use of these facilities alone and
must apply larger separation criteria. When operating outside the operational service volume of ICAO
standard navaids, signals from these stations cannot be relied upon as the sole means of conducting
long-range operations to the degree of accuracy required. Therefore, when operating outside the
designated operational service volumes of ICAO standard navaids, operators must use Long-Range
Navigation Systems (LRNS) (GPS, Loran C, Omega, INS) OR ''special navigational technigues''
(Dead Reckoning, pilotage, flight navigator, celestial) or both. These systems and/or techniques are
necessary to navigate to the degree of accuracy required for the control of air traffic and to avoid
obstacles.
4. The definition of Class II navigation is not dependent upon the eguipment installed in the aircraft.
All airspace outside the operational service volume of ICAO standard navaids is a three-dimensional
volume of airspace within which any type of enroute navigation is categorized as Class II navigation.
CELESTIAL
NAY
CLASS II DEAD
NAY RECKONING
CLASS I
- -PILOTAGE
NAY

DME (Distance Measuring ~quipment):
(91.205e, 91 .711 , 121 .349, AIM 1-1-7, 1-1-9e., FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)
1. DME is REQUIRED at and above FL 240. An IFR certified GPS with a current
database can substitute for DME. (91 .205, 91 .711, AIM 1-1-21t.5.)
2. Paired pulses at a specific spacing are sent out from the aircraft and are received
I ..
at the ground station (VOR or ILS).
3. The ground station then transmits paired pulses back
(Y) TACAN must be placed
to the aircraft at the same pulse spacing but on a (T) indicates frequency
in "Y0 mode to receive
different frequency. The time required for the round protection range Identifier distance information
trip is measured in the airborne DME unit and is ~
~
translated into distance in Nautical Miles.
Frequency ORLANDO
.... ~ 11 2.25 (T} ORL , : ---
=:.
4. DME GROUNDSPEED and TIME-TO-STATION are 7 Chan 59(Yl Geographic
N28° 32.56' J ws1 ° 20.1O' Position
only accurate when flying directly to or from the
L-19 H-5 DME or
ground station. If you are flying in any other direction, Underline indicates t, TACAN
the groundspeed will be erroneously low and the time- no voice transmitted Enroute Chert Channel
to-station will be erroneously high. on this frequency Reference
5. Accurate line-of-sight information (SLANT RANGE DISTANCE) The presence of a Channel (e.g., Chan 59)
can be received up to 199 NM from the station with an ,accuracy tells you that DME is available.
of better than Y2 mile or 3°/o.
6. ''SLANT RANGE ERROR'' is not an important factor unless the aircraft is passing directly over the
station at high altitude. When directly over the station, the DME shows the altitude of the aircraft
above the station in nautical miles (i.e., 6000 ft AGL= 1 NM, 9000 ft AGL= 1.5 NM). Slant range
error also affects groundspeed and time-to-station when the aircraft is close to the station.
7. DME transmits the same coded identification as the (co-located) VOR, but sends it during the pause
between sequential VOR idents (Note: DME ident is also higher pitched). If a single coded identifier of
the VOR repeats only every 30 seconds the DME portion of the VOR/DME signal is operative (but
the VOR may be inoperative).
8. DME ground equipment can service only a limited number of aircraft at any one time. If too many
aircraft are interrogating the ground station, it will automatically desensitize and respond only to the
strongest interrogations. The result can be less than normal DME range.
9. If the DME becomes inoperative while enroute, the pilot shall notify ATC as soon as possible. (121.349)
10. DME ARC Procedures If a feeder route to an Initial ,Approach fix is part of the Instrument Approach
Procedure, it is considered the MANDATORY starting point for the approach. In other words you
cannot just pick up the DME Arc anywhere you like and then fly the rest of the approach. You must
start the DME Arc at a PUBLISHED Initial ,Approach fix.
PORTABLE ELECTRONIC DEVICES: (91.21, 121 .306, 135.144)

(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, NO PERSON MAY OPERATE,
nor may any operator or pilot in command of an aircraft allow the operation of, ANY
fortable g,1ectronic Qevice on any of the following U.S.-registered civil aircraft:
(1) Aircraft operated by a holder of an AIR CARRIER operating certificate or an
operating certificate; or
(2) ANY other AIRCRAFT while it is OPERATED under IFR.
(b) Paragraph (a) of this section does not apply to-
( 1) Portable voice recorders; •••· ·· · · · · · · · · · · · ·· ··· · · · ·· · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · · ···•••
(2) Hearing aids; :· The FAA in their infinite wisdom has finally
(3) Heart pacemakers; ~ announced what pilots and passengers
: have known for decades ... iPads and
(4) Electric shavers; or : smartphones don't crash airplanes!
(5) Any other portable electronic device ~ Subject to airline approval, passengers may
that the operator of the aircraft has : use their tablets and other gadgets in
determined will not cause ~. airplane mode gate to gate.
interfere nee with the navi ga ti on or • ""'Wli'N#,~.,.,,,.,.,,,.#N~#N######~'#f#'r/l#flf,
communication system of the aircraft.
(c) In the case of an aircraft operated by a holder of an air carrier operating certificate or an
operating certificate, the determination required by paragraph (b)(S) of this section shall be made by that
operator of the aircraft on which the particular device is to be used. In the case of other aircraft, the
determination may be made by the pilot in command or other operator of the aircraft.

(Chap 3 - Navigation & Radios)
A ".;
A1 • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 11-11-• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .._, •••••••••••••••••••••••
: §43.3(k) states that "Updates of databases in installed avionics : Certain communications
• meeting the conditions of this paragraph are not considered • frequencies have been known to
: maintenance and may be performed by pilots." They must be : cause harmonic interference, which
uploadable from the flight deck without use of tools or special • may have an adverse effect on the
: equipment. The holder of operating certificates (e.g., 121 , 135) : reception of a GPS signal. These
• must make available written procedures consistent with • frequencies include 121.15, 121.175,
: manufacturer's instructions to the pilot that describe how to perform
•• 121.200, 131.250, 131.275, and
~ the database update; and determi ne the status of the data upload. : 131.300 MHz. (AC 20-138)
GPS - Global Positioning System:

(AIM 1-1-18 thru 1-1-21 , 1-2-3, 5-1-8, 5-3-8, 5-4-5, AC 20-1 30A, AC 20-138, AC 90-108, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25, TSO-C129, TSO-C196)
1. A GPS receiver automatically selects signals from the satellites in view. Based on continuous
knowledge of the position of each satellite with respect to precise time and distance from each
satellite the receiver translates this information into three-dimensional position, velocity and time. As
an example of how accurate the timing is if the measurement were 1/1000th of a second off there
would be a 186-mile error in your location, or approximately one foot error per billionth of a second.
Location is calculated by comparing the known time that the signal is broadcast by the atomic clocks in
the satellites, with the actual time of reception, aka !ime Qf Arrival (TOA) ranging.
2. The main GPS system is made up of 24 satellites (plus a few spares) 4 of which must be received
by your unit to yield a three-dimensional position and time solution. They orbit the earth twice a day at
an altitude of 11,000 miles. At least 5 satellites are in view at all times from virtually any point on earth.
3. Each satellite transmits its own "pseudo-random code." The receiver is programmed to recognize the
code and match it to the specific satellite. The receiver does this with at least 4 different satellites as it
simultaneously updates its own internal clock bias. The receiver then converts the time lapse of each
satellite's signal into a precise distance measurement. Simple eh!
4. GPS is a VERY high maintenance system. The satellites require regular clock upkeep, orbit position
adjustments, and data uploads. If the ground support team (the U.S. Air Force) went on strike, the
system would degrade and become completely unusable within a couple of weeks.
5. Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) (aka fault Q.etection) continuously monitors the
(IFR certified) unit in your aircraft for integrity. A RAIM error message is a way of warning the user
that there is loss of accuracy, whether due to solar interference or intentional jamming ... time to go to
Plan B for a while. RAIM error is extremely rare and typically lasts for less than 5 minutes. RAIM is
specific to non-WAAS GPS systems which are not considered standalone which is why the AIM calls
for an alternative form of navigation ... yup good old fashioned VO Rs.
6. GPS provides ''Great Circle Track'' navigation.
7. Units with "frecise f.ositioning .§.ervice" (PPS) capability can expect accuracy to 16 meters (52 feet).
PPS was originally intended only for the military but is now available to all users.
8. A study commissioned by the DOT has shown that GPS is susceptible to occasional disruption from
atmospheric effects, signal blockage from buildings or mountains as well as deliberate GPS
interference caused by cheap, pocket-sized ''JAMMERS." Long-term outages could be caused by
hostile actions far less overt than full-scale war. Another danger is ''SPOOFING'' of the signal. False
GPS signals could be transmitted, which could slowly divert an aircraft off course unbeknownst to the
pilot. For these reasons a backup system of VOR, ILS, and/or INS is highly recommended.
9. The most critical GPS deficiency is its extremely low-powered signal and its single civil frequency.
Some of these problems may be corrected when "GPS Ill" is fully commissioned sometime before 2023
(hopefully). GPS Ill will transmit at much higher power over two frequencies , which should
theoretically eliminate most (but not all) natural interference and overcome cheap jammers.
10. A ''worm hole'' is an FAA term for a point where the GPS unit is coincidentally equidistant from four
satellites, and for a short period of time the unit may not be operational.
operations except NOB approaches that do not have a GPS overlay. (AIM 1-1-1 8)
12. An IFR certified GPS is required to have a separate ~ourse Qeviation Indicator (CDI) located in the
pilot's primary field of vision. (AC 20-1 38)
13. IFR certification requires a FLIGHT MANUAL SUPPLEMENT that must be on board the aircraft .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Alternate Airport Considerations
• GPS users may plan to use GPS-based approaches at either
.-----.•........ ·--- ..............-..•........
i their destination or alternate, but not at both locations. : ADF IVOR I GPS: (AIM 1-1-18, AIM 1-2-3)
• WAAS users WITH baro-VNAV equipment may plan for : An IFR-certifi ed GPS (with a current database) may be
: LNAVNNAV or RNP 0.3 DA at destination and alternate. • used as a substitute for VOR/DME/ADF in all operations.
• WAAS users withOUT baro-VNAV may plan for LNAV at the ~
: destination and alternate. (AIM 1-1-19, 1-1-18g., 1-2-3d.)

. ••••••••••••••••••
.• An IFR certified GPS with
·~
•• an EXPIRED database COH

: can still be used for IFR 136.973
•• enroute and terminal
•• operations, but not YLOC
•• approaches . 117.95
: Requires verification of 108.oo
: data from current enroute
• and/or terminal charts.
(AIM 1-1-1 9, Table 1-1-6)
GPS IFR Direct with a VFR GPS: [91 .205(d)(2), AIM 1-1-18, 5-1-8, 5-1-16, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-251
1.There is nothing in the regulations that prohibits use of a VFR GPS for navigation on an IFR flight
plan You just can NOT use it as your ONLY or PRIMARY source of navigation.
2. You WILL need to have the appropriate radios to conduct an instrument approach at the destination.
An ADF approach will require ADF equipment; a VOR approach will require VOR equipment, etc.
3. ENROUTE As long as you're in a RADAR environment, you can legally file direct to the
destination. It is legal to use dead reckoning for portions of any IFR flight. There are still many airliners
out there without area navigation that ask for and receive direct headings on a daily basis, staring at
VOR flags for long periods of time. Think of the GPS as a form of super-accurate dead reckoning.
It's a good idea to have the maps out and cross-radial off the passing VORs just to keep things
honest. This is especially helpful if the GPS decides to go to lunch and doesn't invite you.
4. APPROACH You canNOT use the VFR GPS (or an IFR certified GPS that does not have a current
database) as the PRIMARY source of navigation for an instrument approach. But it certainly makes
a great backup for situational awareness.
5. FILING the FLIGHT PLAN Unless the GPS is IFR certified do NOT file as /G. /G tells them you
have an IFR certified GPS with Enroute and Terminal (approach) capabilities (AIM 5-1-8). Always file
the correct Equipment Suffix for your aircraft, usually /U or /A. If you want, in the remarks section, you
can mention the fact that you have a GPS on board. File direct to your destination, but be ready with
the latitude and longitude, FSS personnel will appreciate you having that information handy.
6. If you are navigating with VORs, you have to be within the standard service volumes (AIM 1-1-8). The
exception is, if you are in RADAR CONTACT (which you would have to be so as to fly off-airway routing
anyway), standard service volumes don't apply.
7. If you hear the question, ''HOW ARE YOU NAVIGATING DIRECT, WE SHOW YOU AS A SLANT
UNIFORM?'' Simply state ''WE HAVE GPS ON BOARD." You didn't lie. You didn't say you were
slant Golf. You just said you had GPS. The controller doesn't care if you spent the extra $8,000 to get
it "IFR certified," he just wants to know if you're gonna make his life simple or complicated. Keep it
simple! The controller couldn't care less about your legal status other than how it affects his operation.
··········~······················· •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
: REMEMBER:
: 1.
•
If your GPS is hardwired into the system, a FAA
• 337 (Major Repair & Alteration) form is required.
• A handheld or ''VFR'' GPS canNOTbe used as your :• If it's plugged into the cigarette lighter, the 337
: ''PRIMARY'' source of navigation , but it certainly : form is not required .
: can be used for and is acceptable to provide - •: 2. If a tool is used to mount the GPS, a 337 form is
• ''situational awareness." : required. If it's just simply clamped to the yoke or
•• ~ attached with Velcro, the 337 form is not required .
So ... keep those VOR & ADF radios on and •
•• keep reminding yourself that they are
••.._ your ''PRIMARY'' source of navigation.
.............................................
•: iPad - Replacement for FMS?
: The FAA is now allowing an appropriately programed
: iPad to send routing, routing changes, and other data
: to a suitably capable IFR certified GPS. The pilot
•• must manually accept the transfer of data .
•
Also comes in handy for
the drive to the motel.
(Chap 3 - Navigation & Radios J
WAAS (SBAS) ~~
GBAS (LAAS)
~ ••
• •• ••
•• ••••• •
~
••
••
•• ••
...
•• •• •• ••••
•• • •!4
~
••
••
-·-- •••
••
Wide Area Augmentation ~ystem (WAAS)

ICAO Term lpace Based Augmentation lystem (SBAS):
(AIM 1-1-19, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. A satellite navigation system consisting of ground equipment and software, which augments the GPS .§.tandard
fositioning §ervice (SPS). The WAAS provides enhanced integrity, accuracy, availability, and continuity over and
above GPS SPS. WAAS improves the accuracy of the navigation system by determining position error from the
GPS satellites by use of ground B.eference .§.tations, then transmitting corrective factors to a geostationary
satellite, then on to your airborne GPS receiver.
2. WAAS allows GPS to be used, from takeoff through Category I precision approach with minimums available as
low as 200 ft and li mile. It also may allow use at your alternate even when a non-GPS approach is unavailable.
3. r£ide-area ground B.eference §tations (WRS) are linked to form a US WAAS network. These precisely surveyed
ground B.eference .§.tations (WRS) (about 25 in the US including Puerto Rico, Hawaii, and Alaska) receive signals
from GPS satellites and any errors in the signals are then determined. Each station in the network relays the
data to a r£ide-area Master §tation (WMS) where correction information for specific geographical areas is
computed. A correction message is prepared and uplinked to a GEOstationary satellite (GEO) via a ground
Y,plink .§.tation (GUS). The message is then broadcast on the same frequency as GPS to WAAS receivers.
4. The WAAS broadcast message improves the GPS signal accuracy from 100 meters (328 feet) to approximately
one to two meters (3-6 feet) horizontally and two to three meters vertically.
5. WAAS avionics are evaluated without reliance on other navigation systems. As such, installation of WAAS avionics
does NOT require the aircraft to have other equipment appropriate to the route to be flown. (AIM 1-1-19c.7.)
6. Pilots with WAAS receivers equipped WITH baro-VNAV may flight plan to use any instrument approach procedure
authorized for use with their WAAS avionics as the planned approach fil the original destination and required
alternate. When NOT equipped with baro-VNAV, flight planning to the destination and alternate may be based
on flying the RNAV (GPS) LNAV minima line, or minima on a GPS approach procedure, or conventional approach
procedure with ''or GPS" in the title. Upon arrival at the destination or alternate, when the WAAS navigation
system indicates that LNAVNNAV or LPV service is available, then vertical guidance may be used to complete
the approach using the displayed level of service. The FAA has begun removing the ANA (Alternate Minimums
Not Authorized) symbol from select RNAV (GPS) and GPS approach procedures so they may be used by approach
approved WAAS receivers at alternate airports. (AIM 1-1-19c.7.)
NOTE: The rl symbol indica tes outa ges of th e WAAS verti cal guidance may occur daily a t th is location due to initial system
limitations . WAAS NOTAMS fo r vertical outages are not provided fo r this approa ch. Use LNAV mi nima for flight planning
a t these loca tions, whether a s a destination o r a lternate. For flight operations at these locations, when the WAAS avionics
indicate tha t LNAV/VNAV o r LPV service is available, then verti cal gu idance may be used to complete the a pproach
us ing the displayed level of service. Shou ld an outage occur duri ng the procedure, reversion to LNAV mi nima may be
req uired. As the WAAS covera ge is expanded, the rlJ will be rem oved.
Ground Based Augmentation ~ystem (GBAS) (''gee bass'') - ICAO term for ...
.Local Area Augmentation lystem (LAAS): (AIM 1-1-20, 5-4-5, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. A Qifferential global fositioning §ystem (DGPS) that improves the accuracy of the system to sub-meter levels by
determining position error from the GPS satellites at a fixed, local ground station on the airport, then
transmitting the error, or corrective factors, seamlessly via VHF data link to the airborne GPS receiver.
2. When a LAAS unit is installed at an airport, it will serve all runways at that airport with the potential of CAT Ill,
autoland minimums in any visibility to each runway. The short-term goal is not to replace ILS but to provide
precision approaches at airports where local terrain makes ILS equipment unsuitable.
3. LAAS can be used to create curved approaches involving numerous approach paths within 30 miles of the airport.
4. The LAAS ground based monitor can be installed at an airport for about the price of a single ILS, but can
potentially provide precision approaches to virtually all of the airport's runways.
5. The signal can also be used at reliever airports close by to develop non-precision approaches without the cost
of expensive ground equipment.
6. Pilots will select the five digit GBAS channel number of the approach within the flight Management §ystem.
7. At press time available only at Newark (EWR) and Houston (IAH) but expanding internationally.

(Chap 3 - Navigation & Radios)
ANTENNAS
BASIC RADIO STUFF:
1. Radio frequencies range from 30 kHz (Kilohertz thousands of cycles per second) to
30,000 MHz (megahertz millions of cycles per second).
2. This frequency range is broken down into various ''BANDS'' that are grouped by
''WAVELENGTH'' measured in meters or centimeters:
bow frequency LF 30-300 kHz Loran & ADF 10,000 - 1,000 m

Medium frequency MF 300 - 3,000 kHz ADF 1,000 - 100 m
AM (Amplitude Modulation) Broadcast 535 - 1,605 kHz ADF & Broadcast radio 560-187 m
Jiigh frequency HF 2-30 MHz Long Range Communications 100-10 m
Communications, VOR, ELT
Y..ery Jiigh frequency VHF 30-300 MHz 10-1 m
& Marker Beacons
Transponder, Radar,
.YJtra Jiigh frequency UHF 300 - 3,000 MHz 100-10 cm
Glideslope, DME, & GPS
3. LOW frequency radio signals travel long distances, but are more susceptible to interference from
atmospheric conditions. This interference also affects long range High frequency ''HF'' radios.
4. VHF and UHF are much less prone to interference, but are limited to line-of-sight range.
5. Generally, the SIZE of an antenna depends on the frequency and WAVELENGTH it is designed to
receive or transmit. Wavelength being inversely proportional to frequency. Antennas are normally
designed to be~, %, or some other fraction of the wavelength.
6. COMMUNICATIONS antennas are usually mounted VERTICALLY so they can receive and transmit in
all directions (Note: Comm radios use 8,mplitude Modulation ''AM'').
7. NAVIGATION antennas are normally mounted HORIZONTALLY due to their directional nature.
•••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
! When aircraft communications were first initiated, the only radios
: available were of the A mplitude ,Modulation (AM ) type. frequency
COMMUNICATION Antenna: : ,Modulation (FM) would definitely be preferable because of its immunity
1. VHF frequencies from 118.0 to 137.975 MHz. , to noise or interference, but that would require changing over all radios
: in the air and on the ground simu ltaneously. That ain't gonna happen!
2. Wavelength approximately two meters.
3. Approximately Y2 meter long (20 inch) whip (bent or straight) or can be in the shape of a smaller
''blade'' or ''V-blade'' (boomerang sitting on top of a vertical support), normally mounted vertically to the
TOP of the aircraft (with about 20 inches of copper wire coiled inside; i.e., % of the wavelength).
4. If there are two radios, there will normally be two antennas.
Communications
ELT •
...............
J1 •
:
NOTE: Many "NAV-
COMM" units share
• the same box, but
: very few components
• are shared. So if the
: NAV or COMM fails,
• the other unit in the
: same box is still likely
to be working .
EL T Antenna:
1. VHF frequency 121.5 MHz.
2. Usually slightly shorter than a communication antenna due to its fixed frequency.
3. Most often a thin whip antenna mounted vertically on top of the fuselage.
4. Sometimes EL T antennas are attached to the ELT transmitter (or buried in the vertical tail) and
therefore no external antenna is observed. •• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~
! IMHO - One of the dumbest thin gs Obama ever did
was to sign the order dismantling the LORAN
LORAN Antenna: : system ... leaving us without a backup for long range
• navigation. A violent solar storm or concerted
1. LF frequencies from 90 to 110 kHz. : enemy attack could easily take out the entire GPS
2. Looks virtually the SAME AS a COMMUNICATION • network leaving us wallowing in deep s#!t - IMHO.
ANTENNA even though it operates at a lower frequency.
3. Typically a WHIP (straight or bent) mounted to the TOP or BOTTOM of the fuselage.
4. If an aircraft looks like it has three communication antennas, one of them is probably for the loran.

(chap 3 Navigation & Radios)
More About ANTENNAS
VOR I LOCALIZER Antenna:
1. VHF frequencies 108 to 117.95 MHz.
2. Most often attached to the vertical fin and shaped like a horizontal V-whip or rectangular with a
tubular cross-section.
3. In some applications the VOR/localizer antenna can be combined with the communications antenna
to take the shape of a boomerang sitting on top of a vertical support. In this case the vertical
support is the communications antenna while the horizontal boomerang section is for the
VCR/localizer.
VOR I LOCALIZER
Horizontal V-Whip U-Shape Balanced Loop (towel rack)
ADF Antenna:
1. LF, MF and AM broadcast frequencies 190 to 1605 kHz.
2. Older ADFs have a long ''sense'' antenna stretching from the top of the cockpit to the vertical fin
and in addition a small ''loop'' antenna mounted on the underside of the fuselage.
3. Newer installations combine the sense and loop into one rectangular or teardrop-shaped fiberglass
box mounted on the belly. This arrangement eliminates the significant parasite drag of the long sense
antenna.
Long "sense" antenna
ADF
ADF ' "Loop"

Flat oval box
GLIDESLOPE Antenna:
1. UHF frequencies from 329.15 to 335 MHz.
2. Can sometimes be a wire embedded in a wide, oval shaped plastic plate installed inside the
windshield near the top.
3. Or ... a T-shaped antenna on top or in front of the windshield.
4. Or ... a small fiberglass appendage that looks like a boomerang mounted on top of the cockpit or
sometimes to the belly.
5. Or ... a LI-shaped band with a brace through the center mounted on the nose.
6. Or... can sometimes be combined with the VOR antenna.

Even More About ANTENNAS

MARKER BEACON Antenna:
1. VHF frequency 75 MHz (low-power, about three watts).
2. Can be a small BLADE mounted on the belly somewhat longer than a DME blade.
3. Or... a thick WIRE on the belly that BENDS sharply REARWARD with a metal support near its tail.
4. Or ... a ''canoe-shaped'' fiberglass attachment mounted on the belly.
Marker Beacon Transponder
Marker Beacon or DME or Transponder
TRANSPONDER Antenna:
1. UHF frequencies. Transmits on 1090 MHz and receives on 1030 MHz.
2. Normally located on the BELLY, may be a 2-inch VERTICAL METAL WHIP with a SMALL BALL on
the end or a small fiberglass FIN or blade identical to the DME antenna.
3. The DME and transponder operate in approximately the same frequency range and therefore require
the antennas be placed as far apart as possible to avoid interference (at least 6-feet apart).
DME Antenna:
1. UHF frequencies 962 to 1213 MHz.
2. Small FIN or blade mounted on the BELLY.
GPS Antenna:
1. UHF frequency 1575 MHz.
2. Thin CIRCULAR or RECTANGULAR or teardrop-shaped fiberglass box mounted on the TOP of the
fuselage.
GPS
TROUBLESHOOTING Radios:
1. Keep all antennas CLEAN and FREE from GREASE and OIL. A dirty antenna will not work properly.
TRANSPONDER antennas or any other antennas located on the belly need to be cleaned on a regular
basis to keep those radios operating correctly.
2. Check for LOOSE antenna-to-airframe CONNECTIONS or SWELLING and CRACKING of the
FIBERGLASS sheathing on COMMUNICATION antennas. Corroded metal underneath the fiberglass
can expand and cause the fiberglass sheathing to swell and split.
3. VOR antennas are susceptible to cracks where the antenna bends.
4. Long-wire ADF sense antennas are also prone to cracks at the attachment points.

Chap 3 Navigation & Radios
---------------------------------------------------
TRANSPONDER CODES: (AIM 4-1-15, 4-1-20, 4-5-2, 4-5-7, 6-3-4, 6-4-2 , FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. 1200 VFR •• • • • • ...... • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~
2. 1202 Gliders : Complete information about
3. 1255 Fire Fighting : TRANSPONDERS can be
4. 1277 Search and Rescue (SAR) found on Page 127.
5. 7700 Emergency
6. 7600 Communications Emergency
7. 7500 Hijacking in progress
8. 7777 Military Interceptor Operations
9. 0000 Military Operations by North American Air Defense. Should never be used by civilian pilots.
COMMUNICATION TRANSCEIVER FREQUENCIES VHF 118.0 to 137.975 MHz
NAVIGATION (VOR/ILS/LOC) 108.0 to117.95 MHz
ADF 190 to 535 kHz (also broadcast stations 550 to 1600 kHz)
GPS 1575.42 MHz
LORAN 90to110kHz
DME 962 to 1213 MHz •

GLIDESLOPE 329.15 to 335 MHz
MARKER BEACON 75 MHz
RADAR 1030 MHz
TRANSPONDER 1090 MHz
Low Frequency LF 30-300 kHz Loran & ADF 10,000 - 1,000 m

Medium Frequency MF 300 - 3, 000 kHz ADF 1,000-100 m
AM (Amplitude Modulation) Broadcast 535 - 1,605 kHz ADF & Broadcast radio 560 - 187 m
High Frequency HF 2 - 30 MHz Long Range Communications 100-10 m
Communications, VOR, ELT
Very High Frequency VHF 30-300 MHz 10-1 m
& Marker Beacons
Transponder, Radar,
Ultra High Frequency UHF 300 - 3,000 MHz 100-10 cm
Glideslope, DME, & GPS

NonDirectional Radio Beacon (NDB): • • •
• •• •• •• •• • •• •
(AIM 1-1-2, 1-1-8, P/C Glossary, 8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25) •
..
• • • . 0· • • . . •
• • •• • • • • •
. . NOB (Non-directiona l
• •
1. Frequency band 190 to 535 kHz identified by • • • • • • •• •

Rad io Beacon)
• • • • • • • •
• •• • • • • •
• • •
two- or three-letter Morse code identifier.
2. Some NDBs can also broadcast voice transmissions; most often transcribed
weather.
3. When co-located with the outer marker of an ILS, it's called an ''outer compass
locater'' or LOM (,bocator Quter Marker). Compass locator transmitters are often
situated at the MM and OM sites. The transmitters have a power of less than 25
watts, a range of at least 15 miles and operate between 190 and 535 kHz.
4. An OUTER COMPASS LOCATOR transmits the first two . . . . . . - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - .
••
LMM, LOM <Z{:":$:·r.>
(Compass
••
locator)
•
5. A MIDDLE COMPASS LOCATOR transmits the last two •••

6. At some locations, higher-powered radio beacons, up to 400 watts, are used as OM compass locators.
These generally carry Iranscribed WEather §.roadcast (TWEB) information.
operations except NOB approaches that do not have a GPS overlay. [AIM 1-1 -21t.5.]
8. Subject to disturbances from lightning, precipitation static and [at night] distant radio stations.
9. Noisy identification usually occurs when the ADF needle is erratic. Voice, music or erroneous
identification may be heard when a steady false bearing is being displayed.
13. ''BFO'' mode Stands for ''§.eat frequency Qscillator." Used to generate an audio tone so as to
identify beacons identified by using "interrupted-carrier keying. " Seldom found in the United States.
NDB Service Volumes

CLASS DISTANCE (Radius)
Com ass Locator 15 NM
MH 25 NM
H 50 NM*
HH 75 NM
* Service ranges of individual facilities may be less
than 50 NM. Restrictions to service volumes are
first published as a Notice to Airmen and then with
the al habetical listin of the NA VAID in the A/FD.
PRIMARY NDB CONCEPTS: (AIM 1-1-2, FAA-H-8083-1 5, 8083-16, 8083-25)

1. PARALLEL the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):
• The HEAD of the needle ALWAYS points to the COURSE (and the wind).
2. While PARALLELING the Course you want to be on (inbound or outbound):
- • LEFT of Center Turn LEFT 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turn ing only "double the defl ection" is usually much too wimpy, it will NOT work in
any significant wind)
• RIGHT of Center Turn RIGHT 30° or 45° for a few seconds
(turning only "double the deflection" is again much too wimpy)
FAF to MAP 5.4 NM Timing for any non-precision

groundspeed not airspeed .
IAA ' S
t"'1n: e~ 5:24 3:36 2: 42 2: 10 1:48

UNICOM I MULTICOM & AIR-TO-AIR FREQUENCIES

(AIM 4-1-9, 4-1-11, 4-1-12, 4-2-6, P/C Glossary, FAA-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
122.7, 122.725, 122.8, 122.975,
UNICOM at airports WITHOUT an operating control tower
123.0, 123.05, 123.075
UNICOM at airports WITH a control tower or FSS
122.95
(the normal contact frequency for LARGE FBO'S at LARGE airports)
Air-to-Air between fixed-wing aircraft 122.75
Air-to-Air between fixed-wing aircraft & helicopters 123.025
MULTICOM Frequency Airports with no tower, FSS, or UNICOM -
122.9
or for certain activities of a temporary, seasonal, or emergency nature
MULTICOM Frequency Forestry management and fire
suppression, fish and game management and protection, and 122.925
environmental monitoring and protection
Aviation instruction, Glider, Hot Air Balloon (not to be used for 123.3
advisory service). 123.5
AUTOMATED UNICOM aka SuperUnicom: (Pie Glossary)
1. Provides automated weather, radio check capability and airport advisory information selectable by
microphone clicks.
2. Upon initial contact, an automated greeting will provide general information including wind, altimeter,
favored runway and instructions for further services available using microphone clicks.
3. 3-clicks will get you advisories.
4. 4-clicks will get you a radio check the system responds "Transmit radio check" the pilot
transmits the Unicom echoes the transmission so the pilot can judge for himself the radio's quality
and reception.
5. Weather advisories are updated every second.
EFAS I FLIGHT WATCH I FSS - FREQUENCIES: (AIM4-1-3, 4-2-6, 7-1-4, 7-1-5, 7-1-10, 7-1-11 ,
7-1-21 , P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)Design
1. £,nroute flight Advisory .§.ervice EFAS. 122.0 6:00 AM to 10:00 PM local time.
Designed to provide communication capabilities for aircraft flying at 5,000 AGL (or
lower) up to17,500 MSL (tell them what VOR you are near). Used for updating
weather information and pilot reports only. Not to be used for filing, opening or
closing flight plans.
2. FAA Press Release ''On October 1, 2015, the FAA will consolidate Flight Watch
services into routine flight services inflight frequencies. After that date, these
services will be available on the same frequencies that pilots use to open and close
flight plans and to receive updates on NOTAMs or Temporary Flight Restrictions
(TFRs). Dedicated Flight Watch frequencies will be decommissioned."
3. Discrete EFAS frequencies have been established to ensure communications coverage from 18,000
through 45,000 MSL serving in each specific ARTCC area. These discrete •• • • •• •• • • • •• • • • --· • •• • • • •• • • • • • • •• •
frequencies may be used below 18,000 feet when coverage permits : The letter "R" after a FSS .frequency
. . . • means that FSS can Receive on that
reliable commun1cat1on. : frequency, but can't transmit over it.
4. 0th er FS S f reg u en ci es : ·~lfllllallll ~'fllll/¥.'i'fllflliflflltl/lt¥Nlf/ltr/¥'flltNl.Nilll~
a. 122.1 R used to TRANSMIT to FSS the pilot should listen on the listed VOR frequency -
however the pilot must remember to tell FSS which (VOR) frequency he is listening on.
122.1 is the most common transmit-only frequency, although there are others.
b. 122.2 Assigned to the majority of FSSs as a common Enroute TWO-WAY frequency.
c. 123.6 Local Airport Advisory frequency for certain FSSs that are located on an airport.
d. 121.5 Emergency frequency.

ADS·B - Automatic Dependent Surveillance - Broadcast aka NextGen:

(91 .215, 91 .225, 91 .227, AIM 4-1-20, 4-4-17, 4-5-7 thru 4-5-10, 7-1-11 , 10-1-4, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16, AC 90-114A, AC 20-165A)
1. Automatic-The aircraft automatically reports. Dependent-Depends on WAAS GPS on board and an ADS-B
transmitter. Surveillance-Allows ATC to watch airplanes. Broadcast-You broadcast your position.
2. By Jan 1, 2020 all aircraft will be required to be equipped with ADS-B Out to fly in Class A, ~, and ~airspace;
and Class Eat and above 10,000 ft but not below 2.500 ft. Essentially everywhere you need Mode C today.
3. There are two types of ADS-B equipment:
+ ADS-B Out- Broadcasts your position. MANDATORY for most all aircraft operating in controlled airspace by
2020. Must be panel mounted. ATC needs this to track your position, ground track, altitude, ground
speed, and ID at one-second intervals to ground receivers as well as other aircraft.
+ ADS-B In - Requires a display in the aircraft and supplies weather, terrain, traffic, and a detailed moving
map with topographical information that automatically displays a terrain advisory if the airplane is below or
within two minutes (or 300 feet) of any large rocks. Panel mounted ADS-B In is very expensive but is
totally optional. Portable units are perfectly legal, cheap, and work well displayed on an iPad or other tablet.
4. ADS-B In/Out does it all but can be potentially very expensive if the "In" feature is panel mounted.
5. Due to concerns of frequency congestion there are two different technologies that meet the requirement:
a. 987 MHz Y.niversal Access Iransceiver (UAT) is used only in the US and only below 18.000 ft so is targeted
mostly for GA aircraft. Can detect other aircraft transmitting on the same frequency and receives the rest of the
traffic information from ADS-B ground stations. Added bonus ... flight !nformation .§.ervice-~roadcast (FIS-B)
datalink weather is also broadcast on 987 MHz. This includes NEXRAD radar, METARs, TAFs, TFRs,
AIRMETs, etc. that are continuously updated and can be displayed either on a portable device such as an iPad
or a more expensive panel mounted MFD. Your tax dollars pay for the "FREE" weather.
b. 1090 MHz aka 1090 ES (.~xtended .§.quitter) is reguired at or above FL 180 in the US and is the only
technology accepted outside the US. So it will be the only choice for turbine drivers. This is the same
frequency used by current Mode A/C/S transponders. Unfortunately there is no datalink weather on 1090 MHz.
To receive the free FIS-B information you will also need a 987 MHz receiver (panel mounted or portable).
6. The aircraft transmits information using a small transceiver in the cockpit. g,round-~ased Iransceivers (GBTs)
use an antenna to receive line-of-sight signals from the aircraft. The ground transceivers (GBTs) relay the
signal up to a satellite and back down to ATC computers, which calculate a RADAR-LIKE PICTURE of all ADS-B
equipped traffic on the controller's scope that is more accurate than radar and follows the aircraft all the way to
the ground even if it's 500 miles away. These line-of-site GBTs also transmit FIS-B information to the cockpit.
7. TIS-B - Iraffic !nformation .§.ervice-~roadcast is a datalink traffic report sent only to aircraft with ADS-B Out. If
you don't have an ADS-B Out transmitter, an iPad (or equivalent) will receive only a partial picture of TIS-B traffic.
8. No moving parts and nothing to wear out. An enormous departure from mega million dollar, high maintenance
radar sites. It essentially shifts a large portion of ATC's cost from the FAA !Q the individual aircraft owner with
questionable benefit (slick move by the government eh?!).
9. All this for mere $4,000-$400,000 per aircraft. Yup, potentially $400,000 or more for some turbine aircraft.
10. May eventually allow controllers to space aircraft closer together while enroute or even on approach since the
aircraft will be able to ''see" each other on their own cockpit displays.
11. Get that Visa card ready!
Yup, I see 'em-.;,.;.;-......-
•• ••
•• •• Yup, I see 'em .
••• ••• ••
•••
·····~ • ••
....................................................
: • ADS-B doesn't replace your current transponder; it's
••• ••• : installed in addition to your transponder .
••• ••• : • You will still need to retain your Mode C/S
•• ~ • : transponder capabilities to communicate with other
••• •••
•• : aircraft that have TCAS; and as a backup for use
: when the FAA's absurdly complicated ADS-B
This new ADS-BI GPS gizmo
sure is somethin'. I can see : system has a meltdown .
both them rascals, even : • Your conventional [mode C] transponder code and
•• ADS-B Out code must match exactly.
WITHOUT radar! •
Ain't that unbelievable Willie? : • Some Mode S transponders can be upgraded to
: 1090 ES with new software plus a WAAS GPS.
: •The FAA plans to keep about half of the curre nt
•: radar structure.
: • ADS-B has the added advantage of showing the
Yeah, gonna save the FAA
tower controllers where each broadcasting aircraft
a ton of money too.
(or vehicle) is located on the airport surface. You
~~~3 Problem is ... it's gonna cost me
could get " vectors for taxi " on those foggy nights
$50,000 to upfit my Cherokee!
when you land with the RVR below minimums (of
course the "fl ight visibility" was great wasn't it?!).

HIGH FREQUENCY RADIO - 101: (91 .511 , FAA-H-8083-16, AC 65-15, AC 91-70)

1. HF radio still remains one of the main communications tools for operations in remote areas of •
the world and for oceanic air travel especially at HIGH LATITUDES where satellite coverage
for ''satcom'' communications is poor or non-existent. Satcom does not meet the
requirements for a stand-alone system. Dissimilar responses to solar activity make the mix of
HF and satcom essential for the foreseeable future.
2. Air Traffic Control authority when using HF radio or satellites passes through ''middlemen'':
(a) ARINC (arinc.com) (phone 301-266-4000) is the biggest name in HF
communications. ARINC licensed by the FCC and contracted by the FAA-
provides the sole HF communications link for Air Traffic Control and weather
services in those international areas for which the FAA has control. These control
areas are called flight Information .B.egions.
(b) lnmarsat (inmarsat.com) is the biggest name in satellite communications.
3. ARINC (8,ero-nautical .B.adio INC.) provides Air Traffic Control services to the FAA through its long
distance centers located in New York and San Francisco. These services include position reports,
routing, altitude requests, direct data communications with airline dispatch, and actual operational
control. ARINC operates five, sometimes overlapping "networks" in the North Atlantic and three in the
Caribbean. This company can also provide discrete communications between FBOs and airlines.
4. HF frequency spectrum stretches from 2 to 30 MHz, which includes up to 280,000 possible frequencies
that can have a range from 2,000 to up to 4,000 miles.
5. High frequency radios transmit both ''ground waves'' and ''sky waves." The "sky wave" is reflected
back to the surface of the earth by the ionosphere and is the key to its long-range capabilities.
6. The ionosphere can consist of up to four distinct layers, and their altitudes can vary from 60 to 200
miles above the earth depending on season of the year, solar (sunspot) activity, geographical location
and time of day. The state of the ionosphere is in control of the usable frequencies.
7. RULES OF THUMB: HIGHER frequencies work best during the DAY and LOWER frequencies work
better at NIGHT. The lower frequencies have a longer wavelength and tend to "reflect" off the
ionosphere better at night. The higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) "bend" better for daytime use.
A number of sources are used to select a proper frequency.
8. Frequency selection Check the box on the chart for available frequencies. For example, standard
frequencies for the Pacific are 6655, 8951, 10048 and 13273. Also monitor VHF air-to-air frequencies
(128.95 for the Pacific or 123.45 for the North Atlantic). If unable to make HF contact, you can ask
another aircraft for the current usable HF frequency or simply ask them to relay your message to ATC.
9. Antenna Tuners -Automatically tune the antenna to the frequency selected. Due to space and
design limitations, aircraft antennas are much too short for efficient operation. An Antenna Tuner
electrically compensates for the inefficiency of the antenna and allows the transmitter and receiver to
operate at peak efficiency. When changing frequencies, key the microphone to ''tune'' the antenna.
You'll hear a long tone while it is tuning. Once the tone goes silent, you can transmit.
10. Speak at a slower rate than normal. Use ICAO standard words and phrases, keep in mind that there
is a damn good chance English is not the operator's first language. It may also be necessary to say
''go ahead'' or ''over'' at the end of your transmission so the person at the other end understands it's
his turn to talk. KEEP IT SIMPLE. Allow time for your request to be dealt with. The person you are
talking to most often is not a controller. He must clear your request with the man in charge and then get
back to you. Be patient.
11. SSB - .§.ingle .§.ide§.and A communication mode employing just one sideband of an AM (Amplitude
Modulation) signal. AM uses a central carrier signal and two sidebands, the Upper (USB) and the
Lower (LSB). The sidebands carry the information and the carrier is not used . .§.ingle .§.ide§.and
concentrates all the transmitters power in just one sideband thereby increasing range while
maintaining acceptable clarity.
12. SELCAL SELective CALiing system Enables the ground station to call a selected aircraft directly,
eliminating the need for the pilots to listen to HF static all day. Your aircraft is assigned a four-letter
code. This code allows the ground relay station to send a signal, which activates a receiver in your
aircraft. The result is a ''chime'' that sounds in the cockpit when ATC is calling. When the chime is
heard, turn the squelch up on the HF radio and answer with something like ''Falcon 123 is answering
SELCAL." When through, turn down the squelch so you don't have to listen to that annoying static.

TELECOMMUNICATION TERMS DATALINKS:
1. SATCOM Satellite Communication System
Aeronautical mobile satellite service developed as a
primary communications link for remote areas and oceanic
airspace. Satcom supports voice and data transmissions but is
sometimes prone to long transfer delays.
2. ACARS Airborne .Qommunications Addressing and .B,eporting
.§.ystem Air/ground datalink is the standard in use by the airlines for over
20 years. Used to track aircraft and aircrew flight and block time, cockpit to
•
dispatcher digital communications, weather, W&B, performance data, etc.
ACARS is increasingly being replaced by SATCOM.
3. HFDL .t!igh-frequency Qata,bink Developed for remote area and
oceanic use. Advantage is low cost but also low capacity and high transfer
delays.
4. VDL2 Y,HF Qigital ,bink Mode .2, Developed by ICAO as an "ACARS-
like" system with a hopefully faster transmission rate. Datalink messaging
slows when use rates are high and VDL2 does not have the capability for
voice transmission.
5. VDL3 Y,HF Qigital ,bink Mode ~aka ''nexcom'' Designed to handle
both digital and voice traffic. Permits up to 4 channels to operate on a
single 25-kHz band and has the ability to swap bandwidth between voice
and data as needed. NexcomNDL3 could emerge as the ''global
standard'' if the expectations of IATA, ICAO and the FAA are met.
6. VDL4 Y,HF Qigital ,bink Mode! Designed as a data
communication link for the Automatic Dependent Surveillance-
Broadcast (ADS-8) system (Capstone). Requires multiple antennas per
aircraft and does not carry voice transmission. ADS-B relies on the
GPS equipment in the aircraft to BROADCAST its position,
ground track, altitude, ground speed and tail number at one-second
intervals to ground receivers as well as other aircraft. The ground
receivers relay the signal up to a satellite and back down to ATC computers, which calculate a
RADAR-LIKE PICTURE of all ADS-8 equipped traffic on the controller's radar scopes that is
more accurate than radar (updates once every second instead of the typical 12-
second radar scan) and follows the aircraft all the way to the
ground even if it's 500 miles away.
7. CPD LC - Controller-Pilot Datalink Communications -
- - - - -
Exchange of text messaging in real time via satellite link.
Now routinely used by state of the art aircraft
crossing remote and/or oceanic areas. Soon
to become mandatory equipment for the
most desirable long distance routes all over
the world.
Clear data link directives as opposed to
having to attempt to translate ridiculous
"English-is-not-their-native-language"
controller accents and annoying static on
your ancient HF radio.
8. ADS-C - Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract A datalink position reporting system,
controlled by a ground station (i.e., Air Traffic Service Unit aka Air Navigation Service Provider), that
establishes "contracts" with an aircraft's avionics that occur automatically whenever
specific events occur, or specific time intervals are reached. These
position reports are used to create a track on the controller's display for
flights in remote or oceanic areas.

(Chap 3 Navigation & Radios J
''Holy S#!t...
JetBlue 539 turn right immediately...
•
*Break*
Southwest 409 turn right immediately and
try not to hit the tower please!''
----------
WTF?
•••••• •••••••
1°/o of Doubt?
Doubt has no business in your airplane. If doubt has
entered the cockpit, it must be asked to leave immediately.
-+ You're in the cockpit ready to start engines -
You were distracted by a phone call during preflight -
You 're almost 100°/o sure you put that oil cap back on
but you have 1°/o of doubt. Get your lazy ass out of
the seat and confirm it. A lot less embarrassing than
taking off with it still sittin' on top of the engine!
A TC gives you a new frequency -
You're almost 100°/o sure what it is but he was talkin'
real fast and you have 1°/o of doubt. Just ask him to
confirm it. "Was that 132.9?" Ain 't no big deal.
Center gives you a new altitude and you read it back.
As you set it in the alerter, 1°/o of doubt creeps in
'cause you got distracted by a discussion about the
new flight attendant's considerable assets;o). Just ask
the controller to confirm it. No big deal. It won 't make
you sound stupid. There's no stupid questions in
flying!
Make it a habit to always confirm that 1°/o of doubt.
It could save your ass someday.

Chapter 4
peed, Altitude perations

Hold On
Speed Limits •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 108·110
Approach Categories; Circling Radii ............................................................................ 110
Speed Limits Cross-Reference ................................................................................. 110
Grossing Restrictions ................................................................................................... 111
V-Speeds ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 112, 113
D
Airspeed Errors, Types & Colors ................................................................................. 114
Speed of Sound & MACH •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 115
Flight Regimes; Troposphere; Tropopause; Stratosphere; Temp Lapse Rate ............ 116
ISA International §tandard ,Atmosphere ................................................................. 117
Kollsman Window; Altitude Types ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 118
Altimeter Setting; Altitude Temperature Correction Chart ........................................... 119
Pressure/Temperature & Altimetry ....................................................................... 120, 121
Density Altitude ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 122·125
Scuba Diving ................................................................................................................ 123
LOW & HIGH Altimeter Setting Restrictions ................................................................ 126
tn.....r--;
J.J-J::c.,__.- Transponder Altitude Reporting Mode C •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 127
IFR Altitudes; GSIA; Min/Max & Mandatory Altitudes .................................................. 128
.Minimum §afe ,Altitudes; MVA; MSA; Changing Altitudes; Pilot's Discretion ........... 129
Traffic Pattern Altitudes; GlideSlope .................................................................... 130, 131
Cruising Altitudes ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 132
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 133
Altimeter Setting Flight Levels ................................................................................... 134
Mountain Flying The Venturi Effect ........................................................................... 134
Altimeter Pi tot/Static Check ......................................................................................... 135
Radar Altimeter ............................................................................................................ 135
Altitude Cross-Reference •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 136-138
Oxygen Altitudes .......................................................................................................... 139
Altimetry Around the World (QNH, QNE, QFE) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 140, 141
Rapid Decompression, Altitude Chambers; Pressurization Basic Components ......... 142
Oxygen Systems .......................................................................................................... 143
-,/"\I Jet & Turbine Operations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 144
Jet Fuel Pounds vs. Avgas Gallons ............................................................................. 145
lf=T::::::----ri Jet I Turbine Engine 101 •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 146, 147
Jet Engine Starting ....................................................................................................... 148
M::::::::::---1'1 Jet Engine Terminology ............................................................................................... 149
Electrical Terminology .................................................................................................. 150
Fuel, Hydraulic, Air Conditioning & Flight Control Terminology ................................... 151
Avionics Terminology, TCAS ....................................................................................... 152
Pressurization •.••.•.••...•••..•••....•....•....•....••...••...••.•.••...•••..•••....•....•....•... 153
Jet Takeoff, Enroute & Landing •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 154-159
TOLD Card •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 160, 161
Windmill Start; Altitude Alerting System; Fire Detection; Wing lets .............................. 162
Windshield Heat; Tires; Swept Wing; Dutch Roll; Yaw Damper .................................. 163
RAT TAT SAT OAT Temperatures •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 164
Noise Standards .......................................................................................................... 165
Airman Certification Standards .................................................................................... 166

(Chap 4 Speed, Altitude & Jet)
SPEED LIMITS:
(91 .117, 97.3, AIM 3-2-4c.5., 3-2-5b.5., 4-2-11 , 4-4-12, 5-3-7, 5-4-8, 5-5-9, AC 90-66A, Controller's Handbook 7110.65)
_.. Below 10,000 ft ......................................................... 250 KIAS
• Class B ..................................................................... 250 KIAS below 10,000 ft (unrestri cted at or above 10,000)
• Beneath Class B .. ...... ................................ ............... 200 KIAS (or in VFR corridor through a Class 8)
• Procedure Turn .... ...... ... .... ......................... ... .... ........ 200 KIAS
• Class C or D (below 2,500 AGL within 4 nm of the airport) .... 200 (unless a higher speed is specifically approved by ATC)
• Class E or G Airport Traffic Pattern .......................... 200 KIAS (recommended)
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: 91 .117(d) - If the minimum safe airspeed for any particular operation is greater than the maximum speed prescribed in this section , the
; aircraft may be operated at that minimum speed . NOTE: There is no requirement to advise ATC when exceeding a speed for thi s reason.
SPEED RESTRICTION I ADJUSTMENT: (AIM4-4-12)

1. If a controller issues a speed restriction while vectoring you , it continues to apply with an altitude
change.
2. An approach clearance cancels any previously assigned speed adjustment (however the controller
would not anticipate a large speed INCREASE when close to the runway). Pilots are expected to make
their own speed adjustments to complete the approach unless the adjustments are restated. Speed
adjustments should not be assigned inside the final approach fix on final or a point 5 miles from the
runway, whichever is closer to the runway.
3. It is the pilot's responsibility and prerogative, to refuse a speed adjustment that he or she considers
excessive or contrary to the aircraft's operating limitations with a comfortable margin for safety.
SPEED BELOW 10,000 and/or in CLASS B: (91.1, 91.111. 91 .103, AIM 4-4-1 2)
1. Speed 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet (or 200 KIAS below the floor or in VFR corridor). 250 KNOTS
MUST NOT be EXCEEDED even if you are told to ''MAINTAIN BEST FORWARD SPEED."
2. "Maintain maximum (or best) forward speed " means "maximum or best forward 'LEGAL' speed. "
ATC does not have the authority to lift the 250 below 10,000 speed restriction [91.117(a)]. You cannot
be cleared to violate a regulation , and you cannot accept such a clearance.
3. At 10,000 ft and above, in Class B airspace, you can go as fast as you want (below Mach 1.0 of
course!;o) unless issued a speed restriction by ATC.
4 . If a controller assigns you 300 kts or greater inbound (10,000 or above), and then later descends you to
8,000, it is UNDERSTOOD that you must SLOW to 250 Ids BEFORE descending below 10,000.
5. NOTE: There was a test program that took place at HOUSTON International (IAH) to delete the 250 Ids
below 10,000 for DEPARTURES only, AND only if authorized by ATC. The phraseology was ''NO
SPEED LIMIT'' or ''INCREASE SPEED TO (number) KNOTS'' or ''DELETE the 250 kt RESTRICTION.''
This program was cancelled in January of 2004. Evidently someone at the FAA decided the pilots were
having a little too much damn fun. Currently an air traffic controller does not have the authority to
authorize a speed above 250 kts below 10,000 anywhere in the United States.
6. The speed restriction: 250 Ids below 10.000 does NOT apply to aircraft operating beyond 12 nm from
the coastline of the United States. FYI: Airspeed regulates bird splat depth in glass and aluminum.
SPEED in CLASS C, D, E and G Airport Areas: (91 .111, Ac 90-66A)

1. Unless otherwise authorized or required by ATC, no aircraft may operate at or below 2.500 AGL within
4 nm of the primary airport of a Class C or Class D at an indicated airspeed of more than 200 kts.
2. " ... maintain best forward speed " is NOT an authorization to exceed the 200 kts in Class C or D.
3. Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be specifically assigned by ATC (e.g. " ... maintain 220 kts").
4. It is ''RECOMMENDED'' that while operating in the traffic pattern at an airport WITHOUT an operating
control tower the pilot maintain an airspeed of no more than 200 kts. In any case, the speed should
be adjusted , when practicable, so that it is compatible with the speed of other airplanes in the pattern.
••··············· ~························································ ~······
Never let an airplane take you someplace your brain didn't get to five minutes earlier.
•

Maximum Holding Pattern Speeds
(AIM 5-3-8, TBL 5-3-1 , FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
ALTITUDE (MSL) AIRSPEED (KIAS)

6,000 ft and below 200 KIAS
6,001 ft - 14,000 ft 230 KIAS
14,001 ft and above 265 KIAS
NOTE: A maximum holding speed other than standard may be depicted
either inside or just outside the charted racetrack symbol.
HOLDING PATTERN SPEEDS and TIMING: (AIM 5-3-8)

1. When an aircraft is 3 minutes or less from a clearance limit and a clearance beyond the fix has not
been received, the pilot is expected to START a SPEED REDUCTION so that the aircraft will cross the
fix, initially, at or below the maximum holding airspeed. (AIM 5-3-7d .)
2. Make all turns during entry and while holding at:
a. 3° per second: or.. .
b. 30° bank angle; or .. .
c. 25° bank provided a flight director system is used.
(NOTE: Use whichever requires the least bank) .. ·
3. TIMING for INBOUND leg:
a. At or below 14,000 feet MSL: 1 minute.
b. Above 14,000 feet MSL: 1 Y2 minutes.
4. TIMING for OUTBOUND leg begins over/abeam the fix, whichever occurs later. If the abeam position
cannot be determined, start timing when turn to outbound is completed.
5. If an aircraft is established in a published holding pattern at an assigned altitude above the
published minimum holding altitude and subseguently cleared for the approach, the pilot may
descend to the published minimum holding altitude. The holding pattern would only be a segment
of the IAP if it is published on the instrument procedure chart and is used in lieu of a procedure turn.
6. When a CLIMB-IN HOLD is specified by a published procedure (e.g., "Climb-in holding pattern to depart
XYZ VORTAC at or above 10,000." or "All aircraft climb-in TRUCK holding pattern to cross TRUCK Int
at or above 11,500 before proceeding on course."), additional obstacle protection area has been
provided to allow for greater airspeeds in the climb for those aircraft In lieu of
requiring them. The airspeed limitations in 91.117 still apply. Procedure Turn
7. !f the maximum airspeed for the hold is other than standard, it may be 270°- -.....
depicted either inside or just outside the charted racetrack symbol. (IAS)
....__090°
·································· ··~ ·························
: Unless you 're being radar vectored to the final (or it says No PT) ... When a holding pattern is published in
: place of (in lieu of) a procedure turn (heavy bold racetrack), pilots must make the standard entry and
: follow the depicted pattern to establish the aircraft on the inbound course. If cleared for the approach
prior to returning to the holding fix and the aircraft is at the prescribed altitude, additional circuits of the
holding pattern are not necessary nor expected by ATC. (91.175U). AIM 5-3-8, 5-4-9, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
HOLDING at a FIX where the PATTERN is NOT CHARTED: (AIM 5-3-8i. , FAA-H-8083-16)
Will include the following information:
1. Direction of holding FROM the fix in terms of the eight cardinal compass points (i.e., N, NE, E, SE, etc.).
2. Radial, course, bearing, airway or route on which the aircraft is to hold.
3. Leg length in miles if DME or RNAV is to be used or otherwise in minutes.
4. Direction of turn if LEFTturns are to be made (standard pattern is RIGHT turns).
5. Time to ,5xpect further _Qlearance. ~-~<---- ....
''Hold WEST of 'Elvis' on the 270° radial, LEFT turns, 1O mile legs,
Expect Further Clearance at 1520Z, time now 1420Z. ''
< West
Elvis

Chap 4 - Speed, Altitude & Jet
Aircraft APPROACH CATEGORIES: [97.3, A IM 5-4-7, FAA-H-8083-15, P/C Glossary]

1. Speeds are based on VReF, if specified, or if VREF is not specified, 1.3 times V50 at max landing weight.
2. If maneuvering at a higher airspeed, you SHOULD use the category for the airspeed you are using. The higher
turning radii of the higher speed may take you beyond the obstruction clearance area provided during a circling
approach - or even during a straight-in approach if a missed approach becomes necessary - the missed approach
obstacle clearance area is redicated on the aircraft's s eed.
Approach
Category
A B c D E
Speed (knots) 0-90 91-120 121-140 141-165 Abv 165
STANDARD (Previous aka Old)
Circling Approach Radius
(Developed prior to late 2012}(AIM 5-4-20)
(Over time all ''Standard" circling radii will be r
re laced b ''Ex anded" circlin radii.
Approach Category I Radius (NM)
A 1.3
B 1.5 r
c 1. 7
D 2.3 r C i rcling~ proach Area
E 4.5
EXPANDED Circling Approach Maneuvering Airspace Radius

(Developed After late 2012 identified by a [fl symbol on circling line minima) r
Accounts for true airs eed increase with altitude AIM 5-4-20
Circling MDA Approach Category & Circling Radius (NM)
in feet MSL Cat A Cat B Cat C Cat D Cat E
1000 or less 1.3 1.7 2.7 3.6 4.5
1001-3000 1.3 1.8 2.8 3.7 4 .6
3001-5000 1.3 1.8 2.9 3.8 4 .8 Without a specific request, a pilot should report a
5001-7000 1.3 1.9 3.0 4 .0 5.0 change in true airspeed (during cruise) when it
varies by 5°/o or 10 knots (whichever is greater)
7001-9000 1.4 2.0 3.2 4 .2 5.3
from that filed in the flight plan . (AIM 5-3-3)
9001 and above 1.4 2.1 3.3 4 .4 5.5
265 KIAS ·Holding Pattern 14,001 MSL and above. Timing for inbound leg: 1Y2 minutes.
250 KIAS • Below 10,000 MSL anywhere (except beyond the "12-nm limit" from the coastline).
This would of course include Class B airspace ... but only when below 10,000 feet.
230 KIAS • Holding Pattern 6,001 to 14,000 MSL. Timing for inbound leg: 1 minute.
200 KIAS • Below 2,500 AGL within 4 nm of an Airport in Class C or D airspace.

Any speed deviation above 200 kts must be specifically assigned by ATC.
SPEED
(Example: ''Bugsmasher 123 maintain 220 kts.") LIMIT
•The ''recommended'' limit in the traffic pattern of an uncontrolled airport.
(Does not apply to a Class B airport traffic pattern.)
• BENEATH Class B or in VFR corridor. Does NOT apply WITHIN Class B.
• Procedure Turn. (AIM 5-4-9)
• Holding Pattern 6,000 MSL or below. Timing for inbound leg: 1 minute.
·································································~
: ATC Guidelines When Assigning SPEED ADJUSTMENTS: (AIM 4-4-12)
•• 1. Aircraft between FL280 and 10,000 ft speed not less than 250 kts .
•• 2. Arriving TURBOJET aircraft below 10,000 ft not less than 210 kts, except
•• when within 20 miles of the landing airport, then not less than 170 kts .
•• 3. Arriving RECIPROCATING engine or TURBOPROP aircraft within 20 miles of the
• landing airport, not less than 150 kts.
Departing TURBOJET aircraft not less than 230 kts.
Departing RECIPROCATING engine aircraft not less than 150 kts.

Chap 4 Speed, Altitude & Jet
----------------------------------------------------
CROSSING RESTRICTIONS: (AIM 4-4-10, 5-2-8, 5-4-1 , 5-4-16, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. The guiding principle is that the last A TC clearance has precedence over the previous clearance.
2. When the route or altitude is amended, the controller will restate the applicable altitude restriction.
3. If altitude to maintain is changed or restated, whether prior to departure or while airborne, and
previously issued altitude restrictions are omitted, those altitude restrictions are canceled ....
How To MEET a CROSSING RESTRICTION:

1. Miles to descend to meet crossing restriction (3° descent) +Altitude to lose (in thousands) x ~ + 10o/o.
2. 3° rate of descent + 1/2 the ground speed and add a zero.
3. Rate of descent + Altitude to lose +time to fix = rate of descent (FPM).
4. To simplify for most jets + Determine MINUTES from the fix (ground speed + 60; or just glance over at
the GPS or FMS), plan on descending at 2,000 FPM.
Example: It will take 5 minutes to lose 10,000 ft at 2,000 FPM.
Ground Miles per
Speed (kts) Minute
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
. : Mach vs Knots (AIM 4-4-12)
5. Your _ground speed at FL 310 1s 420 knots and you are cleared to cross~ At or above FL 240 speeds may
30 miles from the VOR at 10,000 feet and 250 KIAS. How far out : be expressed in terms of Mach
would you need to start the descent? : numbers in 0.01 increments.
a. It's common for most jets to descend at idle power using the : The use of Mach numbers is
3 to 1 rule (i.e., 3 miles for every 1,000 feet of altitude to lose). : restricted to turbojet aircraft with ,
b. The altitude to lose is 21,000 feet. Descending from FL 31 Oto : Mach meters (duuh!).
10,000 feet would probably require a 3,000 FPM descent in - - -
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
order to m~intain. the advantag~ of th~ higher al~itude for a . :· Knots vs Mach (AIM 4 _4_12)
longer period of time. 420 kts 1~ 7 miles per minute (420 60). : On a standard day the Mach
"T"
=
c. 21,000 feet + 3,000 FPM 7 minutes. : numbers equivalent to
d. 7 minutes x 7 miles per minute = 49 miles are required to : 250 kts CAS are:
descend the 21,000 feet. : FL 240 _ 0.60
e. Add about 10 miles to comfortably slow to 250 KIAS. : FL 250 0.61
f. 49 + 10 + 30 (from fix) = start down 89 miles from the VOR. : FL 260 0.62
6. Another VERY popular method is to simply enter the VNAV information : FL 270 0.64
into the FMS and mash the easy button;o). : FL 280 0.65
•
- - - - - -·• FL 290 0.66
Speed Adjustment Terminology: (AIM 4-4-12t., 5-5-9, FAA-H-8083-16)
• Resume normal speed used to terminate ATC assigned speed adjustments on segments where no
published speed restrictions apply. It does not cancel published restrictions on upcoming procedures.
• Comply with speed restrictions used when the aircraft is joining or resuming a charted procedure or
route with published speed restrictions.
• Comply with restrictions requires compliance with all altitude and/or speed restrictions depicted on the
procedure.
• Delete speed restrictions used when either ATC assigned or published speed restrictions on a charted
procedure are no longer required. This does not relieve the pilot of speed restrictions applicable to 91.117.
• Resume published speed issued to terminate a speed adjustment where speed restrictions are
published on a charted procedure.
• When instructed to ''comply with speed restrictions'' or to ''resume published speed," ATC anticipates
pilots will begin adjusting speed the minimum distance necessary prior to a published speed
restriction so as to cross the waypoint/fix fil the published speed.

V SPEEDS - V means VELOCITY

V1 MAXIMUM speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the first action (e.g. , apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed
brakes) to stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. V1 also means the MINIMUM speed in the takeoff,
following a failure of the critical engine at VEF· at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required height
above the takeoff surface within the takeoff distance.
V2 Takeoff safety speed for jets, turboprops or Transport category aircraft Best climb gradient speed
i.e., best altitude increase per mile with the most critical engine inop - twin engine aircraft with an engine inop are
guaranteed a 2.4°/o climb gradient (24 ft UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD) - min speed to be maintained to at least 400 ft AGL.
V2MIN Minimum takeoff safety speed. Usually 1.2 times stall speed in takeoff configuration.
VA Design m,Aneuvering speed - The highest safe airspeed for abrupt control deflection or for operation in
turbulence or severe gusts. Does not allow for multiple large control inputs. If only one speed is published it is usually
determined at max landing weight. This speed decreases as weight decreases.
Formula for determining VA at less than max landing weight: V A2 = VA x ~current weight +max lndg weight
VABE Maximum speed for 8,ir-§.rake £,xtension.
VABO Maximum speed for 8,ir-§.rake Qperation.
VAC Missed 8,pproach .Qlimb speed for flap configuration with critical engine inop (2.1°/o climb gradient).
VAP APproach target speed. VREF +configuration (flaps/slats setting) & wind factor.
Typically- add (to VREF) 1h the headwind component+ all the gust factor (to a max of 20 knots)
Ve Design speed for maximum gust intensity for Transport-category aircraft or other aircraft certified
under Part 25. Turbulent-air-penetration speed that protects the structure in 66-fps gusts.
Ve Design .Qruising speed. Speed the aircraft was designed to cruise at. The completed aircraft may
actually cruise slower or faster than V c· It is the highest speed at which the structure must withstand the FAA's hypothetical
"standard 50-fps gust."
VD Design Qiving speed The aircraft is designed to be capable of diving to this speed (in very smooth
air) and be free of flutter, control reversal and buffeting . Control surfaces have a natural vibration frequency where they begin
to "flutter" like a flag in a stiff breeze. If flutter begins, it can become catastrophic in a matter of seconds. It can worsen until
the aircraft is destroyed even if airspeed is reduced as soon as flutter begins.
VDEC Accelerate/Stop DECision speed for multiengine piston and light multiengine turboprops.
VDF I Demonstrated-flight Qiving speed - VDF is in knots. MDF is in a percentage of Mach number.
Some aircraft are incapable of reaching Vo because of lack of power or excess drag. When this is the case, the test pilot dives to the maximum
MDF speed possible - the demonstrated-flight diving speed.
VEF Speed at which the critical engine is assumed to fail during takeoff (used in certification tests).
VENR ENRoute climb speed with critical engine inop accelerate to VENA above 1,500 AGL.
VF Design flap speed During the design phase, the flaps are designed to be operated at this
maximum speed. If the engineers did a good job, the actual flap speed-VFE will be the same.
VFC I Maximum speed for undesirable flight .Qharacteristics must be regarded with the same respect as
VNE - Red line. Insta bi lity could develop beyond the pilot's ability to recover. VFc is expressed in knots; MFc is expressed in a percentage of
MFC Mach number.
VFE Maximum flap-£xtended speed Top of white arc Highest speed permissible with wing flaps in a
prescribed extended position. Many aircraft allow the use of approach flaps at speeds higher than VFE· Positive load for Normal category
airplanes is usually reduced from +3.8Gs to +2.0Gs with the flaps down, and negative load is reduced from -1.52Gs to Zero. The purpose of
flaps during landing is to enable steeper approaches without increasing the ai rspeed.
VFR flap Retract speed minimum speed required for flap retraction after takeoff.
VFS final .§.egment speed (jet takeoff) with critical engine inop. Accelerate to VFS at 400 feet AGL.
VFTO final IakeQff speed end of the takeoff path en route configuration one engine inoperative.
VG Best Qlide speed This speed decreases as weight decreases.
VH Maximum speed in level flight with maximum continuous power. Mainly used for aircraft
advertising. Ultralights are limited by Part 103 to a VH of 55 knots.
VLE Maximum banding gear £,xtended speed Maximum speed at which an airplane can be safely
flown with the landing gear extended. In an EMERGENCY, FORGET ABOUT THIS SPEED, THROW THE GEAR OUT!
VLLE Maximum banding bight £,xtended speed.

VLLO Maximum banding bight Qperating speed.
VLO Maximum banding gear Qperating speed Maximum speed at which the landing gear can be safely
extended or retracted. Usually limited by air loads on the wheel-well doors. On some aircraft the doors close after extension, allowing
acceleration to VLE - Max gear extended speed. In an EMERGENCY -when the ground is getting close and the airspeed is approaching
redline - FORGET ABOUT THIS SPEED, THROW THE GEAR OUT!

VLOF bift-OFf speed. Speed at which the aircraft becomes airborne. Back-pressure is applied at VR
(rotate )-a somewhat lower speed-so that lift-off actually happens at VLoF·
VMCA or More commonly known as VMC (although VMCA is more correct) .Minimum .Qontrol speed with
VMC critical engine (usually the left) inoperative out of ground effect in the 8,ir ''RED line'' Most
critical engine inop & windmilling; 5° bank towards operative engine; take-off power on
operative engine; gear up; flaps up; and most rearward C.G. In this configuration, if airspeed is
allowed below VMc, even full rudder cannot prevent a yaw toward the dead engine. At slower
speeds, the slower moving wing the one with the failed engine will stall first. VMC is NOT a
constant, it can be reduced by feathering the prop, moving C.G. forward, and reducing power.
VMCG Minimum speed necessary to maintain directional .Qontrol following an engine failure during the
takeoff roll while still on the Ground determined using purely aerodynamic controls with no
reliance on nosewheel steering
- jets, turboprops or transport category aircraft.
VMO/ Maximum Qperating limit speed turboprop or jet VMO is indicated airspeed measured in knots
MMO and is mainly a structural limitation that is the effective speed limit at LOWER altitudes. MMO is a
percentage of Mach limited by the change to the aircraft's handling characteristics as localized airflow over the aircraft
approaches the speed of sound creating shock waves that can alter controllability. As altitude increases, indicated airspeed
decreases while Mach remains constant. MMo is the effective speed limit ("barber pole" on the airspeed indicator) at
HIGHER altitudes. MMo Is usually much higher for swept winged jets than a straight wing design.
VMU Minimum Y.nstick speed. Slowest speed at which an aircraft can become airborne. Originated as
a result of testing for the world 's first jet transport, the de Havilland "Comet". During an ill-fated takeoff attempt, the nose was
raised so high and prematurely that the resultant drag prevented further acceleration and liftoff. Tests were then established
to ensure that future heavy transports could safely takeoff with the tail touching the ground and maintain this attitude until out
of ground effect.
VNE liever ,5xceed speed ''RED line'' Applies only to piston-powered airplanes. This speed is never
any more than 90°/o of VoF· G loads imposed by ANYturbulence can easily overstress an aircraft at this speed.
VNO NO go there. Maximum structural cruising speed Beginning of the yellow arc or caution range.
Theoretically a brand new aircraft can withstand the FAA's 50-fps gust at this speed . Unfortunately the pilot has no way of
measuring gust intensity .
VR .B.otation speed. Recommended speed to start applying back-pressure on the yoke, rotating the
nose so that ideally the aircraft lifts off the ground at VLoF·
VREF Calculated REFerence speed for final approach final approach speed. Usually 1.3 times Vso or
higher. SMALL PLANE - bottom of white arc +30°/o. JETS - calculated from landing performance charts
that consider weight, temperature and field elevation. To this speed jets typically calculate an approach
speed (VAP) by adding (to VREF) lithe headwind component+ all the gust factor (to a max of 20 knots).
Vs §tall speed or minimum steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable. Vs is a generic
term and usually does not correspond to a specific airspeed .
Vs1 §tall speed or minimum steady flight speed in a specific configuration. Normally regarded as the
"clean"-gear and flaps up-stall speed. Lower limit of the green arc (remember §.tuft !n). However this is not always the
case. It could represent stall speed with flaps in takeoff position or any number of different configurations. So Vs1 is a clean
stall , but the definition of "clean" could vary.
Vso §tall speed in landing configuration Lower limit of white arc Stalling speed or the minimum
steady flight speed at which the airplane is controllable in landing configuration: engines at idle, props in low pitch, usually
full wing flaps, cowl flaps closed, C.G. at maximum forward limit (i.e. most unfavorable CG), max gross landing weight.
Maximum allowable Vso for single-engine aircraft and many light twins is 61 knots (remember §.tuft Qut).
VSSE Minimum §afe §ingle ,5ngine speed (multi) Provides a reasonable margin against an
unintentional stall when making intentional engine cuts during training.
VTOSS Takeoff safety speed for Category A rotorcraft.
Vwwo Maximum Windshield Wiper Qperating speed.
Vx Best angle of climb speed Delivers the greatest gain of altitude in the shortest possible horizontal
distance. The speed given in the flight manual is good only at sea level, at max gross weight, and flaps in takeoff position .
Vx increases with altitude (about Y:z knot per 1,000 feet), and usually decreases with a reduction of weight. It will take more
time to gain altitude at Vx because of the slower speed , but the goal is to gain the most altitude in the shortest horizontal
distance - like before )£OU hit those TREES that they always seem to put at the end of most every runway!
VXSE Best §ingle-,5ngine angle of climb speed (multiengine 12,500 Lbs or less).
VY Best rate of climb speed delivers the greatest gain in altitude in the shortest possible time. Flaps
and gear up. Decreases as weight is reduced and also decreases with altitude. Lift-to-drag ratio is usually at its maximum at
this speed so it can also be used as a good ball-park figure for best-glide speed or maximum-endurance speed for holding.
VYSE Best §ingle-,5ngine rate of climb speed ''BLUE line'' (multiengine 12,500 Lbs or less).
POSITION ERROR Caused by the static ports sensing erroneous static pressure. Slipstream flow
causes disturbances at the static port, preventing actual atmospheric pressure
movement. Varies with airspeed, altitude, and configuration, and may be a plus or
minus value.
DENSITY ERROR This instrument does not compensate for changes in altitude and temperature.
COMPRESSIBILITY Caused by the packing of air into the pitot tube at high airspeeds, resulting in higher
ERROR than normal indications.
Read off the instrument. Uncorrected for variations in air density, temperature,
INDICATED AirSpeed
installation and instrument error.
IAS corrected for instrument and position errors. Obtained from the 8,ircraft
CALIBRATED AirSpeed
flight Manual or filot Qperating Handbook.
EQUIVALENT AirSpeed CAS corrected for compression of the air inside the pitot tube.
CAS (or EAS) corrected for nonstandard pressure and temperature. True
airspeed and CAS are the same in standard atmosphere at sea level. Obtained
TRUE AirSpeed from a flight computer (E6B) or the 8,ircraft flight ,Manual. True airspeed
increases roughly 2°/o for each 1,000 feet of density altitude. Therefore at
10,000 feet, true airspeed is approximately 20o/o greater than indicated airspeed.
GROUND Speed T AS corrected for wind speed across the ground use that new GPS of yours.
White arc Flaps fully extended operating range
Lower limit of WHITE arc V50 Stall speed in landing configuration (§.tuft Qut)
Upper limit of WHITE arc VFE Maximum flap extension speed (fully extended)
Normal operating range. Starts at V 51 (normally gear and flaps up

GREEN arc stall speed), and terminates at VNo (Max structural cruising speed).
Lower limit of GREEN arc V 51 Stall speed clean or specified configuration (.§.tuft !n)
Upper limit of GREEN arc VNo Maximum structural cruise speed
Caution range (for operations in extremely smooth air only). Starts at

YELLOW arc VNo and ends at red line VNE·
RED line VNE liever ,5xceed speed for piston-powered airplanes. ANY
turbulence can easily DESTROY an aircraft at this speed.
Red & White Hashmarked VM 0 /MMo Maximum operating speed (turboprop/jet)

Pointer (barber pole) Self-adjusting with changes in altitude and air density.
BLUE line VvsE Best rate-of-climb with one engine inoperative
RED line VMC Minimum controllable airspeed with the "critical" engine inop

(Chap 4 - Speed, Altitude & Jet J
The SPEED of SOUND & MACH:
1. The speed of sound varies with temperature.
Therefore as altitude increases and temperature
decreases the speed of sound will also decrease.
2. Of course the precise speed of sound at a given
temperature is an elusive figure due to the other
variables involved such as the exact composition of
the air, humidity, the coefficient of heat, etc.
3. Thanks to "Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators" and
other government publications, the generally
accepted value for the speed of sound at 1 5°C is:
661. 7 knots; or...
•
~ 761.48 mph; or...
1116.95 feet/second; or ...
340.37 meters/second; or...
12.69 statute miles/minute.
Other sources reference this number to be anywhere from 660.0 to 662.0 knots. Of course during
actual flight at these speeds it is virtually impossible to measure a difference of one or two knots.
4. The simple formula below will be accurate to within a knot or so ...
Just add 273 to the Qutside 8,ir Iemperature (°C), mash the sguare root button, then multiply by 39
(FYI - Another popular and accepted number to multiply by is 38.94 - the product will essentially be the same).
•• ·························~ ~
MACH SPEED vs. TEMP .• Calculate MACH # with an E6B:
• .. Put the little arrow (MACH NO. INDEX) in the
Speed of Sound ••
(knots) 39 x~ OAT in Kelvin : •
right hand inner window of the wheel.
Set the OAT (°C) against the arrow.
°Celsius + 273 • • Then read the Mach # on the inside
Kelvin •• scale (on the wheel).
Rankin °Fahrenheit + 459. 7° : .. Above the inner wheel D!J you'll find
• the speed of sound (MACH 1.0) at the
Fahrenheit {°C x 9/5) + 32
: current OAT.
or... (°C x 1.8) + 32
: • Against your TAS on the outside scale
Celsius 5/9 {°F -32) • (fixed scale on the frame), read your
or ... 0.555555555 (°F -32) current MACH # on the inner wheel.
Mach# KTAS
Speed of Sound
@ current OAT
• 2 -· . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . · -· •••••••••••••••••
What it looks like
to go supersonic.
: Surprisingly, the SPEED of SOUND has
: NOTHING to do with ALTITUDE but
: EVERYTHING to do with TEMPERATURE •
•
•• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
·························~~
: TEMPERATURE vs. ALTITUDE : Another Speed of Sound Formula
•
: .. Temperature decreases at the rate •
: Speed of Sound =
•• of approximately 2°C (3.5°F) per
• OAT(K) @your altitude
• 1000 ft increase in altitude until ••
•• reaching the TROPOPAUSE and ••
Speed of Sound @15°C x Standard Temp(K)(15°C)
•• entering the Stratosphere .
: Example:
• • There is essentially no temperature
• • 238.5 K (-34.5°C + 273) @25,000 ft
change in the flyable altitudes of the •• 661.7 kts x 288.0 K (15.0°C + 273) @sea level
STRATOSPHERE. •
•
•• = 602.2 kts @-34.5°C (standard temp @25,000feet)
~

(chap 4 - Speed, Altitude & Jet)
Subsonic Below 0. 75 Mach

Transonic O. 75 to 1.20 Mach
Supersonic 1.20 to 5.00 Mach
Hypersonic Above 5.00 Mach
........................... 1. Standard Pressure Lapse Rate is
: Mach vs Indicated Airspeed roughly 1 inch of mercury for every 1,000
• During climbs or descents the feet. But that really is only true for the
•• transition from referencing speed first 10.000 feet above sea level.
•• in knots to Mach number usually
: happens around FL240. between 10.000 and 20,000 feet.
• Controllers will generally assign 3. Between 20,000 and 30,000 feet,
•• an airspeed in knots below this 19 - 22 miles pressure drops less than 5 inches.
• approximate altitude and a Mach 4. 30.000 to 40.000 feet, the pressure drops
\ number above it. (AIM 4-4-1 2) only a little more than 3 inches.
,,,,,,_.-----1----......~ 5. Pressure at 18.000 feet (500 mb) is about
..... 1/2 of what it is at sea level.
1
6. At lower altitudes a 1/10 h inch change
- DEFINITELY
...........•..
NOT to scale.
26 - 29 miles will translate to a 100 foot altitude
difference, in the upper flight levels, a
1/1 oth inch change equals about 300 f et
15.ooo· T25.ooo·
•• ••....•...... ···~
...
: The sun heats the surface
: of the earth, which then
( 55,000' )
: heats the atmosphere from 65,000'
: below. The higher you are
• above the heat source
•• (Earth), the more the
•• temperature decreases (@
•• approximately 2°C per 1,000
•• feet in the Troposphere) . TROPOSPHERE
•• Once reaching the
: Tropopause and entering
: the Stratosphere (on
: average about 36,000 feet
STRATOSPHERE
: in North America), there are
: remarkably small changes
•••••••••••••••••
• CAUTION: NOTto be
: in temperature with altitude. : used for in-flight
• Temperatures in the navigation ;o)
•• Stratosphere will actually MESOSPHERE
•• rise ever so slightly in the
•• upper reaches due to the
; affect of the sun's radiation.
'
.-................................ .
• The summit of Mount Everest is 29.029 ft MSL.
A number of people have made it to the top
without the benefit of supplemental oxygen .
Numerous other people have died trying.
60,000 -69.7 -56.5 2.12 1.02 72.31 574 kts

36,000 -69.4 -56.4 6.71 3.30 227.27 574
The TROPOPAUSE marks the boundary between the Troposphere and the Stratosphere. The height of the
Tropopause varies with latitude and seasons sloping from about 20,000 ft over the poles to 65,000 ft over the
Equator and is higher in summer than in the winter. Average height in the U.S. is approximately 36,000 ft.
The STRATOSPHERE is typified by remarkably small changes in temperature with altitude.
35,000 -65.8 -54.3 7 .04 3.46 238.41 577
33,000 -58.7 -50.4 7.73 3.80 262.02 582
31,000 -51.6 -46.4 8.49 4.17 287.50 587
29,000 -44.4 -42.5 9.30 4.57 314.81 592
27,000 -37.3 -38.5 10.16 4.99 344.30 597
26,000 -33. 7 -36.5 10.63 5.22 360.40 600
25,000 -30.2 -34.5 11.10 5.45 376.01 602
24,000 -26.6 -32.5 11.60 5.70 393.17 605
23,000 -23.0 -30.6 12.10 5.95 409.96 607
22,000 -19.5 -28.6 12.64 6.21 428.33 609
21,000 -15.9 -26.6 13.18 6.45 446.44 612
20,000 -12.3 -24.6 13.75 6.75 466.00 615
19,000 -8.8 -22.6 14.33 7.04 485.44 617
At approximately 18,000 feet (500 mb) -
Atmospheric pressure drops to about 1/2 of what it is at sea level.
18,000 -5.2 -20.7 14.94 7.34 506.32 620
16,000 1.9 -16.7 16.22 7.96 549.42 624
14,000 9.1 -12.7 17.58 8.63 595.46 629
12,000 16.2 -8.8 19.03 9.35 644.58 634
10,000 23.3 -4.8 20.58 10.11 696.94 639
6,000 37.6 3.1 23.98 11.78 812.04 648
3,000 48.3 9.1 26.82 13.17 908.20 655
1,000 55.4 13.0 28.86 14.17 977.16 660
Sea Level 59.0 15.0 29.92 14.70 1013.25 661.7 kts
- - - - -
.. . - -

(Chap 4 Speed, Altitude & Jet J
····················~~
•••••••••••••••••••
: ''Kollsman Window''
: The Kollsman window knob
rotates the hands at the rate of
roughly 1 inch per 1.000 feet
: or 1/1 oth inch per 100 feet.
• But that really is only true for
........................ .
• LOWERING the altimeter setting
the first 10,000 feet above •• lowers the indicated altitude.
sea level. In the upper flight •• RAISING the altimeter setting
levels, a 1/1 oth inch change • raises the indicated altitude.
equals about 300 feet.
ALTITUDE TYPES (91.121, 91.144, AIM 7-5-6, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-25)

PRESSURE 1. Determined by setting the altimeter to 29.92 (1013 mb) and reading the altitude
indicated on the altimeter.
ALTITUDE 2. Used by all aircraft at and above 18,000 ft (in the U.S. and Canada).
3. True altitude corrected for non-standard pressures.
4. Aircraft performance charts are usually based on pressure altitude (or sometimes
density altitude).
5. On that very rare "standard day", pressure altitude will equal true altitude.
DENSITY 1. Density altitude is pressure altitude (29.92) corr~~!~.cJ .{Qf. t'l.Qn:.~!Si.rJ~~rf! .t.~roP.~.~CJ!~r.e and
is considered for aircraft performance. : Density Altitude Calculator
ALTITUDE 2. Warmer air is "thinner" than colder air. : www.wahiduddin.net/calc/calc da.htm
3. Higher temperatures can be equivalent to higher altitudes as far as aircraft performance
is concerned (warmer air is less dense, the molecules are further apart).
4. Density altitude is the altitude the aircraft "thinks" it is flying.
5. In other words on a hot day aircraft performance sucks.
6. (OAT- ISA) x 120 +Press Altitude= Density Altitude. Example:
Pressure Altitude = 6,000 ft
Qutside 8,ir Iemp = 13°C
ISA (@ 6,000 ft) = 3°C {from rule of thumb: (-2° x each 1000 ft MSL) + 15 =ISA}
(13-3) x 120 + 6000 = 7 ,200 ft Density Altitude
INDICATED 1. Read off the face of the altimeter. Indicated altitude is what the altimeter reads when
the local MSL pressure (altimeter setting) is set in the Kollsman window
ALTITUDE 2. On the GROUND set the altimeter to the airport elevation (at that point on the
airport), indicated altitude should be the same as the true altitude and the setting in the
Kollsman window should match the current altimeter setting.
3. In the AIR as you fly along and encounter non-standard temperatures, indicated
altitude can differ from true altitude. The colder the temperature, the more significant
(and possibly dangerous) this difference can be.
4. When flying above a location for which you obtained a local current altimeter setting in
extremely low temperatures the actual (true) altitude of the aircraft can be
significantly lower than indicated. Of course, when you reach the RUNWAY, a perfectly
set altimeter should be exactly correct no matter what the temperature.
5. The venturi effect of wind blowing through a mountain pass can create an isolated
low pressure area that can make your altimeter read as much as 1,000 feet off (the
aircraft will be 1,000 feet lower than indicated).
TRUE 1. Actual height above mean sea level (MSL) as if measured with a tape measure.
2. Elevations of airports, mountain tops, towers and other obstructions are given in true
ALTITUDE altitude.
ABSOLUTE 1. The actual height above the ground (8,bove §.round ,bevel, or AGL) again as if
measured with a tape measure.
ALTITUDE 2. Instrument approach charts give the Height 8,bove Iouchdown (HAT), !hreshold
.Qrossing Height (TCH), etc. in absolute altitude.
3. Subtract the terrain elevation from true altitude.

AL Tl METER SETTING: (91.121 , 91.411, 135.225, AIM 5-4-5, 7-1-12, 7-2-1thru7-2-5, 7-5-6, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. The current reported altimeter setting of a station along the route and within 100 nm of the aircraft.
2. If no station within 100 nm, the current reported altimeter of an appropriate available station.
3. If no radio - set to field elevation before takeoff.
4. Use 29.92 - while on the ground to obtain ''Pressure Altitude" for performance charts. Pressure Altitude
corrected for non-standard temperature will give you ''Density Altitude."
5. Use 29.92 - for 18,000 feet and above (Flight Levels)(United States & Canada).
6. When set to the current altimeter setting - altimeters should read within ::1:75 feet of field elevation and dual
altimeters should agree within ±75 feet of each other for RVSM operations (AIM 7-2-3, AFM).
7. EXTREMELY COLD WEATHER can cause potentially dangerous altimeter errors. When flying ABOVE a
reporting station on an exceptionally cold day, the aircraft will be significantly lower than what the altimeter
indicates. The pressure lapse rate doesn't decrease at its normal "standard" one inch per thousand feet because
the extremely cold air is also extremely dense.
The magnitude of in-flight error depends mostly on how HIGH the aircraft is ABOVE the station that is reporting
th e Ioca I a It'1met er sett'1ng an d JUS
. t how severe1y_
I co Id th e tempera ture .1s.
At-22°F {-30°C) Your true altitude is approximately 380 feet lower than
flying at 2000 feet indicated above the station indicated = 1620 feet true.
At-22°F (-30°C) Your true altitude is approximately 190 feet lower than
flying at 1OQO f~~t indi5'S!t~d above the station indicated= 810 feet true.
When you reach the RUNWAY, a perfectly set altimeter should indicate field elevation EXACTLY no matter what the TEMPERATURE.
WORST CASE SCENARIO

Being 40 feet lower than indicated at DH may not seem like a big deal - but if you throw in a perfectly legal altimeter that reads 70 feet higher than it
should (putting you 70 feet lower), a slightly misadjusted altimeter setting, a slight moment of wandering attention, and this little detail could
mushroom into some §~verely bent siluminum.
CONSIDER ADDING a little ALTITUDE CUSHION when CLOSE to the GROUND in EXTREMELY COLD CONDITIONS.
8. That portion of the error that might otherwise exist because of the height of the station above sea level is accounted
for in the altimeter setting for that station. This is why the aircraft ALTIMETER INDICATES FIELD ELEVATION
UPON LANDING - REGARDLESS OF TEMPERATURE, airport elevation and nonstandard lapse rates.
Canadian Air Traffic Control compensates for extremely cold temperatures when issuing altitudes, especially
Minimum Vectoring Altitudes. In the United States, it's up to YOU to make sure you don't bounce off the roof of the
Ford plant while being vectored for approach on that beautifully brisk -22°F evening in Detroit. It's up to YOU to
add the appropriate amount of altitude and report doing so to ATC.
9. Of course on a HOT DAY, your true altitude will be higher than indicated, but normally who cares?
10. The ALTIMETER and PITOT/STATIC system must be - l"ESTED and RE-CERTIFIED every TWO
calendar YEARS for /FR operations (only). (91.411)
.....-----
Arpt ALTITUDE TEMPERATURE CORRECTION CHART (AIM 7·2·3)
Temp IND/CA TED Hei ht ABOVE the Elevation of the Altimeter Source Feet AGL
oc 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1500 2000 3000 4000 5000
20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 90 120 170 230 280
-10° 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150 200 290 390 490
-20° 30 50 60 70 90 100 120 130 140 210 280 420 570 710
-30° 40 60 80 100 120 130 150 170 190 280 380 570 760 950
-40° 50 80 100 120 150 170 190 220 240 360 480 720 970 1210
-50° 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 450 590 890 1190 1500
NOTE: Values should be ADDED to published altitudes during an instrument approach
••••i,......,.........................,....................................;~,.:...::;:.-.;...~,;;..;.,,:,.:,;..;~:.-;..;:..;::;:;:;::::~~:.;.;.:.,~...;:...;;~;..;..;:..;....;~~~~:,;.:.:.~~~~:-.;..;,:.;......................................................- _ _ J
•: EXAMPLE : Airport temperature -30°C, and the aircraft altimeter is reading 1,500 feet above the airport elevation. The chart
•:
: shows that the current altimeter setting will place the aircraft as much as 280 feet below the altitude indicated by the altimeter. :
··········································································· ········ ·········~ ························
KALISPELL, MONTANA Al-887 (FM)
15064
Snowflake Airport
.-o
LOC 1-GPI
111 •5
APP CRS Rwy ldg 9007
TDZE 2966 ILS or LOC RWY 2
0 2 0° Apt Elev 2977
- MALSR
GLACIER PARK INTL (GPI)
MISSED APPROACH: Climb to 4100 rhen climbing leh rum to 12000
ADF required. • ~ vio heading 190° and vio FCA VOR/DME R·238 to KILLY INT/ FCA
-l 2°C/10°F 0 T 15.7 DME and ~old, continue climb-in-hold to 12000.
AllS SALT LAKE CENTER GLACIER TOWER * GND CON UNICOM
132.625 133.4 285.4 124.55 (CTAFI 121.6 122.95
·-········ ...•........•......•......................•....•...........•.......•
: Cold temperature restricted airports are identified on the approach chart with a snowflake symbol followed by a temperature.
: Pilots are responsible to report cold temperature corrected altitudes to ATC whenever applying those corrections on an
: intermediate segment and/or a published missed approach final altitude. This should be done on initial contact with the ATC
: issuing approach clearance. ATC requires this in order to ensure appropriate vertical separation between traffic. These
temperatures are completely separate from the temperatures published on Area Navigation (RNAV) approaches.

HIGH to LOW Lookout BELOW
(IF YOU DON'T RESET THE ALTIMETER TO THE CURRENT LOCAL SETTING)
....................
• Captain awakens briefly
: from his nap to check the
• altitude. It looks OK, he
goes back to sleep .
••••••••••••••••
................. . .
• Mentally challenged copilot
: forgot to reset altimeter.
• Aircraft is 1,000 ft lower '
• than indicated .
.. ••••••••• •-....
: • Local Altimeter .,,
which an IFR approach is .. • •••••••• •-....
: • Local Altimeter .,,
based is not available, the
30.01 approach is NOT authorized. ' 29.01
HIGH Temperature to LOW Temperature

Lookout BELOW
••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Indicated altitude 5,000 ft :
•••••••••••••••••••• • •••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••
: True altitude 4, 720 ft :
••••••••••••••••••••••
•:• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Indicated altitude 5,000 ft :
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•:•••••••••••••••••••••••
• .. ......... .................. . . ~
• •
True altitude 3,500 ft •
• ••••••••••••••••••••••
•
• ::::> There is no adjustment on an altimeter
• •• for temperature .
• In this extreme example, the aircraft
•
• would actually be 1,500 ft LOWER
•• than INDICATED .
• •• => In extremely cold weather, consider
•• adding a little ALTITUDE CUSHION
• •
• during a circling approach to an
............ ......
••• • • • • • • •• • • • • • ·~.... airport surrounded by high terrain .
..
.• Airport temperature ~ • => When you reach the RUNWAY, a •• • Airport temperature ......_
•
' 0°C • perfectly set altimeter should be ' -50°C
EXACTLY CORRECT NO MATTER
WHAT THE TEMPERATURE.

(chap 4 Speed, Altitude & Jet)
TEMPERATURE and AL TIMETRY: (Ac oo-6A)
There is no adjustment on an altimeter for temperature. Like most substances, air expands as it
becomes warmer and shrinks as it cools. The diagram below shows three columns of air one colder than
standard, one at standard temperature, and one warmer than standard. Pressure is equal at the bottom of
each column and equal at the top of each column. Therefore, pressure decrease upward through each
column is the same. Vertical expansion of the warm column has made it higher than the column at standard
temperature. Shrinkage of the cold column has made it shorter. Since pressure decrease is the same in
each column, the rate of decrease of pressure with height in warm air is less than standard; the rate of
decrease of pressure with height in cold air is greater than standard.
Three columns of air showing how decrease of pressure with height varies with temperature. The left
column is warmer than average and the right column colder that average. Pressure is equal at the bottom
of each column and equal at the top of each column. Pressure decreases most rapidly with height in
the cold air and least rapidly in the warm air. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• EQUAL PRESSURE
STANDARD
COLD
EQUAL PRESSURE
INDICATED ALTITUDE depends on AIR TEMPERATURE BELOW the AIRCRAFT. Since pressure is equal
at the bases and equal at the tops of each column, INDICATED ALTITUDE is the SAME at the TOP of each
COLUMN. When air is colder than standard (right}, the altimeter reads higher than true altitude. When air is
warmer than standard (left), the altimeter reads lower than true altitude .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
INDICATED Altitude 5,000 feet
True Altitude
5,000 feet•••• ••••••••••••••••••••••
STANDARD
COLD
29.92 29.92 29.92

DENSITY ALTITUDE and PERFORMANCE: (AIM 7-5-6, Ac oo-6A, FAA-H-8083-25)
1. Aircraft performance is based on DENSITY ALTITUDE (i.e., pressure altitude [29.92] corrected for
non-standard temperature). Density altitude can also be defined as the number of air molecules
packed into a certain volume of space normally expressed as kilograms (mass) per cubic meter
(volume).
2. If the air you're flying in contains a lot of molecules per cubic meter (low density altitude), there'll be
plenty of air molecules available to generate lift and to mix with the fuel to create thrust for takeoff.
This dense air will also create a lot of drag, especially at high airspeeds.
3. As density altitude increases (i.e. air density decreases), the aircraft wings and engines will become
less efficient, however less density also equates to less drag, which is the key to jet cruise
performance at high altitude.
4. As far as takeoff performance is concerned, the colder, the denser (higher pressure) and the dryer
the better for all aircraft.
5. In order to clear those power lines, density altitude is the most important determining factor .
...........................................................
: Density Altitude Calculator
.. . .. . .. . .. . ... .. . .. ... . .. . .. . .. ... ... . .. . .. ... : www .wahiduddin.net/calc/calc da.htm
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29.92 29.92
GOOD STUFF for TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE:

1. HIGH atmospheric pressure (high altimeter setting). ························~
: For each 1°F increase, density
2. LOW altitude airport (low density altitude). : altitude increases by 60 feet, or
3. LOW temperature. : about 1,000 feet for each 15°F
4. LOW humidity. • above standard (59°F).
BAD STUFF for TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE - HOT - HIGH - HUMID:

1. HOT air is less dense than cold air when measured at the same atmospheric pressure. The air
molecules are further apart, but it always takes the same number of molecules flowing over and under
the wing for the aircraft to fly. Therefore, the aircraft must go faster (true airspeed) to accumulate the
required number of molecules necessary to fly (indicated airspeed). Engine horsepower is also reduced
by the lack of air molecules. This will consume A LOT of RUNWAY.
2. HIGH altitude airports (high density altitude) will obviously have less air molecules available to
generate lift. Once again The air molecules are further apart, but it always takes the same number of
molecules flowing over and under the wing for the aircraft to fly. Therefore, the aircraft must go faster
(true airspeed) to accumulate the required number of molecules necessary to fly. Engine horsepower is
also reduced by the lack of air molecules. Once again This will consume A LOTof RUNWAY.
3. HUMID air will also have an affect on performance. Water molecules displace air molecules and
water molecules have less mass than air molecules. This results in a decrease in total mass in the
cubicle of air that the aircraft is flying in and thus a somewhat lower air density. Normally humidity is not
considered when determining density altitude; but keep in mind that high humidity WILL DECREASE
aircraft performance. You'll need more runway and you'll get a decreased angle of climb.

-------------------------------------------------------
ALTITUDE, TEMPERATURE and HUMIDITY: (AIM 7-5-6, Ac oo-6A, FAA-H-8083-25)
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1. AL TIT UDE The higher the altitude, the less dense the air. : Density Altitude Calculator
; www.wahiduddin.neVcalc/calc da.htm
2. TEMPERATURE The warmer the air, the less dense it is.
3. HUMIDITY Humidity is not generally considered a major factor in density altitude computations
because the effect of humidity is related more to engine power than aerodynamic efficiency. At high
ambient temperatures, the atmosphere can retain a high water vapor content. For example, at 96° F,
the water vapor content of the air can be eight (8) times as great as at 42° F. High density altitude and
high humidity do not often go hand in hand. However if extremely HIGH HUMIDITY does exist, it can
reduce engine power by as much as 10°/o. It would be wise to add at least 10°/o to your computed
takeoff distance and anticipate a reduced climb rate. Another rule of thumb is when computing
density altitude add 100 feet (to the computed density altitude) for each 10°/o relative humidity
(relative humidity is 100°/o when it's raining). Therefore when it's RAINING add 1000 feet to the
computed density altitude before calculating takeoff and climb performance.
When the temperature rises above the standard temperature for the locality, the density of the air in that
locality is reduced and the density altitude increases. Aircraft aerodynamic performance and engine
horsepower output both decrease. Make a practice of checking aircraft performance charts especially when
temperatures are above normal regardless of airport elevation.
Decompression Sickness After SCUBA DIVING: (AIM 8-1-2)

1. A pilot or passenger who intends to fly after scuba diving should allow the body sufficient time to rid itself
of excess NITROGEN absorbed during diving. If not, decompression sickness due to evolved gas can
occur during exposure to low altitude and create a serious inflight emergency (or even death).
2. The recommended waiting time before going to flight altitudes of up to 8,000 feet is at least 12 hours after
diving which has not required controlled ascent (nondecompression stop diving), and at least 24 hours
after diving which has required controlled ascent (decompression stop diving). The waiting time before
going to flight altitudes above 8,000 feet should be at least 24 hours after ANY SCUBA dive. These
recommended altitudes are actual flight altitudes above mean sea level (AMSL) and not pressurized cabin
altitudes. This takes into consideration the risk of decompression of the aircraft during flight. The
depressurization of an aircraft in flight can be DEADLY for someone who has recently been scuba diving.

Temperature Effects on Density Altitude: (AIM 7-5-6, Ac oo-6A, FAA-H-8083-3, 8083-25)
Outside Air Temperature

STANDARD
PRESSURE 80°F 90°F 100°F 110°F 120°F 130°F
TEMPERATURE
ALTITUDE 27°C 32°C 38°C 43°C 49°C 54°C
(ISA)
59°F (15°C) Sea Level 1,200 1,900 2,500 3,200 3,800 4,400
52°F (11°C) 2,000 3,800 4,400 5,000 5,600 6,200 6,800
45°F (7°C} 4,000 6,300 6,900 7,500 8, 100 8,700 9,400
38°F (3°C} 6,000 8,600 9,200 9,800 10,400 11,000 11,600
32°F (0°C} 8,000 11, 100 11, 700 12,300 12,800 13,300 13,800
DENSITY ALTITUDE
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Density Altitude Calculator
An increase in density altitude results in:
1. Increased takeoff distance. : www.wahiduddin.net/calc/calc da.htm
2. Reduced rate of climb.
3. Increased true airspeed on approach and landing (Indicated airspeed remains the same).
4. Increased landing roll distance.
At airports of higher elevations, such as those in the Western United States, high temperatures sometimes
have such an effect on density altitude that safe operations are impossible (most takeoff performance
charts for jets do not include figures for operations above 120°F). In such conditions, operations during
mid-day can become extremely hazardous. Even at lower elevations, aircraft performance can become
marginal and it may be necessary to reduce aircraft takeoff weight for safe operations. It is advisable, when
performance is in question, to schedule operations during the cool hours of the day, early morning or
very late afternoon .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• For every 1,000-foot increase in density altitude,
•
takeoff roll will increase by AT LEAST 10°/o.
I 6 1
HIGH HUMIDITY:
1. When computing density altitude (rule of thumb) add 100 J
'
feet to the computed density altitude for each 1Oo/o
relative humidity (relative humidity is 100°/o when it's
raining). Therefore when it's RAINING add 1000 feet
to the computed density altitude before calculating
takeoff and climb performance.
2. Extremely HIGH HUMIDITY can reduce engine power by 1 t Goldarnit!
as much as 10°/o (for small non-turbocharged piston Now I gotta go back
aircraft). A good rule of thumb would be to add at least inside and
10°/o to your computed takeoff distance and anticipate a recalculate all my
reduced climb rate. performance data.
3. RELATIVE HUMIDITY 0/o: I hope they have
Formula: some popcorn left.
(Dew point/Temp) x (-100) + 100 =Relative Humidity0
Example:
{9°C/19°C) x (-100) + 100 = 53°/o

(chap 4 Speed, Altitude & Jet)
Pressure
Altitude
6000 5600 6200 6800 7400 7900 8400 9000 9500 10000
5000 4400 5000 5600 6200 6700 7200 7800 8400 8800
4000 3200 3800 4400 5000 5500 6000 6600 7100 7600
3000 1900 2600 3100 3700 4200 4800 5400 5900 6400
2000 +600 +1200 1900 2400 3000 3600 4200 4700 5200
1000 -600 0 +600 1200 1800 2400 3000 3400 4000
Sea Level -1800 -1200 -600 0 600 1200 1700 2200 2800
OAT°C 0°C 5°C 10°c 15°C 20°c 25°C 30°C 35°C 40°C
OAT°F 32°F 41°F 50°F 59°F 68°F 77"F 86°F 95°F 104°F
Pressure Altitude
Conversion DENSITY ALTITUDE = pressure Airport (aka Field) Elevation: The highest
ADD to or altitude [29. 92] corrected for point on an airport's usable runway expressed in
non-standard temperature . feet above mean sea level (MSL). (AC 1so1s300-1=-"3)_.-
SUBTRACT
ALTIMETER from FIELD ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
SETTING ELEVATION : Density Altitude Calculator
before : www.wahiduddin.neVcalc/calc da.htm
·~#IAJ~l##;##,Nt#l~lt/l###ltl##t'1#N~l¥i'IHt#i~lt/l#W#!
entering
············································~··················
chart. : PRESSURE ALTITUDE is the uncorrected (for temperature) altitude indicated by an
____2_8_.o_ _ _+_1_,8_2_4_ft---I : altimeter when it is set to 29.92. In most situations FIELD ELEVATION may be substituted
____2_8_.1 _ _ _+_1__,7_2_7_ft---1 : for PRESSURE ALTITUDE because pressure variations will seldom exceed 400 feet.
____2_8_.2---+-__+_1--,6_3_0_ft--I • However, to obtain a more exact pressure altitude for these computations, set your altimeter
____2_8_.3---+-__+_1--,5_3_3_ft--1 : to 29.92 and note the indicated (pressure) altitude before entering a density altitude chart.
28.4 +1 ,436 ft
28.5 +1 ,340 ft
28.6 +1 ,244 ft
____ 28_.7
___ +--'1,_14_8_ft_ PRE SS URE The difference between 29.92 and
28.8 +1 ,053 ft Field elevation = 800 ft
the current altimeter setting changes
AL Tl TU DE Altimeter Setting= 29.75
1 - - - -28.9
- - - - - - -+957
- - -ft1 pressure altitude at the rate of 1O ft
29.0 +863 ft for every .01 inches of change.
29.1 29.92 - 29.75 = .17"
+768 ft If you must ADD the difference to
.17 x 1O(per .01) = 170 ft
29.2 +673 ft equal 29.92, then you must ADD to
800 ft + 170 ft =
29.3 +579 ft the field elevation to obtain the
970 ft Pressure Altitude
29.4 +485 ft ressure altitude.
29.5 +392 ft PRESSURE Much easier method . Plus you
29.6 +298 ft Set the altimeter to 29.92 and read get the added benefit of that
29.7 +205 ft ALTITUDE the Pressure Altitude from the dial. exercise walking out to the
29.8 +112 ft air lane.
29.9 +20 ft ISA (°C) ISA = 15°C @ sea level
Altitude = 6,000 ft
29.92 0 ft Temperature Lapse Rate ISA decreases 2°C per 1,000 ft
(-2° x 6) + 15 = 3°C
30.0 -73 ft (Rule of Thumb) increase in altitude.
30.1 -165 ft (International Standard ISA @ 6,000 ft = 3°C
30.2 -257 ft Atmos here (-2° x each 1000 ft MSL) + 15 = ISA
30.3 -348 ft ISA (°F) ISA = 59°F @ sea level
-440 ft Altitude = 6,000 ft
30.4 Temperature Lapse Rate ISA decreases 3.5°F per 1,000 ft
(-3.5° x 6) + 59 = 38°F
30.5 -531 ft (Rule of Thumb) increase in altitude.
30.6 -622 ft (International Standard ISA@ 6,000 ft= 38°F
30.7 -712ft Atmos here (-3.5 x each 1000 ft MSL) + 59 = ISA
30.8 -803 ft Increases or decreases 120 ft for Pressure Altitude = 6,000 ft
30.9 -893 ft
DENSITY
each 1°C difference from ISA Qutside Air Iemp = 13°C
31 .0 -983 ft ALTITUDE ISA= 3°C (from rule of thumb)
A LOW altimeter setting (Rule of Thumb) (OAT- ISA) x 120 +Press Altitude (13-3) x 120 + 6000 =
means LESS air molecules = Densit Altitude 7,200 ft Densit Altitude
available to create lift and Fahrenheit to 59°F - 32 = 27
thrust - therefore field {°F - 32) 5/9 = °C 27 x 5/9 = 15°C
elevation is effectively Celsius
increased when the pressure
Celsius to
is below standard (29.92) {°C x 1.8) + 32 =°F 15°C x 1. 8 + 32 = 59°F
i---;
(ADD to field elevation) Fahrenheit
A HIGH altimeter setting
means MORE air molecules •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
available - therefore field : For every .01 inches the altimeter setting changes,
elevation is effectively lowered
(SUBTRACTfrom field ; pressure altitude changes by (approximately) 10 feet.
elevation
• • ····················· ~~
1n : Most altimeters will not adjust
: below 28.00 so flight is
: NOT recommended when the
: pressure falls below 28.00. Of
• course 28 inches is already well
% into HURRICANE PRESSURE,
•• so the altimeter setting would
be the least of your concerns!
······································~
••• ALTIMETER SETTING
•
: 1. Atmospheric pressure The force the
29.92 or hi her 180 •• atmosphere exerts on an area directly below it
29.91 to 29.42 185 •• due to gravity (i.e., the weight of the sky) .
29.41 to 28.92 190 • 2 . An airport with a field elevation of 3000 ft might
••
28.91 to 28.42 195 have an actual observed pressure of 26.82 in.
•• The instrument at the airport automatically
28.41 to 27 .92 200
•
•• adds approximately 3 inches to that value to
•• give an estimate of what the pressure would be
• •• if the airport were located at sea level (29.82) .
1n • This is the value you dial into the Kollsman
window. If everything is working perfectly, you
should indicate field elevation upon touchdown.
ALTIMETER SETTING ABOVE 31 INCHES Temporary Restriction on

Flight Operations During Abnormally HIGH Barometric Pressure Conditions:
(91.144, AIM 7-2-4)
(a) Special flight restrictions. When any information indicates that barometric pressure on the route of
flight currently exceeds or will exceed 31 inches of mercury, no person may operate an
aircraft or initiate a flight contrary to the requirements established by the Administrator and
published in a NOtice Io A.irMen issued under this section.
(b) Waivers. The Administrator is authorized to waive any restriction issued under paragraph (a) of this
section to permit emergency supply, transport, or medical services to be delivered to isolated
communities, where the operation can be conducted with an acceptable level of safety.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• Overview
•• A ''low'' is characterized by rising air that
: cools adiabatically, a primary cause of clouds.
: A ''high'' is characterized by descending air,
• which normally results in warming and a
••• •••••
•
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• decrease in cloudiness .
••
: WHAT DOES ALL THIS MEAN?
•• 1.
A large percentage of aircraft altimeters cannot be set above 31 .00, and some older style ground
•
• based barometers used by the weather services cannot display a pressure higher than 31.00 .
•• 2 . On the extremely rare day that the pressure may exceed 31 ", the FAA issues a NOTAM describing
• how to handle the event.
•
•• 3 . Basically the NOTAM requires all aircraft below 18,000 feet to set their altimeters to 31.00.
•• 4. Terrain clearance is actually increased because you'll be flying higher than the altitude
• indicated on your altimeter.
•
: 5. The NOTAM may also require adding a cushion to the visibility and minimum descent requirements
• on an I FR approach .
•
• 6 . Of course, most of this is a bit ludicrous. On the extremely uncommon day that the pressure goes
•
• to 31 + inches, every bit of water and moisture is compressed out of the atmosphere -
•• YOU CAN SEE FOREVER!
••
TRANSPONDER - ALTITUDE REPORTING - MODE C (Mode A & Mode S):
(91 .215, 91.217, 91 .135, 91 .411 , 91.413, 99.13, 121 .345, 135.143, AIM 3-2-3, 3-2-4, 4-1-20 , 6-2-2 , 6-4-2, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Required at and above 10,000 feet MSL (excluding airspace below 2,500' AGL).
2. Required in all Class A, B and C airspace and Class D if it underlies Class B.
3. Required within 30 nm of the center of all Class B airspace from surface to 10,000 feet MSL (see
appendix D, section 1 of Part 91 at the end of Part 91 ). .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
4. Required within and above all Class C airspace up to 10,000 feet MSL. : ~ ~~~~FR
2
5. Required within 10 nm of certain designated airports, excluding airspace • 1202 _G lider
that is both outside the Class D surface area and below 1,200 feet AGL (see : 1255 - Fire Fighting
appendix D, section 2 of Part 91 ). : 1211 - SAR
6. Required by all aircraft flying into, within, or across the contiguous US ADIZ. : ~~~~ ~:~'6~~cy =
7. Must agree with the barometric altimeter within ±125 feet. (91.217b) • 7500 _ Hijack
8. Transponder, including Mode C, shall be operated at all times in all : 7777 - Military Interceptor
CONTROLLED airspace and all airspace specified in 91.215(b) unless • 0000 - Military Operations
otherwise authorized or directed by ATC. They should also be turned "on"
including Mode C prior to movement on the airport surface. (AIM 4-1-20)
9. An aircraft with an INOPERATIVE transponder may be flown to the airport of ultimate destination,
including any intermediate stops, or to proceed to a place where suitable repairs can be made or
both. The request to do this can be made at any time. [91 .215(d)]
10. An aircraft that was not originally certified with an engine-driven electrical system and has not
subsequently been certified with an engine-driven electrical system is EXEMPT from having a
transponder installed. These aircraft may conduct operations within 30 nm of an airport listed in
Appendix D Sec 1 PROVIDED those operations are conducted outside any Class A, §., or~
airspace; below the altitude of the ceiling of a Class B or C airspace upward to 10,000 feet MSL,
whichever is lower; these operations are not conducted above the ceiling and within the lateral
boundaries of a Class B or C airspace area upward to 10,000 feet MSL; and these operations are
conducted below 10,000 feet MSL (excluding the airspace below 2,500 feet AGL).
11. For operation in any airspace listed above for an aircraft NOT EQUIPPED with a transponder, the
request to operate must be made at least one hour before the proposed time. [91 .215(d)]
12. MODE C altitude transmissions are INDEPENDENT of the BAROMETRIC ALTIMETER. The
transponder can get its information from one of two sources. An ENCODING ALTIMETER which
transmits a pressure reading to the transponder ... or, more commonly, a BLIND ENCODER -
essentially an altimeter without needles or an adjustment knob. In either case the altimeter setting
does not affect the altitude the transponder sends. The transponder transmits the altitude to ATC
in 100-foot increments. ATC's computers apply the current altimeter setting to the ambient pressure
reading sent by the transponder. Therefore, you cannot fool ATC by resetting your altimeter (of
course you could always fly the airplane a little higher or lower - that'll fool 'em.0. ATC will most likely ask you to ''Stop
altitude squawk'' if your indicated altitude and the altitude received by ATC differ by 300 feet or more.
TWO 13. For flight in controlled airspace under /FR altitude encoders must be tested and re-certified every
Years
TWO calendar YEARS. [91 .411(a)]
14. Encoders typically use as much as 200 watts of power, consider turning off the Mode C if you lose an
alternator or two.
15. MODE A Non altitude reporting.
16. MODE S Required for TCAS II operation. Mode S has the same capabilities as Mode A and Mode
C and also responds to traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS)-equipped aircraft. Provides
the air-to-air data link between TCAS II equipped aircraft to coordinate resolution maneuvers. This
ensures that the resolution advisory displayed in one TCAS II equipped aircraft is compatible with
the maneuver displayed in the other TCAS II equipped aircraft.

-----------------------------------------------------------
IFR ALTITUDES - MINIMUM ALTITUDES for IFR OPERATIONS:
(91 .177, AIM 4-4-9, 5-4-5, 5-4-7, 5-4-9, 5-4-18, 5-4-19, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16)
1. MEA .Minimum gnroute Altitude assures navigational coverage & 1.000 feet
obstacle clearance over flat terrain 2,000 feet obstacle clearance over
mountainous terrain.
2. MEA Gap Navigation signal weak. "Gap" in signal coverage.
3. MOCA .Minimum Qbstacle ~learance Altitude Assures navigational coverage
and obstacle clearance when within 22 nm of a navaid.
4. MAA Maximum Authorized Altitude.
5. MCA
- -
.Minimum ~rossing Altitude
-
Altitude you must be at before crossing a navaid or intersection.
6. MRA .Minimum B.eception Altitude Minimum altitude at which off-airway navigational information
can be received (e.g. a cross-radial from another VOR).
7. OROCA Qff-B.oute Qbstruction ~learance Altitude Provides 1,000 feet obstruction clearance in
non-mountainous areas or 2,000 feet in mountainous areas within the U.S. May not provide signal
coverage from ground-based navigational aids, air traffic control radar, or communications coverage.
G lideSlope Intercept Attitude (GSIA): (P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25, Order JO 7110.65T)
1. The minimum (and maximum) altitude authorized to intercept the glideslope on a precision approach.
2. The intersection of the published ILS or LOC APPROACH
intercept altitude with the LOM Glide Slope A:ltrtude
3.
gl ideslope/path.
The altitude and location of the
Procedure Turn 215
{
/ /
1
at OtJter Marker/FAf
FAF= (vertically guided approaches)
''lightning bolt'' symbol ("end of 2400 # 127° • • x/ Glid~~lope Missed Approach Point
the feather" on Jepps) is the Glide. Slope GS 3.O"°v
~/
/'
/ /
' - Missed Approach Track
Threshold Crossing Height TCH 55 2400 ...··""
highest altitude at which the Glide Slope Intercept Altitude/ •·····
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - , - - ====-Airport Profile
glide slope can be used for
primary guidance. Where possible, this point shall be coincidental with Glide Slope/Glide Poth Intercept
a designated FAF. At locations where it is not possible for the point of
glideslope intercept to coincide with a designated FAF, the point of 2400
/Altitvd~ and fin~I opprooch fix
for vertically guided opprooch
procedures.
glideslope interception shall be located PRIOR to the FAF. 98o/o of the
time you'll be vectored to intercept the localizer and glideslope so as to intercept the glideslope "from
below" at the GSIA position.
4. When the approach chart shows an alternative lower glideslope intercept altitude, and ATC directs a
lower altitude, the resultant lower intercept position is then the FAF.
5. Tracking the glideslope from an altitude higher than the published glideslope intercept altitude and
tracking it down to GSIA will USUALLY result in being at or above the minimum published altitudes on
the approach. However, you should never completely trust glideslope information when you're above
GSIA. Always crosscheck against the various fixes to determine your progress, use these fixes as your
primary information. Tracking the glideslope from an altitude higher than the published glideslope
intercept altitude can result in the tracking of a ''false glideslope'' (Page 56). Step-down fixes (the non-
precision ''dive and drive'' method) or ATC vectors are necessary for proper glideslope altitude
interception.
6. The glideslope signal is only flight-checked to a fixed distance, generally in the range of about 10 miles.
Glideslope intercepts beyond this point may be affected by false glideslope signals.
MINIMUM, MAXIMUM & MANDATORY ALTITUDES: (AIM 5-4-5, FAA-H-8083-16, Ptc Glossary)
1. MINIMUM altitude will be depicted with the altitude value UNDERSCORED (e.g. 4400). Aircraft are
required to maintain altitude at or above the depicted value.
4800 2. MAXIMUM altitude will be depicted with the altitude value OVERSCORED (e.g. 4800 ). Aircraft are
required to maintain altitude at or below the depicted value.
5500 3. MANDATORY altitude will be depicted with the altitude value both UNDERSCORED and
OVERSCORED (e.g. 5500 ). Aircraft are required to maintain altitude at the depicted value.
4. On JEPPESEN CHARTS All altitudes are minimum unless specifically labeled maximum,
mandatory, or recommended.

-----
MINIMUM SAFE ALTITUDES
Except for takeoff or landing no person may operate below: (91 .119, 91 .515, 91 .177, 135.203, AIM 4-4-6)
1. ANYWHERE An altitude allowing, if an engine fails, an emergency landing
without undo hazard to persons or property on the surface (91.119).
2. CONGESTED Area 1,000 ft above highest obstacle within a horizontal
radius of 2,000 ft. The definition of "congested area" has been determined on a
case-by-case basis (usually during an enforcement investigation). Examples
include: a college campus; an area consisting of 10 houses and a school; a
beach along a busy highway.
3. OTHER than CONGESTED Area 500 ft above surface, 500 ft linear from the
nearest person, vessel, or structure.
4. SPARSELY POPULATED Areas or OPEN WATER No closer than 500 ft to any person, vessel,
vehicle or structure. You can go as low as you want as long as you stay at least 500 ft away from any
person or man-made entity.
5. LARGE & TURBINE-powered MULTl ENGINE aircraft during DAYLIGHT 1,000 ft
above the surface or any obstacle (91.515). NIGHT the minimum altitudes as CAUTION
described in §91 .177 (Minimum altitudes for IFR operations).
6. HELICOPTERS are exempted from the limits applied to airplanes ''!!the operation is LOW
conducted without hazard to persons or property on the surface'' [91.119(d)].
However, 135.203(b) requires that no person may operate a helicopter over a FLYING
''congested area'' at an altitude less than 300 ft AGL.
7. Part 135 DAY VFR 500 ft AGL or 500 ft horizontally from any obstacle. AIRCRAFT
8. Part 135 NIGHT VFR 1,000 ft, or 2,000 ft in mountainous area above the highest
obstacle within a horizontal distance of 5 miles from the course intended (135.203).
MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE (MVA): (AIM 5-4-5, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-1 6)
The lowest MSL altitude at which an IFR aircraft will be vectored by a radar controller except for radar
approaches (PAR). Only the controller knows what the MVA is for your area. This altitude meets I FR
obstacle clearance criteria (1,000 feet obstacle clearance over flat terrain 2,000 feet obstacle clearance
over mountainous terrain can be lowered to 1500 feet in some eastern mountainous areas).
MINIMUM SAFE/SECTOR ALTITUDE (MSA): (97.3, AIM 5-4-5, FAA-H-8083-1 5, 8083-1 6)

Minimum Safe/Sector Altitudes (MSA) (on approach charts) MSAs provide 1,000 feet of clearance
over all obstructions but do not necessarily assure acceptable navigation signal coverage.
RATE of CLIMB or DESCENT - If they do NOTsay the words ''PILOT'S DISCRETION," you are
expected to climb or descend "at an optimum rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the
aircraft to 1,000 feet above or below the assigned altitude, and then ATTEMPTto descend or climb at a
rate of between 500 and 1,500 FPM until the assigned altitude is reached ." [AIM 4-4-10 & P/C Glossary]
''PILOT'S DISCRETION'' - The controller has offered you the option of starting the descent (or climb)
whenever you wish and at any rate of descent (or climb) you want. You have the freedom to temporarily
level off at any intermediate altitude, but once you have vacated an altitude, you cannot go back up (or
down). If you decide to stay at the previously assigned altitude for a while before starting the
descent, you should initiate an additional call to report leaving the previously assigned altitude.
Example: ''Falcon 123 is descending now to 230." The controller will appreciate this as a courtesy
call. It is possible for a controller to forget that he has given you a lower altitude at pilot's discretion, and
may have inadvertently allowed traffi c to cross through your altitude "block" in the time between you r
acceptance of the clearance and the beginning of your descent (AIM 4-4-10, 5-3-3 & P/C Glossary).
To paraphrase AIM 5-3-3 - The pilot should report without a specific request ''when vacating any
previously assigned altitude for a newly assigned altitude.''

TRAFFIC PATTERN MINIMUM ALTITUDES &
GLIDE SLOPE When Operating to an
AIRPORT in -· Airspace: (91 .126 thru 91 .131)
1. A LARGE or TU RBINE·POWERED airplane shall, unless otherwise
(12,500 lbs or more)
1,500 feet AGL and maintain 1,500 AGL until further descent is required for a safe landing.
[Noise abatement]
•••••••••• • •••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••• • ••••
•
: or below the glide slope for the purpose of
0 ... 0
•: "Normal bracketing maneuvers"
•....
•c.:>
•CC
•o
.o
.ut
•'
•
•
.-.................................... . . •
: You must remain at or above the glide slope between the
•
............................ ...
: LARGE or TURBINE-powered
• OUTER marker and the MIDDLE marker.
: Remember- Runway behind you, altitude above you, : feet AGL in the traffic pattern in
• and air in the fuel tanks are totally worthless. • Class B. C. or D airspace.
··················································~
: LOW ALTITUDE ALERT: (JO 7110.65 para 2-1-6)
: (See "Low Altitude Alert System" and "Safety Alert" - P/C Glossary)
Threshold Crossing Height • 1. Controllers will issue an alert to an aircraft if they feel it is too low
- The theoretical height above : (information received from Mode C). It is the pilot's prerogative to determine
• what course of action to take ... if any.
the runway threshold at which the •• 2. At larger airports, an automated function called MSAW (Minimum ~afe Altitude
aircraft's glideslope antenna would • ,Ytarning) also calculates your descent rate - if it exceeds what is considered
be if the aircraft maintains the •• to be a safe closure rate with the terrain - a very annoying alarm sounds in
trajectory established by the mean : the tower and the TRACON. In addition, the letters LA (.bow Altitude) flash in
• your radar data tag. Normally the call from the controller would sound like this:
ILS glideslope or MLS glidepath. : "Low altitude alert, Freight Dog 123GO, check your altitude immediately."
• Again it's your prerogative as to the course of action. If you get one of these
: calls (e.g., while executing a screaming high-speed dive in order to recapture
the glideslope) an acceptable response might be ...
"We're good. Just gettin' back to the glideslope, thanks for the call!"

TRAFFIC PATTERN ALTITUDE at AIRPORTS

WITHOUT an OPERATING CONTROL TOWER:
(91 .126 thru 91 .131 , 91 .155, AIM 4-1-9, 4-3-3, 4-3-4, 4-3-5, AC 90-66A, FAA H-8083-3, 8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)
1. At most airports and military air bases, traffic pattern altitudes for propeller-driven aircraft generally
extend from 600 feet to as high as 1,500 feet AGL. Also, traffic pattern altitudes for military turbojet
aircraft sometimes extend up to 2,500 feet AGL. Therefore, pilots of en route aircraft should be
constantly on the alert for other aircraft in traffic patterns and avoid these areas whenever possible.
Traffic pattern altitudes should be maintained unless otherwise required by the applicable distance from
cloud criteria (NOTE: there is different VFR distance from cloud criteria for Class G or Class E airspace).
2. 1,000 ft AGL is the recommended pattern altitude unless established otherwise... (AIM 4-3-4 [1])
3. There is a ''RECOMMENDATION'' (in AC 90-66A) that large and turbine powered airplanes should
enter the traffic pattern at 1.500' AGL or 500 feet above the established pattern altitude. Apparently
someone at the FAA feels it's OK for a large aircraft to descend on top of a smaller aircraft (very
possibly moving at a similar speed) during base to final. Wake turbulence could also be a major
concern if a VERY large aircraft is flying around 500 feet above everyone else.
4. Traffic pattern altitudes are occasionally listed in the AirporVFacility Directory, in which case the
published altitudes would be somewhat regulatory. In some cases these airports actually have different
altitudes for small and large or turbine-powered aircraft. In other cases there is only one altitude
published, and that would be the altitude for ALL aircraft (unless you accept the recommendation of
AC 90-66A and fly your large and invincible turbine 500 feet above everybody else until you turn
base to final then descend on top of the other aircraft that was in the pattern below you the whole
time flying at just about the same speed!).
5. Other unofficial published sources of traffic pattern altitudes are produced by ForeFlight, Jeppesen,
and AOPA, etc. These commercial publications list far more pattern altitudes than the A/FD, but very
often disagree as to what these altitudes actually are.
6. The majority of Class G or E airports do not have ''officially published'' (in the A/FD) pattern
altitudes. In which case you have your choice of the 1,000 AGL (for ALL aircraft) as recommended
by the AIM and/or 1,500 AGL for large and turbine powered as recommended by AC 90-66A or
personally calling the airport manager and asking if he has "established" a "recommended" altitude for
"his" airport (an obviously imperfect system).
7. Large and turbojet aircraft are also governed by 91.515 which states those aircraft are required to
maintain at least 1,000 feet AGL during the day and the altitudes prescribed in 91.177 at night (IFR).
However this rule does not apply during takeoff or landing. There is another reference to minimum safe
altitudes in 91.119 that states ''Except when necessary for takeoff or landing .... '' A traffic pattern
would certainly be considered a necessary part of landing.
beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 feet below traffic pattern altitude, with the
pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg will be made at the traffic pattern altitude. (AIM FIG 4-3-3)
9. "Recommended" tra · att s eed limit is 200 kts. (AC 90-66A)
Boy am I glad I ran across

that Advisory Circular so I
know it's ''recommended'' C)o
that I stay 500 feet higher 1,500 AGL
than those cheap little Descending
piston airplanes. 140 kts
The Class G/E Booby-Trap •••••••••••••••••••••••

I sure hope this • Traffic Detector
•• When the su n's out and
avionics shop
: somewhat overhead, it's a great
down here can
• idea to occasionally check your
,_ fix these damn 1,000 AGL : shadow while in the pattern.
radios. Level • If you see TWO shadows ...
•• 140 kts DO SOMETHING!

•• •••••••••••••••••••••••
I (91.159, 91 .179, 91 .180, 91 .185, AIM 3-1-5) • •
: All aircraft are
•
: requested to
•
§ 91.159 VFR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level (aka Hemispheric rule) :
•
maintain a
Except while holding in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less, or while turning, each : minimum altitude
•
: of 2.000 feet AGL
person operating an aircraft under VFR in level cruising flight more than 3,000 feet ••
•• over any U.S .
above the surface shall maintain the appropriate altitude or flight level prescribed below, ••
•• wildlife refuge,
unless otherwise authorized by ATC: •• park or Forest
••
(a) When operating BELOW 18,000 feet MSL and - •• Service Area.
•
•• (AIM 7-4-6)
(1) On a magnetic course of 0° through 179°, any ODD thousand foot MSL ••
altitude +500 feet (such as 3,500, 5,500, or 7,500); or
(2) On a magnetic course of 180° through 359°, any EVEN thousand foot MSL altitude +500 feet
(such as 4,500, 6,500, or 8,500).
(b) When operating ABOVE 18,000 feet MSL, maintain the altitude or flight level assigned by ATC .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
.: "Magnetic course" is defined as ground track.
- - -· ·- - -
§ 91.179 /FR Cruising Altitude or Flight Level -

(a) In CONTROLLED airspace. Each person operating an aircraft under IFR in level cruising flight in
controlled airspace shall maintain the altitude or flight level assigned that aircraft by ATC. However, if
the ATC clearance assigns "VFR conditions on-top," that person shall maintain an altitude or flight level
as prescribed by §91.159.
(b) In UNCONTROLLED airspace. Except while in a holding pattern of 2 minutes or less or while turning ,
each person operating an aircraft under IFR in level cruising flight in uncontrolled airspace shall
. t a1n
main . an appropr1a. t e a lt't
1ud e as f oII ows: • • •E• • • •. • • • • .• • • • • .• •h• • • •. • • • •us
• ••
. • ssent1a11y a11 airspace 1n t e cont1nenta 1
(1) When operating BELOW 18,000 feet MSL and • (with the exception of a few areas in Alaska) at
(i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 : and above 1,200 AGL and at and above 14.500
degrees, any ODD thousand foot MSL altitude • feet MSL is CONTROLLED airspace. As an
(such as 3 000 5 000 or 7 OOO)· or • unwritten rule , these UNCONTROLLED
•• ) ' • ' ' ' ' ' : airspace ALTITUDES are used by pilots when
(11 On a magnetic course of 180 degrees throu.gh 359 • filing flight plans and by ATC for guidance when
degrees, any EVEN thousand foot MSL altitude ~ assigning altitudes in CONTROLLED airspace.
(such as 2,000, 4,000, or 6,000).
(2) When operating A Tor ABOVE 18,000feet MSL but below flight level 290, and-
(i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any ODD flight level (such as
190, 210, or 230); or
(ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any EVENflight level (such as
180, 200, or 220).
(3) When operating at flight level 290 and above in NON-RVSM airspace, and-
(i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any flight level, at 4,000-foot
intervals, beginning at and including flight level 290 (such as flight level 290, 330, or 370); or
(ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any flight level, at 4,000-foot
intervals, beginning at and including flight level 310 (such as flight level 310, 350, or 390).
(4) When operating at flight level 290 and above in airspace designated as Reduced Vertical
Separation Minimum (.RVSM) airspace and-
(i) On a magnetic course of zero degrees through 179 degrees, any ODD flight level, at 2,000-
foot intervals beginning at and including flight level 290 (such as flight level 290, 310, 330,
350, 370, 390, 410); or
(ii) On a magnetic course of 180 degrees through 359 degrees, any EVEN flight level, at 2000-
foot intervals beginning at and including flight level 300 (such as 300, 320, 340, 360, 380, 400).
FL 430 ~-
2
- - - - - - - - - -
LOWEST USABLE FLIGHT LEVEL
91 .121 , AIM 7-2-2
FL 410 -·---------~...
FL 400 ~---------- Altimeter Setting Lowest Usable
FL 390 (Current Reported) Flight Level
Flight Level FL 380 ......- - - - - - - - - -
Orientation Scheme 29.92 or hi her 180
FL 370
(AIM 4-6-2) FL 360 ......- - - - - - - - - - 29.91 to 29.42 185
FL 350 29.41to28.92 190
FL340 ......- - - - - - - - - - - 28.91 to 28.42 195
FL 330
28.41 to 27.92 200
FL 320 ......- - - - - - - - - - - -
F.L 310
-Even FL 300 ~----------- East Odd

FL 290 - - - - - - - - - - . . -

I hope that digital air
data computer is having
a good day today.
-·--
----a--
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums (RVSM), Domestic RVSM (DRVSM)
(91 .179, 91.180, 91.703, 91 .706, Appendix G to Part 91 , AIM 4-6-1thru4-6-11 , OpSpecs 8046 & 0092, AC 23-22, AC 91-70, AC 91-85,
FAA-H-8083-16)
1. Most of the world is now designated as RVSM airspace. Even the Russian Federation (welcome
Vladimir!), China, Iraq, and Africa have joined the party (yippee!).
2. DRVSM/RVSM makes 6 additional flight levels available for operations between 29,000 and 41,000 ft.
3. RVSM authorization allows approved aircraft, with dual digital air data computers (two independent
altitude measurement systems), an approved autopilot capable of holding altitude to precise
tolerances, and an altitude alert system that signals an alert when the altitude displayed to the
flight crew deviates from the selected altitude, to fly 1,000 feet apart between FL 290 and FL 410.
4. The FAA (or for foreign operators, the aviation authority of that country) must certify these aircraft for
RVSM operations, a complicated, time consuming, and VERY expensive process (especially for
older aircraft) that may involve several test flights.
5. The operator of the aircraft must also write and have approved an ''RVSM Operations Manual'' and
provide training and certification for the pilots and maintenance personnel.
6. Part 121/135 or 91 Subpart K operations require initial and recurrent RVSM pilot training. Part 91
operators do not necessarily require recurrent training, but they must renew their ,better Qt
Authorization (LOA) every two years.
7. Operators must also accomplish an RVSM height monitoring flight at least once every two years or
within 1,000 flight hours whichever is longer.
8. Non-compliant aircraft are NOT permitted to fly in RVSM airspace and the conversion cost has
turned many older aircraft into very expensive boat anchors or extremely short range gas hogs
limited to flights at or below FL 280 (e.g., Lear 20 series).
9. Waivers may be available for non-RVSM approved military and civilian aircraft to allow for climb and
descent transitions through the RVSM airspace (don't hold your breath waiting on THAT clearance).
10. RVSM has increased airspace capacity and resulted in more fuel-efficient flights Uets are able to
stay at higher altitudes longer) HOWEVER Retrofits and certification are in the $150,000 to
$300,000 bracket to make an older aircraft RVSM compliant. THAT'S A LOT OF GAS!
11. Although fuel savings have certainly been attained, critics maintain that major chokepoints continue to
exist at the terminal area. Until more concrete is poured, DRVSM will have very little effect on overall
system capacity (IMHO).
RVSM = Required Visual Separation [from your] Money

(If you happen to own an older aircraft)
§ 91.180 Operations within Airspace Designated as

Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum Airspace -
(a) Except as provided in paragraph (b) of this section, no person may operate a civil ,t
aircraft in airspace designated as Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) airspace
unless:
(1) The operator and the operator's aircraft comply with the minimum standards of appendix G of
this part; and
(2) The operator is authorized by the Administrator or the country of registry to conduct such
operations.
(b) The Administrator may authorize a deviation from the requirements of this section.

ALTIMETER SETTING and the FLIGHT LEVELS (United States & Canada) (91 .121)
1. Below 18,000 feet the altimeter should be set to the current reported altimeter setting of a station
along the route and within 100 nm of the aircraft or the setting of the nearest appropriate available
station. This "Transition Level" can be much lower (or even higher) in some countries.
2. At or above 18,000 feet the altimeter must be set to 29.92. You'll read ''pressure altitude'' on the
altimeter, which is your altitude above the ''Standard Datum Plane.'' The idea is, ground obstacles are
not much of a problem above 17,999 feet (except for one little hill in Alaska), but vertical separation of
aircraft becomes even more important because of the higher speeds of most traffic in the Flight Levels.
Resetting altimeters every 100 miles or so would keep jet pilots and controllers very busy and create
many opportunities for errors in separation. The greatest risk of danger would involve two aircraft
approaching each other from opposite directions through an area of rapidly changing atmospheric
pressure. This "Transition Altitude" can be much lower (or even higher) in some countries.
3. Another problem could arise if an aircraft is cruising at FL 190 (altimeter 29.92) in a cold low-pressure
system and another aircraft is at 17,000 ft using the local altimeter setting, they could actually be flying
fil the same (true) altitude.
4. It should be noted that when maintaining FL310 with the altimeter set at 29.92, the aircraft is flying at a
constant air pressure (indicated altitude), while the aircraft's actual altitude above Mean Sea Level
could vary anywhere from 29,000 feet MSL to 33,000 feet MSL.
''CARDINAL ALTITUDES''
''Odd'' or ''Even'' thousand-foot
altitudes or flight levels. Examples:
5,000
6,000
7,000
FL 250
FL 260
FL270
MOUNTAIN FLYING - The ''VENTURI EFFECT'': (AIM 4-6-6, 7-5-6)

1. As winds blow over and through mountain passes, the "venturi effect" can result in a local decrease in
barometric pressure that will cause an altimeter to indicate higher than the actual (true) altitude of the
aircraft. That is, the aircraft could actually be quite a bit lower than the altitude indicated on the
altimeter.
2. This "venturi effect" may cause the altimeter to read as much as 1,000 feet high. If my calculations are
correct, that would put you 1,000 feet LOWER than you think you are!
........ --
_
- c •.
•
Venturi County Airport

ALTIMETER PITOT/STATIC CHECK:
(91 .121 , 91.144, 91 .411 , 91 .413, AIM 7-2-1thru7-2-5, FAA-H-8083-3, 8083-16, 8083-25, AC 91-74A)
The ALTIMETER and PITOT/STATIC system must be TESTED and RE-CERTIFIED every TWO
calendar YEARS for /FR operations (only). (91 .411)
Blocked pitot tube with Drops to Zero Normal Normal

o en drain hole
Blocked pitot tube and High in climb
Normal Normal
drain hole Low in descent
Blocked static line, Low in climb
Freezes Freezes at zero
normal itot ressure Hi h in descent
Using alternate static
Reads high Reads high Momentarily shows climb
source
Blocked static source
with no alternate static Reads high
·-····••1•• ··································• •1••······
source. Break the VSI fFor IFR flight FAR 23.1325 .i Reads high Reversed
l requires either heated static vents l
glass {do not break in :• or an alternate static source. E
ressurized aircraft ·· ························ · · · · · ·····~ ···· · ················
Broken static line in

Reads low Cabin altitude Fails
ressurized aircraft
Vertical
Speed
Airspeed Indicator
Pitot (VSI)
Indicator Altimeter
Heater Switch
I I I Static Port
\ .,
•
•
•
~
-
•
I
,_____ ___, _ _ __ , .....____ _ 0 0• 0

0
Pi tot ALT
Tube ~~====~~-:::
~ ~-Drain STATIC AIR
PULLON
Opening
Pressure
Chamber Alternate Static Source
.• ···········································~ ~
•• RADAR (aka radio) ALTIMETER
•• 1. Measures altitude by transmitting a radio pulse
•• downward and determining the time reguired for the
• transmitted pulse to bounce off the ground and return
••
• to the receiving unit on the aircraft .
: 2. The instrument will indicate the ABSOLUTE ALTITUDE
• (aka actual or true altitude) of the aircraft above the
•
•• earth's surface (ground, water or buildings). Also
• known as a terrain-clearance indicator.
•• 3. Radar altimeter antennas normally look Iike plates
• approximately six inches square on the bottom of the
aircraft. (AC 65-15A)

••
: ZERO - A dashed Magenta line around an airport
: means Class E airspace begins at the surface.
35 feet AGL The altitude at which the end of BALANCED FIELD LENGTH is measured. The
runway length (or runway plus clearway and/or stopway) where, for the takeoff weight,
the engine-out accelerate-go distance eguals the accelerate-stop distance. For jet
aircraft, balanced field length starts at brake release and, assuming failure of the
critical engine at V 1, ends at 35 feet AGL (dry runway). Some jet aircraft are certified
using 35 feet AGL as the start of the FIRST SEGMENT climb. In this case, first
segment climb BEGINS at 35 feet above the runway with the gear still down, the flaps
still set for takeoff, and the remaining engine(s) at max takeoff power. Positive rate
of climb is established and the gear handle is raised. The first segment ENDS when the
GEAR is FULLY RETRACTED, which is the beginning of the SECOND SEGMENT.
±75 When set to the current altimeter setting altimeters should read within ±75 feet of
field elevation (Dual altimeters should agree within ±75 feet of each other for RVSM operations).
(AIM 7-2-3, AFM)
±125 Transponder Mode C Must agree with the barometric altimeter within ±125 feet.
(91 .217b)
300 No person may operate a helicopter under VFR over a congested area at an
altitude less than 300 feet AGL. [135.203(b)]
Aircraft remaining in the traffic pattern should not commence a turn to the
crosswind leg until beyond the departure end of the runway and within 300 feet
below traffic pattern altitude, with the pilot ensuring that the turn to downwind leg
will be made at the traffic pattern altitude. (AIM FIG 4-3-3, AC 90-66A, FAA H-8083-3A)
400 Departure Procedures (DP): (AIM 5-2-7, 5-5-14, 135.367, 135.379, OpSpec C077, TERPS)
=> Standard commercial takeoff minimums [91.175(f)] with no restrictions. Once you
have reached at least 400 feet AGL on runway heading, you are free to turn directly
towards your first enroute fix.
=> A mandatory ''EARLY TURN'' (begin turn at less than 400 feet AGL) is required
for certain runways because of close-in obstacles. In such cases, the takeoff
minimums must be at least 400-1.
JET TAKEOFF Climb Segments:
=> SECOND SEGMENT BEGINS when the gear is fully retracted. V2 must be
maintained. By the rules, a jet must climb (with one engine inoperative), at a 2.4o/o
gradient (24 ft UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD)( approximately 300 fpm), a difficult job
with a heavy airplane on a hot day at a high elevation airport with only 50°10 of
normal power available. Second segment ENDS at 400 feet AGL.
=> THIRD SEGMENT BEGINS at 400 feet AGL. A level flight segment.
Acceleration is made to final .§.egment speed ''VFs'' usually with the flaps up,
or at most favorable configuration; and be capable of a 1.2°10 climb gradient (12 ft
UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD). Third segment ENDS when VFS is reached.
500 => Uncongested area basic safe altitude above any person, vessel, vehicle, or
structure. (91.119)
=> Lowest altitude allowed for Part 135 VFR day operations. (135.203)
700 Floor of Class E airspace ''transition area'' for instrument approach represented by
shaded "magenta" color on VFR charts.
1,000 => Minimum IFR altitude in a non-mountainous area. (91.177)
=> Congested area minimum altitude above highest obstacle within 2,000 ft radius.
(91.119)
=> VFR minimum ceiling in Class B, C, D, & E airspace.
=> Recommended traffic pattern altitude at non-towered airports for ALL aircraft
unless established otherwise... (in the 8,irport I facility Qi rectory). (AIM 4-3-3)
=> Lowest altitude during daylight for large & turbine-powered multiengine. (91.515)
=> Lowest altitude allowed for Part 135 VFR night operations. (135.203)
1,200 feet AGL => Above 1,200 feet VFR cloud clearance requirements change for Class G
(uncontrolled) airspace. (91.155)
=> Floor of most Victor airways (unless marked otherwise).
=> Floor of Class E airspace EN ROUTE AREAS that provide controlled airspace for
IFR but are NOT Federal airways. This covers the majority of the United States
with the exception of certain Class G areas in the western U.S. (shaded on IFR
charts). In these Class G (shaded) areas, Class E airspace starts at 14,500' MSL.
=> Floor of Class E airspace transition or control area "blue" on VFR charts.
=> Floor of Class C shelf area between 5 and 10 nm from airport.
1,500 => Traffic pattern altitude for large or turbine-powered aircraft in Class B. C or D
airspace unless established otherwise or required by ATC. (91.129 thru 91 .131)
=> It is "recommended" (in AC 90-66A but not in the AIM) that large and turbine-
powered airplanes should enter the traffic pattern at 1,500 AGL or 500 feet above
the established pattern altitude at airports without an operating control tower.
Apparently "someone" at the FAA feels it's OK for a large aircraft to descend on top
of a smaller aircraft (very possibly moving at a similar speed) during base to final.
=> Minimum altitude for aerobatic flight.
=> JET TAKEOFF ''FINAL SEGMENT'' of the four takeoff segments ends. Final
segment BEGINS when VFS speed and configuration is reached (400 ft). Power is
usually reduced to maximum continuous thrust. VFS must be maintained until
1,500 AGL during which the aircraft must climb at a 1.2°/o gradient (12 ft UP per
1.000 ft FORWARD). Final segment ENDS when the aircraft reaches 1.500 AGL.
2,000 => Minimum IFR altitude in a mountainous area (good advice for VFR also). (91.177)
=> Minimum altitude over any wildlife refuge, park or Forest Service Area. (AIM 7-4-6)
=> Minimum Part 135 VFR altitude at night in mountainous terrain. (135.203)
2,500 => Speed limit 200 kts within 4 nm of the primary airport of a Class C or D area (also
the "recommended" limit in the "traffic pattern" of a non-towered airport), (does NOT
include Class B airport).
=> Communications required with tower in Class G airspace within 4 nm.
=> Class D airspace normal height limits.
=> Transponder (required above 10,000 ft MSL) not required below 2,500 ft AGL.
Above 3,000 VFR cruising altitude rules begin when cruising above 3000 AGL. (91.159)
4,000 Class C airspace normal height limits.
6,000 feet MSL Speed limit in HOLDING PATTERN 200 kts 6,000 and below (1 minute legs).
6,001 - 14,000 Speed limit in HOLDING PATTERN 230 kts (1 minute legs).
10,000 => Speed limit is 250 kts BELOW 10,000 feet MSL (you may exceed 250 kts when
at or above 10,000 feet while in Class B airspace).
=> VFR cloud clearance & visibility rules change for Class G or Class E airspace.
(91.155)
=> Transponder with Mode C required at and above if also above 2,500 AGL.
14,001 & above Speed limit in HOLDING PATTERN 265 kts (1 ~minute legs).

121 & 135 Above 10,000 thru 12,000 for more than 30 minutes - PILOTS must use OXYGEN.
10,000 - 12,000 (121.327 thru 121 .333, 135.89)
Above 12,000 Above 12,000 PILOTS must use oxygen ALL the TIME. (121.327 thru 121 .333, 135.89)
Above 10,000 Above 10,000 thru 15,000 for more than 30 minutes at least 10°/o of the occupants
thru 15,000 must have oxygen (30°/o from 14,001 up to 15,000). (121.327thru 121 .333, 135.157)
Above 15,000 Above 15,000 ALL OCCUPANTS must have oxygen ALL the TIME.(121 .329, 135.157)
Part 91
Above 12,500 thru 14,000 for more than 30 minutes PILOTS must use OXYGEN.
12,500 - 14,000 (91 .211)
Above 14,000 Above 14,000 - PILOTS must use oxygen ALL the TIME for Part 91 operations.
Above 15,000 Above 15,000 - PASSENGERS must also have oxygen ALL the TIME. (91 .211)
14,500 - 18,000 Class E begins at 14,500' MSL and continues up to but not including 18,000' MSL -
that is unless otherwise designated at a lower altitude (e.g., airports, transition areas,
airways, enroute areas). In the vast majority of U.S. airspace, Class E begins at
1,200' AGL in order to provide controlled airspace for I FR traffic.
18,000 => Ceiling of low altitude ''Victor'' airways (up to but not including 18,000).
=> Floor of Jet routes (FL 180 to FL 600).
=> Class A airspace begins (FL 180 to FL 600) no VFR in Class A airspace.
=> Altimeter setting 29.92. (91.121)
FL 240 At and above FL 240 DME required if VOR nav is used (an I FR certified GPS with a
current database can substitute for DME) (91 .205, 91.711, AIM 1-1-18)
Above FL 250 => A 10-minute supply of oxygen must be available for each occupant (to allow for an
emergency descent). (91.211, 121 .327thru 121 .333, 135.157)
When only 1 pilot is fil the controls, that pilot must wear oxygen mask at all times
even w/quick-donning masks. (121.327 thru 121.333, 135.89)
FL 290 & Above RVSM Airspace begins. Cruising altitude rules change for non-RVSM airspace. (91.179)
Above FL 350 => 1 pilot must wear oxygen mask at all times unless equipped w/guick-donning
masks. (91.211)
=> When only 1 pilot at the controls, must wear mask at all times even w/quick-
donning masks. (91.211)
=> 1 pilot must wear mask at all times even with quick donning masks. (135.89)
=> 1 pilot must wear mask at all times even if quick donning masks are available
(aircraft with less than 31 seats or a payload of less than 7.500 Lbs). [121 .333(c)(2)(i)(B)]
Above FL 41 O => 1 pilot must wear mask at all times even w/quick-donning masks. (91 .211)
=> 1 pilot must wear mask at all times even w/quick-donning masks (aircraft with
more than 30 seats or payload more than 7,500 Lbs). [121 .333(c)(2)(i)(A)]
NOTE: For Part 121 rules it is assumed that a larger capacity aircraft will
depressurize more slowly than a smaller aircraft so it can be flown at higher
altitudes prior to one pilot being required to wear a mask.
Above FL 600 Class E airspace begins again.
(Don't forget about those VFR cloud clearance requirements!).

OXYGEN ALTITUDES: (91.211 , 121.327thru 121 .333, 135.89, 135.157)

All altitudes are " Cabin Pressure Altitudes"
1. Part 91 Unpressurized Aircraft:
a. Above 12,500 ft thru 14,000 ft for more than 30 minutes -
Pilots must use oxygen.
b. Above 14,000 ft Pilots must use oxygen all the time.
c. Above 15,000 ft each occupant must be provided with
supplemental oxygen for the entire time.
2. Part 121/135 Unpressurized Aircraft:

a. Above 10,000 ft thru 12,000 ft for more than 30 minutes -
Pilots must use oxygen.
FYI - Surveys have shown that
b. Above 12,000 ft Pilots must use oxygen all the time.
more than 60°/o of business jet pilots
c. Above 10,000 ft thru 15,000 ft for more than 30 minutes - do not wear oxygen masks when
Enough oxygen dispensers and oxygen to supply at least required to do so by regulation.
10°/o of the passengers. (135.157)
d. Above 10,000 ft thru 14,000 ft Enough oxygen dispensers and
oxygen to supply at least 10°/o of the passengers. (121.329)
e. Above 14,000 ft, up to and including 15,000 ft, enough oxygen for
that part of the flight at those altitudes for 30°/o of the passengers. (121.329)
f. Above 15,000 ft each occupant must be provided with oxygen for the entire time.
3. Part 91 Pressurized Aircraft: (91 .2 11 , 135.89, 135.157)

a. Above FL 250 A 10-minute supply of oxygen must be available for each occupant in the
event a descent is necessitated by a loss of cabin pressurization.
b. Above FL 350 At least one pilot at the controls must be wearing an oxygen mask at
all times unless equipped with guick-donning masks.
c. Above FL 350 When only one pilot is seated at the controls he must wear the mask at
all times even with quick-donning masks.
d. Above FL 410 One pilot must wear the mask at all times even with quick-donning masks.
4. Part 121/135 Pressurized Aircraft: (12 1.327 thru 121.333, 135.89, 135.157)
a. 135.157 Above 15,000 ft oxygen must be available to each occupant of the aircraft for at
least one hour unless, at all times during flight above that altitude, the aircraft can safely
descend to 15,000 ft within 4 minutes, in which case only a 30-minute supply is required.
b. 121.333 Passengers When the aircraft can descend at any point along the route to an
altitude of 14,000 ft or less within 4 minutes, oxygen must be available for a 30-minute period
for at least 10°/o of the passengers. When the aircraft cannot descend to 14,000 ft within!
minutes, or when the airplane is operated above FL 250, oxygen must be available for at
least 10°/o of the passengers for the entire flight after cabin depressurization.
c. Above FL 250 When only one pilot is seated at the controls he must wear the mask at
all times even with quick-donning masks. (1 21 .333, 135.89)
d. Above FL 350 Part 135 One pilot must wear the mask at all times even with quick-
donning masks. (135.89)
e. Above FL 350 Part 121 (less than 31 seats or 7,500 lbs or less) One pilot must wear the
mask at all times even with quick-donning ~- ~ " ·
masks. (121.333) lN lHE EVENT OF A SUDDEN' LOSS
O'F C}.elN ~URE, PN OXYGEN #PSK
f. Above FL 410 Part 121 (more than 30 seats 'NIU-PROP FROM "ffiE CDMPPRIMENT
"I PftJVF. YOUR HF.IV. FoR $15.00
or more than 7 ,5 00 Ibs ) 0 ne p1 ot must you CAN H.:'TIVATE lT· ·· ..
wear the mask at all times even with quick-
donning masks. (121 .333)
" Quick-Donning" type oxygen masks must be able to be
placed on the face from its ready position, properly secured,
sealed, and supplying oxygen upon demand, with one hand and
within five seconds, without disturbing eye glasses, without
delaying crewmember emergency duties or prevent im mediate
communications between all crewmembers. A LSO ...
Pilots must be provided a TWO-HOUR supply of oxygen .

DEFINITIONS: (AIM 7-2-2, FAA-H-8083-16, AC 91-70, AC 120-280, Order 7110.65T)
1. Q - Q codes are basic three-letter telecommunications codes

designated back in the early 1930's to facilitate the transmission and reception
of common questions and answers back when Morse code was still the most
popular form of long distance information exchange.
2. QN H The barometric pressure as reported by a particular station (local
altimeter setting). QNH is the altimeter setting with which most general
aviation pilots are familiar when operating in the United States and Canada
below 18,000 feet MSL. This setting causes the altimeter to read field
elevation (above sea level) when the aircraft is on the ground. Most
OVERSEAS AIRPORTS give altimeter settings in hectopascals (hPa)
(millibars); therefore, it is imperative that pilots are able to convert inches of
mercury to hectopascals or hectopascals to inches of mercury. One
millibar (mb) eguals one hectopascal (hPa) so there is essentially no
difference in the two terms as far as the pilot is concerned. The United
Kingdom uses an additional term called ''Regional QNH," which is the lowest
forecast QNH in an ''altimeter setting region."
3. QNE aka ''PRESSURE ALTITUDE'' Altimeter setting referenced
to ''ISA standard pressure'' 1013.2 mb/hPa or 29.92". The standard
altimeter setting used in controlled airspace at or above the ''transition altitude'' (18,000 feet MSL in
the U.S.). Controllers in the United Kingdom refer to QNE as the .§.tandard fressure .§.etting (SPS).
Pressure altitude is also the first step in computing density altitude.
4. TRANSITION ALTITUDE (or transition HEIGHT when using QFE) is the altitude/height
above which standard pressure (QNE) is set (29.92" or 1013.2 mb/hPa). The United States and
Canada use 18,000 feet MSL as the transition altitude to switch from the local altimeter setting (QNH)
to ''PRESSURE ALTITUDE'' (QNE) 29.92'' (1013.2 mb/hPa) when climbing [through 18,000 ft] and
from 29.92" (1013.2 mb/hPa) to the local altimeter setting when descending [through 18,000 ft].
Transition altitude/levels vary from country to country and can vary from airport to airport within a
country. They can be found in the ''ALTIMETER SETTING DATA BOX'' on enroute charts, STARs,
approach charts, and DPs (and/or broadcast on ATIS). Transition altitude/levels may be designated
anywhere from 2,000 feet MSL (Netherlands) up to 20,000 feet MSL depending on the country. These
altitudes can also be different when climbing away from or descending down to the same airport!
5. TRANSITION LEVEL is the Flight Level below which QNH (or QFE) is set (local altimeter).
6. QFE Altimeter Setting referenced to airport field elevation (where field elevation equals zero feet).
QFE is the actual surface pressure at the airport. The aircraft's altimeter will read ZERO feet when it
is on the ground. When QFE is used, a barometric pressure eguivalent must be listed on the
approach chart to establish a height reference for landing (height above QFE level).
There are two types of QFE:
a. Airfield QFE the highest point on the airfield.
b. Touchdown QFE measured at the touchdown point of the runway for precision approaches.
The UK and a few other European countries use QFE sporadically, but fortunately only China, North
Korea and the former Soviet Union countries are still using this antiquated method for all operations.
7. China, North Korea and a few of the former Soviet Union countries also have an annoying habit of using
''MEYERS'' instead of feet for altitude assignments. Information panels on enroute charts contain
the flight level conversions from feet to meters for your convenience(?). Be sure to arm yourself with
copious amounts of local altimeter knowledge (and/or a "national navigator/interpreter") before venturing
into this airspace (did I mention they don't speak much English either?). Rumor has it their surface-to-
air and air-to-air missiles systems are capable of operating in both feet QI meters! Also a great idea to
bring along a few wheelbarrows full of cash to cover those all-important "handling fees."

Mongolia Center-Ruhiskey Flight 378 is with you at-checking in at
-more or less level at-and doing our damnedest to maintain-
FLIGHT LEVEL 11.600 METERS.
A 3 P 0 cp /\OT
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••• ••• •

•• •
:· CONVERT Altimeter Setting INCHES of mercury to hectoPascals
t 1 inch of mercury = 33.863 n ectoPascals (hPa) [aka milliQars (mb)]
:
t• (29.92" x 33.863 = 101 3.2 hPa ) (101 3.2 hPa I 33.863 = 29.92")
••• METAR I T AF Altimeter Setti nq:
•• In the U.S. : A: inches and hundredths - A2992 = 29.92
••
••
-
Other countries:
••
•
•• Q.- hectoPascals (hPa) Q1013 or hPa and tenths - Q1013.2
International Checklist - Items to Consider

Personal Documents Aircraft Documents Permits
D Crewmembers: D Airworthiness Certificate D Flight Authorization Letter
D Pilot Certificates D Aircraft Re istration D Di lomatic Clearance Lo
D Current Medical D Radio Station Licenses D Advanced Notice
D FCC Radio 0 erator Permit D 0 eratin Limitations AFM D Customs Overfli ht
D Crew & Passen ers: D Weight & Balance D Landin
D Maintenance Record D Facilities License
D Visa D Maintenance Release
D Immunizations D Aircraft Dimensions in Metric
Customs D Noise Stage Certificate D Location
D General Declarations: D Names
D Inbound D RVSM D Phone Numbers
D Outbound D MNPS D Ground Trans ortation:
D Passen er Manifests: D RNP 10
D Inbound D RNP4 D Phone Numbers
D Outbound D P-RNAV Communication Agreements
D Embarkation Cards D CPDLC DARING
D Disembarkation Cards D ADS-B D SITA
D eAPIS Filed D ADS-C Forms
D US CBP Arr/De l-94/l-94W D Insurance: D Com uter Fli ht Plan
D US CBP Declaration Form 60598 D Domestic D ICAO Fli ht Plan
D Ne otiable Instruments Declaration D International D Permits Lo
D Military D Air ort 0 eration Worksheets
D Disinfectant D Country Operation Worksheets
D Jeppesen:
D Cash (large bag) D Airway Manuals D Departure & Takeoff Alternates:
D Travelers Checks D Plottin Charts D METAR
D Credit Cards D Enroute DTAF
D Fuel Cards D Terminal D Enroute:
D Letters of Credit D Si nificant Weather Pro s
D Carnets D Navi ation Database Currenc
Itinerary D Company International Ops Manual D Wind/Temperature Progs
D Crew copies D North Atlantic Operations & Airspace D Destination/Alternate/Diversion Arpt:
D Passen er co D NAT Track Messa e North Atlantic D METAR
D WGS-84 Compliance DTAF
ements D Life Rafts

D Life Jackets D Enroute
D Names D Survival/Medical Kits D Oceanic
D Addresses Locator Transmitter D Destination Air ort
D Confirmation Numbers D Alternate
D Cancellation Polic D Locks D Diversiona
D Rates - Local & US Currenc D Seals
D Alarms
RAPID DECOMPRESSION EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION:
1. RAPID DECOMPRESSION- Pressurized aircraft are usually
a. The lungs can decompress faster than the cabin. equipped with visual and/or aural
b. Survivability of an emergency descent after quickly donning warning devi ces that activate when
cabin pressure altitude reaches
masks is normally assured. 10,000 feet.
c. Wear oxygen masks at all times at and above 35,000 feet.
2. EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION-
FYI - Surveys have shown that
a. Decompression that occurs in less than 1/2 second.
more than 60°/o of business jet pilots
b. Change in cabin pressure occurs faster than the do not wear oxygen masks when
lungs can decompress (can be very injurious). required to do so by regulation.
c. Survivability can be questionable.
d. The cabin air may fill with fog , dust, or flying debris. Fog occurs due to the rapid drop in
temperature and the change of relative humidity. Normally the ears clear automatically. Air will
rush from the mouth and nose due to the escape of air from the lungs.
e. Wear oxygen masks at all times at and above 35,000 feet.
f. An oxygen mask will restrict release of air from the lungs and assure a supply of oxygen to
the body.
g. Another hazard is being tossed or blown out of the aircraft if not belted in.
3. NOTE Not that you would ever want to test this, but you might be interested to know that a NASA
report says a pilot's blood will boil in un-pressurized flight at approximately 63,000 feet .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Time of Useful •
• HIGH ALTITUDE CHAMBER TRAINING**
•
••
Consciousness "Aerospace Physiology Training" is offered by the FAA Civil Aerospace Medical
: Institute (CAMI) in Oklahoma City and by the Air Force at these locations:
15,000 feet Indefinite • Andrews AFB, MD; Beale AFB , CA; Brooks AFB, TX; Columbus AFB; MS;
: Fairchild AFB , WA; Fort Rucker (Army), AL; Holloman AFB, NM ; Langley AFB, VA;
20,000 10 minutes • Laughlin AFB , TX; Little Rock AFB, AR; Offutt AFB , NE; Peterson AFB, CO;
22,000
•• Randolph AFB, TX; Shaw AFB, SC; Tyndall AFB, FL; Vance AFB, OK.
6 minutes
**Contact CAMI @ 405-954-4837. (AIM 8-1-2)
24,000 3 minutes
26,000 2 minutes •• ~···················· ... ························~····· •
Acceptance of Passenger Supplied Medical Oxygen
28,000 1 minute : Compressed Oxygen is considered HAZMAT. "Regulations do not allow passengers to
• provide their own compressed oxygen for use onboard [commercial] aircraft."
30,000 30 seconds : Portable Oxygen Concentrators do not contain HAZMAT. They separate oxygen from
35,000 20 seconds • ambient air and dispense it in concentrated form to the user. Air carriers may be
• required by DOT to accept the use of approved POCs. (lnFO 13005: 4-22-13)
40,000 15 seconds
PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT - BASIC COMPONENTS: (FAA-H-8083-25, Ac 65-15A)
1. CABIN PRESSURE REGULATOR Controls cabin pressure to a selected value in the isobaric
range (altitude) and limits cabin pressure to a preset differential value in the differential range (cabin
pressure vs. atmospheric pressure). Typically maintains a cabin pressure altitude of 8,000 feet at the
maximum designed cruising altitude of the aircraft.
2. CABIN AIR PRESSURE SAFETY VAL VE A combination pressure relief, vacuum relief, and
dump valve:
a. PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE prevents cabin pressure from exceeding a predetermined
differential pressure above ambient pressure.
b. VACUUM RELIEF VALVE prevents ambient pressure from exceeding cabin pressure by
allowing external air to enter the cabin when the ambient pressure exceeds cabin pressure.
c. DUMP VALVE actuated by a cockpit control that will cause the cabin air to be dumped
overboard.
Ladies and gentlemen, this is your captain

speaking. Our instruments have detected a
slight malfunction of the pressurization
system but do not be alarmed. An oxygen
mask will drop down from the unit above your
seat automatically. Just breathe normally
and we will continue on to your destination.
Thank you for flying USVery Airways.

OXYGEN SYSTEMS:
(AC 43.13-1A, AC 65-9A, OK-09-439, 91 .211 , 121 .327 thru 121 .333, 135.89, 135.157)
1. The earth's atmosphere contains approximately 21 o/o oxygen. At sea level
pressure, normal human blood oxygen saturation is about 97°/o. As altitude
increases, the percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere remains the same, but as
the pressure decreases, fewer molecules of oxygen are supplied to the lungs with
each breath. At 8,000 feet blood saturation decreases to about 93°/o.
2. At 10,000 feet, blood oxygen saturation decreases to 90°/o and the
insidious effects of hypoxia begin to appear. After 30 minutes, pilots
carrying passengers for hire must begin using supplemental oxygen.
3. At 15,000 feet, blood oxygen saturation decreases to 80o/o and sedentary
passengers will start to experience the more serious effects of hypoxia.
4. At 18,000 feet, air pressure and density are approximately half that at sea
level. The blood oxygen saturation decreases to 70°/o, and consciousness can be
lost in as little as 20 to 30 minutes.
5. Pure oxygen supplied by a ''continuous flow'' oxygen mask can maintain blood
oxygen levels near normal up to as high as 25,000 feet. Generally, above 25,000 feet
and certainly above 31,000 feet, ''pressure-demand'' oxygen masks are necessary.
Pressure-demand masks are required for aircraft certified from 35,000 to 45,000
feet. These masks use a regulator that delivers oxygen under pressure when the
pilot inhales, but requires the pilot to exhale forcibly.
6. ''Diluter-demand'' masks are often used for operations between 25,000 and 35,000 feet. These masks
can be set to dilute the oxygen with ambient air or to deliver 100°/o oxygen.
7. For Part 121/135 operations above FL 250 When only one pilot is seated at the controls he must
wear a mask at all times even with quick-donning masks.
8. For Part 135 operations above FL 350 (or Part 121 operations with less than 31 seats or 7,500 Lbs or
less) one pilot must wear a mask at all times even with quick-donning masks. Part 91 pilots
above FL 350 must wear a mask at all times when only one pilot is fil the controls.
9. Above FL 410, at least one pilot must be wearing a mask at all times for all operations. Pressurized
oxygen must be supplied instantly in the event of rapid decompression at these altitudes. Even a quick-
donning mask would not be quick enough. (See "Oxygen Altitudes" in this chapter for additional information .)
10. Passengers are most often supplied with a continuous flow aka ''Dixie cup'' mask consisting of a
flow restrictor, re-breather bag and an oral/nasal cup. A continuous flow of oxygen collects in the re-
breather bag, providing enough gas for inhalation. A portion of the exhaled air mixes with the pure
oxygen in the re-breather bag. Considered effective up to about 25,000 feet.
11. When enough OXYGEN is present, certain materials can SPONTANEOUSLY IGNITE even
though they may normally be considered non-combustible (oxygen is an oxidizer which dramatically increases
the flammability of other substances). Even small amounts of contaminants such as GREASE and OIL
can become EXTREMELY EXPLOSIVE when subjected to high percentages and pressures of
oxygen. All components of the oxygen system must be free of even trace amounts of
contaminants. This requires specially sterilized tools, equipment and training for maintenance
personnel. If a fire in the passenger compartment is suspected, be aware that activating the passenger
oxygen system will add an extremely volatile oxidizer that can make a bad situation much worse in a
matter of seconds.
12. Aviators ~reathing Qxygen ''or eguivalent'' may be used. In the modern world, ALL oxygen is
manufactured to the exact same standards of purity, cleanliness and moisture content. It is collected
into the exact same tank of liquid oxygen (LOX) at the gas plant. Medical, welding and aviation oxygen
are all exactly the same. A bottle labeled ''ABO'' costs more for three reasons: it says ''Aviator'' on it,
the chain of custody of the tanks, and the insurance liability.
13. Aircraft specific duration charts assume flow rates of 2 to 5 liters per minute for the pilots, and 1 to 4
liters per minute for passengers. Additional charts convert pressure to liters based on storage capacity.
14. The supplemental oxygen supply must be taken into consideration when crossing large OCEANIC
or sparsely populated areas. A loss of cabin pressure near the halfway point may necessitate a
descent, and the resultant increase in fuel consumption may create a situation where you do not
have enough fuel to make it to a suitable airport. If possible, plan on carrying more fuel, or level off at
a higher altitude that may not be as comfortable but will reduce fuel consumption. For extended
overwater operations, the more oxygen onboard, the more choices are available in the event of a
pressurization failure. Swimming is NOTa viable option.

JET & TURBINE OPERATIONS - 101:
1. Mach Number Ratio of true airspeed (TAS) to the speed of sound (M-1 ).
2. Turbine engines are extremely sensitive to high temperatures during starting, takeoff and climbing
at high power settings.
3. During STARTING it is very important to pull plenty of air through the engine by spooling up to
typically 12°/o compressor speed before introducing fuel (also make sure you don't have a 20 knot
tailwind blowing up your butt). Adding fuel at a lower than recommended RPM, before enough air is
moving through the engine, and it can burn out of control, e.g., ''hot start." An overtemp during engine
start happens extremely fast and can be breathtakingly expensive. Eye blinking is NOT allowed during
starting. If a hot start does occur, normal procedure is to immediately cut off the fuel supply and
continue motoring over the engine with the igniters off in order to dissipate the excess fuel and heat. If
you catch it quick enough, you might still have a job.
4. Takeoff and climb overtemps can also happen very quickly, especially at high ambient temperatures
and high density altitudes. Available power will be limited by ITT or EGT temperature under these
conditions. Your job ALWAYS keep a close eye on the "money (i.e., resume) gauges."
5. TAKEOFF Decision speeds (V1 , V2 ), rotation speed (VR), and climb speeds are calculated for each
takeoff according to aircraft weight, configuration, airport elevation and temperature.
6. High altitude airports in hot weather pose special problems for jets. The air molecules are further
apart, but it always takes the same number of molecules flowing over and under the wing for the aircraft
to fly. Therefore, the aircraft must go faster (true airspeed) to accumulate the required number of
molecules to fly (indicated airspeed). This will consume a lot of runway.
7. The higher a jet is fl own: G,tteaeii•r4iet7"L"~:----C:7'
a. Drag decreases air molecules are much further apart.
b. Engine efficiency increases fuel burn is dramatically reduced.
c. Available thrust decreases less air molecules are available to compress & burn.
8. Sweeping the wing lets the aircraft go faster by delaying the onset of the airfoil's ''Critical Mach'' by
allowing the relative airflow over its surface to move somewhat outward towards the wing tips so the air
encounters less apparent camber and does not accelerate as quickly over the top of the wing. This
allows the aircraft to reach a higher speed before critical Mach is reached.
9. Critical Mach Airflow over portions of the wing (starting at the wing root) reach the speed of sound
before the aircraft itself does, signaled by the onset of ''Mach Buffet."
10. High Speed Buffet or ''Mach Buffet'' Airflow over parts of the wing, beginning at the thicker wing
root, and progressing outward toward the wing tips, begin reaching the speed of sound creating a
shock wave that causes turbulence, which disrupts laminar airflow aft of the shock wave. The
turbulence interferes with the lifting ability of the wing by causing some of the airflow to separate. If
acceleration is allowed to continue, center of lift moves aft as the airflow separation progresses
outward and rearward the aircraft increasingly wants to drop its nose. Greater amounts of trim or
elevator are required to maintain level flight. Eventually ''Mach Tuck'' will occur.
11. Mach Tuck approaching Mach 1.0, the center of lift moves so far rearward that there's not enough
elevator control to maintain level flight and the aircraft could enter a steep, possibly unrecoverable dive.
12. Low Speed Buffet (stall buffet) begins when the wings angle of attack approaches stall will occur
at much higher indicated airspeeds in the upper flight levels.
13. ''Coffin Corner'' The edge of an aircraft's high-altitude operating envelope Marked by the speed
margin between the ''high speed buffet'' (Mach buffet) and ''low speed buffet'' (stall). At very high
altitudes this difference may be just a few knots and might disappear altogether for certain aircraft. A
small increase in bank angle or turbulence could induce a very exciting, adrenalin-producing stall that
may not be recoverable. Do NOT allow this to happen. DESCEND to a LOWER FLIGHT LEVEL!
Fortunately most coffin corner encounters are improbable with modern jet designs and certification.
14. Super Stall (or deep stall) Some jets are capable of entering a stall so deep recovery is not
possible. Certain aircraft have a tendency to pitch up substantially after a full stall or secondary stall
occurs. The stalled wing achieves a very high angle of attack. This blankets the tail with disturbed air
swirling off the wing. Elevator effectiveness is lost and there is no way to lower the nose for recovery
(the change of airflow could also flame out both engines of a typical rear-engine jet). Aircraft vulnerable to these
dangerous stalls normally have "stick pushers" that automatically prevent a fully stalled condition.
15. LANDING ''VReF'' Swept wing jets are driven all the way to the runway at a speed calculated for
their landing weight, airport elevation and temperature. This target speed is normally referred to as
"Y:,REF,, approximately 1.3 times stall speed. Attempting to land significantly ABOVE this speed will
eat up a lot of runway (for each kt above, add 100 ft of runway). Approaching much BELOW this speed can
result in a ''sinker'' that even copious amounts of thrust may not be able to arrest (i.e., lousy landing).

JET FUEL POUNDS vs. AVGAS GALLONS?:
1. ALL engines burn fuel by the pound (mass), however tanks hold fuel by volume (gallons).
2. The weight of ANY fuel is a more direct measure of energy available to the aircraft.
3. The higher the temperature of the fuel the more it expands the result being less energy (and
weight) can be carried in the same size fuel tank however the engine still needs the same number of
pounds (mass) to produce the same power output for a given amount of time.
4. On a hot day with ''full'' tanks there will be less total energy on board ANY aircraft than on a cold
day. Top off in the cool of the very early morning, you can watch all that energy venting overboard
when the sun comes up and starts baking the aircraft.
5. At 15°C Avgas @6.0 lbs/gal has a lower density than Jet-A @6.7 lbs/gal.
6. Avgas density (and weight) varies relatively little with temperature change also the amount of fuel
carried on board and burned in a piston engine is small compared to a turbine or jet so measuring
fuel burn in gallons/hour is certainly accurate enough for most piston aircraft. Measuring by volume
instead of the more accurate mass is of less importance.
7. Jet fuel is slightly more susceptible to thermo expansion than avgas, and even more importantly, the
FUEL TANKS themselves are MUCH larger due to the impressively HIGHER FUEL BURN rate -
therefore on a hot day after filling the fuel tanks there is measurably less energy available to the
•
engines.
8. In turbine aircraft the fuel quantity measuring system fuel gauges compensate for the varying
density of fuel with temperature and indicates fuel available in pounds Fuel flow gauges also
measure fuel flow in pounds per hour and total pounds used.
9. With turbine pilots all discussions about fuel are in pounds until it comes time to order fuel then
they must revert to gallons because fuel is pumped by the gallon.
10. Divide the pounds needed by 6.7 e.g.; 1000 lbs+ 6.7 = 149.25 gals
Rule of thumb:
• 1000 lbs= 150 gals (149.25 gals)
• 2000 lbs= 300 gals (298.5 gals)
• 3000 lbs = 450 gals (447.8 gals)
• 4000 lbs = 600 gals (597.0 gals)
• 10,000 lbs= 1500 gals (1493 gals) etc .
.. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••... . •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~
: QUICKIE CONVERSION: •" QUICKIE CONVERSION:
• •
: POUNDS of Jet A into GALLONS : POUNDS of Jet A into LITERS
•• •
• ••
: Drop the zero then add 50°/o • Pounds needed
•
•• •
• + 10°/o = Liters
•
•
Examples: •
• 2
4,000 lbs of Jet A needed ••
:'
•
400 + 200 = 600 gallons
Examples:
: 4.000 lbs of Jet A needed
• : 2000 + 200 = 2200 liters
•• 10,000 lbs of Jet A needed
•
••• 1000 + 500 = 1500 gallons •
: 10,000 lbs of Jet A needed
•• 5000 + 500 = 5500 liters
. - •..............,.... ........................ ....,.........•..............,.... .............

: Jet fuel has an affinity for WATER. As a rule of thumb, water can dissolve in jet fuel at a rate of about 1 part
: per million per degree Fahrenheit (fuel at 60°F can contain approximately 60 ppm of dissolved water).
: Additional water can become suspended in jet fuel and can stay suspended up to four times longer than in
: avgas. All this water and hydrocarbon create a wonderful home for ALGAE. The name brand ''PRIST'' is
: primarily used as an anti-icing fuel additive but also acts as an algaecide to help prevent accumulation of the
t green slime that can clog fuel filters as completely as ice crystals. Add Prist .10°/o min to .15°/o max.
•
JET I TURBINE ENGINE 101:
1. All aircraft engines push the airplane forward in the same manner. They take in a volume of air at the
front, accelerate it, and then throw it out the back. The result (reaction) is the airplane moves
forward.
2. Propellers, whether attached to a turbine or piston engine, take in a large amount of air, moderately
accelerate it, and then throw it out the back the airplane moves forward moderately fast.
3. Jet engines take in a relatively small amount of air, accelerate it a great deal, and then throw it out the
back the airplane moves forward very fast (hopefully).
4. There are FOUR TYPES of jet engines, but they all work the same;
a. Turbojet and Turbofan engines are more commonly called jet engines.
b. Turboprop and Turboshaft engines are jet engines with a propeller or rotor-blade (helicopter)
attached. Commonly referred to as turbine engines. -a · --------~-~
. Direction of Flight Combustion
Air
Enters
Inlet
Duct
TURBOJET
~uper~onic
Six-Stage Compressor Two-Stage
Turbine
Iransport
5. TURBOJET engine (pure jet) creates power by taking 1n a small amount of air (SUCK), compressing
it a lot (SQUEEZE), adding fuel and igniting it (BANG). The resultant hot flow of gases turns a turbine
wheel, which keeps the front part (compressor section) of the engine turning, before exiting the tailpipe
(BLOW). Once the ''igniters'' start the fire, ignition is normally self-sustaining. This type of engine is
still used on the Concorde and some military aircraft to achieve supersonic flight, but because of its
high noise level and relative inefficiency there are virtually no civilian aircraft using it anymore .
• Direction of Flight
Fan Air ' • .-························

; You know you've landed a jet
: with the wheels up if it takes
; full thrust to taxi to the ramp.
Inlet
Air
TURBOFAN
• c B-757
6. TURBOFAN engine (combination jet) merely a turbojet engine with a fixed-pitch propeller, that is,
''ducted fan'' or ''shrouded fan'' at the front of the engine (or sometimes in the rear, although much
less efficient in the rear). The fan acts like a propeller to give a moderate acceleration to a relatively
large volume of air, which then ''bypasses'' around the turbojet core of the engine. The turbojet
core of this engine creates a large amount of acceleration to a relatively small amount of air. This
"combination" retains some of the low-altitude, low-speed efficiency and takeoff performance of a
propeller engine and combines it with turbojet-like cruise speed and high altitude ability. A turbofan is
also 30°/o to 40°/o more fuel efficient than a turbojet and much guieter because the lower-velocity
"bypass" air shrouds and mixes cool bypass air with the hot high-velocity jet core exhaust, which
insulates and muffles the sound. The relationship between the amount of air bypassing the jet core to
the amount of air passing through the jet core (or, thrust provided by fan to thrust provided by jet core)
classifies the turbofan engine as to its BYPASS RATIO:
a. LOW-BYPASS 1: 1 ratio the fan (bypass) and the compressor section Uet core) receive
and make use of approximately equal amounts of air. High fuel consumption but capable of
very fast, even supersonic speeds.
b. HIGH-BYPASS In the vicinity of 5:1. The air being bypassed around the jet core by the
ducted fan produces 75°/o to more than 80°/o of the total thrust. Most popular on the newer
airliners for reasons of fuel economy and relatively low noise.

····--·········~ ·················
: You know you've landed a free-turbine
: turboprop with the wheels up when
: -full-power makes a lot of noise-
: but the airplane doesn't move .
•
Centrifugal
Compressor Three Stage
Axial Flow
Igniter
Reduction
Gearbox
Fuel Nozzle
Compressor
Accessory
eeeee
Gearbox
FREE-TURBINE
King Air
Propeller
Drive Shaft Free (Power) Compressor P&W "PT·6"
Turbine Igniter Turbine
Fuel Nozzle (Gas Producer)
7. FREE-TURBINE TURBOPROP The propeller is not directly connected to the jet core shaft.
Exhaust gases from the jet core are used to drive a free spinning ''power turbine'' through a ''gaseous
coupling'' (like the automatic transmission in a car but using hot gas instead of transmission fluid),
which in turn rotates a shaft that turns a propeller gearbox. The venerable P&W PT-6 makes the best
use of this design by installing the jet core ''backwards," that is, intake air is ducted to the rear of the
engine to enter the rearward-mounted compressor stage, this arrangement puts the jet core exhaust
at the front of the engine just where it is needed to drive the "gaseous coupling" of the "power turbine"
which drives the propeller gearbox. After these hot gases spin the "power turbine" they are exhausted
rearward. When you turn the propeller of a free-turbine engine by hand you are turning just the "power
turbine" not the entire engine. These engines are extremely reliable but somewhat less powerful and
fuel-efficient by weight than a direct-drive. A free-turbine is easy to spot on the ramp because the
propellers will always be in the ''feathered'' position when the engines are not running and the
exhaust stacks are located near the front of the engine. The PT-6 is used on most Beechcraft King
Airs, the Starship [now just a footnote in history] and BE-1900; Shorts 360, De Havilland Dash-7,
Piaggio Avanti , some Cessna Conguests and Piper Cheyennes. Larger versions of the P&W free-
turbine design are used on the Embraer Brasilia EMB-120, ATR 42/72, Dornier 328, British Aerospace
ATP, De Havilland Dash-8, etc. ············--················--····
: You know you've landed a direct-drive
Planetary : turboprop with the wheels up 'cause after
Reverse-Flow
Reduction Gears Three-Stage : the scraping sound stops
Annular Combustion
Axial Turbine : -it gets real quiet-
Chamber
: even with the power levers full forward.
Igniter •
DIRECT-DRIVE
First-Stage Second-Stage
Centrifugal Centrifugal Fuel
Jetstream 31
Com ressor Compressor Nozzle "Garrett" TPE 331
8. DIRECT-DRIVE TURBOPROP (TURBOSHAFT) The propeller is driven directly by the engine's
jet core shaft through a reduction gearbox. When you turn the propeller by hand you are turning the
entire engine. More immediate power response, more fuel efficient, more power per pound of engine
weight but extremely LOUD on the ground due to the much higher idle RPM of the propeller. The TPE
331 series, made by GARRETT, is one of the most popular models. Start locks hold the blades of the
propeller at the 0° blade angle after shutdown. During start the propeller must be turned with the
engine, this flat pitch angle serves to lower air resistance making it much easier for the starter to spin
the engine jet core to the proper "light-off' speed. A direct-drive (usually Garrett) engine is easy to
identify because of the exceptionally LOUD noise it makes while taxiing , the flat blade angle of the
propellers after shutdown, and the exhaust located at the rear of the engine. The Garrett TPE 331
can be found on the Mitsubishi MU-2, Fairchild Merlin, Turbo-Commander series, Fairchild Metroliner,
British Aerospace Jetstream 31 & 41 , Dornier 228, and some Cessna Conguests and Piper
Cheyennes, etc.
JET ENGINE STARTING: (FAA-H-8083-25)
1. ENGINE START OVERVIEW During STARTING it is very important to pull plenty of air
through the engine by spooling up to typically 12o/o compressor speed before introducing fuel (also
make sure you don't have a 20 knot tailwind blowing up your butt). Adding fuel at a lower than
recommended RPM, before enough air is moving through the engine, and it can burn out of control,
e.g., ''hot start." An overtemp during engine start happens extremely fast and can be breathtakingly
expensive. Eye blinking is NOT allowed during starting. If a hot start does occur, normal procedure is
to immediately cut off the fuel supply and continue motoring over the engine with the igniters off in order
to dissipate the excess fuel and heat. If you catch it quick enough, you might still have a job. Once
again, do NOT attempt a start with a significant tail wind. An electric starter motor rotates smaller
engines while large engines use a pneumatic starter driven by high-pressure air from an APU or GPU.
2. NORMAL START PROCESS:
a. Start switch ON starts the engine turning air is drawn through the compressor
section where it is compressed and introduced to the combustion chamber.
b. When enough compressed air is contained in the combustion chamber, usually at about 1Oo/o to
12°/o N1 (low-pressure compressor RPM), fuel is introduced and the ''igniters'' ''light off'' the
mixture of compressed air and fuel.
c. After ''light off," engine RPM accelerates dramatically as the hot gases travel towards the
exhaust (tailpipe) section while driving the turbine section which turns the compressor section
even faster, which sucks in and compresses more and more air, which burns quicker (and
hotter), spinning the turbine (and compressor) section ever faster until the engine stabilizes at
normal idle speed.
d. Once the ''igniters'' start the fire, ignition is normally self-sustaining like a blowtorch.
3. HOT START:
a. Introducing too much fuel too early in the start process, before enough air is compressed in
the combustion chamber (RPM below 10°/o to 12o/o ), causes the burning gas temperatures to
rise extremely rapidly. Airflow through the engine may be insufficient to maintain EGT
temperatures within start limits.
b. For example, the Dassault Falcon 20 Fanjet with GE 700 engines uses the N1 gauge for RPM
during start. At 1Oo/o to 12°/o N1, fuel is introduced with the power lever if 20°/o N1 is reached
before 500° EGT then you'll probably have a normal start. However, if that 500° EGT is
reached before the 20o/o N1 RPM is reached expect the classic ''HOT START'' to develop
within the next two nanoseconds!
c. As another indicator, these higher than normal EGT start temperatures can be expected to
follow a few nanoseconds after the observation of a higher than normal fuel flow.
d. Of course, attempting a start with a significant TAILWIND could ensure a ''hot start'' even if
everything else has been done perfectly.
e. If a hot start does occur, normal procedure is to immediately (if not sooner) CUT OFF the FUEL
supply and CONTINUE MOTORING over (turning) the engine with the igniters off in order to
dissipate the excess fuel and heat.
4. HUNG START:
a. Light-off occurs, but the engine stabilizes or "hangs'' below starter cutoff speed usually at a
higher than normal temperature. Caused by insufficient airflow due to high altitude or hot day
low-density air; inefficient compression; or low starter rpms.
b. Higher than normal EGT temperatures result from a lack of cooling air.
c. Do NOT attempt to accelerate the engine by adding more fuel. More fuel will only result in
higher temperatures due to lack of airflow for cooling.
d. SHUTDOWN ENGINE using "Hung Start" procedures GET MECHANIC GO TO LUNCH.
5. WET START:
a. Light-off does NOT occur within a reasonable amount of time (a few seconds), and the pilot
continues turning the engine ... copious amounts of fuel will collect in the burner can.
b. If light-off eventually does occur, a brief but very spectacular exhaust flame will get the attention
of everyone on the ramp. It'd be a real bummer if one of those people were your boss!
···············~·······················································
• When available, it's always preferable to use the aircraft's onboard APU or a GPU to supply electricity for
% starting. Frequent ''Battery Starts'' are bad for the engines, batteries, and the starter motors themselves.
: A ''COOL START'' requires batteries that are fully healthy and fully charged.
Batteries, especially weak batteries, do not supply as much RPM (for cooling air) as an APU or GPU.

Jet I Turbine ENGINE Terminology:
1. N1 Low-pressure compressor speed. The
-
low-pressure shaft rotates at several
Intake Compression Combustion Exhaust
thousand RPM. Gauges read in percent of

RPM. Under certain conditions, limitations
above 100°/o are permissible, which only
means that the indicated RPM is more than
required to attain full power. Connected
directly to the low-pressure turbine at rear of L I I......_
- _ _..---_ _ __, ' - - - . . . . . - - - - - - ' ' I II t I
engine. The N 1 gauge is the primary gauge

used to set power on a ''Speed-Rated''
Air Inlet
.__ ________ Compressor
__,._
I
________________
Combustion
Chambers
Turbine Exhaust
~_
1
Cold Section Hot Section
•
engine.
2. N=2 High-pressure compressor RPM. The high-pressure compressor has a
hollow shaft that turns freely around the N 1 shaft. Connected directly only to
its high-pressure turbine near the rear of the engine. Read percent of RPM.
Called the intermediate-pressure compressor on triple-spool engines.
3.
-
N3 Some "triple spool engines" will have an additional N3 gauge (high-
pressure compressor spool).
4. EPR .5,ngine fressure f!atio Displays the ratio of turbine discharge lowPreU\tr•
pressure (exhaust) to engine inlet pressure (intake). EPR is one of the High Pres•ur~ Compressor
Drive Shaft
Comprenor
primary gauges to measure thrust produced especially during takeoff for a Drive Shah
''Pressure-Rated'' engine. Typical EPR settings are between 1.4 and 3.0.
EPR may also be used for additional information when monitoring a "Speed Rated" engine (which primarily
uses N1 for setting power).
5. EGT ,Exhaust ~as Iemperature Usually the main engine temperature gauge used to prevent heat
damage to the turbine blades and other systems.
6. TOT Iurbine Qutlet Iemperature.
7. ITT !nter-stage Iurbine Iemperature. Measured between the compressor and power turbines.
8. TIT Iurbine !nlet Iemperature.
9. lgniters Spark-plug-like (or glow-plug-like) devices (usually two) that light the fire during starting and are
normally used again only for takeoff, landing or cruising in heavy precipitation or icing conditions.
10. Burner Can Combustion chamber. Consists of a fuel injection system, starting ignition system (igniters),
an inner liner and an outer casing. Once the igniters light the fire, the flame is normally self-sustaining.
Exactly like a blowtorch.
11. Starter/Generator Dual-purpose motor/generator used to spin the engine fast enough for starting. Once
light-off occurs and the engine has accelerated to idle speed, the electric motor reverts to a generator for the
duration of the flight. Very popular on corporate type jets due to the weight saved by using one unit for two
purposes.
12. Pneumatic Starter aka Air Turbine Starter a kind of low-pressure air motor used on some larger
corporate aircraft and virtually all large commercial jets. Uses air obtained from the aircraft's onboard
Auxiliary fower Y.nit (APU) or an external ~round fower Y.nit (GPU) to spin a starter turbine, which transmits
power to the starter shaft through a reduction gear. On some aircraft a cross-feed pneumatic valve can be
used from an engine that is already running.
13. Vibration Detector Senses subtle engine vibrations that might indicate the beginning of fan blade icing or
an impending internal engine problem.
14. Bleed Air normally tapped from the engine compressor section to be used for pressurization, heating, air
conditioning, anti-ice and other systems.
15. Bleeds-Off Takeoff Normally bleed air reduces engine power by stealing a small amount of compression.
If a "bleed valves off takeoff" is an option for your aircraft, it will add additional thrust potentially needed to
clear obstructions especially on that hot/high day.
16. Engine-Out Climb Gradient (2.4°/o or about 300 fpm for second segment climb) Many aircraft
manuals have a chart that shows the highest weight the airplane can be at for takeoff at a specific
temperature and density altitude no matter how long the runway. Engine-out climb gradient sets the
maximum takeoff weight. You can work back from that number to adjust for actual runway length, runway
slope, wind, tire speed limit, etc.
17. Flameout Can occur as the result of "chopping" the thrust levers at high altitude, extremely heavy rain ,
turbulent weather, unusual high-speed maneuvers, or the ever popular running out of gas!
18. Compressor Stall Can occur if the engine's critical angle of attack is exceeded. This can be brief and
hardly noticeable, or may progress to a ''hung stall'' identified by very exciting loud backfiring noises
during takeoff in extremely violent and rapidly shifting winds or because of an abrupt pitch-up and power
application after a balked landing. This condition can also be induced by an abrupt pitch-up following
recovery from an approach to stall maneuver during training.

ELECTRICAL Terminology:
1. NiCad (Nickel-Cadmium) BATTERIES:
-
Advantages:
a. Capable of maintaining sustained voltage and delivering large
amounts of current until almost completely discharged.
b. Very reliable and with proper care can have a long service life.
c. Short recharge interval.
Disadvantages:
a. Extremely expensive.
b. Temperature sensitive and subject to ''THERMAL RUNAWAY''
- an uncontrollable rise in battery temperature. When operated
above normal temperatures and at high current loads (i.e., after several
engine start attempts) as battery temperature increases, internal resistance decreases
demanding a higher current draw from the charging source. The higher current draw results in even
higher temperatures, which demand even higher current draw, resulting in even higher battery
temperatures. If the cycle is not terminated, a very expensive battery meltdown could send you to
the motel for a couple of days.
c. Battery "memory" is capable of preventing a full recharge under certain conditions.
2. LEAD-ACID BATTERIES very much like the one in your car. Very reliable . - - - - - - - - - - - .
and cheap but voltage can be depleted relatively quickly under heavy load.
Rated in "amp hours". One amp-hour equals one amp delivered for one hour.
3. INVERTERS convert DC power to AC power for use by certain instruments,
avionics or other accessories.
4. BUS BAR connects power from the battery and/or generator to the electrical
components connected to the particular bus.
5. BUS TIE a switch that connects two or more different electrical buses.
A means of isolating a failed bus from one desired to be powered.
6. HOT BATTERY BUS a bus connected directly to the battery. Usually used for emergency items that
may be needed during a complete electrical failure (radio, emergency lighting, fire suppression).
7. DIODE an electrical "check valve". Allows current to travel in one direction only.
8. RECTIFIER transforms AC to DC.
9. TRANSFORMER changes voltage.
10. SOLENOID a switch operated electro magnetically with a moveable core.
11. RELAY a remote control for circuits that carry heavy loads. Used so that the cables carrying the
heavy load can be as short as possible.
12. FUSE a strip of metal that will melt and open a circuit
when an excess of a predetermined amount of current
attempts to flow through it.
13. CIRCUIT BREAKER a switch that automatically opens
an electrical circuit when an excess of current attempts to
flow through it. Some may have an exposed control that
can function as a switch as well as a circuit breaker.
14. CURRENT LIMITER reduces or removes voltage from
a voltage source (usually a generator) any time the source
tries to put out more than its rated current. Some current
limiters use a "slow blow fuse" to remove a generator from
the system if its output becomes excessive.
15. APU (Auxiliary fower Y.nit) a very small gas turbine
engine normally located in the aft fuselage and isolated from the cabin by a firewall. An APU provides a
supplemental source of electrical power for ground operations including air conditioning, hydraulic
pressure, and main engine starting. Some APUs can also be used in-flight as a back-up source of
electrical power for the main generators.
le Another small gift for the PC Police Zealots;o ).
ii ii Reminder-This book was not intended for
children or the emotionally immature. You'll
POLITICALLY find much worse on network TV. Get a life.
INCORRECT
Don't forget to also checkout those
double Ds in our flashli ht!
(91 .503, 121 .549, 135.159)
FUEL Terminology:
1. FCU fuel ~ontrol Y.nit automatically increases and decreases fuel flow according to demand. An
extremely expensive air/fuel weighing machine that meters fuel to the burner can based on weight to
produce a 15:1 ratio between air and fuel ensuring proper combustion. Other variations: FADEC full
,Authority Q.igital ,5ngine ~ontrol; EEC ,51ectronic ,5ngine ~ontrol; ECU ,51ectronic ~ontrol Y.nits; and
HMU J:::lydro.Mechanical Y.nit.
2. JET PUMP A fuel pump with no moving parts. Operates solely by the suction of a low-pressure area
created by a venturi effect within the pump. This ''venturi effect'' is created by passing high-pressure
fuel from an electric (or engine-driven) fuel pump through an orifice.
A jet pump can be used to:
a. Remove fuel vapor before fuel enters a fuel control unit;
b. Provide a constant flow to the main fuel pumps;
c. Maintain "collector" or "feeder" tanks at their appropriate levels;
d. Return unneeded (bypass) fuel to a fuel tank from an electric pump or Fuel Control Unit.
3. ''!'' HANDLE For many aircraft the "T" handle is primary for engine fire control as it activates the
main fuel shut-off valve to the affected engine. Some aircraft also use it to cut off the supply of
hydraulic fluid, close the bleed-air valve, activate a feathering mechanism, disconnect the generator,
and arm the fire extinguishing system. Quite a handy little handle!
4. Fuel TYPES:
• Jet A Kerosene grade, by far the most common (in the U.S.)(more energy/gallon than Jet B).
• Jet B Blend of gasoline and kerosene (although somewhat interchangeable with Jet A, may
require fuel control adjustments.
Jet A-1 (Avtar) Developed for operations in extremely low temperatures. Interchangeable
and compatible with Jet A.
HYDRAULIC Terminology:
1. ACCUMULATOR A device that stores hydraulic pressure usually through the use of
piston and cylinder or sometimes with a rubber diaphragm. One side of the piston or
diaphragm is pressurized with compressed nitrogen and the other side with hydraulic
pressure. When hydraulic fluid is pumped into its side of the accumulator, the partition moves over and
acts to increase the pre load pressure of the nitrogen. The pressure of the nitrogen holds pressure
against the uncompressible hydraulic fluid and acts as a shock absorber and a supplementary source
of hydraulic power when large demands are placed on the system.
2. Hydraulic Pump CAVITATION Most often occurs because the hydraulic reservoir has been
allowed to get too low or sometimes can be due to foaming of the fluid. Air is sucked into the
hydraulic pump, and it becomes unable to pump the hydraulic fluid. If the pump continues to operate
without the lubrication of the fluid, it will eventually overheat and fail.
3. Hydraulic FUSE Automatically cuts off the flow of hydraulic fluid if a line should break and the
flow of fluid becomes excessive. This device will prevent a catastrophic loss of all fluid.
AIR CONDITIONING Terminology:

1. VCM (Y,apor-~ycle Machine) Uses similar operating principles to a home refrigerator or automobile
air conditioner. Mostly used on aircraft with smaller engines and a limited supply of bleed air (VCMs are
dependent on electrical power for cooling). Very good cooling capacity in the air or on the ground.
2. ACM (,Air-~ycle Machine) Uses bleed air (from the engines or APU) through a system of - - --
heat exchangers, cooling fans, turbines, impellers, and a water separator to provide air-
conditioned air to the cabin. Used mostly on larger turbine aircraft. Ice blockage of the ACM
can cause extremely hot bleed air to bypass the ACM and be routed directly to the cabin.
This condition is usually the result of a clogged filter or the crew operating the system in
manual mode in an effort to get more cold air into the cabin and consequently bypassing the low-
temperature limits of the automatic system. These Air-Cycle Machines are called ''COOLING PACKS''
in air carrier-type aircraft.
FLIGHT CONTROL Terminology:

1. PRIMARY Rudder, elevator, and ailerons.
2. SECONDARY Trim tabs and servo tabs.
3. AUXILIARY Wing flaps, leading edge flaps, slats, spoilers, speed brakes (aka "air brake" aka "the boards").

AVIONICS Terminology:
1. FLIGHT DIRECTOR Computes and indicates on the attitude indicator with the use of ''Command
Bars'' the aircraft attitude required to obtain and/or maintain a pre-selected heading, altitude, route or
approach profile.
2. RNAV (AB.EA NAVIGATION) Includes INS, LORAN, VOR/DME, and GPS systems. Some multi-
sensor systems can integrate one or more of the above systems to provide a more accurate and reliable
system. Most can compute distance, bearing, track, ground speed, nearest airport and virtually
anything else needed for navigation.
3. INS (Inertial .tfavigation .§.ystem) Totally self-contained, requiring no information from external
references. Aligned with exact position information prior to departure. Provide aircraft position and
navigation information in response to signals resulting from inertial effects on components within the on
board system using accelerometers mounted on a gyro-stabilized unit (and a little bit of magic!). (AC 65-15A)
4. IRS (Inertial B.eference .§.ystem) The modern version of INS that uses internal lasers and GPS to
provide better integration into the Flight Management System (FMS).
5. FMS (flight ,Management .§.ystem) A computer system that uses a large database to allow routes to
be preprogrammed and fed into the system by means of a data loader. The system is constantly
updated with respect to position accuracy by reference to conventional navigation aids (GPS, VOR,
DME, etc). The sophisticated program and its associated database ensure that the most appropriate
aids are automatically selected during the information update cycle. Slave this baby to the autopilot, sit
back and watch the show (and hope you programmed it correctly!).
6. EFIS (,51ectronic flight Instrumentation .§.ystem) A digital information video display system using
CRTs or LCDs to present flight information that would normally be displa ed on conventional electro-
mechanical instrumentation. '
Additional EFIS terminology:
_. PFD frimary flight Q.isplay
_. MFD ,Multi-function Q.isplay
_. ECAM Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor
• EADI
- - - -
Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator
_. EHSI
- - - -
Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator
• EICAS
- - - -
,5ngine Indication and .Qrew Alerting .§.ystem
7. ACARS (Aircraft .Qommunications Addressing and B.eporting .§.ystem) A two-way communications
link between an aircraft in flight and the aircraft company's ground facility. Aircraft flight data is
transmitted to the ground facility and information from the ground can be transmitted to the aircraft and
printed out and/or displayed on an LED or LCD screen.
8. GPWS (~round froximity Warning .§.ystem) A system designed to alert pilots when they are in close
proximity to the ground. Visual and aural warnings are provided which advise the pilot of the
recommended action. Some of the most famous computer-generated words are ''SINK RATE, SINK
RATE,'' ''TERRAIN, TERRAIN,'' and the ever-popular ''Whoop! Whoop! PULL UP!''
9. Static wick, static discharger, bonding strap A device attached to an aircraft control surface to
discharge built-up static electricity. Some dischargers use carbon-impregnated cotton wicks while
others use needle sharp points or flexible metal braid. Static electricity can cause radio interference.
Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System ''TCAS'' (1 .1, 91 .221 , 135.1ao, 121 .356)
Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, after December 31, 1995, no person may operate a
turbine powered airplane that has a passenger seat configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of 10 to 30
seats unless it is equipped with an approved Iraffic alert and .Qollision Avoidance .§.ystem .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••• Each PIC who
•
TCAS I means a TCAS that utilizes interrogations of, and replies from, airborne radar •
•• deviates from a
beacon transponders and provides traffic advisories to the pilot. : clearance in
•
: response to a TCAS
•
TCAS 11 means a TCAS that utilizes interrogations of, and replies from airborne radar : advisory shall notify
•
beacon transponders and provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories in :• ATC as soon as
the vertical plane. :. possible. (91.123)
•
NOTE: ''Mode S'' transponders are reguired.
TCAS Ill means a TCAS that utilizes interrogation of, and replies from, airborne radar beacon transponders
and provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories in the vertical and horizontal planes to the
pilot. NOTE: ''Mode S'' transponders are reguired.

PRESSURIZATION: Altitude I PSI
Sea Level 14.70
1. PRESSURE VESSEL The section of the fuselage where the people sit a strong,
lightweight air tank with a hole in the front used to port in "bleed air" from the engines - 1,000 14.17
and a hole or two in the back used to vent air out controlled by the "outflow valves. " 2,000 13.66
Several other holes for control cables, electrical wires, hydraulic plumbing and fuel 3,000 13.17
lines create a number of small, uncontrolled leaks in the pressure tank. 4,000 12.69
2. BLEED AIR from the compressor section of the turbine engines (or the turbochargers 5,000 12.23
of piston engines; aka "upper deck air") enters the front of the cabin to provide pressuriza- 6,000 11.78
tion. Some of this high-pressure air must be allowed to escape; otherwise the fuselage 7,000 11.34
would be subjected to excessive pressure that could eventually result in structural failure. 8,000 10.92
3. OUTFLOW VALVES usually located in the rear of the fuselage, provide a controlled 9,000 10.50
leak to allow some of the bleed air to escape. The valves automatically control the 10,000 10.11
pressure ''altitude'' of the cabin by partially opening and closing during flight. Small 11,000 9.72
aircraft (Learjet) have one valve while larger ones can have two or more. Should a small 12,000 9.35
leak develop in the pressure vessel during flight (a few bullet holes for example), the 13,000 8.98
outflow valves would automatically close a little more to compensate for the added leak in 14,000 8.63
order to maintain pressurization. Additional bullet holes may limit this ability;o ). 15,000 8.29
4. SAFETY VALVE aka PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE aka OVER PRESSURE RELIEF 16,000 7.96
VALVE automatically opens to alleviate excess pressure should the outflow valves fail 17,000 7.65
in the closed position. Can also be used to manually "dump" the cabin pressure.
18,000 7.34
5. VACUUM RELIEF VALVE (negative pressure relief valve) automatically opens in the
19,000 7.04
rare event that the airplane descends so rapidly that outside pressure becomes greater
20,000 6.75
than the pressure in the cabin.
21,000 6.48
6. MAXIMUM ALLOWABLE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL Maximum difference (max diff)
between the outside pressure and inside pressure (in PSI) that the aircraft is certified for. 22,000 6.21
Example #1 "MAPD" = 9.4 psi Altitude = FL450. Using the chart: add the ambient 23,000 5.95
pressure @FL450 (2.14 psi) to the pressure differential (9.4 psi) to find that the cabin 24,000 5.70
pressure is 11.54 psi. Again using the chart, you can interpolate a cabin altitude of 25,000 5.45
approximately 6,500 feet. 26,000 5.22
Example #2 "MAPD" = 8.5 psi You do not want the cabin altitude to exceed 4,000 27,000 4.99
feet (do you or the boss have a cold?). From the chart: pressure @4,000 feet is 12.69 28,000 4.78
psi. Subtract the pressure differential (8.5 psi) from this to obtain a result of 4.19 psi 29,000 4.57
which is the pressure normally found at FL310. Therefore, do not exceed FL310 to 30,000 4.36
maintain a 4,000-foot cabin altitude. 31,000 4.17
7. HEAT EXCHANGER Bleed air entering the cabin from the engines is very hot due to 32,000 3.98
compression. The heat exchanger cools the air before it enters the cabin. This also 33,000 3.80
tends to dry out the cabin atmosphere inviting dehydration. Bring along some water. 34,000 3.63
8. CABIN ALTIMETER & CABIN Vertical Speed Indicator dedicated to displaying 35,000 3.46
pressure changes in the cabin. 36,000 3.30
9. RATE CONTROL used to select the climb or descent rate of the cabin. Allowing the 37,000 3.14
cabin to climb @500 fpm and descend @300 fpm keeps passengers happy. 38,000 2.99
10. RAPID or EXPLOSIVE DECOMPRESSION caused by a sudden gaping hole in the 39,000 2.85
pressure vessel. A cloud of condensation forms instantly and temporarily in the cabin,
40,000 2.72
and it gets extremely cold extremely quick. You'll feel as if a giant weight just landed on
41,000 2.59
your chest as all the air in your lungs immediately gushes out. At high altitudes, you'll
42,000 2.47
have only seconds of useful consciousness to don oxygen masks. An emergency
43,000 2.35
descent is mandatory RIGHT NOW! A blown out passenger window would instantly
depressurize a small Learjet, but a larger jet may actually be able to maintain some 44,000 2.24
semblance of pressurization with a missing window (although you wouldn't want to be the one 45,000 2.14
sitting next to it when it decides to exit the aircraft, it may choose to take you along for the ride!). 46,000 2.04
11. DUMP VALVE used to intentionally depressurize an aircraft during an emergency 47,000 1.94
such as a cracked window, contaminated bleed air, a cabin fire that can be controlled or 48,000 1.85
extinguished by starving it of oxygen, or the need to clear the cabin of smoke. 49,000 1.76
12. BEFORE TAKEOFF set pressurization 500 to 1,000 feet above planned cruising 50,000 1.68
altitude (rule of thumb used to limit wear and tear on the outflow valves).
13. CLIMB Check for normal range 300-800 fpm cabin climb and differential pressure building.
14. NORMAL DESCENT for LANDING set 300 to 500 feet above airport elevation on the pressurization
controller to ensure the airplane is fully depressurized before landing (differential pressure should indicate
zero at touchdown). The "safety valve" should also ensure the cabin is unpressurized while on the ground.

JET TAKE OFF: (25.111 , 135.379, 135.18 1, FAA-H-8083-25, OpSpec C56)
1. Every multi-engine jet takeoff is planned to adhere to a precise profile designed to prevent the aircraft
from falling out of the sky if the most critical engine fails at the worst possible moment. The planning
starts with calculation of the ''Balanced Field Length'' (BFL), otherwise known as ''Reguired Runway
Length,'' ''Takeoff Field Length, '' or ''Accelerate-Stop/Go distance.''
2. ''Balanced Field Length'' Runway length (or runway plus clearway and/or stopway) needed to
accelerate to V1 decision speed and if engine failure happens below V1 stop on the remaining
runway or if engine failure happens at V1 continue the takeoff and climb to 35 feet AGL.
Balanced field length is d.:;\~.r.IJl.in~ft .~Y.= •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a. Takeoff weight : " BLEEDS-OFF'' TAKEOFF - "Bleed air" is normally
b. Elevation : tapped from the engine compressor for pressurization &
c. Temperature : air conditioning. A "bleeds-off' takeoff will supply a
d. Wind :._ slight bit of additional thrust on that hot/high day.
e. Runway slope or contamination such as water, ice or snow
3. ''V1 decision speed'' V1 is calculated using takeoff weight, elevation and temperature.
Before V1 or at V1 the decision to fly or not to fly after an engine failure is made:
a. Below V1 abort the takeoff and come to a stop on the runway.
b. At or above V1 continue the takeoff roll and rotate at the calculated VR speed. Once the
aircraft is airborne, maintain V2 takeoff safety speed.
4. ''VR'' B.otation speed.
5. ''V2'' Best climb gradient speed altitude increase per mile with the most critical engine inop.
6. ''VFs'' final §.egment speed with engine inop.
7. ''VENR'' ENRoute climb speed accelerate to VENR above 1,500 AGL.
8. A jet takeoff is divided into four segments (all assuming an engine failure at V1 with a twin engine jet):
a. First segment Ends at a point after takeoff (more than 35 ft AGL) where the gear has fully
retracted and the speed is at V2. The aircraft is only required to demonstrate a positive rate
of climb after liftoff and during this segment.
b. Second segment Begins when the gear is fully retracted. V2 must be maintained. By
the rules, a jet must climb at a 2.4o/o gradient (24 ft UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD)(approximately
300 fpm), a difficult job with a heavy airplane on a hot day at a high elevation airport with only
50o/o of normal power available. Second segment ends at 400 feet AGL.
c. Third segment Begins at 400 feet AGL. A level flight segment. Acceleration is made to
Final Segment speed ''VFS'' usually with the flaps up, or at most favorable configuration;
and be capable of a 1.2°/o climb gradient. Third segment ends when VFS is reached.
d. Final segment Begins when VFS speed and configuration is reached. Power is normally
reduced to maximum continuous thrust. VFS must be maintained until 1,500 AGL during
which the aircraft must climb at a 1.2o/o gradient (12 ft UP per 1,000 ft FORWARD).
Final segment ends at 1.500 AGL.
Engine Failure At or After V1 Decision Speed

Takeoff Thrust ! Max Continuous Thrust :
Accelerate to Maintain ~ • • •
•
Maintain VFS ~e~•• •
•• I ,
V2
VFS
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3rd.: ••~~ ••
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I I I ••••• ••• •••
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•• • ~
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•
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••
Large rocks, trees, buildings, schools, hospitals, etc .
: Balanced ••
•• • •
• Field Length :
•
BALANCED FIELD LENGTH The runway length (or runway plus clearway and/or stopway) where,
for the takeoff weight, the engine-out accelerate-go distance eguals the accelerate-stop distance. The
minimum runway length that can be used for takeoff. For jet aircraft, balanced field length starts at brake
release and assuming failure of the critical engine below V1 STOP on the remaining runway and/or
stopway if engine failure happens at V1 continue the TAKEOFF and climb to 35 feet AGL (dry
runway). This altitude may be reduced to 15 feet AGL for a wet runway. Essentially the same as
TAKEOFF DISTANCE. (25.113, AC 120-62, FAA-H-8083-25)
CRITICAL FIELD LENGTH The minimum runway length (or runway plus clearway and/or
stopway) reguired for a specific takeoff weight. This distance may be the longer of the balanced field
length, 115°/o of the all engine takeoff distance, or established by other limitations such as maintaining V 1 to
be less than or equal to VR. (AC 120-62)
STO PWA Y An area beyond the end of the runway, at least as wide as the runway and centered along
the extended center line of the runway, able to support the airplane during an aborted takeoff without
causing structural damage to the airplane, and designated by the authorities for use in decelerating the
airplane during an aborted takeoff. (1.1)
CLEARWAY For turbine-engine-powered airplanes certificated after August 29, 1959, a clearway is an
area beyond the runway, not less than 500 feet wide, centrally located about the extended centerline of
the runway and under the control of the airport authorities. The clearway is expressed in terms of a
clearway plane, extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25o/o
(121/2 feet UP per 1,000 feet FORWARD), above which no object nor any terrain protrudes. However,
threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their height above the end of the runway is 26 inches or
less and if they are located to each side of the runway. (1.1, AC 25-?A)
FIRST SEGMENT Definition Variations: (23.59, 25.111, 25.115, 25.121 , Ac 25-?A)

1. First segment ENDS when the gear is fully retracted, at some altitude higher than 35 feet at a
speed of V2.
2. The aircraft is only required to demonstrate a positive rate of climb after liftoff and during this segment.
3. First Segment Definition Variations:
a. Some 8,ircraft flight Manuals show first segment BEGINNING at brake release and ENDING at
a point after takeoff (more than 35 feet AGL) where the gear has fully retracted at V2 speed.
b. Other 8,ircraft flight ,Manuals show 35 feet AGL as the START of the first segment climb calling
this ''REFERENCE ZERO.'' In this case, first segment climb BEGINS at 35 feet above the
runway with the gear still down (or in transition), the flaps still set for takeoff, and the
remaining engine(s) at max takeoff power. Positive rate of climb is established and the gear
handle is raised. Using this criteria, first segment is the time it takes for the gear to fully retract
and the gear doors to close. First segment ENDS when the gear is fully retracted at V2 speed.
c. AC 25-7A ''Flight Test Guide for Certification of Transport Category Airplanes''
illustrates first segment BEGINNING at liftoff and ENDING when gear retraction is complete.
In this case the ground roll is called ''GROUND ROLL'' (what an interesting concept!).
4. An aircraft manufacturer using the segmented method of presenting takeoff performance data for
certification purposes (most manufacturers) can START calling it FIRST segment pretty much
anywhere they like, as long as it ENDS with the gear fully retracted at some point at least 35 feet
AGL and at a speed normally called V2 (start of SECOND segment).
SCREEN HEIGHT Minimum height that must be achieved before the end of the clearway should an
engine failure occur at V 1. Screen height also defines the end of the takeoff distance. Required screen
height for turbine aircraft is 35 feet DRY or 15 feet WET. The height of an imaginary screen which the
airplane would just clear at the end of the runway, or runway and clearway, in an unbanked attitude with
the landing gear extended.
CRITICAL ENGINE The engine whose failure would most adversely affect the performance or
handling gualities of an aircraft.

TAKEOFF DISTANCE is the GREATER of the two profiles depicted below:
(23.59, 25.111 , 25.11 3, AC 25-?A, FAA-H-8083-25)
TAKEOFF Distance - Critical ENGINE FAILURE Recognized at V -1
START
-- -- --
VLoF
-- -- -- "screen height"
35 ft
TAKEOFF Distance
•···········~ ···· ······ ··· ···· ·~ -·~ ··· ·· · ·· · ······· ···· ··· · · ·~ ··················~ · ·· · ·· ·· · ·· · · ·· · ·· ··· ·· ·· ···· ····· ·· · ·· · · ·~··· ·····~· ·· · · ·~· · ····· ·· ···· ·· ··········~ ···· ····· ··· · ···· ·~ ··· ··· ·· · ·· · ······· · •
t.!~~~9.fu~~!;~!!~;,:..~9.~~.~~y!!;!;!!~~,Y.;l~;,,t:~;~!!,;~,rt,~e~•;e•~H1!!!!1..i,~J~~te?:~;~"~!ft~1!!~!!~dtY::~.¥.J~..~:.],~,~i~)J,J
-- -- ..
TAKEOFF Distance - ALL ENGINES Operating
-- -- -- --
START VLOF
-- -- -- t
-- -- -- 35 ft
-- -- -- i
--
ALL ENGINE Distance
TAKEOFF Distance = 1.15 x ALL ENGINE Distance to 35 ft

. • • • • •• • • •• • •••• • •• • •••• • •• ••• • • • • • • ••• • • •• •• • • •• • • r• •• ••• • • •• • •• • •• • ••••• • •~ •••• • • • •• • • • ••••••• • ••••• • ••~ • • • •••• • • •• • ••
•
: ~ is the MAXIMUM speed in the takeoff at which the pilot must take the
, first action (e.g., apply brakes, reduce thrust, deploy speed brakes) !Q.
•
Accelerate-STOP Distance: ~
:
stop the airplane within the accelerate-stop distance. ~also means the
MINIMUM speed in the takeoff, following a failure of the critical engine at
!
:
I
VEF. at which the pilot can continue the takeoff and achieve the required
:. height above the takeoff surface within the takeoff distance.
V1 ·~--_,,,~~----llllM.S--....-;Mllllllll...-11!:.-tl:tatdl...-~_.,.-=ollld.-IMllfljl\!IMM,-S
START (Wet) V1
Accelerate-STOP Distance
•
................................................................................
.
• Accelerate-STOP - Accelerate to V1, then stop on the runway or stopway, plus a distance equivalent to
-
• 2 seconds of travel at V1 , to account for pilot reaction time. A lower V1 is used to establish wet runway accelerate-
: stop distance. Wet runway standards allow the use of reverse thrust when defining accelerate-stop distance.
Accelerate-GO Distance:
VLOF 35 ft (Dry}
V1
START (Wet) VLOF
-- -- 15 ft (Wet)
-- -- -- --
-- -- --
Accelerate-GO Distance
.. ............................................................................................ _
: DRY-Runway Accelerate-GO Distance traveled to a point 35 feet above the runway or clearway.
: WET-Runway Accelerate-GO Distance traveled to a point 15 feet above the runway or clearway.
: A lower V 1 is used when establishing wet-runway accelerate-go distance. The lower V 1 and a 15 foot
: ''screen height'' is a balance of risks ; the risk of going off the end of the runway is reduced ,
however the risk of scraping a rock or tree during the initial climb is increased.

[chap 4 - Speed, Altitude & Jet)
TAKEOFF RUN A term used for the runway length when the takeoff distance includes a
CLEARWAY (i.e., where the accelerate-go distance does not remain entirely over the runway). When using
a clearway to determine the takeoff run , no more than one-half of the air distance from VLoF to the 35 foot
point may be flown over the clearway. (AC 25-7A, FAA-H-8083-25) ............~............ ~ H ........ ............H ...... .
:···· · ·· ··· · ····· · ····· · ·~· · ····· ·~ ·· ·········· ···~·· · ·· ······. : Rejected TakeOff overrun
~ As speed approa~hes V 1 , the ~ ;;cidents princlPally come
: successful completion of an RTO ~ 0
; becomes increasingly more difficult. : from the 2 Yo of the RTOs that
·. l are initiated at high speed
1 (above 120 kts).
TAKEOFF RUN is the GREATER of the two profiles depicted below: • ......,.._ _:111-.i!_ _~~malll~----~
TAKEOFF RUN - Critical ENGINE FAILURE Recognized at Vi.

•· · ·· ·· · · ·· · ··· ·· · ·· · ·· · · ··· · · · ·· · ·· · ·· ·~ · · ·· · ·· · ····· ···· ·· · · ··· · ···•
: The Go/No Go decision must be made
•
-
: prior to V1 or the airplane will inevitably be
.: traveling at a speed higher than V when
START
•
1
:• stopping action is initiated. Therefore if the . --
:• aircraft is at a Field Length Limit Weight,
an overrun is virtually assured.
VLOF
-- -- -- -- ~-
35 ft
:
'· e~&.&a.a-e . A • .a ............._........ a .L a.• - -·• a.a.e~a.•A .... a .-.a ._........_
-- -- -- MID'i-OINT
-- •••••••••••
Ground Roll
CLEARWAY
TAKEOFF RUN
TAKEOFF Distance
............ •
•· · ······ · ······ · ·· · ····· · ····· · ············· · · ~·~ ········· · ··
• ••••••••••••••••••••••• • •• •••••••••••••••••••• •••••• • ••••••••••••• •••••
• : Most RTO overrun accidents have occurred on
:• Speedbrakes are critically important during runways where the airplane was not at a limit
:• an RTO event because they destroy lift and takeoff weight. In other words, most accidents
i• increase vertical load on the wheels which occurred on runways that were longer than
~ greatly increases braking capability. requ ired for the actual takeoff weight.
•
• ..__..lllllallililiti:ldilllllilolili~~~-.r.;*'lollli:illa.'ll..,_lllllllilll~
TAKEOFF RUN - ALL ENGINES Operating

-- -- -
-- --
START VLOF
-- -- -- -- --r
-- -- 35 ft
-- -- -- -MIDPOINT
i
1.15 x Distance to MIDPOINT
•••••••••••
CLEARWAY
TAKEOFF RUN - Required Runway
TAKEOFF Distance - 1.15 x ALL ENGINE Distance to 35 ft

,...................................... ........••
••
..-...................................................... This plane is at V 1 from the moment it starts to move. : 5ngineered M aterials ,Arresting
f When an RTO is initiated on wet or
•
~ystem (EMAS) is a crushable
: slippery runways, it is especially sandwich material placed at the
•
:• important to use full stopping end of a runway to stop an
: capability until the airplane comes aircraft that overruns the
~• to a complete stop. Moisture on runway. The tires of the aircraft
i• top of rubber deposits in the sink into the lightweight material •
:• touchdown area can result in very and the aircraft is decelerated
i poor braking ability on the
__________..
:..,._ final 2,000 feet of runway .
as it rolls through it. An EMAS
installation can stop an aircraft
from overrunning the runway at
approximately 70 kts.
Primarily designed to stop jets or ·
other large aircraft.
\(AIM 2-3-14, AC 150-5220-22A)
•
-----=--=aua1UM1=ui~-=mut1
( 3o·;,~~~~·~t·~i~ti.~ti~~· ~h~;·a·2·~io··~·i ·~ii· ···.

-~"" ~ RTO accidents/incidents were avoidable :
___
..._·.-··- • 52°/o by continuing the takeoff.
-·1• 15°/o by better preflight planning.
~_::.;;:~ • 15°/o by correct stopping techniques.
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ · 18%~~~BLE(Yikes !) .
TAKEOFF PATH (ACTUAL aka GROSS) Extends from brake release - accelerate to V 1 -
lose an engine at or above V1
-
accelerate to VR accelerate to VLoF liftoff after liftoff retract the
gear and climb maintaining a minimum climb gradient of not less than 2.4°/o for two engine airplanes (24
feet UP per 1,000 feet FORWARD) to 400 feet AGL (acceleration altitude) accelerate to VFs while
cleaning up for climb and maintaining an available minimum climb gradient of not less than 1.2°/o for two
engine airplanes (12 feet UP per 1,000 feet FORWARD) then climb to 1,500 feet AGL.
(AC 25-?A, 25,107, 25.111 , 25.115, 25.121 , 121 .189, FAA-H-8083-25)
NET TAKEOFF FLIGHT PATH The actual (gross) takeoff flight path of an aircraft as
determined during certification trials and reduced by a factor of 0.8°/o (8 feet UP per 1,000 feet
FORWARD) for twin-engine aircraft. This ''fudge factor'' is built in to assure that a crew with average flying
skills and average aircraft performance will achieve at least the net takeoff flight path or better. Net takeoff
flight path is used to determine regulatory compliance with reguired climb gradients. Actual (gross)
flight path is determined during certification. Net takeoff flight path is the actual (gross) flight path reduced
by 0.8o/o. Net takeoff flight path must also allow the aircraft to CLEAR ALL OBSTACLES by 35 feet
vertically, or by 200 feet horizontally within the airport boundaries or 300 feet horizontally after passing
the airport boundaries. ''Takeoff FLIGHT path'' begins at 35 feet above the takeoff surface.
''Takeoff path'' begins from a standing start and extends to at least 1500 feet above the surface. (25.111)
•
•
Ill
=
Ill
I
Ill
Cl::
Ill
:=..::
~
m
•• • LEVEL FROM
•
TAKEOFF SURFACE
•
:• Balanced ••
• • •
• Field Length :
•
Additional MISCELLANEOUS TERMS from AROUND the WORLD:

(AIM 4-3-6, P/C Glossary, A/FD, AC 25-?A, AC 120-62, AC 150/5300-13, AC 150/5325-4A, FAA-H-8083-25)
• ,Accelerate ~top Qistance ,Available - (ASDA) - Runway plus stopway.
• ,banding Qistance ,Available (LOA) - The runway length declared
• ••••••••••••••••••••••
available and suitable for a landing airplane. : Clearway:
• Iak~Qbflf BfuntAkvailfafblTeO-R~o.~A) -
1
ava1 a e or a eo .
I>
Tbhefusrtahblethlengtthh ofhrufnway . t
w1 never e u er an e a 1 way po1n
-7 }} ~Stopwa~ ~
••
between the end of the ground roll and the point at which the aircraft LDA
achieves 35 feet when a clearway is used.
• IakeQff Bun fiequired - (TORR) - All engine takeoff roll required for --~~-ASDA-----------~
acceleration to liftoff speed plus one-third of the airborne distance -------------TODA----------
between liftoff and "screen height" plus a 15°/o safety margin.
• !akeQff Qistance ,Available - (TODA) - TODA includes the clearway and will always be equal to or greater than
TORA. All engine takeoff distance available (runway+ clearway) within which the aircraft can achieve "screen
height" (35 feet) at not less than V2.
• !akeQff Qistance fiequired - (TOOR) - All engine takeoff distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed, climb to
35 feet at no less than V 2 , plus a total distance safety factor of 15o/o.
• V3 Speed - All engine takeoff climb speed achieved at screen height (35 feet).
• V 4 Speed - All engine takeoff climb speed achieved at 400 feet AGL.
• IakeQff go-Around switches - (TOGA switches) - Engage the auto throttle and flight director in the takeoff or
go-around mode.

''DRIFTDOWN'' - ENROUTE PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS for Transport

Category Turbine-Powered Airplanes: (121 .191, 135.181 , 135.183, 8900.1, Ac 25-?A, Ac 120-42A)
En route OBSTACLE CLEARANCE, with one engine inoperative, must be demonstrated to show EITHER:
(a) The gradient of the net flight path is positive at 1,000 feet above the highest point of the terrain; OR
(b) The net flight path during ''DRIFTDOWN'' after an engine failure at the most critical point enroute
clears all terrain by at least 2,000 feet. ..•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
: NET FLIGHT PATH is obtained by reducing the demonstrated single-
: engine en route climb performance by 1.1°/o for a twin-engine aircraft .
OBSTACLE-CLEARANCE Criteria: •
. • ~ _. : -' - ·"' .~ ,• r ' •• ,r. '"' •• I"' "' , • ... ,.. • ,... ~ ... ,._. " ,. .• .,, ,• ::- ~ • r, .1: : i:; ~ •
•.
••••••• ?-·::..-·
••• ••
••
.....------~~~
Most CRITICAL POINT En route
Minimum ALL-ENGINE Cruising Altitude •• ••

•••
.o:. ••• ·'''''''''''''''''''''''''''·
: FUEL DUMPING is
•• • ••• : permitted in complying
•• • • ••
•• •• •• •• ; with this requirement.
- • ••
. .,. ,_..........=----- •• •• •••• •...,,,,,#Mrs#M~~~M
••••• •• •••• •••

• • • • • •• • •• •••• Minimum SIN G LE-EN GINE Ceiling • • • • • • ••••••
... ---------------------------------------------------------
2,000 ft 1,000 ft 2,000 ft
..
~ ..
' '
ALSO:
1. It must be demonstrated that the net flight path will have a positive gradient at 1,500 feet above the
airport at which the aircraft is to be landed after the engine failure; AND
2. Twin-engine airplanes must operate within one hour's flight time (threshold time) at single-engine
cruise speed from an adeguate airport unless specifically approved by the proper authority for an
increased threshold time. Basically that means ETOPS approval E,xtended-range !win-engine
OPeration.§. (aka ER-OPS, aka E,ngines !urning Qr fassengers .§.wimming). (121 .162)
Transport Category Turbine Airplane LANDING Criteria:

• Certified (DEMONSTRATED) LANDING Distance is the distance from where the aircraft is 50 feet
above the landing surface, at an airspeed of 1.3 Vs, to the point on the runway where the aircraft is
' brought to a full stop, without the use of reverse thrust.
' ' In order to quic.k ly and completely understand
everything on this page ... just press this button!
' '
50 ft ' '
' '
DEMONSTRATED Landing Distance
REQUIRED Landin Distance aka Landin Field Len th DRY=

DEMONSTRATED Landing Distance+ 0.6 (NOTE: + 0.7 for alternate airport)
REQUIRED Landin Distance aka Landin Field Len th WET=

1.15 x REQUIRED Landing Distance DRY

---------------------------------------------------
TOLD CARD Iake-Qff and ,banding Q.ata card. Provides a quick reference for precalculated
airspeeds based on weight, temperature, and aircraft configuration (flap/slat setting).
TAKEOFF side of a TOLD card provides spaces for:

1. ATIS
2. Takeoff weight
3. Flap setting
4. Time to 100 knots
5. Power settings IakeQff and Max .Qontinuous
6. Runway required Balanced Field Length (BFL), aka Required Runway Length, Takeoff Field
Length, Accelerate-Stop/Go distance or Critical Field Length
7. Speeds (typical):
• V1 Takeoff decision speed
• VR B.otation speed
• V2 Takeoff safety speed & best single engine climb gradient
• VFR flap .B.etraction speed
• VFS final .§.egment climb speed
• VENR ENRoute climb speed
• Return VREF Emergency RETURN for landing REFerence speed for final approach
8. Clearance
APPROACH side (landing side) of a TOLD card provides spaces for:

1. ATIS
2. Landing weight
3. Flap setting
4. Power settings IakeQff and Max .Qontinuous (for missed approach)
5. Landing distance from 50 feet AGL to a full stop
6. ,banding field ,bength landing distance multiplied by 1.67
7. Speeds (typical):
• VREF REFerence speed for final approach
• VAP APproach target speed V REF +configuration (flaps/slats setting) and wind factor.
Typically add (to V REF ) lithe headwind component + all the gust factor (to a max of 20 kts)
• VAc Missed A,pproach .Qlimb speeds for flap configuration with the critical engine inop (2.1 °/o
climb gradient)
• VFR flap B.etraction speed minimum speed required for flap retraction (after missed
approach)
sna
You know you've become a genuine, bona fide ''Professional Pilot''

when you get to wear this nifty lookin' outfit!

TOLD CARD
(!ake-Qff & banding Q.ata)
(Typical)
(Front) (Back)
Lengel Executive Airlines Lengel Executive Airlines

TAKEOFF FALCON 20 APPROACH FALCON 20
ATIS: ATIS:
WEIGHT WEIGHT
V1 VREF
FLAPS TIME TO 100 FLAPS
VR VAP
p T.O. 10° FLAP 25° FLAP p T.O.
V2 0 VAc 0
w M.C.
w M.C.
E E
VFR R VFR R
RWY RQD
NOTES:
VFs
RETURN
VENR VREF LANDING

---------DISTANCE:
CLEARANCE:
LANDING FIELD
- - - - - - - - - - - 1 LENGTH:
TOLD Card Comments

TAKEOFF:
• When you 're heavy and/or it's hot you'll need a little more speed before you try to lift off (duh!).
• Climb speeds are somewhat irrelevant unless you toast an engine taking off from Lake Tahoe.
The majority of the time you 'll be more concerned with not exceeding 200 knots while still in the
Class C or D airspace or 250 knots below 10,000 feet.
• Power settings are difficult to set precisely, so the actual power set is typically somewhat below max.
• FYI In the simulator, expect a V 1 cut on EVERY takeoff!
APPROACH & LANDING:
• When you 're heavy and/or it's hot (and/or gusty) you'll need to keep your speed up a little higher
than when you 're light and/or the temperature is cooler.
• Missed approach procedures always begin exactly the same ... CLIMB like a Mutha Fu©#£®!
• Once again , climb speeds are somewhat irrelevant ... unless you lose one just as you power up for
the missed approach (what are the chances?).
• FYI In the simulator, you can count on losing an engine on EVERY takeoff or missed approach!

JET ENGINE - WINDMILL START I AIRSTART:

1. Windmill starts are used to relight a jet engine after a flameout has occurred while
airborne.
2. The starter is not needed because
the compressors are being 8 8 • 8 ~
turned by the in-flight
airflow. '
3. The Windmilling I Airstart ''ENVELOPE'' (aka relight boundary) is very type specific as to SPEED,
ALTITUDE and compressor RPM. That is, the aircraft must be within a specific speed range, altitude
range, and compressor RPM for a successful airstart. Windmilling compressor RPM must be at or
above normal (ground) starting RPM.
4. Windmilling I Airstart instructions and Speed/Altitude/RPM parameters will be included in the aircraft's
emergency checklist.
5. A starter-assisted airstart is another option when sufficient windmill RPM cannot be maintained.
ALTITUDE ALERTING SYSTEM - TURBOJETS: (91 .219)

1. No person may operate a turbojet-powered airplane unless it is equipped with an approved altitude
alerting system that is in operable condition.
2. The altitude alerting system must be able to alert the pilot upon approaching a preselected altitude
in either ascent or descent, by a sequence of both aural and visual signals in sufficient time to
establish level flight at that preselected altitude or alert the pilot upon approaching a preselected
altitude in either ascent or descent, by a sequence of both aural and visual signals in sufficient time to
establish level flight at that preselected altitude and when deviating above and below that
preselected altitude, by an aural signal.
3. A flight may be continued if the system becomes inoperative, but the flight may not depart from a
place where repair or replacement can be made.
4. The system may be inoperative while ferrying the aircraft to a place where the system is to be
installed or repaired; conducting airworthiness flight tests; conducting a sales demonstration flight;
ferrying an airplane to a place outside the U.S. for the purpose of registering it in a foreign country; or
training a foreign flight crew for the purpose of ferrying it to a place outside the U.S. for the purpose of
registering it in a foreign country.
FIRE DETECTION and PROTECTION:

1. Elements required for a fire:
a. Oxygen (NOTE: the most practical way to eliminate a fire is to remove its oxygen supply);
b. Fuel (combustible material);
c. Heat (ignition source).
2. A typical jet aircraft will have fire detection and protection systems for at least:
a. Each engine;
b. Auxiliary Power Units (APU);
c. Wheel wells (not all aircraft).
3. There are usually a minimum of two extinguisher bottles that can be discharged into either engine so
as to provide a second chance of dousing an engine fire.
4. Sight ''disks'' are normally found on the side of the fuselage the color of which will indicate
extinguishent release due to either thermal expansion and/or indicate use.
5. Color and location of the sight "disks" are type specific however .if they are intact they indicate
that the extinguishing agent is still present in the fire bottle.
WINGLETS:
Restrict airflow (tip vortex) around the wing tips, therefore improving lift, fuel economy, and aircraft
performance especially at high altitudes. Acts as a dam which helps to restrict a portion of the normal tip
vortex (wake turbulence) from forming.

WINDSHIELD HEAT:
1. Aside from the obvious benefits of preventing ice, many jet aircraft use
windshield heat at all times during flight to help prevent them from breaking as
the result of a bird strike.
2. A heated window is more flexible and consequently more able to absorb a bird
strike. Results may vary depending on aircraft speed and the size of the bird!
TIRES & WHEELS:

1. CHINED tires Usually a nose wheel tire with a special sidewall construction that ~~_.....,
forms a ridge which diverts water to the side of the aircraft, decreasing the
amount of water sprayed up into the intakes of rear-mounted jet engines
during takeoff or landing.
2. Tire CREEP The tendency of a tire to slowly rotate (creep) around a wheel
due to the sudden rotation that occurs during landing. Usually caused by low
tire pressure. Creep can be detected by placing a small dot on the wheel and
a second dot adjacent to it of the tire. Excessive creep can cause a tire to tear
out its inflation valve and cause a blowout during touchdown.
3. FUSIBLE PLUGS Installed in some large aircraft wheels to prevent a
sudden tire blowout in the event of extremely high temperature buildup due to Dual Chine Tire
the use of maximum breaking after landing or during an aborted takeoff. The
core of the "fusible plug" melts, letting air escape at a slower rate and possibly
preventing a tire from exploding.
SWEPT WING ADVANTAGE:

Jet aircraft with swept wings generally have higher cruising speeds due to a higher
critical Mach number. A swept wing acts as if it's flying at a lower speed than it
actually is. Thus drag is reduced at high speed.
SWEPT WING DISADVANTAGES:

1. Reduced lift requiring the need for high lift flaps and leading edge
devices (slats).
2. At low airspeed the wingtips tend to stall first, resulting in a loss
of aileron effectiveness. These bad stall characteristics make
airspeed control during takeoff and landing extremely critical.
3. Most swept wing jets have poor yaw tendencies (especially in turbulence)
and will develop an advanced ''Dutch roll'' if not handled with perfect
coordination. If a yaw is induced, the advancing wing presents more wing
area (span) and a higher angle of attack to the airstream, this causes a roll in the direction of the yaw.
The drag caused by the lifting wing then causes the aircraft to yaw and roll back the other way. In
turbulence, this oscillation of yaw and roll can continue indefinitely. Most all modern jets have a "yaw
damper" to cancel out this propensity for Dutch roll.
DUTCH ROLL FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 23-88, AC 25-?A, and Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators:
''A combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that normally occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft are
more powerful than the directional stability. Usually dynamically stable but objectionable in an airplane because of
the oscillatory nature."
AC 61-107A- Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet -A coupled oscillation in roll and yaw that
becomes objectionable when roll , or lateral stability is reduced in comparison with yaw or directional stability. A
stability augmentation system (yaw damper) is required to be installed on the aircraft to dampen the Dutch roll
tendency when it is determined to be objectionable, or when it adversely affects the control stability requirements for
certification. Swept wing jet aircraft are especially prone to serious Dutch roll and therefore are almost always
equipped with a yaw damper.
YAW DAMPER a gyro operated stability augmentation autocontrol system installed to automatically provide
immediate rudder input when necessary to aid in canceling out yaw tendencies such as those of ''Dutch roll."
Basically an autopilot for the rudder that automatically cancels out yaw so you can keep your feet on the floor. Early
type (Parallel) yaw dampers are required to be off during takeoff and landing because they deflect the pedals,
increase pedal force and can make matters worse in case of engine failure. More modern (Series) dampers do not
deflect the pedals, pedal forces do not change, and are normally safe to use for takeoff, landing, crosswind landings,
as well as engine out scenarios.

{SAT) Static Air Temperature vs. { 0 AT) Outside Air Temperature vs.
{RAT) Ram Air Temperature vs. {TAT) Total Air Temperature: (Ac 91-74A)
1. SAT .§.tatic A,ir Iemperature (sometimes called true air temperature) is the temperature of
undisturbed air, that is the temperature that you would read if you could suspend a thermometer out in
the air without having the effects (temperature rise) of an airplane moving through the air nearby. While
in an aircraft, SAT (aka OAT) is determined by applying the appropriate correction factor to the TAT (or
RAT) probe data. Most large jet aircraft have this function incorporated into the A,ir Q.ata .Qomputer
(ADC). SAT is the ACTUAL air temperature (OAT). NOTE: A ''Rosemont Probe'' corrects for ram
rise and shows .§.tatic A,ir Iemperature (actual OAT).
2. OAT Qutside A,ir Iemperature is essentially the same as SAT. Above 200 knots a "normal" OAT
probe can't give an accurate reading because air friction and compressibility cause the indicated
temperature to rise.
3. RAT B.am A,ir Iemperature is normally interchangeable with TAT. It is the temperature that the ram
air temperature probe senses. Think of it as ''B.am B.ise'' (RR) and TAT. Ram rise occurs to a small
degree at all airspeeds but it really only starts becoming a factor above 200 knots. At typical jet speeds,
RAT may be 15°C to 30°C higher than the actual Qutside A,ir Iemperature.
4. TAT !otal A,ir Iemperature is the SAT (actual OAT) PLUS the TEMPERATURE RISE associated
with HIGH-SPEED FLIGHT. This temperature rise is called ''ram rise'', and is the result of HEATING
of the air due to COMPRESSION. From a practical standpoint, TAT (or RAT) is the temperature the
aircraft's skin feels, and SAT is the free air temperature (OAT). TAT is greater than SAT due to the
ram rise in temperature that occurs because of dynamic heating. Ram air temperature rise is
proportional to the speed of the aircraft (Mach number). At 0.80 Mach or higher, a ram rise of 30°C can
be expected. This rise in temperature may be enough to prevent ice from forming.
5. Example if the SAT (OAT) is -50°C at FL350, the TAT may only be -20°C due to "ram rise" effect.
The ''ram rise'' is 30°C.
6. Iotal A,ir Iemperature (or RAT) is the important number when considering the formation of ICE on the
airframe, engine nacelles, inside the fuel tanks and can even have an effect on EPR settings. In the
extremely cold air of the far North, there may be a need to increase the aircraft's speed (and/or use a
lower altitude) in order to increase the Iotal A,ir Iemperature so as to increase the temperature inside
the fuel tanks to PREVENT the FUEL from FREEZING. An actual fuel temperature gauge can be an
important safety item when flying in these harsh conditions.
7. Iotal A,ir Iemperature (or RAT) is used when deciding to switch on the engine anti-ice. SAT (OAT) may
be below freezing but the aircraft is experiencing TAT (OAT + ram rise). Most aircraft manufacturers
require engine anti-ice when the TAT (or RAT) falls below +10°C.
8. The official Aircraft flight ,Manual should have a chart showing the expected ram rise at various Mach
numbers. The term RAT is most often interchangeable with TAT in flight manual charts.
9. The airplane may have any combination of RAT, TAT, SAT, or OAT gauges. Be sure to refer to the
proper ones when making anti-ice decisions .
-••
..••
.. ..••
•
•
•• ••
• •~
~
•• -..
-•• •
••
.-
••
0
/II
.-• • ,.. "'
•••
••
•
[> ,. '• •

NOISE STANDARDS: (AC 36-4C, FAR Part 36.1 , 91 .801 , 91.881, 91.883)
1. STAGE 1 EXTREMELY LOUD!!! Not acceptable at most airports.
2. STAGE 2 Pretty damn LOUD!! Not acceptable at many noise sensitive airports.
3. Bulletin The long-term FAA bill signed into law by Obama in February of 2012
requires operators of Stage 2 jets to modify their aircraft to meet Stage 3 noise limits
by the end of 2015. Section 506 (also 91.881) prohibits, after December 31. 2015,
the operation within the 48 contiguous states of jets (other than experimental) weighing
75,000 pounds or less that do not comply with Stage 3 noise standards. Some exceptions are made
for temporary operations related to moving aircraft for modification or sale. Propeller driven aircraft are
not affected by the new law even though some can be as loud as Stage 2 jets.
4. STAGE 3 Still a little too LOUD for many people living in close proximity to an airport. All jet-
powered transports and business aircraft that are currently in production meet Stage 3 standards.
5. STAGE 4 I guess that's OK, but it's still a little LOUD. A certification standard that will result in a
10-decibel decrease from Stage 3 standards but will apply only to newly certified production aircraft.
Most all current production Stage 3 aircraft will be able to meet the Stage 4 requirements. Stage 4 is
the best technology has to offer at this time. It's the best we can do to satisfy those people who got a
bargain on that house next to the airport ... moved in to it ... then realized there was an airport near their
house ... then decided the sound of jets taking off and landing was annoying ... except when they wanna
fly somewhere.
6. ''HUSH KITS'' for older (Stage 2) jets attempt to cool off and slow down the hot exhaust gas as it
roars out the tailpipe. Normally this involves injecting or mixing cold air with the hot exhaust in an
attempt to reduce its velocity (shear affect) and shield the noise in order to reach Stage 3 compliance.
These hush kits can run anywhere from $200,000 to $3,000,000 per airplane and are usually
detrimental to aircraft performance and of course add weight.
But WHO CARES as long as we can keep this guy HAPPY!
Your friendly airport ''NEIGHBOR'' (who just bought a house near the airport)
discussing your last takeoff with the airport manager.

(Chap 4 - Speed, Altitude & Jet J What the hell you lookin' at lvann?
I TOLD you ... the PTS says no more than
30° of bank during a circling approach!
0 - -·- ·
~
AlrtJne n anaport
Pilot and
TypeRatlng
For Airptane
Practical Test
Standards
--- ·--
PTS (Practical Test Standards) to be replaced by -
ACS (Airman Certification Standards). Example:
V. Perfonnance Maneuvers
-
Task A. Steel!_ Tun 1s
Refere11ce FM-H-8083-3, POH/AFM
---,i
Objective To detern1ine the appijcant exhibits satisfactory knowledge, skills and risk management
• - •~ ...I . .•
The a~licant demonstrates understanding of:

1 Coordinated fli ht PAV A.K1
2. Attitude control at various airspeeds. PAV.AK.2
3. Maneuvering speedL including changes in weight PA.V.AK3
4. Controlling rate and radius of tum. PA.VAK4
-
Knowledge
5 Accelerated stalls PA VAK5
6. Overbanking tendencies. PA.VAK6
7. Use of trim in a tum. PA.V.AK7
8. Aerod_YD_amics associated with steep tums. PAVAK8
9 ~l
.
_J_ •
uit [JJ 11.l a 1 ; ........ .
IS . PA .V .AK":J
The applicant den1onstrates the ability to:
1. Establish the manufacturers recommended airspeed or if one is not stated, PA.V.A.S'1
a safe airspeed not to exceed VA-
Skills 2 Coordination entering~ durin • andexitinga45banktumfor360degrees. PA V.A S2
3. Perfonn the task in the o~site direction. as sE_ecified by the evaluator. PA.V.A.S3
4. Ma1nta1n the entry altitude, ±100 feet, airspeed, ±1 0 knots, bank, and ±5e; PA.V.A.S4
and roll out on the entry head1n Li.. ±10°. I
The applicant den1onstrates the ab1lrty to identify. assess and mitigate risks,
enconipassing :
1. Dividing attention between a~ane control and orientation. PAVAR1
Risk 2 Task management. PA V.A R2
Managem ent 3. Energy mana emenl PAV.AR3
(FAA-H-8083-2
4. Stall/spin awareness. PA.V.A.R4
-
"Risk
Management 5. Situational awareness. PA.V.AR5
Handbook") 6. Rate and radius of turn with confined area operations. PA.V.ARG
Applicable ACS:
f rivate Pilot Airplane PA. ~11.B.~4· -.......... Element:
Area of Operation:
z ' !- Right-of-way rules
ill -Airport and Seaplane Block:

Base Operations ! no\vledge
Task:
i- Traffit Patterns

UNllED 8 TAt
"""'
.0 IN a P\11!11 it
"(IFA~ EAICA
I ,,,.. • 'I -' -
Xll•JCll)I.• 01()1 Xl!VXXIW!lOIJi

o ~
!'l i'('~ ~ Chapter 5
~ ~ ~.w• ~·rArnOtn;t
IOQ!IC)OQl)(UJi •...fl_~.UXlo;(J AXJ(&UJ ~1(
IQ(D•rcnAPO~_),«~~
• l O t "-l"C I 11:'-tl l1Ui

M 11: ~ M 1111'~
. . . . .~-.. iil~l'Cl'll '7

Pilot ertificates,
Logging,
edical Drugs
The Paperwork
Pilot Certificate Category I Class I Type •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 168
Aircraft Category I Class I Type ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 168
Flight Review (BFR); Basic "CURRENCY" Requirements ........................................... 169
IFR Recency PIC Instrument Currency (6 month) •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 170
Safety Pilot ................................................................................................................... 171
Recent Flight Experience PIC (3 bounces) .......................................................... 172, 173
Airplane Flight Manual I Limitations I Markings and Placards •••••••••• 174
Documents On Board Aircraft •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 175
Certificates Required in Pilot's Possession ................................................................. 175
Log books I Logging Ti me ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1 76, 177
Logging Right Seat Navajo, King Air, Citation under Part 91 .............................. 178, 179
Change of Address ...................................................................................................... 180
Replacement of Airman Certificates ............................................................................ 180
Falsification of Logbooks or Records ........................................................................... 181
Lost or Stolen Logbook •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 181
SIC Qualifications ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 182
Student Pilot ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 183
Sport Pi lot ..................................................................................................................... 184
Recreational Pilot ......................................................................................................... 184
Private P iIo t . .... .... .. .. .... .... ... ...... .... ... ..... . ... .... .... .. .. .... .... ... ...... .... ... ..... . ... .... .... .. .. .... .... . .. 185
Instrument Rating; Instrument Currency ...................................................................... 186
Commercial Pilot .......................................................................................................... 187
Airline Transport Pilot •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 188, 189
Flight Instructor .................................................................................................... 190, 191
Examiner ...................................................................................................................... ·192
Cross-Country Time; Temporary Certificate •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 193
Type Rating .................................................................................................................. 194
Complex & High Performance Endorsements ............................................................. 194
High Altitude & Tailwheel Endorsements •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 195
PIC Proficiency Check aka Maintaining Currency for a Type Rating .......................... 196
MEDICAL Certificate ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 197
Prohibitions on Operations During Medical Deficiency ................................................ 198
Duration of a Medical Certificate ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 199
SODA; Lasik Eye Surgery; Contact Lenses; Eye (required vision) ............................. 200
Ear, Nose, Throat, Equilibrium; Mental; Neurologic; Cardiovascular .......................... 201
Diabetes Mellitus; Kidney Stones; Hypertension; Special Issuance ............................ 201
Drugs or Alcohol; Motor Vehicle Action; Speeding Tickets ••••••• 202, 203
Over-The-Counter Medications .................................................................................... 204

(Chap 5 Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs)
PILOT CERTIFICATE CATEGORY I CLASS: (1.1, 61 .s)
1. Category Broad classification:
+ Airplane, Glider, Rotorcraft, etc. •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••
2. Class Similar operating characteristics: :·At your request, the FAA will assign a unique number (other
+ single engine, multiengine; land; water; : than your SS number) to your certificate. You will need to
: submit an "Airman's Request for Change of Certificate
3. Type Specific make & model of aircraft: •• Number" form to the FAA Airman Certification Branch.
+ DC-3, DC-9, 8-737. ••
'\ See www.faa.gov for the form .
:············································· ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
•• ••
•• ••
• RICHIE ''FL YANYTHING'' LENGEL 435678932 ••
•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• : Plastic certificates are now
XII RATINGS Class •
••• : required for all pilots .
•• : All new certificates have the
• AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT : English Proficient endorsement .
•• •
Category AIRPLANE MULTl ENGINE LAND •
••
•• ROTORCRAFT HELICOPTER; GYROPLANE •
• ••
Type •
••
8-737 8-747 8H-206 CE-500 DA-20 DC-3 DC-6 SPACE SHUTTLE etc. •
••
• COMMERCIAL PRIVILEGES ••
•• ••
•• AIRPLANE SINGLE ENGINE LAND
• XIII LIMITATIONS •••
••
ENGLISH PROFICIENT. •••
•••
•• •••
• ••
••
• Category Class •••
• ••
In their infinite wisdom, Congress has
decreed your picture will soon be ••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••
• •••••••••••••••••••
required here. Ain}t they smart? Now : One fruitcake we
we won't have to worry about some •
: don't have to_..
fruitcake terrorist impersonating a pilot. •
: worry about
•
••._ anymore!
AIRCRAFT - CATEGORY I CLASS: (1 .1, 23.3) ·~~~'lflif¥.ift#A~
1. Category (1 .1) - As used with respect to the certification of aircraft, means a grouping of aircraft based upon
intended use or operating limitations. Examples include:
a. Transport - If an airplane cannot qualify under Normal, Utility, Aerobatic, Commuter, Primary, or under a
Special FAR such as SFAR 41 ; then it is certified in the Transport category.
Rule of thumb - if it's over 12,500 Lbs and is a turbojet, it will be certified in the Transport category (CE-550,
CE-560). If it's a turbojet that requires two pilots it's Transport category (usually)(CE-500). A single-pilot
turbojet is normally certified in the Normal category (CE-501, CE-551 ). Turboprops weighing 19,000 Lbs or
less, or having 19 or fewer seats can be certified under SFAR 41(over12,500 Lbs), Transport category, or in
the Commuter category. You must check the type certificate data sheet to be certain. Generally, anything over
19,000 Lbs is going to be certified in the Transport category.
b. Large Nontransport - Large airplanes (over 12,500 Lbs MTOW) certified before the establishment of the
Transport category (July 1, 1942) and not modified and recertified in the Transport category. Only three of
these airplanes are still in active service - Lockheed 18 (Lodestar), Curtis C-46, and DC-3. These airplanes
may only be operated in passenger carrying service if they have been recertified in the Transport category.
c. Commuter - 19 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 19,000 Lbs or less. Limited to multiengine airplanes.
(stalls, steep turns, bank angle not more than 60°)
d. Normal - 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 Lbs or less.
A single-pilot turbojet (e.g. CE-501, CE-551) will also be certified in the normal category. (normal non-aerobatic
operations including stalls, steep turns, angle of bank not more than 60°, +3.8Gs to -1.52Gs)
e. Utility - 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 Lbs or less, intended for limited aerobatics. (spins if
approved, angle of bank not more than 90°, +4.4Gs to -1.76Gs)
f. Acrobatic - 9 seats or less (excluding pilot seats), 12,500 Lbs or less, (+6.0Gs to -3.00Gs)
g. Primary- Single engine or unpowered, Vso under 61 kts, 4 seats or less. (21.24)
h. Limited - Generally surplus WWII military aircraft (no persons or property for hire)(21.189, 91.315)
i. Restricted - Agricultural , pipeline patrol, aerial advertising, etc.(no persons or property for hire)(21.25)
•
J. Experimental - Amateur built or military surplus. (no persons or property for hire )(21.191)
k. Provisional (Provisionally certificated) - Aircraft in the process of receiving a type certificate or an
amendment to an existing type certificate. (no persons or property for hire )(21.213, 91.317)
2. Class (1 .1) - As used with respect to the certification of aircraft, means a broad grouping of aircraft having similar
characteristics of propulsion, flight, or landing. Examples include:
Airplane, Rotorcraft, Glider, Balloon, Landplane, and Seaplane.

(chap 5 Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs)
FLIGHT REVIEW - Formerly Known As Biennial Flight Review (BFR):
§ 61.56 Flight review. (also AC 61-988)
(a) Except as provided in paragraphs (!?) and (f) of this section, a flight review consists of a
minimum of 1 hour of flight training and 1 hour of ground training. The review must include:
(1) A review of the current general operating and flight rules of part 91 of this chapter; and
(2) A review of those maneuvers and procedures that, m the discretion of the person giving
the review, are necessary for the pilot to demonstrate the safe exercise of the privileges of
the pilot certificate.
(b) Glider pilots may substitute a minimum of three instructional flights in a glider, each of which
includes a flight to traffic pattern altitude, in lieu of the 1 hour of flight training required in paragraph (a) of this section.
(c) Except as provided in paragraphs (g) , (~), and (g) of this section, no person may act as Pilot In Command of an
aircraft unless, since the beginning of the 24th calendar month before the month in which that pilot acts as pilot in
command, that person has -
(1) Accomplished a flight review given in an aircraft for which that pilot is rated by an authorized instructor; and
(2) A logbook endorsed from an authorized instructor who gave the review certifying that the person has satisfactorily
completed the review.
(d) A person who has, within the period specified in paragraph (c) of this section, passed any of the following need NOT
accomplish the flight review required by this section:
(1) A pilot proficiency check or practical test conducted by an examiner, an approved pilot check airman, or a U.S.
Armed Force, for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege.
(2) A practical test conducted by an examiner for the issuance of a flight instructor certificate, an additional rating
on a flight instructor certificate, renewal of a flight instructor certificate, or reinstatement of a flight instructor
certificate.
(e) A person who has, within the period specified in paragraph (c) of this section, satisfactorily accomplished one or more
phases of an FAA-sponsored pilot proficiency award program need NOT accomplish the flight review required by
this section.
(f) A person who holds a flight instructor certificate and who has, within the period specified in paragraph (c) of this
section, satisfactorily completed a renewal of a flight instructor certificate under the provisions in § 61.197 need NOT
accomplish the one hour of ground training specified in paragraph (!) of this section.
(g) A student pilot need NOT accomplish the flight review required by this section provided the student pilot is undergoing
training for a certificate and has a current solo flight endorsement as required under§ 61.87 of this part.
(h) The requirements of this section may be accomplished in combination with the requirements of§ 61.57 and other
applicable recent experience requirements m the discretion of the authorized instructor conducting the flight review.
(i) A flight simulator or flight training device may be used to meet the flight review requirements of this section subject to
the following conditions:
(1) The flight simulator or flight training device must be used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a
training center certificated under part 142 of this chapter.
(2) Unless the flight review is undertaken in a flight simulator that is approved for landings, the applicant must
meet the takeoff and landing requirements of§ 61.57(a) or§ 61.57(b) of this part.
(3) The flight simulator or flight training device used must represent an aircraft or set of aircraft for which the pilot is
rated.
NOTE # 1 - The flight review mav be accomplished in combination with 61.57 (!nstrument froficiency ~heck) or other recent experience
requirements at the discretion of the instructor, however 2 separate logbook endorsements will be reguired. One endorsement for
the "IPC" and a separate endorsement for the Flight Review. [61 .56(h)]
NOTE # 2 - Part 91 K, Part 121 , or 135 pilots - your PIC or SIC checkride will cover this. However the SIC would actually need to be
"type rated" in that aircraft for their checkride to count as a Flight Review (FAA opinion).
>61.56(c)(1) Accomplished a flight review given in an aircraft for which that pilot is "RATED .. . " [aka type rated]
>61.56(d) A person who has [within the previous 24 calendar months] passed any of the following need not accomplish the flight
review required by this section:
(1) "A pilot proficiency check or practical test ... for a pilot certificate, rating, or operating privilege."
NOTE #3 - "The phrase 'pilot competency check' and the phrase 'pilot proficiency check' are normally used interchangeably to
mean the same thing" (FAA FAQ).
•• •••••••••••••••••••••• •
r
Potpourri of Basic ''CURRENCY'' Requirements: : " Practical test" means a
: test on the areas of
• A " Flight Review" (or equivalent) within the previous 24 calendar months. •
: operations for an airman
• For the carriage of PASSENGERS - the PIC must have made and LOGGED 3 takeoffs and~ : certificate, rating, or
landings in the previous 90 days in the same CATEGORY (airplane, glider, rotorcraft, etc.), : authorization that is
CLASS (single engine, multiengine, land , sea, etc.) and TYPE (DC-3, B-777)(if a type rating is •
: conducted by having the
required) - these landings must be made to a full stop if in a tailwheel aircraft or at night (and •• applicant respond to
the pilot must be "sole manipulator" of the controls). : questions and
•• demonstrate maneuvers
• For IFR flight - For any particular flight, the pilot must be able to count backwards 6 months
•
- to be sure he or she has accomplished (and LOGGED) as "sole manipulator" of the controls at : in flight, in a flight
least 6 approaches and holding during that time period. NOTE : For commercial flights, IFR : simulator, or in a flight
currency is covered by th e filot !n ~ommand's 6-month instrument proficiency check. : training device. (6 1.1)
•

IFR RECENCY Instrument Experience PIC INSTRUMENT CURRENCY:
(61 .57. 91.109, 91 .1069, 121.401 , 121 .439, 121 . 441 , 125.291 , 135.245, 135.247, 135.293, 135.297)
1. A ''Biennial'' ''Flight Review'' within the last 24 calendar months [Your 91.1069, 125.291, 135.293 and/or
135.297 and/or 121.441 checkride will cover this see 61.56( d)].
2. To carry PASSENGERS the PIC must have made and logged 3 takeoffs and 3 landings in the past 90
days in the same category, class and type (if a type rating is required) these landings must be made to a
full stop if in a tailwheel aircraft or at night (may be accomplished in an approved simulator).
3. In order to file and !!.v on an IFR flight plan within the preceding 6 calendar months a pilot must
have performed (in an aircraft, simulator or flight training device) and LOGGED:
a. At least 6 instrument approaches FAA opinion states that the approach must be FLOWN to
minimums, but does not state any requirement that the aircraft must remain in instrument conditions
until reaching MDA/DA(DH). It is generally accepted that you must be in actual or simulated instrument
conditions until passing the FAF/GSIA but once past that if you break out before MDA/DA(DH),
you can still "count" the approach as long as you continue to track the approach to minimums (FAA legal
opinion , January 28, 1992); :······················~··
The pilot must maintain instrument
b. Holding procedures; and • recency experience in whatever category
c. Intercepting and tracking courses Redundant You must : of aircraft, be it airship, rotorcraft or
'intercept and track' courses in order to complete any instrument • airplane that the pilot wishes to exercise
: the privileges of the instrument rating .
approach whether you are vectored to an instrument final or fly the • (FAA Interpretation June 4 , 2012 )
full approach.
d. NOTE: Your six-month 125.291, 135.297 PIC check or 121.441 Proficiency Check will satisfy filot !n
.Qommand instrument currency for up to 7 months while flying under Part 91, 121, 125 or 135 for
that air carrier (see below). However, all commercial Second In Commands are required to maintain
the "instrument currency" requirements of 61.57 135.245(a) SIC gualifications: '' ... For flight under
IFR, that person must meet the recent instrument experience requirements of part 61 of this chapter."
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: For any particular flight, you must be able to count backwards 6 months to be
: sure you've accomplished at least 6 approaches and holding during that time period .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
:•it a Part 91 pilot has NOT accomplished the 6 approaches, holding, etc., within the first 6 months, the
: pilot is no longer legal to file /FR. To become legal again, the rules allow a second 6-month ''grace
: period,'' during which a pilot may get current by flying with an appropriately rated ''safety pilot,'' and in
: simulated IFR conditions only, acquire the 6 approaches, etc. If the second 6-month period also passes
•
: without the minimum, the pilot can only get current by accomplishing an ''instrument proficiency check''
: given by an examiner, an authorized instructor, or a person FAA-approved to conduct instrument
: practical tests (designated pilot examiner). (61 .51 , 61.57, 91 .109)
•
•• ··········································································~~
: The INSTRUMENT experience CURRENCY requirements of 61.57(c) (i.e., 6 months; 6 approaches;
: holding; and intercepting and tracking courses), DO NOT APPL Yto a Pilot In Command who is
• employed by a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier while flying under Part 91, 121, or 135 for that air
•• carrier [61.57(e)(2), 121.401, 121 .441, 135.301(a)].
;
: IN OTHER WORDS A PIC for a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier, who has a current PIC check, and
: while flying under Part 91, 121, or 135 for that air carrier, is legal (i.e., instrument current) for
: 7 months (under the ''grace month'' provisions of 121.401 and 135.301) even if he or she has not
: done a single instrument procedure (aside from the checkride) during that 7-month period. Please
: note once again that this person is only legal during that 7th month while flying under Part 91, 121, or
: 135 FOR THAT AIR CARRIER.
•
•• GRACE MONTH:
•
• From an FAA Legal Opinion dated October 29, 1992 - "The FAA has consistently interpreted the grace
• month provisions for Part 121 and Part 135 [and 61.58(i)] to allow crewmembers to fU! for up to one month
•
• following the calendar month in which a check is required." " ... a pilot would NOT be held in violation for
•
• operations in which he served during the grace month should he fail to comply with the proficiency check
•
• requirement during that grace month." "The fact that your company will purposely allow your currency
• requirement to lapse does NOT prevent the grace month provision of 135.301 (a) from applying."
•
• IN OTHER WORDS- The regulatory effect is the same as i! the check is accomplished (or not
accomplished) in the month due (aka base month).

.• •·• ..................................................................... . .
: A pilot's 121 or 135 froficiency .Qheck does not automatically count as an Instrument froficiency
: .Qheck unless the company's check airman (or the examiner) endorses it as such in the pilot's
• logbook or pilot records. Part 91, 121 or 135 flying performed for the air carrier does not require
•• the pilot to have an Instrument froficiency .Qheck. However, if that person flies a Part 91 flight
: outside of the company, that person cannot use his 121 or 135 froficiency .Qheck in lieu of an
• Instrument froficiency .Qheck. All approaches, holding or intercepting and tracking of courses
performed while flying for the company do however count towards instrument currency.
SAFETY PILOT: [91 .109(b), 61 .51 , 61 .56, FAA Legal Interpretations June 24, 1991 & January 23, 2013]
1. Must be at least a Private Pilot with category (i.e., airplane, rotorcraft, glider, lighter-than-air, or
powered-lift) & class (i.e., single-engine land, single-engine sea, multi-engine land, multi-engine sea)
ratings appropriate for the aircraft and have a current medical. NOTE The rotorcraft category has
two classes: helicopter and gyroplane.
2. A current flight review is necessary only if the safety pilot has agreed to be the ACTING PIC.
3. Three takeoffs and landings in the past 90 days would only be necessary if the safety pilot has agreed
to be the ACTING PIC and passengers will be onboard.
4. A ''complex," ''high performance," ''high altitude," or ''tailwheel'' endorsement is NOT necessary
unless the safety pilot has agreed to be the ACTING PIC.
5. An instrument rating is not necessary unless the flight is conducted under IFR and the safety pilot
agrees to be the ACTING PIC (the safety pilot's name would have to be on the flight plan).
6. !f the safety pilot has the necessary endorsements and agrees to be the ACTING PIC, both pilots
may log PIC time while the flying pilot is "under-the-hood" and is the "sole manipulator of the controls"
(FM legal opinion).
7. In another truly stunning display of bureaucratic double-talk FM legal interpretation dated January
23, 2013 states: '' ... Because the aircraft is type certificated for a single pilot, and because the operation
does not require a designated SIC (e.g. an operation conducted under 14 C.F.R. § 135.101 which
requires an SIC under IFR), [Pilot B] is a safety pilot and not an SIC. [*1] This does not preclude the
safety pilot from logging time as SIC, however. See Legal Interpretation to Ted Louis Glenn , from
Rebecca B. MacPherson, Assistant Chief Counsel for Regulations (December 1, 2009) (stating a pilot
may log SIC time for the portion of the flight during which she was acting as safety pilot because the
pilot was a required flight crew member for that portion of the flight under§ 91.109(b ). )''
8. If the pilot under the hood is logging the time for instrument currency, the NAME of the safety pilot
must be noted in that pilot's logbook.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: This is the way I would'a wrote the reg.
Always take along at least a Private Pilot

(that would almost be legal to fly the airplane if you dropped dead)
to look out the window for ya
when you ain't gonna be
lookin' out the window (much).

Recent Flight Experience Pilot In Command: (s1.s1. 121 .439, 135.247)
(a) GENERAL experience.
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section , no person may act as a Pilot In Command of an aircraft carrying
PASSENGERS - OR- of an aircraft certificated for more than one pilot flight crewmember unless that person has made at
least THREE takeoffs and THREE landings within the preceding 90 days, and-
(i) The person acted as the sole manipulator of the flight controls; and
(ii) The required takeoffs and landings were performed in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (if a type rating is
required), and, if the aircraft to be flown is an airplane with a TAILWHEEL, the takeoffs and landings must have been made
to a FULL STOP in an airplane with a tailwheel.
(2) For the purpose of meeting the requirements of paragraph (a)(1) of this section, a person may act as a Pilot In Command of
an aircraft under day VFR or day IFR, provided no persons or property are carried on board the aircraft, other than those
necessary for the conduct of the flight.
(3) The takeoffs and landings required by paragraph (a)(1) of this section may be accomplished in a flight simulator or flight
training device that is -
(i) Approved by the Administrator for landings; and
(ii) Used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a training center certificated under part 142 of this chapter.
(b) NIGHTtakeotf and landing experience.
(1) Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section, no person may act as Pilot In Command of an aircraft carrying
passengers during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise, unless within the preceding fil!
days that person has made at least THREE takeoffs and THREE landings to a FULL STOP during the period beginning 1 hour
after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise, and-
(i) That person acted as sole manipulator of the flight controls; and
(ii) The required takeoffs and landings were performed in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (if a type rating is
required).
(2) The takeoffs and landings required by paragraph (b )(1) of this section may be accomplished in a flight simulator that is -
(i) Approved by the Administrator for takeoffs and landings, if the visual system is adjusted to represent the period described in
paragraph (b )( 1) of this section ; and
(ii) Used in accordance with an approved course conducted by a training center certificated under part 142 of this chapter.
(c) INSTRUMENT experience. Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section , a person may act as pilot in command under IFR or
weather conditions less than the minimums prescribed for VFR only if:
(1) Use of an airplane, powered-lift, helicopter, or airship for maintaining instrument experience. Within the 6 calendar months
preceding the month of the flight, that person performed and logged at least the following tasks and iterations in an airplane,
powered-lift, helicopter, or airship, as appropriate, for the instrument rating privileges to be maintained in actual weather
conditions, QI under simulated conditions using a view-limiting device that involves having performed the following--
(i) Six instrument approaches.
(ii) Holding procedures and tasks.
(iii) Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems.
(2) Use of a flight simulator or flight training device for maintaining instrument experience. Within the 6 calendar months
preceding the month of the flight, that person performed and logged at least the following tasks and iterations in a flight simulator
or flight training device, provided the flight simulator or flight training device represents the category of aircraft for the instrument
rating privileges to be maintained and involves having performed the following--
(i) Six instrument approaches.
(iii) Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems.
(3) Use of an aviation training device for maintaining instrument experience. Within the 2 calendar months preceding the month of
the flight, that person performed and logged at least the following tasks, iterations, and time in an aviation training device and has
performed the following-
(i) Three hours of instrument experience.
(iii) Six instrument approaches.
(iv) Two unusual attitude recoveries while in a descending, Vne airspeed condition and two unusual attitude recoveries while
in an ascending, stall speed condition .
(v) Interception and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems.
(4) Combination of completing instrument experience in an aircraft and a flight simulator, flight training device, and aviation
training device. A person who elects to complete the instrument experience with a combination of an aircraft, flight simulator or
flight training device, and aviation training device must have performed and logged the following within the 6 calendar months
preceding the month of the flight-
(i) Instrument experience in an airplane, powered-lift, helicopter, or airship, as appropriate, for the instrument rating privileges
to be maintained, performed in actual weather conditions, or under simulated weather conditions while using a view-limiting
device, on the following instrument currency tasks:
(A) Instrument approaches.
(B) Holding procedures and tasks.
(C) Interception and tracking courses through the use of navigational electronic systems.
(ii) Instrument experience in a flight simulator or flight training device that represents the category of aircraft for the instrument
rating privileges to be maintained and involves performing at least the following tasks--
(A) Instrument approaches.
(iii) Instrument experience in an aviation training device that represents the category of aircraft for the instrument rating
privileges to be maintained and involves performing at least the following tasks--
(A) Six instrument approaches.

(5) Combination of completing instrument experience in a flight simulator or flight training device, and an aviation training
device. A person who elects to complete the instrument experience with a combination of a flight simulator, flight training device,
and aviation training device must have performed the following within the 6 calendar months preceding the month of the flight--
(i) Instrument recency experience in a flight simulator or flight training device that represents the category of aircraft for the
instrument rating privileges to be maintained and involves having performed the following tasks:
(ii) Three hours of instrument experience in an aviation training device that represents the category of aircraft for the instrument
rating privileges to be maintained and involves performing at least the following tasks--
(D) Two unusual attitude recoveries while in a descending, Vne airspeed condition and two unusual attitude recoveries
while in an ascending, stall speed condition.
(6) Maintaining instrument recent experience in a glider. {Does anyone really do this? Not included due to lack of interest}
(d) INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK. Except as provided in paragraph (e) of this section, a person who has failed to meet the
instrument experience requirements of paragraph (c) for more than six calendar months mav reestablish instrument currency
only by completing an instrument proficiency check. The instrument proficiency check must consist of the areas of operation and
instrument tasks required in the instrument rating practical test standards.
(1) The instrument proficiency check must b!F&-e-
(i) In an aircraft that is appropriate to the aircraft category;
(ii) For other than a glider, in a flight simulator or flight training device that is representative of the aircraft category; or
(iii) For a glider, in a single-engine airplane or a glider.
(2) The instrument proficiency check must be given by-
(i) An examiner;
(ii) A person authorized by the U.S. Armed Forces to conduct instrument flight tests, provided the person being tested is a
member of the U.S. Armed Forces;
(iii) A company check pilot who is authorized to conduct instrument flight tests under part 121 , 125, or 135 of this chapter or
subpart K of part 91 of this chapter, and provided that both the check pilot and the pilot being tested are employees of that
operator or fractional ownership program manager, as applicable;
(iv) An authorized instructor; or
(v) A person approved by the Administrator to conduct instrument practical tests.
(e) EXCEPTIONS.
(1) Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section do not apply to a pilot in command who is employed by a part 119 certificate holder
authorized to conduct operations under part 125 when the pilot is engaged in a flight operation for that certificate holder if the
pilot in command is in compliance with §§ 125.281 and 125.285 of this chapter.
(2) This section does not apply to a pilot in command who is employed by a part 119 certificate holder authorized to conduct
operations under part 121 when the pilot is engaged in a flight operation under parts fil. and 121 for that certificate holder it the
pilot in command is in compliance with §§ 121.435 or 121.436, as applicable, and § 121.439 of this chapter.
(3) This section does not apply to a pilot in command who is employed by a part 119 certificate holder authorized to conduct
operations under part 135 when the pilot is engaged in a flight operation under parts fil. and 135 for that certificate holder it the
pilot in command is in compliance with §§ 135.243 and 135.247 of this chapter.
(4) Paragraph (b) of this section does not apply to a PIC of a turbine-powered airplane that is type certificated for more than one
pilot crewmember, provided that pilot has complied with the requirements of paragraph (e)(4}(i) or !ill of this section:
(i) The pilot in command must hold at least a commercial pilot certificate with the appropriate category, class, and type rating
for each airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot crewmember that the pilot seeks to operate under this
alternative, and:
(A) That pilot must have logged at least 1,500 hours of aeronautical experience as a pilot;
(B) In each airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot crewmember that the pilot seeks to operate under this
alternative, that pilot must have accomplished and logged the davtime takeoff and landing recent flight
experience of paragraph l!). of this section, as the sole manipulator of the flight controls;
(C) Within the preceding 90 days prior to the operation of that airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot
crewmember, the pilot must have accomplished and logged at least 15 hours of flight time in the type of airplane
that the pilot seeks to operate under this alternative; and
(D) That pilot has accomplished and logged at least 3 takeoffs and 3 landings to a full stop, as the sole manipulator of
the flight controls, in a turbine-powered airplane that reguires more than one pilot crewmember. The pilot must
have performed the takeoffs and landings during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before
sunrise within the preceding 6 months prior to the month of the flight.
(ii) The pilot in command must hold at least a commercial pilot certificate with the appropriate category, class, and type rating
for each airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot crewmember that the pilot seeks to operate under this
alternative, and :
(A) That pilot must have logged at least 1,500 hours of aeronautical experience as a pilot;
(B) In each airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot crewmember that the pilot seeks to operate under
this alternative, that pilot must have accomplished and logged the daytime takeoff and landing recent flight
experience of paragraph l!). of this section , as the sole manipulator of the flight controls;
(C) Within the preceding 90 days prior to the operation of that airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot
crewmember, the pilot must have accomplished and logged at least 15 hours of flight time in. the type of airplane
that the pilot seeks to operate under this alternative; and
(D) Within the preceding 12 months prior to the month of the flight, the pilot must have completed a training program
that is approved under part 142 of this chapter. The approved training program must have required and the pilot must
have performed , at least 6 takeoffs and 6 landings to a full stop as the sole manipulator of the controls in a flight
simulator that is representative of a turbine-powered airplane that requires more than one pilot crewmember. The
flight simulator's visual system must have been adjusted to represent the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and
ending 1 hour before sunrise. {61 .57 (f) and (g) "Night Vision Goggle" experience not included due to lack of space}
Airplane Flight Manual AFM -

Approved Aircraft Flight Manual - AAFM -
Pilot Operating Handbook - PO H -
LIMITATIONS-
MARKINGS and PLACARDS:
(21 .5, 23.1581 , 23.1583, 23.1585, 23.1587, 23.1589, 91.9, 135.81 , 121 .141 , AC 60-68)
1. FAR 91.9 provides that an airplane must be operated in compliance
with the operating LIMITATIONS as set forth in the ''AIRPLANE
FLIGHT MANUAL,'' APPROVED MANUAL MATERIALS, MARKINGS,
and PLACARDS for the particular airplane type. These documents, or
any required combination, must be CURRENT and AVAILABLE in the
airplane during operation.
2. AFMs are reguired for all airplanes certificated in the Transport
category. No provision exists for approval of an AFM for airplanes type
certificated in the normal or acrobatic categories under CAR 04.
3. AFMs are also required for airplanes type certificated under CAR 3 and
FAR Part 23 at gross weights over 6,000 pounds, however, all aircraft
that were manufactured after March 1, 1979, must have an AFM. The required information for
airplanes, type certificated at gross weights of 6,000 pounds or under, which are not required to have an
AFM, may be furnished in an airplane flight manual or in any combination of approved manual material,
markings, and placards.
4. AFMs may be required for certain other airplane types which have been issued supplementary type
certificates changing the original type certification. Notable examples are numerous DC-3s, which have
been approved for operations in the Transport category under a supplemental type certificate.
5. Supplemental operating information, which has not been formally approved by the FAA, is usually
provided in an ''Owner's Handbook," ''Owner's Manual," ''Pilot's Operating Handbook'' (POH) or
supplemental pages in an AFM. The POH is similar to the AFM, but includes more general information.
6. The principal source of information for identifying reguired airplane flight manuals, approved
manual materials, markings, and placards is the FAA ''TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET'' or Aircraft
Specification issued for each airplane. This information may be obtained from the FAA, FAA approved
repair stations, and certified mechanics holding Inspection Authorizations.
7. Prior to operating an aircraft, pilots must assure that there is available in that airplane either a
current AFM or approved manual materials, if required, along with necessary markings and placards.
8. No person may operate a civil aircraft without complying with the operating LIMITATIONS specified
fil the approved Airplane (or Rotorcraft) Flight Manual, markings, and placards.
9. No person may operate a civil aircraft unless there is available in the aircraft a CURRENT approved
Airplane (or Rotorcraft) Flight Manual, markings, and placards, or any combination thereof.
Landing Gear Lever Must NOT Be Placed in the UP

Position While the Aircraft is on the Ground
.............................
•• An approved ''Company Flight
•• Manual'' (CFM) may be
•• accepted by the FAA as a
: substitute for an approved
: Airplane Flight Manual.
: If an approved Company Flight
: Manual is on board, it is not
: required to also carry an
·, approved Airplane Flight Manual.

DOCUMENTS ON BOARD AIRCRAFT: [9 1.203(a)(1), 91 .293(a)(2), FCC, 91 .9(b), 9 1.103, Aircraft Flight Manual]
II A-R-R-0-W"
1. .8,irworthiness Certificate 91.203(a)(1) (must be displayed at cabin or cockpit entrance so it is legible to passengers
and crew )(The Airworthiness Certificate remains valid as long as the aircraft is maintained and operated as required by the FARs)
2. B.egistration papers 91.203 (A TEMPORARY registration is NOT acceptable for international travel)
3. B.adio Station License FCC Form 605 (NOT required within the U.S. - IS required outside the U.S.)
This aircraft radio station license is good for 10 years but is not transferable if the aircraft is sold.
4. Qperating Limitations 91.9(b) and .8,ircraft flight ,Manual (or specific placards or markings). (§23.1581)
5. Weight & Balance data 91 .103, 135.185 and .8,ircraft flight Manual. (§23. 1581 )
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION- FEDERAL AVIAT ION ADMINISTRATION FCC Federal Communications Commission
STANDARD AIRWORTHINES CERTIFICATE Wireless Telecommunications Bureau
1 NATIONALITY A NO 2 fi.tANUFACTURER ANO t,;100El 3 AIRCRAFT SERIAL 4 CATEGOR Y
REGISTRATION MARKS NUMBER RADIO STATION AUTHORIZATION
N123FU DA-20F 341 T RANSPORT
LENGEL WORL D AIRLINES
5 AUTHORITY AND BASIS F OR ISSUANCE 1223 RIVERSIDE DRIVE
This airv10rthiness certificate is i ssued pursuant fo the federal Aviation Act of 1958 and certifi es lhal. as of the date of
issuanoe, the airccan to wttich issued has been inspected and found to conform to the type certificate therefore to be in
CHARLOTTE NC 28214
condition fot safe operation, and has been shown to meet the requirements of the applicable comprehensive and detailed
aiM'Orhiness code as provided by Annex 8 to the Convention on lntemational Civ1 Avi ation. except as noted herein Etc.
Exceptions
NONE
6 TERMS AND CONDITIONS
Unless sooner surrendered. suspended, revoked, or a termination dale i s otherwise established by the Admini strator,
th.isaitworthiness cerliricate is effective as l ong as the maintenance . preventative maintenance. and alterations are petformed
in aocordance \'\ith Parts 2 1. 43, and 9 1 of the Federal Aviation ReguJations. as appropriate. and the aircraft is regi stered in
the United Stat9s..
DATE OF ISSUANCE FAA REPRESENTATIVE DESIGNATION NUA.1BER FCC 605
03-09-74 RONALD McDONALD SO FSDO 13
Etc.
Operating Limitations
&
REGISTRATION NOT TRANSFERABLE
D EPART~~ENT
UNITED STAT ES OF AMERICA
OF TRASPORTATION·FEDERAl AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
Thi s certificate must
be in the ai-tcraft
Weight & Balance data
vlhen operated
NATIONALITY AND
CERTIFICATE OF AIRCRAFT REGISTRATI ON
AIRCRAFT SERIAL NO.
A FMs are required for all airplanes
REGISTRATION MARKS N 4823U 341 certificated in the transport category.
MANUFACTURER AND MANUFACTURER'S DESIGNATION OF AIRCRAFT
DASSAULT DA·20F All aircraft manufactured after
ICAO Aircraft Address Code: 513788
I Thi s certificate i s March 1, 1979 must have an AFM .
s LENGEL WORLD AIRLINES issued foe registra·
tion putposes o~y
(§21.5)
s 1223 RIVERSIDE DRIVE and i s not a certifi·
u CHARLOTTE NC 28214 cate of tilile. The
E Federal Avi ation
D Administration does
not determine f ights
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
T
0
of ovmership as
belween private : Aircraft registration must be
~ rsons .
•
Etc.
renewed every 3 years. (47.40)
•
CERTIFICATES REQUIRED IN PILOT'S POSSESSION: (6 1.3)
''R-P-M''
1. B.adio permit (FCC license) FCC Form 605 NOT required for operations WITHIN the U.S. but IS
required for operations OUTSIDE the U.S. (ICAO rules). A Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit
is good for life. Call the FCC at 888-225-5322 (www.fcc.gov) for a copy of the form and the current fee.
2. f.ilots certificate in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft the original only
- a copy will not do and a PHOTO IDENTIFICATION such as driver's license, Government or
State ID card, U.S. Armed Forces ID, Passport, Airport Security Badge, or "other form of
identification that the Administrator finds acceptable. " (61.3)
3. ,Medical in your personal possession or readily accessible in the aircraft the original only. (61.3)
Department of Transportation
Federal Aviation Administration
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA MEDICAL CERTIFICATE FIRST CLASS
Federal Communications Commission
This certifies thal (/uN name and addres s):
Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit
Richard Flyanything Lengel
1223 Riverside Drive
!Richard Flyanything Lengel! is authorized to Charlotte, NC 28214
operate any radio station which may be operated by C ate of Birth Heiqht We]Sjit Hair
~· Sex
a person holding this class of license. This permit is 4/14/XX 68 175 Brn Blue M
issued in conformity with Paragraphs 3454 and 3945 Has meet the medical standards prescribed in part 67, Federal Aviation
of the Radio Regulations, Geneva 1979, and is valid M

~ I
..I •Ulnl
CU
W
i;
11.
I \'.l •:> I
Z:lO
U4.fl LYlll
1•..Mr•
REm!llations. for this class of Me<lical Certificate.
CJ)
.......... ...................·.
for the lifetime of the holder unless suspended by the ",,.~ rd• ~"'llU auu Iii' ~E "'"'-"' tna O'
c : Medical not required
FCC. II ~I·
0 •• for Sport Pilot
Etc.
. . .q.tl
·-
_.
co
••
~ ~
.,
_. NONE
·-
E
·-
_J
Date ol Examination Examiner's Designation No.
01 /08/20.XX 07253-3
Etc.
INSPECTION of CERTIFICATE PRESENTATION of DOCUMENTS: [6 1.3, 6 1.51(i)1
Each person who holds an AIRMAN CERTIFICATE, MEDICAL certificate, LOGBOOK, authorization, or license
required by this part must present it for inspection upon a request from:
1. The Administrator;
2. An authorized representative of the NTSB;
3. Any Federal, State, or local law enforcement officer; or
4. An authorized representative of the Transportation Security Administration.
(chap 5 - Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs)
§ 61.51 Pilot logbooks:
(a) Training time and aeronautical experience. Each person must document and record the
following time in a manner acceptable to the Administrator:
(1) Training and aeronautical experience used to meet the requirements for a certificate,
rating , or flight review of this part.
(2) The aeronautical experience required for meeting the recent flight experience requirements of this part.
(b) Logbook entries. For the purposes of meeting the requirements of paragraph (a) of this section, each person must enter the following
information for each flight or lesson logged:
(1) General-
(i) Date.
(ii) Total flight time or lesson time.
(iii) Location where the aircraft departed and arrived, or for lessons in a flight simulator or flight training device, the location
where the lesson occurred .
(iv) Type and identification of aircraft, flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device, as appropriate.
(v) The name of a safety pilot, if required by §91 .109(b) of this chapter. • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ..-.
(2) Type of pilot experience or training- • Flight time (1 .1) means: pilot time
(i) Solo. % that commences when an aircraft
(ii) Pilot in command . • moves under its own power for the
(iii) Second in command . : purpose of flight and ends when the
(iv) Flight and ground training received from an authorized instructor. • aircraft comes to rest after landing ;
(v) Training received in a flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation training • aka block-to-block.
device from an authorized instructor.
(3) Conditions of flight-
-.........--· ...... ............................................. . ....
.........
: Day, night, or instrument are conditions of flight. They may be logged by both
.....
(i) Day or night. : the PIC and SIC regardless of who is actually manipulating the controls.
(ii) Actual instrument. ...._.""""11¥111¥1lllfllli¥!iflfN11¥1..........1i11111"""....................""".........."""'"""t1t111.....11111111fllfN'illlllllfalll¥a111111111
(iii) Simulated instrument conditions in flight, a flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation training device.
(iv) Use of night vision goggles in an aircraft in flight, in a flight simulator, or in a flight training device.
(c) Logging of pilot time. The pilot time described in this section may be used to:
(1) Apply for a certificate or rating issued under this part or a privilege authorized under this part; or
(2) Satisfy the recent flight experience requirements of this part.
(d) Logging of solo flight time. Except for a student pilot performing the duties of pilot in command of an airship requiring more than one
pilot flight crewmember, a pilot may log as solo flight time only that flight time when the pilot is the sole occupant of the aircraft.
(e) Logging Pilot-In-Command flight time.
(1) A sport, recreational, private, commercial , or airline transport pilot may log pilot in command flight time for flights-
(i) When the pilot is the sole manipulator of the controls of an aircraft for which the pilot is rated , or has sport pilot privileges
for that category and class of aircraft, if the aircraft class rating is appropriate;
(ii) When the pilot is the sole occupant in the aircraft;
(iii) When the pilot, except for a holder of a sport or recreational pilot certificate, acts as pilot in command of an aircraft for
which more than one pilot is required under the type certification of the aircraft Q[ the regulations under which the flight
is conducted; or
-
(iv) When the pilot performs the duties of PIC while under the supervision of a qualified pilot in command provided-
(A) The pilot performing the duties of pilot in command holds a commercial or airline transport pilot certificate and aircraft
rating that is appropriate to the category and class of aircraft being flown, if a class rating is appropriate;
(B) The pilot performing the duties of pilot in command is undergoing an approved pilot in command training program
that includes ground and flight training on the following areas of operation-( 1 ) Preflight preparation; ( 2) Preflight
procedures; ( 3) Takeoff and departure; ( 4) In-flight maneuvers; ( 5) Instrument procedures; ( 6) Landings and
approaches to landings; ( 7) Normal and abnormal procedures; ( 8) Emergency procedures; and ( 9) Postflight
procedures;
(C) The supervising pilot in command holds-
( 1 ) A commercial pilot certificate and flight instructor certificate, and aircraft rating that is appropriate to the
category, class, and type of aircraft being flown , if a class or type rating is required ; Q[
( 2 ) An airline transport pilot certificate and aircraft rating that is appropriate to the category, class, and type of
aircraft being flown , if a class or type rating is required ; and
(D) The supervising pilot in command logs the pilot in command training in the pilot's logbook, certifies the pilot in
command training in the pilot's logbook and attests to that certification with his or her signature, and flight
instructor certificate number.
(2) If rated to act as pilot in command of the aircraft, an airline transport pilot may log all flight time while acting as pilot in command of
an operation requiring an airline transport pilot certificate.
(3) A certificated flight instructor may log pilot in command flight time for all flight time while serving as the authorized
instructor in an operation if the instructor is rated to act as pilot in command of that aircraft.
(4) A student pilot may log pilot-in-command time only when the student pilot-
(i) Is the sole occupant of the aircraft or is performing the duties of pilot of command of an airship requiring more than one pilot
• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
flight crewm~mber; . . : Under appropriate circumstances, both the
(~~~ Has a solo.flight ~~dorseme~t as re~~1red unde~ §61.87 of this part; and • CFI and the student may log PIC time.
(111) Is undergoing tra1n1ng for a pilot cert1f1cate or rating. .._...i#;MlwMWWMWMWWMWM~w...
(f) Logging Second-In-Command flight time. A person may log SIC time only for that flight time during which that person :
(1) Is qualified in accordance with the second-in-command requirements of §61.55 of this part, and occupies a crewmember station
in an aircraft that requires more than one pilot by the aircraft's type certificate; or
(2) Holds the appropriate category, class, and instrument rating (if an instrument rating is required for the flight) for the aircraft being
flown , and more than one pilot is required under the type certification of the aircraft Q! the regulations under which the flight
is being conducted . •............. ............... .. .................. ..... ...... . . . . ........................................................ ..-. ..........................................
~ "Regardless of who is manipulating the controls during an instructional flight, the CFI is
: always deemed to be the PIC. It makes no difference what level of proficiency a student
~ may have attained, the flight instructor is still the PIC." (Admin . v. Hamre, NTSB precedent)
•
•·-._llllllMlllMlldllllllllllllll,,,_......._.._.._..............................._.._........._...~..............- . ................-..io-.........1111111111--.i11o1111o1...--...-.........~

(Chap 5 - Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs)
(g) Logging Instrument time.
(1) A person may log instrument time only for that flight time when the person
..-...... ·-- ............. ·----· .. .,.
• "Simulated" instrument conditions occur
~
operates the aircraft solely by reference to instruments under actual or

•• when the pilot's vision is intentionally
simulated instrument flight conditions. •• restricted, such as by a hood or goggles
(2) An authorized instructor may log instrument time when conducting instrument : (safety pilot required). (9 1.109)
flight instruction in actual instrument flight conditions. : "Actual" instrument flight conditions occur
(3) For the purposes of logging instrument time to meet the recent instrument • when some outside conditions make it
•• necessary for the pilot to use the aircraft
experience requirements of §61 .57(c) of this part, the following information
must be recorded in the person's logbook-
•• instruments in order to maintain
•
(i) The location and type of each instrument approach accomplished; and
(ii) The name of the safety pilot, if required .
:
adequate control. This may occur in the
case of a "moonless night over the
••
(4) A person can use time in a flight simulator, flight training device, or aviation ocean with no discernible horizon."
training device for acquiring instrument aeronautical experience for a pilot (FAA legal opinion - November 7, 1984)
certificate, rating, or instrument recency experience, provided an authorized
instructor is present to observe that time and signs the person's logbook or training record to verify the time and the content
of the training session.
·······························~········
(h) Logging Training time. : In a two pilot operation, the SIC is
(1) A person may log training time when that person receives training from an authorized : "operating" the aircraft at some level
instructor in an aircraft, flight simulator, or flight training device. : even when the PIC (Q! the autopilot) is
(2) The training time must be logged in a logbook and must: : flying . It is proper and legal for BOTH
(i) Be endorsed in a legible manner by the authorized instructor; and : pilots to log instrument time for all time
(ii) Include a description of the training given , the length of the training lesson, and : spent "operating" the aircraft in actual or
the authorized instructor's signature, certificate number, and certificate : simulated instrument conditions,
expiration date. : regardless of who is actually
(i) Presentation of required documents. : manipulating the controls. However it is
(1) Persons must present their pilot certificate, medical certificate, logbook, or any other : not proper to log an instrument approach
record required by this part for inspection upon a reasonable request by- : unless the person logging the approach
(i) The Administrator; : also performs the approach.
(ii) An authorized representative from the National Transportation Safety Board ; or •..._.......1t1¥1NIW~Mifltll1'1a¥1N'fl11¥1¥11fltll1'1a¥1i'fN¥11111¥1
(iii) Any Federal, State, or local law enforcement officer.
(2) A student pilot must carry the following items in the aircraft on all solo cross-country flights as evidence of the required
authorized instructor clearances and endorsements- • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-.
(i) Pilot logbook; :· Logging PIC Time
(ii) Student pilot certificate; and : Being PIC doesn't always mean you can log the time as PIC.
(iii) Any other record required by this section . : 1. If you're PIC of an aircraft requiring more than one crewmember
(3) A sport pilot must carry his or her logbook or other : you can log all the time as PIC even if you never touch the controls.
evidence of required authorized instructor : 2. If you're PIC of a Navajo (that doesn't require a second pilot ) and
endorsements on all flights. : you allow another pilot to be sole manipulator of the controls, then
(4) A recreational pilot must carry his or her logbook : you may not log that time as PIC. However the other pilot can if he
with the required authorized instructor endorsements : is appropriately rated (i.e., airplane multi-engine land).
on all solo flights- : 3. If you're PIC of that same Navajo operating Part 135 without an
(i) That exceed 50 nautical miles from the airport : autopilot (which would require an SIC by regulation ), then you get
at which training was received; : to log all the time as PIC even if you never touch the controls.
(ii) Within airspace that requires communication : 4. If you're PIC of a Learjet and your SIC is also type rated in the
with air traffic control; : aircraft, during th e time the SIC is "sole manipulator," both of you
(iii) Conducted between sunset and sunrise; or ~~ may log the time as PIC time.
(iv) In an aircraft~rwhich the pilot does not hold an ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
appropriate category or class rating .
(5) A flight instructor with a sport pilot rating must carry his or her logbook or other evidence of required authorized instructor
endorsements on all flights when providing flight training.
0) Aircraft requirements tor logging flight time. For a person to log flight time, the time must be acquired in an aircraft that is identified
as an aircraft under §61 .5(b ), and is-
(1) An aircraft of U.S. registry with either a standard or special airworthiness certificate;
(2) An aircraft of foreign registry with an airworthiness certificate that is approved by the aviation authority of a foreign country that is a
Member State to the Convention on International Civil Aviation Organization;
(3) A military aircraft under the direct operational control of the U.S. Armed Forces; or
(4) A public aircraft under the direct operational control of a Federal , State, county, or municipal law enforcement agency, if the flight
time was acquired by the pilot while engaged on an official law enforcement flight for a Federal, State, County, or Municipal law
enforcement agency.
(k) Logging night vision goggle time.
(1) A person may log night vision goggle time only for the time the person uses night vision goggles as the primary visual reference of
the surface and operates:
(i) An aircraft during a night vision goggle operation; or
(ii) A flight simulator or flight training device with the lighting system adjusted to represent the period beginning 1 hour after
sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise.
(2) An authorized instructor may log night vision goggle time when that person conducts training using night vision goggles as the
primary visual reference of the surface and operates:
(i) An aircraft during a night goggle operation; or
(ii) A flight simulator or flight training device with the lighting system adjusted to represent the period beginning 1 hour after
sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise.
(3) To log night vision goggle time to meet the recent night vision goggle experience requirements under §61 .57(f), a person must log
the information required under §61.51 (b ).

LOGGING RIGHT SEAT Navajo, King Air, or Citation TIME:
(61 .51 , 61.55, 61 .58, FAA Legal Interpretation April 2, 2009)
FAQ Question: I have a commercial I multi-engine rating and I've been hired to fly right seat
on a private company's Navajo, King Air C90, and Citation(SP) because the COMPANY
requires two pilots.
I can log it as .§.econd-!n-.Qommand time right? II
Answer: WRONG!
1. The Navajo does not require two pilots by regulation for most (Part 91) applications. The King Air 90
series (and most other King Airs except the King Air 300 or the King Air 350 with more than 9 seats) and
the Citation(SP)(.§.ingle f.ilot) jet do not REQUIRE more than one pilot under the TYPE CERT/FICA TE
of the aircraft OR the REGULATIONS (Part 91) under which most flights will be conducted [61.51 (f)].
2. You canNOT log it as SIC time, but you can log at least some of it (in Navajo size aircraft and most
King Airs, but not the jet) as PIC time if the pilot who is ACTING as PIC allows you to be the ''sole
manipulator of the controls'' [61.51 (e)(1 )(i)] for a portion of a flight (as long as the flight is being
operated under Part 91 rules). It doesn't matter if passengers are on board or not. Training would be
desirable but not legally required in order to LOG PIC time. There's no need to have ever flown a
King Air before; or to be endorsed for complex, high performance, or high altitude ... or even to be
current (3 bounces in 90 days or biennial). Requirements for endorsements and currency only pertain
to the pilot who is ACTING as PIC. In this scenario the acting PIC would not necessarily be ''legal'' to
log any pilot time while you are the "sole manipulator" because more than one pilot is not required by
the type certification or the regulations [61.51(e)(1 )(iii)]. See NOTE #1 below.
3. If you are rated in the airplane (category, class, and type), and you are the sole manipulator of the
controls, then you may log that time as PIC. It is possible for more than one person to legally LOG
PIC during the same flight but only !1 more than one pilot is required under the type certification of
the aircraft or the regulations under which the flight is conducted [61.51(e)(1)(iii)]. Only one person
may actually legally BE the PIC and ACT as the official PIC responsible for the flight.
4. You canNOT LOG PIC time in an aircraft that requires a type rating IF YOU DON'T HAVE a TYPE
RATING (however you may be able to log it as SIC time see NOTE #2 below).
5. If the flight is being operated under Part 135 rules, and on a Part 135 "leg" (passengers or freight on
board), you are not allowed to ''manipulate the controls'' at all, and you cannot log any of the time
as PIC (or SIC) UNLESS you are company trained, flight checked and ''REQUIRED'' by FAA
''regulations.'' •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: NOTE #1 - 61.51 (e)(1 )(iv) does allow logging of PIC time while under the supervision
.• • ••••••••••••••••• : of a ''qualified PIC'' while undergoing an ''approved PIC training program. ''
'
: NOTE #2:
•• 1. ALL LARGE AIRCRAFT (more than 12,500 lbs max takeoff weight) and ALL JETS require a TYPE RATING
•• and normally require a crew of 2 pilots unless approved for single pilot operations by the FAA during the
•• aircraft certification process .
2. Sometimes a large aircraft is approved for si ngle pilot operation based on the pilot's type rating, e.g.; the King
••
Air 300, 350, and Beech 1900 all weigh more than 12,500 lbs. If a pilot takes his type rating as a single pilot
• - he can fly those airplanes by himself - If he takes his type ride as part of a crew - he must fly as part
i• 3.
of a crew and mai ntain a current- two pilot 61.58 Pilot In Command Proficiency Check .
The CitationJet ISP I llSP & all CE500 series (CE501) are also certified for si ngle or two-pilot operations .
•• 4. If a pilot with a single pilot type rating is flying any of these aircraft - a .§.econd !n ~o mma nd is not required .
•• 5. Therefore even if you are hired to sit in the right seat, you could NOT log any of the time as SIC. Essentially
•• you are being paid just to look good for the passengers and/or the insurance company .
•• 6. However, for single pilot operations, the type certificates usually require at the very least a working Autopilot,
Flight Director, yoke-mounted Transponder ldent Switch, and a Boom Mike. If any of these items are
:• removed or inop (i.e., MEL'd), a SIC would then be REQUIRED by the type certificate - therefore REQUIRED
by the regulations - which REQUIRE compl iance with the ,Aircraft flight ,Manual and its limitations. Therefore
•• a second pilot would then be '' REQUIRED'' and could legally log SIC time . In this case the PIC must also
have a current-TWO pilot 61.58 PIC Proficiency Check (usually included with the single pilot checkride ) .
....................................................................................
i• SECOND IN COMMAND QUALIFICATIONS for AIRCRAFT TYPE CERTIFICATED for MORE
• THAN ONE REQUIRED PILOT or in OPERATIONS REQUIRING a SECOND IN COMMAND
: [61.55(g)] The holder of a Commercial or Airline Transport Pilot certificate with the appropriate category
: and class rating is NOT REQUIRED to MEET the TRAINING REQUIREMENTS [of 61.55(b)(2)] provided the
: pilot is conducting a FERRY FLIGHT, aircraft flight test, or evaluation flight of the aircraft's equipment; and
~ is NOT CARRYING any PERSON or PROPERTY on board other than necessary for conduct of the flight.

Just sit over there, keep your mouth shut, and DON'T TOUCH NUTHIN'.
As far as the FAA's concerned, you're just an overpaid sack of meat!
•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••• ''Sole Manipulator'' Time
••
•• 1. If you bring along your private pilot buddy (in our
••• hypothetical Navajo/King Air) who doesn't have a
•• multiengine [class] rating and you let him be "sole
•• manipulator of the controls" for a portion of the
0 ••
•
• flight, he can't log that time because he's not
rated; and [surprise!] technically you can't LOG it
••
•• • either because you're not manipulating the
•• controls ... therefore you no longer fit any of the
• conditions for logging flight time under 61.51 even
••
though you're acting as PIC and responsible for
•••
• the operation for the duration of the flight.
. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Although the proper endorsements (complex, high performance,
: 2.
. FYI - ''Sole manipulator'' PIC time, while
perfectly legal, is not especially valued for the
: high altitude, tailwheel) are required to "act" as PIC, they are purposes of job interviews. They're far more
: not required to "!Qg" PIC if the pilot is appropriately rated interested in ACTING as PIC time.
•
: [airplane single/multi-engine land, type rating if required]
~ and is the "sole manipulator" of the controls.
·~""""'11¥1¥.i,it;; •························~
'llfNt#illlf'Atitl.l
•
•• SIC Time?
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: If the PIC chooses to fly a portion of the flight •• Would the PIC be legal (under the
: under a hood , and the second pilot acts as •• FARs) to make this flight if I got
: safety pilot, that person could log it as SIC
•
: time ... however the FAA "cautions" that logging : sick and didn't show up?
~ SIC time is not the same as acting as SIC. ••
•
·~~~fAN~lllMIN¥1rAAi¥iA'ANlf.¥.atAN • If the answer is YES then you
•
• may NOT log SIC time .
~==---:.: ..:-:.:................................ .
: If a corporation requires an SIC, even
: though the plane is type-certificated for
: a single pilot, and neither the
: operation nor the regulations require
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• :• two pilots ... the second pilot is ...
•
: If the PIC of a single-pilot Citation also happened : "not a required flight crewrnember,
: to be a CFI, the second pilot could log some of : and cannot log the time as SIC."
: the time as instructional , cross-country, night ·~lil'Alliil'ilQldlliilt.i~~~'#tJ~'1#~~1/f;N- tii¥i
-
: and/or instrument flight time under 61 .51 (e)(1 )

~ provided the CFI will sign the logbook entries.
··~~~~
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
1111 •: ''SIC Privileges Only''
: A pilot who holds a type rating
: limited to SIC privileges may not log
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • sole manipulator time as PIC time .
• "Regardless of who is manipulating the controls during
: an instructional flight, the CFI is always deemed to be
• the PIC. It makes no difference what level of proficiency
• a student may have attained, the flight instructor is still
the PIC ." (Admin . v. Hamre, NTSB precedent)

CHANGE of ADDRESS: (61.60)
1. A pilot who has made a change in permanent mailing address may not, after 30 days from that date,
exercise the privileges of his or her certificate unless the holder has notified in writing the:
FAA
Airman Certification Branch
P.O. Box 25082
FAA Oklahoma City, OK 73125
2. Change of address forms are available from the FSDO Form 8060-55.
3. Normally the FAA will not send a new certificate with a change of address.
If you want a new certificate with the new address, you must send a check for the
current appropriate fee made out to the ''Treasury of the United States."
REPLACEMENT of a LOST or DESTROYED AIRMAN or MEDICAL

CERTIFICATE: (61.29)
1. A request for lost or destroyed AIRMAN Certificate or knowledge test report must
be made by letter to the ABOVE ADDRESS ~.
2. A request for lost or destroyed MEDICAL Certificate must be made by letter to the:
Department of Transportation ...................................... . .
FAA : You may access forms to replace your lost
Aeromedical Certification Branch : certificates; get a copy of your airman
P.O. Box 25082 : records; update your address; get a copy of
: your knowledge test report; report a name
Oklahoma City, OK 73125
: change, change your airman certificate
3. All requests must be accompanied by a check for
• number; and even fill out an 8710-1, Airman
the "appropriate fee" payable to the FAA. •• Certificate and/or Rating Application form at:
4. Requests must include:
a. Name; www.faa.gov
b. Permanent mailing address;
c. Social Security number;
d. Date and PLACE of Birth;
e. Grade, number, date of issuance and ratings if applicable;
f. Date of medical or knowledge test if applicable.
5. You may obtain a FACSIMILE from the FAA Aeromedical
••.
························~
(61.29)
'
Certification Branch or the Airman Certification Branch •• An emergency FACSIMILE from
confirming the certificate or test report was issued and carry • the FAA confirming the existence of
it for up to 60 days pending the receipt of a duplicate.
•
•• your lost Airman or Medical
• certificate may be obtained by
••
• contacting the FAA through your
•• ·-····························---' . local FSDO or by calling
: Fan Mail Address: : Oklahoma City directly @
: Directly to the Desk of the Head :
•• Administrator of the FAA. •
•• •• 800-350-5286
• •• Press 3 for lost airman certificate .
•• The Honorable [his or her name] • Press 5 for lost medical .
•• Administrator •
•
•• Federal Aviation Administration •
•• Remember, you MUST have your
• 800 Independence Avenue SW
• : ORIGINAL AIRMAN and MEDICAL
Washington, DC 20590
\ : CERTIFICATES or this emergency
: FACSIMILE in your ''personal
~ possession'' in order to legally act
\ as a pilot crewmember. (61.3)

FALSIFICATION, REPRODUCTION or ALTERATION of APPLICATIONS,
CERTIFICATES, LOGBOOKS, REPORTS, or RECORDS: (61.59)
{a) No person may make or cause to be made:
(1) Any fraudulent or intentionally false statement on any application for a certificate, rating ,
authorization, or duplicate thereof, issued under this part;
(2) Any fraudulent or intentionally false entry in any logbook, record , or report that is required to
be kept, made, or used to show compliance with any requirement for the issuance or exercise of
the privileges of any certificate, rating, or authorization under this part;
(3) Any reproduction for fraudulent purpose of any certificate, rating , or authorization, or
(4) Any alteration of any certificate, rating, or authorization under this part.
{b) The commission of an act prohibited under paragraph (a) of this section is a basis for SUSPENDING or
REVOKING any AIRMAN CERTIFICATE, rating , or authorization held by that person.
······~ ······················ ·····································- ~
,,• Whoever in any matter within the jurisdiction of any •
: An ERROR in your LOGBOOK can be corrected
• department or agency of the United States knowingly
: and willfully falsifies, conceals or covers up by any : with a single line strikeout on the last page and a
• trick, scheme or device a material fact, or who makes : brief explanation that describes the error and
• any false , fictitious or fraudulent statements or : when the error occurred .
•• fined up to
representations, or entry, may be : Or... if you've made a total mess of your original
•• S 250,000 - or - imprisoned not more than : logbook, you can transfer all the entries w/dates
five years - or both. (18 u.s.c. §1001 ) • from the old book to a new one and keep the
•\ original logbook for the endorsements.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
: If the FAA were trying to prove falsification or
•
: fraudulent entries, the FAA would have to
0 •• show evidence. If the allegedly false entries
• are in a lost or stolen logbook, they have no
evidence, unless they have proof from other
0 0 : sources such as copies of the logbook. If the
: FAA is asking to make copies of your logbook,
• they are probably not asking because they
0 0
want to offer you a job. Get an attorney.
•• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•••
• • LOST or STOLEN LOGBOOK
•• 1. The first consideration is you'll need to show DOCUMENTATION of compliance with the recency
•• of experience requirements under FAR 61.51 (a) such as BFR, takeoffs and landings during the
• last 90 days, instrument currency, etc. You will also need documentation for endorsements
••
• such as high performance, complex, tailwheel, and pressurized aircraft (61.31 ). If unable to
• locate the instructors who gave the initial endorsements, you may need to acquire them again .
••
•• 2. This is probably the safest way to replace lost logbook records:
a. Write a letter directly to the FAA requesting your ''COMPLETE AIRMEN FILE'' and
••
''MEDICAL FILE." Include your name, address, date and place of birth, social security and/or
•
• airman number and signature. Enclose a check for $10 payable to the U.S. Treasury. Mail
•
•• the check and information to: FAA Airman Certification Branch, AFS-760, P.O. Box 25082,
•• Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73125 [phone numbers (405) 954-0990 or (405) 954-3261] .
•• These records will show your pilot time in all categories through the last pilot certificate or
•• rating obtained and also the amount of pilot time noted on your last medical application .
• b. Try to recreate your additional time from other records such as rental receipts, FBO records,
•• air carrier records, etc. Buy a new logbook and to the best of your knowledge fill in the times
• and add a statement attesting to the accuracy of the entries. Then have it notarized or-
•
•• you might be able to have it signed by one of those friendly, helpful and courteous FAA
•• Aviation Safety Inspectors at your local FSDO .
•• c. None of the time logged in your recreated logbook can be knowingly false ... so be
•• conservative. You do not want one of those friendly, helpful and courteous FAA Aviation
• • Safety Inspectors at your local FSDO to challenge any of your entries .
~

(Chap 5 Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs J ..-......................................................... .
i For aircraft that require more than one pi lot, the SIC now
§ 61.55 Second-In-Command Qualifications: requires a TYPERATING (SIConly)forflights
=
(a) A person mav serve as a Second-In-Command of an aircraft tvoe certificated for more : OUTSIDE United States airspace (effective June 6 • 2 oo5 ).
than one required pilot flight crewmember or in operations REQUIRING a Second-In-Command pilot flight crewmember only if that person holds:
(1) At least a current private pilot certificate with the appropriate category and class rating; and
(2) An instrument rating or privilege that applies to the aircraft being flown i! the flight is under IFR; and
(3) At least a pilot type rating for the aircraft being flown UNLESS the flight will be conducted as DOMESTIC flight operations WITHIN the United
States ai rspace.
(b) Except as provided in paragraph Ce) of this section, no person may serve as a Second-In-Command of an aircraft type certificated for more than one
required pilot flight crewmember or in operations requiring a second-in-command unless that person has within the previous 12 calendar months:
(1) Become familiar with the following information for the specific type aircraft for which second-in-command privileges are requested-
(i) Operational procedures applicable to the powerplant, equipment, and systems.
(ii) Performance specifications and limitations. :· • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ... • • • • • • •
- -- If a person chartering an aircraft requests a copilot even though the
(iii) Normal, abnormal, and emergency operati ng procedures. ~ regulations or type certificate of the aircraft do not require one, the regu latory
(iv) Flight manual. ; requirements for SIC must be met in order to log SIC time. (see Page 178)
(v) Placards and markings . .,---------------------------~
(2) Except as provided in paragraph (g) of thi s section, performed and logged pilot time in the type of aircraft QI. in a flight simulator that
represents the type of aircraft for which second-in-com mand privileges are requested, which includes-
(i) Three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop as the sole manipulator of the flight controls;
(ii) Engine-out procedures and maneuvering with an engine out while executing the duties of Pilot In Command; and
(iii) Crew Resource Management training.
(c) If a person complies with the requirements in paragraph (b) of this section in the calendar month before or the calendar month after the month in which
compliance with this section is required, then that person is considered to have accomplished the training and practice in the month it is due.
(d) A person may receive a ~ pilot type rating for an aircraft after satisfactorily completing the SIC familiarization training requirements under
paragraph Cb) of this section in that type of aircraft provided the training was completed within the 12. calendar months before the month of application
for the SIC pilot type rating . The person must comply with the following application and pilot certification procedures:
(1) The person who provided the training must sign,the applicant's logbook or training record after each lesson in accordance with §61.51 (h)(2)
of this part. In lieu of the trainer, it is permissible for a qualified management official within the organization to sign the applicant's training
records or logbook and make the required endorsement. The qualified management official must hold the position of Chief Pilot, Director of
Training , Director of Operations, or another comparable management position within the organization that provided the training and must be
in a position to verif¥ the applicant's training records and that the training was given.
(2) The trainer or qualified management official must make an endorsement in the applicant's logbook that states "[Applicant's Name and Pilot
Certificate Number] has demonstrated the skill and knowledge required for the safe operation of the [Type of Aircraft] , relevant to the duties
and responsibilities of a Second In Command."
(3) !! the applicant's flight experience and/or training records are in an electronic form, the applicant must present a paper copy of those
records containing the signature of the trainer or qualified management official to an FAA Flight Standards District Office or Examiner.
(4) The applicant must complete and sign an Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application, FAA Form 8710-1 , and present the application to an
FAA Flight Standards District Office or to an Examiner.
(5) The person who provided the ground and flight training to the applicant must sign the " Instructor's Recommendation" section of the Airman
Certificate and/or Rating Application, FAA Form 8710-1. In lieu of the trainer, it is permissible for a qualified management official with in the
organization to sign the applicant's FAA Form 8710-1.
(6) The applicant must appear IN PERSON at a FAA Flight Standards District 'O ffice or to an .E xaminer with his or her logbook/training records
and with the completed and signed FAA Form 8710-1 .
(7) There is NO PRACTICAL TEST REQUIRED for the issuance of the "SIC Privileges Only" pilot type rating.
(e) A person may receive a Second-In-Command pilot type rating for the type of aircraft after satisfactorily completing an approved Second-In-
Command training program, proficiency check, or competency check under subpart K of part 91 , part 121 , part 125, or part 135, as appropriate, in
that type of aircraft provided the training was completed within the g calendar months before the month of application for the SIC pilot type rating.
The person must comply with the following application and pilot certification procedures:
( 1) The person who provided the training must sign the app licant's logbook or training record after each lesson in accordance with §61.51 (h)(2)
of this part. In lieu of the trainer, it is permissible for a qualified management official within the organization to sign the applicant's training
records or logbook and make the required endorsement. The qualified management official must hold the position of Chief Pilot, Director of
Training , Director of Operations, or another comparable management position with in the organization that provided the training and must be in a
position to verify the applicant's training records and that the training was given.
(2) The trainer or qualified management official must make an endorsement in the applicant's logbook that states "[Applicant's Name and Pilot
Certificate Number) has demonstrated the skill and knowledge required for the safe operation of the [Type of Aircraft], relevant to the duties
and responsibilities of a Second In Command."
(3) If the applicant's flight experience and/or training records are in an electronic form , the applicant must provide a paper copy of those records
containing the signature of the trainer or qualified management official to an FAA FSDO, an Examiner, or an Aircrew Program Designee.
(4) The applicant must complete and sign an Airman Certificate and/or Rating Application, FAA Form 8710-1 , and present the application to an
FAA Flight Standards District Office or to an Examiner or to an authorized Aircrew Program Designee.
(5) The person who provided the ground and flight training to the applicant must sign the "Instructor's Recommendation " section of the Airman
Certificate and/or Rating Application, FAA Form 8710-1. In lieu of the trainer, it is permissible for a qualified management official within the
organization to sign the applicant's FAA Form 8710-1.
(6) The applicant must appear IN PERSON at an FAA Flight Standards District Office or to an Examiner or to an authorized Aircrew Program
Designee with his or her logbook/training records and with the completed and signed FAA Form 8710-1 .
(7) There is no practical test required for the issuance of the " SIC Privileges Only" pilot type rating.
(f) The familiarization training requirements of paragraph (b) of this section do not apply to a person who is:
( 1) Designated and qualified as Pilot In Command under subpart K of part 91 , part 121 , 125, or 135 of this chapter in that specific type of aircraft;
(2) Designated as the Second In Command under subpart K of part 91 , part 121 , 125, or 135 of this chapter in that specific type of aircraft;
(3) Designated as the Second In Command in that specific type of aircraft for the purpose of receiving flight training required by this section, and
no passengers or cargo are carried on the aircraft; QI.
(4) Designated as a safety pilot for purposes required by §91.109(b) of this chapter.
(g) The holder of a COMMERCIAL or AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT certificate with the appropriate category and class rati ng is NOT REQUIRED to meet
the requirements of paragraph (b)(2) of this section, provided the pilot:
(1) Is conducting a FERRY FLIGHT, aircraft flight test, or evaluation flight of an aircraft's equipment; and
(2) Is NOT carrying any PERSON or PROPERTY on board the aircraft, other than necessary for conduct of the flight.
(h) For the purpose of meeting the requirements of paragraph (b) of this section, a person may serve as SIC in that specific type aircraft, provided:
(1) The flight is cond ucted under day VFR or day IFR; and
(2) No person or property is carried on board the aircraft, other than necessary for conduct of the flight.
(i) The training under paragraphs (b) and (d) of this section and the training, proficiency check, and competency check under paragraph (e) of this section
may be accomplished in a FLIGHT SIMULATOR that is used in accordance with an approved training course conducted by a training center certificated
under part 142 of this chapter or under subpart K of part 91, part 121 or part 135 of th is chapter.
(j) When an applicant for an initial Second-In-Command qualification for a particular type of aircraft receives all the training in a flight simulator, that
applicant must satisfactorily complete one takeoff and one landing in an aircraft of the same type for which the qualification is sought. This requirement
does not apply to an applicant who completes a proficiency check under part 121 or competency check under subpart K, part 91 , part 125, or part
135 for the particular type of aircraft.

STUDENT PILOT: (61.19, 61.83 thru 61.95)
1. To be eligible for a student pilot certificate, an applicant must:
a. Be at least 16 years of age for other than operation of a glider or balloon.
b. Be at least 14 years of age for the operation of a glider or balloon.
c. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
2. General limitations A student pilot may not act as pilot in command of an aircraft:
a. That is carrying a passenger;
b. That is carrying property for compensation or hire;
c. For compensation or hire;
d. In furtherance of a business;
e. On an international flight;
f. With flight or surface visibility of less than 3 SM during daylight or 5 SM at night;
g. When the flight cannot be made with visual reference to the surface; or
h. In a manner contrary to any limitations placed in the pilot's logbook by an authorized instructor.
i. On any solo flight, cross-country flight, or any flight into Class B airspace without a specific
logbook endorsement by an authorized instructor.
·············································································~
•• The duration of student pilot certificates matches the duration of your third-class medical .
•• For student pilots under 40 years of age on the date your medical certificate was issued , your
•• student pilot certificate is valid for five years, just like your medical .
: If you were 40 or more years old on the date of your medical exam, your student pilot certificate
•• is valid for two years, just like your third class medical . (61.23, 61.19)
FAA APPAOUEO
I
U & llCMJWllllCl(J IJClo!IS(O

FUGKT
INSIRUC IOA
ON DUTY
CJ
~ :J
•• ··················································~' \
: Training Options
••
•• Part 61 vs. Part 141 Schools
• (61 .61 thru 61.217, Appendix A thru L to Part 141)
• 1. Part 141 schools supply a more structured learning environment
••
with set schedules, dedicated classrooms, and are directly
•
•• supervised by the FAA. The benefit is that students can obtain
•• certificates with less required hours .
•• 2. The Part 61 approach allows the student and instructor the
•• freedom to arrange the training according to the needs and
•• schedule of the student.
•• 3. PRIVATE certificate:
•• a. Part 61 requires 40 hours of training; vs .
•• b. Part 141 requires 35 hours
•• 4. INSTRUMENT certificate:
•• a. Part 61 requires 40 hours of training; vs .
Every flight instructor's fantasy.
• b. Part 141 requires 35 hours
•• 5 . COMMERCIAL certificate:
• a. Part 61 requires a total of 250 hours; vs .
b. Part 141 requires a total of only 190 hours

SPORT PILOT A Brief Overview: (Light Sport Aircraft 1.1, 61 .23, 61 .53, 61 .301thru61 .327)
Th e P I·1 ot must •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
: Federal Register Preamble
1. Be at least 17 years old ( 16 years old for a glider or balloon). • ''The determination as to
2. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand English. : whether a pilot has a medical
3. Possess either a 3rd class FAA medical certificate or a current and valid : condition that would make
U.S. driver's license (provided your most recent application for an FAA • him or her unable to operate
medical or special issuance was not denied, revoked, suspended or : the aircraft in a safe manner
withdrawn). In addition, 61.53 requires every pilot (Sport Pilot thru ATP) : is th~ sole resp~~sibility ?f
to determine before each flight that he or she is medically fit to operate : the pilot. The ~billty to ~~rtify
their aircraft in a safe manner. It is your responsibility to ensure that your • no known medic~l .conditions
. . . . . • that would proh1b1t the safe
current medical health 1n no way 1eopard1zes the safety of a flight. : operation of an aircraft is a
4. [For airplane] Log at least 20 hours of flight time of which at least 15 • matter about which a pilot
hours must be dual instruction with a qualified flight instructor 5 hours : should consult his or her
solo 10 takeoffs & landings(!) One solo cross-country of at least • personal physician."
75 NM, with a full stop landing at a minimum of two points. (61 .313)
5. Pass the FAA written and flight tests. ~-- • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
Aircraft Category/Classes available (61.313) : So ... as long as you don't
Airplane [category] single-engine land or sea class; Glider; Lighter-than-air : have a medic~I ~ondition that
- Airship class or Balloon class· Rotorcraft Gyroplane class only· • . ~ould prohibit you from
' . . . ' • dr1v1ng a car, and you have a
. Powered ~arachute land or sea class, We1ght-sh1ft control land or sea class. : personal physician that thinks
Light Sport Aircraft means . (1 .1) : you're safe to fly, and you
1. Max gross takeoff weight 1,320 Lbs, or 1,430 Lbs for seaplanes. • feel like you're safe to fly ...
2. Max stall speed 45 kts (CAS). • then you 're legal to fly LSA.
3. VH Max speed in level flight with max continuous power 120 kts.
4. Single or two-seat aircraft only. •
••••••••••••••••••
5. Single, reciprocating engine (if powered) with a fixed or ground- • If you are already a Private
adjustable propeller. % Pilot (or higher) you do not
• need to notify anyone if you
6. Nonpressurized cabin if equipped with a cabin.
: wish to transition to Sport
7. Fixed landing gear, except for an aircraft intended for operation on : Pilot after your current 3 rd
water or a glider. • class medical expires. You
Limitations You may NOT act as PIC of a light-sport aircraft: (61 .315) • may also continue to operate
1. That is carrying a passenger or property for compensation or hire or • in Class B, C, or D airspace.
furtherance of a business (although you may share expenses with a : All you need to do is
passenger provided you pay at least half). • maintain currency, flight
2. While carrying more than one passenger. : reviews, and comply with the
3. At night or in Class A airspace. • limitations found in 1.1 ,
• 61.315 & 61.303. If you are
4. In Class B, C, and D airspace unless having received proper training
% ramp checked, all you will
and logbook endorsement. • need to produce is your
5. Outside the U.S. unless you have prior authorization from the country. •• pilot's license and
6. To demonstrate the aircraft to a prospective buyer .if you are an • driver's license.
aircraft salesperson.
•• ••••••••••••••••••••
7. In a passenger-carrying airlift sponsored by a charitable organization . : Typical Cost:
8. At an altitude of more than 10,000 ft MSL or 2,000 ft AGL, whichever is higher. : $3,500-$6,000
•
9. When the flight or surface visibility is less than 3 SM. : Realistic average
: hours to earn: 30
10. Without visual reference to the surface.
11. If the aircraft has a VH greater than 87 kts unless you have met the requirements of 61.327(b).
12. If the aircraft has a VH less than or equal to 87 kts unless you have met the requirements of 61.327(a).
13. While towing any object .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• Vintage aircraft eligible for LSA are the Piper Cub, Aeronca Champ, most Luscombes,
: and some Ercoupes. None of the older Cessna two place models qualify because they
• are just too heavy. However the new Cessna 162 SkyCatcher does qualify.
RECREATIONAL PILOT: (61 .96 thru 61 .101 , Appendix A to Part 141)

Very similar to a Sport Pilot but requires a 3rd class medical and a
minimum of 30 hours of training. A Recreational pilot may fly a
single-engine aircraft of up to 180 hp, fixed landing gear, and
4 seats (but still restricted to a maximum of one passenger), in daytime VFR, 10,000 ft or below for
pleasure flights only. Additional training is required for flights more than 50 NM and to airports with an
operating control tower.

f riuate
...
Jilnt
~., ~ ..
t~ .. ~-- -·
... "'"
n.. ..
11 - " ., .....,..,. .,.••
....,.., #f • 111111i. ,..,_ ........
tt-~t •t th> :t~tr"l ,.\'°'""'111
p ...,... ••
an .. th
,u.._t11T1-.
My 'Lil Ercoupe
••••••••••••••••••••••
: Typical Cost:
: $10,000-$15,000
PRIVATE PILOT: (61 .39, 61 .102thru 61 .117, 91 .146, 119.1 , Appendix Bto Part 141) •
: Realistic average
1. To be eligible for a Private Pilot certificate, a person must: •
• hours to earn: 70
•"tNIJl/lti#.~~INANt#.
a. Be at least 17 years of age for a rating in other than a glider or balloon.
b. Be at least 16 years of age for a rating in a glider or balloon.
c. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
d. Pass the written, oral, and flight test.
2. Must receive and log at least 40 hours of flight time (35 hours total at a Part 141 school) that includes
at least 20 hours of flight training from an authorized instructor and 10 hours of solo flight training in
the areas of operations listed in 61.107(b)(1), and the training must include at least-
a. 3 hours of cross-country flight training in a single-engine airplane;
b. 3 hours of night flight training in a single-engine airplane (except as •••·-·····························
•
See 61.63 for
provided in 61.110) that includes- : Multiengine Rating
• One night cross-country flight of over 100 NM; and : add on requirements.
• 10 takeoffs and 10 landings to a full stop at night (with each •
landing involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport.
3. 3 hours of flight training solely by reference to instruments.
4. 3 hours of flight training in preparation for the practical test within the preceding 2 calendar months
from the month of the test; and
5. 10 hours of solo flight time consisting of at least-
a. 5 hours of solo cross-country time;
b. One solo cross-country flight of at least 150 NM total distance, with full-stop landings at a
minimum of three points, and one segment of the flight consisting of a straight-line distance of
at least 50 NM between the takeoff and landing locations; and
c. Three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop (with each landing involving a flight in the
traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower.
6. No person who holds a private pilot certificate may act as pilot in command of an aircraft that is
carrying passengers or property for compensation or hire; nor may that person, for compensation
or hire, act as pilot in command of an aircraft.
7. A Private Pilot MAY, for compensation or hire, act as pilot in command of an aircraft
in connection with any business or employment IF:
a. The flight is only incidental to that business or employment; and
b. The aircraft does NOT carry passengers or property for compensation or hire.
8. A private pilot may NOT pay less than the pro rata share of the operating expenses of a flight with
...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •.•. . ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .

passengers, provided the expenses involve only fuel, oil, airport expenditures, or rental fees .
•• SHARING EXPENSES: [61 .113(c)]

•• 1. A Private Pilot must not receive any compensation at all even if it is just a tax deduction (e.g. donation to a charity) .
• 2. The reason for a flight is very important. It must be a ''joint venture'' for a common purpose with expenses
• defrayed by all passengers and the pilot. If the reason for a flight is to transport a person , that is, if a flight would not
••
have taken place at all if it were not to transport that person, then it would be in violation of 61.113 .
•• 3. If the original intent of a flight is to transport another person, then the only reason for the flight is to carry a
% passenger. Therefore sharing expenses would be considered illegal compensation.
• 4. Advertising an upcoming flight in order to share expenses with someone interested in riding along is not considered
• legal. Even if the pilot chooses the itinerary, advertising to "any and all interested" constitutes ''holding out'' and
••
turns a private flight with shared expenses into a commercial operation requiring an air carrier certificate.
9. A private pilot may act as pilot in command of an aircraft used in a passenger-carrying airlift sponsored
by a ''CHARITABLE ORGANIZATION," and for which the passengers make a donation to the
organization, when the extremely specific requirements of 61.113(d) and 91.146 are met.
10. A private pilot who is an aircraft salesman and who has at least 200 hours of logged flight time MAY
demonstrate an aircraft in flight to a prospective buyer.
11. A private pilot who meets the requirements of 61.69 MAY act as pilot in command of an aircraft
towing a glider.

INSTRUMENT RATING: (61.65, Appendix C to Part 141)

1. A person who applies for an instrument rating must:
a. Hold at least a current Private Pilot certificate with an airplane, "
helicopter, or powered-lift appropriate to the instrument rating sought~ ""
b. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
c. Pass the written, oral, and flight test.
2. Must have logged at least 50 hours of cross-country flight time as pilot in
command, of which at least 10 hours must be in airplanes for an instrument-
airplane rating; and .... ,_..._....._ .....
__
-~
............. ....,.,.,..__.
3. Must have logged a total of 40 hours (35 hours at a Part 141 school) of actual or ... ..
---~--
t ..
.....
simulated instrument time on the areas of operation of this section, to include- -
a. At least 15 hours of instrument flight training from an authorized
instructor in the aircraft category for which the instrument rating is sought;
b. At least 3 hours from an authorized instructor in preparation for the practical test within the
preceding 2 calendar months from the month of the test;
c. For an instrument-airplane rating, instrument training on cross-country flight procedures specific
to airplanes that includes at least ONE cross-country flight in an airplane that is performed
under IFR, and consists of-
• A distance of at least 250 NM along airways or ATC-directed routing;
• An instrument approach at each airport; and
• Three different kinds of approaches with the use of navigation systems.
4. Use of FLIGHT SIMULATORS or flight training devices. If the instrument training was provided by an
authorized instructor in a flight simulator or training device-
a. A maximum of 30 hours may be performed in that flight simulator or flight training device if the
training was accomplished in accordance with Part 142 of this chapter; or
b. A maximum of 20 hours may be performed in that flight simulator or flight training device if the
training was NOT accomplished with Part 142 of this chapter.
c. A maximum of 10 hours of instrument time received in an approved aviation training device.
INSTRUMENT EXPERIENCE - CURRENCY: [61.57(c)&(d)]

1. Except as provided in 61.57(e), no person may act as pilot in command under IFR or in weather
conditions less than VFR, unless within the preceding 6 calendar months, that person has:
a. Performed and logged under actual or simulated instruments conditions, either in flight in the
appropriate category of aircraft or in a flight simulator that is representative of the aircraft
category for the instrument privileges sought-
For more detailed information
• At least six instrument approaches;
refer to Page 170.
• Holding procedures; and
• Intercepting and tracking courses through the use of navigation systems
2. INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK Except as provided in 61.57(e), a person who does not meet
the instrument experience requirements of 61.57(c) within the prescribed time, or within 6 calendar
months after the prescribed time, may not serve as pilot in command under IFR or in weather conditions
less than VFR until that person passes an ''instrument proficiency check'' [61.57(d)] consisting of a
representative number of tasks required by the instrument rating practical test in an appropriate
category or appropriate flight simulator or flight training device.
3. The ''instrument proficiency check'' must be given by-
a. An examiner;
b. A person authorized by the U.S. Armed forces,
provided the person being tested is a member of the U.S. Armed forces;
c. A company check pilot who is authorized to conduct instrument flight tests under Part 121,
125, or 135, and provided that both the check pilot and the pilot being tested are
employees of that operator;
d. An authorized instructor; or
e. A person approved by the Administrator to conduct instrument practical tests.
4. This section does not apply to a pilot in command who is employed by an air carrier certificated under
Part 121 or 135 and is engaged in a flight operation under Part 91, 121, or 135 for that air carrier if the pilot is
in compliance with 121.437 and 121.439, or 135.243 and 135.247, as appropriate. [61 .57(e)]

COMMERCIAL PILOT: (61 .39, 61 .121thru61 .133, Appendix D to Part 141 )
1. To be eligible for a commercial pilot certificate, a person must:
a. Be at least 18 years of age;
b. Be able to read, speak, write, and understand the English language.
c. Pass the written, oral, and flight test.
2. Except as provided in 61.129(i) [credit for use of a flight simulator or Flight Training
Device], a person who applies for a commercial pilot certificate with an airplane category
and single-engine class rating must log at least 250 hours of flight time (190 hours total r - ---=====-t.
at a Part 141 school) as a pilot that consists of at least:
a. 100 hours in powered aircraft, of which 50 hours must be in airplanes. -
.(£.otuuttrcinf Pilot
b. 100 hours of pilot-in-command flight time, which includes at least-

·-------·-
-·· -
-··--.~-·-
• 50 hours in airplanes; and ~-L==========:::::;u

·- ............
•
: An applicant for c.
• 50 hours in cross-country flight of which at least 10 hours must be in airplanes.
20 hours of training on the areas of operation listed in 61.127(b )(1) that includes at least-
: a Commercial
• • 10 hours of instrument training of which at least 5 hours must be in a single-engine
: Pilot Certificate
: needs only a airplane; . . . . :········s·~~·5;·:1·29(t;)t~;······.
: THIRD CLASS • 1O h?urs of tra1n1ng 1n an airplane that h?s a retractable . : Commercial Pilot airplane
: medical to
: take the flight lan~1ng gear, flaps, and cont~ollable p1~ch pr~peller, ~r 1s : Multiengine Rating
:
• •
test and turbine powered, or for an applicant seeking a s1ngle-eng1ne : requirements
• receive a seaplane rating, 10 hours of training in a seaplane that has •• · .. .
•
: Commercial
: Certificate. flaps and a controllable pitch propeller;
: When taking
• • One cross-country flight of at least 2 hours in a single-engine airplane in daytime
: the flight test in
: a simulator he conditions [VFR or IFR], consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100 NM
:
•:
would not from the original point of departure;
need ANY
: medical at all.
• One cross-country flight of at least 2 hours in a single-engine airplane in nighttime
: He would conditions [VFR or IFR], consisting of a total straight-line distance of more than 100 NM
•• however need
•• from the original point of departure; and
• a current
••• SECOND • 3 hours in a single-engine airplane in preparation for the practical test within the
••• CLASS preceding 2 calendar months from the month of the test.
: medical to d. 10 hours of solo flight (or performing the duties of PIC with an authorized instructor onboard) in a single-
: exercise the engine airplane on the areas of operation in 61.127(b)( 1), which includes at least-
: PRIVILEGES
: of a • One cross-country flight of not less than 300 NM total distance, with landings at a
: Commercial minimum of three points, one of which is a straight-line distance of at least 250 NM from
~. Pilot. (61.23) the original departure point (in Hawaii, the longest segment need only be 150 NM); and
• 5 hours in night VFR conditions with 10 takeoffs and landings (with each landing
involving a flight in the traffic pattern) at an airport with an operating control tower.
3. PRIVILEGES [61.133(a)] A person who holds a commercial pilot certificate may act as pilot in command
of an aircraft-
a. Carrying persons or property for compensation or hire, provided the person is qualified in
accordance with this part and with the applicable parts of this chapter that apply to the operation; and
b. For compensation or hire, provided the person is qualified in accordance with this part and with the
applicable parts of this chapter that apply to that operation.
c. Commercial pilots with lighter-than-air category ratings may give ground and flight training in an
airship or balloon.
4. LIMITATIONS [61.133(b)]-
a. A person who applies for a commercial pilot certificate with an airplane or powered-lift category rating
and does NOT hold an INSTRUMENT RATING in the same category and class will be issued a
commercial pilot certificate that contains the limitations, "The carriage of passengers for hire in
(airplanes) (powered-lifts) on cross-country flights in excess of 50 NM or at night is prohibited."
b. A commercial pilot cannot just run out, buy an airplane, and start flying cargo or passengers for hire
around the country. Commercial pilots are limited to the operations listed in Part 119.1 (e) (e.g.,
student instruction, nonstop sightseeing flights, crop dusting, banner towing, etc.) unless the
pilot is working for a Part 121, 125, or 135 company. (See page 236 for the details.)
c. A commercial pilot may fly as a Part 91 ''Corporate pilot'' flying a company airplane carrying
company property and passengers. You can also provide Part 91 ''pilot service'' whereas a
commercial pilot is paid by an airplane owner to fly the airplane for the owner. However, you
canNOT ''hold out'' to the public or offer ''common carriage'' unless operating under the more
stringent rules of Part 135 with the blessing of the FAA. "Carriage in air commerce of persons or
property for compensation or hire" requires an air taxi/commercial operator certificate.

AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT:
(61 .39, 61 .151thru61 .167, 91 .109(c), AC 61-138, Appendix E to Part 141]
To be eligible for an Airline Transport Pilot certificate, a person must:
1. Be at least 23 years of age (or 21 years of age for ''Restricted ATP'' 61.153);
2. Be able to read, speak, write and understand the English language;
3. Be of good moral character (drug smuggling shows a "lack of good moral character");
4. Hold at least a Commercial pilot certificate and an instrument rating;
5. Have completed the "airline transport pilot certification training program" (61 .153, 61 .156);
6. Have 10 hours training in a simulator that represents a multiengine turbine airplane with a
maximum takeoff weight of 40,000 pounds or greater (61.156); and
7. Have at least 1.500 hours of total time (not more than 100 hours of which in a Part 142 flight simulator)
as a pilot that includes at least: (61.159)
a. 500 hours of cross-country flight time (more than 50 NM per leg ... landing NOT required!);
b. 100 hours of night flight time;
c. 50 hours multi-engine flight time;
d. 75 hours of instrument flight time, in actual or simulated (no more than 25 hours in a flight simulator or no more
than 50 hours in a Part 142 flight simulator); and
e. 250 hours of flight time in an airplane as filot !n ~ommand, OR as .§.econd !n ~ommand performing the duties of
filot !n ~ommand while under the supervision of a filot !n Command or any combination thereof (Student pilot
solo time does not count), which includes at least:
i. 100 hours of cross-country flight time as PIC (or as SIC performing the duties of PIC while under the
supervision of a PIC)(Student pilot solo time does not count toward PIC time).
ii. 25 hours of night flight as PIC (or as SIC performing the duties of PIC while under the supervision of a PIC).
NOTE # 1 [61.159(b )] - A person who has performed at least 20 night takeoffs & landings to a full stop may substitute each
additional night takeoff & landing for 1 hour of night flight time to satisfy the required 100 hours of night flight; however,
not more than 25 hours of night flight time may be credited in this manner.
NOTE #2 [61.159(c)] - A Commercial pilot may credit the following Second-In-Command flight time or Flight-Engineer
flight time toward the 1,500 hours of total time:
1. Second-In-Command time - provided the time is acquired in an airplane that is:
a. Required to have more than one pilot by the airplane's flight manual, type certificate, or the regulations under
which the flight is being conducted (61.51 );
b. Engaged in operations under Part 91 K, 121 or 135 for which a SIC is required; or
c. That is required by the operating rules to have more than one pilot flight crewmember [e.g., "safety pilot" 61.51].
2. Flight-Engineer time - provided the time:
a. Is acquired in an airplane required to have a flight engineer by the airplane's flight manual or type certificate;
b. Is acquired while engaged in operations under Part 121 for which a flight engineer is required;
c. Is acquired while participating in a Part 121 pilot training program; and
d. Does not exceed more than 1 hour for each 3 hours of flight engineer time for a total credited time of no more
than 500 hours.
NOTE #3 [61.159(d)] -An applicant is issued an airline transport pilot certificate with the limitation, "Holder does not
meet the pilot in command aeronautical experience requirements of ICAO," as prescribed under Article 39 of the
Convention on International Civil Aviation, if the applicant does not meet the ICAO requirements contained in Annex 1
"Personnel Licensing" to the Convention on International Civil Aviation, but otherwise meets the aeronautical experience
requirements of this section.
NOTE #4 - A brief outline of /CAO experience requirements found in Annex 1 "Personnel Licensing:"
a. 1,500 hours of flight time as a pilot of aeroplanes (a maximum of 100 hours simulator time may be included);
b. 250 hours, either as PIC, or made up by not less than 100 hours as PIC and the necessary additional flight
time as co-pilot performing, under the supervision of the PIC, the duties and functions of a PIC;
c. 200 hours of cross-country flight time, of which not less than 100 hours shall be as PIC or as co-pilot
performing, under the supervision of the PIC, the duties and functions of a PIC;
d. 75 hours of instrument time, of which not more than 30 hours may be instrument ground time; and
e. 100 hours of night flight as pilot-in-command or as co-pilot.
NOTE #5 - "The intent of the phrase 'SIC performing the duties of PIC' means controlling the airplane (e.g., has his
hands on the controls, controlling the autopilot system, being the flying pilot for that~ of the flight). Otherwise,
he/she is the one who is actually controlling the airplane and the flight. When a pilot is the 'SIC performing the duties of
PIC' I would expect that pilot to ACT like he/she is the final authority and is responsible for the operation and safety of
the flight. " "The pilot need not be in any kind of a structured, formalized training program." (John D Lynch, FAA Certification
Branch) "The SIC should have the real PIC endorse each entry in his/her logbook or training record as follows:"
''Performed duties as a supervised PIC in accordance with § 61.159(a)" John T. Rea/pie, ATP #123456789
NOTE #6 - ''The seat the SIC sits in is irrelevant. The SIC may be seated in the right seat performing right seat
dependent tasks, or the left seat performing left seat dependent tasks, and still this time 'SIC performing the duties of
PIC' would be creditable. That is, provided the SIC ACTS like the Captain! No place in the FARs does it require the
PIC to be located in the left seat." "The pilot need not be type rated in that type of airplane in order for the time to be
creditable as SIC performing the duties of PIC." (Frequently asked questions - John D Lynch, FAA Certification Branch)

NOTE #7 - In order to take the knowledge test you will also need a graduation certificate from an authorized training
provider certifying completion of the ''Airline Transport Pilot Certification Training Program" specified in 61.156
and 10 hrs of simulator time in a multiengine turbine airplane with a max takeoff weight of 40.000 pounds or greater.
NOTE #8 - To act as PIC in Part 121 operations you will also need a minimum of 1.000 flight hours in ''air carrier
operations" [SIC in Part 121 operations, PIC in operations under either 135.243(a)(1) or §91.1053(a)(2)(i); or any
combination thereof].
I must try my best
to not be afraid.
c
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• ••
:· 61.39 - ATP candidates who passed the
: written test before August 1, 2014 have 24
: calendar months to complete the practical test.
: ATP (ME) written tests completed after July 31.
: 2014 in accordance with the new training rules
: after completing the ATP CTP course are valid
: for 60 calendar months (5 years). Additional
: relief for taking the practical test with an expired
•• written may be found in 61.39 .
••
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Required to Qualify for the ATP Written (Ac 61-1 38, 121 .410. 135.336)
Z61.153(e) After July 31, 2014, for an ATP certificate with an airplane category multiengine class rating or an ATP
: certificate obtained concurrently with an airplane type rating - must receive a graduation certificate from an
: authorized training provider certifying completion of the ''airline transport pilot certification training program''
• specified in Sec. 61.156 before applying for the knowledge test required by paragraph (g) of this section;* * *
: 61.156(b) FSTD training . The applicant for the knowledge test must receive at least 10 hours of training in a flight
: simulation training device qualified under part 60 of this chapter that represents a multiengine turbine airplane
: with a maximum takeoff weight of 40.000 pounds or greater. Must include at least 6 hours in a Level C or higher
: simulator and the remaining 4 hours in a Level 4 or higher FSTD. FYI: You'll need to save up somewhere in the
neighborhood of $1 OK to play with these toys for 10 hours. But think of how much FUN you'll be having! ;o)
''Restricted ATP'' (aka R·ATP) certificate for Part 121 SICs: (61 .160, 61 .167, 121 .436)
121.436 states that an SIC must have an ATP or a "Restricted ATP" (aka "ATP certificate with Restricted Privileges"). In
addition to the requirements of 61.153( e) and 61.156(b) [above] ... Restricted ATP requirements:
1. 21 years of age (61 .153); and
2. 750 hours Total Time if military trained and qualified; or
3. 1.000 hours TT if an aviation degree graduate of a 4 year ''Institution of Higher Education'' (61 .1); or
4. 1,250 hours TT with an aviation associate's degree from a 2 year institution of higher education; or
5. 1,500 hours TT with no aviation degree; AND in order to actually FLY as a copilot:
6. A type rating for the aircraft to be flown in Part 121 service (those pilots employed as SIC in Part 121
operations on July 31. 2013 are notrequiredto have a type rating until January 1. 2016) (121 .436); and
7. A 2"d class medical (for operations requiring only 2 pilots. A 1st Class medical is required for a 3 or
more pilot crew or if age 60 or older. (61 .23, 61 .167)
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: An applicant for an Airline Transport Pilot Certificate needs only a THIRD CLASS medical to take the practical test (flight test) in
: an aircraft and receive an ATP Certificate. When taking the flight test in a simulator he would not need ANY medical at all.
: He would of course need a current FIRST CLASS medical to exercise the PRIVILEGES of an ATP PIC. (61 .23)
AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT PRIVILEGES:

(61.167, 121 .410, 121.412, 121 .414, 121 .434, 135.243, 135.244, 135.338, 135.340)
!n ~ommand carrying PASSENGERS in a
1. An [unrestricted by 61 .160 or 61 .167] ATP is entitled to fly as filot
TURBOJET, an airplane having 10 or more passenger seats, OR a MULTIENGINE airplane in a
COMMUTER operation (135.243). A PIC or SIC must also have the Initial Qperating ,5xperience
required by 135.244or121.434.
2. An ATP may instruct other pilots in air transportation service in an aircraft for which the ATP is rated
(61 .167) as long as the ATP has received the Flight Instructor training specified in 135.338, 135.340,
or 121.412. Of course any Part 135 Commercial pilot could do the exact same thing as long as he
or she has received the Flight Instructor training specified in 135.338 and 135.340 (required except for
holders of a flight instructor certificate).

Chap 5 Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs
FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR: (61 .181thru61 .199, Remember class;
Appendix F to Part 141) NEVER descend below
To be eligible for a flight instructor certificate or rating the airport elevation
during approach
a person must:
1. Be at least 18 years of age;
2. Be able to read, speak, write and understand the English I
language;
3. Hold either a Commercial Pilot certificate or Airline Transport
Pilot certificate with:
a. An aircraft category and class rating that is appropriate to
the flight instructor rating sought; and
b. An instrument rating or privileges that are appropriate to
the flight instructor rating sought,
if applying for a flight instructor certificate with-
• An airplane category and single-engine class rating;
• An airplane category and multiengine class rating;
• A powered-lift rating; or
• An instrument rating.
4. Receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor on the
™•-
fundamentals of instructing listed in 61.185. .... .,,,,.. t.11"'11 ..
~- •.,,
.. •.... ..,..,.,,..,_
~ •u
h•..
,.~~wt Uc nm•t ..,.
~- tll 1..,
•
5. Pass a knowledge test on the fundamentals of instruction areas listed in .,......... .fthlttfl'tlA.11•""'' , .............
61.185(a)(1 ), unless the applicant:

-·
a. Holds a flight instructor or ground instructor certificate;
b. Holds a current teacher's certificate issued by a State, county, city, or municipality that
authorizes the person to teach at an educational level of the 7th grade or higher; or
c. Is employed as a teacher at an accredited college or university.
6. Pass a knowledge test on the aeronautical knowledge listed in 61.185(a)(2) and (a)(3) appropriate to
the flight instructor rating sought;
7. Receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor on the areas of operation listed in
61.187(b ), appropriate to the flight instructor rating sought;
8. Pass the required practical test that is appropriate to the flight instructor rating being sought.
9. Accomplish the following for a flight instructor certificate with an airplane or a glider rating:
a. Receive a logbook endorsement from an authorized instructor indicating that the applicant is
competent and possesses instructional proficiency in stall awareness, spin entry, spins,
and spin recovery procedures after providing the applicant with flight training in those training
u ll OCM'-lGNICD
R.JGHT
areas in an airplane or glider, as appropriate, that is certificated for spins; and
INSTRUCTOR
ON DUTY b. Demonstrate instructional proficiency in stalls and spins however upon presentation
of the endorsement specified above, an examiner may accept that endorsement as
satisfactory evidence of instructional proficiency in stalls and spins, provided that the
- practical test is not a retest as a result of the applicant failing the previous test for deficiencies in
the knowledge or skill of stalls or spins.
10. Log at least 15 hours as pilot in command in the category and class of aircraft that is appropriate to
the flight instructor rating sought.
AERONAUTICAL KNOWLEDGE required for FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS: (61.18s)

Unless you are already a flight instructor, ground instructor or an accredited teacher of the 7th grade or higher -
an applicant for flight instructor must receive and log ground training from an authorized instructor on:
1. The fundamentals of instructing, including:
a. The learning process;
.................................. ·-
• "Regardless of who is manipulating the controls during
b. Elements of effective teaching; : an instructional flight, the CFI is always deemed to be
c. Student evaluation and testing; • the PIC. It makes no difference what level of proficiency
d. Course development; : a student may have attained, the flight instructor is still
• the PIC." (Admin . v. Hamre, NTSB precedent)
e. Lesson planning; and
f. Classroom training techniques.
2. The aeronautical knowledge areas for a recreational, private, and commercial pilot certificate applicable
to the aircraft category for which flight instructor privileges are sought; and
3. The aeronautical knowledge areas for the instrument rating applicable to the category for which
instrument flight instructor privileges are sought.

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR RECORDS: (61 .1a9)
(a) A flight instructor must sign the logbook of each person to whom that instructor has given flight
training or ground training.
(b) A flight instructor must maintain a record in a logbook or a separate document that contains the
following:
(1) The name of each person whose logbook or student pilot certificate that instructor has
endorsed for solo flight privileges, and the date of the endorsement; and
(2) The name of each person that instructor has endorsed for a knowledge test or practical test,
and the record shall also indicate the kind of test, the date, and the results.
(c) Each flight instructor must retain the records required by this section for at least 3 years.
FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR - HOURS OF TRAINING: (61 .19s)

In any 24-consecutive-hour period, a flight instructor may not conduct more than 8 hours of flight training.
TRAINING RECEIVED in - MUL TIENGINE airplane - HELICOPTER - or a

POWERED-LIFT: [61 .129, 61 .19s(t)J
A flight instructor may not give training required for the issuance of a certificate or rating in a multiengine
airplane, a helicopter, or a powered-lift unless that flight instructor has at least 5 flight hours of pilot-in-
command time in the specific make and model of multiengine airplane, helicopter, or powered-lift, as
appropriate.
QUALIFICATIONS of the FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR for training FIRST-TIME

FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR APPLICANTS: [61 .19s(h)J
These qualifications are very specific. Please consult 61.195(h) ••• •• ·N· • •• • ·d·:
• • •• · rt··t ·· · ·t·--.· • • •••
: o me 1ca1ce 11ca e 1s
: required for a pilot to renew his
RENEWAL of FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATES: (61 .197) : orhert1ightinstructorcertiticate.
(a) A person who holds a flight instructor certificate that has not expired may renew that certificate~
( 1) Passing a practical test for -
(i) One of the ratings listed on the current flight instructor certificate; or
(ii) An additional flight instructor rating; or
(2) Presenting to an authorized FAA Flight Standards Inspector -
(i) A record of training students showing that, during the preceding 24 calendar months, the
flight instructor has endorsed at least five students for a practical test for a certificate or rating
and at least 80 percent of those students passed that test on the first attempt;
(ii) A record showing that, within the preceding 24 calendar months, the flight instructor has
served as a company check pilot, chief flight instructor, company check airman, or flight
instructor in a part 121 or part 135 operation, or in a position involving the regular
evaluation of pilots; or
(iii) A graduation certificate showing that, within the preceding 3 calendar months, the person
has successfully completed an approved flight instructor refresher course consisting of
ground training or flight training, or a combination of both.
(b) The expiration month of a renewed flight instructor certificate shall be 24 calendar months from -
(1) The month the renewal requirements of paragraph (a) of this section are accomplished; or
(2) The month of expiration of the current flight instructor certificate provided -
(i) The renewal requirements of paragraph (a) of this section are accomplished within the 3
calendar months preceding the expiration month of the current flight instructor certificate, and
(ii) If the renewal is accomplished under paragraph (a)(2)(iii) of this section, the approved flight
instructor refresher course must be completed within the 3 calendar months preceding the
expiration month of the current flight instructor certificate.
(c) The practical test required by paragraph (a)(1) of this section may be accomplished in a flight simulator
or flight training device if the test is accomplished pursuant to an approved course conducted by a
training center certificated under part 142 of this chapter.
• In most situations, a third class medical is all that is required to instruct. (61 .23)
• A flight instructor is not required to hold any medical certificate if he or she is instructing in
gliders; or not acting as pilot in command; or not serving as a required flight crewmember.

EXAMINER [Flight Examiner] means: (61 .1)

--------------------------------------
Any person who is authorized by the Administrator to conduct a pilot proficiency test or a practical
test for an airman certificate or rating issued under this part, or a person who is authorized to conduct a
knowledge test under this part.
DESIGNATED PILOT EXAMINERS

A list of designated pilot examiners for any state can
be found at www.faa.gov.
STATUS of an EXAMINER who is authorized by the Administrator to

conduct PRACTICAL TESTS: (61.47)
(a) An examiner represents the Administrator for the purpose of conducting practical tests for certificates
and ratings issued under this part and to observe an applicant's ability to perform the areas of operation
on the practical test.
(b) The examiner is NOT the Pilot In Command of the aircraft during the practical test unless the
examiner agrees to act in that capacity for the flight or for a portion of the flight by prior arrangement
with:
(1) The applicant; or
(2) A person who would otherwise act as Pilot In Command of the flight or for a portion of the flight.
(c) Notwithstanding the type of aircraft used during the practical test, the applicant and the examiner (and
any other occupants authorized to be on board by the examiner) are not subject to the requirements or
limitations for the carriage of passengers that are specified in this chapter.
Boy am I stupid.
I wish someone would
write a book that
explains this crap in
PLAIN ENGLISH!
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•: Knowledge (written) test validity/duration (61.39)
: All written (knowledge) tests are valid for 24 calendar months, ,
•: except an ATP ME written ta ken after July 31 , 2014 is valid for
• 60 calendar months. Additional relief for taking the ATP
practical test with an expired written may be found in 61.39 .
• ,•T ~'.• • •• ' • •f 1j \0"

Chap 5 - Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs
CROSS-COUNTRY TIME means: (61.1)

1. EXCEPTfor meeting the aeronautical experience requirements for a Private, Commercial,
Instrument, Rotorcraft, or Airline Transport Pilot certificate CROSS-COUNTRY TIME means -
time acquired during a flight:
a. Conducted by a person who holds a pilot certificate, in an aircraft;
b. That includes a landing at a point other than the point of departure; and ...
c. Involves the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic navigation aids, radio aids, or other
navigation systems to navigate to the landing point.
2. For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience reguirements (except for rotorcraft) for a
PRIVATE pilot certificate, COMMERCIAL pilot certificate, or an INSTRUMENT RATING, or for the
purpose of exercising Recreational pilot privileges [61.101 (c)] Time acquired during a flight:
a. Conducted in an appropriate aircraft;
b. That includes a point of landing that was at least a straight-line distance of more than 50 NM
from the original point of departure; and;
navigation systems to navigate to the landing point. •. •• ••••••••••••••••• ._•....._
3. For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience .•• ''Original point of departure''
reguirements for any pilot certificate with a ROTORCRAFT •
category rating or an INSTRUMENT-HELICOPTER rating, or : is the point from which the
for the purpose of exercising Recreational pilot privileges, in a : flight (or a series of legs)
rotorcraft (61.101 c) Time acquired during a flight: • begins. EACH LEG does not
: have to be more than 50 NM
a. Conducted in an aircraft; : (or 25 NM for rotorcraft). All that
b. That includes a point of landing that was at least a • is required is that at some point
straight-line distance of more than 25 NM from the % the aircraft ends up more than
original point of departure; and; •
c. Involves the use of dead reckoning, pilotage, electronic : 50 NM from the "original point of
• departure." It would be perfectly
navigation aids, radio aids, or other navigation systems : legal to fly a series of 4 or 5
to navigate to the landing point. : legs end up at a point more
4. For the purpose of meeting the aeronautical experience : than 50 NM from the "original
reguirements for an AIRLINE TRANSPORT PILOT certificate : point of departure" and count
(except rotorcraft) Time acquired during a flight: : the entire flight (all 4 or 5 legs)
a. Conducted in an aircraft;
as cross-country time.
b. That is at least a straight-line distance of more than
50 NM from the original point of departure (but
curiously, you do NOT have to LAND there!); and
navigation systems to navigate to the landing point.
I U NITEn STA;TEl:O F AMERICA Ill. CtATUllCAT1! NO.
DE, AR1MB4T OF TAANSPORT AT IC>.>I - FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINl5TR.ATION
111447777
;;. TEMPORARY AIRMAN CERTIFICATE
TEMPORARY CERTIFICATE: (61 .1?) TIMS CIATl, U$ 111A.T IV. Tho.as~- Pi 1ot:
v, l Mo.fn Str••t
1. A temporary pilot, flight instructor, or ground instructor Anytol'in, IN 10001
certificate or rating is issued for up to 120 days, at which DATE Of lllRTH H EIGHT WSQHT H AJR EYES SEX NATIONAUTY VL
time a permanent certificate will [should] be issued to a

person whom the Administrator finds qualified.
09-04-19GS
IX. hH -n 68
IH.
toulkl 10119.Pf"~llY QIJMiTle<J Md IS~ 9'llllorlZed In <K(
....., seof this c:crtlfo:eto t o .,_...,. tt1tt prfwilc90~of
190 6r01\\"I Br<l4tn M
.,,..11n '"
USA
Itilonf Of IHUlllKAI 00 tl'MI
Pri vat:e Pi lot

2. A temporary pilot, flight instructor, or ground instructor RAlV<MiS AHO Ukl'TATIONS
certificate or rating expires: XJI. A1rpliUM! Single -Eflgine Land
a. On the expiration date shown on the

certificate;
b. Upon receipt of the permanent certificate; or XI II.
~ TKIS IS !/!! - O RIGINAL ISSUAN!l£ D A REISSUANCEOF THIS DATI! OF S UP!EMEDED Al- Cl!RTIFICATE
GAADE OF CB!.TIFICATE
c. Upon receipt of a notice that the certificate or ..

%:
11
e1<AMll<eR-S DEStlWAT"ION NO. OR
ft 8Y DIRECTION OF THE ADMINISTRATOR INSPECTOR'S REG·. NO.
rating sought is denied or revoked.
I 51"4 54 54 54 54 54
)(, DA.TE OF I~ X. SIGNATUI\£ M EXAJ.9olER OR INSPECTOR
00-21-zoo.i DATE DE:slOHAT IOH EXPIRES

.~
·;: 11·31-2004
Bert Slli ti t
JAA F -- • lt·'Jtl U$! P11lVIOU$ !lllllOH
•··························~ ·········· ····· ··········~ ···························· ······································ •

: Pilots need to be acutely aware of the expiration date on their temporary certificate.
: Believe it or not, even the FAA can sometimes screw up and fail to get the permanent certificate out on
: time. If you're getting close to the expiration date on the temporary, it's time to get in contact with the local
:• FSDO so they can find out what's going on and/or issue you another temporary . !;
•• I
•• The Q.esignated £xaminer that gave you your new certificate can also issue a new temporary . .."•'·J
• ::.t"I ci....·6,.:o."'91' L~·-r'.;<1.:·..,.,-~·.:t.-"'~~i t."f...-ai. "'-"°i1•.1·..-..uw~ ....,.··r.a·...'.<,..,;.,., D<......,,,-;,..._.,, ;i."';-.. -.·~u..•"ur.11 :1.:....~ N">.-J !"~......~~ ~:..~--·_iJ,;,;,;ic---.v:· ~i.·..oo..\,.,.;..:i. ...._ .·;..•.:i~1.-..'"·~ ! ! ·1 ~..1i. ,.•_,,,~ u ...··jj}.:o....,..,-..\ ,,,:;~.,.....,..,,,, ·.:..&\:~= ,.\,,_.....,.,,,,_... '~ii'iu-;"'"~· ,- -..m.~,":!,-. ..~ ·-
1

TYPE RATING REQUIREMENTS CATEGORY I CLASS RATING: (61 .31 , 61 .64)
1. A person who acts as a PIC (or SIC in Part 121 operations) of a large
aircraft (more than 12,500 lbs gross takeoff weight), a turbojet-
powered airplane, or other aircraft specified by the Administrator
must hold a type rating for that aircraft.
2. The pilot must also be CURRENT in that aircraft see 61.58 -
PIC Proficiency Check: Operation of an aircraft that requires more
than one pilot flight crewmember or is turbojet-powered (Page 196).
3. A person may be authorized to operate without a type rating for up to 60 days at a time provided the
Administrator has authorized the flight or series of flights for the purpose of a ferry flight, training
flight, test flight, or practical test for certificate or rating and as long as it involves only the carriage of
flight crewmembers essential for the flight and does not involve compensation or hire. The FSDO may
issue a ,better Qf Authorization (LOA) in lieu of the type rating or in lieu of a current 61.58 check.
4. An applicant for a type rating needs only a THIRD CLASS medical to take the practical test (flight test)
in the aircraft and receive the type rating. When taking the flight test in a simulator he would not need
ANY medical at all [61.23(b)(8)]. He would however need the appropriate class medical (depending on
the type of operation) to actually serve as a required flight crewmember in the aircraft (duh!).
5. If you have no prior jet type ratings and little prior jet or turbine time, after you pass your type ride in a
simulator you will need to log 25 hours of ~upervised Qperating gxperience in the aircraft with
someone who is type rated without restriction before you can act as pilot in command. (61 .64)
6. To serve as Pilot In Command of an aircraft, a person must hold the appropriate category, class,
and type rating (if required) or be receiving training for that rating under the supervision of an
authorized instructor or have received an endorsement for solo flight in that aircraft.
COMPLEX AIRPLANES - ENDORSEMENT: [61 .31(e)J

1. No person may act as Pilot In Command of a complex airplane (retractable gear,
flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller; or, in the case of a seaplane, flaps and ••
a controllable pitch propeller), unless that person has received and logged
ground and flight training from an authorized instructor in a complex airplane
or simulator has been found proficient and has received a one-time ••
•
endorsement in the pilot's logbook from the instructor who certifies the person is •
proficient. •
2. This training and endorsement is not reguired if the person has logged flight •
time as Pilot In Command of a complex airplane or simulator prior to August

4, 1997.
•
.................. •• ·················~ '
: A pilot may LOG PIC time • The FAA has determined that
• in a complex or high : airplanes equipped with
% performance aircraft • retractable landing gear, flaps,
• without the appropriate : and a .Eull ,Authority .Qigital
: endorsements if he is the
• " sole manipulator of the
•
•
•
gngine ~ontrol (FADEC) meet
the definition of being a •
.......... . ............
•• controls of an aircraft for • complex airplane and may be • History
• which the pilot is rated" •• used for commercial pilot and %The first Space Shuttle launched
•• (category, class, and type) • flight instructor certification. li on April , 12, 1981 . There were a
and the ACTING PIC is •• Currently the only aircraft that : total of 135 orbital missions .
i
•
•
appropriately rated and
does have the appropriate
• meets these requirements is
the Diamond DA42.
• Over 30 years later the last one
•• landed on July 2 1, 20 11 .
' endorsements. (61 .51) (FAA Notice N 8000.331)
HIGH-PERFORMANCE AIRPLANES - ENDORSEMENT: [61.31(f)1

1. No person may act as Pilot In Command of a high-performance airplane (more than 200 hp
produced by one of the engines), unless that person has received and logged ground and flight
training from an authorized instructor in a high-performance airplane or simulator has been found
proficient and has received a one-time endorsement in the pilot's logbook from the instructor who
certifies the person is proficient. NOTE: A small twin with 200 hp or less per side would not count as
a high performance aircraft. The training can be accomplished in a twin with more than 200 hp per
side even if the trainee does not have a multi-engine rating. (FAA legal interpretation Mar 13, 2013)
2. This training and endorsement is not reguired if the person has logged flight time as Pilot In
Command of a high performance airplane or simulator prior to August 4, 1997.

························~
:• An ALTITUDE CHAMBER
• ''FLIGHT'' can be experienced : . ···············~
A pilot may LOG PIC time '
•• by attending a ''Physiological • in a pressurized aircraft
•• Training Program'' at one of : without the high altitude
• endorsement if he is the
•• many military facilities across the •• "sole manipulator of the
: U.S. (AIM 8-1-2). Contact the • controls of an aircraft for
% which the pilot is rated"
: ~ivil Aerospace Medical Institute • (category, class, and type)
: (CAMI)@ 405-954-6212 or : and the ACTING PIC is
• through your local FSDO. • appropriately rated and
• does have the high altitude
www.faa.gov endorsement. (61 .51)
PRESSURIZED AIRCRAFT - HIGH ALTITUDE ENDORSEMENT - PIC

REQUIREMENTS: [61 .31(g), AIM 8-1-2, AC 61-107]
1. No person may act as PIC of a pressurized aircraft (capable of flight operations above 25,000 feet) unless that
person has received and logged training from an authorized instructor and obtained an
endorsement in that person's logbook or training record from an authorized instructor:
a. Ground training High-altitude aerodynamics and meteorology, respiration, hypoxia, duration
of consciousness without supplemental oxygen, etc.
b. Flight training !n a pressurized aircraft, or an approved flight simulator that is
representative of a pressurized aircraft, must include at least:
i. Normal cruise flight operations while operating above 25,000 feet MSL
ii. Proper emergency procedures for simulated rapid decompression without actually
depressurizing the aircraft; and
iii. Emergency descent procedures.
2. The above training is NOT reguired if that person can document any of the following in a pressurized
aircraft or simulator:
a. Serving as PIC before April 15, 1991.
b. Completing a pilot proficiency check for a pilot certificate or rating before April 15, 1991.
c. Completing a PIC check conducted by the military services of the U.S.
d. Completing a PIC proficiency check under Part 121, 125 or 135 conducted by the administrator
or by an approved pilot check airman.
TAILWHEEL ENDORSEMENT: [61 .31(i)l

1. No person may act as PIC of a tailwheel aircraft unless that person has received & logged flight training
from an "authorized instructor" in a tailwheel aircraft and received an endorsement in the person's
logbook from an authorized instructor who found the person proficient in the operation of a tailwheel
airplane. The flight training must include:
a. Normal and crosswind takeoffs and landings.
b. Wheel landings (unless the manufacturer has recommended against such landings).
c. Go-around procedures.
2. This training and endorsement is not required if the person logged PIC time in a tailwheel airplane
before April 15, 1991. ••• • ••••• • • • • • • • • • • • • ••••• • • • • • • • • ••
: The person receiving the tailwheel
: endorsement need not be qualified
•
: to act as PIC in the aircraft in
• which the training is received.

§61.58 Pilot In Command Proficiency Check: Operation of an aircraft that requires more
than one pilot flight crewmember or is turbojet-powered (Maintaining Currency for a Type Rating)
(a) Except as otherwise provided in this section , to serve as Pilot In Command of an aircraft that is type certificated for more than one
required pilot flight crewmember QI is turbojet-powered , a person must-
(1) Within the preceding 12 calendar months, complete a Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check in AN aircraft that is type
certificated for more than one required pilot flight crewmember QI is turbojet-powered; and
(2) Within the preceding 24 calendar months, complete a Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check in the PARTICULAR TYPE of
aircraft in which that person will serve as pilot in command, that is type certificated for more than one required pilot flight
crewmember or is turbojet-powered .
(b) This section does not apply to persons conducting operations under subpart K of part 91 , part 121 , 125, 133, 135, or 137 of this
chapter, QI persons maintaining continuing qualification under an Advanced Qualification Program approved under subpart Y of
part 121 of this chapter.
(c) The Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check given in accordance with the provisions of subpart K of part 91 , part 121 , 125, or 135 of
this chapter may be used to satisfy the requirements of this section.
(d) The Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check required by paragraph (a) of this section may be accomplished by satisfactory completion
of ONE of the following:
(1) A Pilot-In-Command Proficiency Check conducted~ a person authorized by the Administrator, consisting of the aeronautical
knowledge areas, areas of operations, and tasks required for A type rating , in AN aircraft that is type certificated for more
than one pilot flight crewmember QI is turbojet-powered;
(2) The practical test required for A type rating , in AN aircraft that is type certificated for more than one required pilot flight
crewmember QI is turbojet-powered;
(3) The initial or periodic practical test required for the issuance of a pilot examiner or check airman designation, in AN aircraft
that is type certificated for more than one required pilot flight crewmember QI is turbojet-powered ;
(4) A pilot proficiency check administered by a U.S. Armed Force that qualifies the military pilot for pilot-in-command designation
with instrument privileges, and was performed in a military aircraft that the military requires to be operated by more than one
pilot flight crewmember or is turbojet-powered ;
(5) For a pilot authorized by the Administrator to operate AN experimental turbojet-powered aircraft that possesses, by original
design or through modification, more than a single seat, the required proficiency check for ALL of the experimental turbojet-
powered aircraft for which the pilot holds an authorization may be accomplished by completing any ONE of the following:
(i) A single proficiency check, conducted by an examiner authorized by the Administrator, in any one of the experimental
turbojet-powered aircraft for which the airman holds an authorization to operate if conducted within the prior 12 months;
(ii) A single proficiency check, conducted by an examiner authorized by the Administrator, in ANY experimental turbojet-
powered aircraft (e.g. , if a pilot acquires a new authorization to operate an additional experimental turbojet-powered aircraft,
the check for that new authorization will meet the intent), if conducted within the prior 12 months;
(iii) Current qualification under an Advanced Qualification Program (AQP) under subpart Y of part 121 of this chapter;
(iv) ANY proficiency check conducted under subpart K of part 91 , part 121 , or part 135 of this chapter within the prior 12
months if conducted in a turbojet-powered aircraft; or
(v) ANY other §61.58 proficiency check conducted within the prior 12 months if conducted in a turbojet-powered aircraft.
(e) The pilot of a multi-seat experimental turbojet-powered aircraft who has not received a proficiency check within the prior 12
months in accordance with this section may continue to operate such aircraft in accordance with the pilot's authorizations. However,
the pilot is prohibited from carriage of any persons in any experimental turbojet-powered aircraft with the exception of those
individuals authorized by the Administrator to conduct training, conduct flight checks, or perform pilot certification functions in such
aircraft, and only during flights specifically related to training , flight checks, or certification in such aircraft.
(f) This section will not apply to a pilot authorized by the Administrator to serve as pilot in command in experimental turbojet-powered
aircraft that possesses, by original design, a single seat, when operating such single-seat aircraft.
(g) A check or test described in paragraphs (d)(1) through (5) of this section may be accomplished in a flight simulator under part 142
of this chapter, subject to the following:
(1) Except as provided for in paragraphs (g)(2) and (3) of this section, if an otherwise qualified and approved flight simulator used for
a pilot-in-command proficiency check is not qualified and approved for a specific required maneuver-
(i) The training center must annotate, in the applicant's training record , the maneuver or maneuvers omitted ; and
(ii) Prior to acting as pilot in command, the pilot must demonstrate proficiency in each omitted maneuver in an aircraft or flight
simulator qualified and approved for each omitted maneuver.
(2) If the flight simulator used pursuant to paragraph (g) of this section is not qualified and approved for circling approaches-
(i) The applicant's record must include the statement, "Proficiency in circling approaches not demonstrated"; and
(ii) The applicant may not perform circling approaches as pilot in command when weather conditions are less than the basic
VFR conditions described in §91 .155 of this chapter, until proficiency in circling approaches has been successfully
demonstrated in a flight simulator qualified and approved for circling approaches or in an aircraft to a person authorized by
the Administrator to conduct the check required by this section.
(3) If the flight simulator used pursuant to paragraph (g) of this section is not qualified and approved for landings, the applicant
must-
(i) Hold a type rating in the airplane represented by the simulator; and
(ii) Have completed within the preceding 90 days at least three takeoffs and three landings (one to a full stop) as the sole
manipulator of the flight controls in the type airplane for which the pilot-in-command proficiency check is sought.
(h) For the purpose of meeting the pilot-in-command proficiency check requirements of paragraph (a) of this section, a person may act as
pilot in command of a flight under day VFR conditions or day IFR conditions if no person or property is carried, other than as necessary
to demonstrate compliance with this part. ..........~·· ······ · ···~ ~··· .. ·· ·~·
(i) If a pilot takes the pilot-in-command proficiency check required by this section in the calendar month before or the ; 1n other words you
calendar month after the month in which it is due, the pilot is considered to have taken it in the month in which it l
a~e actually l~gal
was due for the purpose of computing when the next pilot-in-command proficiency check is due. ~ or 13 mont s.
0) A pilot-in-command of a turbojet powered aircraft that is type certificated for one pilot does not have to comply with the pilot-in-
command proficiency check requirements in paragraphs (a)(1) and (a)(2) of this section until October 31, 2012.
(k) Unless required by the aircraft's operating limitations, a PIC of an experimental turbojet-powered aircraft does not have to comply
with the pilot-in-command proficiency check requirements in paragraphs (a)(1) and (a)(2) of this section until October 31, 2012.

Chap 5 - Certificates, Logging, Medical & Drugs
OPERATIONS REQUIRING A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE: (61 .3, 61 .23, 61.111)
A person must hold:
1. A First-Class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of an ATP certificate for PIC
privileges, for SIC privileges in a flag or supplemental operation in Part 121 requiring three or more
pilots, or for a pilot flightcrew member in part 121 operations who has reached his or her 60th
birthday. Required for Part 135 PASSENGER-carrying operations only No person may serve as
PIC of a turbojet (carrying passengers), or an airplane having 10 or more passenger seats, OR a
multiengine airplane in a commuter operation unless he holds an Airline Transport Pilot certificate
and a current 1st Class Medical.(135.243)
2. At least a Second-Class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of an ATP certificate for
SIC privileges (other than part 121 requiring three or more pilots which requires a First-Class), a
commercial pilot certificate, or an air traffic control tower operator certificate. Required for all
commercial flying except that which requires an (unrestricted) ATP (no "EKG" required).
3. At least a Third·Class medical certificate when exercising the privileges of a Private Pilot,
Recreational Pilot, Student Pilot, or Flight Instructor (exceptions - gliders, balloons & Sport Pilots).
·········· ······································· ····· ~······························ ·····
: CFls need only a Third-Class medical to give instruction (and get paid for it)
: !f they act as PIC or a required crewmember, but no medical at all !f they
~ don't act as a required crew member (and they can still get paid for it).
OPERATIONS NOTREQUIRING A MEDICAL: (61 .3, 61 .23)

A person is not required to hold a medical certificate:
1. When exercising the privileges of a student pilot for, or privileges of, a pilot certificate for a
glider, balloon, or sport pilot;
2. When exercising the privileges of a flight instructor with a glider category rating;
3. When exercising the privileges of a flight instructor certificate if the person is not acting as
pilot in command or serving as a required pilot flight crewmember;
4. When exercising the privileges of a ground instructor certificate;
5. When serving as an examiner or check airman during the administration of a test or check for a certificate, rating,
or authorization conducted in a flight simulator or flight training device;
6. When taking a test or check for a certificate, rating, or authorization conducted in a flight simulator or flight
training device; or
7. When exercising the privileges of a sport pilot when using a valid U.S. driver's license to meet the requirements
who has been found eligible for the issuance of at least a third-class airman medical certificate at the time of his or
her most recent application (if the person has applied for a medical certificate) and does not know of any medical
condition that would make that person unable to operate a light-sport aircraft in a safe manner.
• •• •• ••
.-,..._-i~- ----=-
• ••••••• • •• • • •••••••••••••••••••
: Pilot's Bill of Rights 2
•
: (introduced 2-26-15) Proposed to
: allow pi lots to fly recreationally
: without requiring a 3rd class
•
: medical under IFR or VFR in
: aircraft weighing up to 6,000
: lbs, with up to five passengers,
•
: at altitudes below 14,000 feet .
:• msl, and no faster than 250 kts.
: Some semblance of this may be
•
: law by the time you read this .. .
•
t or not.
•·-.,,,_,,,,,lflflilljl!llMllllWlllllWINt#,"'1#M
/
4 --
I

PROHIBITION ON OPERATIONS DURING MEDICAL DEFICIENCY: [61.53, 61.23(b)J
{a) Operations that REQUIRE a medical certificate Except as provided for in paragraph {b) of this section,
a person who holds a current medical shall not act as Pilot In Command, or in any other capacity as a
required pilot flight crewmember, while that person:
(1) Knows or has reason to know of any medical condition that would make the person unable to meet
the requirements for the medical certificate necessary for the pilot operation; or
(2) Is taking medication or receiving other treatment for a medical condition that results in the person being
unable to meet the requirements for the medical certificate necessary for the pilot operation.
{b) Operations that do NOT REQUIRE a medical certificate For operations provided for in 61.23(b)
(i.e. , gliders and balloons), a person shall not act as Pilot In Command, or in any other capacity as a
required pilot flight crewmember, while that person knows or has reason to know of any medical
condition that would make the person unable to operate the aircraft in a safe manner.
.. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
·~
..•• .• This regulation prevents a pilot from flying should he or she develop a
• medical condition or begins using a medication that would disqualify
•
• the person from meeting the requirements of the medical certificate .
••
••
•• There is no regulation specifically requiring the pilot to report the
• deficiency, as long as he or she does not continue to fly. Therefore,
:•
• should the person become cured, the medical certificate is still valid .
•
•
•
1 : .. If there is any question as to the cure, the best course of action is to
• simply apply for a new medical , disclosing the information .
••
••
=•
••
•
In any event, the person would be required to report the medical
issue on their next medical application .
•
••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• •••••••

•
: Any change in a pilot's medical condition should raise a question that the person may no longer be
: medically qualified. A person who tries to hide a change in their medical condition, and continues to
: !!v, could be found in violation of 61.53. And if that person continues the charade and does not
: mention the problem during his or her next required medical , they could also be found in violation of
~ 61.59; Falsification of Application for a Certificate. This can be cause for suspension or revocation.
~
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: NOTICE Printed On EVERY Medical Application Form (8500-B) •
• Whoever in any matter within the jurisdiction of any department or agency of the United States knowingly
•• and willfully falsifies, conceals or covers up by any trick, scheme or device a material fact, or who makes
•• any false, fictitious or fraudulent statements or representations, or entry, may be fined up to
• S 250,000 - or - imprisoned not more than five years or both.
(18 U.S.Code Secs. 1001; 357 1)
If you can't afford a doctor,

go to an, airport - you'll get a
free x-ray and a breast exam,
and; if you mention Al Qaeda,
1
you ll get a free colonoscopy.

DURATION OF A MEDICAL CERTIFICATE: (61 .23, 61 .19, ICAO Annex 1 to the Chicago Convention)
And on the date of Then your medical

examination for your And you are conducting an certificate expires, for
If you hold a most recent medical operation requiring that operation, at the end
certificate ou were of the last da of the
Under age 40 an ATP certificate for PIC privileges, 12 month after the month of
First Class or for SIC privileges in a flag or the date of examination shown on
Age 40 or older:
Reverts to 2 nd Class after
supplemental operation in part 121 the medical certificate.
6 months then reverts to re uirin three or more ilots.
3rd Class Age 40 or older an ATP certificate for PIC privileges, 6 month after the month of
for SIC privileges in a flag or the date of examination shown on
supplemental operation in part 121 the medical certificate.
requiring three or more pilots, or for
a pilot flightcrew member in part
121 operations who has reached his
or her 60th birthda .
Any age an ATP certificate for SIC privileges 12 month after the month of
Second Class (other than part 121 requiring three the date of examination shown on
Reverts to 3 rd Class after
the 12th month or more pilots), a commercial pilot the medical certificate.
certificate, or an air traffic control
tower o erator certificate.
Under age 40 a recreational pilot certificate, a 60 month after the month of
Third Class (NOTE: The duration of a private pilot certificate, a flight the date of examination shown on
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ••
: Pilot's Bill of Rights 2 student pilot certificate instructor certificate (when acting the medical certificate.
••
•
(introduced 2-26-15) matches the duration of a as PIC or a required pilot flight
: Proposed to allow pilots to fly third class medical
: recreationally without crewmember in operations other
certificate.)
: requiring a 3rd class medical than glider or balloon), a student
: under IFR or VFR in aircraft pilot certificate, or a sport pilot
: weighing up to 6,000 lbs,
: with up to five passengers, at
certificate (when not using a U.S.
: altitudes below 14 ,000 feet driver's license as medical
•
: msl, and no faster than 250 ualification .
: kts. Some semblance of this
: may be law by the time you
Age 40 or older Same as above 24 month after the month of
• the date of examination shown on
: read this ... or not .
•-...W1111111N111~llllllllllllliilllNINllll~M the medical certificate.
NOTE: A 1st Class medical requires an You must report all visits to any health professional
electrocardiogram aka ''EKG'' examination
•• within the last 3 years including names and addresses.
at the first a~plication after reaching the
•• Even an annual physical exam from your family
1
person's 35 birthday and on an annual basis
•• doctor should be reported, but routine dental or eye
after reaching the person's 40th birthday. : examinations need not be reported. More serious
~ medical problems may require additional documentation .
••••••••••••••• •
: 20/20
: The first 20 of the
: 20/20 refers to 20
: feet away f ram the
:
•
Snellen eye chart.
If the smallest line ....
.-: For
............
each eye
.
•• you can read is the
• 20160 line, your eyes separately.
: are seeing that line as
• if a person with 20/20
• vision were standing 60 feet
• from the chart instead of 20.
• 1st & 2nd 3rd
•••••••••••••••••••••••• Class Class

•• Important NOTE
• Distance 20120 20140
•
: ICAO rules require Vision corrected corrected
: pilots to carry a spare Near 20140 20140
• "On the plus side, you certainly have a
: set of glasses while Vision corrected corrected
: flying in international fantastic memory captain. Now let's turn
around and try it again. We moved the chart No limitation on how badly you see
~. or foreign airspace. without correction.
to the opposite wall since your last visit."

SODA Statement Ot Demonstrated Ability:

(67.115, 67.215, 67.315, 67.401)
1. A ''WAIVER'' issued for a static or stable medical defect that would normally
not allow an applicant to meet required medical standards.
2. One of the most common is a ''colorblind'' deficiency. Failure of a color vision
test could put a restriction on your medical that prohibits you from flying at
night or with color signal control (light gun signals from the tower).
3. There are several substitute color plate tests accepted by the FAA that can
be used instead of the normal "Ishihara pseudoisochromatic color plate" test to
demonstrate your ability to distinguish color. You should always try the
alternative color plate tests as the first option.
4. The second option (last resort for a 3ra Class medical) is an ''Operational
Color Vision Test'' (OCVT) aka color signal light test administered by an FAA
inspector at an airport with a control tower. It's a good idea to practice this test
first with cooperative control tower specialist (and a friend with normal color vision). Early morning, late
afternoon or a cloudy day will offer the best conditions for correctly identifying the colors. You will
also need to prove you can distinguish objects on a sectional chart such as mountains, lowlands, etc.
5. 1st and 2"d Class medical applicants will also need to demonstrate during a flight test many things
such as correctly interpreting all instruments or displays in the cockpit, select several emergency landing
sites and describe the surface; color and significance of approach lights; VASI, runway lights, airport
beacon lights, taxiway lighting and lights on other airplanes, amongst many other things.
6. Other common deficiencies requiring a SODA are visual acuity that cannot be corrected to at least
20/40, or the amputation of an extremity.
7. Most conditions require the applicant to demonstrate ability through a medical flight test, however
sometimes waivers are issued on the basis of previous flight experience.
8. A SODA is issued as a permanent waiver as long as the condition does not change.
9. Waivers for conditions such as heart disease or cancer that are subject to change may be issued by
a ''SPECIAL ISSUANCE AUTHORIZATION'' based on periodic repeated testing. (67.401)
LASIK Eye Surgery:

1. Currently acceptable for all classes of medical certification [fhotoB.efractive JS,eratectomy ( PRK), or
B.adial JS,eratotomy (RK)].
2. Once visual acuity has stabilized, the pilot must submit a brief report from the ophthalmologist to the
Aeromedical Certification Division in Oklahoma City. When the next scheduled medical is due, FAA
form 8500-7 must be submitted with the medical application. If there are no persistent complications,
such as glare or compromised night vision, and uncorrected (or corrected) visual acuity meets the
standard for the class of medical applied for, the certificate may be issued at the time of the
examination.
CONTACT LENSES:
1. Contact lenses that correct for DISTANT VISION ONLY are acceptable for all classes of medical
certification.
2. Bifocal contact lenses are NOTacceptable.
3. Contact lenses that require one lens for NEAR vision and the other lens for DISTANT vision
(monovision contacts) are NOT acceptable.
4. Single vision, bifocal, trifocal, or "lineless" bifocal EYEGLASSES are acceptable for all classes of
medical certification.
EYE: (61.1 o3, 61.203, 67.303)

1. 1st and 2"d class medicals require 20/20 or better in each eye separately, with or without correction for
DISTANCE vision. The NEAR vision standard is 20/40 at 16 inches for each eye separately, and if
a~e 50 or older, 20/40 for each eye separately at both 16 inches and 32 inches.
2. 3r class medicals require 20/40 or better for each eye separately with or without correction for
distance and near vision.
3. There is no uncorrected vision reguirement, although the examiner may check uncorrected vision
just to see if there have been any major changes since the previous exam.

EAR, NOSE, THROAT, and
EQUILIBRIUM: (61.105, 61 .205 , 67.305)
1. You must be able to hear a conversational
voice at 6 feet, with your back
turned to the examiner
2. Hearing aids may be allowed but
will require a waiver that requires the
use of ''hearing amplification.'' •
3. Vertigo or any type of
eguilibrium problems are
disqualifying.
MENTAL: (61.101, 61 .201 , 67.307)

1. A personality disorder that is
severe enough to have repeatedly
manifested itself by overt acts along
with many other mental conditions are
disqualifying.
2. Substance dependence or abuse is
also disqualifying, as would be a
positive drug test result.
A SENIOR Aviation Medical Examiner
NEUROLOGIC: (61.109, 61 .209 , 67.309) - - -
(8520.2E) has the additional authority
to perform First Class medicals
1. Any history of Epilepsy or disturbance
(must have at least 3 years experience).
of consciousness is disqualifying.
2. Any other seizure type disorder is disqualifying. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••
: FYI: The FAA will allow you to fly after taking aspirin
: or acetaminophen, but a dose of Viagra will require a
: 6-hour wait (and maybe a little rest!) before flying.
CARDIOVASCULAR: (61.111 . 61.211 , 67.311) L j • • or ' • ,. • <~ .~ ,• ~ y ;'" • - \'
1. Most any form of heart disease or related vascular problems are disqualifying.
2. A 1st class medical requires an EKG after age 35 and annually after age 40.
3. Pilots that have undergone bypass surgery, angioplasty, stent placement or similar coronary artery
disease diagnosis and treatment will be considered for a medical certificate under a ''Special Issuance
Authorization'' after a SIX-MONTH RECOVERY PERIOD and after an extensive battery of tests
and evaluations.
GENERAL MEDICAL CONDITION - DIABETES MELLITUS: (61.113, 61.213, 67.313)

1. An established medical history or clinical diagnosis of diabetes mellitus that requires insulin or any
other hypoglycemic drug for control is disqualifying for any class of medical certificate.
2. Diabetes Mellitus controlled exclusively with diet, is normally not a problem and is NOT disqualifying
for any class of medical certification.
NOTE: It may be possible for a drug dependent
diabetic to receive a Special Issuance medical.
KIDNEY STONES: (61 .53)
1. A kidney stone is considered a disqualification under 61.53 (''medical deficiency''). When the stone
passes or is removed by some other means; and the doctor clears you to resume normal activities, you
may resume flying. ••• • •• • • • • • • • • • • •
• The "Pilot's Bill of Rights"
•• • • • • • • • • • • • ••
2. Don't forget to report the problem on your next FAA medical application. : signed into law August 2012
: directs the FAA to improve the
: medical certification process.
HYPERTENSION: •._....fANifll/¥i/li#i!INFAN'#NfiliN~'fllf#.
1. Maximum allowable blood pressure is 155 over 95. Most FDA-approved anti-hypertension
medications ARE allowed and are NOT disqualifying for any class of medical certification.
2. Check with your Aviation Medical Examiner. Of course it's always a good idea to check with the AOPA
first. You are a member aren't you? For more information on Special Issuance, you can call the
FAA Medical Certification Division directly at thi s number- 405-954-4821 . .....
SPECIAL ISSUANCE DISCRETIONARY ISSUANCE: (61.115, 61.215, 67.315, 67.401 )
A person who does not meet the [medical] provisions of§§ 67.103 through 67.313 may apply for the
discretionary issuance of a [medical] certificate under§ 67.401.
DRUGS or ALCOHOL: (61 .15, 61.16, 91 .17, 91 .19, 91 .1047, 120.1thru120.227, 135.1, 135.41, AIM 8-1-1)
1. No pilot may allow a person "who appears to be intoxicated" on board the aircraft (91 .17). The FAA
would not have to actually prove intoxication of a passenger to uphold a violation.
2. No person may operate an aircraft with knowledge that illegal drugs are on board (91 .19 .
3. No person may attempt to operate an aircraft: (91 .17)
a. Within 8 hours after consuming an alcoholic beverage.
b. While under the influence of alcohol.
c. While having .04o/o by weight or more alcohol in the blood.
d. While using any drug that affects the pilot's faculties in any way contrary to safety.
4. ALL commercial pilots are subject to their company's random drug testing program. During each year
a minimum of 25o/o of pilots must be randomly tested for drugs and 10°/o for alcohol.
5. Any positive result on a drug/alcohol test while working for a commercial operator will normally
result in the immediate revocation of that pilot's medical certificate until that pilot can establish clinical
evidence of recovery, including sustained and total abstinence, for at least two years.
6. If requested, due to an accident for example, drug and alcohol testing must take place within 4 hours of
flight.
7. Any ''MOTOR VEHICLE ACTION'' related in ANYway to Qriving Y.nder the Influence of alcohol or
drugs, including suspension, revocation, cancellation and denial, must be reported directly to the FAA
within 60 days of the conviction date (or date of suspension if a "conviction" was not involved) or
you will certainly have your Pilot's Certificate SUSPENDED or REVOKED INDEFINITELY:
a. Just reporting it on an FAA medical application form does NOT satisfy the reguirement.
b. The pilot must file a written report per FAR 61.1 S(e) including the pilot's name, address,
date of birth, certificate number, and details of the conviction within 60 days after the
conviction date (or date of suspension if a "conviction " was not involved) to:
············ ~
: " Pre-employment Federal Aviation Administration
• testing " must
: occur before an Aviation Security Division (AMC· 700)
' individual is used to PO Box 25810
: perform a safety-
~ sensitive function . Oklahoma City, Oklahoma 73125
c. During your next FAA medical exam you must report the conviction or action again. And
continue to report it on every medical application for the rest of your career.
d. A pilot must report each action even if it arises out of the same, previously reported , incident or
circumstances, although they will count only as one motor vehicle action.
e. First time DUI offenders Anyone whose blood-alcohol has measured greater than .15°/o, or
who refused to provide a sample will automatically be referred to FAA headquarters and almost
I certainly be required to undergo a substance abuse assessment.
f. Two or more alcohol or drug related motor vehicle convictions within a three-year period
undoubtedly will-result in your pilot's certificate being suspended or revoked indefinitely.
Three convictions will probably finish your flying career forever.
g. If you are initially charged with a DUI, but eventually are convicted of reckless driving and the
alcohol charge is dropped or not proved, it still meets the definition of a motor vehicle
action [61.15(c)] and must be reported because the DUI is related to the motor vehicle action.
h. A pilot does NOT have to report (to Aviation Security, but will have to report on medical) a
AVlATlO~ . license suspension or attendance at a remedial course due to a history of speeding
GlN
convictions; but WOULD have to report attendance at a remedial course that reduced a
I . ...
-- +
DUI to a charge of reckless driving whether or not it resulted in a license suspension.
i. The FAA has access to the National Driver Register, and it regularly crosschecks its list of pilot
certificates. EVERY medical application is matched against the National Driver Register.
Big Brother WILL find out and they don't like drunks, even if your name is Randy Babbitt!;o).
j. Failure to comply with the notification is grounds for denial of an application for any certificate
for up to one year; or suspension or revocation of any certificate or rating.
8. A conviction for manufacturing, sale, or possession of drugs is grounds for denial of an application for any certificate
for up to one year; or suspension or revocation of any certificate or rating.
9. An Airl ine Transport Pilot is required to be of "good moral character," but a Commercial certificate has no such
requirement. So if you're a Commercial pilot and you're convicted of something minor, like rape or murder for
example, there's no problem, but a failed drug test or a couple of DU ls will keep you out of the cockpit for a very
long time. Lack of good moral character affects only your ATP, not your Commercial ticket. Use of drugs or alcohol
will affect all your tickets.

.................................................. ~
~
•• SPEEDING TICKETS and Your MEDICAL
•• You do not have to report every traffic ticket for which you paid a
: fine and went home a little poorer. However, on your MEDICAL
: APPLICATION, you will need to report [block v.{2)] ''history of
: any conviction(s) or administrative action(s) involving an
: offense(s) which resulted in the denial, suspension , cancellation ,
•• or revocation of driving privileges or which resulted in
: attendance at an educational or rehabilitation program.''
: Therefore, you do not have to report an individual ticket, but you
: MUST REPORT on your medical if you have EVER lost your
• license or attended a court ordered educational program (e.g. ,
•• as a result of multiple tickets) in order to keep your license.
Z You must report it on your MEDICAL but there is
•• no need to report it to the Aviation Security Division
as long as it did NOTin ANY way involve alcohol or drugs.
Weight 1401b 1501b 1601b 1701b 1801b 1901b 2001b 2101b

-
----
. - -
.-- -
----
. - -
.-- ---.. ---.. - ---..-- -- --... -
- -- -----.-.. ---- -- - .071
- - -
1 Hour
:'-.":".-
--
-
------
--
-
.
--
-
----- -
- - -
::- .::. "'::-.
------
-- . - .-
-----
-
--
-
-
-
.075 .066
--..-----.--
----- - -
-- ·-.. --- --
-.":".;;.':'-.
.076 .070 .064 .059 .055 .050
2 Hours ----- - ------
-- ~
3 hours .076 .067 .060 .057 .048 .043 .039 .034
4 hours .060 .051 .044 .038 .032 .027 .023 .018
Weight 110 lb 1201b 1301b 1401b 1501b 1601b 1701b 1801b

--
- -- -. - --- ----·----· ---. -
- - -.
-- ---
-...--- ----
-----
- - ----
--
- -.... --
- ---
-- .076 .071
1 hour ---
-·
-:"""""':.."'!"
-- --. --
---
------ - ------. - ---
- -
---
----.. -- -..---- ---.----
- - ---
2 hours --·
------ - .
------ ---
- .- .079 .072 .065 .060 .055
---. ----
- - --· ---
-
-- -.. ----
- -.---
3 hours -
- --·-.-
-
-- -
-
- - ..-
- - .072 .063 .056 .049 .044 .039
4 hours .078 .066 .056 .047 .040 .033 .028 .023
(1) Moderate drinking guidelines recommend a daily drink limit of: The average person eliminates alcohol
(a) THREE drinks for WOMEN. at a rate of about 1/3 to 1/2 oz. of pure
(b) FOUR drinks for MEN. alcohol per hour.
(2) A standard drink equals: Black coffee, cold showers or even
breathing 100°/o oxygen from the mask in
(a) One 12-ounce beer.
the airplane will not accelerate the
(b) One five-ounce glass of wine. elimination of alcohol from the body. ,__
(c) One and one-half (11/2) ounces of 80-proof liquor.
Courtesy of the DOT
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES: (13s .121)

1. No person may drink an alcoholic beverage aboard an aircraft unless the certificate :-o
holder operating the aircraft has served that beverage.
2. No employee of a certificate holder may serve an alcoholic beverage to any person !!
that person APPEARS to be intoxicated.
3. No employee of a certificate holder may allow any person to board any of its aircraft !!
that person APPEARS to be intoxicated.

Over-The-Counter MEDICATIONS:
Rule of thumb If the label warns of possible side effects, wait till at least twice the recommended dosing
interval has passed before flying.
~ ;r--.,
\.
--,;
t~
,,
-=c
-
~
•-:.
~ ...,-.,,,- ~ -==-~
(Under The Counter?;o)
DO ~
-
u.s.P.
EMETIC
EMETIQUE
"'ild Cherry fla"o<
"astes REAL Go0 c).
-------...._~....:Any dumb questions?

Chapter 6
eat her
Windshear, Microburst ................................................................................................. 206

Thunderstorm Avoidance I Penetration ....................................................................... 207
Extreme Tu rb uIen c.e .................................................. ................................................... 20 7
ICE •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 208, 209
Known and Forecast Icing Conditions ......................................................................... 210
Carburetor Icing ........................................................................................................... 210
Frost ............................................................................................................................. 211
Rime Ice ....................................................................................................................... 211
Clear Ice .......... ............. ................................ ............. ................................ ............. ...... 211
Freezing Rain ............................................................................................................... 211
Ice Pellets ..................................................................................................................... 211
Trace, Light, Moderate, Severe Icing ........................................................................... 211
Ground Icing ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 212
(FPO) De-Ice/Anti-Ice Fluids ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 212
Holdover Times •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 212
Braking Action •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 213
Contaminated Runways (clutter) .................................................................................. 213
"Iced-Over" Sparkplug Electrodes ................................................................................ 213
Jet Stream •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 214
Clear Air Turbulence .................................................................................................... 215
- - -
Wind Chill Factors ........................................................................................................ 216
AWOS vs. ASOS •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 217
METAR vs. TAF ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 218
Ceiling .......................................................................................................................... 218
Virga ............................................................................................................................. 218
,bimited .8,viation Weather B.eporting §.tation (LAWRS) ............................................... 218
METAR Identifiers ........................................................................................................ 218
METAR/TAF Explanations ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 219
Wind Direction True North vs. Magnetic ................................................................. 220
METAR/TAF & Flight Plan Wallet Sized CHEAT-SHEETS ••••••••••••••••••• 221
Color Codes ................................................................................................................. 221
FI ight PI an Forms ......................................................................................................... 22 2
EFAS I Flight Watch I FSS Frequencies ................................................................. 223
Standard Briefing ... ...... ................... ....... ...... ....... ...... ................... ....... ...... ....... ...... ...... 223
Abbreviated Briefing ..................................................................................................... 223
Outlook Briefing ............................................................................................................ 22 3
lnflight Briefing ............................................................................................................. 223
Turbulence Reporting Criteria ...................................................................................... 223
Al RM ET; SIGMET; WST; AWW; CWA; TIBS; TWEB; HIWAS ..... ...... ....... ...... ............ 224
PIREP; SD; FA; FD; AC ............................................................................................... 225
Stability, Radar & Severe Weather Outlook Charts ..................................................... 225
NOTAMs •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 226, 227
Fog ............................................................................................................................... 228
Loe kheed Martin AFSS ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 229

(Chap 6-Weather & NOTAMS)
•
•
WIND SH EAR: (AIM 4-3-7, 7-1-24 thru 7-1 -30, P/C Glossary,
FAA-H-8083-25, AC-00-6A, 135.345, 135.35 1, 121 .358)
1. An abrupt change in wind speed or direction.
2. If wind shear is reported carry a little extra airspeed on
final approach. Known as V AP speed for jets and
turboprops.
MICRO BURSTS - WINDSHEAR: (AIM 4-3-7, 7-1-24, thru

7-1-30, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC-00-6A, 135.345, 135.351 , 121 .358)
The typical Microburst is a downdraft that may emerge from a cloud (or no
cloud) as high as 15,000 ft:
1. Winds intensify for about 5 minutes after ground contact.
2. Dissipates from 10 to 20 minutes after ground contact.
3. Spreads in all directions after ground contact in a violent
horizontal vortex.
4. Can occur in both ''wet'' and ''dry'' atmospheric conditions.
5. Can occur in "families" (one microburst may indicate possible development of others).
6. Can have horizontal wind speed differences (head wind-tail wind) of 50 to 100 knots.
7. Can have vertical speeds in excess of 3,000 feet per minute.
8. DON'T TAKE A CHANCE - WAIT IT OUT!
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • - - · • • • • • • • It-.
•: Windshear Recovery
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-M~l-C~-R~O~B~-U~R~S~T~~. 1 . Maxpower;
: 2. Pitch up to stick shaker;
• 3. Do not change configuration.
I
Wind Speed
I 10-20 knots
'
~ >20knots
T·S Min
T·2 Min T+S Min T+10 Min
10,000 ft •I• ••l ••
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0 1 2 3
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Scale (miles)
Vertical cross section of the evolution of a microburst wind field.
T is the time of initial divergence at the surface.
.: ····························~~
A MICROBURST encounter during
: takeoff the aircraft may encounter a
: headwind at liftoff, followed by a
: decreasing headwind, immediately
: followed by a strong downdraft and an
: extreme tailwind that may be beyond
• the performance capability of the
•~ aircraft to recover from prior to impact.
'
Doppler Radar Installation

(Chap 6 Weather & NOTAMS)
THUNDERSTORM AVOIDANCE w/NO ONBOARD RADAR:

(AIM 4-3-7, 7-1-24, thru 7-1-30, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC-00-6A)
1. Maintain VFR conditions ON TOP as long as possible
\~ -
>
so as to observe and avoid build-ups. '
OR ... if that doesn't work ... or it stops working ...
2. Maintain VFR conditions below the bases so as to observe and

avoid the rain shafts. However, never fly directly below a cell.
3. DAV - DO NOT GO WHERE the SKY is DARK !!! Talk to ATC ... get IREPs.
····················~
: AVOID the ANVIL side
4. NIGHT - DO NOT GO WHERE the LIGHTNING IS • • •
Talk to ATC ... get PIREPs.
: (downwind side) of a
: thunderstorm by at least
'''
: ONE MILE for every KNOT
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -, of WIND at that flight level.
THUNDERSTORM PENETRATION (Inadvertent of course! AIM 7-1-24 thru 7-1-30)
1 . Best altitude - AS LOW AS POSSIBLE

''
••
2. Tighten seat belts!!
3. Pitot heat, prop deice or engine anti-ice -
4. Cockpit lights - HIGHEST INTENSITY keep your eyes on the instruments

•••••••••••••••••••••••
• •
not on the light show. : THREE STAGES
:• Cumulus
: Mature
5. SLOW DOWN Establish power setting to maintain ~ Dissipating
•-..,.,,,'##4~IUiJilli!W
maneuvering speed (Va), but DO NOT ''CHASE'' •••••••••••
: AVOID any
ALTITUDE or AIRSPEED EXCURSIONS!! • thunderstorm by
: at least 20 miles.
\
6. Below VLo, LANDING GEAR CAN BE EXTENDED to help slow and stabilize.
7. calm I that ou are in
YOU ARE IN CHARGE!! (see 91.3).
8. KEEP the WINGS LEVEL - DO NOT ATTEMPT to TURN BACK. Load factor
increases enormously in a turn.
9. DO NOT ATTEMPT to MAINTAIN a SPECIFIC ALTITUDE in severe updrafts or

downdrafts. Just try to keep the WINGS LEVEL and AIRSPEED APP ROXI MATELV
at MANUEVERING SPEED.
''EXTREME Turbulence'' The aircraft is being violently tossed about and is practically impossible to
control. It may cause structural damage, if the pilot doesn't do something about it immediatelv (AIM 7-1 -24).
The airspeed indicator is usually unreadable because of extremely erratic needle fluctuations and the violent
movement of the pilot's eyes within their sockets (not to mention the movement of the pilot's head).
- --
- - --
----
- -
- -
- --------------
----
- - --
- - --
----
- -
- -
- ----------------
--- --
-

Chap 6 Weather & NOTAMS
•• .-~···············································~~
• LEGAL REQUIREMENTS for FLYING IN ICE
:• General rules Deice units must be provided for the wings, tail,
• propellers or engine inlets, pitot/static sources; an alternate
•
• source of air for reciprocating engines; and a thermal or chemical
•
• means of providing vision through the windshield. External lighting
•
• must also be provided to enable adequate monitoring during icing
•
conditions encountered at night. The FAA must approve the
• equipment and any operational limitation such as, ''flight into known
•• icing conditions is prohibited'' must be formally removed from
•• the AFM or POH (if the statement was previously included). It is
•• important to note that aircraft certified for flight in known ice are
approved for flight in light or moderate conditions only, and even
then the systems cannot cope with severe or continuous icing.
ICE: (Part 23, Part 25, 91 .9, 91 .13, 91.527, 121.341 , 121 .629, 125.221 , 135.227, 135.345, AIM 7-1 - 18 thru 7-1-22, AC 20-73,
AC 23. 1419-1 , AC 135-9, AC-00-6A, AFM or POH, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-16, FAA-H-8083-25)
1. Found in VISIBLE MOISTURE between +5° & -20°C or colder but usually between +2° & -10°C.
2. '''Known icing conditions' exist when a pilot knows or reasonably should know about weather
reports in which icing conditions are reported or forecast'' (FAA lnterp Jan 16, 2009). The briefer should
check AIRMETs issued at the first indication of moderate ice; and SIGMETs issued for severe
icing. Flight in known icing is definitely not a great idea unless the aircraft is certificated for icing
conditions. You might want to mention to the briefer that you plan to remain below the freezing level or
clear of clouds, just for the record. If the aircraft is not certified for flight in known icing, your job then
becomes flying where the ice ain 't. If you crash, or seriously disrupt the ATC system because of an
encounter with ice ... chances are you will receive a painful spanking by an FAA Safety Inspector.
3. 91.527 and 135.227 do not reguire the aircraft to be ''certified for flight into known icing'' in order to
depart into "known or forecast light or moderate icing, " as long as the aircraft has some kind of
''functioning deicing or anti-icing equipment protecting each rotor blade, propeller, windshield,
wing, stabilizing or control surface, and each airspeed, altimeter, rate of climb, or flight attitude
instrument system." However, if the aircraft also carries a placard or limitation in the AFM that states,
''flight into known icing conditions is prohibited," the aircraft could not be launched into icing
conditions because it would be subject to compliance with placards and limitations (91.9).
4. Nevertheless 8,dvisory ~ircular 135-9 (pertaining to Part 135) says '' ... aircraft could be operated
!!l forecast or known light or moderate icing under VFR or IFR rules .if it was eguipped as required in
Section 135.227 and this equipment was functioning, unless the aircraft was prohibited by operating
limitations from operating in icing conditions.''
AC 135-9 also says:
a. ''Aircraft equipped with functioning equipment meeting Section 135.227(b) and NOT placarded
restricting operations in icing conditions [many aircraft manufactured prior to 1973] may fly under
IFR or VFR rules in known or forecast light or moderate icing and continue flight in actual icing
conditions."
b. ''Aircraft equipped with functioning equipment meeting Part 135.227(b) and a PLACARD
PROHIBITING operation in icing conditions may depart on a flight when light or moderate icing is
forecast or reported to exist for the intended route to be flown. However, continued flight in
actual icing conditions is NOT permitted since such flight does not comply with the placard or the
operating limitation in the aircraft flight manual.''
5. Rule #1 take off ''CLEAN'' without ANYice, snow, or frost on the aircraft. (91 .527, 135.227, 121.629)
6. Find out what the freezing level is, stay 3000 feet below it or 8000 feet above it, or above the clouds.
7. At the 1st sign of ice do something about it when doing battle with ice, especially in rapidly
building severe ice, by far the safest tactic is to GENTLY turn around and RUN AWAY!
8. Boots & prop heat will buy a little time, but if ice is bad enough it can bring down any aircraft.
Don't think that boots will allow you to fly for extended periods of time in moderate to severe icing.
BFGoodrich ICEX boot treatment DOES help. It creates a slick surface and minimizes ice adhesion.
9. Alcohol windshields are anti-ice not de-ice; however alcohol will remove some (most) ice. NOTE:
Save the windshield alcohol for the landing approach and don't forget to turn it OFF at least 20 seconds
before touchdown. It's virtually impossible to see through alcohol streaming over a windshield.
10. When prop heat is not available, operate the propellers at MAXIMUM RPM. High RPM helps to
prevent ice from forming down the blades and the greatly increased centrifugal force tends to sling it off.

11. Ice bridging most certainly can occur in older aircraft with slow
boot inflation. Wait until at least a little ice accumulates prior
to boot inflation. More ice will then tend to shed due to
increased drag on the somewhat larger exposed area of the
cracked edges. This is not a risk to modern turbine aircraft
with rapidly inflating boots that fracture even the thinnest ice.
12. As a rule of thumb CLIMBING is usually the preferred ,F IRST option -
you'll either break out on top or climb into air too cold for icing. This must be
done at the first sign of ice, while the aircraft is still capable of climbing. Of
course there are no guarantees, without knowing what the conditions are at the
higher altitudes, you may be going from bad to worse. But the higher you fly,
the more stored energy you'll have should you need to "drift down" due to ice
accumulation. DESCENDING is usually the preferred SECOND option (get to
warmer temperatures below the clouds and the ice if possible). As another rule
of thumb, research has shown that 90°/o of icing encounters are limited to a
3000-foot vertical area. The other 10°/o of the time, ANYTHING is possible.
Call ATC. Get pilot reports.
13. Cloud tops in winter rarely extend above 30,000 feet.
14. Penetrate the icing altitudes as quickly as possible going up or down. If you're at an ice-free altitude
closing in on your destination, try to stay there until the very last minute, then make a rapid descent.
15. Don't allow ATC to fly your airplane. TELL THEM what you need to do. TELL THEM you are in a
dangerous icing situation and you MUST climb/descend or turn around RIGHT NOW. If the situation
really gets serious TELL THEM you need ''PRIORITY," then use your emergency authority (91 .3) to
do what you have to do RIGHT NOW. Do NOT let the aircraft completely ice up and fall out of the sky
while waiting for a request to be granted. Keep in mind however, if you declare an icing emergency in
an aircraft not properly equipped, an ugly enough incident may come to the attention of the local FSDO.
A small price to pay if you're still alive!
16. Some of the heaviest icing can be found in the tops of clouds. An altitude that puts you in and out of
the cloud tops is not the best place to be.
17. Some of the WORST ICING can be found over or downwind of mountainous terrain (enormous lifting
factor) and over or downwind of the Great Lakes region (copious amounts of moisture).
18. As ice accumulates, it destroys lift and adds massive amounts of weight and drag. Cruise speed
drops and stall speed increases. When those speeds meet, you are forced to descend. If there is
warm air below, there is no problem. If there is an airport below, there is usually no problem.
If there are BIG ROCKS below, there WILL be a BIG PROBLEM.
19. Remember, fuel consumption increases dramatically as more and more power is needed to keep the
struggling aircraft flying.
20. When approaching to land carrying a load of ice, find a LONG runway preferably with an ILS. KEEP
the POWER & SPEED UP, the TURNS GENTLE, and DON'T CHANGE the FLAP SETTING,. You
don't NEED flaps. Flaps can cause a very exciting ''TAIL STALL'' (the negative lift of the tailplane is
eliminated and the aircraft pitches nose down). A sharp turn can cause a sudden accelerated stall
that will not be recoverable at low altitude.
21. KEEP the POWER UP. KEEP the SPEED UP. EVEN a SMALL POWER or SPEED REDUCTION
during APPROACH or .EVEN in the FLARE, could cause an INSTANT STALL that will bend a lot of
metal. Better to slide off the end at 10 kts than to corkscrew into the ground a Y2 mile short at well
over a 100 kts.

LOSER
Street
Bonus FAA definitions:

''Known Icing Conditions''
(AIM 7-1-22 Table 7-1-8)
Atmospheric conditions in which the formation
of ice is observed or detected in flight.
Note-
Because of the variability in space and time of
atmospheric conditions, the existence of a
report of observed icing does not assure the
presence or intensity of icing conditions at a
later time, nor can a report of no icing assure
the absence of icing conditions at a later time.
''Forecast Icing Conditions''
Environmental conditions expected by a
National Weather Service or an FAA-approved
weather provider to be conducive to the
formation of inflight icing on aircraft.
''Known Ice''
(FAA Interpretation Jan 16, 2009)
Involves the situation where ice formation is
actually detected or observed.
CARBURETOR ICING - CARB HEAT/MANIFOLD HEAT: (FAA-H-aoa3-2s, Ac20-113)

• The pilot should remember that induction system icing is possible, particularly with float type carburetors,
with temperatures as high as 100° F. and the humidity as low as ro engine ~~=~Ar!;
50°/o. It is more likely, however, with temperatures below 70° F. iee-
and the relative humidity above 80o/o. The likelihood of icing
Ice---..
increases as the temperature decreases (down to 32° F.) and as
the relative humidity increases.
• When conditions are ripe for carb ice, apply carb heat often during
cruise flight. Carb heat will keep ice from forming if applied often
enough and kept on long enough.
• When no carburetor air or mixture temperature instrumentation is
available, the general practice with smaller engines should be to
use FULL HEAT whenever carburetor heat is applied. NEVER USE venturi
PARTIAL CARS HEAT unless the aircraft is equipped with a carb air
temperature gauge and you know how to use it. Remember, either
Incoming Air
FULL CARS HEAT or NO CARS HEAT. A pilot of an airplane
equipped with a carburetor air or mixture temperature gauge should make it a practice to regulate his
carburetor heat by reference to this indicator.

Chap 6 Weather & NOT AMS
It has been said (by someone) that ALL icing is some form of MIXED ICING.
(AIM 7-1-18 thru 7-1-22, AC-20-73, AC 00-45G, AC 00-6A, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25, 91 .527, 135.227, 121 .629, P/C Glossary)
FROST:
Even the lightest coating can radically change airfoil behavior REMOVE ALL OF IT before takeoff.
RIME ICE:
1. A collection of very small, supercooled water droplets that freeze on contact By far the most common
ice you will see.
2. Milky or opaque appearance due to air bubbles that become trapped between the frozen droplets.
3. Usually associated with stratus clouds and relatively smooth air.
4. Rime ice is relatively brittle and a little easier to remove than clear ice but is still extremely dangerous.
5. Theoretically, most rime icing encounters are limited to a 3000-foot vertical area.
6. Ask ATC for top reports. If at all possible, CLIMB immediately. Try to get on top of the clouds or at a
colder level as soon as possible before the ice makes it impossible to climb.
7. If you get to the higher altitude and you're not on top or the situation is not getting any better. Ask ATC
where the bases are. If there is a prayer of getting below the clouds or to a warmer level DESCEND.
CLEAR ICE:
1. A collection of large, close to freezing water droplets that flow back across the wing some before
freezing.
2. Clear ice is hard, glossy, extremely heavy, and very difficult to dislodge.
3. Build up can be extremely rapid! You probably will not see this type of icing very often, if ever.
4. Usually associated with large cumulus clouds and turbulence.
5. DESCEND immediately to warmer air below (beneath the clouds). Or GENTL Yturn around and run away.
FREEZING RAIN:
1. Indicates warmer temperatures above (often ahead of a winter warm front or slowly moving cold front).
2. The most severe form of icing. Build up can be extremely rapid. If possible, GENTL Yturn around and
RUN AWAY!
3. You will see this occasionally usually close to the ground.
4. If you encounter it during takeoff or climb ... CLIMB as if your life depends on it! Get to the warmer
air above as guickly as possible.
If you encounter it during approach ... LAND as if your life depends on it! - KEEP YOUR SPEED
UP! KEEP YOUR POWER UP! But keep in mind the runway is probably as iced up as your airplane.
You are the test pilot. Your job is to get it on the ground as quickly as possible without stalling it, AND
without running off the end. However it is still preferable to slide off the end at 10 kts than to corkscrew
into the ground a Yi mile short at well over 100. Keep POWER UP until WHEELS are on the GROUND!
ICE PELLETS:
Indicate freezing rain at higher altitudes Stay at or below your current altitude.
TRACE Ice becomes barely perceptible, rate of accumulation is slightly greater than sublimation.
LIGHT May be a problem if the flight is prolonged (over 1 hour), occasional use of deice/anti-ice removes
accumulation. Does not present a problem if deice/anti-ice equipment is used.
MODERATE Even short encounters become potentially hazardous, use of deice/anti-ice or flight diversion
•
1s necessary.
SEVERE The rate of accumulation is such that deice/anti-ice equipment fails to reduce or control the
hazard. Immediate flight diversion is necessary.

......................................................... ·--- ....... ~
•• Ground Icing Conditions - Rule #1:

•
• NO PILOT MAY TAKE OFF an aircraft that has FROST, ICE, or SNOW adhering to
any rotor blade, propeller, windshield, wing, stabilizing or control surface, to a powerplant
• installation, or to an airspeed , altimeter, rate of climb, or flight attitude instrument system. The basis
for the ''CLEAN AIRCRAFT CONCEPT'' (91 .527, 91 .1101 , 121.629, 125.221, 135.227, 135.345, AIM 7-5-14)
Freezing Point Depressant (FPD) DE-ICE/ANTI-ICE Fluids -

GROUND ICE REMOVAL/PREVENTION: (AC20-73A, AC20-117, AC 135-17, AC 120-58, FAAOrder8900.1)
1. TYPE I Still the most common. Normally known as ''hot glycol," does a good job of removing ice
but does not prevent re-formation for very long. Short "holdover time."
2. TYPE II A thick viscosity fluid that has been replaced by TYPE IV at most locations.
3. TYPE Ill Thinner viscosity for aircraft with slower rotation speeds. Not currently available.
4. TYPE IV Very popular fluid that has for the most part replaced TYPE II and doubles the "holdover
times." Works very well but is very expensive. Looks like thick green slime. Because of the thick
viscosity, it can only be used for aircraft with a VR greater than 85 knots. Enough air needs to flow
over the wings to blow it off before liftoff.
5. Typically TYPE I fluid (or diluted Type IV) is used FIRST to remove the ice, and then TYPE IV is
applied to prevent reformation.
················································································· ~
•: Hold Over Times (HOT): (91 .527, 121 .629, 135.221. opspec A023)
•• 1. Ground icing procedures are specifically detailed in the OpSpecs and Operations Manual of every
•• certificate holder that chooses to operate during ground icing conditions .
: 2. JfoldQver !ime (HOT) is the estimated length of time that deicing/anti-icing fluid will prevent the
•• accumulation of ice, snow or frost on the aircraft. ''HOT tables'' are used to determine the legal
•• requirements for takeoff under various conditions .
: 3. Holdover time BEGINS when the final application of deice/anti-ice fluid starts and EXPIRES when the
• fluid loses its effectiveness .
•• 4 . Holdover time may be exceeded when at least one of the following conditions exist:
•• a. A visual check within 5 minutes of takeoff determines that the aircraft is free of ice, snow, or frost .
•• b. An otherwise FAA approved procedure (included in the Operations Manual) is used to determine
•• that the aircraft is free of frost, ice, or snow.
•• c. The aircraft is redeiced and a new holdover time is determined .
•• 5 . Newly developed biquid Water ,5quivalent (LWE) aka Jfoldover !ime Qetermination ~ystems (HOTDS)
•• are highly automated systems that measure winter precipitation quantity and temperature to determine a
•• LWE value. This LWE value is compared to a database of deice/anti-ice fluid properties to determine
•• the precise moment in time when the deice/anti-ice fluid will no longer be effective. This information is
transmitted to the cockpit via ACARS (Aircraft Communications And Reporting System) or other means.
1 12 0


(AIM 4-3-8, 4-3-9, P/C Glossary, AC 150/5200-30C)
1. BRAKING ACTION reports are provided by A TC to pilots using
the terminology ''good," ''fair," ''poor," and ''nil." Either pilots
or airport management provides these reports to ATC.
NOTE: Most air carriers, Part 135 operators, fractionals and turbojet operators are prohibited (by
company or aircraft operating procedures) from landing when braking action is reported as ''nil.''
CONTAMINATED RUNWAYS (aka CLUTTER) - PRECIPITATION:

(AIM 4-3-8, 4-3-9, P/C Glossary, AC 91-6)
1. Takeoffs should not be attempted when standing water, slush, or wet snow greater than Ii inch in depth
covers an appreciable part of the runway. Such conditions require corrections for takeoff calculations
because of two factors:
a. A reduction in runway friction may increase stopping distance in the case of a rejected takeoff.
b. The drag of water or slush on the landing gear or flaps could cause a retarding force and
deceleration force during takeoff.
2. Any runway that is not dry is considered to be wet. Standing water, puddles, or continuous rain are
not necessary for a runway to be considered wet. Runway braking friction can change even when there
is a light drizzle. In many cases, even dew or frost that changes the color of a runway will result in a
significant change in runway friction. Runway surface conditions such as grooved, not grooved,
heavy rubber deposits or new pavement can have a large effect on braking action. Many newly
surfaced asphalt runway surfaces can be extremely slippery when only slightly wet.
3. A dry runway has no visible moisture on the runway surface, to include standing water, ice, snow,
slush, or frost in any form.
4. Land and Hold Short Operations are not authorized on wet runway surfaces.
MOW - December 2005
····································~
•• RUNWAY ''CLUTTER''
... STANDING WATER 1/8 inch or greater.
•
... DRY SNOW 1 inch or greater.
•
... WET SNOW 1/4 inch or greater.
•
:• .. SLUSH 1/8 inch or greater.
•
: These amounts or greater may require LARGE
: weight or V-speed adjustments or may prohibit
: a takeoff or landing all together (see AFM).
~
''ICED·OVER'' SPARKPLUG ELECTRODES

1. When attempting to start a piston engine without benefit of a preheat In extremely
cold weather an engine that has fired but guit running after only a few
revolutions is a prime candidate for ''iced-over plugs."
2. The brief combustion is sufficient to cause some water in the cylinders, but
insufficient to heat them up. The small amount of water condenses on the
sparkplug electrodes freezes and shorts them out.
3. If preheat is not available, the only remedy is to remove the spark plugs and heat
them to a point where ice can no longer exist before re-installing.

JET STREAM: (P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-16, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-6A, AC 00-45G, AC 00-57, AC 61-107A)
1. A migrating high-velocity narrow stream of winds meandering around the globe in a wavelike
pattern at high altitudes, usually found near the upper limit of the troposphere, which flows
generally from west to east. Winds on the average increase with height throughout the troposphere
culminating in a maximum near the level of the tropopause. In mid-latitude, wind speed in the jet
stream averages considerably stronger in winter than in summer because of greater temperature
differences. Also the jet shifts farther south in winter than in summer.
2. TROPOSPHERE That portion of the atmosphere from the earth's surface to the tropopause. The
troposphere ranges from the earth's surface to about 65,000 feet over the Equator to as low as 20,000
feet or lower over the poles. The troposphere is characterized by decreasing temperature with
height, and by appreciable water vapor.
3. TROPOPAUSE is a thin layer forming the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere. Height
of the tropopause varies from about 65,000 feet over the Equator to 20,000 feet or lower over the
poles. The tropopause is not continuous but generally descends step-wise from the Equator to the
poles. These steps occur as "breaks." Also known as the transition zone between the troposphere
and stratosphere, usually characterized by an abrupt change of temperature lapse rate.
4. A second jet stream is not uncommon, and three at one time are not unknown. A jet may be as far
south as the northern Tropics. A jet in mid-latitudes generally is stronger than one in or near the
Tropics. The jet stream typically occurs in a break in the tropopause. Therefore, a jet stream occurs
in an area of intensified temperature gradients characteristic of the break.
5. A cross section of the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere showing the tropopause and
associated features. Note the "break" between the high tropical and the lower polar tropopause.
Maximum winds (and turbulence) occur in the vicinity of this break.
-45°F -50°F
60,000'
I
I
/
---- ----
-
,,. ,,. • ISOTACHS
---
• -- - - --60°F
•••••••••••••••••••••••
: Maximum WINDS and I
: TURBULENCE occur at
~"break" in tropophause. \ - .. -70°F
40,000'
\ • -
-60°F
• - -50°F
. - •
-40°F
-4o ---
--
---- ,,. . -
- - - -30°F
oc
--------- -- --
--- ---- ---
-- --- .. -
-20°F
20,000'
..=---'a..s..;•::::;;;._ _ _ _
·~;.:.:~------::>,..-.::•==--~
• - .. - - - • -
~=-:=-=-,..__.._.~~ :::-:=--10°F
-- ----- -
-30°F ..- ,.,. ,,. __.. • • - -
.---
P" +88°F
------ /
"'-"' 6. Wind speed decreases outward from the jet core. Rate of decrease of wind speed is considerably
greater on the polar side than on the equatorial side; hence, the magnitude of wind shear is greater
on the polar side than on the equatorial side.
7. CIRRUS CLOUDS Air travels in a "corkscrew" path around the jet core with upward motion on
the equatorial side. Therefore, when high level moisture is available, CIRRIFORM CLOUDS form on
the EQUATORIAL SIDE of the JET. Jet stream cloudiness can form independently of well defined
pressure systems. Such cloudiness ranges primarily from scattered to broken coverage in shallow
layers or streaks. Their sometimes fish hook and streamlined, wind swept appearance always
indicates very strong upper wind usually quite far from developing or intense weather systems. The
most dense cirriform clouds occur with well defined systems. They appear in broad bands. The
poleward boundary of the cirrus band often is quite abrupt and frequently casts a shadow on lower
clouds, especially in an occluded frontal system.
8. A more important aspect of the jet stream CIRRUS shield is its association with TURBULENCE.
Extensive cirrus cloudiness often occurs with deepening surface and upper lows; and these deepening
systems produce the GREATEST TURBULENCE.

CLEAR AIR TURBULENCE (CAT):
(AIM 4-6-7, 7-1-6, 7-1-23 , 7-1-25, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-6A, AC 00-308, AC 00-45G, AC 61-107)
1. Clear air turbulence (CAT) implies turbulence devoid of clouds. However, we
commonly reserve the term for high level ' -
windshear turbulence, even when in 0

cirrus clouds.
-
2. Cold outbreaks colliding with warm air • .- •
from the south intensify weather systems

in the vicinity of the jet stream along the
boundary between the cold and warm air.
CAT develops in the turbulent energy
exchange between the contrasting air
masses. Cold and warm advection
along with strong wind shears develop
near the jet stream, especially where
curvature of the jet stream sharply
increases in deepening upper troughs.
CAT is most pronounced in winter when ··~············································
temperature contrast is greatest between cold ~ An example of what CAT 1
and warm air. ~~-~.~.?..~.?..Y.~~~.~!~P.~~.~~.!...J
t..
3. A preferred location of CAT is in an upper trough on the cold (polar) side of the jet stream. Another
frequent CAT location is along the jet stream north and northeast of a rapidly deepening surface low.
4. Even in the absence of a well defined jet stream, CAT often is experienced in wind shears associated
with sharply curved contours of strong lows, troughs, and ridges aloft, and in areas of strong, cold
or warm air advection.
5. Mountain waves can also create CAT. Mountain wave CAT may extend from the mountain crests to
as high as 5,000 feet above the tropopause, and can range 100 miles or more downstream from the
mountains.
6. CAT can be encountered where there seems to be no reason for its occurrence. Strong winds may
carry a turbulent volume of filr away from its source region. Turbulence intensity diminishes
downstream, but some turbulence still may be encountered where it normally would not be expected.
CAT forecast areas are sometimes elongated to indicate probable turbulence drifting downwind from the
• •
main source region.
7. A forecast of turbulence specifies a volume of airspace, which is quite small when compared to the
total volume of airspace used by aviation, but is relatively large compared to the localized extent of the
hazard. Since turbulence in the forecast volume is patchy, you can expect to encounter it only
intermittently and possibly not at all. A flight through forecast turbulence, on the average, encounters
only light and annoying turbulence 10 to 15 percent of the time; about 2 to 3 percent of the time there is
a need to have all objects secured; the pilot experiences control problems only about two-tenths of 1
percent of the time odds of this genuinely hazardous turbulence are about 1 in 500.
8. Turbulence would be greatest near the windspeed maxima, usually on the polar sides where there is
a combination of strong wind shear, curvature in the flow, and cold air advection. These areas
would be to the northwest of Vancouver Island, from north of the Great Lakes to east of James Bay
and over the Atlantic east of Newfoundland. Also, turbulence in the form of mountain waves is
probable in the vicinity of the jet stream from southern California across the Rockies into the Central
Plains.
9. In flight planning, use upper air charts and forecasts to locate the jet stream, wind shears, and areas
of most probable turbulence. AVIATION WEATHER SERVICES (AC 00-45G) explains in detail how to
obtain these parameters. If impractical to avoid completely an area of forecast turbulence, proceed with
caution. You will do well to avoid areas where vertical shear exceeds 6 knots per 1,000 feet or
horizontal shear exceeds 40 knots per 150 miles.
10. What can you do if you get into CAT rougher than you care to fly? If near the jet core, you could climb
or descend a few thousand feet or you could move farther from the jet core. If caught in CAT not
associated with the jet stream, your best bet is to change altitude since you have no positive way of
knowing in which direction the strongest shear lies.
11. Maneuver gently when in turbulence to minimize stress. The patchy nature of CAT makes current
pilot reports extremely helpful to observers, briefers, forecasters, air traffic controllers, and, most
important, to your fellow pilots.

WIND CHILL FACTORS

Dress appropriately for conditions. Clothing that feels comfortable in a heated cockpit could prove less than
adequate in the event of a forced landing. Plan to have warmer clothing on board, even if you don't wear it
during the flight. (FAA-P-8740-24)
Cooling Power of Wind on Exposed Flesh as an Equivalent Temperature

Actual Thermometer Reading (°Fahrenheit)
50°F 40°F 30°F 20°F 10°F ·10°F ·20°F ·30°F ·40°F ·50°F ·60°F
Calm 50°F 40°F 30°F 20°F 10°F 0°F ·10°F ·20°F ·30°F ·40°F ·50°F ·60°F
5 MPH 48 37 27 16 6 ·5 -15 -26 -36 -47 -57 -68
10 40 28 16 4 ·9 -24 ·33 -46 -58 -70
15 36 22 9 ·5 ·18 -32 -45 -58 -72
20 32 18 4 ·10 -25 ·39 -53 -67 -82 -96 -110 -124
25 30 16 0 ·15 -29 -44 -59 -74 -88 -104 -118 -133
30 28 13 -2 ·18 ·33 -48 -63 -79 -94 -109 -125 -140
35 27 11 -4 -20 -35 -51 -67 -82 -98 -113 -129 -145
40 26 10 -6 -21 -37 -53 -69 -85 -100 -116 -132 -148
INCREASING
LITTLE DANGER
for a properly clothed person.
DANGER from freezing GREAT DANGER
of ex osed flesh.
••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••••••••
: The FAA specifies a windsock should be fully
• extended in a 15 kt wind. It must also be able
•• to operate equally well between -67°F (-55°C)
and +131°F (+55°C). (AC 1so1s345-27E)

(chap 6 Weather & NOTAMS)
··························~········
AWOS vs ASOS : http://www.aviationweather.gov/
AWOS: (AIM 4-3-26, 7-1-1 , 7-1-12, 7-1-17, 7-1-30, 7-1-31 , FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25, AC 150/5220-16C, Order 8260.19F 8-6-6)
1. Automated Weather Qbserving .§.ystem. A suite of weather sensors of many different configurations
that were either procured by the FAA or purchased by individuals, groups or airports that are required to
meet FAA standards. AWSS Automatic Weather .§.ensor .§.ystem is functionally the same as ASOS.
2. A state or airport can purchase an AWOS with assistance from the FAA's Airport Improvement Program.
3. Provides minute-by-minute weather to pilots at airports that have no other approved weather reporting.
4. AWOS types:
• AWOS-A Only reports the altimeter setting.
• AWOS-1 (I) Altimeter, wind, temperature, dew point, and density altitude.
.. AWOS-2 (II) Information provided by AWOS-1 plus VISIBILITY.
.. AWOS-3 (Ill) Information provided by AWOS-2 plus CLOUD/CEILING data.
• AWOS-3 P (111-P) Adds a frecipitation type identification sensor.
• AWOS-3 T (111-T) Adds !hunderstorm/lightning reporting capability.
• AWOS-3 PIT (II I P/T) frecipitation and !hunderstorm/lightning reporting.
• AWOS-4 (IV) contains all the AWOS-3 system sensors, plus precipitation occurrence, type
and accumulation, freezing rain, thunderstorm, and runway surface condition sensors.
5. AWOS can also generate automated remarks about density altitude, variable winds, and ceilings.
6. A01 indicates a station WITHOUT a precipitation identification sensor (i.e., cannot determine the
difference between liquid or frozen/freezing precipitation).
7. A02 indicates a station WITH a precipitation identification sensor.
8. AWOS information can be obtained on the proper frequency in-flight; the web addresses listed above;
and normally by telephone (see Airport facility Q.irectory; ''AC-U-KWIK," etc.).
9. An AWOS commissioned prior to July 1996 is not required to use the METAR format. That means it
might report temperature in degrees Fahrenheit amongst other differences .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• AWOS observations are considered the " official weather." !! the AWOS is reporting IFR conditions (e.g. isolated fog around the
: sensor), but the pilot's eyesight is reporting obvious VFR, the AWOS information is considered to be correct (and official) no matter
• how bogus it may seem . 91.155(d) states [in part] ... "except as provided in 91 .157 ... no person may takeoff or land an aircraft, under
: VFR, within ... Class B , Class ~. Class Q, or Class g airspace designated for an airport (1) Unless [reported] ground visibility at that
• airport is at least 3 sm; or (2) If ground visibility is not reported ... unless flight visibility ... in the traffic pattern is at least 3 sm."
ASOS: (AIM 4-3-26, 7-1-1 , 7-1-12, 7-1-17, 7-1-30, 7-1-31 , FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25, AC 150/5220-16C, Order8260.19F 8-6-6)
1. Automated .§.urface Qbservation .§.ystem. More sophisticated than AWOS and is designed to provide
the necessary information to generate weather forecasts. ASOS is comprised of a standard suite of
weather sensors (with several exceptions) all procured from one contractor.
2. Continuous minute-by-minute observations necessary to generate a routine weather report (METAR).
3. Similar to AWOS but more sophisticated and is designed to provide the essential information
(METAR) to generate weather forecasts (TAF).
4. ASOS can determine type and intensity of precipitation (rain, snow, freezing rain), thunderstorms and
obstructions to visibility such as fog and haze.
5. ASOS can also measure wind shifts, peak gusts, rapid pressure changes, and the amount of
accumulated precipitation.
6. ASOS shines a laser ceiliometer into the sky to observe cloud layers. It takes a measurement every 30
seconds over a 30-minute period, then double-weighs measurements during the last 10 minutes so the
computer can decide if the cloud layers are scattered, broken or overcast.
7. The ASOS visibility sensor is normally located near the touchdown zone of the primary instrument runway.
8. The word ''AUTO'' included in the broadcast signifies that an observer is not logged onto the ASOS for
backup or augmentation.
10. ASOS information can be obtained on the proper frequency in-flight and normally by telephone on the
ground (Airport facility Q.irectory, AC-U-KWIK, etc.).
ASOS and AWOS:

1. The flag word ''TEST'' is added to the voice transmission of an ASOS/AWOS when it is being tested
before commissioning. The quality of the observations may not be up to FAA standards. Therefore, the
data should not be used operationally until the "TEST" flag word is removed.
2. Ceiling information is "time averaged" over a 30-minute period and visibility over a 10-minute period.
3. The upper limit of cloud height and visibility reported by ASOS/AWOS is 12,000 feet and 10 miles.
4. Most common reason ASOS/AWOS cannot be received by telephone is due to maintenance or repair.

Chap 6 -Weather & NOTAMS
.........--· ........... ·----· ............
METAR vs. TAF : http://www.aviationweather.gov/
MET AR: (AIM 7-1-1 , 7-1-12, 7-1-16, 7-1-30, 7-1-31 , AC 00-45G, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)
1. METeorological reports 8,viation B.outine Weather Reports.
2. Terminal weather OBSERVATIONS.
3. Normally this will be an hourly surface weather observation issued 5 minutes before each hour.
4. SPECI is a special (METAR) report issued because of quickly changing conditions (e.g., WIND direction
changes by 45° or more in less than 15 minutes and the wind speed is 10 knots or more; VISIBILITY decreases to less than, or if
below, increases to equal or exceeds: 3, 2, or 1 mile; RVR changes to above or below 2,400 feet, etc. - see AC 00-45G).
T AF: (AIM 7-1-1 , 7-1-12, 7-1-16, 7-1-30, 7-1-31 , AC 00-45G , FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)
1. Terminal Aerodrome Forecasts.
2.
- - -
Detailed [usually] 24-hour FORECAST normally issued four times a day (amended as required)
starting at approximately 30 minutes before each main synoptic hour (OOZ, 06Z, 12Z, and 18Z) of
PREDICTED weather conditions expected to occur within a 5 SM radius of an airport. May include
expected weather within 5 to 10 SM of the airport (preceded by ''VC'' in the Y,i.Qinity).
3. 32 large airports in the U.S. (as well as many overseas) now have 30-hour forecasts.
4. To issue a forecast there must be available at least two consecutive weather observations (METARS).
5. TAF always begins with "where" & "when" then moves on to forecast of winds, visibility, weather and
sky condition.
CEILING: (1.1 , P/C Glossary)

Height above the earth's surface AGL of the lowest layer of clouds or obscuring phenomena reported
as ''broken," ''overcast," or ''obscuration," and not classified as "thin" or "partial."
VIRGA: (AC 00-6A, AC 00-45G, AC 00-54, FAA-H-8083-25)

Precipitation (rain or ice particles) falling from a cloud but evaporating before reaching the ground. Virga results
when air below the cloud is very dry and is common in the western part of the country. Virga associated with
showers suggests strong downdrafts with possible moderate or greater turbulence.
·································································~
: From FAA Order 8900.1 para 3-2122:
•" ... An AWOS cannot be used as an authorized weather source for Part 121 and Part 135 IFR
: operations !f the visibility is reported missing ... "
: OpSpec C077 (Part 121 operations or Part 135 turbojet operations) requires ''REPORTED''
• ceiling & visibility. See page 265 for additional guidance concerning OpSpec C077 .
.• •..................................................................................................
••• CONVERT Altimeter Setting INCHES of mercury to MILLIBARS
Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station •• 1 inch of mercury= 33.863 MilliBars (mb) aka hectoPascals (hPa)
(LAWRS)-A human observer, usually a control ••
•• (29.92" x 33.863 = 1013.2 hPa) (1013.2 hPa I 33.863 = 29.92")
tower specialist (or FSS in Alaska), augments or ••
adds information to an automated observation. •• METAR /TAF Altimeter Setting:
••
Normally limited in hours of operation . (AIM 7-1-12 •• In the U.S., A: inches and hundredths - A2992 = 29.92
•• Other countries, Q : hectoPascals (hPa) and tenths, example, Q1013.2
...•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~
~
/ ••• METAR IDENTIFIERS (AC 00-45G)

•
: In the conterminous United States, the three-letter identifier is prefixed with K. For example
: SEA (Seattle) becomes KSEA. Elsewhere, the first one or two letters of the ICAO identifier
: indicate in which region of the world and country (or state) the station is located. Pacific
•
: locations such as Alaska, Hawaii, and the Mariana Islands start with P followed by an A, H,
: or G respectively. The last two letters reflect the specific reporting station identification. If
: the location's three-letter identification begins with an A, H, or G, the P is added to the
:• beginning . If the location's three-letter identification does not begin with an A, H, or G, the
: last letter is dropped and the P is added to the beginning. Examples:
: ANC (Anchorage , AK) becomes PANG.
: OME (Nome, AK) becomes PAOM .
•
: HNL (Honolulu , HI) becomes PHNL.
•·-········································
;• Think of a Terminal Aerodrome : KOA (Keahole Point, HI) becomes PHKO .
·.,. UAM (Anderson AFB, Guam) becomes PGUA .
:• Forecast as a HOROSCOPE
•
...
~ with NUMBERS. , ._ ~ '• • -. " ~ • / ~ • • - l • •• , I ~' ~ 0 - • .,, • ~ "' I • ~ ! . ., .

- Weather & NOT AMS)
TAF KPIT 091730Z 0918/1024 15005KT 5SM HZ FEW020 WS010/31022KT

FM091930 30015G25KT 3SM SHRA OVC015 TEMPO 0920/0922 1/2SM +TSRA OVC008CB
FM100100 27008KT SSM SHRA BKN020 OVC040 PROB30 1004/1007 1SM RA BR
FM101015 18005KT 6SM SHRA OVC020 BECMG 1013/1015 P6SM NSW SKC
NOTE: Users are cautioned to confirm DATE and TIME of the TAF e .. FM100000 is OOOOZ on the 10th. Do not confuse with 1000Z!
METAR KPIT 091955Z COR 22015G25KT 3/4SM R28L/2600FT TSRA OVC010CB 18/16 A2992 RMK SLP045 T01820159
FORECAST EXPLANATION REPORT
Message type: TAF-routine or TAF AMO-amended forecast, METAR-hourly, SPECl-
TAF MET AR
KPIT
-
s ecial or TESTM-non-commissioned ASOS re ort
ICAO location identifier KPIT
091730Z Issuance time: ALL times in UTC "Z", 2-digit date, 4-digit time 091955Z
Valid period: either~ or 30 hours. The first two digits of EACH four digit number indicate date of
0918/1024 the valid eriod , the final two di its indicate the time valid from 18Z on the 9th to 24Z on the 10th .
In U.S. METAR: CORrected of; or AUTOmated observation for automated report with no human
intervention; omitted when observer lo son COR
Wind: 3 digit true-north direction , nearest 10 degrees (or Y.afiia~le); next 2-3 digits for speed and
15005KT unit, KT (KMH or MPS); as needed , Qust and maximum speed; OOOOOKT for calm; for METAR, if 22015G25KT
direction varies 60° or more, Y.ariabilit appended , e .. 180Y.260
Prevailing visibility; in U.S. Statute Miles & fractions; above 6 miles in TAF flus6SM (Or, 4-digit
5SM minimum visibilit in meters and as required , lowest value with direction 3/4SM
Runway Visual Range: fi; 2-digit runway designator ,beft, .Qenter, or flight as needed ; "{" , Minus
or flus in U.S., 4-digit value, feeI in U.S., (meters elsewhere); 4-digit value Y.ariability 4-digit R28U2600FT
value and tendenc Down, Up or No chan e
HZ (Haze) Significant present, forecast & recent weather: see table (thunderstorm , rain) TSRA
Cloud amount, height (add 2 zeros) & type: Sky .Qlear 0/8, FEW>0/8-2/8, SCaitered 3/8-4/8
(SCT/// = Scattered clouds below the elevation of the reporting station), .§.roKeN 5/8-718,
FEW020 OVer.Qast 8/8; 3-digit height in hundreds of ft; Iowering .Qumulus or .Qumulonim.§.us in METAR: in OVC010CB
TAF, only CB. Y.ertical Y.isibility for obscured sky & height "VV004". More than 1 layer may be
reported or forecast. In automated METAR reports onl , Clea.El for "clear below 12,000 feet"
Temperature: degrees Celsius; first 2 digits, temperature "/" last 2 digits, dewpoint temperature;
Minus for below zero, e . . , M06 18/16
Altimeter setting : indicator & 4 digits; A-inches & hundreds (Q-hectoPascals, e.g . Q1013) A2992
WS010/3102 In U.S. TAF, non-convective low-level (<2,000ft) ,Wind ~hear; 3-digit height (hundreds of ft) ; "{" ; 3-
2KT digit wind direction & 2-3 digit wind speed above the indicated height & unit, KT
In METAR, ReMarK indicator & remarks. For example: Sea-Level Pressure in hectoPascals & A2992RMK
tenths, as shown: 1004.5 hPa; Temp/dew-point in tenths °C, as shown : temp. 18.2 °C, dew-point SLP045
15.9 °C T01820159
fro.M. and 2-digit hour and 2-digit minute beginning time: indicates significant change. Each FM
FM1930 starts on a new line, indented 5 spaces
fro.M.: changes are expected at: 2-digit date, 2-digit hour, and 2-digit minute beginning time:
FM091930 indicates si nificant chan e . Each FM starts on a new line, indented 5 spaces
TEMPO TEMPOrary: changes expected for <1 hour and in total , < half of the period between the 2-digit
0920/0922 date and 2-digit hour beginning, and 2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending time
PROB30 PROBability and 2-digit percent (30 or 40): probable condition in the period between the 2-digit
1004/1007 date & 2-digit hour beginning time, and the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending time
BECMG BECo,M,ing: change expected in the period between the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour
1013/1015 beginning time, and the 2-digit date and 2-digit hour ending time
NSW = No Si nificant Weather \ VC = Vici nit (between 5 & 1OSM of the observation)
'-' = Li ht \ ''no si n'' = Moderate \ '+' = Heav
TS= Thunderstorm \ SH=Showers \ BL=Blowing \ FZ=Freezing \ BC=Patches \ Ml=Shallow \ PR=Partial \
DR=Driftin
RA=Rain \ DZ=Drizzle \ GR=Hail \ SN=Snow \ PL=lce Pellets \ SG=Snow Grains \ IC=lce Crystals \
GS=Small hail/snow ellets \ UP=Unknown reci itation in automated observations
BR=Mist (>5/8SM) \ FG=Fog (<5/8SM) \ HZ=Haze \ FU=Smoke \ DU= Dust or Widespread dust\ VA=Volcanic ash \
PY=S ra \ SA=Sand or Sandstorm or Duststorm or Dustin
SQ=S uall \ FC=Funnel Cloud \ +FC=Tornado/Waters out\ SS(or os or SA)=Sandstorm \ DU(or SA)=Duststorm
*Explanations in parentheses "()" indicate different worldwide practices.
*Ceiling is not specified defined as the lowest broken or overcast layer, or the vertical visibility.
*NWS National ,Weather ~ervice TAFs exclude turbulence., icin & tern erature forecasts.; NWS METARs exclude trend

(Chap 6 - Weather & NOTAMS)
.. ...... II~
.. ' '
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ....
.: WIND DIRECTION TRUE North vs. MAGNETIC
....
'
• METAR, TAF, ASOS (used for METAR), and the Winds and Temperatures '
• Aloft Forecast (FD) report wind direction in reference to TRUE North . ..
: (AIM 7-1-12, 7-1 -30, 7-1-31, FAA-H-8083-25)
• Wind direction broadcast over FAA radios (or dial-up telephone AWOS/ASOS)
• is in reference to MAGNETIC North. [AIM 7-1-1 2d.3.(c) NOTE]
•
Examples of wind speed and direction plots •
•
Calm NW / 5 kts SW / 20 kts •
0
E / 35 kts N / 50 kts W / 105kts
• Wind conditions are reported by an arrow attached to the station location circle.
• The station circle represents the head of an arrow, with the arrow pointing in the
direction the wind is blowing. The stem line, with the barbs, points to the direction
the wind is from the arrow appears to fly with the wind at its tail (aka tail wind;o).
• Winds are described by the direction from which they blow, thus a northwest
wind means that the wind is blowing from the northwest toward the southeast.
• The speed of the wind is depicted by barbs or pennants placed on the wind line.
• Each barb represents a speed of 10 knots, while half a barb is equal to 5 knots and
a pennant is equal to 50 knots. (FAA-H-8083-25)
1006 1oos 1002 999 1017 1020

METAR KSTL 1950Z 31023G40KT 8SM
SCT035 05/M03 A2976
1023
METAR KIND 1950Z 29028G.45KT 1/2 SM TSRAGR
vvoos 18/16 A2970
1011 ~+~
26 0 ------
St. Louis . Pittsburgh

METAR KCMH 1950Z 16017KT 2SM BR
OVCOSO 11/ 10 A2970
1011 1017 1020 1023

METAR KPIT 1950Z 13012KT ?SM
BKN130 08/04 A3012

c--, c--,
c:
CUT
c:
..... ..... CUT
~· KPIT 091730Z 0918/1024 15005KT 5SM HZ FEW020 WS010/31022KT
FM091930 30015G25KT 3SM SHRA OVC015 TEMPO 0920/0922 1/2SM +TSRA OVC008CB
FM 100 100 27008KT 5SM SHRA BKN020 OVC040 PROB30 1004/1007 1SM RA BR
FM101015 18005KT 6SM SHRA OVC020 BECMG 1013/1015 P6SM NSW SKC
METAR KPIT 091955Z COR 22015G25KT 3/4SM R28L/2600FT TSRA OVC010CB 18/16
A2992 RMK SLP045 T01820159 l~i#llieorological '1\tiation !Wutine--t-llhhi.ful.fiij each j,f.llh
iTAF-routine or.AMenDed , METAR-hourl , SPEClrs ecial METAR
KPIT ICAO Location Indicator KPIT
Valid period: either 24 or 30 hours. The .f irst two digits of EACH four
0918/ 1024 digit number indicate'date1 of the valid period, the final two digits 091955Z
indicate the time (valid from 18Z on the 9th to 24~ on the 10th).
In U.S. METAR: CORrected of; or AUTOmated observation
COR
for automated re ort; omitted when observer lo s on
KT Wind: 3-digit TRUE-N direction (or ~aBia§:le); next 2-3 digits 22015g_25KT
15005
for s eed & Gust; if MET AR varies 60° or more, Variabilit 180\1250
Visibility (SM); >6 miles in TAF=f.lus6SM. RVR=B ; 2-diqit 3/4SM
5SM
runwa L-C-R /FT Variable, U , Down, No chan e R28L/2600FT
HZ Si nificant resent, forecast and recent weather TSRA
SK}l ,S;.lear 0/8, FEW >0/8-2/8, SCT 3/8-4/8, BKN 5/8-7/8,
OVC010CB
______
FOLD ..,.
FEW0 0
2
OVC 8/8; 3-digit height (100s of ft); Towering CUmulus or
.s;,umulonimJiius. ~ertical ~isibility for obscured sky "VV004"
°Celsius/dew-point M inus for below zero(M06) ~timeter
18/ 16
A2992
FOLD
WS010/ W,ind ~hear 3-digit height (100s of ft)/3-digitlilld•ir.ec
i litii
io•n•&• 2•-3-•R•M•K•S•L•P•0•4•5• ~----------•
31022KT digit wind speed above the indicated height, and unit._KT. T01820159
1PRESFR= In METAR, B eM.arJS, indicator & remarks. § ea-,Level f.ress in (.Q. = +0 , 1 = •0 )
PRESs falling hectoPascals & tenths : 1004.5 hPa; Temp/dew-point in ,A02~Auto with
B,apidly tenths °C, as shown: tern +18.2°C , dew- oint +15.9°C precip discriminator
FM091930 FroM chan es 2-di it date, 2-di it hour , and 2-di it min RAE42=
TEMPO TEMPOrary: changes expected for <1 hour and in total, RAin Ended@42
0920/0922 <half of 2-di it hour be innin and 2-di it hour endin SNB42=
PROB30 PROBability and 2-digit o/o (30o/o) probable condition SNow Began@42
1004/ 1007 between 2-di it hour & 2-di it date CIG<=CeilinG
BECMG BECoM,ing : change between 2-diqit date & 2-diqit hour. TCU=Towering
1013/1015 P=more than, No Si nificant Weather, CLR.- clear kU,mulus
'· '=Light, "no siqn"=Moderate, '+' = Heavy; VC = ViCinity; MJ. = Shallow, !BC = Patches,
PRFPaRtial, ~S=ThunderStorm, Bl=Bl owin , SH=SHowers, DRFDRiftin , FZ=FreeZin
i;Ji44rn-DZ=DrizZle, ,RA-RAin, SN=Snow, lSG SnowGrains, 1£=1ce Crystals,
PL:=lce Pell ets, GR=Hail, ~=Small hail/Snow pellets, UP=Unknown Precip(AUTO)
Obscuration - BR=Mist, FG=Fog, FU=Smoke, IVA=Volcanic Ash, :SA=SAnd, ...l;=HaZe,
CUT • PVFSpray, DU=Widespread DUst; ~=SQuall, ~-Sandstorm, DS- DustStorm,

fQ] Well developed dust/sand whirls, f&:=Funnel Cloud, +FC=tornado/waterspout CUT
CUT, FOLD and LAMINATE COLOR CODES
VFR/IFR Flight Plan COLOR CODE
AIM 5-1-4 & 5-1-8 Your Wallet Sized Cheat-Sheets Amber A
International Flight Plan Beige BE
AIM 5-1-9
Black BK
800-992-7433 Blue B
IFR (VFR) Brown BR
{Tail#} _ _ _ _ __ Gold GD
(AC Type)--,--~/JJYA/G
Green G
·- - - - - - - - - - 'Knots
(Where am I?}_ _ __ Grey GY
DeQarture ime or... Maroon M
As Soon /i.s Possible
- - - -
rThousand
Orange 0
1,...-- -=--- -..-....
D~ ___ D & Lndg __ _ Pink PK
p
·- ---
Remarks
hours enroute
~=-----:-----
Purple
Red R
·---- hours fuel
Alternate?1..=======:-:---
Silver s
••· ········ ~······· · ······· · ··········~ ················· · · • Name s~elled_____ _ Tan T
:• FAA Press Release
: "Beginning on October 1, 2015, the FAA will Based in - - - Turquoise TQ
: implement flight plan filing for civil aircraft (Phone) numbeli~---- Violet v
: exclusively under the format used by the on board
: International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)."
color) & _ __ White w
:. (Next Page)
• Yellow y

(chap 6 Weather & NOTAMS)
ICAO FLIGHT PLAN: (AIM s-1·9)
DD Explanations
<=
FILING TIME ORIGINATOR
_J_ I _J_ _J_ _J_ ] I I I I l I I ' I <=
SPECIFIC IDENTIFICATION OF ADDRESSEE(S) AND/OR ORIGINATOR
11a DEPARTURE AERODROMF;, 'TIME A GBAS landing s_y_stem J7 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOMJ]ridiumj_
,__- :.! , , 1
I I , . , , I <= B U_LPVJ.APC with SBAS K MSL
15 Cruising Speed t EVEL ,.;.R.:.;;O;;.;U;;.;T~El;;.___ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _-ct .,__C___,..,..L_O_R_A_N_C _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _----11--L-+-l_L_S_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
- ..L .l ...1.. .l l ...1.. ..J. ...1. l D 1'.0 ME M1 ATC RTF SATCOMJ.I NMARSAT_l_
E1 FMC WPR ACARS M2 ATC RTF (MTSAT_l_
E2 D-FIS ACARS M3 ATC RTF dridium_l_
E3 PDC ACARS 0 VOR
<= F ADF P P1-P9 Reserved for RCP
:TOTAL EE'l) fETE) G _(GNSS - see Note 2 R 1PBN, approved - see Note 4
16 DESTJNA_J..!,RN H.R Ml.N rALT.~E~~D_ROME [2NDAi:IN H 1HF RTF T TACAN
1 .. . 1 1 • •• 1 I I I ~ I III ' I<= I lntertial navigation U UH!], RTF
18 OTHER INFOBMA_!ION {AIM Table 5· 1· 6, etc.) J1 CPDLC ATN VDL Mode 2 - see Note 3 V 1VHF RTF
- J2 CPDLC FANS 1/A HFDL W RVSM approved
J3 CPDLC FANS 1/A VDL Mode 4 X MNPS approved
J4 CPDLC FANS 1/A VOL Mode 2 Y VHF' with 8.33 kHz channel spacinQ
<= JS CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM INMARSATJ Z Other e~uipment carried or other
SUPPLEMEN_TARY INFORMATION fNOT TO BE TRANSMITTED IN FPL M.ESSAGESl. _ J6 CPDLC FANS 1/A SATCOM MTSAT_l_ capabilities - see Note 5
~ 9 ENDURANC__E 'EMERGENCY RADIO
1HR1 [MIN, RERSONS ON BOARD UHF VHF ELBA NOTES:
- El I I I I I P/ I '
I I RI D D D 1 . .I! the -,e-tt_e_
r_S is used, -'Standard equipment is con sidered to be NHF RT F,
SURVIVAL EQUIPMENJj JACKETS VOR , a n d ~ within U .S. domestic airspace .
POLAR DESERT MARITIME JUNGLE LIGHT FLOURES UHF VHF 2. If the letter G is used, the types of external GNSS augmentation, if any, are specified in
DINGHIES
D t D D D =1 D I D D [] D Item 18following the indicator NAV/ and separated by a space.
3. See RTCA/EUROCAE Interoperability Requirements Standard For ATN Baseline 1 (ATN
Nu MB ER CA p ACI TY c 0 VF ER
;;,,;___c.;;..o;;;..;L;;;..;O;.;.R'-------. 81 INTEROP Standard - D0-2808/ED-1108) for data link services ATC clearance and
~IOI I CJ I I I I 0 J <= information/ATC communications managemenVair traffic control microphone check.
~IRCRA~l:. COLOR AND MARKINGSf " ' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 4. If the letter R is used, the f.erformance Jilased t:!avigation levels that can be met are
specified in Item 18 following the indicatorJPBN/. For further details, see Paragraph
5-1-9b8 Item 18(c) and (d). (AC 90-100A)
5. If the letter Z is used, fsPecify in Item 18 the 19ther equipment carried , preceded by
COM/ and/or NAV/, as appropriate.
Cl ,____ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___.J )<= Example:
FILED BY ACCEPTED BY ADDITIONAL INFORMATION 1. SDGWISB1U1 {VOR , ILS, V HF, D M E , G NSS, RVSM , M ode S tran sponder,
A D S-B 1090 E xtended Squitter out, A DS-B UA T out}
2. SIC [VOR, ILS, V HF, M ode C Tran sponder
•. - ~·······················~ ······················.... •
:• Item 18. OTHER INFORMATION
·· Table 5·1·5
Aircraft Surveillance Equipment, Including Designators for Transponder,
: -PBN/RNAV Specifications- ADS·B_,_ ADS·C_, and Capabilities
: Massive amounts of additional excruciating f INSERT N if no surveillance equipment for the route to be flown is carried, or the equipment is unserviceable, OR
~ /NSERTJgne or more of the following ~escriptorS, maximum of 20 characters, to describe serviceable fsurveillance
:• details can be found in AIM 5-1-9. ~ ea_uioment and/or capabilities on board:
•
SSR Modes A and C Transponder
Table 5·1·6
A Transponder - Mode PJ°J_4 diqits - 4096 codesl
PBN/RNAV Specifications
C lTransponder - Mode ~_{_4 digits - 4096 codesl and Mode C
PBN/ RNAV Specifications
SSR Mode S Transponder
A1 RNAV 10 RNP 101
E T ran s_gonder - Mode S, includin_g_ aircraft identification , _pressure-altitude and ext en ded sguitter _(ADS·B_I}_
81 RNAV 5 all permitted sensors
H Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification , pressure-altitude and enhanced surveillance capability_
82 R NAV 5 G NSS
I Transponder - Mode S, including aircraft identification , but no pressure-altitude capability_
83 RNAV 5 DME/D M E
L ,D:.an sponder - Mode S , including aircraft identification , pressure-altitude, exten ded squitter (ADS_B) and
84 RNAV 5 VOR/DME
enhanced surveillance capabili!Y_
85 R NAV 5 IN S or IRS P Transponder - Mode S, includinq pressure-altitude, but no aircraft identification capability_
86 R NAV 5 LO RA N C S Transponder - Mode S, includinq both pressure-altitude and aircraft identification capability_
C1 RNA V 2 all permitted sensors X Transponder - Mode S with neither aircraft identification nor pressure-altitude capability_
C2 RNAV 2 GNSS NOTE{Enhanced surveillance capabili~ is the a bility_ of the aircraft to down-link! aircraft derived datal via a !Mode S.
C3 RNAV 2 DME/DM E Followed by one or more of the following codes if the aircraft has ADS·B capability:
C4 RNAV 2 DME/D M E/I RU 81 ADS-B with dedicated 1090 MHz A D S-B •:_outr" capability_
01 R NA V 1 all permitted sensors 82 A D S-B w ith dedicated ~ 090 M Hz A D S-B " out" and "in·" capability
02 R NAV 1 G NSS U1 A DS-B " out" capability_ usinq UAT _{_987 M Hz Universal A ccess Tra nsceiver- US on ly-below 18,000 ftj_
03 RNAV 1 DME/DM E U2 A D S-B " out" and ''in" capabil ity_ u sing UAlj_
04 RNAV 1 DME/DM E/I RU _ ut" capability_ using VD~ Mode 4 _{_1090 MHz-VHF Digital Link Mode 4.)
V1 ADS-8 '..'.io
RNP Specifications V2 ADS-8 " out" and " in" capability_ usinq VOL Mode 4
L1 RNP 4 NOTE: File no more than one code for each !YQ_e of capabili!Y; for example, file 81 or 8 2, but not both.
01 Basic RNP 1 all permitted sensors Followed by one or more of the following codes if the aircraft has ADS·C capability:
02 Basic RNP 1 G NSS 01 ADS-C with FANS 1/A capabilities
03 Basic RNP 1 D M E/DM E G1 ADS-C with ATN capabilities
04 Basic RNP 1 DME/D M E/ IRU Example:
S1 RNP APC H 1. SDGWISB1U1 {VOR , ILS, V HF, DM E , G NSS, RVSM , M ode S transponder, A D S-B 1090 Extended Squitter
S2 RNP A PC H with BARO -V NAV ou t, ADS-B UA T out}
T1 RNP A R APC H with RF 2 . SIC {V O R, IL S, V HF, M ode C t ransponder}_ _ _ _ _ __
_{_special autho rizatio n req uiredl NOTE: Equi pment qualifier Z indicates that additional equipment or capabili! Y information p an be found in
T2 R NP A R A PC H w ithout RF Item 18 , following the NAV/ indicato r. Operators requesting assignme nt of RNAV SIDs and/or STARs are
special authorization requ ired llmauired to include a 2 in It m ~ and associated RNAV ca abilitie in [It m 1 followin the NAV/ indicator .

Explanations of Items Filed on ICAO Flight Plan Form 7233-4 (AIM s-1-s)
1. These abbreviated notes may be helpful when filing flight plans for flights that will be
conducted entirely within U.S. domestic airspace. Requirements for operating outside U.S.
domestic airspace may vary significantly.
2. Item 7. Aircraft Identification. Insert the full registration number of the aircraft, or the
approved FAA/ICAO company or organizational designator, followed by the flight number.
Example: N115SA, AAL 1223, BONG033.
3. Item 8. Flight Rules and Type of Flight:
+ Flight Rules. Insert the character ''I'' to indicate /FR, ''V" for VFR.
+ Type of Flight. Insert one of the following letters to denote the type of flight: ~if
scheduled air service; !:J. if non-scheduled air transport operation; .(i if general aviation; M if military, Kif
other than any of the above.
4. Item 9. Number (Number of aircraft if more than 1 ),
+ Type of Aircraft. Insert the appropriate designator as specified in ICAO Doc 8643, Aircraft Type Designators;
or, if no such designator has been assigned, or in the case of formation flights consisting of more than one
type; Insert ZZZZ, and specify in Item 18, the (numbers and) type(s) of aircraft preceded by TYP/.
+ Wake Turbulence Category . .ti- HEAVY 300,000 lbs, or more; .M.- MEDIUM less than 300,000 lbs, but more
than 15,500 lbs; L - LIGHT 15,500 lbs or less.
-
5. Item 10. Equipment: Tables 5-1-4 and 5-1-5 (previous page).
6. Item 13. Departure Aerodrome I Time - Insert the ICAO four-letter location indicator of the departure aerodrome,
then, without a space, insert the estimated off-block time (departure time). EXAMPLE - KCLT2215
7. Item 15. Cruise Speed, Level and Route:
+ Cruising Speed. Insert the true airspeed in terms of knots, expressed as li followed by 4 digits (e.g., N0485),
or Mach number expressed as .M. followed by 3 digits (e.g. , M082).
+ Cruising Level. Cruising altitude for the first portion of the route, in terms of Flight Level, expressed as
E followed by 3 figures (e.g, F180); or Altitude in hundreds of feet expressed as A followed by 3 figures
(e.g., A040; A170); or Altitude in tens of meters, expressed as .M. followed by 4 figures (e.g., M0840).
+ Route. Insert the requested route. Consecutive fixes, navaids and waypoints should be separated by the
characters ''OCT" meaning direct (e.g., FLACK OCT IRW OCT IRW125023. NOTE- IRW125023 identifies the
fix located on the Will Rogers VORT AC 125 radial at 23 DME). Combinations of published routes, and fixes,
navaids or waypoints should be separated by a single space.
8. Item 16. Destination Aerodrome, Total EET (§.stimated Elapsed !ime aka ETE), Alternate and 2nd Alternate
Aerodrome if required.
9. Item 18. Other Information. Insert Q(zero) if no other information; or, any other necessary information in the
sequence shown (AIM 5-1-9 Table 5-1-6 on previous page). EXAMPLES:
+ Special handling: STS/ followed by MEDEVAC, HAZMAT, NONRVSM, FFR (firefighting), FLTCK (flight
check), SAR (search & rescue), HUM (humanitarian), STATE (military, customs, police), etc. (AIM 5-1-9b.8.)
+ ferformance §.ased ,liavigation: PBNI followed by appropriate specifications in Table 5-1-6 (previous page).
10. Item 19. Supplementary Information. Item 19 data must be included. This information will be retained by the
facility that transmits the flight plan to ATC for Search and Rescue purposes.
+ El Endurance - Insert 4-digit fuel endurance in hours and minutes.
+ P/ Persons on board - Total number of persons (passengers and crew) on board , or TBN (to be notified).
+ RI Emergency Radio - Cross out "UHF" if 243.0 MHz N/A,
cross out "VHF" if 121.5 MHz N/A, cross out "ELBA" if ELT N/A.
+ SJ Survival Eguipment - Cross out "Polar, Desert, Maritime, and/or Jungle" if
equipment not carried.
+ J/ Jackets - Cross out "Light, Fluores (fluorescein), UHF, or VHF" if life
jackets are not equipped.
+ DI Dinghies - Cross out "Number" and "Capacity" if no dinghies are carried,
or insert number of dinghies, capacity, cover (if covered), and color.
+ Al Aircraft color and markings - Insert aircraft color and significant markings.
+ N/ Remarks - Cross out "N" if no remarks, or indicate any other survival
equipment carried.
+ CJ Pilot - Insert name of Pilot In Command.
11. Additional information:
http://www.faa .gov/about/office_org/headq uarters_offices/ato/service_units/enroute/flight_plan_filing/
STANDARD BRIEFING (AIM 7-1 -4)- you have not received a previous briefing or have not received preliminary
information through mass dissemination media; e.g. , TIBS, TWEB, etc.
ABBREVIATED BRIEFING -only need to supplement mass disseminated data, update a previous briefing, or obtain
one or two items.
OUTLOOK BRIEFING -your time of departure is six or more hours in the future; for planning purposes only.
INFLIGHT BRIEFING - when needing to update a preflight briefing.

Al RM ET (WA): (AIM 7-1-6, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-45G)
1. AIRman's METeorological Information
2. Weather of interest to all aircraft but potentially hazardous to aircraft having limited capabilities or to non-
instrument rated pilots.
3. Weather of less severity than that covered by SIGMETs.
4. AIRMETs cover: Moderate icing, moderate turbulence, sustained winds of 30 knots or greater at the surface,
widespread areas of IFR conditions, extensive mountain obscuration.
5. AIRMETs come out four times a day (scheduled every 6 hours), cover a forecast period of six hours, and give an
outlook for the next six hours with unscheduled amendments issued as required.
6. AIRMETs have a fixed alphanumeric designator with: A
a. ZULU - for icing and freezing level data.
b. TANGO - for turbulence, strong surface winds, and wind shear.
c. SIERRA - for instrument flight rules and mountain obscuration.
SIG MET (WS): (AIM 7-1-6, P/C/ Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-45G, AC 00-6A)
1. SIGnificant METeorological Information.
2. Significant and serious weather concerning the safety of ALL aircraft.
a. Severe and extreme turbulence or ~lear ,Air Iurbulence (CAT).
b. Severe icing. *
c. Duststorms, sandstorms or volcanic ash that reduce visibility to less than 3 miles.
CONVECTIVE SI GM ET (WST): (AIM 7-1-6, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-45G)

1. Concern only severe thunderstorms, tornadoes, heavy precipitation, hail and high surface winds.
2. Issued on a scheduled basis, hourly at 55 minutes past the hour and are valid for two hours or until superseded
by the next hourly update.
SEVERE WEATHER FORECAST ALERTS (AWW): (AIM 7-1-6, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-45G)

1. Preliminary messages issued to alert users that a Severe Weather Bulletin (WW) is being issued.
2. Define areas of severe thunderstorms or tornadoes.
3. These messages are unscheduled.
CENTER WEATHER ADVISORIES (CWA): (AIM 7-1-6, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-45G)

1. Unscheduled inflight, flow control, air traffic, and aircrew advisory.
2. By nature of its short lead-time, the CWA is not a flight-planning product. It is a Nowcast for conditions beginning
within the next two hours.
3. Used as a supplement to an existing SIGMET or AIRMET.
Telephone Information Briefing Service (TIBS) aka (PATWAS):

(AIM 7-1-2, 7-1-4, 7-1-8, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 00-45G, FAA-P-8740-308)
1. System of automated telephone recordings of meteorological information available throughout the US.
2. 1-800-WX BRIEF (800-992-7433 Press~) or the dedicated TIBS line 877-484-2799.
TRANSCRIBED WEATHER BROADCAST (TWEB)(Alaska Only): (AIM 7-1-9, AC 00-45G)

1. Broadcast continuously over selected NDBs and/or VORs.
2. Route-oriented data with inflight advisories, winds aloft and selected METARs and TAFs.
3. Telephone numbers are found in the A/FD in the FSS & National Weather Service Telephone# section.
HAZARDOUS INFLIGHT WEATHER ADVISORY SERVICE (HIWAS): (AIM 7-1-10)

1. Continuous broadcast of inflight advisories including AWW, SIGMETs, AIRMETs, PIREPs, etc.
2. A HIWAS alert will be broadcast by ATC on all frequencies that will include frequency instructions (available on
HIWAS, Flight Watch or Flight Service frequencies). Shown on IFR low Enroute and VFR sectional charts.
TURBULENCE Reporting Criteria (AIM 7·1·23, FAA·H-8083·25)

INTENSITY I Turbulence that momentarily causes slight, erratic changes in altitude and/or
AIRCRAFT REACTION REACTION INSIDE AIRCRAFT I Occupants may feel a slight strain against seat
attitude (pitch, roll, yaw). Report as Light Turbulence; or belts. Unsecured objects may be displaced slightly.
Light Turbulence that causes slight, rapid and somewhat rhythmic bumpiness without Food service may be conducted and little or no
appreciable chanqes in altitude or attitude. Report as Liqht Chop. difficulty_ is encountered in walkinq.
Turbulence similar to Light Turbulence but of greater intensity. Changes in altitude Occupants feel definite strains against seat belts or
Moderate and/or attitude occur but the aircraft remains in positive control at all times. Report shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are dislodged.
as Moderate Turbulence or Moderate Chop. Food service and walking are difficult.
Turbulence that causes large, abrupt changes in altitude and/or attitude. It usually Occupants are forced violently against seat belts
Severe causes large variations in indicated airspeed. Aircraft may be momentarily out of or shoulder straps. Unsecured objects are tossed
control. Report as Severe Turbulence. about. Food Service and walking are impossible.
Turbulence in which the aircraft is violently tossed about and is practically Pilot should immediately reduce power, reduce
Extreme impossible to control. It may cause structural damage. Report as Extreme airspeed, attempt to maintain wings level and
Turbulence. disregard altitude excursions.
High level turbulence (normally above 15,000 feet ASL) not associated with cumuliform cloudiness, including thunderstorms, should be reported as
CATJ.C.lear Air Turbulencel preceded b_y_ the appropriate intensity_, or light or moderate chop.
Occasional - Less than 1/3 of the time. Intermittent - 1/3 to 213. Continuous - More than 2/3.

(Chap 6 -Weather & NOTAMS)
"Piiot REPortS". Also ''UUA'' - ''Uraent Piiot REPortS'' of significant weather:
PIREP (UA) -
- -
Encoding PIREPs (AIM 7·1·20 thru 7·1·27, FAA·H-8083·25, AC 00·45G)
UUA Type of report:
URGENT (UUA) - Any PIREP that contains any of the following weather phenomena: tornadoes, funnel clouds, or waterspouts;
I severe or extreme turbulence, including Clear Air Turbulence; severe icing; hail; volcanic ash: low-level wind shear
UA (LLWS) (pilot reports air speed fluctuations of 10 knots or more within 2 ,000 feet of the surface); any other weather
phenomena reported which are considered by the controller to be potentially hazardous, to flight operations.
ROUTINE (UA) - Any PIREP that contains weather phenomena not listed above, including low-level wind shear reports with air
s_peed fluctuations of less than 10 knots.
/OV Location: Use VHF NAVAID(s) or an airport using the three- or four-letter location identifier. Position can be OVer a site, at some
location relative to a site, or along a route. Ex: /OV ABC; /OV KFSM090025; /OV OKC045020- DFW; /OV KABR-KFSD
/TM TiMe: Four digits in UTC. Ex: /TM 0915
/FL Altitude/Flight Level: Three digits for hundreds of feet with no space between FL and altitude. If not known, use UNKN.
Ex: /FL095; /FL31 O; /FLUNKN
/TP Aircraft TyPe: Four digits maximum ; if not known, use UNKN . Ex: /TP L329; /TP B737; /TP UNKN
/SK SKy cover: Describes cloud amount, height of cloud bases, and height of cloud tops. If unknown, UNKN . Ex: /SK SCT040-
TOP080; /SK BKNUNKN-TOP075; /SK BKN-OVC050-TOPUNKN ; /SK SCT030-TOP060/0VC120; /SK FEW030; /SK SKC
/WX Flight visibility and weather: Flight Visibility (FV) reported first in standard METAR weather symbols. Intensity (-for light, no
qualifier for moderate, and + for heavy) shall be coded for all precipitation types except ice crystals and hail.
Ex: /WX FV05SM -RA; /WX FV01 SM SN BR; /WX RA
/TA TemperAture (Celsius): If below zero, prefix with an ".M.". Temperature shall be reported if icing is reported. Ex: /TA 15; /TA M06
/WV Wind: Direction from which the wind is blowing coded in tens of degrees using three digits. Directions of less than 100 degrees
shall be preceded by a zero. The wind speed shall be entered as a two- or three-digit group immediately following the direction,
coded in whole knots usinQ the hundreds, tens, and units diQits. Ex: /WV 27045KT; /WV 28011 OKT
/TB TurBulence: Use standard contractions for intensity and type (CAT or CHOP when appropriate). Include altitude only if different
from FL. Ex: /TB EXTRM; /TB OCNL LGT-MOD BLW 090; /TB MOD-SEV CHOP 080-110
/IC ICing : Describe using standard intensity and type contractions. Include altitude only if different from FL.
Ex: /IC LGT-MOD RIME; /IC SEV CLR 028-045
/RM ReMarks: Free form to clarify the report putting hazardous elements first. Ex: /RM LLWS -15 KT SFC-030 DURC RWY22 JFK
RADAR WEATHER REPORTS (SD): (Acoo-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)

1. Thunderstorms and general areas of precipitation.
2. Reported at 35 minutes past each hour with intervening reports as required.
3. Type, intensity, trend, location of precipitation , echo top of the precipitation and if significant, the echo
bases. All heights MSL.
AVIATION AREA FORECAST (FA): (Ac oo-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)

1. Forecast of general weather conditions over an area the size of several states.
2. Used for enroute weather and to interpolate a forecast at airports that do not have TAF.
3. Issued THREE (ID times a day.
4. Contains a 12-hour forecast, followed by a 6-hour outlook (18-hour in Alaska) for a total forecast
period of 18 hours (30-hours in Alaska).
WINDS and TEMPERATURES ALOFT FORECAST (FB)(tormerly FD):

(AC 00-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)
1. Forecast for specific locations.
2. Forecasts are made twice daily based on OOZ and 12Z data for use during specific time intervals.
3. A 4-digit group shows wind direction, in reference to true north, and wind speed in knots.
4. A 6-digit group will include forecast temperatures in degrees Celsius.
CONVECTIVE OUTLOOK (AC): (AC 00-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)

1. Prospects for thunderstorm activity during the following 24 hours.
2. Transmitted at 0700Z and 1500Z and valid until 1200Z the next day.
STABILITY CHART: (AC 00-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)

Outlines areas of stable and unstable air.
RADAR SUMMARY CHART: (AC 00-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)

No longer in use.
SEVERE WEATHER OUTLOOK CHART: (Ac oo-45G, FAA-H-8083-25)

Depicts areas of probable thunderstorm activity.

TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS TFRs NOTAMs: (91 .137, Ac 91-63C)
(a) The Administrator will issue a NOtice Io 8,ir,Men (NOTAM) designating an area within which temporary
flight restrictions apply and specifying the hazard or condition requiring their imposition, whenever he
determines it is necessary in order to-
(1) Protect persons and property on the surface or in the air from a hazard associated with an
incident on the surface; [e.g., toxic fumes, volcanic eruptions, etc.]
(2) Provide a safe environment for the operation of disaster relief aircraft; or
(3) Prevent an unsafe congestion of sightseeing and other aircraft above an incident or event,
which may generate a high degree of public interest (e.g., large sporting events).
The Notice to Airman will specify the hazard or condition that requires the imposition of temporary
flight restrictions.
(b) When a NOTAM has been issued under paragraph (a)(1) of this section [hazard on the surface], no
person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless that aircraft is participating in the
hazard relief activities and is being operated under the direction of the official in charge of on scene
emergency response activities.
(c) When a NOTAM has been issued under paragraph (a)(2) of this section [to provide airspace for
disaster relief aircraft], no person may operate an aircraft within the designated area unless at least
ONE of the following conditions are met:
(1) The aircraft is participating in hazard relief activities and is being operated under the
direction of the official in charge of on scene emergency response activities.
(2) The aircraft is carrying law enforcement officials.
(3) The aircraft is operating under the A TC approved IFR flight plan.
(4) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport within the area, or is necessitated
by the impracticability of VFR flight above or around the area due to weather, or terrain;
notification is given to the Flight Service Station or ATC facility specified in the NOTAM to
receive advisories concerning disaster relief aircraft operations; and the operation does not
hamper or endanger relief activities and is not conducted for the purpose of observing the
disaster.
(5) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representatives, and, prior to entering the
area, a flight plan is filed with the appropriate FAA or ATC facility specified in the Notice to
Airmen and the operation is conducted above the altitude used by the disaster relief aircraft,
unless otherwise authorized by the official in charge of on scene emergency response
activities.
(d) When a NOTAM has been issued under paragraph (a)(3) of this section [prevent congestion of
sightseeing aircraft above an event of high interest], no person may operate an aircraft within the
designated area unless at least ONE of the following conditions is met:
(1) The operation is conducted directly to or from an airport within the area, or is necessitated
by the impracticability of VFR flight above or around the area due to weather or terrain, and the
operation is not conducted for the purpose of observing the incident or event.
(2) The aircraft is operating under an ATC approved IFR flight plan.
(3) The aircraft is carrying incident or event personnel, or law enforcement officials.
(4) The aircraft is carrying properly accredited news representatives and, prior to entering that
area, a flight plan is filed with the appropriate FSS or ATC facility specified in the NOTAM.
(e) Flight plans filed and notifications made with an FSS or ATC facility under this section shall include
the following information: •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~
(1) Aircraft identification, type and color. : "Emergency air traffic rules"
(2) Radio communication freguencies to be used. : NOTAMS can also be issued
(3) Proposed times of entry of, and exit from, the designated area. • under 91 ·139 and usually result
• from some emergency affecting
(4) Name of news media or organization and purpose of flight. • the FAA's ability to operate the air
(5) Any other information requested by ATC. : traffic system safely.
: Other NOTAMS protect space
• flight operations and travel by the
OTHER TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTIONS: •• president or other public figures
1. National Disaster Areas in the State of Hawaii. (see 91.138) \ covered under 91 .141 & 91 .143.
2. Emergency Air Traffic Rules. (see 91.139)
3. Flight Restrictions in Proximity of Presidential and Other Parties. (see 91.141)
4. Flight Limitation in Proximity of Space Flight Operations. (see 91.143)
5. Restriction on Flight Operations During Abnormally High Barometric Pressure (above 31.00 inches).
(see 91.144)
6. Operations in the vicinity of aerial demonstrations and major sporting events. (see 91.145)
NOTices To AirMan NOTAMs: (AIM 5-1-3, JO 7930.2N , http://www.faa.gov/air traffic/publications/)
1. Time critical information that is either temporary in nature or not known sufficiently in advance to permit
publication on aeronautical charts or other publications.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
2. Information is classified into four categories. : "wie until ufn"
: "with immediate effect until further notice"
•·~Ui!lillwJtl¥1MN~UlldldliMll~f/l#lilldliN.,..~
NOTAM (D):
1. Information is disseminated for all navigational facilities that are part of the National Airspace System
(NAS) and all airports listed in the Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD).
2. Remain available for the duration of their validity or until published. Once published, the NOTAM data is
deleted from the system.
3. Information includes such data as taxiway closures, personnel and eguipment near or crossing
runways, and airport lighting aids that do not affect instrument approach criteria, such as VASI.
4. All NOTAM Os must have one of the keywords listed in TBL 5-1-1 (AIM 5-1-3) as the first part of the text
after the location identifier.
FDC NOTAMs:
1. Regulatory in nature.
2. Contain such things as amendments to published IAPs and other current aeronautical charts.
3. Also used to advertise temporary flight restrictions caused by such things as natural disasters or large-
scale public events that may generate a congestion of air traffic over a site.
Pointer NOTAMs:
1. Highlight or point out another NOTAM, such as an FDC or NOTAM (D) NOTAM. Assists users in
cross-referencing important information that may not be found under an airport or NAVAi D identifier.
2. Keywords in pointer NOTAMs must match the keywords in the NOTAM that is being pointed out. The
keyword in pointer NOTAMs related to Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFR) must be AIRSPACE.
SAA NOTAMs:
1. Issued when .§.pecial 8,ctivity 8,irspace will be active outside the published schedule times and when
required by the published schedule.
2. Pilots are still responsible to check published schedule times for Special Activity Airspace as well as any
NOTAMs for that airspace.
Military NOTAMs:
Pertaining to U.S. Air Force, Army, Marine, and Navy navigational aids/airports that are part of the NAS .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: The letters "ZZZ" appearing after the
: NOTAM number indicate the NOTAM was
: issued by the North American Aerospace
Notices To Airman PUBLICATION (NTAP): ~ Qefense ~ommand (NORAD).
Published by Mission Support Services, ATC Products and Publications, every 28 days. Data of a permanent
nature can be published in the NTAP as an interim step between publication cycles of the A/FD and
aeronautical charts. The NTAP is divided into four parts:
1. ATC Products and Publications. This part contains selected FDC NOTAMs that are expected to be in
effect on the effective date of the publication. This part is divided into three sections: Airway NOTAMs;
Procedural NOTAMs; General NOTAMs.
2. Revisions to Minimum En Route IFR Altitudes and Changeover Points.
3. International NOTAMs.
4. Graphic Notices compiled by ATC Products and Publications. Comprised of 6 sections: General,
Special Military Operations, Airport and Facility Notices, Major Sporting and Entertainment Events,
Airshows, and Special Notices.
NOTAM NUMBERING SYSTEM

• FDC Notams Organized by year and then by a computer selected (sequential) number.
• Notam D's The first two digits are the month issued, the following numbers represent the number of
No tams issued for that month.

(AC 00-6A, FAA-H-8083-25)

Fog is fog. Who cares what type it is. If you can't see, you can't see. But if you really need to know ...
(1) RADIATION FOG relatively shallow fog, normally less than 300 feet thick. It may be dense
enough to hide the entire sky or may conceal only part of the sky. ''Ground fog'' is a form of radiation
fog but that term should only be used for fog that's less than 20 feet thick. If the fog is less than six
feet thick it should be reported as ''shallow fog." As viewed by a pilot in flight, dense radiation fog
may obliterate the entire surface below him; a less dense fog may permit his observation of a small
portion of the surface directly below him. Tall objects such as building, hills, and towers may protrude
upward through ground fog. Conditions favorable for radiation fog are clear sky, little or no wind, and
small temperature-dew point spread (high relative humidity). The fog forms almost exclusively fil
night or near daybreak. Terrestrial RADIATION cools the ground; in turn, the cool ground cools
the air in contact with it. When the air is cooled to its dew point, fog forms. When rain soaks the
ground, followed by clearing skies, radiation FOG is very common the following morning.
Radiation fog is restricted to land because water surfaces cool little from nighttime radiation. It is
shallow when wind is calm. Winds up to about 5 knots mix the air slightly and tend to deepen the fog by
spreading the cooling through a deeper layer. Stronger winds disperse the fog or mix the air through a
still deeper layer with stratus clouds forming at the top of the mixing layer. Ground fog usually ''burns
off'' rather rapidly after sunrise. Other radiation fog generally clears before noon unless clouds
move in over the fog.
(2) ADVECTION FOG forms when moist air moves over colder ground or water. It is most
common along coastal areas but often develops deep in continental areas. At sea it is called ''sea
fog." Advection fog deepens as wind speed increases up to about 15 knots. Wind much stronger than
15 knots lifts the fog into a layer of low stratus or stratocumulus. The WEST COAST of the United
States is quite vulnerable to advection fog. This fog frequently forms offshore as a result of cold
water and then is carried inland by the wind. During the winter, advection fog over the central and
eastern United States results when moist air from the GULF OF MEXICO spreads NORTHWARD
over cold ground. The fog may extend as far north as the Great Lakes. Water areas in northern
latitudes have frequent dense sea fog in summer as a result of warm, moist, tropical air flowing
northward over colder Arctic waters. A pilot will notice little difference between flying over advection
fog and over radiation fog except that skies may be cloudy above the advection fog. Also, advection
fog is usually more extensive and much more persistent than radiation fog. Advection fog can move in
rapidly regardless of the time of day or night.
(3) UPSLOPE FOG forms as a result of moist, stable air being cooled adiabatically as it moves
up sloping terrain. Once the upslope wind ceases, the fog dissipates. Unlike radiation fog, it can
form under cloudy skies. Upslope fog is common along the eastern slopes of the Rockies and
somewhat less frequent east of the Appalachians. Upslope fog often is quite dense and extends to
high altitudes.
(4) STEAM FOG often called "sea smoke," forms in winter when cold, dry air passes from land
areas over comparatively warm ocean waters. Moisture evaporates rapidly from the water surface;
but since the cold air can hold only a small amount of water vapor, condensation takes place just
above the surface of the water and appears as ''steam'' rising from the ocean. This fog is
composed entirely of water droplets that often freeze guickly and fall back into the water as ice
particles. Low level turbulence can occur and icing can become hazardous.
(5) PRECIPITATION-INDUCED FOG When relatively warm rain or drizzle falls through
cool air, evaporation from the precipitation saturates the cool air and forms fog. Precipitation
induced fog can become quite dense and continue for an extended period of time. This fog may extend
over large areas, completely suspending air operations. It is most commonly associated with warm
fronts, but can occur with slow moving cold fronts and with stationary fronts.
(6) ICE FOG occurs in cold weather when the temperature is much below freezing and water vapor
sublimates directly as ice crystals. Conditions favorable for its formation are the same as for
radiation fog except for cold temperature, usually -25° F or colder. It occurs mostly in the Arctic
regions, but can also be found in the middle latitudes during an extremely cold winter. Ice fog can
be quite blinding to someone flying into the sun.

Lockheed Martin AFSS: (www.afss.com)
1. Lockheed Martin is now firmly in control of most of the formerly
FAA operated Flight Service system.
Now called Automated flight .§.ervice Stations (AFSS)
(aka FS21 flight .§.ervice for the 21 sr Century). 95°/o of
its business is general aviation.
2. All Flight Service Specialists now use one single database
nationwide, enabling any Specialist to provide services for any
pilot anywhere in the country, from any seat in any Flight Service
facility. Including all local NOTAMS and all flight plans nationwide 2411.
3. Currently Lockheed lists six AFSS physical locations Prescott, AZ (PRC); Princeton, MN (PNM);
Fort Worth, TX (FTW); Washington, DC (DCA); Raleigh, NC (RDU); and Miami, FL (MIA).
4. Alaska The FAA still operates all FSS sites in Alaska due to its unique nature and absurd weather.
Fairbanks FSS 866-248-6516; Juneau FSS 866-297-2236; Kenai FSS 866-864-1737.
5. 800-WX-BRIEF ~00-992-74331 calls are routed by voice-recognition ....--Y_o_u_B
_e_t_ch_a_____,
technology. You'll be prompted by the system to say ''briefer'' or press we're gonna
''!, '' say ''TIBS'' or press ''~, '' etc., and then asked, ''What state are you make the FAA
departing from?'' Your response will cause the system to route your continue to run
call to a Specialist who is area-rated for your departure state. If all of FSS in Alaska!
those briefers are busy, the system is supposed to automatically route
your call to the next available briefer in an adjacent area, still with local
knowledge of your area.
6. With a phone call you may set up a pilot profile that uses your phone
number (caller ID) to enable Specialists to see your
N-number, type and color of aircraft, equipment suffix, true
airspeed, and pilot information, as soon as your call drops to
their position. Use of a common number such as an FBO is not
recommended.
Tips to avoid long hold times (shortcuts in place of voice recognition):

1. Press 1 to speak to a briefer; then enter the two letter state abbreviation using What the
phuck?
your telephone keypad (e.g., Alabama - AL or 25; Arizona - AZ or 29;
North Carolina - NC or 62; etc.). For even faster service, press 1 or say
''any'' to get the first available briefer anywhere in the country.
2. Press 2 to issue, cancel, or amend NOTAMS (authorized persons only).
3. Press 3 to listen to TIBS (!elephone Information §.riefing .§.ervice); enter
State COde. "Please continue to hold. This call may be
"I Fl" h Pl monitored for quality purposes. Of course,
4 . Pre SS 4 t 0 record a Fast F I e IQ t an. if we really cared about quality, we'd hire
5. Press 5 to hear Special Announcements. more eop1e to answer the hones."
6. To make sure your flight plan is filed ask the briefer to confirm the
flight plan has been accepted.
7. To ex edite our IFR Clearance Dial the dedicated IFR clearance
number 88-766-8267 when departing from a non-towered airport
that does not have a Remote Communication Frequency.
8. Problems or poor performance with flight service? Report the bastards immediately to the FAA's
FSS Hotline 888-358-7782. These complaints are addressed directly with Lockheed.
9. TIBS direct line 877-484-2799; then enter state code (continuous recording of weather and other info).
10. Another suggestion is to use one of the many FREE web addresses such as FltPlan.com; DUAT.com;
DUATS.com; AOPA.org; etc.
International Direct Access Numbers for FSS and U.S. Customs Notification
from Areas in the Caribbean, Mexico, and South America:
1. Fort Worth, Texas ................................................................................................................ 817-697-6110
2. Miami, Florida ....................................................................................................................... 305-233-2600
3. For international briefings to above destinations (when within the continental U.S.) .......... 800-432-4 716
4. Prescott, Arizona .................................................................................................................. 928-583-6126

( •
''I told you all we had to do was sneak 100 ft below minimums
and we'd get under those annoying clouds.
Alrighty ... check gear down please.''

Chapter 7
An Overview of
Commercial Operations
How Parts 61, 91, 119, 121 & 135 Dance Together
Definitions Commercial; Common/Noncommon or Private ...••...••.. 232
Commuter; On-Demand ...••...•••..•••..•.•..•.•....•....•....••..•••..•••...•••..•••..•••.• 233
...-------------- Domestic; Flag; Supplemental; Scheduled; Part 121 & 125 ...... 234, 235
Part 135 or Part 121 Does Not Apply To ..................................................................... 236
Wet Lease vs Dry Lease .............................................................................................. 236
Business Names; Common Carriage; Non common Carriage ..................................... 237
Aircraft Requirements .................................................................................................. 237
Operational Control ...................................................................................................... 237
.Qertificate-.ttolding Qistrict Qffice (CHOO); Direct Air Carrier ...................................... 237
Part 91 vs. Part 121 vs. Part 135 ......................................................................... 238, 239
PIC Qualifications ........•....•....•....•....•..........................•....•....•....•....•... 240
SIC Qualifications; SIC Required ....•....•.....................•....•....•.•..•....•.... 241
Training, Testing & Checking A Quick Synopsis ..................................................... 242
Passengers During Cargo Only Operations ................................................................ 243
Load Manifest (W&B) ................................................................................................... 243
W&B; Recordkeeping; CG; Mechanical Irregularities •••.••••.••••.••• 243-247
Cargo Compartment Classification .............................................................................. 248
Sterile Cockpit; Manipulation of Controls; Flight Deck; PIC/SIC Designation ............. 249
Fuel Supply •••..•••..••••.••••.••••.••••.•.••.•.••...•.•..•••..•••..••••.••••.••••.••••.•.•. 250, 251
Destination & Alternate Airport Weather ..•••..•••....•....•....•....••.... 252, 253
Do You Need an Alternate? ..•••..•••..•.•..•.•....•....•....••..•••...••...•••..•••..•••.• 254
Alternate Airport Weather Minimums ...••...••...••....•....•....•.•...••...••...••• 255
"==========::!!!::::==::::I
People Express Exemption (3585) ...................................................................... 256, 257
Maybe their airline
Takeoff Minimums .••..•••..•••...••••.••••.••••.•.••...••...••...••...••..•••...••••.•• 258, 259
didn't last very long, Approach Weather Required ..................•....•....•....•....•....................... 260
but they still have Landing Under IFR; RVR ............................................................................................. 261
some greatwings! Approach Lighting ........................................................................................................ 262
High Minimums Captain ..•••..•••..•.•..•.•....•....••...••..•••...••...•••..•••..•.•..•.•.• 263
Special Exemption 5549 .............................................................................................. 263
Arrival at Airports with No Weather Reporting ••....•....•....•..•.•..•.••.•.••• 264
Departing Airports with No Weather Reporting ............................................................ 265
Flight Time & Duty......•....•....•.•..•....•....•.....................•....•....•.•..•.. 266-275
Flight Locating Procedures; Regular & Provisional Airports; Runway Lighting ........... 276
International Flights between Mexico or Canada and the U.S .•••..•••. 277
Small & Large Aircraft; Type Rating Required ............................................................. 278
Accelerate-Stop I Accelerate-Go Distance .•....•....•.•..•.•...••...••...••...••. 278
Landing Limitations 60°/o, 70°/o, 80°/o Effective Runway Length ..•• 279
Subpart F Large and Turbine-Powered Multiengine Airplanes ............................... 280
Autopilot Minimum Altitudes for Use ....................................................................... 281
Alcoholic Beverages; Stowage of Food, Beverage; Exit Seating ................................ 282
Smoking Prohibitions ................................................................................................... 283
Subpart K of Part 91 ................................................................... 284, 285
The Effect of Subpart K on Part 135 •..........•....................•....•............ 286

(Chap 7 Commercial Operations J
COMMERCIAL OPERATOR aka COMMON CARRIER: (1 .1, 91 .501 , 119.1, 119.5, Ac 120-12A)
1. A person who, for compensation or hire, engages in the carriage by aircraft of persons or property.
Where it is doubtful that an operation is for ''compensation or hire," the test applied is whether the
carriage by air is merely incidental to the person's other business or is, in itself, an enterprise for profit.
2. COMPENSATION or HIRE the FAA does not have to show that the pilot or operator made a profit.
It is sufficient to show that the flight resulted in an economic advantage to the pilot and/or operator.
The economic advantage can be established even if there was a financial loss as a result of the flight,
such as for retention of good will.
3. Primary components of ''COMMON CARRIAGE'' -
a. ''Hold out'' a willingness to the public hold out a hand and say ''come on folks, we'll take
ya ... We'll take just about ANYONE if ya got the MONEY;''
b. Transport persons or property from place to place;
c. For compensation (profit, financial gain, or some future economic advantage).
NONCOMMON or PRIVATE CARRIAGE: (91 .23, Ac 120-12)

1. Carriage for hire, which does not involve ''holding out'' to the public, is considered ''private carriage."
Sometimes called ''contract carriers'' because they might carry persons or property for hire under a
mutual contractual agreement between the operator and another person or organization, which did not
result from the operator's holding out or offering service. The customer seeks an operator and enters
into an exclusive contract as opposed to the operator seeking a customer. Other examples include
carriage of participating members of a club; carriage of the operator's own employees or property; or
carriage of persons and property that are only incidental to the operator's primary business.
2. Does NOT involve ''holding out'' to the general public or a willingness to transport all customers.
3. Carriage for hire for one customer or a few select customers, generally on a long-term basis.
4. Keep the local FAA involved at all times, just to keep things honest. You don't want any surprises.
- . ---· ................................................... ---· .....................
: If a pilot offers transportation to the public, and arranges for and flies the aircraft, he is acting as an ''air carrier''
·~
: and must hold an air carrier certificate. If the pilot merely offers his services as a pilot, and has nothing to do with
• securing the aircraft, then he is simply offering ''pilot services,'' which requires no operating certificate.
~ .. ·--- ........... ............. ....-•....................... ·--- ..............,
.• A commercial pilot may fly as a Part 91 ''Corporate pilot'' flying a company airplane
: carrying company property and passengers. He can also provide Part 91 ''pilot service'' as
: a ''Contract pilot'' whereas a commercial pilot is paid by an airplane owner to fly the
: airplane for the owner. In both cases the ''owner'' has ''operational control."
••
: A person cannot ''hold out'' to the public or offer ''common carriage'' with an aircraft that
: the pilot, or the company that the pilot works for, has "operational control" unless operating
: under the more stringent rules of Parts 135 or 121 with the blessing of the FAA.
• ''Carriage in air commerce of persons or property for compensation or hire''
requires an air taxi/commercial operator certificate.
Hurry up, dagnabbit!

Yawl're slower than a DC-3
in a 50 kt headwind.

(chap 7 Commercial Operations)
COMMUTER Operation [Part 135] (11 0.2) means any SCHEDULED operation conducted by any
person operating one of the following types of aircraft with a frequency of operations of at least
FIVE ROUND TRIPS per WEEK on at least one route between two or more points according to the
PUBLISHED flight SCHEDULES:
(1) Airplanes, other than turbojet powered airplanes, having a maximum passenger-seat configuration
of 9 seats or less, excluding each crewmember seat, and a maximum payload capacity of 7,500
pounds or less; or .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ~
(2) Rotorcraft •Part 135 COMMUTER 9 seats or less, payload of 7500 Lbs or less,
· : non-turbojet, passenger-carrying, scheduled (5 round trips per week).
~
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: In response to the ''one level of safety'' campaign promoted by ALPA, most ''COMMUTERS'' do not fit
• the new "commuter operation" definition and are now more appropriately called ''REGIONAL airlines''
• that are operated mostly under Part 121 DOMESTIC or FLAG rules. (121.2, 121.470)
ON·DEMAND Operation [Part 135] (110.2)- means any operation for compensation or hire that is
one of the following:
(1) Passenger-carrying operations conducted as a public charter under part 380 of this title or any
operations in which the departure TIME, departure LOCATION, and arrival location are specifically
NEGOTIATED with the CUSTOMER or the customer's representative that are any of the following
types of operations:
(i) COMMON CARRIAGE operations conducted with airplanes, including turbojet-powered airplanes,
having a passenger-seat configuration of 30 seats or fewer, excluding each crewmember seat, and
a payload capacity of 7,500 pounds or less, except that operations using a specific airplane
that is also used in domestic or flag operations and that is so listed in the operations
specifications as required by§ 119.49(a)(4) for those operations are considered supplemental
operations;
(ii) Noncommon or PRIVATE CARRIAGE operations conducted with airplanes having a passenger-
seat configuration of less than 20 seats, excluding each crewmember seat, and a payload
capacity of less than 6,000 pounds; or
(iii) Any rotorcraft operation.
(2) SCHEDULED PASSENGER-carrying operations conducted with one of the following types of aircraft
with a frequency of operations of less than five round trips per week on at least one route between
two or more points according to the published flight schedules:
(i) AIRPLANES, other than turbojet powered airplanes, having a maximum passenger-seat
configuration of 9 seats or less, excluding each crewmember seat, and a maximum payload
capacity of 7,500 pounds or less; or :•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •--
(ii) ROTORCRAFT. • SCHEDULED Operation
(3) ALL-CARGO operations conducted with airplanes having a : Passenger-carrying operations for hire
• . : conducted by a commercial operator for
payload capacity of 7,500 pounds or less, or with rotorcraft. • which advance notice of departure and
.: Part 135 ON-DEMAND:
• • •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •"'•
\
. 11 ocat'ionIt 1mes
arr1va ' are prov1'ded .
•• 1. PASSENGER-carrying PUBLIC CHARTERS, 30 seats or less, payload 7500 Lbs or less. Except
• when the aircraft is also used in Part 121 operations, then it must be operated Part 121 Supplemental .
•
•• 2. SCHEDULED PASSENGERS, 9 seats or less, payload 7500 Lbs or less, non-turbojet, less than
• 5 round trips per week .
•
• 3. ALL-CARGO (scheduled or non-scheduled) with a payload of 7500 lbs or less .
•
• 4. Non-Common or PRIVATE CARRIAGE, less than 20 passenger seats, payload of less than 6000
Lbs. (Anything above these numbers must be conducted under Part 125 rules.)
···············································································~~
•: Part 135 ON-DEMAND (In Other Words):
: 1. On-demand or scheduled (less than s round trips per week) passenger/cargo operations utilizing
: TURBOJET or PROPELLER-DRIVEN aircraft having 30 seats or less and a payload capacity of
: 7,500 pounds or less, and the airplane is not otherwise required to be on a Part 121 certificate.
: 2. Excludes private or non-common carriage with 20 seats or more or a payload of 6.000 pounds
: or more, which must be operated under Part 125.
3. Scheduled operations utilizing PROPELLER-DRIVEN aircraft with 9 seats or less and a payload
of 7,500 pounds or less, whether commuter or on-demand.

[Chap 7 Commercial Operations)
PART 121 Includes any of the following: (119.1, 110.2. 119.21) A~ DEL--... r-t.
AIRLINES
DOMESTIC Operation [PART 121] (110.2) means any SCHEDULED operation conducted by any
person operating any AIRPLANE described in paragraph (1} of this definition at LOCATIONS described
in paragraph (2) of this definition:
( 1) AIRPLANES:
(i) Turbojet-powered airplanes;
(ii) Airplanes having a passenger-seat configuration of more than 9 passenger seats, excluding each
crewmember seat; or
(iii) Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 pounds.
(2) LOCATIONS:
(i) Between any points within the 48 contiguous States of the United States or the
District of Columbia; or
(ii) Operations solely within the 48 contiguous States of the United States or the ®
District of Columbia; or AmericanA.irlines

(iii) Operations entirely within any State, territory, or possession of the United States; or
(iv) When specifically authorized by the Administrator, operations between any point within the 48
contiguous States of the United States or the District of Columbia and any specifically
authorized point located outside the 48 contiguous States of the United States or the District of
Columbia.
FLAG Operation [PART 121] (110.2) means any SCHEDULED operation conducted by any person
operating any AIRPLANE described in paragraph (1) of this definition at the LOCATIONS described in
paragraph (2) of this definition:
( 1) AIRPLANES:
(i) Turbojet-powered airplanes;
(ii) Airplanes having a passenger-seat configuration of more than 9 passenger seats, excluding each
crewmember seat; or
(iii) Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 pounds.
(2) LOCATIONS:
(i) Between any point within the State of Alaska or the State of Hawaii or any territory or
possession of the United States and any point outside the State of Alaska or the State of Hawaii
or any territory or possession of the United States, respectively; or
(ii) Between any point within the 48 contiguous States of the United States or the District of
Columbia and any point outside the 48 contiguous States of the United States and the District of
Columbia.
(iii) Between any point outside the U.S. and another point outside the U.S.
SUPPLEMENTAL Operation [PART 121] (110.2) means any COMMON CARRIAGE operation
for compensation or hire conducted with any AIRPLANE described in paragraph (1) of this definition that
is a TYPE OF OPERATION described in paragraph (2) of this definition:
( 1) AIRPLANES:
(i) Airplanes having a passenger-seat configuration of more than 30 seats, excluding
each crewmember seat;
(ii) Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 pounds; or ~
(iii) Each propeller-powered airplane having a passenger-seat configuration of more •
than 9 seats and less than 31 seats, excluding each crewmember seat, that is
also used in domestic or flag operations and that is so listed in the operations
specifications as required by§ 119.49(a)(4) for those operations; or
(iv) Each turbojet powered airplane having a passenger seat configuration of 1 or more and less than
31 seats, excluding each crewmember seat, that is also used in domestic or flag operations and
that is so listed in the operations specifications as required by§ 119.49(a)(4) for those operations.
(2) TYPES OF OPERATION:
(i) Operations for which the departure TIME, departure LOCATION, and arrival location are
specifically NEGOTIATED with the CUSTOMER or the customer's representative;
(ii) All-cargo operations; or
(iii) Passenger-carrying public charter operations conducted under part 380 of this title.

(Chap 7 - Commercial Operations)
·························································~
: SCHEDULED Operation (110.2) Passenger-carrying operations
•• for hire conducted by a commercial operator for which advance
•
notice of departure and arrival location/times are provided.
························································~~
•
: DOMESTIC Operation (110.2) [Part 121] -
• 1. SCHEDULED operations conducted with turbojets; OR
••
•• 2. Airplanes with more than 9 passenger SEATS; OR
• 3. Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 POUNDS .
• 4. Between any points within the 48 contiguous States or the District
••
•• of Columbia and/or any specifically authorized point located
•• outside this area .
5. Includes flight legs of an international trip, which are entirely within
the 48 contiguous States.
•• ·····························································~ '
: FLAG Operation (110.2) [Part 121] -
•• 1. SCHEDULED operations conducted with turbojets; OR
•• 2. Airplanes with more than 9 passenger SEATS; OR
•• 3. Airplanes having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 POUNDS .
•• 4. Between any point within Alaska or Hawaii and any point outside of
•• Alaska or Hawaii; OR
•• 5. Between any point within the 48 contiguous States and any point outside
• the 48 contiguous States; OR
•
6. Between any two points which are completely outside the 50 U.S. States.
~
···········································································~'~>
: SUPPLEMENTAL Operation (110.2) [Part 121] -
: 1. Charter type NONSCHEDULED operations conducted with aircraft having more than 30
: SEATS and/or aircraft having a payload capacity of more than 7,500 POUNDS.
: 2. The PLACE and TIME of departure are NEGOTIATED between the operator and the customer.
• 3. No fixed schedule .
•
: 4. NOTE: The difference between ''ON-DEMAND'' [135] and ''SUPPLEMENTAL'' [121] has to do
• with the size of the aircraft. SUPPLEMENTAL uses aircraft having more than 30 SEATS
and/or a max payload capacity of more than 7,500 POUNDS.
·········································································~,
: Part 121 (In Other Words):
•• 1. SCHEDULED TURBOJET operations; OR
•
•• 2. SCHEDULED operations with more than 9 passenger SEATS; or max payload capacity
•• of more than 7,500 POUNDS (except Part 125 private carriage operations); OR
: 3. NONSCHEDULED PUBLIC CHARTERS using aircraft with more than 30 passenger
SEATS (or more than 7,500 POUNDS) [Part 121 Supplemental].
PART 125 was issued to establish a uniform set of certification and operational rules for large airplanes
having a seating capacity of 20 or more passengers or a maximum payload capacity of 6,000 pounds or
more, when used for PRIVATE CARRIAGE. These rules substantially upgrade the level of safety
applicable to large airplanes formerly operated under Part 91. (AC 12s-1)
The focus of this book is on far more common Part 91, 121, and 135 operations.
Subpart K of Part 91 - See pages 284 through 286 of this chapter.

PART 135 or PART 121 DOES NOT APPLY T0:(119.1) ~~~~~~~~EatatJoe's
1 . Student instruction.
2. Nonstop sightseeing flights with an aircraft having a passenger seat configuration of 30 or fewer, and
a payload capacity of 7,500 Lbs or less, that begin and end at the same airport, and are conducted
within a 25 SM radius of that airport. Barnstorming, aerobatic, and "military experience" flights ar all
considered to be "sightseeing." [NOTE: Drug testing is reguired 135.1(a)(5)]. >-
3. Ferry or training flights. =::::!:~=.JJ~

4. Aerial work operations, including:
a. Crop dusting, seeding, spraying, and bird chasing.
b. Banner towing.
c. Aerial photography or survey (however you may NOT
land at an airport to pick up a photographer, and then drop off the
photographer at another airport this can be construed as a Part 135 operation).
d. Fire fighting.
e. Helicopter operations in construction or repair work (but Part 135 DOES apply to
transportation to and from the site of operations).
f. Powerline or pipeline patrol.
5. Sightseeing flights conducted in hot air balloons.
6. Nonstop flights conducted within a 25 SM radius of the airport of takeoff for the purpose of intentional
parachute jumps. ==S~r=~=- ,~-==== q
7. Helicopter flights conducted within a 25 SM radius of the airport of takeoff if:
a. Not more than two passengers are carried.
"'' b. Day VFR.
~"""""~~ c. The helicopter is certified in standard category and complies with the 100-hour inspection.
d. The operator notifies the FAA at least 72 hours before each flight. -Y··-~1!1·,. ~- -..: -:::;-.
e. The number of flights does not exceed a total of six in any calendar year. .~
f. Each flight has been approved by the FAA. I did not have sexual
AIRMAIL
vvvv~.rvvv-,,~ g. Cargo is not carried in or on the helicopter. relations with that woman.
8. Operations conducted under Part 133 of this chapter or 375 of this title.
9. Emergency mail service conducted under 49 U.S.C. 41906.
10. Operations conducted under Part 91.321 (carriage of candidates in elections).
" Aerial Work" - Work done from the air with the same departure and
destination points, no property of another is carried, and only passengers
Dry Lease VS Wet Lease: essential to the operation are carried may be conducted under Part 91.
1. DRY Lease The lessor provides the airplane. e essee 1n epen en y supp 1es e money, e
crew, and responsibility of operational control. All flights are for the lessees' own purposes including
the carriage of passengers or property and definitely does not "hold out" to the public for compensation
or hire. This is normally considered a private operation.
2. WET Lease The lessor provides BOTH the aircraft and the crew; and maintains operational
control. This typically involves carrying persons or property for compensation or hire in some way
shape or form. This arrangement is normally classified as a commercial operation and requires a Part
135 operating certificate. (Or sometimes operated as an illegal clandestine ''134Y2'' operation.)
3. The wet/dry determination is decided on a case by case basis by the all-knowing Gods residing at your
local FSDO that serve diligently to protect the public's safety from your stupidity by delaying paperwork
for as long as humanly possible ... only to tell you they didn't like it so you'll have to do it all over again
and resubmit for further review. I love those guys. Dysfunction at its finest. Remember ... it doesn't
have to make sense ... it's the FAA!;o).
Part 121 or 135 N/A
134 ~ 123LW

BUSINESS NAMES: (119.9)
1. A certificate holder may not operate an aircraft under Part 121 or Part 135 using a business name
other than a business name appearing in the certificate holder's Operation Specifications.
2. Alternative business names are often called ''OBA'' names or "Qoing §.usiness As" names.
All ''Qoing §.usiness As'' names must be listed in the certificate holder's Operations Specifications.
3. A certificate holder may not operate an aircraft under Part 121 or Part 135 unless the NAME of the
certificate holder, or air carrier NAME of the certificate holder, or certificate NUMBER, is LEGIBLY
DISPLAYED on the AIRCRAFT and is clearly readable to a person standing on the ground to the
satisfaction of the Administrator.
COMMON Carriage - Involves "holding out to others." Requires an air carrier certificate.
NONCOMMON Carriage an aircraft operation for compensation or hire that does not involve
holding out to others (does not involve holding out to the public).
AIRCRAFT REQUIREMENTS: (135.25)

Each certificate holder must have the EXCLUSIVE USE of at least ONE AIRCRAFT that meets the
requirements for at least one kind of operation authorized in the certificate holder's operations
specifications.
OPERATIONAL CONTROL (1 .1)with respect to a flight, means the exercise of

authority over initiating, conducting or terminating a flight. Each certificate holder is
responsible for operational control and shall list, in the manual required by§ 135.21
(General Operations Manual), the name and title of each person authorized by it
to exercise operational control (135.77). Operational control is simply a
company official who has the authority to release an aircraft for flight. (110.2) For Part 121 operations,
the PIC AND the aircraft DISPATCHER are JOINTLY RESPONSIBLE for preflight planning and dispatch
release of a flight in accordance with 121.533, 121.535 and the company's OpSpecs.
Certificate-Holding District Office (CHDO) means the flight .§.tandards Qistrict Qffice that
has responsibility for administering the certificate and is charged with the overall inspection of the
certificate holder's operations. (110.2)
DIRECT AIR CARRIER means a person who provides or offers to provide air transportation and who
has control over the operational functions performed in providing that transportation. (110.2)
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Selling a Certificate
: A certificate is not an "asset" that can be bought or sold. Nevertheless, if the certificate holder is a corporation or LLC
: which remains intact ... and there is a transfer of the majority of stock only ... recertification is not required. In other
• words, you can sell the whole company, but the certificate itself cannot be sold. The Certificate-Holding District Office
•• (CHOO) must be notified of the sale and must approve any proposed changes to management as a result of the sale.
··································································~
•
• LOCKHEED L-1049 SUPER CONSTELLATION (CONI)
•• Some aviation trivia - A mid-air collision over New York City between a TWA Super
: Constellation and a United DC-8 on an overcast winter day in 1960, brought about the ''250 knots
• below 10.000 feet'' rule. The aircraft collided in the clouds at 5.000 feet with the .W. doi ng over
• 330 knots. The cause was determined to be a combination of pilot/controller error.

• •••••••• --· ••••••••••• --· ••••••••••••~

• • Part 91 PLUS Part 135
• 1. (or... Part 91 PLUS Part 121 or ... PLUS Part 125)
• It is important to note that all civilian flying must be in accordance with Part 91.
Anytime you're flying you must abide by all Part 91 regulations no matter what other
• additional "Part" you're currently flying under.
• 2. Do not think of it as Part 91 - OR - Part 135.
• 3. You must think of it as EITHER ...
•• 4.
''Part 91 ONLY' - OR - ''Part 91 AND Part 135'' - OR - Part 91 AND Part 121 .
If there is a regulation stated in Part 91 and Part 135 doesn't have a more restrictive
regulation there's no need to restate the regulation in Part 135 (or Part 121 ).
• Part 135 (or Part 121, or Part 125) is an ADDITION (additional restriction) to Part 91 .
There are a few rare occasions where Parts 135 or 121 allow you to disregard a Part 91
regulation, but these changes will be specifically noted.
1. Only 1 Pilot In Command is authorized on the certificate and there are no

Single Pilot Second In Commands.
Part 135 Operator 2. May operate more than one aircraft, but only the person whose name is on
the certificate can fly any of them under Part 135.
3. Must comply with all Part 135 regulations except there is no requirement for
approved manuals, training programs or management personnel.
4. Must complete the 6 and 12-month (135.293, 135.297 and 135.299) checks
with the FAA (or may be granted approval to use a check airman employed by
another air carrier who is using the same type of aircraft).
1. Allows up to 3 Second In Commands but still only one Pilot In Command.

Single PIC 2. The requirement for manuals or management personnel can be waived if
Part 135 Operator requested during the certification process.
3. Not authorized to operate aircraft type certificated for more than nine
passenger seats; Cat 11 or 111 operations, or conduct operations outside the US.
1. Still considered limited in size and scope, but the operator must develop
Basic training programs, manuals, and present qualified management personnel to
Part 135 Operator the FAA for approval (some combining of management positions may be
approved). (119.69thru 119.71 , 135.321thru135.353)
2. No more than 5 pilots including SICs.
3. No more than 5 aircraft.
4. No more than 3 different types of aircraft.
5. No aircraft type certificated for more than nine passenger seats.
6. No Category 11 or 111 operations.
7. No operations are conducted outside the United States, Canada, Mexico, or
the Caribbean.
1. Full Part 135 operators essentially have no restrictions as to size but for
''Full'' each new privilege the operator must be granted a specific "Operations
Part 135 Operator Specification" by the FAA in order to conduct that particular operation.
2. Must have all required management personnel (combining of management
positions is normally not allowed but exceptions can be negotiated).
3. May utilize any number of pilots, aircraft, or types of aircraft; including aircraft
with more than 9 passenger seats.
4. Flights to any country and/or Cat II or Ill operations may be allowed upon
issuance of specific Operations Specifications.

Chap 7 - Commercial Operations
Part 91 vs Parts 121/135 c11s.1>

Part 91 Parts 121/135
1. A commercial pilot may fly as a Part 91
''Corporate pilot'' flying a company airplane
carrying company property and passengers.
2. May provide Part 91 ''pilot service'' whereas a 1. Requires an ''Air Taxi/Commercial Operator
commercial pilot is paid by an airplane owner to fly Certificate.''
the airplane for the owner and his guests. 2. Can ''hold out'' to the public and offer ''common
3. May provide ''private carriage'' for hire for one carriage'' to anyone who is willing to pay.
customer or a few select customers. 3. Can advertise and offer ''carriage in air
4. May also perform the services listed in 119.1 that commerce of persons or property for
are not covered under Part 135 regulations compensation or hire.''
(i.e., student instruction, nonstop sightseeing
flights within 25 SM, ferry flights, crop dusting,
banner towing, pipeline patrol, etc.).
A Part 135 PIC must have at least 500 hours total
time ( ... etc.) for VFR operations and at least
1200 hours total time( ... etc.) for IFR operations.
No minimum flight experience reguired. For Part 135 PIC an ATP is required for turbojets,
or airplanes with 10 or more passenger seats, or
multiengine commuter operations. (135.243)
A Part 121 PIC must have an ATP. [121 .437(a)]
A Second In Command is reguired when carrying

A Second In Command is not reguired for
passengers under IFR unless the operation (and the
instrument flight in aircraft that are normally flown
pilot) is approved for use of an autopilot in lieu of a
single pilot.
Second In Command. (135.101, 135.105)
An FAA approved training program is reguired for

No training program required.
all 135 operations except simple single pilot operators.
Must have a drug and alcohol random testing

No drug and alcohol program required for most program for all employees in ''safety sensitive''
positions. This would include anyone the operator
operations [except drug testing is required for
"nonstop sightseeing flights" see 135.1 (a)(5)]. contracts with, such as when maintenance is
performed by another facility away from home base.
(135.249 thru 135.255 & 121 appendix I & J)
FIVE YEAR background checks are required due to

the f.ilot .B.ecords Improvement 8,ct of 1996 (PRIA):
1. A check of all previous employers for training or
checkride problems and drug testing history.
Background checks NOT reguired.
2. An FAA records check of the pilot's certificate
and medical including any accidents or incidents.
3. A check of the pilot's driving record for any drug
or alcohol related ''motor vehicle actions.''
No flight time limits, duty time limits or rest 135.261thru135.273 (121.470thru121.525) regulates
requirements. crew flight time, duty time and rest requirements.
The airport must have WEATHER REPORTING and

Any airport may be used IFR or VFR as long be of adequate length to meet required accelerate
as it is adequate for the aircraft and is in compliance stop/accelerate go distance (for most aircraft) and
with the limitations of the Aircraft flight Manual. meet the 60°/on0°/o (destination/alternate) landing
limitation rules. (135.367thru 135.399; 121.185thru 121 .205)
A pilot may not begin an instrument approach

An instrument approach may be initiated
unless the latest weather reports at least
regardless of the weather.
minimums for the approach. [135.225, 121 .651 (b)]
Hi, my name is Captain Dudley.
If it's got wings, I can;_fl:_Y_::it.:..----~
Pilot In Command QUALIFICATIONS:
135.243, 135.247, 135.293, 135.299, 135.345 thru 135.351 , 91 .1053, 121 .434 thru 121.445
--
Part 135 PIC - VFR:
1. Commercial/Instrument/Multi-Engine ratings (for multi-engine operations),
and current 2"a Class Medical.
2. Must be instrument current, also company trained and line checked
(135.293, 135.299) in the aircraft within the last 12 months.
3. 500 hours Total Time including 100 hours total cross country and 25
_ _ _h_o.u.rs_ night cross country.·- - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
Part 135 PIC - IFR:
1. Commercial/Instrument/Multi-Engine ratings (for multi-engine
operations), and current 2"d Class Medical.
2. Must be company trained and line checked (135.293, 135.299) in the aircraft
within the previous 12 months and instrument checked (135.297) within the
previous 6 months.
3. 1,200 hours Total Time including 500 hours cross country 100 hours total night
- 25 hours night cross country 75 hours of actual or simulated instrument time at
least 50 hours of which were in actual flight.
4. For PASSENGER-carrying operations only No person may serve as PIC of a
turbojet, or an airplane having 10 or more passenger seats, OR a
multiengine airplane in a commuter operation unless he holds an Airline Transport
Pilot certificate and a current 1st Class Medical (135.243).
5. For COMMUTER operations, the PIC must also have the Initial Qperating ,5xperience (IOE) outlined in
135.244 (or 121.434)(i.e., 20 hours in a multiengine turbine or 25 hours in a turbojet with a qualified
check pilot that can be acquired during revenue flights. The hours can be reduced by 50o/o by the
substitution of one additional takeoff and landing for each hour of flight. (Page 308)
Part 121 - PIC:

1. 1,500 hours Total Time; Airline Transport Pilot certificate (Pages 188-189); appropriate type rating;
current 1st Class medical.
2. Minimum of 1,000 flight hours in air carrier operations (i.e., SIC in Part 121 operations, PIC in
operations under either 135.243(a)(1) or §91.1053(a)(2)(i); or any combination thereof). For those
pilots who were employed as pilot in command in part 121 operations on July 31, 2013, compliance with
the 1,000 hour minimum is not required. (121.436)
3. NOTE Military PIC time (up to 500 hours) in a multiengine turbine-powered, fixed-wing airplane in
an operation requiring more than one pilot may be credited towards the 1,000 hours.
RECENT PILOT EXPERIENCE for Pilot In Command: (61.57, 91.103, 121 .439, 135.247, 135.299)
1. To carry PASSENGERS the PIC must have 3 takeoffs and landings in an aircraft of the same category
and class in the past 90 days these landings must be made to a full stop if in a tailwheel aircraft or
at night and if a type rating is required ... must be in the same type of aircraft. (61.57, 135.247)
2. For Part 121 operations the three takeoffs and landings are required for ANYflight crewmember
regardless of if passengers are carried or not.
3. For operations at NIGHT (between 1 hour after sunset and 1 hour before sunrise), the same as #1
above during this same 90 day period of time.
4. If the PIC has not flown over a route and into an airport within the preceding 90 days the pilot must
become familiar with all available information required for the safe operation of the flight.
[135.299(c), 91 .103]
---~···
i
........................................................ .
• TOP SECRET CAPTAIN STUFF
: #1. Point the airplane where you want to go, if it doesn't go that way POINT HARDER.
• #2. If you don't want the airplane to go over there DON'T LET IT GO OVER THERE.
•
········· ~··························~··············~
Hi, I'm First Officer Orville. My job is really cool. ..
t• 1. For aircraft that require more than one pilot,
I'm in charge of the landing gear and sometimes
•• the ~ requires a TYPE RATING (SIC only)
•• for flights OUTSIDE United States airspace . the captain even lets me talk on the radio.
••
•• (61.55) If the autopilot breaks - I get to fly all the time -
: 2. Part 121 Copilots are required to have a except when it's time to land or takeoff.
:
______________________
••.,. _
FULL type rating (not SIC only). (121.436)
.....,. I also get to wear this really dapper-lookin' uniform .
Part 135 Second In Command QUALIFICATIONS:

(61 .55, 61 .57, 91 .1053, 121 .437, 135.245, 135.293, 135.329(e), 135.345thru 135.351]
1. The pilot must have Commercial I Instrument I Multi-Engine ratings (for
multi-engine operations), and at least a 2"a Class Medical (135.245).
2. The pilot must be ''instrument current'' [must have LOGGED §.
approaches & holding within the last 6 months 135.245 & 61.57(c)] *IMHO*
· d d k d · h ft · h h I The new rules requiring an ATP and a
an d must b e company tra1ne an chec e 1n t e aircra wit in t e ast type rating wi ll do nothing to enhance
12 months (135.293). NOTE: A pilot who is not "instrument current" ~ safety, but wi ll do a great deal to filter
[61.57(d)] at the time of the Subpart K of Part 91, Part 121, or Part 135 ~ out countless talented individuals that
: cannot afford the absurdly inflated
SIC check can ask the person administering the check to give a 61.57( d) f price of admission.
Instrument froficiency .Qheck in conjunction with the SIC check. The ~... *IMHO*
examiner or company check pilot must then sign it off as an IPC in the pilot's logbook.
3. For training or ferry flights a commercial pilot with the appropriate category and class ratings need not
meet the training and checking requirements of 135.293 if no passengers or cargo are carried (61.55d&e ).
4. A pilot who is training to become an SIC for a Part 135 operator, may serve as the SIC of that aircraft
for the purposes of receiving training as long as no passengers or cargo are carried and the flight is
conducted under day VFR or day IFR. You may log SIC time for this training under 61.51 (f).
5. Using two captains Putting two captains together is a relatively common practice, but to be perfectly
in accordance with FAA policy; the right-seat occupant must have been trained & checked for the right
seat duties. 135.329(e )( 1) states "In addition to initial, transition, upgrade and recurrent training,
each training program must provide ground and flight training, instruction, and practice necessary to
ensure that each crewmember remains adequately trained and currently proficient for each aircraft,
CREWMEMBER POSITION, and type of operation in which the crewmember serves; and ... etc." This
means that a pilot who is trained and checked as PIC (even when a type rating is required) cannot act
as SIC on a revenue trip UNLESS the pilot has also been trained and checked for the duties of SIC.
In other words, you cannot put two captains together on a revenue trip (Part 121 or 135) unless the
dude (or dudette) !n the right seat has been trained and checked for the right seat duties. The
captain sitting in the right seat has to be trained how NOT to play with the steering tiller and also how
NOT to move the throttles (or landing gear lever) with his right hand but instead use his left hand ... this
is tuft stuff. Not a big deal most likely just a couple of extra maneuvers from the right seat.
6. Using two captains on a Part 91 flight or a flight when no passengers or cargo are carried is not a
problem and is perfectly legal [61.55( d)( 1)] .
Part 121 SIC: (61 .23. 61 .156, 61 .159, 61 .160, 61 .161, 121 .436)
1. An ATP certificate or an ''ATP certificate with Restricted Privileges'' (aka R-ATP Page 189), the
appropriate aircraft type rating, and a 2"d Class medical (for a 2 pilot operation under age 60). An SIC
type rating obtained under §61.55 does not satisfy this reguirement. (121 .436)
2. A Part 121 SIC is required to have made at least 3 takeoffs and landings in that specific type of
aircraft within the preceding 90 days. (121 .439)
3. ''ATP with Restricted Privileges'' (Page 189) 21 years of age, commercial/instrument, complete
the ''ATP Certification Training Program," 10 hours of training in a flight simulator that represents a
multiengine turbine airplane with a MTOW of 40.000 pounds or greater, and for military pilots 750
hours TT, OR for a graduate of an aviation degree program 1,000 hours, OR with only an aviation
associates degree 1,250 hours, OR with no aviation degree 1,500 hours. (61 .160)
Second In Command REQUIRED: (61 .31 , 91 .531 , 135.99, 135.101 . 135.105, 135.109)
1. For most Large Aircraft (over 12,500 lbs) and most jets [most aircraft that require a type rating].
2. No certificate holder may operate an aircraft without a second in command if that aircraft has a
passenger seating configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of TEN seats or more.
3. When carrying passengers under IFR in any aircraft unless there is an approved Autopilot system
(3 axis), the use of the autopilot is authorized by the company's Operations Specifications, and the
pilot has been company trained and checked to use it.
(Chap 7 Commercial Operations)
Training, Testing and Checking
INITIAL
Not presently serving as PIC/SIC on any Company aircraft.
Trainin :
TRANSITION
A Cessna 172 pilot moving to a Cessna 402 receives transition training for the 402.
Trainin :
UPGRADE
SIC to PIC in the same airplane B-747 SIC to B-747 PIC.
Trainin :
DIFFERENCES Must be ground and flight training.
Trainin : Example B-737-200 to B-737-400
RECURRENT Required to remain adequately trained. Ground & Flight.
Trainin : Happens every§. and/or 12 months.
A Second In Command •
or PIC must have this
135.293 COMPETENCY CHECK:
-
check every 12 months in each aircraft type.
--
(sometimes called Equipment check or Copilot • An ILS (all engine); at least one Non-Precision
check)(121.441 & Appendix F to Part 121) Approach; holding; stalls; steep turns & single
en ine work.
• A f.ilot !n .Qommand must have this check every
6 months.
135.297 INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY • May be substituted for 135.293 .
CH ECK: (PIC check or Instrument check) .. Rotate S.E. & M.E. or types of M.E. (PIC)
• One ILS to a missed approach and one SE ILS to a
(121.441 & Appendix F to Part 121)
landing; two Non-Precision Approaches; holding;
stalls; stee turns & sin le en ine work.
• A f.ilot !n .Qommand must have this check every
135.299 LINE CHECK: (Route check) 12 months.
(121.440) • Usually combined with .293 or .297
• One Fli ht; one Route; one Air ort.
~ A Pilot In Command usually gets ALL 3 checks every 6 months (not required but prudent).
»- One GRACE MONTH before or after the due month counts as month due . (135.301, 135.323, 121 .401)
• Pilot being checked is PIC (Unless examiner acts in that
capacity for a portion of the flight). (61.4 7)
FLIGHT CHECKS: (61.47, 135.293(d), 135.301 ) • Emergency procedures, smoothness, judgment,
successful outcome of the maneuver NEVER in
doubt.
•······························· ~·································· ·
: *IMHO*
•
: The Buffalo crash that prompted the new 121 rules for SI Cs
•
: had nothing to do with the lack of an ATP for the SIC (who had
: well over 1,500 hrs) but maybe a lot to do with the FAA's stall
•
.................. : recovery technique that they drummed into everyone's head for
•
: decades. Until recently, the FAA preached powering out of the
: If a flight check is : "approach to stall" without any loss of altitude (less than 100 ft).
: In other words PULL the control wheel! Idiotic. A far more
: failed under Part 135, •
: logical recovery is to unload the wing immediately (PUSH the
: the failure of that ; wheel) while adding T.O. power and accept a " minimal loss of
: check has no effect on
t altitude." I battled with the FAA for many years over this, but it
: took this crash to get them to finally change that ridicu lous
: a pilot's qualifications : standard and agree with me. THANK YOU!
: Of course we all know the REAL cause of this accident was
: to fly under Part 121 •
: that neither one of those Bozos was minding the store (i.e.,
: (or vice versa). : AIRSPEED!) during a night instrument approach on autopilot
: If a pilot fails a : after leveling off and dropping the gear and flaps. The captain's
: response to the stick shaker/pusher was to quite aggressively
: checkride the pilot •
: PULL back on the wheel with catastrophic results. Why?
• may not be used ''!!1 i *Just My Humble Opinion*
•• operations under
~,--_,..,,.___.__..~,..,._-------------.__..~----~
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• THIS PART until ... "
•
: It's easy to make a small fortune with a Part 135
[135.301(b), 121 .441(c)] ~ company as long as you start with a very large fortune.
•

Chap 7 Commercial Operations
PASSENGERS During CARGO ONLY Operations

ONLY IF: (135.85, 121.583)
1. A company EMPLOYEE (cargo handler, pilot trainee, secretary, mechanic).
2. A person necessary for the handling of animals. • ••••••••••••••••,
3. A person necessary for the handling of Hazardous Materials. • The FAA could ask to see
4. A U.S. Government security or honor guard accompanying a shipment. : s~me proof of emplo,yment
• 1or a company emp oyee
5. A military courier in operations under a military contract. • who is riding along.
6. An FAA person doing enroute inspections.
7. A person, ''AUTHORIZED BY THE ADMINISTRATOR'' [the FAA], who is performing a duty
connected with a cargo operation of the company.
CARGO Weight & Balance Load Manifest:

(135.63, 135.87, 135.185, 91.525, 91.1027, 121.693, 121.695, Ops Manual)
1. Must be secured in an approved rack, bin or compartment and/or by a safety belt or other tie-down
having enough strength to eliminate the possibility of shifting.
2. During PASSENGER/CARGO operations cargo must not obstruct access to any required emergency
or regular exit, the aisle between the crew and the passengers, view of the "seat belt" sign, and must
not be carried directly above seated occupants.
3. During CARGO ONLY OPERATIONS at least one emergency OR one regular exit must be
available. (135.87)
4. A Load Manifest (W&B) is reguired for every leg with cargo or passengers on board (multi-engine
aircraft only).
5. One copy of the W&B must be left at the departure point and one copy returned to Operations
where it must be kept for 30 days (Part 135 or subpart K of Part 91) or 90 days (Part 121 ).
6. All multi-engine aircraft must be reweighed every 36 calendar months unless the aircraft is operated
under a weight and balance system approved in the operations specifications of the certificate holder
(typically 48 months). (135.185)
Douglas DC-3 Load Manifest

Date '[)~25 , 20Xt
N# 123t;IJ Allowable TIO Gross Weight ......... 26,900
Captain 11~t;1.t
Allowable Lndg Gross Weight ....... 26,900
First Officer C1&U-t.A~ ?Jtrl1t
From .trl'A To g_
Max Actual Moment/
Arm
Wei(; ht Wei~ ht 10,000
Basic Includes full oil, FUEL (Mom/10,000)
35 gals spare oi l (Comp H), 11205 436.2
Weight 12 blankets, 2 pillows. Forward 240.5 Rear 276.0
Comp A 70.0 600 400 2.i Gal Wt Mom Wt Mom
CompB 115.0 800 50 300 7.2 300 8.3
100 600 14.4 600 16.6
CompC 154.0 1000
150 900 21.6 900 24.8
Compo 226.5 3000 1000 22.6 200 1200 28.9 1200 33.1
Comp E 323.0 3000 1000 32.3 250 1500 36.1 1500 41.4
CompF 411.5 2400 1000 41.I 300 1800 43.3 1800 49.7
CompG 493.1 1300 350 2100 50.5 2100 58.0
CompH 561.0 350 400 2400 57.7 2400 66.2
Fuel FWD 240.5 xxxx 2400 57.7
Fuel REAR 276.0 xxxx 2400 66.2
TIO Cond 26405 659 CG 249.6
Fuel Burn 240.5 -FWD' -2100 -50.5 Forward CG limit ................ 239.6
Fuel Burn 276.0 -REAR -2400 -66.2 Aft CG limit ......................... 263.1
Lndg Cond 21905 542 CG 247.6

LO AD MANIFEST
---------------------------------------------------
Weight & Balance RECORD KEEPING:
(91 .1027, 121 .693 thru 121 .697, 135.63, 135.185, Ops Manual)
1. A Load Manifest (W&B) is required for EVERY LEG with CARGO or PASSENGERS on board.
2. A copy of the W&B should be left at the departure point and one copy returned to Operations where
it must be kept for 30 days [135.63(d), 91.1027] or 90 days [121.695(b )].
JUSTIFIABLE AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT meansanyeguipmentnecessaryforthe

operation of the aircraft. It does NOT include equipment or ballast specifically installed, permanently or
otherwise, for the purpose of altering the empty weight of an aircraft to meet the maximum payload
capacity. (110.2)
MAXIMUM PAYLOAD CAPACITY means: (110.2)

(1) For an aircraft for which a maximum zero fuel weight is prescribed in FAA technical specifications,
the maximum zero fuel weight, less empty weight, less all justifiable aircraft equipment, and less
the operating load (consisting of minimum flightcrew, foods and beverages, and supplies and
equipment related to foods and beverages, but not including disposable fuel or oil).
(2) For all other aircraft, the maximum certificated takeoff weight of an aircraft, less the empty weight,
less all JUSTIFIABLE AIRCRAFT EQUIPMENT, and less the operating load (consisting of minimum
fuel load, oil, and flightcrew). The allowance for the weight of the crew, oil, and fuel is as follows:
(i) CREW - for each crewmember required by the Federal Aviation Regulations -
(A) For male flight crewmembers 180 pounds.
(B) For female flight crewmembers 140 pounds.
(C) For male flight attendants 180 pounds.
(D) For female flight attendants 130 pounds.
(E) For flight attendants not identified by gender 140 pounds.
(ii) OIL - 350 pounds or the oil capacity as specified on the Type Certificate Data Sheet.
(iii) FUEL the minimum weight of fuel required by the applicable Federal Aviation Regulations for
a flight between domestic points 174 nautical miles apart under VFR weather conditions that does
not involve extended overwater operations. •······················
That portion of the MAXIMUM
~
• PAYLOAD CAPACITY definition
STANDARD AVERAGE PASSENGER WEIGHTS: (Ac 120-27E) •• referring to "350 pounds of OIL"
• and "FUEL to fly 174 NM" is only
ADULT passengers (includes 20 pounds carry-on baggage) • applicable for aircraft that do NOT
Summer (May 1 through October 31 ): •• have a maximum "ZERO FUEL
Adult Passenger (60o/o/40°/o male/female mix) .... 190 pounds • WEIGHT" specified for the aircraft
•• in the aircraft's Type Certificate
Male ............................................................ 200 pounds
Data Sheet or the approved
Female ........................................................ 179 pounds Aircraft Flight Manual.
Child .............................................................. 82 pounds
Winter (November 1 through April 30 ):
Adult Passenger (60%/40°/o male/female mix) .... 195 pounds
Male ............................................................ 205 pounds
Female .... ................... ................................ . 184 pounds
Child (2 to less than 13 yrs old) .................... 87 pounds
The table above is for certificate holders authorized to use an approved carry-on
baggage program with a specified 2-bag limit as described or referenced in
paragraph A011 of their operations specifications.
CARGO FLOOR LOADING LIMITS: (FAA-H-aoa3-1A)

1. Cargo floor load limit based on the weight of the cargo and the area the
weight is distributed over.
2. To determine the max weight of a loaded cargo pallet for floor load limit -
divide its total weight, including the weight of the empty pallet and tie-down straps, ~its area in
square feet. The load per square foot must be equal to or less than the placarded floor load limit.
3. A 4-foot by 4-foot pallet (16 square feet) that weighs 2,000 pounds (including the pallet and straps),
will have a floor loading of 125 pounds per square foot.

Weight I Balance and Center of Gravity (FAA-H-sos3-1A, Ac 120-21E)

Empty Weight Total weight of aircraft INCLUDING all fixed ballast, unusable fuel, undrainable
oil, total quantity of engine coolant, and total quantity of hydraulic fluid.
EXCLUDING crew, payload, usable fuel and drainable oil.
§.asic Operating Total weight of aircraft Including crew, ready for flight, but without payload or
Weight (BOW) fuel (sometimes EXCLUDES the crew) Includes all fixed ballast, unusable fuel, normal
operating level of oil and total quantity of hydraulic fluid. Transport aircraft only.
Fuel Load Usable fuel only, not the fuel in the lines or that remains trapped in the sumps.
Maximum 1. The wings flex up & down with turbulence applying severe bending loads at the
Allowable wing roots. These loads increase dramatically as weight in the fuselage increases.
ZFW sets a maximum allowable weight that can be carried in the fuselage in
Zero Fuel Weight order to eliminate the possibility of destructive wing-bending stress.
• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• The zero fuel weight figure • 2. The maximum permissible weight of an aircraft with no disposable fuel or oil.
may be found in either the 3. Zero fuel weight for a particular flight is the ~asic Qperating Weight+ payload.
aircraft Type Certificate
4. Maximum weight that can be concentrated !n. the fuselage (pilots + payload).
Data Sheet, or approved
5. Based on the wings ability to tolerate bending stresses ("wing bending limit").
. Aircraft Flight Manual.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: 6. All weight over and above MZFW must be in the form of FUEL in the wings
Useful Load Weight of the pilots, passengers, baggage, usable fuel and drainable oil. The empty
weight subtracted from the max allowable takeoff weight. General aviation aircraft.
Datum An imaginary line from which all measurements of ''arm'' are taken. Location of the
datum is established by the manufacturer. The datum is ''station'' zero.
Station A location in an aircraft identified by a number designating its distance in inches
from the datum. The datum is station zero. The station and arm are usually identical.
An object located at station +103 would therefore have an arm of +103 inches.
Arm (moment arm) Distance in inches from the reference datum line to the center of gravity of an item,
(+) if measured aft of the datum or(-) if measured forward of the datum.
Moment Product of the weight of an item multiplied by its arm expressed in pound-inches
Moment Index A moment divided by a constant such as 100, 1,000, or 10,000. Used to simplify the
W&B computations for larger aircraft (heavy weights x long arms= huge numbers).
Center of Gravity The point about which an aircraft would balance if it were possible to suspend it at that
point, expressed in inches from datum. It is the theoretical "mass center" of the aircraft.
Weight x Arm = Moment +++ Total Moment + Total Weight = CG
Center of Gravity The forward and aft locations beyond which the CG must not be located during takeoff,
Limits flight or landing. CG Range is the distance between the forward and aft limits.
Chord of an An imaginary line drawn through an airfoil from

ho rd
airfoil its leading edge to its trailing edge.
Mean Average distance from the leading edge to the trailing edge
.Aerodynamic of the wing. An imaginary airfoil that has the same
aerodynamic characteristics as the actual airfoil. CG is often
Qhord (MAC) ------------- ---- --~~,«:__ ,
expressed as a percentage of MAC for larger aircraft. Normally, t
an aircraft will yield acceptable flight characteristics if the CG
is located somewhere near 25°/o of the average chord which
is one-fourth of the distance back from the ,beading E_dge of ------------ ----__._.~Ac--
the ,Mean 8,erodynamic ~hord (average wing section).
LEMAC I TEMAC _beading ~dge (or !railing ~dge) of the Mean .Aerodynamic Qhord
Maximum -TakeOff Max allowable weight for takeoff. Some aircraft are approved for a greater ,Maximum
- B.amp Weight (MRW) to allow for fuel burn during taxi. Takeoff weight may be limited
Weight (MTOW)
to a lesser weight due to runway length, density altitude, or other variables .
Max Landing G h
.
-······························································································
h · · 1 :somewhat interchangeably with "Regulated Landing Weight" - Max landing ,.
uess W at t IS IS. :weight dependent on field conditions (altitude, temp, pressure, wind and slope)
Weight (MLW) •

PILOT RECORD KEEPING - WEIGHT & BALANCE - LOAD MANIFEST:

(91 .1027, 121 .693 thru 121 .697, 135.63, 135.185, Ops Manual)
The certificate holder shall keep and shall make available for inspection by the Administrator the following:
1. The certificate holder's Operating Certificate.
2. Operations Specifications.
3. Current list of aircraft used.
4. Individual RECORD OF EACH PILOT including:
a. Full name of pilot, including copies of pilot certificate and medical (or information thereof).
b. The pilot's aeronautical experience in sufficient detail to determine the pilot's qualifications to
pilot aircraft in operations under this part.
c. The pilot's current duties and the date of the pilot's assignment to those duties.
d. Date and result of each initial and recurrent competency tests and proficiency and route
checks required and the type of aircraft flown during that test (FAA Form 8410-3).
e. The pilot's flight time in sufficient detail to determine compliance with flight time limitations.
f. The pilot's check pilot authorization, if any.
g. Any action taken concerning the pilot's release from employment for physical or professional
disqualification.
h. The date of completion of each phase of training.
i. The pilot's records must be kept for at least 12 months.
. com_QJ1·1ance w1'th 135 • 273
5 • Record foreach fl"1g ht atten d an t t 0 d et ermine •
6. For MULTl-engine aircraft, the certificate holder is responsible for preparation and accuracy of a LOAD
MANIFEST (W&B) in duplicate. The manifest must be prepared for EACH takeoff and must include:
a. Number of passengers.
b. Total weight of the loaded aircraft.
c.
d.
Maximum allowable takeoff weight for that flight.
.Qenter of Qravity limits.
.-: 135.63
....... ·~
~t
e. .Qenter of Qravity of the loaded aircraft. • ...... .&. .......
f. Registration number of the aircraft.

g. Origin and destination.
h. Names of crew members and their crew position assignments.
7. The PIC shall CARRY a COPY of the completed LOAD MANIFEST in the aircraft to its destination. The
certificate holder shall keep copies of the completed load manifests for at least 30 days.
Lengel's Load Manifest

Date: 12-25-20XX
Tail Number: 123GO
PIC: Richie Flyanything Lengel
SIC: Beulah May Hatfield
Origin: LAX
Destination: JFK
Total PAX: 30
Max allowable T.O. wt: 26,900
Total T.O. wt: Less than that!
Forward CG Limit: 239.6
Aft CG Limit: 263.1
T.O. CG : Between those 2 numbers!
CO MAT company MATerial. Non-revenue inter-company material (i.e., correspondence, payroll checks,
aircraft parts for a company aircraft, etc.). COMAT must be weighed and included on the load manifest.

EFFECTS of FORWARD CG CFAA·H-8083·1, 8083-3, 8083-25)
1. Increased longitudinal stability As angle of attack is increased, the airplane

tends to reduce that angle (higher stick forces).
2. Lower cruise speed Increased drag, greater angle of attack required to
maintain altitude. More elevator down force to drag around.
3. Higher stall speed Stalling angle of attack reached at a higher speed due to
increased wing loading.
4. Greater elevator back pressure reguired More airflow will be required over
the elevator in order to raise the aircraft's pitch attitude therefore you'll need
more speed for takeoff, a longer takeoff roll, higher approach speeds, and more
elevator back pressure will be needed for the landing flare. It is possible, that
with the power off, full up elevator will not be sufficient to keep the nose pitched
up high enough for a safe landing.
5. Good stall/spin recovery.
1. Decreased longitudinal stability As angle of attack is increased it tends to

result in additional increased angle of attack (very light stick forces). The aircraft
will tend to pitch up toward stall during takeoff, and may require full-down
elevator at slow speeds to counteract the nose-up tendency. May attempt to
pitch-up toward a stall on landing.
2. Higher cruise speed Reduced drag, as a smaller angle of attack is required
to maintain altitude. Less elevator down force to drag around.
3. Lower stall speed Less wing loading.
4. Poor stall/spin recovery.
REPORTING MECHANICAL IRREGULARITIES: (135.65, 121 .101)

The certificate holder shall provide an aircraft maintenance log to be carried on board each aircraft for
recording or deferring mechanical irregularities and their correction.
···············································~
• The NTSB has ruled that a ''MECHANICAL IRREGULARITY''
•• is ''any deviation from the normal functioning of an aircraft Snap-an,,
Z component no matter how slight or momentary.''
'
AIRWORTHINESS CHECK: (135.71 , 121 .109)
The Pilot In Command may not begin a flight unless the pilot determines that the airworthiness
inspections required have been made.

CARGO COMPARTMENT Classification: (25.857)

(a) Class A: A Class A cargo or baggage compartment is one in which -
(1) The presence of a fire would be easily discovered by a crewmember while at his station; and
(2) Each part of the compartment is easily accessible in
flight.
(b) Class B: A Class B cargo or baggage compartment is one in
which-
(1) There is sufficient access in flight to enable a
crewmember to effectively reach any part of the I
compartment with the contents of
a hand fire extinguisher;
(2) When the access provisions
are being used, no hazardous
quantity of smoke, flames, or
extinguishing agent, will
enter any compartment
occupied by the crew or
passengers;
(3) There is a separate approved
smoke detector or fire
detector system to give
warning at the pilot or flight
engineer station.
(c) Class C: A Class C cargo or baggage compartment is one not
meeting the requirements for either a Class A or B compartment but
in which - • -
( 1) There is a separate approved smoke detector or fire
detector system to give warning at the pilot or flight
engineer station;
(2) There is an approved built-in fire extinguishing or suppression system controllable from the
cockpit.
(3) There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke, flames, or extinguishing agent, from
any compartment occupied by the crew or passengers;
(4) There are means to control ventilation and drafts within the compartment so that the
extinguishing agent used can control any fire that may start within the compartment.
(d) Class D: [Reserved] NOTE: This class was eliminated after the 1996 ValueJet crash in
Florida. It was a compartment not accessible during flight that was designed to choke out
fires due to lack of oxygen rather than detect or extinguish. This design does not work very
well when the cargo brings along its own oxygen.
(e) Class E: A Class E cargo compartment is one on AIRPLANES USED ONLY FOR the
CARRIAGE of CARGO and in which -
( 1) [Reserved];
(2) There is a separate approved smoke or fire detector system to give
warning at the pilot or flight engineer station;
(3) There are means to shut off the ventilating airflow to, or within, the
compartment, and the controls for these means are accessible to
the flight crew in the crew compartment;
(4) There are means to exclude hazardous quantities of smoke,
flames, or noxious gases, from the flight crew compartment; and
(5) The required crew emergency exits are accessible under any
cargo loading condition.

[Chap 7 - Commercial Operations)
''STERILE COCKPIT'' - FLIGHT CREWMEMBER DUTIES: (1 35.100 & 121.542)

During a ''critical phase of flight," whi ch includes taxi, takeoff and landing, and all other operations below
10,000 feet, except during cruise flight below 10,000 feet no pilot will engage in any activity, which could
distract from the pilot's duties -
1. No eating of meals.
2. No nonessential conversations (including announcements pointing out sights of interest, or
discussions concerning the flight attendant's impressive assets).
3. No reading of publications not related to the safe operation of the flight.
·········~····················•• ,
: •It's also not a great idea to accidentally get
• "distracted during a heated discussion over airline
: policy" (yeah right) for over an hour and fly 150
• miles past your destination before a flight attendant
_.---.._ 0.1,...--..J/
• finally comes forward and asks ... where the hell
% y'all goin'?! A Northwest Airlines crew managed to
: do this in 2010 allegedly with the help of a laptop.
• • 121 .542(d) - During fill flight time ... no flight
: crewmember may use ... a "personal wireless
• communications device" or laptop computer while at
•• a flight crewmember duty station unless the
• purpose is directly related to operation of the
•• aircraft, or for emergency, safety-related, etc.
\
MANIPULATION OF CONTROLS: (135.11 5, 121 .545)

No PIC may allow any person to manipulate the flight controls during a flight conducted
under Part 121 /135 unless that person is:
1. A pilot employed by the certificate holder and gualified in the aircraft; or
2. An authorized representative of the FAA who has the permission of the PIC, is
gualified in the aircraft, and is checking flight operations.
ADMISSION TO FLIGHT DECK: (121 .547)

No person may admit any person to the flight deck of an aircraft unless the person being admitted is -
1. A crewmember; --
2. A FAA inspector or NTSB representative performing official duties (no free
rides to grandma's house);
3. An employee of the U.S. Government, a certificate holder, or an
aeronautical enterprise whose duties are necessary or advantageous for
safe operations with the PIC's permission.
4. Any person with the permission of the PIC and authorized by management
andthe FAA.
A seat must be available for use in the passenger compartment for persons admitted
to the flight deck EXCEPT for an FAA inspector or NTSB representative; a controller authorized by the FAA
to observe; a certified airman employed by the certificate holder (or otherwise authorized); an employee whose
duty is directly related to flight operations, with written authorization; a factory technical representative.
Lengel's Load Manifest

Pilot In Command/Second In Command - Date: 12-25-20XX
Designation Required: (135.109, 121 .385) Tail Number: 123GO
1. The certificate holder shall designate a:
a. Pilot In Command for each flight; and SIC: Beulah Ma Hatfield
b. Second In Command for each flight requiring two
pilots. Destination: JFK
2. The Pilot In Command , as designated, shall remain the PIC at Total PAX: 30
all times during that flight. Max allowable T.O. wt: 26,900
Total T.O. wt: Less than that!
Forward CG Limit: 239.6
Aft CG Limit: 263.1
T.O. CG: Between those 2 numbers!

IFR FUEL SUPPLY (Domestic): (91.151 , 91 .167, 135.223, 121 .639 thru 121 .647)
1. Fly to the destination shoot an approach~o on to the (most distant) alternate and
fly after that for 45 minutes at normal cruise.
2. Helicopters Fly to the destination shoot an approach go on to the
alternate and fly after that for 30 minutes at normal cruise.
VFR FUEL SUPPLY (Domestic): (91.151, 135.209, 121 .639 thru

121 .647)
1. DAY To the destination+ 30 minutes.
2. NIGHT To the destination + 45 minutes
3. Rotorcraft To the destination + 20 minutes.
FLAG Operations - NONTURBINE and

TURBOPROP: (121 .641 )
1. Fly to and land at the airport to which it is dispatched;
2. Thereafter, fly to and land at the most distant alternate; and
3. Thereafter, fly for 30 minutes plus 15°/o of the total time required to fly to
the destination and most distant alternate or 90 minutes at normal cruise whichever is less.
4. ALSO ... No person may dispatch a nonturbine or turbo-propeller airplane to an airport when an
alternate is not specified, unless it has enough fuel to fly to that airport and thereafter to~ for
THREE HOURS at normal cruising fuel consumption.
FLAG or SUPPLEMENTAL JET Operations

OUTSIDE the U.S.: (121 .645)
1. Fly to and land at the airport to which it is released; Shell
2. After that. To fly for a period of 10°/o of the total time required to fly from the airport of departure to,
and land at, the airport to which it was released;
3. After that, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport specified in the flight release, if an
alternate is required: and
4. After that, to fly for 30 minutes at holding speed at 1,500 feet above the alternate airport (or
destination airport if no alternate is required) under standard temperature conditions.
FLAG or SUPPLEMENTAL Operation when

NO ALTERNATE is SPECIFIED (JET): [121.645(c)l TEXACO
When an alternate is not specified under 121.621 (a)(2) or 121.623(b ), a jet aircraft must have enough fuel,
considering wind and other weather conditions expected, to fly to the destination airport and thereafter to
~for at least 2 hours at normal cruising fuel consumption (3 hours for turboprop).
~Observation•
I've noticed the majority
of ai rplanes that crash
due to fuel starvation do
The ONLY time so within two miles of
their desti nation.
you can have too I wonder what thei r first
two words are when
much fuel on the engines quit.
_______,[7
...__
board is when
the aircraft is on ''TANGO''
Air Taxi or other commercial operators not having
FIRE! FAA authorized call signs should prefix their normal
(IMHO) identification with the phonetic word ''Tango.''
EXAMPLE:
Tango Aztec Two Four Six Four Alpha. (AIM 4-2-4)

OHMIGOD
WE'RE GONNA
DIE!!
. ...
Don't worry about a thing Sonny.

Every now and then you run a
little short on gas.
I'll bet ya 5 bucks I can make the runway.
WATCH THIS!
.• ·········································································~············
: With ample runway available ... it's a virtual certainty an airplane will fly a little over gross.
...
: However ... without enough gas onboard ... it will most definitely not reach its destination.
Z -+ Someday that forecast for a tailwind will turn into a headwind .
: -+ Someday ATC will assign a ridiculously low altitude 150 miles from your destination.
: -+ Someday that forecast for great weather at your destination will turn sour when you get
: there forcing a diversion to your alternate with even worse weather .
•
•: -+ Someday during a late night approach in miserable weather, the plane in front of you will
• crash and they'll close the airport leaving you with few options.
% -+ Someday the gear will fail to lock down on approach ... wouldn't you love to have
•: abundant time to troubleshoot properly?
: -+ All of the above have been experienced by me personally during my tenure as a freight dog.
: If you find yourself thinking about gas at any time during a flight ... you didn't buy
•• enough! AND .. . if you 're even slightly worried about gas, you'll find yourself making
foolish ... possibly even stupid decisions. Don't put yourself in that position!
.- . . . . .... ......... ._
: You can never have too
: much fuel, too much altitude,
• •
: or too many engines.
: (i.e., unless you're on fire)

(91 .1039, 121 .101 , 121.119, 121.613, 121 .619, 121 .

AC 00-45G, FAA Order 8900.1)
1. No person may takeoff an aircraft under IFR or over the top operation unless the latest weather
reports OR forecasts, or any combination of them, indicate that weather conditions fil the ,5stimated
!ime of 8,rrival at the next airport of intended landing [or ETA at the alternate] will be at or above
authorized IFR landing minimums [or at or above required alternate minimums]. (135.219, 121 .613)
2. Except to the extent permitted by 135.225(b) ["Eligible On-Demand Operation" See #9* below], NO
PILOT MAY BEGIN an INSTRUMENT APPROACH procedure to an airport UNLESS that airport has
an approved WEATHER REPORTING facility and the latest weather report issued by that weather
reporting facility indicates that weather conditions are at or above the authorized IFR landing minimums
for that airport. (135.4, 135.225)
3. No pilot may operate /FR outside of controlled airspace OR at any airport that does not have an
approved standard instrument approach procedure. (135.215)
4. " ... For operations under VFR, the pilot in command may ... use weather information based on that
pilot's own observations ... " as long as ''reported weather'' is not specifically reguired for a
particular operation ~ OpSpec. OpSpec C077 issued for turbojet operations reguires an approved
source of ''reported weather." (135.213)
5. OpSpec C064 prohibits IFR terminal operations in uncontrolled airspace (Class G) without an approved
source of weather data.
6. Sooooo ... the airport MUST have WEATHER REPORTING in order to conduct an instrument approach
or operate under IFR in the Class G of the terminal area unless your company has special procedures
or special permission to use specific airports that do not have weather reporting (kind of rare).
7. A Part 135 pilot can still get to an airport WITHOUTweather reporting in a non-turbojet aircraft by
filing to an airport that does have weather reporting located near the desired airport, then telling the
approach controller "we have a slight change of plans and would like to proceed to [desired airport] at
.Minimum Y,ectoring 8,ltitude, if we pick it up visually we will CANCEL and land there, if not, we will land
at [originally filed destination]." For turbojet operations OpSpec C077 reguires ''reported weather'' at
the ultimate destination for VFR or IFR operations.
8. Another method of getting to an airport WITHOUTweather reporting is contained in FAA Order
8900.1 The NTSB has ruled that a Part 135 operator may file a flight plan and fly IFR to a ''RADIO
FIX'' [e.g. VOR or NOB (LOM), or VOR/DME fix] where VFR conditions exist (based on the Area
Forecast), and then continue under VFR to a destination (where weather reports are not available)
when an Area Forecast shows prevailing weather to be VFR. This method would reguire an
alternate because an IFR approach is essentially not available. In the remarks section of the flight
plan it might be advisable to insert a note stating your intentions to land at [desired airport] if VFR
conditions exist at the time of arrival. Once again ... for turbojet operations OpSpec C077 reguires
''REPORTED weather'' at the ultimate destination.
9. *''ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND OPERATIONS'' - WEATHER REPORTING & LANDING LIMITATIONS-
[See page 286 for definition of ''Eligible On-Demand Operation'' (135.4 )]
No pilot may begin an instrument approach to an airport unless [135.225(b )] -
a. Either that airport or the alternate airport has approved weather reporting; and
b. The latest weather includes a current local altimeter setting for the airport. If no local altimeter
setting is available at the destination airport, the pilot may use the current altimeter setting
provided by the facility designated on the approach chart.
c. For flight planning purposes,!! the destination airport does NOT have approved weather
reporting, the pilot must designate as an alternate an airport that DOES have approved weather
reportin~.
NOTE: Any of the above methods of getting to an airport without weather reporting should be addressed in the
company Operations Manual and subsequently accepted by the company's frincipal Qperations Inspector.

Airport (cont)
10. A pilot must use ALL available reports OR forecasts, or any combination. If one or the other is not
available, and the other available report or forecast is favorable, the pilot can still depart due to the use
of the word "OR" in the rule.
11. If the destination airport has an AWOS, ASOS, ATIS or METAR that does not include a forecast (in
other words no TAF) then the ''AREA FORECAST'' (FA) which is the forecast of general weather
conditions over an area the size of several states issued 3 times a day must be used.
The critical time period is the ,5stimated !ime of Arrival. Even though a Terminal Forecast (TAF) may
have more valuable information, there is no legal requirement that one be available.
12. The WORST weather reported in the body or REMARKS in any of the reports or forecasts !.§.
CONTROLLING. Any ''CHANCE OF," ''OCCASIONAL," ''INTERMITTENT," ''TEMPO'' or
''POSSIBILITY OF'' weather falling below landing minimums means you cannot "takeoff an aircraft
under IFR." The remarks portion of a forecast is as operationally significant as the main body of the
forecast. It is the FAA policy that the worst weather condition in the main body or remarks portion of a
terminal forecast, as well as any weather report used, is the controlling factor when selecting a
destination or alternate airport.
13. Another FAA "policy" is to allow an operator to depart when current reported weather (for the
destination) is below minimums, but the forecast (TAF or FA) is to improve to at or above minimums
fil the ETA. This method is usually restricted to long-range operations. Launching on the basis of an
improving forecast for a short, let's say 45-minute flight may not be considered prudent. If an incident
should occur, there's always the specter of a 91.13 careless and reckless violation. FAA policy calls for
thoughtful decision making when ignoring a METAR in favor of a TAF.
14. Soooo ... for a short hop, the current reported weather is much more a factor. For long-range
operations, the forecast becomes much more important. Even though the pilot must consider the
"worst of' any reports or forecasts, the weather forecasted at the ,5stimated !ime of Arrival is the most
significant. Always a judgment call when it comes time to split hairs.
15. In a situation where the destination airport does not supply a Terminal Forecast (TAF), and the Area
Forecast (FA) shows a "chance of' weather below minimums a pilot could file to another airport -
near the desired destination with a Terminal Forecast (TAF) above minimums, then divert to the
desired airport if the weather at the actual time of arrival is suitable. The pilot must have a method of
notifying the company of the new destination so as to satisfy Part 135 flight locating requirements.
16. 121.619 states that a second alternate must be listed in the dispatch release if both the destination and
the first alternate airports are forecasting ''MARGINAL'' weather. "Marginal" means ''close to the
lower limit of gualification or acceptability." Therefore, when weather at the destination and the first
alternate are close to the lower limits of acceptability, an additional alternate must be designated. The
definition of ''marginal'' and the conditions under which a second alternate airport must be designated
must be clearly stated in the Part 121 operator's GOM. (FAA Order 8900.1)
PART 135/121 DO YOU NEED an ALTERNATE ??

- In Order to NOT NEED an ALTERNATE -
The DESTINATION WEATHER MUST BE AT LEAST:
91 .169, 135.223, 121 .619, 121 .621 , 121 .625, AIM 1-1-18 ., AIM 1-2-3d.
135.223.& 121.621 (Part 135 & FLAG Operations)
135.223 You will ALWAYS need an alternate unless ...

(b) Paragraph (a)(2) of this section does not apply if Part 97 of this chapter prescribes a standard
instrument approach procedure for the first airport of intended landing and, for at least loNE HOURI
lbefore and afte~ the ,5stimated !ime of 8,rrival, the appropriate weather reports or forecasts, or
any combination of them, indicate that -
(1) The CE/LIN will be at least .---11-,S-O_O_f-ee_t_A_B_O_V-----.Elthe !LOWEST CIRCLING approach!
MDA; or
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Use the AGL height in the parentheses.
CIRCLING
1240-1 Yi 1300-2
•Ceiling is reported in hundreds of feet AGL. 492 (500-1 Y2 552 (600-2
(2) l!!I a circling instrument approach is not authorized for the airport, the ceiling will be at
least 1,500 feet above the LOWEST published minimum orl2,ooo feet ABOVEI the
AIRPORT ELEVATION, whichever is HIGHER; and
(3) VISIBILIT for that airport is forecast to be at least THREE MILES, or TWO MILES MORE
THAN the LOWEST applicable visibility minimums, whichever is the GREATER, for the
instrument approach procedure to be used at the destination airport.
You must also check the NOTES in the upper left corner of the CHARLOm, NORTH CAROLINA
approach chart to see if there are any pertinent notes.
LOC l ~ DQG APP CRS Rwy ldg 10000
Example Circling Not Authorized at night. 0 TDZE 707
111
-- ·
7 003 Apt Elev 748
~rQulttlr'llNUe •PP~~h authorized with runway 36R.
V •: Circling NA at night. ~
( 1) 1 hour BEFORE & 1 hour AFTER Estimated Time of 1:>ME~I" ~~ ~~RED
Arrival;
(2) CEILING (required to NOT need an ALTERNATE) at least 2000 ft above airport elevation;
(3) VISIBILITY (required to NOT need an ALTERNATE) at least 3 miles.
121.623 (SUPPLEMENTAL Operations)

• REGARDLESS of the WEATHER SUPPLEMENTAL Operations must list at least one destination
alternate airport in the flight release unless the flight has enough fuel, considering wind and traffic
delays, to fly to the destination airport and fly thereafter for at least 2 hours at normal cruising fuel
consumption.
......................... ·- :
%
·····································~···
The worst weather condition in any of the reports or
forecasts is controlling. Any ''CHANCE OF,"
: FLAG and SUPPLEMENTAL operations
• must list a destination alternate on the • ''occasional," ''intermittent," ''tempo" or ''possibility'' of
•• flight release unless the flight has : weather falling below these minimums means -
• enough fuel , considering wind and traffic : You WILL need an ALTERNATE. This must also be
•• delays, to fly to the destination airport
• considered when listing an airport as an alternate airport.
: and fly thereafter for at least 2 hours at
• normal cruising fuel consumption .
•
• .-··············································
• Alternate Airport Considerations
•• GPS users (without WAAS) may flight plan to use GPS-based approaches at
···························~
! FLAG Operations require an alternate to be : either their destination or alternate, but not at both locations.
• filed for ANY flight over 6 hours no matter • WAAS users withOUT baro-VNAV may flight plan for the use of LNAV
what the weather is forecasted to be. : approaches (without vertical guidance) at the destination , alternate, or both .
• WAAS users equipped WITH baro-VNAV may flight plan for LNAVNNAV or
• RNP 0.3 DA approaches (using vertical guidance) at both the destination
and the alternate. (AIM 1-1-1 9, 1-1-1 8g., 1-2-3d., OpSpec C055)

ALTERNATE Airport IFR WEATHER MINIMUMS:

To Use an Airport as an ALTERNATE: (91 .169, 13s.221thru13s.22s. 121.617 thru 121 .62s. opspec coss)
1.It MUST have WEATHER REPORTING. How else would you know what the weather is?
2.Check /A ''Alternate Minimums not standard'' (front of NOS approach book) or... ''NA'' !fot Authorized
and/or the ''FOR FILING AS AN ALTERNATE'' box (back of airport diagram chart Jeppesen).
3. The precision approach 600' & 2 miles; or non-precision approach 800' & 2 miles 91.169 rule -
Does NOT APPLY to Parts 121 or 135. ••• •· • ••• ••• --· ••• · • · •• · •• · • · •• •• •••••
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •• 121.625 - Alternate Airport
•
: AL TERNATE AIRPORT - means an airport at which an aircraft may : Weather Minimums - No person may
•: land if a landing at the intended airport becomes inadvisable. (1 .1) : list an airport as an alternate airport unless
• the appropriate weather reports or
µ \"- • - , - • ' :' ~ < •"(• ( ·~ r .- ··-'!. -. -. -.
•
••···~················································································
135.221 IFR: Alternate Airport Weather Minimums
: forecasts, or any combination thereof,
•• (a) Aircraft other than rotorcraft. No person may designate an alternate airport unless the weather : indicate that the weather conditions will be
•• reports or forecasts, or any combination of them, indicate that the weather cond itions will be at or above : at or above the alternate weather
• minimums specified in the certificate
•
: authorized alternate airport landing minimums for that airport at the S,stimated l ime of Arrival.
•
: holder's Operations Specifications for that
airport when the flight arrives.
For airports with at least ONE operational navigational

Add 1 SM to the
facility providing a straight-in nonprecision approach Add 400 ft to MDA(H) or
procedure, or a straight-in precision approach procedure, CAT I landing
DA(H), as applicable. • •
or, when applicable, a circling maneuver from an IAP.
For airports with at least TWO operational navigational Add 200 ft to the higher Add Y2 SM to the
facilities, (must have 2 different identifiers - even if they might DA(H) or M DA( H) of the two highest CAT I
share the same frequency), each providing a straight-in approaches used. landing minimum of
nonprecision or a straight-in precision approach
procedure to different, suitable runways. (The runways •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••t~.: .~?. ~-~P!!:~~~.:~~ ..
can be different ends of the same slab Of concrete.) In some cases, it is possible to have higher alternate minimums when using
NOTE: Extended Range Operations (aka ER-OPS or ETOPS - two operational navigation facilities than when using one. When this
see OpSpec 8042) require two separate suitable runway surfaces situation exists, the operator may elect to consider the airport as having only
e.. , 36L and 36R . 8900.1, Vol 3, Cha 18, Secs one straight-in approach procedure and may add the higher buffer requirement
~~~----~~-~-~-~-~-~-----~. (400ftand1SM)towhicheverstraigh~inapproachprocedu~providesfur
: the lowest possible ceiling and visibility minimums. (8900.1)
• rAN'cNi~
=Alternate Minimums not standard. Refer to tabulation. /A ALTERNATE MINS

Page E1
A roach Chart Notes. U er Left Corner of A Chart. ASHEVILLE, NC
ASHEVILLE, NORTH CAROLINA ASHV ILLE REGIONAL .................... ILS
1
Rwy 161
••••••••••••••••••••••••• ILSRwy 34 1
LOC I-IMO APP CRS Rwy ldg 8001 : Notice that Asheville is NOB Rwy 162
TDZE 2165
164° Apt El ev 2165
: spelted incorrectly here. NOB Rwy 34 3
110.9 ··~~##Jt;JMNN.'#M~
RAOAR-1 , 900-2o/.i
v Circling not authorized west of runway 16-34;

NA when control tower closed.
1
ILS, Categories A,B,C, 800-2; Category D,
night circling not authorized. 800-211... LOC, Category D, 800-211...
ASR 2
Categories A,B, 1300-2; Categories C,D,
1300-3.
3
·····~··················· Categories A,B, 1600-2; Categories C,D,
Notice that
Asheville's Alternate Minimums are -: Not.•••...•.•.•.•.•.••.•.••••••.•••
1600~3 .
•• NOT standard (check front of approach book). standard Alternate Minimums are found
•• at the front of the AeroNav Approach Book .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: NOTE: Aircraft operating under Part 121 cannot depart an airport not listed in the Ops Specs unless the
•weather is at least 800 & 2, 900 & 1-1/2, or 1000 & 1. No pilot may takeoff from an alternate airport unless the
: weather is at least equal to the minimums prescribed in OpSpec COSS for alternate airports. (121 .637)
'
················································································~
•• SECOND ALTERNATE - An additional (second) alternate airport must be listed (filed) if the weather for the destination and the
: first alternate airport are forecast to be "MARGINAL." (121 .619)
: ''MARGINAL'' - The FARs do not define ''marginal." An accepted definition is - "close to the lower limit of qualification or
• acceptability" (i.e., close to minimums). This usually means when the CEILING for the lowest approach at the destination or
•• alternate is 100 feet or less ABOVE PUBLISHED MINIMUMS and/or the VISIBILITY is forecast to be 1h mile or less ABOVE the
• VISIBILITY MINIMUMS. Each certificate holder must provide a specific definition of "MARGINAL WEATHER" through its own
• OpSpecs and provide guidance in their Operations Manual.

PEOPLE EXPRESS EXEMPTION 3585 (History):
1.feople ,5xpress ,Airlines (PEA) was a small start-up airline that in 1981 filed a petition with the FAA to
gain relief from the restrictions of 121.613, 121.619(a) and 121.625 which essentially state:
• No person may dispatch or release an aircraft for operations under IFR, unless appropriate
weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, indicate that the weather conditions will
be at or above the authorized minimums at the estimated time of arrival at the airport or airports
to which dispatched or released.
2. If an NWS forecast showed weather below minimums or included CONDITIONAL WORDS in the
REMARKS SECTION such as ''becoming,'' ''temporarily,'' ''occasional,'' ''intermittently,'' ''~
chance of'' or ''briefly'' the weather could possibly fall below minimums the flight could not be
launched (FAA legal opinion FAA Order 8900. 1).
3. People Express could not afford their own certified weather observers at each destination so
therefore had to rely on the .tfational Weather §.ervice using forecast information as much as 6 hours
old.
4. The major airlines had their own weathermen to provide up-to-the-minute observations and
forecasts. Often this would result in the major airline being legal to depart using the up-to-date
information, while the ''poor People's'' could not (I wonder why the major airlines would not share the
information with its competition?).
5. So ... People's argued that the NWS reports were issued too infreguently and the conditional
remarks too vague and "evanescent" to be used as the basis for dispatching flights.
6. The FAA eventually agreed(!!) stating " ... the FAA concludes that an equivalent level of safety will be
provided if the petitioner meets the conditions and limitations specified in this exemption."
7. Exemption 3585 (originally issued July 27, 1982) "People Express Airlines, Inc. , and any other
similarly situated Part 121 certificate holder that desires to operate under terms of this exemption , !.§.
hereby granted an exemption from Sections 121.613, 121.619(a), and 121.625 of the FAR, to the
extent necessary to permit it to dispatch an airplane, under I FR, to a destination airport when the
weather forecast for that airport indicates by the use of CONDITIONAL WORDS such as
"occasionally," "intermittently," "briefly," or "a chance of," in the REMARKS SECTION of that report, that
the weather could be below authorized weather minimums at the time of arrival , subject to the following
conditions and limitations: ... " [see next page].
U.S. Department
Of Transportation
Federal Aviation Operations Specifications
Administration
A005. Exemptions and Deviations HQ Control 07/19/96

HQ Revision 01b
The certificate holder is authorized to conduct operations in accordance with the provisions, conditions, and/or
limitations set forth in the following exemptions and deviations issued in accordance with Title 14 of the Code
of Federal Regulations (CFR). The certificate holder is not authorized and shall not conduct any operations
under the provisions of any other exemptions and/or deviations issued under Title 14 of the CFR.
a. Exemptions.
Exem tion Number Date of Ex iration Remarks and/or References
3585 M 12/25/XX Lengel World Airlines is granted exemption
from FAR 121.613, 121.619(a) and 121 .625
to dispatch under IFR with conditional
language in the forecast weather remarks
that weather is below minimums.
Poor People's Express Airlines ..

PEOPLE EXPRESS EXEMPTION 3585: (Authorized Exemptions and/or Deviations are listed in OpSpec AOOS)
1. Each certificate holder shall apply for and obtain approval from the FAA before commencing
operations in accordance with this exemption.
2. Each certificate holder shall list ONE ADDITIONAL ALTERNATE airport in the dispatch release
whenever the weather reports or forecasts, or any combination thereof, for the destination airport and
first alternate airport indicate, by the use of CONDITIONAL WORDS in the REMARKS SECTION,
that the forecast weather conditions for the destination and first alternate airport MIGHT BE as low
as ONE-HALF the visibility value established for the lowest visibility minimum of the instrument
approach procedure expected to be used for an instrument approach fil the destination OR first
alternate. For the additional alternate to be listed in the dispatch release, the weather reports or
forecasts for this ADDITIONAL AL TERNA TE, shall NOT contain any CONDITIONAL WORDS,
including but not limited to ''occasionally," ''intermittently," ''briefly," and ''a chance of," in either
the main body or the remarks section of such reports.
3. No person may take off an airplane, under this exemption, unless it has enough FUEL-
a. To fly to the airport to which it is dispatched;
b. Thereafter, to fly to and land at the most distant alternate airport for the airport to which
dispatched, taking into account the anticipated air traffic control routing; and
c. Thereafter, to ~for 4S minutes at normal cruising fuel consumption.
4. Each certificate holder's Pilot In Command, while en route, shall ensure by way of air-ground voice
communication with their company's Dispatch Center and other appropriate facilities, the he/she is in
receipt of the most current relevant weather reports and forecasts for the destination and the
alternate airport(s) to be used when making a decision to proceed to an alternate airport for landing.
EXEMPTION 3585 ALTERNATE RESTRICTIONS

LOCATION CRITERIA TAF MAIN BODY TAF REMARKS
No less than 1/2 of the
DESTINATION VISIBILITY minimums
All minimums reguired -
ceiling and visibility
for landing on the suitable
Requirements only minimums reguired for
runway
landin_g_
No less than 1/2 of the
FIRST Alternate CEILING and VISIBILITY
All minimums required to -
ceiling and visibility
be designated as an
Requirements minimums required minimums reguired for
alternate
landin_g_
SECOND Alternate All minimums reguired to All minimums reguired
CEILING and VISIBILITY
be designated as an for landing on the suitable
Requirements minimums required
alternate runway
5. Most airlines now use Exemption 3S8S, however most ~ertificate-!folding Qistrict Qffices (the FSDO
charged with overseeing the airline's operations) normally require a review and renewal every 2 years.
2nd Alternate Required for 3 Scenarios:

1. If the destination visibility (using conditional words in the remarks section) is
forecast to possibly be as low as 1/2 the reguired visibility for the approach, the
aircraft may still be dispatched provided you list a 2nd alternate (NOTE: the 2nd alternate
must be "golden" that is no possibility of falling below derived minimums).
2. Take a look at the 1st alternate the ceiling AND visibility in the main body of the
forecast must meet ''derived'' minimums (derived by adding 400 ft & 1 SM to the
minimums if there is one approach; or 200 ft & 1h SM if there are two approaches ...
see OpSpec COSS) OR (if they don't) the ceiling and visibility in the CONDITIONAL
WORDS of the REMARKS section may be as low as 1/2 the reguired (derived) alternate
ceiling and visibility provided you list a 2nd alternate (NOTE: the 2na alternate must
always be "golden" that is no possibility of falling below derived minimums).
3. Marginal weather (121.619) If the destination ceiling or visibility is forecast to be fil
(or near) minimums at the ETA and if the 1st alternate is forecast to be fil (or
near) required (derived) minimums you need to list a 2nd alternate.

(chap 7 - Commercial Operations)
IFR TAKEOFF Minimums-121/135: [91 .175(f), 91.1039, 121.617, 135.217, OpSpec C057]
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• STANDARD Part 121/135 takeoff minimums are defined in 91.175(f)
••
1. TWO ENGINES or less 1 Statute mile or RVR 5000
•
2. MORE THAN TWO ENGINES 1/2 Statute mile or RVR 2400
•• 3. "0-0" takeoffs are legal only for "Part 91 " operations .
•
Most all Part 121 & 135 companies are AUTHORIZED (via OpSpec C057) to use the
LOWER THAN STANDARD TAKEOFF MINIMUMS listed below:
SINGLE PILOT -Takeoff minimum equal to the lowest authorized straight-in Cat I IFR
landing minimums for that airport. If it's a large airport with an ILS (and good approach/runway centerline
lights), this normally means an 1800 ft RVR, or whatever is stated on the approach chart as the lowest
authorized straight-in Cat I VISIBILITY minimums. (NOTE An operation that requires two pilots may be
issued Op Specs that allow a 500 RVR takeoff under certain circumstances.)
You must also check in the chart notes for the = Take-off Minimums not standard and/or Departure
Procedures are published.
Not standard Takeoff Minimums and/or Departure Procedures are found in the FRONT of the AeroNav
Approach book. ASHEVIUE, NORTH CAROLINA
LOC I-IMO APP CRS Rwy ldg 8001
••••••••••••••
•
.
110.9 164
o TDZE
Apt Elev
2165
2165
• Chart Notes
X C!rc:lin~ "?' outhorized -:ve$1 of rvnwoy 16-34;
n19ht c1rcl1ng not authorized.
R
Page C2
T TAKE·OFF MINIMUMS AND (OBSTACLE) DEPARTURE PROCEDURES T
ASHEVILLE, NC
ASHEVILLE REGIONAL
TAKE-OFF MINIMUMS: Rwy 16, std. with a min. climb of
230' per NM to 5000. Rwy 34, std. with a min . climb of
ELEV 2165
250' per NM to 5100.
DEPARTURE PROCEDURE: Rwy 16, climb via 164.49°
2486 ~
heading to BRA NOB. Continue climb in holding pattern
to cross BRAN DB at or above 5000 before climbing to
MEAon course. Rwy 34, climb via 342. 77° heading to
KEANS LOM . Continue climb in holding pattern to
cross KEANS LOM at or above 5100 before climbing to
MEAon course.
NOTE: Rwy 16, multiple trees 2.57 NM northwest of
departure end of runway, 2953' MSL. Tree 207'from
departure end of runway, 529' left of centerline, 2148'
MSL. Rwy 34, multiple trees 2.2 NM west of departure
end of runway, 3137' MSL. Multiple trees 1.46 NM from
departure end of runway, 3156' left of centerline, 2620'
MSL. Plant 1.32 NMfromdepartureendofrunway,
4190' right of centerline, 407' AGL/2567' MSL. Tree
543' from departure end of runway, 614' left of centerline,
2194' MSL.

IFR TAKEOFF Minimums 121/135 Continued:
(91 .175 f , 91 .1039, 121 .6 17, 121 .6 19, 121 .625, 121 .651 , 135.217, 135.367, 135.379, 135.398, FAA-H-8083-16, OpSpec C057 & C079]
A. TWO PILOTS - Flightcrew

~
of two "required" pilots f renuired bv the reaulations or the tvne
••• ~ ••••••••• ~ ••••• mq. ••••••••••••• ~ ••••
certification of the aircraft) - Check V non-standard. i Takeoffs from Unlisted Airports: (121.637)
: No pilot may takeoff an airplane from an airport not
1. Y4 Mile or RVR 1600 AT LEAST ONE of the following: : listed in the OpSpecs unless the weather conditions
a. High Intensity Runway Lights (HIRL). : Warhe equ~I ~o or better thatn pres~bribdedthin Part t9h7.
• ere m1n1mums are no prescr1 e , e wea er
b. Centerline Lights (CL). • minimums of 800-2, 900-1 ~.or 1,000-1 are required.
c. Centerline Marking (RCLM).
d. OR ... Adequate visual reference to continuously identify the takeoff surface.
2. TDZ RVR 1200 and Rollout RVR 1000 and must have BOTH of the following:
• • • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a. Centerline Lights (CL). : 91.1039(e)- No person
b. Two RVR reporting systems. : may takeoff when the
•
3. TDZ RVR 600, Mid RVR 600, and Rollout RVR 600, provided ~visibility is less than 600 ft.
ALL of the following visual aids and RVR equipment are available: •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
a. Centerline Lights (CL). : 500 RVR takeoffs are authorized
: for some operators.
b. Centerline Markings (RCLM).
: 300 RVR is possible when using
c. At least two of the three RVR reporting systems must be working. : a takeoff guidance system .
.. r- - -- ·- -- •' .· - - :i:-- -·
¥J,¥tj,.,,
NOTES:
1. Mid RVR may be substituted for either TDZ RVR or Rollout RVR if TDZ RVR or Rollout RVR is not
available.
2. Use of autopilot in lieu of a required 2nd-in-command IS NOT authorized.
3. Each pilot station must have:
a. An Attitude Indicator, DG, VSI, Airspeed and Altimeter.
b. An independent source of power for Attitude and DG.
4. Each PIC and SIC must have at least 100 hours PIC (or SIC) in specific make & model and have
completed company training program for the minimums authorized.
5. For takeoffs when TDZ and rollout RVR is less than RVR 1000, the aircraft must be able to achieve
performance specified in FAR 135.367, 135.379, or 135.398 as appropriate (Must have ''ACCELERATE-
STOP DISTANCE" - the distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed and, assuming failure of an engine at the
instant that liftoff speed is attained, to bring the airplane to a full stop - and/or be able to climb to 35 ft before the
end of the runway on one engine if it fails at V 1 - aka ''ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE''). [C079d.(6)]
6. If you TAKEOFF with weather BELOW landing minimums for all practical purposes you cannot
return to land if you lose an engine after takeoff. Therefore, you must FILE (or list in the dispatch or
flight release) a ''TAKEOFF ALTERNATE'' (aka ''DEPARTURE ALTERNATE'') that is within
ONE hour's flying time at normal cruise speed, in still air 135.217; or ... at normal cruise speed
in still air with one engine inoperative 121.617) or ... TWO hour's flying time for an aircraft with
3 or more engines. (135.217, 121 .6 17) The ''TAKEOFF ALTERNATE'' airport must have weather at or
above IFR landing minimums. (121.625)
·-······························· ~
•• 91.1039, 135.217
!! the departure runway does not have RVR you are limited to No person may takeoff
Y2 mile visibility (or the lowest Cat I visibility authorized for that
runway). OpSpec C057 does not allow takeoffs from runways : where weather conditions are below IFR
which do not have RVR, based on the RVR report of another : landing minimums unless there is an
runway. OpSpec C057 - " ... RVR reports, when available for a : alternate airport within 1 hour's flying time
particular runway, shall be used for all takeoff operations on that
runway. All takeoff operations, based on RVR, must use RVR
• (at normal cruise speed, in still air).
reports from the locations along the runway specified ... " ~
·········································~
.: The flight plan (or flight release) must
·······························~~ :
••
121 .617 No person may takeoff where weather
conditions are below IFR landing minimums unless
: specify a takeoff alternate if the weather •• there is an alternate airport within:
: at the takeoff airport is below landing •• 1. Aircraft having TWO engines Not more than
: minimums for that airport. : one hour at normal cruise speed in still air with
: Any landing minimums at the takeoff : one engine inoperative.
l airport that are authorized for the • 2. Aircraft having THREE or more engines Not
: certificate holder may be considered ~ more than two hours at normal cruise speed in
\ including Category II or Ill ILS approaches. still air with one engine inoperative.

APPROACH WEATHER REQUIRED Part 121 or 135:
Car o or assen ers on board [91 .175, 121 .651(b), 135.4, 135.225, OpSpecs A014, C053, C054, C064, C074, C077]
1. Except to the extent permitted by 135.225(b) ["Eligible On-Demand Operation" (135.4) and see page
286 of this chapter], an airport MUST have WEATHER REPORTING from an ''approved source'' in
order to conduct an instrument approach and the current ceiling, visibility, and altimeter setting must
be available.
2. You CANNOT BEGIN the APPROACH unless the weather is at or above approach minimums.
VISIBILITY is CONTROLLING. Ceiling must be "considered" for Part 135 operations because 135.225
refers to "weather conditions" not just visibility (FAA legal opinion). Ceiling must be "considered" but it
does not necessarily prevent a 135 pilot from shooting an approach. Part 121 would not have to
consider ceiling unless ''tlJ41•1~[diJ:C•lllli14•J'' is noted on the approach chart [121.651 (b)].
3. !f you have begun the approach and later weather goes below minimums you can continue the
approach and land if you find upon reaching MDA or DH that the actual weather conditions i.e.
FLIGHT VISIBILITY (what YOU see), is at least equal to landing minimums. In other words, once you
have started the approach you are still beholden to 91.175 (Takeoff and Landing Under IFR) and 91.13
(Careless or Reckless Operations). The more conservative method is to discontinue the approach if
weather goes below minimums ... 'cause ... if you crash you're definitely screwed!
4 . Lowest authorized straight-in Category I landing minimums for ANY airport are 1800 RVR
(TDZ) or ~ mile tower visibility.
5. Tower visibility values below Y2 mile are NOT authorized. That means .if the RVR equipment is
broke or non-existent, you cannot land if the tower visibility goes below Y2 mile.
6. Mid RVR may be substituted for TDZ RVR if TDZ RVR is not available.
7. RVR value (if available) TAKES PRECEDENCE OVER TOWER VISIBILITY.
DESCENT BELOW DH or MDA: [91.175(c), 135.225, 121 .651 (c), 121 .651(d), OpSpec C074]
1. You must have the "landing environment" in sight [runway or lights, etc. , 91.175(c)].
2. Flight visibility what YOU see must be at least equal to landing minimums.
3. The aircraft must be in a position to make a normal approach and landing.
4. You may not descend below 100 feet above TDZ unless the red terminating or side row bars are
visible .
•.. .......... ............. .. ..... ...... ....... ..... .,,
• Even though flight visibility is controlling, the reported weather could be
: used in an enforcement action when it is doubtful that the flight visibility
• reported by the pilot could have existed. This would be extremely
•• difficult (but not impossible) for the FAA to "prove."
: Flight visibility can vary greatly fro m ground visibility.
• FAA Legal Interpretation (March 10, 1986):
: " ... Enforcement action would be taken only in those cases in which the
• pilot could not reasonably conclude fl ight visibility was at or above
: approach minimums, but the pilot nevertheless proceeded to land .. ."
Editorial Comment - Don't do or say anythin' stupid.
(91 .175)
Current weather: "Ceiling obscured - RVR 1600" (Minimums for.~P.P..~9.~Eh ..... ~Y.~_g1.9.9) ...............................
1. You shoot the approach for a ''look-see." : 91 .175 does not require the use of " reported visibilitv" 1
2. At DH the needles are centered. :• for Part 91 operations. The pilot is the only person :•
3. You see the approach lights and the runway. =•• ~.~~-~~~. ?.:!;~!1;~~-= -~~?.t.!~~ -':!1.if:!~.t- ~i~~!~i~Y.':.i.~~~-~~~ ••E
4. You believe the FLIGHT VISIBILITY what YOU see is at least ~ mile.
5. You're in a position to make a normal landing (NOTE : The pilot may not descend below 100 feet above the touchdown
zone elevation using the approach lights as reference unless the red terminating bars or red side row bars are also distinctly
6.
visible and identifiable)a
You land.
.: FLIGHT VISIBILITY (1.1)
••• •••••••••••• ---- • .............................. ................. .
The average
'
:• forward horizontal distance, from the
IF ANYONE CARES TO ASK: ~ cockpit in flight, at which prominent
t unlighted objects may be seen and
1. At DH I had the landing
.
environment in sight.
. • . .
·: ·d ent·f·
1 1 te d by d ay an d promtnen
· t 11
·g hte d
2. I had at least ~ mile v1s1b1l1ty.
1
:. objects may be seen and identified by night.
3. I was in a position to make a normal approach and landing. •,~~~OK'Ott.c.i10GOG~~~~.:il!l!:o~~~

LANDING UNDER IFR: (91 .175, 121 .651 , 135.225, FAA-H-8083-16) An Enhanced
-
flight ~ision
1. OPERATION BELOW DH or MDA Nopilotmayoperateanaircraft
.§.ystem (EFVS)
at any airport below the authorized MDA or continue an approach below the may be used on
authorized DH unless: straight-in
a. The aircraft is continuously in a position from which a descent to a approaches [only]
to descend below
landing on the intended runway can be made at a normal rate of descent MDA or DH, but
using normal maneuvers, and for operations conducted under Part 121 or not below 100
Part 135 unless that descent rate will allow TOUCHDOWN to occur feet above the
WITHIN the TOUCHDOWN ZONE of the runway of intended landing; TDZE unless
actual FLIGHT
b. The flight visibility (or gnhanced flight Y,isibility) is not less than the VISIBILITY is
visibility prescribed in the instrument approach being used; and sufficient to
continue the
c. Except for a Category 11 or Category 111 approach, at least ONE of the approach without
following visual references for the intended runway is distinctly visible use of the EFVS.
and identifiable to the pilot:
• The Approach Light System, except that the pilot may not descend below 100 feet
above the touchdown zone elevation using the approach lights as a reference unless the
red terminating bars or the red side row bars are also distinctly visible and identifiable;
.. The threshold; . m FLIGHT VISIBILITY (1 .1) The
• Threshold ~arkings; m [I) average forward horizontal distance,
• Threshold lights;. . . m from the cockpit in flight, at which
• B._unway _5nd !dent1f1er b1gh_ts (REIL); , prominent unlighted objects may be
• Y,1sual A,pproach .§.lope !nd1cator (VASI); m" seen and identified by day and
• Touchdown Zone or Touchdown Zone markings; prominent lighted objects may be
• IouchQ.own ~one bights; seen and identified by night.
• Runway or runway markings; or
• Runway lights.
2. LANDING No pilot operating an aircraft may land that aircraft when the FLIGHT VISIBILITY (or
_5nhanced flight Y,isibility) is less than the visibility prescribed in the instrument approach procedure.
3. MISSED APPROACH Each pilot operating an aircraft shall immediately execute an
appropriate missed approach procedure when either of the following conditions exist:
a. Whenever the requirements of paragraph #1 are not met at either of the following times:
• When the aircraft is being operated below MDA; or
• Upon arrival at the missed approach point and at any time after that until touchdown.
b. Whenever an identifiable part of the airport is not distinctly visible to the pilot during a circling
maneuver at or above MDA, unless the inability to see an identifiable part of the airport results
only from a normal bank of the aircraft during the circling approach.
Comparable Values of RVR and GROUND VISIBILITY: [91 .175(h)J

If RVR minimums for takeoff or landing are prescribed in an instrument approach procedure, but the RVR
is not reported for the runway of intended operation, the RVR minimum shall be converted to ground
visibility in accordance with the table below and shall be the visibility minimum for takeoff or landing on
that runway.
• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• ••
RVR Visibility :· RVR Runway Visual Range: (AIM 7-1-15)
(feet) (statute miles)
•: There are currently two configurations of RVR-
1,600 1/4 : a. TASKERS- The existing system - RVR values are measured by projector &
: receiver ''transmissometers'' mounted on 14-foot towers, 250 feet apart
2,400 1/2 : along the runway. A known intensity of light is emitted from the projector and
3,200 5/8 : measured by the receiver. Any obscuring matter such as rain, snow, or fog
• reduces the light intensity arriving at the receiver. Readouts to a minimum of
4,000 3/4 •
•• 600 ft - in 200-ft increments to 3,000 ft - 500-ft increments from 3,000 to a
4,500 718 : maximum of 6,000 ft. These values are updated once every minute.
: b. NEW GENERATION - Currently replacing the old taskers - Still mou.nted on
5,000 1 • 14-foot towers but use ''forward scatter'' technology. Can measure down to
••
6,000 1-1/4 •• 150 ft RVR in 100-ft increments below 800 ft - 200-ft increments between 800
•• ft & 3,000 ft - 500-ft increments between 3,000 ft to a maximum of 6,500 ft .

:
. ~··································
A pilot may not descend below 100 feet
~
ALSF-2 • above the touchdown zone elevation when

: using the approach lights as a reference unless
Green Threshold Lights : the
••••••••••••••••••
••• 00000 •••
: RED TERMINATING BARS
• or the
••• 00000 ••• •
RED SIDE ROW BARS
... • • • 00000 ••• %
are also distinctly visible and identifiable.
w ••• 00000 ••• •
•
~ • • • 000 00000 000 • • • •,,., [91 .175(c)(3)(i), AIM 2-1-1]
0 ••• 00000 •••
g ••• 00000 •••
"" . . . 00000 •••
·~ • • • 00000 •••
00000000 OOQOO 00000000
~
00 00 A1 Green Threshold Lights
•••••••••••••••••
•••••
••• ••••• • •
•••••
00000 ...w
00000 w
00000 LI.
WHITE 2
0
00000 0
00000 0
00000
00000
00000000 OOQOO 00000000
00000 u
-,,,- OOQ,,00
~:
00000 :;)f'(,
~ 00"'00
~::
~
00000 l~ 00000
~ :
' ~~
00000 00000
-#<:
~·
00000 ~
00000 ~
~*-:.
).)r<~ i*:
a
~);-(' WHITE
00000 00000
~f ~ ,, ."
••••••••••••••••••••••• • ~
~
00000 ! SEQUENCED FLASHING : 00000 '

LENGTH ~ •••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ il-1<:.
~~
2400/3000 FEET 00000 00000
~':.
~~
ALSF - ~pproach ~ight ~ystem with Sequenced flashing Lights 00000
,, ....
••••••••••• ••• .. .
:• A DOT '' • '' portrayed with approach lighting
'
00000
: letter identifier indicates sequenced flashing
A
:;.>.<"
• lights (F) installed with the approach light 00000
•• system, example: A ~:.
~~
• 1
• 00000
•• NEGATIVE SVMBOLOGV, example: ~:.
~~
•• 00000
••
•• ~
LENGTH 00000
•• Indicates filot ~ontrolled .bighting (PCL) 2400/3000 FEET ~:;
• ~}.<'

HIGH MINIMUMS CAPTAIN: [91 .1039(c), 121 .652(a), 135.225(e), OpSpec C054]
1. Part 121 New captains with less than 100 hours as Pilot In Command in operations under Part
121 or in the type of airplane being operated are restricted to higher weather landing minimums.
2. Part 135 New captains with less than 100 hours as Pilot In Command of a TURBINE-POWERED
aircraft operated under Part 135 are restricted to higher weather landing minimums.
3. Subpart K of Part 91 New captains with less than 100 hours as Pilot In Command of a TURBINE-
POWERED aircraft are restricted to higher weather landing minimums.
4. These ''HIGH MINIMUMS CAPTAINS'' must add 100 feet to the Minimum Qescent Altitude (MDA) or
the Qecision Altitude (DA) AND add Y2 mile (or RVR equivalent) to the landing visibility minimums.
5. Examples:
a. ILS approach DA(H) 302 ft (200) RVR 1800 or Y2 sm
A high minimums captain would be required to raise the DA to 402 ft and the visibility would
have to be at least RVR 4500 (from the OpSpec table below) or 1 statute mile (if RVR is not
reported) to be legal for the approach (+100 ft+ Y2 sm).
b. NONPRECISION approach MDA(H) 702 ft (500) RVR 4000 or 3A sm
A high minimums captain would be required to raise the MDA to 802 ft and the visibility would
have to be at least RVR 6000 or 11A statute mile to be legal for the approach (+100 ft+ Y2 sm).
6. NOTE 1: Although adding 100 & Y2 is applicable for all airports (destination & alternate), it does NOT
have to be raised above the conditions reguired to designate the airport as an alternate airport.
7. NOTE 2: §121.652 permits the 100-hour flight experience requirement to be reduced by up to 50°/o by
substituting one landing for one required hour of flight experience, provided the PIC has at least
100 hours Pl C time in another type airplane in Part 121 operations. § 135.225 does NOT permit a
reduction to the 100-hour flight experience requirement.
Pilot In Command of a Part 121 aircraft or a

Part 135 turbine-powered aircraft with less than
100 hours of PIC time in that aircraft shall use RVR Visibility
(feet) (statute miles)
the High Minimum pilot RVR landing minimum
equivalents as determined from this table
1,600 1/4
_{_OpSpec C054l 2,400 1/2
RVR Landing RVR Landing Minimum 3,200 5/8
Minimums Equivalent Required for
4,000 3/4
As Published High Minimum Pilots
4,500 718
RVR 1800 RVR 4500
RVR 2000 RVR 4500 5,000 1
RVR 2400 RVR 5000 6,000 1-1/4
RVR 3000 RVR 5000
RVR 4000 RVR 6000
RVR 5000 RVR 6000
SPECIAL EXEMPTION 5549: (Authorized Exemptions and/or Deviations are listed in OpSpec AOOS)
Special Exemption 5549 provides relief from §121.652 allowing Part 121 HIGH MINIMUMS CAPTAINS to
FLY to PUBLISHED LANDING MINIMUMS it the air carrier has received authorization for the exemption
from the FAA. Certain conditions, equipment and weather conditions are required, such as:
1. An AUTOPILOT/Flight Director with APPROACH COUPLER (or tlead-Y,p-Qisplay) used all the
way to Decision Altitude;
2. Landing from a Category I ILS approach below 4,000 RVR or 3A mile visibility, will not be
conducted when the CROSSWIND component exceeds 15 knots and (or) the BRAKING ACTION
is reported to be less than good;
3. All Category II approaches and landings will be conducted using the auto-land approach coupler
(ALAC) system whenever minimums are reported below 1,800 RVR;
4. Each operator using this exemption must establish a ''CREW PAIRING'' policy (§121.438) that
requires as a minimum for the type airplane being used that either the PIC or SIC has at least
75 hours of line operating flight time as either the PIC or SIC in the appropriate seat.
5. NOTE: The exact wording of this exemption will vary depending on the type of operation and which
.Qertificate-tlolding Qistrict Qffice is handling the exemption (i.e., which FAA you happen to be
talking to that day).

ARRIVAL at Airports with NO WEATHER REPORTING:

(135.213, 135.219, 135.205, 135.215, 135.225, Ops Manual, FAA Order 8900.1)
Except to the extent permitted by 135.225(b) ["Eligible On-Demand Operation" (135.4) see page 286 of this chapter],
a Part 135 aircraft with freight or passengers on board cannot operate under /FR in the Class G
(uncontrolled) airspace below 700 or 1,200 ft UNLESS; for the purpose of landing or departing an airport that
has approved weather reporting (ASOS I AWOS-3 or FSS)(135.215). You CAN operate VFR in this
uncontrolled airspace and no VFR flight plan is necessary as long as 135.79 can be met through the ''flight
locatinc procedures'' _Q_ublished in your com_12_any's General Operations Manual.
NOTE: If you are operating under Part 121 or a TURBOJET under Part 135, VFR arrivals/departures may be
further restricted by OpSpec C077 which requires "reported" visibility and ceiling.
Check the procedures section your §eneral Qperations Manual for specific guidance.
VFR/IFR arrival/departure procedures should be scripted precisely in the procedures section of your GOM.
Let's say you want to land at Pontiac. Michigan to deliver a box, while the tower is closed, and the airspace
has reverted to Class G (uncontrolled) due to lack of weather reporting:
1. You could file to Detroit Metro Airport (which happens to be close by and has a favorable forecast).
2. When you start talking to Detroit approach this would be the appropriate RADIO CALL:
• l'f!I! Douglas 123A has a ''slight change of plans''
• 123A go ahead
• l'fml 123A would like ''MINIMUM VECTORING ALTITUDE'' over Pontiac
If we pick it up visually we'll land there, if not, we'll land at Detroit
• them Understand Sir 123A is now cleared direct to Pontiac-descend and maintain 3000
• n-Direct Pontiac-down to 3000-123A
3. Remember, you are NOT changing your original destination (Detroit) unless you pick up Pontiac visually
- CANCEL and then land at Pontiac.
4. Instrument approaches to Pontiac are NOT allowed (with freight or pax on board) when there is no
weather reporting. This INCLUDES VISUAL APPROACHES!! You must CANCEL your IFR flight plan
BEFORE descending below Minimum Vectoring Altitude and into Class G (uncontrolled) airspace.
5. As an alternative, you could file IFR to a ''RADIO FIX'' near the destination, where the area forecast
shows the prevailing weather to be VFR CANCEL then continue VFR to the destination. This
plan requires an ALTERNATE AIRPORT to be listed on your flight plan because the published
approach at the destination is effectively not available to you. You could also include a note in the
remarks section of your flight plan stating that you intend to land at [desired airport] if conditions are
suitable. Remember whatever ,you do should be precisely scripted in your General Operations Manual.
LIMITATIONS on the Use of LANDING MINIMUMS for TURBOJET Airplanes:

(OpSpec C054b.)
(1) A Pilot-In-Command of a turbojet airplane shall not conduct an instrument approach procedure when
visibility conditions are reported to be less than % sm or RVR 4000 until that pilot has been specifically
qualified to use the lower landing minimums.
(2) A PIC of a turbojet airplane shall not begin an instrument approach procedure when the visibility
conditions are reported to be less than 3A sm or RVR 4000, unless the following conditions exist:
(a) 15°/o additional runway length is available over the banding field bength specified for the
destination airport~ the appropriate Sections of the .Qode of federal B.egulations.
(b) Precision instrument (all weather) runway markings or runway centerline lights are
operational on that runway.

DEPARTING Airports with
(1 35.205, 135.213, 135.215, 135.219, 135.225, OpSpecs, General Operations Manual)
Let's say you want to DEPART Pontiac, Michigan with passengers or freight onboard while the tower is
closed and the airspace has reverted to Class G due to lack of weather reporting (and assuming you are
NOT operating a turbojet which may be further restricted by OpSpec C077):
1. You would 1st file your IFR flight plan.
2. If in your estimation the weather is IFR You cannot legally depart /FR (an IFR departure would
include a VOID TIME) because Part 135 aircraft are not allowed to operate /FR in Class G
(uncontrolled) airspace unless the airport has approved weather reporting (ASOS I AWOS-3 or FSS).
3. If in your estimation the weather is VFR (following the guidance in your GOM):
a. Instrument departures with a VOID Time are not allowed when weather is not available
(because you cannot operate IFR in the Class G airspace); So ...
b. Depart VFR (NOTE: Normally you cannot do this in a TURBOJET without "reported " weather);
c. Pick up your IFR clearance after departure and before entering IMC conditions (keep the
runan sight!!). RADIO CALL:
• • Detroit Approach-Douglas 123A
• 123A go ahead
.. tm 123A is ''OFF THE GROUND'' from Pontiac-IFR to JFK
• 123A can you maintain your own terrain/obstruction clearance through 3000 feet?
.. tm No problem sir
• 123A is cleared to JFK as filed climb and maintain Niner thousand squawk 6453
.. tm As filed-Niner thousand-6453-123A
NOTE: If you are operating under Part 121 or a TURBOJET under Part 135, VFR departures/arrivals may be
further restricted by OpSpec C077 which requires "reported visibility and ceiling."
Check the procedures section of your g,eneral Qperations ,Manual.
VFR/I FR departure/arrival procedures should be scripted precisely in the procedures section of your GOM.
···················· ··························· ························ ········ ~

•• WEATHER REPORTING & 135.213
•
• (OpSpecs A0 14, C054, C064, C077, 8900.1, GOM)
•• 1. The FAA considers commercial pilots (etc.) competent to provide weather information for Part 135
% VFR operations (onlv). However, in order to use this concession , "the operator's GOM must specify
z the circumstances under which PICs may use the provision of§ 135.213(a)." "If observers other than
• PICs are used, operators must specify the training and qualifications of these observers." Turbojet
•
• operations however require approved "reported " weather for VFR (or IFR) operations .
•
: 2. To conduct IFR operations, pilots must use weather observations (from official sources) taken at the
• airport where those operations are conducted .
•
: 3. Therefore, terminal operations conducted under IFR (i.e., instrument approaches or IFR departures
z with a void time) from airports without (official) weather reporting are NOT permitted.
• 4 Reminder A visual approach is an IFR operation.
' .
WEATHER REPORTS and FORECASTS 135.213:

(a) Whenever a person operating an aircraft under this part is reguired to use a weather report or
forecast, that person shall use that of the U.S. National Weather Service, a source approved by the
U.S. National Weather Service, or a source approved by the Administrator. However, for operations
under VFR, the Pilot In Command may, .if such a report is not available, use weather information
based on that pilot's own observations or on those of other persons competent to supply
appropriate observations.
(b) For the purposes of paragraph (a) of this section, weather observations made and furnished to pilots
to conduct IFR operations at an airport must be taken at the airport where those IFR operations are
conducted, UNLESS the Administrator issues operations specifications allowing the use of
weather observations taken fil a location not at the airport where the IFR operations are
conducted. The Administrator issues such operations specifications when, after investigation by the
U.S. National Weather Service and the certificate-holding district office, it is found that the standards of
safety for that operation would allow the deviation from this paragraph for a particular operation for
which an air carrier operating certificate or operating certificate has been issued.

FLIGHT TIME & DUTY:

§ 135.263 Flight Time Limitations and Rest Requirements:
ALL Certificate Holders: (135.263)
(a) A certificate holder may assign a flight crewmember and a flight crewmember may accept an assignment for
flight time only when the applicable requirements of§§ 135.263 through 135.271 are met.
(b) No certificate holder may assign any flight crewmember to any duty with the certificate holder during any
required rest period.
(c) Time spent in transportation, not local in character, that a certificate holder REQUIRES of a
flight crewmember and PROVIDES to transport the crewmember to an airport at which he is to serve on a
flight as a crewmember, or from an airport at which he was relieved from duty to return to his home station,
is not considered part of a rest period.
(d) A flight crewmember is not considered to be assigned flight time in excess of flight time limitations if the
flights to which he is assigned normally terminate within the limitations, but due to CIRCUMSTANCES
BEYOND the CONTROL of the certificate holder or flight crewmember (such as ADVERSE WEATHER
conditions), are not at the time of departure expected to reach their destination within the planned flight
time.
§ 135.265 Flight Time Limitations and Rest Requirements:

SCHEDULED OPERATIONS:
(a) No certificate holder may schedule any pilot, and no pilot may accept an assignment, for flight time in
SCHEDULED operations OR in Qther .Qommercial flying if that pilot's TOTAL flight time in ALL
commercial flying wi II exceed:
( 1) 1,200 hours in any calendar year (January 1 to December 31 defines "calendar year").
(2) 120 hours in any calendar month.
(3) 34 hours in any 7 consecutive days.
(4) 8 hours during any 24 consecutive hours for a flight crew consisting of one pilot.
(5) 8 hours between required rest periods for a flight crew consisting of two pilots.
(b) Except as provided in paragraph (c) of this section, no certificate holder may schedule a pilot, and no
pilot may accept an assignment, for flight tim ~ during the 24 consecutive hours preceding the
scheduled completion of any flight segment without a scheduled rest period during that 24 hours of
at least the following: '
( 1) ~consecutive hours of rest for less than 8 hours of schedaleJ;! flight time.
(2) 10 consecutive hours ot rest for 8 or more but less than 9 hours of scheduled flight time.
(3) 11 consecutive hours of rest for 9 or more hours of scheduled flight time.
(c) REDUCED REST A certificate Holder may schedule a piloM or less than the rest reguired in
paragraph (b) or may red uce a scheduled est under the following conditions:
(1) A rest required underA paragraph (b)(1) may be schedule(j for or reduced to a minimum of
I
8 hours .if the pilot is given a rest period of at least 10 hours-that must IJegin no later than 24
hours after the commencement of the reduced rest period.
(2) A rest required under: paragraph (b)(2) may be scheduled for or reduce<ftto a minimum of
8 hours .if the pilot is given a rest perib d of at least 11 hours that must begin no later than 24
hours after the commencement of tble reduced rest period.
(3) A rest required unde r paragraph (b} 3) may be scheduled for or reduced to,a rrl inimum of
1
9 hours .if the pilot is given a rest period of at least 12 hours that must begin no later than 24
hours after the commencement ot the reduced rest period.
(d) Each certificate hCDl·der: shall relieve eac pilot engaged in schedll!le,d air transportation from all further duty
for at least 24 comsecutive hours during any 7 consecutive days.
I
···························--------·····································~···························· •
••
: ''Other Commercial Flying'' means "any nonmilitary flying as a
•
: required crewmember, other than in air transportation , for which
•
: the crewmember is paid for his or her services." Example:
~ "Flight instruction for compensation is other commercial flying."
•

§ 135.267 Flight Time Limitations And Rest Requirements:
UNSCHEDULED One and Two Pilot Crews.
(a) NO CERTIFICATE HOLDER MAY ASSIGN any flight crewmember, and
NO FLIGHT CREWMEMBER MAY ACCEPT an assignment, for flight time as a *''~
member of a one or two pilot crew if that crewmember's total flight time in all
commercial flying will exceed -
(1) 500 hours in any calendar quarter.
(2) 800 hours in any two consecutive calendar quarters.
(3) 1,400 hours in any calendar year.
(b) Except as provided in paragraph (c} of this section, during any 24
consecutive hours the total flight time of the assigned flight when
added to any other commercial flying by that flight crewmember
may not exceed-
(1) 8 hours for a flight crew consisting of one pilot; or
(2) 10 hours for a flight crew consisting of two pilots qualified under
this Part for the operation being conducted.
(c) A flight crewmember's flight time may exceed the flight time limits of paragraph
(b) of this section !Ethe assigned flight time occurs during a REGULARLY ASSIGNED duty period of no
more than 14 hours and -
(1) If this duty period is immediately preceded by and followed by a required rest period of at least 10
consecutive hours of rest;
(2) If flight time is assigned during this period, that total flight time when added to any other commercial
flying by the flight crewmember may not ~xceed -
(i) 8 hours for a flight crew consisting oPone pilot; or
(ii) 10 hours for a flight crew consisting of two pilots; and
(3) If the combined duty and rest ~erioas equal 24 hours.
(d) Each assignment under paragraph (b) of this section must provide for at least 10 consecutive hours of
rest during the 24 hour period that precedes the planned completion time of the assignment.
(e) When a flight crewmemb~r has exceeded the daily flight time limitations io this section, because of
circumstances beyond the control of the certificate holder or flight crewm'ember (such as adverse
weather conditions), thatijrght crewmemben must have a rest period before Being assigned or accepting an
assignment for flight time of at least -
(1) 11 consecutive hours ofrest if the fligHt time limitatio ~ is e ceeded by.not more than 30 minutes;
(2) 12 consecutive hours of rest if the fli~ht time limitation is exceeded by m'dre than 30 minutes, but
not more than 60 minutes; and
(3) 16 consecutive Iii ours of rest if the flight time limitation i exceeded by more than 60 minutes.
(f) The certificate holde must provide each flight crewmember at least 13 rest periods of at least 24
consecutive hours eacn in each calendar quarter.
···························~ ··································~
•''Calendar year'' is the period from • ''Calendar quarter'' is defined as
: the first moment of January 1st until •• four periods of 3 months each, beginning
: the last moment of December 31st. : January 1st, April 1st, July 1st, and October 1st.
•••••••••••••••••••••••• ····················································· ~
•• '
• • ALL Pilots LOCAL or NOT LOCAL Transportation (135.263)
: 1. Transportation ''NOT LOCAL IN CHARACTER'' aka ''DEADHEAD transportation'' whereas the
•• certificate holder ''REQUIRES and PROVIDES' transportation for the pilot to or from a ''NON-LOCAL''
•• location where the crewmember shall begin duty service, is not considered part of a rest period .
• 2. ''LOCAL transportation'' is travel to and from one's residence to one's place of business, or from a
t hotel or motel to an airport. The time a pilot spends in traveling between his residence and an airport
: out of which he is to operate, or from that airport to his residence , is time spent in "local transportation "
•• and IS COUNTED as part of a REST PERIOD.
: 3. EXAMPLE: If you live 2 hours from the airport, that's your choice, it is still considered ''LOCAL
: transportation'' and is still considered part of your rest period. If the employer has you on the road
• and has to transport you two hours away to the nearest hotel , then that is considered ''NOT LOCAL IN
•~
CHARACTER'' and the time spent in transportation cannot be considered part of the rest period.
\
Federal Aviation Decisions
•
..........•..........................•......... •...........•.............. ·~
• In general, flight time and duty regulations are the most complicated set of legal
••
•• gibberish the FAA has ever created. Using case law and FAA letters of
••• interpretation, the next two pages attempt to explain the most difficult of all -
Part 135 UNSCHEDULED Operations.
FLIGHT TIME Limitations and REST for UNSCHEDULED Operations-
135.267:
1. Total flight time in all commercial flying must not exceed:
a. 500 hours in each calendar quarter (3 months)(e.g., January 1 to March 31).
b. 800 hours in any two consecutive calendar quarters (6 months)(e.g., April 1 to October 31 ).
c. 1.400 hours in any calendar year (January 1 to December 31 defines ''calendar year'').
2. During any 24 consecutive hours the pilot must have at least 10 consecutive hours of rest
(+ 30 minutes for preflight and 15 minutes for post flight) and the total flight time of the assigned flight when
added to any other commercial flying by fhat flight crew member may not exceed:
a. 8 hours for a required flight crew of one pilot; or
b. 10 hours for a reguired flight crew of two pilots.
3. If a pilot starts his 14 hour Ctuty day [24 hours minus 10 hours rest] by'flying a single pilot aircraft-
and later in the same duty aa~flies a two pilot aircraft he ~s restricted by the single pilot 8-hour
limitation of 135.267 (6)(2)(i). (FAA legal interpretation 1979-64) 1
4. The certificate holder (e ompany) must p~ovide (assign in advance) each pilot at least 13 rest periods of
at least 24 consecutive hours each in each calendar guartec (3 months) 35.267(f).
FERRY FLIGHTS - Pa~t 135 or Part 121:

1. Part 91 ferry flights (mo cargo or r;>assengers on board) for the purpose ef repositioning the aircraft TO PICK UP
cargo or passengers DO count as part of the duty period and Part 135 (or Part 121) fight time limitations.
2. Part 91 ferry flights for the purpose of repositioning an aircraft back to home base (empty) after completion of
a Part 135 (cargotpax en board) flight ma¥ be conducted without regard to the Part 195 (or Part 121) flight or
duty time limits l)eci;ause they are con,t iucled under Part 91 (no carg0/pax on board) an<:d 0nly at the discretion of
the crew. (FAA lega1 interpretatioo December 7, 1990)
3. The certificate hol·der: (Company) cannot assign this flight.
4. The Part 91 leg t\Ome (empty) is not counted against the current duty period's DAILY fligtilt time limitations -
although such rfligt.lts will be counteCi/ against the pilot's SUBSEQUENT DAIL¥ flight time limits (see the ''24-
hour consecutive hour limitation'' an next page) and also the quarterly, and yearly flight time limitations.
5. [135.267(d)] Eaoh assignment [und~r 135.267(b)-not regularly assigned] must ~ravide for a~ least 10 consecutive
hours of rest (+ 30 minutes for Rreflight & 15 minutes for post flight) duririg the 24-hour period that precedes the
planned completion time of the assignment.
6. If your total flight ttme (Parts 135 + 91) exceeds the 8/10 hour Part 135 rules yeu must have a rest period
before your next assignment of at least:
a. 11 hours rest (11 :45 block-to-block) if exceeded by not more than 30 minutes.
b. 12 hours rest (12:45 block-to-block) if exceeded by more than 30 minutes but not more than 60 minutes.
c. 16 hours rest (16:45 block-to-block) if exceeded by more than 60 minutes.
7. A Part 91 ferry flight home is (theoretically) at the discretion of the crew and is based on:
a. How do you feel ... and; do you want to bring the aircraft home?
b. Remember - the certificate holder (Company) cannot TELL you to bring the aircraft home.
c. If anything should happen during this ferry flight that might be blamed on pilot fatigue, the crew could be
violated for ''CARELESS and RECKLESS OPERATION" and the company could be violated for allowing
such a flight. (91.13) The FAA's legal opinion states that a violation could be found if you were fatigued to
the point where there WAS or COULD HAVE BEEN a hazard to flight safety as a result of your fatigue.
(FAA legal interpretation by Donald Byrne, Assistant Chief Counsel dated March 30, 1992)
d. Advice - It's not a great idea to exceed the 14 hour duty day. It's best to always be able to look back
on the previous 24 hours and find 10 hours of uninterrupted rest even if conducting a Part 91 ferry (aka
repositioning) flight. If you can't find that 10 hours of rest you are potentially in violation of 91.13 and
could conceivably be cited by some overzealous, self-righteous FAA (folks ,Against ,Aviation) inspector
even if nothing happens (BASTARD!). However, if your company's policy allows Part 91 tail-end
repositioning; and your car and a hot woman (or man!) is waitin' on ya. If it were me ... I'd crank up those
engines and head on back to the house!;o). Carefully though ... not the best of times to blow a tire!;o).

DELAYS:
1. For decades this FAA legal interpretation pertaining to 135.267 has been policy - "If the original planning for a
flight is upset for 'reasons beyond the control' of the crew and operator (late arrival of cargo , passengers,
maintenance difficulties, adverse weather and air traffic delays qualify) the flight may nevertheless be conducted
even though the crew duty time may extend beyond 14 hours, lfthe original planning was REALISTIC."
(FAA legal interpretations June 7, 1990; January 16, 1992; March 28, 1991 , March 30, 1992; August 30, 1993, etc.)
2. It must be noted that this same interpretation also states: "Both the crew and the certificate holder would be in
violation of Sec. 91.13(a) if crewmembers fly when their state of fatigue would endanger others. Furthermore,
the flight crew need not actually endanger others for a violation of Sec. 91.13(a) to occur - a violation exists if
the crew's fatigue subjects life and property to potential endangerment."(!)
3. NOTE: On December 23, 2010 the FAA issued a "Notice of Proposed Interpretation" which said: "If a flight
crewmember was to be aware at the time of departure on the last leg of the flight that he or she has not had the
required rest, 135.267(d) would PROHIBIT him or her from departing on the last leg of the flight." In other words ...
duty time could NOT be extended beyond 14 hours for ANY reason! This earthshaking policy change was later
rescinded by the Office of Chief Counsel saying: "Per Congressional instruction set out in section 346 of the FAA
reauthorization act, the FAA will not be finalizing [this] proposed interpretation." But the question remains ...
What the hell is a "Notice of Proposed Interpretation" anyway!?;o).
''REGULARLY ASSIGNED DUTY PERIOD'': [135.267(c)J

Means that a pilot consistently begins and ends his work period at the same time each day. Operations (such as "on
demand'') which do not fit into a "regularly assigned duty period" as required by 135.267(c), must comply with the rolling
24 consecutive hour "look back" limitations of 135.267(b ).
The ''ROLLING 24 CONSECUTIVE HOUR Limitation'': [135.267(b)(d)1

Before you accept a trip, you must be able to count backwards 24 hours from the projected ''duty completion point"
of the contemplated assignment and insure you will have at least 10 consecutive hours of assigned rest during that
period and that you will not exceed the 8 hours (single pilot) or 10 hours (two pilot) of flight time during 14 hours on
duty (24 hours minus 10 hours rest).
DUTY PERIOD - means the period of elapsed time between reporting for an assignment involving flight time
and release from that assignment (broken by a minimum rest period). (135.273)
FLIGHT Tl ME - means pilot time that commences when an aircraft moves under its own power for the purpose of
flight and ends when the aircraft comes to rest after landing; aka block-to-block. (1 .1)
REST PERIOD "means the period free of all RESPONSIBILITY for work or duty should
the occasion arise." Rest must be determined ''PROSPECTIVELY'' (in advance). It cannot
be determined "retrospectively" (after the fact, or by default). It must be continuous (although
one telephone call is not considered an interruption). It must be free from all duty or restraint
(it's your time). It must be free from all RESPONSIBILITY for work should the occasion arise. ""'
You cannot be REQUIRED to report for work should the company page you or call you. If you
have a RESPONSIBILITY to report to work if called, then the time is not rest. (135.273)
STANDBY/REST: (Legal interpretation Nov 13, 2012, Feb 3, 2015)

1. A 24-hour standby period in which a pilot is scheduled for no activity unless called does not constitute "duty time"
in the sense that it produces the need for rest, but it also does not constitute ''rest time" if there is any
RESPONSIBILITY to return the call and report to work.
2. A company could assign you to wear and could require you to answer a pager (or phone) to assign a flight. But
required standby time is not rest. A flight must be preceded by 10 hours of prospectively-determined rest. You
must be able to count backwards 24 hours from the projected "duty completion point'' of the contemplated
assignment to ensure you will have at least 10 hours of rest during that period and that you will not exceed the 8
(or 10) maximum hours of flight time during that 24-hour period. ..............................................................................~.....
3 HOWEVER [ " ... a certificate holder operating under part 135 1
· • •• 1 cannot require a pilot to answer a phone call ~
+ If you are not required to carry a pager or phone but carry it ~.from the certificate holder during a rest period." ::
voluntarily then it is not duty time and could be considered rest. .................................................................................
If you are not required to do anything including answering a pager or phone then it is not duty time
and could be considered rest.
If you previously have been assigned (in advance) a rest period of at least 10 hours and after
which just happen to be wearing a pager or phone (voluntarily) and are paged or called and you
choose (but are not required) to return the call then you are asked if you would like to fly (but not
required) and you choose (but are not required) to accept the trip then the time spent in rest can
be considered legitimate rest and is legally adequate to satisfy the requirements of the regulations.
Operations Manual policy should be written so that these principles are clearly stated. The company can
provide the pager but the pilot is not required to even turn it on.

PART 117 Flight and Duty Limitations and Rest Requirements: Flightcrew Members
[Part 121 Passenger Operations]
§ 117 .1 Applicability.
(a) This part prescribes flight and duty limitations and rest requirements for all flightcrew members and certificate holders
conducting passenger operations under part 121 of this chapter.
(b) This part applies to all operations directed by part 121 certificate holders under part 91, other than subpart K, of
this chapter if any segment is conducted as a domestic passenger, flag passenger, or supplemental passenger
operation.
(c) This part applies to all flightcrew members when participating in an operation under part 91, other than subpart K of
this chapter, on behalf of the part 121 certificate holder if any flight segment is conducted as a domestic passenger,
flag passenger, or supplemental passenger operation.
(d) Notwithstanding paragraphs (a), (b) and (c) of this section, a certificate holder may conduct under part 117 its part
121 operations pursuant to 121.470, 121.480, or 121.500.
§ 117 .3 Definitions.
In addition to the definitions in §§ 1.1 and 110.2 of this chapter, the following definitions apply to this part. In the event there is
a conflict in definitions, the definitions in this part control for purposes of the flight and duty limitations and rest requirements
of this part.
Acclimated means a condition in which a flightcrew member has been in a theater for 12 hours or has been given at least
36 consecutive hours free from duty.
Airport/standby reserve means a defined duty period during which a flightcrew member is required by a certificate holder to
be at an airport for a possible assignment.
Augmented flightcrew means a flightcrew that has more than the minimum number of flightcrew members required by the
airplane type certificate to operate the aircraft to allow a flightcrew member to be replaced by another qualified flightcrew
member for in-flight rest.
Calendar dav means a 24-hour period from 0000 through 2359 using Coordinated Universal Time or local time.
Certificate holder means a person who holds or is required to hold an air carrier certificate or operating certificate issued
under part 119 of this chapter.
Deadhead transportation means transportation of a flightcrew member as a passenger or non-operating flightcrew
member, by any mode of transportation, as required by a certificate holder, excluding transportation to or from a suitable
accommodation. All time spent in deadhead transportation is duty and is not rest. For purposes of determining the
maximum flight duty period in Table B of this part, deadhead transportation is not considered a flight segment.
Duty means any task that a flightcrew member performs as required by the certificate holder, including but not limited to
flight duty period, flight duty, pre- and post-flight duties, administrative work, training, deadhead transportation, aircraft
positioning on the ground, aircraft loading, and aircraft servicing.
Fatigue means a physiological state of reduced mental or physical performance capability resulting from lack of sleep or
increased physical activity that can reduce a flightcrew member's alertness and ability to safely operate an aircraft or
perform safety-related duties.
Fatigue risk management svstem (FRMS) means a management system for a certificate holder to use to mitigate the
effects of fatigue in its particular operations. It is a data-driven process and a systematic method used to continuously
monitor and manage safety risks associated with fatigue-related error.
Fit for duty means physiologically and mentally prepared and capable of performing assigned duties at the highest degree
of safety.
Flight duty period (FOP) means a period that begins when a flightcrew member is required to report for duty with the
intention of conducting a flight, a series of flights, or positioning or ferrying flights, and ends when the aircraft is parked
after the last flight and there is no intention for further aircraft movement by the same flightcrew member. A flight duty
period includes the duties performed by the flightcrew member on behalf of the certificate holder that occur before a
flight segment or between flight segments without a required intervening rest period. Examples of tasks that are part of
the flight duty period include deadhead transportation, training conducted in an aircraft or flight simulator, and
airport/standby reserve, if the above tasks occur before a flight segment or between flight segments without an
intervening required rest period.
Home base means the location designated by a certificate holder where a flightcrew member normally begins and ends his
or her duty periods.
Lineholder means a flightcrew member who has an assigned flight duty period and is not acting as a reserve flightcrew
member.
Long-cal/ reserve means that, prior to beginning the rest period required by § 117 .25, the flightcrew member is notified by
the certificate holder to report for a flight duty period following the completion of the rest period.
Physiological night's rest means 10 hours of rest that encompasses the hours of 0100 and 0700 at the flightcrew
member's home base, unless the individual has acclimated to a different theater. If the flightcrew member has
acclimated to a different theater, the rest must encompass the hours of 0100 and 0700 at the acclimated location.
Report time means the time that the certificate holder requires a flightcrew member to report for an assignment.
Reserve availability period means a duty period during which a certificate holder requires a flightcrew member on short call
reserve to be available to receive an assignment for a flight duty period.
Reserve flightcrew member means a flightcrew member who a certificate holder requires to be available to receive an
assignment for duty.

Rest facility means a bunk or seat accommodation installed in an aircraft that provides a flightcrew member with a sleep
opportunity.
(1) Class 1 rest facility means a bunk or other surface that allows for a flat sleeping position and is located separate
from both the flight deck and passenger cabin in an area that is temperature-controlled, allows the flightcrew
member to control light, and provides isolation from noise and disturbance.
(2) Class 2 rest facility means a seat in an aircraft cabin that allows for a flat or near flat sleeping position ; is
separated from passengers by a minimum of a curtain to provide darkness and some sound mitigation; and is
reasonably free from disturbance by passengers or flightcrew members.
(3) Class 3 rest facility means a seat in an aircraft cabin or flight deck that reclines at least 40 degrees and
provides~ and foot support.
Rest period means a continuous period determined prospectively during which the flightcrew member is free from all
restraint by the certificate holder, including freedom from present responsibility for work should the occasion arise.
Scheduled means to appoint, assign, or designate for a fixed time.
Short-call reserve means a period of time in which a flightcrew member is assigned to a reserve availability period.
Split duty means a flight duty period that has a scheduled break in duty that is less than a required rest period.
Suitable accommodation means a temperature-controlled facility with sound mitigation and the ability to control light that
provides a flightcrew member with the ability to sleep either in a bed, bunk or in a chair that allows for flat or near flat
sleeping position. Suitable accommodation only applies to ground facilities and does not apply to aircraft onboard rest
facilities.
Theater means a geographical area in which the distance between the flightcrew member's flight duty period departure point
and arrival point differs by no more than 60 degrees longitude.
Unforeseen operational circumstance means an unplanned event of insufficient duration to allow for adjustments to
schedules, including unforecast weather, equipment malfunction, or air traffic delay that is not reasonably expected.
Window of circadian low means a period of maximum sleepiness that occurs between 0200 and 0559 during a
physiological night.
§ 117 .5 Fitness for duty.

(a) Each flightcrew member must report for any flight duty period rested and prepared to perform his or her assigned
duties.
(b) No certificate holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept assignment to a flight duty period !! the
flightcrew member has reported for a flight duty period too fatigued to safely perform his or her assigned duties.
(c) No certificate holder may permit a flightcrew member to continue a flight duty
period if the flightcrew member has reported him or herself too fatigued to
continue the assigned flight duty period.
(d) As part of the dispatch or flight release, as applicable, each flightcrew member
must affirmatively state he or she is ID. for duty prior to commencing flight.
§ 117. 7 Fatigue risk management system.

Gotta have a system.
§ 117.9 Fatigue education and awareness training program.

Gotta have a training program.
§ 117 .11 Flight time limitation.

(a) No certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an ~ ......................... ~
assignment or continue an assigned flight duty period !! the total flight time: : Flight time (1.1) means: pilot time
(1) Will exceed the limits specified in Table A of this part if the operation is : that commences when an aircraft
conducted with the minimum required flightcrew. : moves under its own power for the
(2) Will exceed 13 hours if the operation is conducted with a 3-pilot • purpose of flight and ends when
flightcrew. : the aircraft comes to rest after
(3) Will exceed 17 hours if the operation is conducted with a 4-pilot landing; aka block-to-block.
flightcrew.
(b) If unforeseen operational circumstances arise after takeoff that are beyond the certificate holder's control, a
flightcrew member may exceed the maximum flight time specified in paragraph (a) of this section and the cumulative
flight time limits in 117.23(b) !Q the extent necessary to safely land the aircraft at the next destination airport or
alternate, as appropriate.
(c) Each certificate holder must report to the Administrator within 10 days any flight time that exceeded the maximum
flight time limits permitted by this section or§ 117 .23(b ). The report must contain a description of the extended flight
time limitation and the circumstances surrounding the need for the extension.

§ 117.13 Flight duty period: Unaugmented operations.
(a) Except as provided for in§ 117.15, no certificate holder may assign
and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment for an
unaugmented flight operation if the scheduled flight duty period will
exceed the limits in Table B of this part.
(b) !! the flightcrew member is not acclimated:
(1) The maximum flight duty period in Table B of this part is
reduced by 30 minutes.
(2) The applicable flight duty period is based on the local time at
the theater in which the flightcrew member was last acclimated.
§ 117.15 Flight duty period: Split duty.

For an unaugmented operation only, if a flightcrew member is provided with a rest opportunity (an opportunity to sleep)
in a suitable accommodation during his or her flight duty period, the time that the flightcrew member spends in the
suitable accommodation is not part of that flightcrew member's flight duty period if all of the following conditions are
met:
(a) The rest opportunity is provided between the hours of 22:00 and 05:00 local time.
(b) The time spent in the suitable accommodation is at least 3 hours, measured from the time that the flightcrew member
reaches the suitable accommodation.
(c) The rest opportunity is scheduled before the beginning of the flight duty period in which that rest opportunity!.§.
taken.
(d) The rest opportunity that the flightcrew member is actually provided may not be less than the rest opportunity that
was scheduled.
(e) The rest opportunity is not provided until the first segment of the flight duty period has been completed.
(f) The combined time of the flight duty period and the rest opportunity provided in this section does not exceed 14
hours.
Caug aka C+ aka C+S aka C#5
§ 117.17 Flight duty period: Augmented flightcrew.
(a) For flight operations conducted with an acclimated augmented flightcrew, no certificate
holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment if the scheduled
flight duty period will exceed the limits specified in Table C of this part.
(b) !! the flightcrew member is not acclimated:
(1) The maximum flight duty period in Table C of this part is reduced by 30 minutes.
(2) The applicable flight duty period is based on the local time at the theater in which the
flightcrew member was last acclimated.
(c) No certificate holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment
A free guitar lesson.
under this section unless during the flight duty period:
(1) Two consecutive hours in the second half of the flight duty period are available for in-flight rest for the pilot
flying the aircraft during landing.
(2) Ninety consecutive minutes are available for in-flight rest for the pilot performing monitoring duties during
landing.
(d) No certificate holder may assign and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment involving more than three
flight segments under this section.
(e) At all times during flight, at least one flightcrew member gualified in accordance with § 121.543(b)(3)(i) of this
chapter must be at the flight controls.
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§ 117 .19 Flight duty period extensions.
(a) For augmented and unaugmented operations, if unforeseen operational circumstances
arise prior to takeoff:
(1) The pilot in command and the certificate holder may extend the maximum flight duty
period permitted in Tables B or~ of this part up to 2 hours. The pilot in command and
the certificate holder may also extend the maximum combined flight duty period and
reserve availability period limits specified in § 117.21 (c )(3) and (4) of this part up to 2 hours.
(2) An extension in the flight duty period under paragraph (a)(1) of this section of more than 30 minutes may occur
only once prior to receiving a rest period described in § 117.25(b).
(3) A flight duty period cannot be extended under paragraph (a)(1) of this section i! it causes a flightcrew member to
exceed the cumulative flight duty period limits specified in 117.23(c).
(4) Each certificate holder must report to the Administrator within 10 days any flight duty period that exceeded the
maximum flight duty period permitted in Tables B or C of this part by more than 30 minutes. The report must
contain the following:
(i) A description of the extended flight duty period and circumstances surrounding the need for the extension; and
(ii) If the circumstances giving rise to the extension were within the certificate holder's control, the corrective
action(s) that the certificate holder intends to take to minimize the need for future extensions.
(5) Each certificate holder must implement the corrective action(s) reported in paragraph (a)(4) of this section within 30
days from the date of the extended flight duty period.
(b) For augmented and unaugmented operations, if unforeseen operational circumstances arise after takeoff:
(1) The pilot in command and the certificate holder may extend maximum flight duty periods specified in Tables B or
~of this part !Q. the extent necessary to safely land the aircraft at the next destination airport or alternate
airport, as appropriate.
(2) An extension of the flight duty period under paragraph (b )( 1) of this section of more than 30 minutes may occur
only once prior to receiving a rest period described in§ 117.25(b).
(3) An extension taken under paragraph (b) of this section may exceed the cumulative flight duty period limits
specified in 117.23(c).
(4) Each certificate holder must report to the Administrator within 10 days any flight duty period that either
exceeded the cumulative flight duty periods specified in§ 117.23(c), or exceeded the maximum flight duty period
limits permitted by Tables B or~ of this part by more than 30 minutes. The report must contain a description of
the circumstances surrounding the affected flight duty period. r ==-===-=-=======--=--=..•
§ 117.21 Reserve status.
(a) Unless specifically designated as airporVstandby or short-call reserve
eserv e
by the certificate holder, all reserve is considered long-call reserve.
(b) Any reserve that meets the definition of airporVstandby reserve must be designated as airporVstandby reserve.
For airport/standby reserve, all time spent in a reserve status is part of the flightcrew member's flight duty period.
(c) For short call reserve,
(1) The reserve availability period may not exceed 14 hours.
(2) For a flightcrew member who has completed a reserve availability period, no certificate holder may schedule
and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment of a reserve availability period unless the flightcrew member
receives the required rest in § 117.25( e ).
(3) For an unaugmented operation, the total number of hours a flightcrew member may spend in a flight duty period
and a reserve availability period may not exceed the lesser of the maximum applicable flight duty period in
Table B of this part plus 4 hours, or 16 hours, as measured from the beginning of the reserve availability
period.
(4) For an augmented operation, the total number of hours a flightcrew member may spend in a flight duty period
and a reserve availability period may not exceed the flight duty period in Table C of this part plus 4 hours, as
measured from the beginning of the reserve availability period.
(d) For long call reserve, !! a certificate holder contacts a flightcrew member to assign him or her to a flight duty
period that will begin before and operate into the flightcrew member's window of circadian low, the flightcrew
member must receive a 12 hour notice of report time from the certificate holder.
(e) A certificate holder may shift a reserve flightcrew member's reserve status from long-call to short-call only if the
flightcrew member receives a rest period as provided in § 117.25(e).
§ 117.23 Cumulative limitations.

(a) The limitations of this section include all flying by flightcrew members on behalf
of any certificate holder or 91 K Program Manager during the applicable periods.
(b) No certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an
assignment!! the flightcrew member's total flight time will exceed the following :
(1) 100 hours in any 672 consecutive hours and
(2) 1,000 hours in any 365 consecutive calendar day period.
(c) No certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an
assignment!! the flightcrew member's total Flight Duty Period will exceed:
(1) 60 flight duty period hours in any 168 consecutive hours or
(2) 190 flight duty period hours in any 672 consecutive hours.

§ 117.25 Rest period. AIRPORT
(a) No certificate holder mav assign and no flightcrew member MOTEL
may accept assignment to any reserve or duty with the
certificate holder during any required rest period.
(b) Before beginning any reserve or flight duty period a flightcrew
member must be given at least 30 consecutive hours free from
all duty in any 168 consecutive hour period.
(c) !! a flightcrew member operating in a new theater has
received 36 consecutive hours of rest, that flightcrew member
is acclimated and the rest period meets the requirements of
paragraph ,{Ql of this section.
(d) A flightcrew member must be given a minimum of 56
consecutive hours rest upon return to home base if the
flightcrew member: (1) Travels more than 60° longitude during a flight duty period or a series of flight duty period,
and (2) is away from home base for more than 168 consecutive hours during this travel. The 56 hours of rest
specified in this section must encompass three physiological nights' rest based on local time.
(e) No certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept an assignment for any reserve or flight duty
period unless the flightcrew member is given a rest period of at least 10 consecutive hours immediately before
beginning the reserve or flight duty period measured from the time the flightcrew member is released from duty.
The 10 hour rest period must provide the flightcrew member with a minimum of 8 uninterrupted hours of sleep
opportunity.
(f) !! a flightcrew member determines that a rest period under paragraph (e) of this section will not provide eight
uninterrupted hours of sleep opportunity, the flightcrew member must notify the certificate holder. The flightcrew
member cannot report for the assigned flight duty period until he or she receives a rest period specified in
paragraph (e) of this section.
(g) If a flightcrew member engaged in deadhead transportation exceeds the applicable flight duty period in Table B of
this part, the flightcrew member must be given a rest period equal to the length of the deadhead transportation but
not less than the required rest in paragraph (e) of this section before beginning a flight duty period.
§ 117.27 Consecutive nighttime operations.

A certificate holder may schedule and a flightcrew member may accept up to five consecutive flight duty periods that infringe
on the window of circadian low if the certificate holder provides the flightcrew member with an opportunity to rest in a suitable
accommodation during each of the consecutive nighttime flight duty periods. The rest opportunity must be at least 2 hours,
measured from the time that the flightcrew member reaches the suitable accommodation, and must comply with the conditions
specified in§ 117.15(a), (c), (d), and (e). Otherwise, no certificate holder may schedule and no flightcrew member may accept
more than three consecutive flight duty periods that infringe on the window of circadian low. For purposes of this section , any
split duty rest that is provided in accordance with § 117.15 counts as part of a flight duty period.
§ 117.29 Emergency and government sponsored operations. EMER GEN CY 1 1
(a) This section applies to operations conducted pursuant to contracts with the U.S. PUSH T10 CAN:CEL
1
Government and operations conducted pursuant to a deviation under§ 119.57 of this

chapter that cannot otherwise be conducted under this part because of circumstances that could prevent
flightcrew members from being relieved by another crew or safely provided with the rest required under§ 117.25 at
the end of the applicable flight duty period.
(b) The pilot-in-command may determine that the maximum applicable flight duty period, flight time, and/or combined
flight duty period and reserve availability period limits must be exceeded to the extent necessary to allow the
flightcrew tofu! to the closest destination where they can safely be relieved from duty by another flightcrew or can
receive the requisite amount of rest prior to commencing their next flight duty period.
(c) A flight duty period may not be extended for an operation conducted pursuant to a contract with the U.S.
Government it it causes a flightcrew member to exceed the cumulative flight time limits in§ 117.23(b) and the
cumulative flight duty period limits in§ 117.23(c).
(d) The flightcrew shall be given a rest period immediately after reaching the destination described in paragraph (b) of
this section equal to the length of the actual flight duty period or 24 hours, whichever is less.
(e) Each certificate holder must report within 10 days:
(1) Any flight duty period that exceeded the maximum flight duty period permitted in Tables B or C of this part, as
applicable, by more than 30 minutes;
(2) Any flight time that exceeded the maximum flight time limits permitted in Table A of this part and § 117.11, as
applicable; and
(3) Any flight duty period or flight time that exceeded the cumulative limits specified in § 117 .23.
(f) The report must contain the following:
(1) A description of the extended flight duty period and flight time limitation, and the circumstances surrounding the
need for the extension; and
(2) If the circumstances giving rise to the extension(s) were within the certificate holder's control, the corrective
action(s) that the certificate holder intends to take to minimize the need for future extensions.
(g) Each certificate holder must implement the corrective action(s) reported pursuant to paragraph (f)(2) of this section
within 30 days from the date of the extended flight duty period and/or the extended flight time.

Table A to Part 117

Maximum Flight Time Limits for
Unaugmented Operations Table
Time of Report Maximum Flight Time
'acclimated hours
0000-0459 8
0500-1959 9
2000-2359 8
Table B to Part 117

Flight Duty Period: Unaugmented Operations
Scheduled time of Maximum Flight Duty Period (HOURS)
START for Lineholders based on NUMBER of FLIGHT SEGMENTS
(acclimated time) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7+
0000-0359 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
0400-0459 10 10 10 10 9 9 9
0500-0559 12 12 12 12 11.5 11 10.5
0600-0659 13 13 12 12 11.5 11 10.5
0700-1159 14 14 13 13 12.5 12 11.5
1200-1259 13 13 13 13 12.5 12 11.5
1300-1659 12 12 12 12 11.5 11 10.5
1700-2159 12 12 11 11 10 9 9
2200-2259 11 11 10 10 9 9 9
2300-2359 12 10 10 9 9 9 9
Table C to Part 117

Flight Duty Period: Augmented Operations
Maximum flight duty period (HOURS)
Scheduled time of
based on rest facility and number of pilots
START
Class 1 rest facility Class 2 rest facility Class 3 rest facility
(acclimated time)
3 pilots 4 pilots 3 pilots 4 pilots 3 pilots 4 pilots
0000-0559 15 17 14 15.5 13 13.5
0600-0659 16 18.5 15 16.5 14 14.5
0700-1259 17 19 16.5 18 15 15.5
1300-1659 16 18.5 15 16.5 14 14.5
1700-2359 15 17 14 15.5 13 13.5

FLIGHT LOCATING PROCEDURES:

(Ops Manual, 91 .1029, 135.79, 121 .125, 121.127, 121 .617 thru 121 .625, OpSpec C077)
1. All must be on a flight plan filed with FSS and a D

company official must be notified immediately BEFORE takeoff and
immediatel AFTER landin . The company must always know exactly where the aircraft is.
2. For all , a company official must be informed of the route, the ETE, and
notified immediately BEFORE takeoff and immediately AFTER landing. This statement would have
to appear in your Operations Manual and be accepted by the company's FAA frincipal Qperations
Inspector.
3. It is acceptable to cancel I FR and continue VFR for the terminal (arrival) portion of a flight if in the
judgment of the captain it can be conducted VFR and will expedite traffic flow. Again this statement
should appear in your Operations Manual in order to actually cancel and continue VFR.
4. NOTE: If you are operating a TURBOJET under Part 135, you are restricted by OpSpec C077, and
may NOT conduct a VFR arrival or departure from an airport without weather reporting.
''REGULAR AIRPORT'': (110.2)

An airport used by a certificate holder in scheduled operations and listed in its operations specifications.
''PROVISIONAL AIRPORT'': (110.2)

An airport approved by the Administrator for use by a certificate holder for the purpose of providing service
to a community when the regular airport normally used is not available.
AIRPORT REQUIREMENTS - RUNWAY LIGHTING: (13s.22s. 121 .590, 125.49)

(a) No certificate holder may use any airport unless it is adequate for the proposed operation,
considering such items as size, surface, obstructions, and lighting.
(b) No pilot of an aircraft carrying PASSENGERS at night may take off from, or land on, an
airport unless -
(1) That pilot has determined the WIND direction from an illuminated wind direction
indicator or local ground communications or, in the case of takeoff, that pilot's personal
observations; and
(2) The limits of the area to be used for landing or takeoff are clearly shown -
(i) For airplanes, by boundary or RUNWAY marker LIGHTS;
(ii) For helicopters, by boundary or runway marker lights or reflective material.
(c) For the purpose of paragraph (b) of this section, if the area to be used for takeoff or landing is marked by
flare pots or lanterns, their use must be approved by the Administrator .
••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• '
: RUNWAY EDGE LIGHTS:
• (AIM 2-1-4 & P/C Glossary [Airport lighting])
•• White lights, except on instrument
: runways, yellow replaces white on
•• the last 2,000 feet or half the
• runway length, whichever is less, to
•• form a caution zone. Runway lights
•• are uniformly spaced at intervals of
approximately 200 feet. Lights
marking the end of the runway emit
red lights toward the runway.

INTERNATIONAL Flights: (91 .701 thru 91 .715, AIM 5-1-9, 5-1-11 , GOM)
1. MUST be on an IFR or DVFR flight plan . (91 .707)
2. Should include ''ADCUS'' [advise customs] in the remarks section.
3. For flights outside the United States all crewmembers and passengers must have
a valid passport. At least one crewmember must hold a personal FCC
Restricted Radiotelephone Operator Permit. The aircraft itself must also have
a Radio Station License issued by the FCC in order to operate internationally.
''English Proficient'' endorsement required on all pilot certificates.
4. You must clear customs a total of 4 times during a round trip:
a. Out of the United States.
b. Into the foreign country.
c. Out of the foreign country (this usually happens at the same time unless you're going to hang
around for a while and have a few margaritas before you depart).
d. Back into the United States.
5. When a U.S. certified pilot flies outside the United States, the pilot must abide by:
a. The Y,nited §.tates federal 8,viation Regulations (FARs);
b. The regulations of the International ~ivil 8,viation Qrganization (ICAO); and
c. The regulations of the country the pilot is operating in;
d. When any of the regulations conflict, the pilot must comply with the most restrictive ones
(91. 703 ). It is the responsibility of the pilot to know the applicable regulations.
(Visit www.faa.gov/air traffic/publications/ifim/airspace for appropriate links)

Entering, Exiting and Flying in United States Airspace:
1. Aircraft flying into, out of, or through U.S. airspace need to comply with
several requirements.
2. Particular attention must be paid to the electronic 8,dvance fassenger
manifest Information .§.ystem (APIS) required by U.S. ~ustoms and ~order
frotection (CBP).
3. CBP and the Iransportation .§.ecurity 8,dministration (TSA), agencies of the
Qepartment of !fomeland .§.ecurity (OHS), work together for international flights.
4. CBP has enacted APIS procedures for private aircraft to send advance notice
of their intended arrival or departure into or out of the U.S., and submit manifests
of persons on board.
Advance .e_assenger !nformation ~ystem (APIS):

1. The ~lectronic 8,dvance fassenger Information .§.ystem (eAPIS) is a Web-based application, created by
CBP, for international travel into and out of the U.S. for private aircraft. (https://eapis.cbp.dhs.govl)
2. Pilots, or their assigned agents, must enroll online before filing an international flight plan.
3. Flights arriving from or flying to a destination outside the U.S. must electronically transmit the following
information to the CBP: (https://eapis.cbp.dhs.gov/)
• Traveler manifest information for each person on board
...............................
: UPON ARRIVIAL in ANY country,
• Notice of arrival information : including the United States,
• Notice of departure information : REMAIN IN the AIRCRAFT until
4. The information must be received by the CBP no less than • Customs officials arrive. They
•
60 minutes prior to takeoff for flights departing from or arriving z really get off on watching you
in the U.S. • sweat or freeze to death!
5. Pilots may submit departure as well as subsequent arrival ••
information with APIS before leaving the U.S. Having filed both
flights, if there is a delay, it is possible to amend the flight plan with Customs or Flight Service by
phone, or if in flight, by radio. If there is a change of date, a new manifest must be filed.
6. APIS will take the place of Customs Form 708; however, revenue flights are required to fill out Form
7507 (General Declaration). Each person on an inbound flight will have to submit Form 60598
(individual declaration card).
7. All civil, private aircraft entering the U.S. must first land at an airport of entry before continuing to their
destinations, unless other arrangements are made with U.S. CBP. Advance notification must be
provided electronically to CBP by means of the eAPIS.
8. An International ~ivil 8,viation Qrganization (ICAO) format flight plan is recommended AIM 5-1-9.

SMALL AIRCRAFT: (1 .1)
Gross weight 12,500 lbs or less.
LARGE AIRCRAFT: (1 .1. 61 .31 , 61 .58, 61 .63, 91 .501 , 135.365, 135.367, 135.369, 135.375, 135.377, 135.605)
1. Gross weight more than 12,500 lbs.
2. ALL large aircraft and ALL jets ALWAYS require a type rating and normally require 2 pilots unless
certified for single pilot operations.
3. As a general rule, LARGE AIRCRAFT and JETS normally require a crew of at least 2 pilots unless
approved for single pilot operations by the FAA during the aircraft certification process.
4. Sometimes a Large aircraft is approved for single pilot operation based on the pilot's type rating, e.g.;
the King Air 300, 350, Beech 1900 and Starship all weigh more than 12,500 lbs If a pilot takes his
type rating as a single pilot he can fly those airplanes alone If he takes his type ride as part of a
crew he must fly as part of a crew. The CitationJet ISP I llSP & all CE500 series are also certified for
single or two-pilot operations. A King Air 350 equipped with 9 seats or less is certified to operate with
a single pilot; if it is equipped with 10 or more seats, it must be operated with two pilots. The 350 is
certified under Part 23 "Commuter category" rules, which allow single pilot operations for prop-driven
aircraft over 12,500 Lbs equipped with less than 1O passenger seats .
•~···················~ ··~ ···············

: For aircraft that require more than
: one pilot, the SIC requires a TYPE
: RATING (SIC only) for fl ights
•
TYPE RATING REQUIRED: (61 .31, 61 .55, 61.58, 61 .63, 61 .64, 61 .157, 91 .5) =•• OUTS/DEUnitedStates airspace.
1. A type rating is required for ALL Large Aircraft (over 12,500 lbs) and ALL Jets.
2. In order to serve as PIC on an aircraft a pilot is type rated in , the pilot must complete a ''pilot-in-
command proficiency check'' for that aircraft within the previous 12-calendar months
(24-calendar months if alternated with another type rated aircraft). The pilot-in-command proficiency
check given in accordance with Parts 121, 125 or 135 or Subpart K of Part 91 for that aircraft will satisfy
this requirement (see Chapter 5 for the details).
ACCELERATE-STOP I ACCELERATE-GO DISTANCE:

(25.109, 91 .605, 135.375thru 135.399, 121 .177thru 121 .199, FAA-P-8740-19, AC 120-62)
1. Accelerate-Stop and Accelerate-Go distance is required for all Part 121 & Part 135 revenue flights
except small nontransport category aircraft with 9 seats or less do not require accelerate-stop or
accelerate-go distance.
2. ACCELERATE-STOP Distance required to accelerate to V 1 (or liftoff speed
depending on the POH) and, assuming failure of an engine at the instant V 1 is attained,
to bring the airplane to a full stop on the remaining runway and/or stopway.
3. ACCELERATE-GO Distance required to accelerate to V 1 (or liftoff speed -
depending on the POH) and, assuming failure of an engine at the instant liftoff speed
(or V 1) is attained, to continue the takeoff on the remaining engine and climb to clear a
50-foot obstacle. Accelerate-go distance does not apply to most light, propeller-driven
twins because assuming failure of an engine at the instant liftoff speed (or V 1) is
attained most light twins cannot continue a takeoff roll, actually lift off, and climb on
one engine; there is no choice but to abort.

LANDING LIMITATIONS LARGE & SMALL AIRCRAFT 60°/o, 70°/o & 80°/o:
(91 ,1037, 135.375 thru 135.399, 121 .185 thru 121 .205, P/C Glossary, A/FD, Jeppesen Approach Chart Legend)
1. No person may TAKEOFF a small transport category turbojet; large transport category turboprop;
large nontransport category airplane; small nontransport category [10-19 seat] airplane; or commuter
category airplane unless its ANTICIPATED weight on arrival at the destination would allow a full
stop landing within 60°/o of the ''effective runway length'' (70°/o for the alternate).
NOTE #1: Small normal category piston or turboprop aircraft with less than 10 passenger seats are
not bound by this rule.
NOTE #2: Large Transport Category TURBOJETS must be able to land within 60°/o of the effective
runway length EVEN at the ALTERNATE.
2. LANDING LIMITATIONS (91 .1037, 135.385, 135.387) A person operating a turbine engine-powered
large transport category airplane on an ON-DEMAND flight may not TAKE OFF that airplane unless
its anticipated weight on arrival would allow a full stop LANDING at the destination within 60°/o of the
effective length of the runway (70°/o for the alternate; or 60°/o if it is a turbojet using that alternate). An
''ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND OPERATOR'' (135.4) is allowed to use a landing weight that would allow a
full stop landing within 80 percent of the effective length of the runway (destination or alternate), if the
operation is conducted in accordance with an approved ''Destination Airport Analysis'' included in
that company's operations manual. When operating a TURBOJET to a wet or slippery runway, the
effective runway length must be at least 115o/o of the runway length required under dry conditions.
3. To compute the distance divide the Aircraft flight Manual distance by 0.6 -
Example: if 3000 feet is required by the AFM, the runway at the destination must have at least 5000
feet available. Or ... you can multiply the runway length by 0.6 to get the maximum allowable AFM-
required landing distance.
4. ''Effective Length of the Runway'' for landing means the distance from the point at which the
obstruction clearance plane associated with the approach end of the runway intersects the centerline
of the runway to the far end of the runway. Basically this is the physical runway length less any
displaced portion on the approach end. The displaced threshold is usually due to a problem with the
1:20 obstruction clearance plane. If a normal 3-degree VASI or PAPI is installed within the first 1,000
feet of a runway, you could (almost always) assume that the threshold is the beginning of the effective
runway length. Or, you could always run out and obtain an ''obstacle analysis'' for that runway.
NOTE #3: ''Landing Distance Available'' (LOA) (A/FD) is the length of runway, which is declared (by
the airport authority) available and suitable for the ground run of an aeroplane landing. It does not
always officially take into account the 20: 1 obstruction clearance plane (but it usually does).
NOTE #4: ''Usable Lengths'' (a Jeppesen term not defined by the FARs) "When usable runway
lengths differ from those depicted in the airport planview, lengths are specified in the 'USABLE
LENGTHS' columns. Blank columns indicate that the runway length depicted in the airport planview is
applicable." It may be assumed that ''Usable Lengths'' has the same meaning as ''Landing Distance
Available."
5. ''Obstruction Clearance Plane'' a plane sloping upward from the runway at a slope of 1 :20 to the
horizontal, and tangent to or clearing all obstructions within a specified area surrounding the runway
as shown in a profile view of that area. A specific radius of lateral clearance is also required .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••
: 20:1 = 2.866 degrees or 303.8 feet per NM
100 foot
tree
Displaced
Threshold
+----2,000 f e e t - - - •
en
6. If the runway is WET or SLIPPERY, and there is no AFM wet data available for your Turbojet, you
are required to have a runway that is at least 115°/o of the runway length required for dry conditions.
Using the 5000 feet calculated above that would require an effective runway length of 5750 feet.
This wet distance calculation is not required for the alternate but is certainly advisable.
7. OpSpec C054 also prohibits a turbojet from beginning an approach when the visibility is less than
3A mile or 4000 RVR, unless 15°/o is added to the distance required by the appropriate (60°/o) rule.
Example: If 3000 feet is required by the AFM 3000 + 0.6=5000x1.15 = 5750 feet required.
You are not required to take the wet runway into account when making this calculation for visibility but it
is more conservative to do so.
(Chap 7 Commercial Operations J
Subpart F 91.501 thru 91.533 - LARGE and TURBINE-POW D
Multiengine Airplanes & Fractional Ownership Program Aircraft: (91 .501)
(a) This subpart prescribes operating rules, in addition to those prescribed in other subparts of this part, governing the
operation of large airplanes of U.S. registry, turbojet-powered multiengine civil airplanes of U.S. registry, and
fractional ownership program aircraft of U.S. registry that are operating under subpart K of this part in operations not
involving common carriage. The operating rules in this subpart do not apply to those aircraft when they are required to
be operated under parts 121, 125, 129, 135, and 137 of this chapter. (Section 91.409 prescribes an inspection program
for large and for turbine-powered (turbojet and turboprop) multiengine airplanes and turbine-powered rotorcraft of U.S.
registry when they are operated under this part or part 129 or 137 .)
(b) Operations that may be conducted under the rules in this subpart instead of those in parts 121. 129, 135, and 137
of this chapter when common carriage is not involved, include-
(1) Ferry or training flights;
(2) Aerial work operations such as aerial photography or survey, or pipeline patrol, but not including fire fighting
operations;
(3) Flights for the demonstration of an airplane to prospective customers when no charge is made except for those
specified in paragraph (d) of this section;
(4) Flights conducted by the operator of an airplane for his personal transportation , Q! the transportation of his guests when
no charge, assessment, or fee is made for the transportation ;
(5) Carriage of officials, employees, guests, and property of a company on an airplane operated by that company, or
the parent or subsidiary of the company or a subsidiary of the parent, when the carriage is within the scope of, and
incidental to, the business of the company (other than transportation by air) and no charge, assessment or fee is made
for the carriage in excess of the cost of owning, operating , and maintaining the airplane, except that no charge of any
kind may be made for the carriage of a guest of a company, when the carriage is not within the scope of, and
incidental to, the business of that company;
(6) The carriage of company officials, employees, and guests of the company on an airplane operated under a time
sharing, interchange, or joint ownership agreement as defined in paragraph (c) of this section;
(7) The carriage of property (other than mail) on an airplane operated by a person in the furtherance of a business or
employment (other than transportation by air) when the carriage is within the scope of, and incidental to, that business
or employment and no charge, assessment, or fee is made for the carriage other than those specified in paragraph (d) of
this section;
(8) The carriage on an airplane of an athletic team, sports group, choral group, or similar group having a common
purpose or objective when there is no charge, assessment, or fee of any kind made by any person for that carriage; and
(9) The carriage of persons on an airplane operated by a person in the furtherance of a business other than transportation
by air for the purpose of selling them land , goods, or property, including franchises or distributorships, when the
carriage is within the scope of, and incidental to, that business and no charge, assessment, or fee is made for that
.
carriage.
(10) Any operation identified in paragraphs (b )(1) through (b )(9) of this section when conducted--
(i) By a fractional ownership program manager, or
(ii) By a fractional owner in a fractional ownership program aircraft operated under subpart K of this part, except that
a flight under a joint ownership arrangement under paragraph (b)(6) of this section may not be conducted. For a flight
under an interchange agreement under paragraph (b)(6) of this section , the exchange of equal time for the operation must
be properly accounted for as part of the total hours associated with the fractional owner's share of ownership.
(c) As used in this section-
(1) A TIME SHARING AGREEMENT means an arrangement whereby a person leases his airplane with flight crew to another
person , and no charge is made for the flights conducted under that arrangement other than those specified in paragraph
(d) of this section;
(2) An INTERCHANGE AGREEMENT means an arrangement whereby a person leases his airplane to another person in
exchange for equal time, when needed , on the other person's airplane, and no charge, assessment, or fee is made,
except that a charge may be made not to exceed the difference between the cost of owning, operating , and maintaining
the two airplanes;
(3) A JOINT OWNERSHIP AGREEMENT means an arrangement whereby one of the registered joint owners of an airplane
employs and furnishes the flight crew for that airplane and each of the registered joint owners pays a share of the charge
specified in the agreement.
(d) The following may be charged, as expenses of a specific flight, for transportation as authorized by paragraphs (b)(3) and (Z)
and (c)(1) of this section:
(1) Fuel , oil, lubricants, and other additives.
(2) Travel expenses of the crew, including food , lodging, and ground transportation ,
(3) Hangar and tie-down costs away from the aircraft's base of operation . --
(4) Insurance obtained for the specific flight.
(5) Landing fees, airport taxes, and similar assessments.
(6) Customs, foreign permit, and similar fees directly related to the flight.
(7) In flight food and beverages.
(8) Passenger ground transportation.
(9) Flight planning and weather contract services.
(10) An additional charge equal to 100 percent of the expenses listed in paragraph (d)(1) of this section .

AUTOPILOT - Minimum Altitudes For Use: (135.93. 121 .579)
(a) Definitions. For purpose of this section --
(1) Altitudes for takeoff/initial climb and go-around/missed approach are defined as above the
airport elevation.
(2) Altitudes for enroute operations are defined as above terrain elevation .
(3) Altitudes for approach are defined as above the touchdown zone elevation (TDZE), unless the
altitude is specifically in reference to DA (H) or MDA, in which case the altitude is defined by
reference to the DA(H) or MDA itself.
(b) Takeoff and initial climb. No person may use an autopilot for takeoff or initial climb below the
higher of 500 feet Q! an altitude that is no lower than twice the altitude loss specified in the
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM), except as follows --
(1 ) At a minimum engagement altitude specified in the AFM; or
(2) At an altitude specified by the Administrator, whichever is greater.
(c) Enroute. No person may use an autopilot enroute, including climb and descent, below the following --
( 1) 500 feet;
(2) At an altitude that is no lower than twice the altitude loss specified in the AFM for an autopilot malfunction in cruise conditions; or
(3) At an altitude specified by the Administrator, whichever is greater.
(d) Approach. No person may use an autopilot at an altitude lower than 50 feet below the DA(H) or MDA for the instrument procedure
being flown , except as follows--
(1) For autopilots with an AFM specified altitude loss for approach operations--
(i) An altitude no lower than twice the specified altitude loss if higher than 50 feet below the MDA or DA(H);
(ii) An altitude no lower than 50 feet higher than the altitude loss specified in the AFM, when the following conditions are met--
(A) Reported weather conditions are less than the basic VFR weather conditions in § 91 .155 of this chapter;
(B) Suitable visual references specified in § 91 .175 of this chapter have been established on the instrument approach
procedure; and
(C) The autopilot is coupled and receiving both lateral and verti cal path references;
(iii) An altitude no lower than the higher of the altitude loss specified in the AFM or 50 feet above the TDZE, when the following
conditions are met--
(A) Reported weather conditions are equal to or better than the basic VFR weather conditions in § 91 .155 of this chapter;
and
(B) The autopilot is coupled and receiving both lateral and vertical path references; or
(iv) A greater altitude specified by the Administrator.
(2) For autopilots with AFM specified approach altitude limitations, the greater of--
(i) The minimum use altitude specified for the coupled approach mode selected;
(ii) 50 feet; or
(iii) An altitude specified by Administrator.
(3) For autopilots with an AFM specified negligible or zero altitude loss for an autopilot approach mode malfunction , the greater of--
(i) 50 feet; or
(ii) An altitude specified by Administrator.
(4) If executing an autopilot coupled go-around or missed approach using a certificated and functioning autopilot in accordance with
paragraph (e) in this section.
(e) Go-Around/Missed Approach. No person may engage an autopilot during a go-around or missed approach below the minimum
engagement altitude specified for takeoff and initial climb in paragraph (b) in this section . An autopilot minimum use altitude does not
apply to a go-around/missed approach initiated with an engaged autopilot. Performing a go-around or missed approach with an
engaged autopilot must not adversely affect safe obstacle clearance.
(f) Landing. Notwithstanding paragraph (d) of this section, autopilot minimum use altitudes do not apply to autopilot operations when an
approved automatic landing system mode is being used for landing . Automatic landing systems must be authorized in an operations
specification issued to the operator.
(g) This section does not apply to operations conducted in rotorcraft .
•
•.......................................................................... ,
: No person may use an AUTOPILOT:
: 1. ENROUTE - less than 500 feet above the terrain, or less than twice the maximum altitude loss
• specified for a malfunction of the autopilot, whichever is higher.
•• 2. NONPRECISION APPROACH - less than 50 feet below the MDA, or less than twice the maximum
: altitude loss specified for a malfunction of the autopilot under approach conditions, whichever is higher.
: 3. ILS APPROACH - when weather is below basic VFR, less than 50 feet above the terrain, or the
altitude loss specified for a malfunction of the autopilot with approach coupler, whichever is higher.
·················································-
*• - - · ·························
Second In Command vs. AUTOPILOT (135.99, 135.101 , 135.105)
No certificate holder may operate an aircraft without a second in command if that aircraft has a passenger seating
• configuration , excluding any pilot seat, of TEN seats or more (135.99) .
: 2. When carrying passengers under IFR in an aircraft with NINE seats or less, a ~econd !n ~ommand is required unless
•• there is an approved Autopilot system (3 axis); the use of the autopilot is authorized by the company's Operations
Specifications; and the pilot has been company trained and checked to use it. (135.101 , 135.105)
If the aircraft is operated in a "COMMUTER operation ," the pilot must have at least 100 hours PIC in the make & model.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
; An approval for single pilot operations using an approved autopilot merely provides an operator with the
: option to use a single pilot. It does not mandate that all flights be conducted with a single pilot. A company
• could still choose to use a .§.econd !n ~ommand instead of the autopilot.

ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGES: (135.121, 91 .17, 121 .575)
(a) No person may drink any alcoholic beverage aboard an aircraft unless the certificate holder
operating the aircraft has served that beverage.
(b) No certificate holder may serve any alcoholic beverage to any person aboard its aircraft if that
person appears to be intoxicated.
(c) No certificate holder may allow any person to board any of its aircraft!! that person appears to be
intoxicated. I
,
.....'""
0
0 • ..• ·-··-- ················
: If a passenger has one for
·~
•
•• the road too many, starts
•• feeling no pain , and/or
• otherwise becomes
••
• sloshed, soused , or
•
• •••
plastered - AND -
creates a disturbance
•• aboard an aircraft, the
• certificate holder must
••
•• submit a report to the FAA
•• within 5 days. (121.575)
•
Last call .. . we'll be

preparing for landing
soon .. . last call.
STOWAGE of FOOD, BEVERAGE, and Passenger
Service Equipment DURING Aircraft MOVEMENT on
the SURFACE, TAKEOFF, and LANDING: (135.122, 121.577) ,,~SOUTHWEST
(a) No certificate holder may move an aircraft on the surface, takeoff, or AIRLINES.
land when any food , beverage, or tableware furnished by the certificate
holder is located at any passenger seat.
(b) No certificate holder may move an aircraft on the surface, takeoff, or land
unless each food and beverage tray and seat back tray table is secured
in its stowed position.
(c) No certificate holder may permit an aircraft to move on the surface,
takeoff, or land unless each passenger serving cart is secured in its
stowed position.
(d) Each passenger shall comply with instructions given by a crewmember
with regard to compliance with this section.
EXIT SEATING: (135.129, 121 .585)

Except for on-demand operations with aircraft having 19
or fewer passenger seats and commuter operations
with aircraft having 9 or fewer passenger seats -
No certificate holder may allow taxi or push-back
unless at least one required crewmember has verified
that no exit row seat is occupied by a person the
crewmember determines is likely to be unable to
comprehend the instructions for and operate the
emergency exit.

Passenger Information Requirements And SMOKING Prohibitions:
(Part 252, 25.853, 135.127, 121.317)
(a) No person may conduct a scheduled flight on which smoking is prohibited by part 252 of this title
unless the "No Smoking" passenger information signs are lighted during the entire flight, or one or
more "No Smoking" placards meeting the requirements of§ 25.1541 of this chapter are posted during
the entire flight. If both the lighted signs and the placards are used, the signs must remain lighted
during the entire flight segment.
(b) No person may smoke while a "No Smoking" sign is lighted or while "No Smoking"
placards are posted, except as follows:
(1) On-demand operations. The pilot in command of an aircraft engaged in an on-
demand operation may authorize smoking on the flight deck (if it is
physically separated from any passenger compartment), except in
any of the following situations:
(i) During aircraft movement on the surface or during takeoff or
landing;
(ii) During scheduled passenger-carrying public charter operations
conducted under part 380 of this title;
(iii) During on-demand operations conducted interstate that meet
paragraph (2) of the definition "On-demand operation" in § 110.2
of this chapter, unless permitted under paragraph (b)(2) of this
section; or
(iv) During any operation where smoking is prohibited by part 252
of this title or by international agreement.
(2) Certain intrastate commuter operations and certain intrastate on-
demand operations. Except during aircraft movement on the surface or
during takeoff or landing, a pilot in command of an aircraft engaged in a
commuter operation or an on-demand operation that meets paragraph
(2) of the definition of "On-demand operation" in § 110.2 of this chapter
may authorize smoking on the flight deck (if it is physically
separated from the passenger compartment, if any) !!-
(i) Smoking on the flight deck is not otherwise prohibited by part
252 of this title;
(ii) The flight is conducted entirely within the same State of the United States (a flight from one
place in Hawaii to another place in Hawaii through the airspace over a place outside Hawaii is
not entirely within the same State); and
(iii) The aircraft is either not turbojet-powered or the aircraft is not capable of carrying at least
30 passengers.
(c) No person may smoke in any aircraft lavatory.
(d) No person may operate an aircraft with a lavatory equipped with a smoke detector unless there is in
that lavatory a sign or placard which reads: "Federal law provides for a penalty of up to $2,000 for
tampering with the smoke detector installed in this lavatory."
(e) No person may tamper with, disable, or destroy any smoke detector installed in any aircraft lavatory.
(f) On flight segments other than those described in paragraph (a) of this section, the "No Smoking" sign
required by§ 135.177(a)(3) of this part must be turned on during any movement of the aircraft on the
surface, for each takeoff or landing, and at any other time considered necessary by the pilot in
command.
(g) The passenger information requirements prescribed in§ 91 .517(b) and (d) of this chapter are in addition
to the requirements prescribed in this section.
(h) Each passenger shall comply with instructions given him or her by crewmembers regarding compliance
with paragraphs (b), (c), and (e) of this section.
················································································· ~
•• The SMOKING BAN
•
: 1. Does not apply to all-cargo operations or ''unscheduled'' passenger operations.
• 2. Does not apply to most Part 121 supplemental operations and to most 135 on-demand operations .
•• 3 . Smoking may be allowed in the cockpit only if a solid door separates the flight deck from the passenger
•• compartment .
• 4. § 25.853 - (g) "Regardless of whether smoking is allowed in any other part of the airplane, lavatories must have
•
• self-contained, removable ashtrays located conspicuously on or near the entry side of each lavatory door ...."
'
art
HIGHLIGHTS of SUBPART K - FRACTIONAL OPERATIONS:
1. Fractional Ownership DEFINITION states five requirements (91.1001 ):
a. A designated ''Program Manager'' responsible for overseeing the operation;
b. One or more owners per fractional ownership program aircraft,
with at least one aircraft having multiple owners; 'A Rttflrttnt:.e for th• Rest of Us!
c. Shareholders must possess at least a 1/16tfi share of a fixed-wing
fractional aircraft or at least a 1/32"d share of a fractional helicopter;
d. A dry lease aircraft exchange agreement among all the owners; and
e. Multi-year program agreements.
2. OPERATIONAL CONTROL (91.1009- 91.1013) Owners will have to
sign an agreement acknowledging and accepting their shared
responsibility for operational control.
3. MANAGEMENT SPECIFICATIONS & PROGRAM OPERATING
MAN UAL (91.1015, 91.1023, 91.1025) Management specifications
(similar to OpSpecs) will be issued by the FAA and a Program Operating
Manual must be prepared by the Program Manager and accepted by the FAA.
4. RECORDKEEPING (91.1027) Records of all pilot and flight attendant information must be kept for at
least one year. A LOAD MANIFEST must be prepared in duplicate before each takeoff and a copy of it
must be carried on board the aircraft; the Program Manager must keep a copy for at least 30 days.
5. PIC or SIC: Designation Required (91.1031) The Program Manager must designate a Pilot In
Command and a Second In Command for each program flight requiring two pilots.
6. CHECKLISTS & CHARTS (91.1033) The Program Manager must provide current checklists and
aeronautical charts for all operations and the pilots shall use them.
7. LANDING LIMITATIONS (91.1037) No person may permit a turbine engine powered large transport
category airplane on a program flight to TAKE OFF unless, its anticipated weight on arrival would allow a
full stop landing at the destination (or alternate) within 60 percent of the effective length of the runway
from a point 50 feet above the intersection of the obstruction clearance plane and the runway. A fractional
operator (or 135-charter operator) is allowed to use an anticipated landing weight that would allow a full stop
landing within 80 percent of the effective length of the runway, if the operation is conducted in accordance
with an approved ''Destination Airport Analysis'' in that person's program operating manual that
contains the elements listed in § 91.1025(0). When operating a TURBOJET to a wet or slippery runway,
the effective runway length must be at least 115 percent of the runway length required under dry conditions.
8. WEATHER REPORTING & LANDING MINIMUMS (91.1039) No pilot may begin an instrument
approach to an airport unless -
a. Either that airport OR the alternate airport has approved weather reporting; and
setting is available at the destination airport, the pilot may use the current altimeter setting provided
by the facility designated on the approach chart for the destination airport.
c. For flight planning purposes, if the destination airport does NOT have approved weather reporting,
the pilot must designate as an alternate an airport that DOES have approved weather reporting.
d. MDA or DH and visibility landing minimums are increased by 100 feet and Y2 mile respectively for
each Pilot In Command of a turbine-powered aircraft who has not served at least 100 hours as Pilot
In Command in that type of aircraft.
9. TAKE OFF MINIMUMS (91.1039)-
a. No person may take off under IFR from an airport where weather conditions are at or above takeoff
minimums but below authorized landing minimums unless there is an alternate airport within one (1)
hour's flying time (at normal cruising speed, in still air) of the departure airport.
b. No pilot may takeoff when the reported visibility is less than 600 feet.
10. PROVING TESTS (aka PROVING RUNS) (91.1041) Proving tests would be required both for fractional
ownership program aircraft and for Part 135 aircraft only before the initial use of either an aircraft for which
two pilots are required under the aircraft type certification requirements or a turbojet (at least 25 hours -
including FIVE hours of NIGHT time and FIVE instrument approaches).

11. EQUIPMENT (91.1045) A fractional operation will need to adhere to the same basic equipment
requirements as Part 135 operators including Cockpit Voice Recorders, Flight Data Recorders, Ground
Proximity Warning Systems, Terrain Awareness Warning Systems, TCAS, and either airborne
thunderstorm detection equipment or airborne weather radar.
12. DRUG & ALCOHOL & EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE (91.1047)-
a. Each Program Manager shall provide each direct employee performing flight crew member, flight
attendant, flight instructor, or aircraft maintenance duties with drug & alcohol misuse EDUCATION.
The company may voluntarily implement a company drug or alcohol testing program that is separate
and distinct from a federally mandated program required by Part 121.
b. If an aircraft is operated into an airport at which no drug tested maintenance personnel are available
and EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE is required, the company may use persons not meeting the drug
testing requirements of Part 121 provided the FAA is notified in writing within 10 days after the
maintenance is performed and the aircraft is reinspected by maintenance personnel who do meet the
drug testing requirements when the aircraft is next at an airport where such personnel are available.
13. BACKGROUND CHECKS (91.1051) Within 90 days of an individual beginning service as a pilot, the
Program Manager shall request essentially the same background information required by Parts 121 and 135
under the filot B.ecords Improvement 8,ct (PRIA).
14. FLIGHT CREW EXPERIENCE (91.1053)
a. Total flight time for all pilots:
• PIC A minimum of 1,500 hours.
• SIC A minimum of 500 hours.
b. For multi-engine TURBINE fixed-wing and powered lift:
• PIC Airline Transport Rating
• SIC Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
c. For all other aircraft, the following certification and rating requirements:
• PIC Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
• SIC Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
d. The FAA may authorize deviations from the above after consideration of the size and scope of the
operation.
15. Pilot operating LIMITATIONS and PAIRING (91.1055)
a. If the SIC has fewer than 100 hours as SIC flying for the program in the type aircraft being flown, the
PIC shall make all takeoffs and landings in any of the following situations: visibility at or below 3A
mile or 4,000 RVR; runway is contaminated with water or frozen precipitation; braking action is less
than ''good;'' crosswind in excess of 15 knots; windshear is reported in the vicinity; or any other
condition the PIC is not comfortable with.
a. A flight shall not be released unless, for that type aircraft, EITHER the PIC or SIC has at least 75 hours
of program flight time, either as PIC or SIC. The FAA may authorize deviations.
16. FLIGHT TIME & DUTY (91.1057) Basically the same as Part 135 on-demand operations with some
minor differences thrown in just to keep things interesting (and inconsistent with all other time & duty regs).
17. TRAINING & CHECKING (91.1063 thru 91.1107) Basically the same as Part 135 including 6-month
instrument proficiency checks for the PIC and 12-month instrument proficiency checks for the SIC
including the normal grace provisions (month
before or after the month due).
18. HAZARDOUS MATERIALS RECOGNITION
(91.1085) No Program Manager may use any
pilot to perform, and no pilot may perform, any
assigned duties and responsibilities for the
handling or carriage of hazardous materials (as
defined in 49 CFR 171.8), unless that pilot has
received training in the recognition of
hazardous materials.
19. EXTENDED OVERWATER operations [91.509(c)] -
The Program Manager may apply for a
deviation from some of the equipment
requirements of 91.509(b )(2) through (5) [i.e., life
rafts, etc.] for a particular over water operation or
the Administrator may require the carriage of all or
any specific items of the equipment listed.

The Effect of Sub1>art K of Part 91 on Part 135:

Subpart K of Part 91 is accompanied by several changes to Part 135 that will help provide a more or less even
playing field for the two types of operations.
Here are some of the HIGHLIGHTS of the CHANGES to PART 135:
•
••............................................................................• ,
: DEFINITIONS
•• ''ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND OPERATION'' (135.4)- Means an on-demand [Part 135] operation that meets the flight crew
•• EXPERIENCE, pilot operating LIMITATIONS and PAIRING requirements below:
: 1. Flight crew EXPERIENCE - (The flightcrew must consist of at least two qualified pilots):
• a. Total flight time for all pilots:
: • PIC - A minimum of 1,500 hours.
• • SIC - A minimum of 500 hours.
: b. For multi-engine TURBINE fixed-wing and powered lift: Cutie Patooties!
• • PIC - Airline Transport Rating
: • SIC - Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
• c. For all other aircraft, the following certification and rating requirements:
: • PIC - Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
• • SIC - Commercial pilot and instrument ratings
•• d. The FAA may authorize deviations from the above after consideration of the size and scope of the operation.
• 2. Pilot operating LIMITATIONS and PAIRING:
•• a. If the SIC has fewer than 100 hours as SIC flying for the program in the type aircraft being flown, the PIC shall make all
• takeoffs and landings in any of the following situations: visibility at or below 3A mile or 4,000 RVR; runway is
•• contaminated with water or frozen precipitation; braking action is less than " good ;" crosswind in excess of 15 knots;
: windshear is reported in the vicinity; or any other condition the PIC is not comfortable with .
b. A flight shall not be released unless, for that type aircraft, EITHER the PIC or SIC has at least 75 hours in that make and
model [and type, if a type rating is required], as either PIC or SIC. The Administrator may authorize deviations.
1. LANDING LIMITATIONS (135.385, 135.387) A person operating a turbine engine-powered large

transport category airplane on an ON-DEMAND flight may not TAKE OFF that airplane unless its
anticipated weight on arrival would allow a full stop LANDING at the destination within 60°/o of the
effective length of the runway (70o/o for the alternate; or 60o/o if it is a turbojet using that alternate). An
''ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND OPERATOR'' is allowed to use a landing weight that would allow a full stop
landing within 80 percent of the effective length of the runway (destination or alternate), if the operation is
conducted in accordance with an approved ''Destination Airport Analysis'' included in that company's
operations manual. When operating a TURBOJET to a wet or slippery runway, the effective runway length
must be at least 115 percent of the runway length required under dry conditions.
2. WEATHER REPORTING & LANDING LIMITATIONS for an ''ELIGIBLE ON-DEMAND OPERATION'' -
No pilot may begin an instrument approach to an airport unless (135.225) -
a. Either that airport or the alternate airport has approved weather reporting; and
setting is available at the destination airport, the pilot may use the current altimeter setting
provided by the facility designated on the approach chart.
c. For flight planning purposes, !! the destination airport does NOT have approved weather
reporting, the pilot must designate as an alternate an airport that DOES have approved weather
reporting.
3. PROVING TESTS (aka PROVING RUNS) (135.145) Proving tests (25 hours including 5 hours of night
and 5 instrument approaches) are required before the initial use of either an aircraft for which two pilots
are reguired under the aircraft type certification requirements or a turbojet.
4. EMERGENCY MAINTENANCE (120.35, 120.39) If an aircraft is operated (on-demand) into an airport at
which no drug tested maintenance personnel are available and emergency maintenance is reguired,
the company may use persons not meeting the drug/alcohol testing reguirements of Part 121 provided
the FAA is notified in writing within 10 days after the maintenance is performed and the aircraft is
reinspected by maintenance personnel who do meet the drug testing reguirements of Part 121 when the
aircraft is next at an airport where such personnel are available.
5. EXTENDED OVERWATER operations [135.167] The Administrator may allow a deviation in the
operations specifications to provide relief from carrying certain specific equipment items normally required
for all extended overwater operations for a particular extended overwater operation.
6. NIGHT CURRENCY (135.247) Changes provide an alternate means of compliance for meeting night
currency requirements (3 takeoffs & 3 landings), for a commercial pilot who operates more than one
type of turbine-powered airplane that is type certificated for more than one pilot flight crewmember,
provided the pilot has logged at least 1500 hours total time as a pilot.
Chapter 8
ore ommercial tuff

Parts 91, 121, and 135 - Still Dancin'
Operations Specifications •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 288
Operations Manual (GOM) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 289, 290
Management Personnel Qualifications ........................................................................ 291
Ramp Check ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 292
Checklists; Charts; Performance Data ......................................................................... 293
Passenger Occupancy of Pilot Seat ............................................................................ 293
Briefing of Passengers Before Takeoff ........................................................................ 293
Proving Runs and Validation Testing ........................................................................... 294
~ockpit ~oice B.ecorder (CVR) .................................................................................... 294
flight Qata B.ecorder (FDR) ......................................................................................... 294
.@round froximity I Terrain Awareness Warning ~ystems (GPWS) ............................ 294
Initial, Transition & Upgrade GROUND Training ......................................................... 295
Recurrent Training ....................................................................................................... 295
Group I & Group 11 Airplanes ........................................................................................ 296
Training Type DEFINITIONS (Initial, Transition, Upgrade, etc.) .................................. 296
Grace Month ................................................................................................................ 296
EMERGENCY Training; Fire Extinguishers ................................................................. 297
HAZMAT .............................................................................................................. 298, 299
Company Flight Instructors .......................................................................................... 300
Authorized Instructor .................................................................................................... 300
Check Ai rm an ............................................................................................................... 301
CHECKRIDES I TRAINING •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 302·307
Initial Qperating gxperience (IOE) ............................................................................... 308
Flight Attendants; Weapons ......................................................................................... 308
Aircraft Tests & Inspections (100 hour, VOR) .............................................................. 309
Service Difficulty Reports ..................................................................................... 310, 311
Maintenance Reports, Programs, AAI P, Maintenance Required .............................. 312
Instruments & Equipment Required ............................................................................. 313
Safety Belts .................................................................................................................. 313
Extended Overwater Equipment & Performance ......................................................... 314
RADAR ......................................................................................................................... 315
TCAS ............................................................................................................................ 315
Flct!;hlight •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 315
Airworthiness ................................................................................................................ 316
Reporting Mechanical Irregularities ............................................................................. 316
Flight Crewmembers at Stations .................................................................................. 316
Seat Belts & Shoulder Harness ................................................................................... 316
Airplane Flight Manual (AFM) Limitations Placards •••••••••••••••••••••• 317
MEL •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 318·321
Ferry Permit (Special Flight Permit) ..................................................................... 322, 323
Pilot Record Sharing (PRIA) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 324
Access Investigation Check (Airport Badge) ............................................................... 325
Closing & Locking of Flightcrew Compartment Door ................................................... 325
Eye Locator Seat Adjustment .................................................................................. 325
Aircraft Dispatcher ....................................................................................................... 326
Dispatch Release I Flight Release ............................................................................... 326
Age ............................................................................................................................... 327

(chap 8 More Commercial Stuff)
OPERATIONS SPECIFICATIONS PART 135 or PART 121:(119.1, 119.41,119.49)
1. Operations Specifications (aka ''OpSpecs'') are issued by the FAA and contain the specific
authorizations, limitations, and procedures under each kind of operation that is to be conducted.
2. Operations Specifications are listed by number (e.g., A001, A002, 8001, 8054, C052, 0095, etc.).
These numbers correspond to the same subject areas for all operators.
3. Some OpSpecs are generic in nature (i.e., virtually the same for all operators with similar operations
except for the company name at the top of the page), and other OpSpecs are customized for the
individual operator (e.g., business names, location, aircraft registration numbers, etc.)
4. "OpSpecs" also contain:
a. The specific location of the certificate holder's base of operations.
b. Other business names under which the certificate holder may operate.
c. Type of aircraft, registration marking, and serial numbers of each aircraft authorized to use.
d. Kinds of operations authorized.
e. Areas of operations authorized.
f. Airport limitations.
g. Time limitations for overhauling, inspecting, and checking airframes, engines, propellers,
rotors, appliances, and emergency equipment.
h. Any authorized deviation and exemption granted by the FAA.
Operations Specification Example
-·································································
• •
• U.S. Department •
• of Transportation :
: Federal Aviation Operations Specif"ications •
• Administration •
• •
• C064. Special Terminal Area IFR Operations in Class G HQ Control: 09/20/99 :
: Airspace--Nonscheduled Passenger and All-Cargo Operations HQ Revision: 020 •
• •
: The certificate holder is authorized to conduct nonscheduled passenger and all-cargo (scheduled and nonscheduled) special terminal :
• area IFR operations in Class G airspace specified in accordance with the limitations and provisions of this paragraph. The certificate •
: holder shall not conduct any other special terminal area IFR operations under this operations specification. :
•• a. •
The certificate holder is authorized to conduct these operations provided that the certif"icate holder determines that: ••
•• ••
• (1) The airport is served by an authorized instrument approach procedure.
••
• (2) The airport has an approved source of weather .
• (3) The airport has a suitable means for the pilot-in-command to acquire air traffic advisories and the status of airport services •
•• and facilities. •
• (4) The facilities and services necessary to safely conduct IFR operations are available and operational at the time of the ••
•• particular operation. •
• •
: b. The certificate holder is authorized to designate and use an alternate or diversionary airport which will involve terminal area :
• IFR operations in Class G airspace provided that at the time of any operation to that alternate or diversionary airport, the •
• certificate holder determines that the provisions specified in subparagraphs a(l) through (4) are met. •
•
•• c. ••
Except as provided in operations specifications paragraph C077, all Title 14 CFR Part 135 turbojet and 14 CFR Part 121 •
: operations in the terminal area are conducted under instrument flight rules. :
•
. ==========================================================================================~ .
•
• 1. Issued by the Federal Aviation Administration. •
• 2. These Operations Specifications are approved by direction of the Administrator. •
• •
: ~olt4ld ?lte'Do1«dd •
••
: Ronald McDonald Principal Operations Inspector S034
• 3. Date Approval is effective: 1/14/XX Amendment Number: 2
••
• 4. I hereby accept and receive Operations Specifications in this paragraph. ••
• •
= ~te4te •
•
: Richie Lengel President/Director of Operations/Chief Pilot/Director of Maintenance/Check Airman/etc. Date: 1/ 14/XX :
: Print Date: 1/1 4/XXXX C064-1 CERTIFICATE NO.: LENG880J :
• Lengel World Airlines, Inc . •
r••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
(Chap 8 More Commercial Stuff)
General Operations Manual (GOM): (135.21, 135.23, 121 .131thru121 .141 , 91 .1023, 91 .1025)
1. The certificate holder shall prepare and keep a current Operations Manual (aka: General Operating
Manual, GOM, or ''Ops Manual''), approved by the FAA, setting forth the policies and procedures by
which the company will comply with the Operations Specifications issued by the FAA and the current
Federal Regulations.
2. A copy of the manual must be made available to all ground personnel and furnished to all flight
crewmembers and is intended to be used by employees for guidance on how to do their jobs.
3. Each flight crewmember is required to have their Operations Manual IN THEIR POSSESSION any
time while operating a company aircraft. "An electronic version of the manual is sufficient and
satisfactory provided that there is a means to view it during the performance of assigned duties."
"Sharing manuals or e-readers would not be in compliance with the regulation."
4. Each employee to whom a manual is furnished is responsible to keep it up to date with changes and
additions furnished to them.
OPERATIONS MANUAL (GOM) CONTENTS: (135.23, 135.77, 135.179, 119.69, 121 .131thru121.141)
Each manual shall have the date of the last revision on each revised page. The manual must include:
1. The name, title, duties and responsibilities of each management person (1 .69).
2. Name and title of each person authorized to exercise
''operational control'' [the authority to launch an aircraft] (135. 77).
3. Weight & Balance procedures.
4. Copies or excerpts from the Operations Specifications including:
a. Area of operation.
b. Types of operations.
c. Category and class of aircraft.
d. Crew complements.
5. Accident notification procedures.
6. Procedures for ensuring the Pilot In Command knows

that required airworthiness inspections have been made.
7. Procedures for reporting mechanical discrepancies and determining that the mechanical
discrepancies have been corrected whether at home base or on the road.
8. .Minimum £quipment bist (MEL) procedures (135.179).
9. Refueling procedures. • ••••••••••• ·-- .-••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .-•••
10. Passenger briefing procedures. ••• •
11. Flight locating procedures. i The ''Ops Manual'' is your Bible
12. Emergency procedures. : while working for any Part 135 or Part 121 company.
13. En route gualification procedures. : You must know all the company procedures
14. A_pproved Aircraft Inspection frogram •• contained within it. If you are ''ramp checked'' it will
•
(AAIP), when applicable. : be one of the first things they ask for. If you cannot
15. HAZardous MATerials procedures. : produce it you 'll be in a heap-a-trouble. The FAA feels
16. Evacuation of passengers during an : you cannot fly an airplane without it. Make sure you
•
emergency. •• can reach it from the cockpit in flight.
17. Other procedures and policy instructions •
regarding operations .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: The manual cannot act contrary to any FAR. It is not ''approved'' by the POI (f.rinciple Qperations
: Inspector) it is ''accepted," which is a lower standard of review. It can include any "guidance" the company
: wishes to provide. ''Guidance,'' by definition , is not mandatory but merely informatory.
••
•• If an individual fails to comply with a part of the Operations Manual that is made mandatory by some
• section of the FARs, then the individual is in violation of that FAR and should be cited by the FAA .
%
• If, on the other hand , an individual violates a company standard or policy not covered by the FARs then any
: action against the individual is purely at the discretion of the company, not the FAA.
: (FAA Legal Interpretations dated June 10, 1981 and February 18, 1991.)
•

General Operations Manual (GOM) INFORMATION and CHANGES:
(135.21 , 135.81 , 91.9, 121 .131thru121.141)
The certificate holder shall inform each employee of changes to the Operations Specifications that apply to
that person's duties and shall make available to each pilot the following materials in current form:
1. Aeronautical Information Manual or a commercial publication that contains the same information.
2. Part 61, Part 91, Part 135 and/or Part 121 of the Federal regulations.
3. Aircraft Eguipment Manuals, and Aircraft Flight Manuals or equivalent.
4. For foreign operations, the International Flight Information Manual or commercial equivalent
containing the operational and entry requirements of the foreign country involved.
··················································~
: An approved ''Company Flight Manual'' (CFM) may be accepted
: by the FAA as a substitute for an approved Airplane Flight Manual.
: If an approved Company Flight Manual is on board, it is not
• required to also carry an approved Airplane Flight Manual.
'
~ ······································~·········~······· .,
: Ops Manual (GOM) ''CHANGES'' can happen relatively often at
•• a Part 135 or Part 121 company .
•
•
• When the ''Operations Specifications'' change for any reason , or a
i• company policy changes, the ''Operations Manual'' must change to
• reflect those changes, therefore keeping all employees informed .
•
•
: It's the company's responsibility to issue the changes to the affected
• employees .
•
•
•• It's the employee's responsibility to keep their Ops Manual up to date with
111
• the changes supplied by the company in paper or electronic form .
•
One page of your Ops Manual is out

of date, that's a violation of 135.21(e).
DO NOT GET CAUGHT WITH AN
Flying without a shirt or shoes is
OUT OF DATE OPERATIONS MANUAL! careless, reckless and obscene
operation, in my opinion, and a
serious violation of 91.13(a).
You are a despicable human being.
Consider yourself busted young man!

MANAGEMENT PERSONNEL QUALIFICATIONS for PART 135: (119.65, 119.67, 119.69)
1. DIRECTOR OF OPERATIONS:
a. Must hold either an Airline Transport Pilot certificate or a Commercial Pilot certificate
depending on what certificate is required to qualify as Pilot In Command for the operation.
b. Must have at least 3 years of experience, within the past 6 years, as Pilot In Command of an
aircraft operated under Part 121 or 135 or have at least 3 years supervisory or managerial
experience within the past 6 years in a position that exercised "operational control" under Part
121 or 135 or a person with previous experience as Director of Operations, must have at
least 3 years experience as Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated under Part 121 or 135.
2. CHIEF PILOT:
a. Must hold either an Airline Transport Pilot certificate or a Commercial Pilot certificate
depending on what certificate is required to qualify as Pilot In Command for the operation
AND be qualified to SERVE as Pilot In Command in at least ONE aircraft used in the
certificate holder's operation (NOTE: the chief pilot of a Part 121 operation does NOT need to
be qualified to serve as Pilot In Command of ANY aircraft used in the certificate holder's
operation).
b. Must have at least 3 years of experience, within the past 6 years, as Pilot In Command of an
aircraft operated under Part 121 or 135 or a person with previous experience as Chief
Pilot, must have at least 3 years of experience as Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated
under Part 121 or 135.
3. DIRECTOR OF MAINTENANCE:
a. Must hold a mechanic certificate with airframe and powerplant ratings.
b. Must have at least 3 years of experience within the past 3 years maintaining aircraft as a
certificated mechanic, including experience in maintaining the same category and class of
aircraft as the certificate holder uses or have 3 years experience within the past 3 years
repairing aircraft in a certificated airframe repair station, including 1 year in the capacity of
approving aircraft for return to service.
4. DEVIATIONS A certificate holder may request a DEVIATION to employ a person who does not
meet the appropriate airman or managerial experience requirements or may request a deviation
to combine managerial positions depending on the size and scope of the operation and the
comparable experience of the person.
·························~
• Part 121 operations also require
•• a Director of Safety and a
• Chief Inspector. See 119.65.
The Smart
Guys
Even though some of them

may truly be idiots!;o)
(Chap 8 More Commercial Stuff) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
,
: The Inspector's Checklist:
: 1. Pilot certificate and Medical;
: 2. ,Airworthiness certificate;
• 3. fiegistration;
•• 4. Qperating handbook (AFM);
: 5. ~eight & Balance information;
: 6. g,eneral Qperations .Manual;
• 7. Flashlight;
•• 8. Charts (currency);
: 9. VOR check;
• 10. EL T battery.;
•• 11. Seat belts;
: 12. MEL (if applicable);
~ 13. General airworthiness of the aircraft.
INSPECTIONS and TESTS ''RAMP CHECK'': (135.73, 121.547, 121.548)

Each certificate holder and each employee shall allow the Administrator, at any time or place, to make
inspections or tests (including en route inspections) to determine compliance with the regulations and
Operations Specifications.
INSPECTORS ADMISSION to PILOTS' COMPARTMENT - ''RAMP CHECK'' -

EN ROUTE CHECK - FORWARD OBSERVER'S SEAT: (135.75, 121.547, 121 .548)
1. Whenever, in performing the duties of conducting an inspection, an FAA inspector presents an Aviation
Safety Inspector credential (FAA Form 110A) to a Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated by the
certificate holder, the inspector must be given free and uninterrupted access to the pilot
compartment. However, this does not limit the emergency authority of the PIC to exclude any
person from the pilot compartment in the interest of safety.
2. A forward observer's seat on the flight deck, or forward passenger seat with headset or speaker
must be provided for use by the Administrator while conducting an en route inspection.
''RAMP CHECK'' - INFO FROM the FAA INSPECTOR'S HANDBOOK:

(Order 8900.1 Flight Standards Information Management System)
1. The inspector shall always have identification available.
2. An inspector must not board any aircraft without the knowledge of the crew or operator (inspectors
cannot board an aircraft without the permission of the captain). Some operators may prefer to have a
company representative present to answer questions.
3. If the surveillance will delay a flight, the inspector should use prudent judgment whether or not to
continue. {NOTE: An inspector is NOT authorized to detain you if it means missing an engagement
or a flight. They can only keep you long enough to check the appropriate paperwork.}
4. The inspector should also bear in mind that he or she may not be able to complete all items on every
ramp inspection .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
•• RAMP CHECK ADVICE
•
: 1. ALWAYS remain FRIENDLY and COURTEOUS.
: 2. ALWAYS address the inspector by his (or her) FIRST NAME, it has the affect of keeping things at the
•• human level they're doing their job, you 're doing your job. A little humor and a super-friendly
•• attitude go a long way to break the ice if you can do so without acting like an idiot.
•• See if you can get them to SMILE. Ask THEM questions. See if you can get a dialogue going about
•• something other than the ramp check. FAA people usually love to talk, and usually don't have a
•• whole lot of time. If you can keep him distracted with chitchat eventually his time will run out and
•• everyone will go home happy. If you give him enough time to dig, he WILL find something wrong ,
•• in which case HE will go home happy and YOU will go to the motel unhappy .
• 3. Graciously comply with a request to see your license/medical and the aircraft's airworthiness
•• certificate and registration .
: 4. Beyond that, if you wish to end the inspection [are those batteries in your flashlight still good?], VERY
•• POLITELY, tell him you have an important commitment and a schedule you've GOT to keep .... Then
• go grab some lunch, take in a movie, throw a few balls at the local bowling alley, or crank-up and
takeoff but get away from the airport if you wish to end the inspection .

Chap 8 More Commercial Stuff
----------------------------------------------------
CHECKLISTS - CHARTS - PERFORMANCE DATA: (135.83, 91 .503, 121 .315, 121.549, 91 .1033)
The certificate holder must PROVIDE the following materials, in current and appropriate form, accessible to
the pilot, and the pilot shall USE them:
1. A cockpit CHECKLIST containing: CHECKLIST
a. Before start. --------- Before Start ......................... ''ALL ABOARD''
Before Takeoff ..... ALL ENGINES RUNNING
b. Before takeoff.
After Takeoff .................................. GEAR UP
c. Cruise. Cruise .................................. COPILOT FLIES
d. Before landing. Emergency ........................................... LAND
e. After landing. Before Landing ....................... GEAR DOWN
f. Stopping engines. After Landing ................. ALL ENGINES OFF
2. An EMERGENCY cockpit CHECKLIST containi g:
a. Emergency operation of fuel, hydraulic, electrical, and mechanical systems.
b. Emergency operation of instruments and controls.
c. Engine inoperative procedures.
d. Any other emergency procedures necessary for safety.
3. CURRENT and appropriate en route and approach CHARTS.
4. For multiengine aircraft, ONE-ENGINE-INOPERATIVE CLIMB PERFORMANCE DATA.
···············································································~
•• VFR CHARTS
••
• VFR charts are REQUIRED for VFR flight. The NTSB has ruled that IFR charts do not contain sufficient
: information for VFR pilotage in the event of a complete radio failure or other emergency that would require
: visual reference to landmarks. In their infinite wisdom, even a pilot with extensive VFR flight experience in
• a certain area should be required to carry current Sectional and/or Terminal Area Charts (for commercial
and/or large aircraft operations). Nowadays just a couple of taps away on your trusty iPad.
PASSENGER OCCUPANCY of PILOT SEAT: (135.113)

No certificate holder may operate an aircraft, type certificated after October 15, 1971, that has a
passenger seating configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of more than eight seats -
if any person OTHER THAN the pilot in command, a second in command, a company check airman, or an
authorized representative of the Administrator, the National Transportation Safety Board, or the United
States Postal Service occupies a pilot seat.
. ..
"' - / " ·I. ~
& ~ -----
BRIEFING of PASSENGERS BEFORE TAKEOFF: (121 .571 , 135.117, 91 .107, 91 .517, 91 .519, 91 .1035)
1. Before each takeoff the Pilot In Command shall ensure that all passengers have been orally
briefed on:
a. Smoking and warned against disabling any smoke detectors in lavatories, etc.
b. Use of seat belts.
c. Placement of seat backs in an upright position before takeoff and landing.
d. Location and means of opening the passenger entry door and emergency exits.
e. Location of survival eguipment.
f. If the flight involves extended overwater operation, ditching procedures and the use of
flotation equipment.
g. If the flight involves operations above 12,000 feet, the normal and emergency use of oxygen.
h. Location and operation of fire extinguishers.
2. Each person who may need the assistance of another person to move to an exit if an emergency
occurs, and that person's attendant must receive an evacuation briefing.
3. The oral briefing shall be supplemented by printed cards, convenient for each passenger, that contain
a diagram of and method of operating the emergency exits; and other instructions necessary.

Chap 8 - More Commercial Stuff
PROVING & Validation TESTS - aka - ''PROVING RUNS'': (135.145, 121 .163, 91.1041)
1. No certificate holder may operate an aircraft, other than a turbojet aircraft, for which two pilots are required by
this chapter for operations under VFR, if it has not previously PROVED such an aircraft in operations under this
part in at least 25 hours of proving tests acceptable to the Administrator including:
a. Five hours of night [10 hours for Part 121 l - if night flights are to be authorized;
b. Five instrument approaches (simulated or actual) - if IFR flights are to be authorized; and
c. Entry into a representative number of en route airports as determined by the Administrator.
2. No certificate holder may operate a turbojet airplane if it has not previously proved a turbojet airplane in
operations under this part in at least 25 hours of proving tests acceptable to the Administrator including:
a. Five hours of night [10 hours for Part 1211- if night flights are to be authorized;
b. Five instrument approaches (simulated or actual) - if IFR flights are to be authorized; and
c. Entry into a representative number of en route airports as determined by the Administrator.
3. Passengers may NOT be carried during proving tests, except representatives of the Administrator to observe the
tests. However, pilot training may be conducted during the proving tests.
4. VALIDATION testing is required to determine that a certificate holder is capable of conducting operations safely &
in compliance with applicable regulatory standards. Validation tests are reguired for the following authorizations:
a. The addition of an aircraft for which two pilots are required for operations under VFR or a
turbojet airplane, it that aircraft or an aircraft of the same make or similar design has not
been previously proved or validated in operations under
this part.
b. Operations outside U.S. airspace.
c. Class II navigation authorizations.
d. Special performance or operational authorizations.
5. Validation tests must be accomplished by test methods acceptable to the Administrator. Actual flights may not be
required when an applicant can demonstrate competence and compliance with appropriate regulations without
conducting a flight.
6. Proving tests and validation tests may be conducted simultaneously when appropriate.
7. The Administrator may authorize deviations from this section if the Administrator finds that special circumstances
make full compliance unnecessary.
COCKPIT VOICE RECORDERS (CVR): (25.1457, 135.151 , 91 .609, 91.1045, 121 .359, Legal interpretation)
1. No person may operate a multienqine, turbine-powered airplane or rotorcraft having a passenger seating
configuration of six or more and for which two pilots are reguired by certification or operating rules unless it is
equipped with an approved cockpit voice recorder that is operated continuously from use of the check list
before the flight (121.359 says " ... from the start of the use of the checklist before starting engines for the purpose of
flight") to completion of the final check list at the end of the flight.
2. In the event of an accident or occurrence requiring immediate notification of the NTSB, the certificate holder shall
keep the recorded information for at least 60 days.
3. The FAA CANNOT use the CVR for any civil penalty or certificate action, but could
use the tapes as evidence for a reexamination of a pilot's competency (a "709 ride").
4. Release of CVR recordings to the public following an accident is at the discretion of
the NTSB.
5. ''The ability to operate under the exception in §135.105 using an autopilot system
instead of a second pilot does not negate the need for a cockpit voice recorder.''
FLIGHT DATA RECORDERS (FDR & DFDR):

[25.1459, 135.152, 91 .609, 91 .1045, 121 .343thru 121 .344(a)]
1. No person may operate under this part a multi-engine. turbine-engine-powered airplane or rotorcraft having a
passenger seating configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of 10 to 19 seats that was added to the operator's
Operations Specifications after October 11. 1991, unless it is equipped with a Digital Flight Data Recorder.
2. An aircraft with 20 seats or more is required to have a more sophisticated flight recorder.
3. Flight data recorder information CAN be used as evidence for civil penalty or certificate action.
GROUND PROXIMITY I TERRAIN AWARENESS WARNING SYSTEMS (GPWS):

(91 .223, 91 .1045, 135.154, 121 .354)
1. No person may operate a turbine-powered airplane having a passenger
seat configuration of 10 seats or more unless it is equipped with an
approved ,2round froximity ~arning .§.ystem.
2. Airplanes manufactured after March 29, 2002 - No person may operate
a turbine-powered airplane with 10 or more passenger seats unless
equipped with Class A Ierrain Awareness and ~arning .§.ystem.
3. Airplanes manufactured after March 29, 2002 - No person may operate
a turbine-powered airplane with 6 to 9 passenger seats unless
equipped with Class B Ierrain Awareness and ~arning .§.ystem.

INITIAL, TRANSITION, and UPGRADE GROUNDTRAINING:

GENERAL SUBJECTS: (135.329, 135.330, 135.345, 121 .400, 121 .419, 91.1101)
1. The certificate holder's flight locating procedures;
2. Weight & Balance and runway limitations for takeoff and landing;
3. Meteorology including frontal systems, icing, fog, thunderstorms,
windshear, high altitude weather, and ~rew B.esource ,Management;
4. Air Traffic Control systems, procedures and phraseology;
5. Navigation including instrument approach procedures;
6. Normal and emergency communication procedures;
7. Visual cues before and during descent below DH or MDA; and
•••• ~-·· ••9.t~.~~.i~.~tr~~!i~~~- ~~~~:'.~':!Y. !<? -~~-~~r~. !~~ P.i!<?!'.~ .S<?~P.~t~~~~ ·
: A company "Training Program" must be " approved" by the FAA, which is a higher )Trainee}
•
: standard of scrutiny than the company General Operations Manual. A carrier's GOM -
: is prepared by the carrier and "accepted" by the FAA. Acceptance only means it
: meets the required contents for a GOM and does not conflict with any FAR.
··~WlfN.,,.;ldlll;ltfi......ll#ill'l#ili¥111flflll/lii'l/t#lllA,"""61#f/Aillllllll..,,........1;¥i.............ilfilitlllfll1ifllro'Nlf/l.Nlfll,##"""9.ll#ltll'lli
For EACH AIRCRAFT TYPE:
1. General description;
2. Performance;
3. Engines and propellers;
4. Major components;
5. Major systems (i.e., flight controls, electrical, and hydraulic), normal,
abnormal, and emergency operations, appropriate procedures and limitations;
6. Procedures for:
a. Recognizing, avoiding and escaping from severe weather situations including low-level
windshear (except helicopter pilots are not required to be trained in escaping windshear);
b. Operating in or near thunderstorms (including best penetration altitudes), turbulent air
(including Clear Air Turbulence), icing, hail, and other hazardous conditions; and
c. Operating during GROUND ICING conditions, if the certificate holder expects to authorize
- - - - - , takeoffs in ground icing conditions, including:
'
~- => Holdover times when using deicing/anti-icing fluids;
Deicing/anti-icing procedures, including inspection and checking
procedures;
=> Communications; 0
=> Airplane surface contamination (i.e., adherence of frost, ice, or snow) and
critical area identification, and knowledge of how contamination adversely
affects performance;
..__.... => Types and characteristics of deicing/anti-icing fluids;
=> Cold weather preflight procedures; w
. => . T~ch~iqu~s for recognizing contamination on !U~.aj~lf!J~;••••••••••••• ?~::, ~~~:

1
7. Operating l1m1ta_t1ons, . : This rule does not require training for operations
8. Fuel consumption and cruise control; • during ground icing conditions if the operator does
9. Flight planning; : not anticipate frequent encounters with such
1O. Each normal and emergency procedure· and • conditions. However, if ground icing conditions
. . ' . • are experienced, the pilot could not takeoff until
11. The approved Aircraft Flight Manual, or equivalent. the icing conditions no longer exist.
RECURRENT TRAINING: (135.351 , 121 .427, 91 .1107)

1. Recurrent GROUND training must include at least the following:
a. A QUIZ or other review to determine the crewmember's knowledge of
the AIRCRAFT and crewmember position involved.
b. Instruction as necessary in the subjects required for initial ground
training, as appropriate, including low-altitude WINDSHEAR, operating
during GROUND ICING conditions, ~rew B.esource Management, and
EMERGENCY training.
2. Recurrent FL/GHTtraining must include the maneuvers or procedures in this
subpart, except that satisfactory completion of the check required by 135.293
within the preceding 12 calendar months may be substituted for recurrent
flight training.

GR 0 UP I Airplanes Propeller driven aircraft including reciprocating and turboprop powered. (121 .400)
GROUP II Airplanes Turbojet powered. (121 .400)
TRAINING TYPES: (135.321 . 121 .400. 121 .41a, 121 .419, 121 .424, 91 .1103)
1. INITIAL Training Training required for pilots who have not qualified and served in the same capacity
on another airplane of the same group.
2. TRANSITION Training Training required for pilots who have qualified and served in the same
capacity on another airplane of the same group (e.g., B-727 sic to B-747 sic).
3. UPGRADE Training Training required for pilots who have qualified and served as second in
command or flight engineer on a particular aircraft type, before they serve as pilot in command or
second in command, respectively, on that airplane (B-747 sic to B-747 pie).
4. DIFFERENCES Training Training required for pilots who have qualified and served on a particular
type airplane, when the Administrator finds differences training is necessary before a pilot serves in the
same capacity on a particular variation of that aircraft (B-737-200 to B-737-400 ).
5. RECURRENT Training Training required for crewmembers to remain adequately trained and
currently proficient for each aircraft, crewmember position, and type of operation in which the
crewmember serves (usually every 6 to 12 months depending on the type of training).
6. REQUALIFICATION Training Training required for pilots previously trained and qualified, but who
have become unqualified due to not having met within the required period the recurrent training and/or
checking required under Part 135 or Part 121.
7. TRAINING CENTER An organization governed by the applicable requirements of Part 142 that
provides training, testing, and checking under contract or other arrangement to certificate holders.
8. IN FLIGHT Maneuvers, procedures, or functions that must be conducted in the aircraft.
GRACE MONTH TRAINING TO ACCEPTED STANDARDS: [135.301 , 121 .401(b), 91 .10111

(a) If a crewmember who is required to take a test or a flight check under this part, completes the test or
flight check in the calendar MONTH BEFORE or AFTER the calendar month in which it is reguired,
that crewmember is considered to have completed the test or check in. the calendar month in which it
is reguired.
(b) If a pilot being checked FAILS any of the required MANEUVERS, the person giving the check MAY
GIVE ADDITIONAL TRAINING to the pilot DURING THE COURSE OF THE CHECK. In addition to
repeating the maneuvers failed, the person giving the check may require the pilot being checked to
repeat any other maneuvers that are necessary to determine the pilot's proficiency. If the pilot
being checked is unable to demonstrate satisfactory performance, the certificate holder may not use the
pilot in operations under this part until the pilot has satisfactorily completed the check.
:
.~
········································~··································~
The INSTRUMENT experience CURRENCY requirements of 61.57(c) (i.e. 6 months; 6 approaches;
'
: holding; and intercepting and tracking courses), DO NOT APPLY to a Pilot In Command who is
: employed by a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier while flying under Part 91 , 121 , or 135 for that air
: carrier [61.57(e)(2), 121 .401 , 121.441 , 135.301(a)] .
•• IN OTHER WORDS A PIC for a Part 121 or Part 135 air carrier, who has a current PIC check, and
•• while flying under Part 91 , 121, or 135 for that air carrier, is legal (i.e. instrument current) for
•
: 7 months even if he or she has not done a single instrument procedure (aside from the checkride)
: during that 7-month period. Please note once again that this person is only legal during that 7th month
: while flying under Part 91 , 121 , or 135 FOR THAT AIR CARRIER.
•• GRACE MONTH:
••
From an FAA Legal Opinion dated October 29, 1992 "The FAA has consistently interpreted the
•• grace month provisions for Part 121 and Part 135 [and 61.58(g)] to allow crewmembers to DY for up
•• to one month following the calendar month in which a check is reguired. " "... a pilot would NOT
•
•• be held in violation for operations in which he served during the grace month should he fail to
•• comply with the proficiency check requirement during that grace month." "The fact that your
• company will purposely allow your currency requirement to lapse does NOT prevent the grace
month provision of 135.301 (a) from applying." IN OTHER WORDS The regulatory effect is the
same as !f the check is accomplished (or not accomplished) in. the month due (aka base month).

EMERGENCY TRAINING: (135.331 , 121 .309, 121 .411, 91 .1083)
(a) Each training program must provide emergency training for each aircraft type, model, and
configuration, each crewmember, and each kind of •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •~
operation conducted, as appropriate for each crewmember. : GENERAL emergency training -
(b) Emergency training must provide the following: : items common to all aircraft.
(1) Instruction in emergency assignments and procedures,
including coordination among crewmembers.
(2) Individual instruction in the location, function, and
• •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: AIRCRAFT SPECIFIC emergency training
operation of emergency eguipment including: : items specific to each aircraft.
(i) Equipment used in ditching and evacuation;
(ii) First aid equipment and its proper use; and
~ ~~ iii) Portable fire extinguishers, with emphasis on the type of extinguisher to be used for different
classes of fires.
Instruction in the handling of emergency SITUATIONS
including:
•......................... '
: Emergen.cy SITUATION training
(i) Rapid decompression;
: provides instruction on the factors
(ii) Fire in flight or on the surface and smoke control
: and procedures to be followed
procedures with emphasis on electrical equipment and
• when an emergency occurs.
related circuit breakers found in cabin areas;
(iii) Ditching and evacuation; '
(iv) Illness, injury, or other abnormal situations involving passengers or crewmembers; and
(v) Hijacking and other unusual situations.
(4) Review of the certificate holder's previous aircraft accidents and incidents involving actual
emergency situations.
(c) Each crewmember must perform at least the following emergency DRILLS, using the proper
emergency equipment and procedures, unless the Administrator finds that, for a particular drill, the
crewmember can be adeguately trained by demonstration: •••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,
-=-(1) Ditching, if applicable. : Emergency DRILL training
(2) Emergency evacuation. : consists of practice in the actual
(3) Fire extinguishing and smoke control. : use of emergency equipment,
(4) Operation and use of emergency exits, including : such as actually using fire
deployment and use of evacuation chutes, if applicable. ~ extinguishers, oxygen bottles, etc.
Use of crew and passenger oxygen.
Removal of life rafts from the aircraft, inflation of the life rafts, use of life lines, and boarding of
passengers and crew, if applicable.
(7) Donning and inflation of life vests and use of other individual flotation devices, if applicable.
(d) Crewmembers who serve in operations above 25,000 feet must receive instruction in the following:
(1) Respiration.
(2) Hypoxia.
(3) Duration of consciousness without supplemental oxygen at altitude.
(4) Gas expansion.
(5) Gas bubble formation.
(6) Physical phenomena and incidents of decompression.
FIRE EXTINGUISHERS - Passenger Carrying Aircraft:

(25.851, 91 .513, 121 .309, 121 .417, 135.155)
No person may operate an aircraft carrying passengers unless it is equipped with
hand fire extinguishers of an approved type for use in crew and passenger
compartments as follows -
(a) The type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable for the kinds of
fires likely to occur;
(b) At least one hand fire extinguisher must be provided and conveniently located on
the flight deck for use by the flight crew; and
(c) At least one hand fire extinguisher must be conveniently located in the passenger
compartment of each aircraft having a passenger seating configuration, excluding
any pilot seat, of at least 10 seats but less than 31 seats.

HAZardous MATerials TRAINING: [49 CFR, opspec A055, 91 .1085, 121 .1005, 135.501-135.5071
1. No person may perform any duties for the handling of HazMat unless within the preceding 24 calendar
months that person has completed Hazardous Materials training regarding:
a. Proper shipper certification, packaging, marking, labeling, and documentation.
b. Compatibility, loading, storage, and handling characteristics.
2. The certificate holder shall maintain a record of satisfactory HazMat training completion.
3. If the certificate holder elects NOT to accept Hazardous Materials, he shall ensure that each
crewmember is adequately trained to recognize those items.
4. If the certificate holder operates to airports at which trained employees or contract personnel are not
available, it may use untrained personnel to load or offload, if these persons are supervised by a
crewmember that is trained and qualified.
HAZardous MATerials OPERATIONS:

(49 CFR, OpSpecA055, 91 .1085, 121.1005, 172.101 , 173.217, 175.8, 175.10, 175.30, 175.33, 175.900, 135.501-135.507)
1. Lookup the "UN Number" aka ''ID Number'' in the Hazardous Materials Table found in 172.101 or
the ''Dangerous Goods Regulations'' book published by the International 8,ir Iransportation
8,ssociation IATA. Items are listed alphabetically by name and/or numerically by UN (ID) Number.
2. This will tell you exactly what type HazMat you are carrying how it should be labeled packaged and
how much by weight or guantity you can transport per package in a passenger/cargo or cargo
only aircraft. The weight or quantity limitations apply only to the amount carried in each package,
not in each aircraft. You can carry all the packages you want.
3. Example a common item is DRY ICE:
a. Dry Ice Carbon dioxide, solid or Dry ice UN #1845.
b. Max load per package 200 kg (x 2.2 lbs/kg = 440 lbs) this is the maximum net weight
that can be contained in each package be sure the aircraft is well ventilated.
4. The PIC must receive a notification/summary of the information (with confirmation that no packages are
damaged or leaking) and 2 copies of the HazMat paperwork. The PIC notification must be kept on file
for 90 days; and the HazMat paperwork kept on file for one year (three years for hazardous waste).
Proper sh1pp1ng name
UN numbe1 Namo and address of
shipper and recipient
RADIOACTIVE
Class 9 label
Top is not completely sealed.
allowing gases to vent Net quantity ol dry ice in Ille package
.._~ ...
~~
EXPLOSIVES POISON
A GAS
.• -....... --· ..................... ·-- .. --· . •~
• A certificate holder that elects NOT to carry

•• hazardous materials must still have a hazardous
Dry Ice
: materials RECOGNITION program. This training is to UN 1845 _ _ kg
: ensure that crewmembers and ground handling
: personnel can identify hazardous material so that
Allbltts must have tlwl lollowing
I UN 18'5. Ory ltt
2 Number oC pkgs ll wt. (kill
9
-
Oly lcl WI only 11 lb • 1 tgl
It 1119 ·~-of tn. lh1pper and
rtc!IMIN 11 not lllntil't mallld Of!
Oii ptcuoo. JJIJll •"ova 100
suspect packages are not accepted for shipment. lln'oss ~cklga StlB It too small,
place label on pacl:age so lha1 tho
NOTWlllTE ON OR MARK OlfTII£
CLASS I LABEL)
hazard ma1ktllg 1s in a 45 dagree
$11111• on IMI"'~ IOt.

HAZMAT PAPERWORK EXAMPLE
SHIPPER'S DECLARATION FOR DANGEROUS GOODS
Shipper
Ronnie 's Car Parts Air Waybill No. 453465780444
1223 Wilkinson Blvd Page 1 of 1 Pages
Charlotte, N.C. 28234 Shipper's Reference Number
(optional)
Consignee
Ford Motor Company Lengel
101 Edsel Road World
Detroit, MI 44543
Airlines .
Two completed and signed copies of this Declaration must r WARNING

be handed to the operator.
TRANSPORT DETAILS Failure to comply in all respects with the applicable

Dangerous Goods Regulations may be in breach of
This shipment is within the Airport of Departure: the applicable law, subject to legal penalties. This
limitations prescribed for:
(delete non-applicable) Charlotte , NC Declaration must not, in any circumstances, be
.--~~~~---~~~- completed and/or signed by a consolidator, a
Pi\00ENOER CARGO KCLT forwarder or an IATA cargo agent.
A~40CARGO AIRCRAFT
AIRCRAFT ONLY
Shipment type: (delete non-applicable)
Airport of Destination: Detroit Metro KDTW I NON-RADIOACTIVE I fblc0t0Ae=Fl¥E I
NATURE AND QUANTITY OF DANGEROUS GOODS
-------- ---------------------·-------------------- ------r---------------·--------r---- --,---------------
1 I I
Dangerous Goods Identification I I I
I
~----- ------ ---- - - - - -- -- ---- -------
' ----
I -- - ---- I--- - - ------
I I
Additional Handling lnfonnation

The package containing UN3226 must be shaded from direct sunlight, stored away from all
sources of heat in a well ventilated area and not stored with other cargo
I hereby declare that the contents of this consignment are fully and Nal"!letntle of Signatory
accurately described above by the proper shipping name, and are Wild Bill I Forklift Driver
classified, packaged, marked and labelledlp1acarded, and are in all Place and Date
respects In proper condition for transport according to applicable Charlotte, NC 2-18-XX
International and national government.al regulations.
Signature "'~ J , ./} J ~·'./}./}
(SH w&ming abo~) vvt~ D""

COMPANY FLIGHT INSTRUCTORS:

(135.338, 135.340, 61 .1, 61 .5 1, 61.167, 121 .412, 121 .414, 91 .1091 , 91 .1095)
1. No certificate holder may use a person as a flight instructor unless: U.S . GOVERNMENTUCEHSED
a. That person has completed all training, checks and recency requirements to FLIGHT
gualify as PIC for that aircraft under Part 135. INSIRUCTOR
ON DUTY
b. Holds at least a Class Ill medical. Z4 HOURS A DAY
c. That person has completed initial or transition flight instructor training.
d. Within the preceding 24 calendar months that person satisfactorily
conducts instruction under the observation of an FAA inspector, an
operator check airman, or an aircrew designated examiner employed by
the operator. This 24-month observation check is considered to have
--·
been completed in the month reguired if completed in the calendar month before or the
calendar month after the month in which it is due.
·········~ ······ ··················· · ••
•••
2. Initial GROUND TRAINING for flight instructors must include: ! Company Instructor
•
a. Flight instructor duties, functions and responsibilities. ~• is considered to be

b. Applicable regulations and company policies and procedures. ~ the Pilot In Command
•
c. Methods, procedures and technigues for conducting flight ~ during all training
~ flights [61 .51 (e)(3)].
instruction. ••
d. Proper evaluation of student performance including the detection
of:
• Improper and insufficient training; and
• Personal characteristics of an applicant that could adversely affect safety.
e. The corrective action in the case of unsatisfactory training progress.
f. The approved methods, procedures, and limitations for performing the required normal,
abnormal, and emergency procedures in the aircraft.
3. If the potential instructor is NOT already a current ''Certified Flight Instructor'' then he must
also have training in:
a. The fundamental principles of the teaching-learning process;
b. Teaching methods and procedures; and
c. The instructor-student relationship.
4. The initial and transition FLIGHT TRAINING for flight instructors must include the following:
a. Safety measures for emergency situations that are likely to develop during instruction;
b. Potential results of improper or untimely safety measures during instruction;
c. Training and practice from the left and right pilot seats in the required normal, abnormal,
and emergency maneuvers to ensure competence to conduct flight instruction; and
d. The safety measures to be taken from either the left or right seat for emergency situations
that are likely to develop during instruction .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: 61.167 - An Airl.ine Iransport filot may instruct for their company but must
• still be trained as described in 135.338, 135.340, 121.411, 121.413, 91.1095 .
•
AUTHORIZED INSTRUCTOR means: (61.1, 61.51)
1. A person who holds a valid ground instructor certificate issued under Part 61 or Part 143 when
conducting ground training in accordance with the privileges and limitations of his or her ground
instructor certificate;
2. A person who holds a current flight instructor certificate issued under Part 61 when conducting
ground training or flight training in accordance with the privileges and limitations of his or her flight
instructor certificate; or
3. A person, AUTHORIZED by the ADMINISTRATOR, to provide ground training or flight training
under SFAR No. 58, or Part 61, 121, 135, or 142 when conducting ground training or flight training in
accordance with that authority.
4. An authorized instructor may log as Pilot-In-Command time all flight time while acting as an
authorized instructor. [61.51 (e)(3)]

CHECK AIRMEN - QUALIFICATIONS:
[135.337(b), 121.411, 121 .413, 91 .1089]
(a) For the purposes of this section and Sec. 135.339:
(1) A check airman (aircraft) is a person who is qualified
to conduct flight checks in an aircraft, in a flight
simulator, or in a flight training device for a particular
type aircraft.
(2) A check airman (simulator) is a person who is
qualified to conduct flight checks, but only in a flight
simulator, in a flight training device, or both, for a
particular type aircraft.
(3) Check airman (aircraft) and check airman (simulator)
are those check airmen who perform the functions
described in § 135.321 (a) and 135.323(a)(4) and (c).
(b) No certificate holder may use a person, nor may any person serve as a check airman in a training
program established under this subpart unless, with respect to the aircraft type involved, that person-
(1) Holds the airman certificates and ratings required to serve as a Pilot In Command in
operations under this part;
(2) Has satisfactorily completed the training phases for the aircraft, including recurrent training,
that are required to serve as a Pilot In Command in operations under this part;
(3) Has satisfactorily completed the proficiency or competency checks that are required to
serve as a Pilot In Command in operations under this part;
(4) Has satisfactorily completed the applicable training requirements of 135.339 (check airman
ground and flight training);
(5) Holds at least a Class Ill medical certificate unless serving as a required crewmember, in
which case holds a Class I or Class II medical certificate as appropriate;
(6) Has satisfied the recency of experience requirements of 135.247 [three takeoffs and
landings, in type, within the previous 90 days, etc.]; and
(7) Has been approved by the Administrator for the check airman duties involved.
CHECK AIRMEN - TRAINING - CHECKING - CURRENCY: (135.339, 121 .413, 91.1093)

1. CURRENCY No certificate holder may use a person as a check airman unless during the preceding
24 calendar months, that person satisfactorily conducts a proficiency or competency check under
the observation of an FAA inspector OR an aircrew designated examiner employed by the operator.
This 24-month observation check is considered to have been completed in the month required if
completed in the calendar month before or the calendar month after the month in which it is due.
2. INITIAL GROUND training for check airmen must include:
a. Check airman duties, functions and responsibilities.
b. Applicable regulations and the certificate holder's policies and procedures.
c. Methods, procedures, and techniques for conducting checks.
d. Proper evaluation of student performance including detection of:
• Improper and insufficient training; and
• Personal characteristics of an applicant that could adversely affect safety.
e. Corrective action in the case of unsatisfactory checks.
f. Approved methods, procedures, and limitations for performing the required normal, abnormal,
and emergency procedures in the aircraft.
3. TRANSITION GROUND training includes the methods, procedures, and limitations for performing the
required normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures applicable to the aircraft.
4. INITIAL and TRANSITION FL/GHTtraining for check airmen must include:
a. The safety measures for emergency situations that are likely to develop during a check;
b. Potential results of improper, untimely, or nonexecution of safety measures during a check;
c. Training and practice in conducting flight checks from the left and right pilot seats in the
required normal, abnormal, and emergency procedures to ensure competence to conduct
the pilot flight checks required; and
d. Safety measures to be taken from either pilot seat for emergency situations that are likely to
develop during checking.

SIC CHECK EQUIPMENT CHECK COMPETENCY CHECK: (135.293, 121.441 , 91 .1069)
135.293 Initial and recurrent pilot testing requirements.
{a) No certificate holder may use a pilot, nor may any person serve as a pilot, unless, since
the beginning of the 12th calendar month before that service [see 135.301 grace month],
that pilot has passed a written or oral test, given by the Administrator or an authorized
check pilot, on that pilot's knowledge in the following areas -
(1) The appropriate provisions of Parts 61, 91, and 135 of this chapter and the operations
specifications and the manual of the certificate holder;
(2) For each type of aircraft to be flown by the pilot, the aircraft powerplant, major
components and systems, major appliances, performance and operating limitations,
standard and emergency operating procedures, and the contents of the approved
Aircraft Flight Manual or equivalent, as applicable;
(3) For each type of aircraft to be flown by the pilot, the method of determining compliance
with weight and balance limitations for takeoff, landing and enroute operations;
(4) Navigation and use of air navigation aids appropriate to the operation or pilot
authorization, including, when applicable, instrument approach facilities and procedures;
(5) Air traffic control procedures, including IFR procedures when applicable;
(6) Meteorology in general, including the principles of frontal systems, icing, fog,
thunderstorms, and windshear, and, if appropriate for the operation of the certificate holder, high altitude weather;
(7) Procedures for -
(i) Recognizing and avoiding severe weather situations;
(ii) Escaping from severe weather situations, in case of inadvertent encounters, including low altitude windshear
(except that rotorcraft pilots are not required to be tested on escaping from low altitude windshear); and
(iii) Operating in or near thunderstorms (including best penetrating altitudes), turbulent air (including clear air
turbulence), icing, hail, and other potentially hazardous meteorological conditions;
(8) New equipment, procedures, or techniques, as appropriate; and
(9) For rotorcraft pilots, procedures for aircraft handling in flat-light, whiteout, and brownout conditions, including
methods for recognizing and avoiding those conditions.
{b) No certificate holder may use a pilot, nor may any person serve as a pilot, in any aircraft unless, since the beginning
of the 12th calendar month before that service, that pilot has passed a competency check given by the Administrator
or an authorized check pilot in that class of aircraft, if single engine airplane other than turbojet, or that type of
aircraft, if helicopter, multiengine airplane, or turbojet airplane, to determine the pilot's competence in practical skills
and techniques in that aircraft or class of aircraft. The extent of the competency check shall be determined by the
Administrator or authorized check pilot conducting the competency check. The competency check may include any of
the maneuvers and procedures currently required for the original issuance of the particular pilot certificate required for
the operations authorized and appropriate to the category, class and type of aircraft involved. For the purposes of this
paragraph, type, as to an airplane, means any one of a group of airplanes determined by the Administrator to have a
similar means of propulsion, the same manufacturer, and no significantly different handling or flight characteristics. For
the purposes of this paragraph, type, as to a helicopter, means a basic make and model.
{c) Each competency check given in a rotorcraft must include a demonstration of the pilot's ability to maneuver the
rotorcraft solely by reference to instruments. The check must determine the pilot's ability to safely maneuver the
rotorcraft into visual meteorological conditions following an inadvertent encounter with instrument meteorological
conditions. For competency checks in non-I FR-certified rotorcraft, the pilot must perform such maneuvers as are
appropriate to the rotorcraft's installed equipment, the certificate holder's operations specifications, and the operating
environment.
{d) The instrument proficiency check required by§ 135.297 may be substituted for the competency check required by
this section for the type of aircraft used in the check.
{e) For the purpose of this part, competent performance of a procedure or maneuver by a person to be used as a pilot
requires that the pilot be the obvious master of the aircraft, with the successful outcome of the maneuver never in
doubt.
{f) The Administrator or authorized check pilot certifies the competency of each pilot who passes the knowledge or flight
check in the certificate holder's pilot records.
{g) Portions of a required competency check may be given in an aircraft simulator or other appropriate training device, if
approved by the Administrator.
{h) Rotorcraft pilots must be tested on the subjects in paragraph (a)(9) of this section when taking a written or oral
knowledge test after April 22, 2015. Rotorcraft pilots must be checked on the maneuvers and procedures in paragraph
(c) of this section when taking a competency check after April 22, 2015.
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •.. ... ..... . ..... ... .. •. ........... .. '

: Check rides are considered ''duty time'' ; If a flight check is failed under Part 135, the failure of that check
: has no effect on a pilot's qualifications to fly under Part 121
: in the sense that they interrupt "rest time. " (or vice versa).
: Check rides must be recorded in the •• If a pilot fails a checkride the pilot may not be used "!!!
~ company's flight time and duty records. • operations under THIS PART [135] until ... "
[1 35.301 (b), 121.441(c)]

PIC CHECK - INSTRUMENT PROFICIENCY CHECK: (13s.2s1. 121 .441 , 91 .1069)
135.297 Pilot in command: Instrument proficiency check requirements.
{a) No certificate holder may use a pilot, nor may any person serve, as a g,ilot !n Qommand of an aircraft under IFR
unless, since the beginning of the 6th calendar month before that service, that pilot has passed an instrument
proficiency check under this section administered by the Administrator or an authorized check pilot.
{b) No pilot may use any type of precision instrument approach procedure under IFR unless, since the beginning of the
6th calendar month before that use, the pilot satisfactorily demonstrated that type of approach procedure. No pilot
may use any type of nonprecision approach procedure under IFR unless, since the beginning of the 6th calendar
month before that use, the pilot has satisfactorily demonstrated either that type of approach procedure or any other
two different types of nonprecision approach procedures. The instrument approach procedure or procedures must
include at least one straight-in approach, one circling approach, and one missed approach. Each type of approach
procedure demonstrated must be conducted to published minimums for that procedure.
{c) The instrument proficiency check required by paragraph (a) of this section consists of an oral or written equipment
test and a flight check under simulated or actual IFR conditions. The equipment test includes questions on
emergency procedures, engine operation, fuel and lubrication systems, power settings, stall speeds, best engine
out speed, propeller and supercharger operations, and hydraulic, mechanical , and electrical systems, as
appropriate. The flight check includes navigation by instruments, recovery from simulated emergencies, and standard
instrument approaches involving navigational facilities which that pilot is to be authorized to use. Each pilot taking the
instrument proficiency check must show that standard of competence required by§ 135.293(e).
(1) The instrument proficiency check must -
(i) For a pilot in command of an airplane under§ 135.243(a), include the procedures and maneuvers for an airline
transport pilot certificate in the particular type of airplane, if appropriate; and
(ii) For a pilot in command of an airplane or helicopter under§ 135.243(c), include the procedures and maneuvers
for a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating and, if required, for the appropriate type rating.
(2) The instrument proficiency check must be given by an authorized check airman or by the Administrator.
{d) !! the pilot in command is assigned to pilot only one type of aircraft, that pilot must take the instrument proficiency
check required by paragraph (a) of this section in that type of aircraft.
{e) !! the pilot in command is assigned to pilot more than one type of aircraft, that pilot must take the instrument
proficiency check required by paragraph (a) of this section in each type of aircraft to which that pilot is assigned, in
rotation, but not more than one flight check during each period described in paragraph.{§}. of this section.
{f) !! the pilot in command is assigned to pilot both single engine and multiengine aircraft, that pilot must initially take
the instrument proficiency check required by paragraph (a) of this section in a multiengine aircraft, and each
succeeding check alternately in single engine and multiengine aircraft, but not more than one flight check during
each period described in paragraph (a) of this section. Portions of a required flight check may be given in an aircraft
simulator or other appropriate training device, if approved by the Administrator.
{g) !! the pilot in command is authorized to use an autopilot system in place of a second in command, that pilot must
show, during the required instrument proficiency check, that the pilot is able (without a second in command) both with
and without using the autopilot to -
(1) Conduct instrument operations competently; and
(2) Properly conduct air/ground communications and comply with complex air traffic control instructions.
(3) Each pilot taking the autopilot check must show that, while using the autopilot, the airplane can be operated as
proficiently as it would be if a second in command were present to handle air/ground communications and air traffic
control instructions. The autopilot check need only be demonstrated once every 12 calendar months during
the instrument proficiency check required under paragraph (a) of this section.
···················································~
···························~ • 135.301 Crewmember: Tests and checks, GRACE PROVISIONS,
• The INSTRUMENT experience CURRENCY
: requirements of 61.57(c) (i.e. 6 months; § %training to accepted standards. (61 .58(i), 91.1071 , 121.401 (b), 125.293)
•• (a) If a crewmember who is required to take a test or a flight check under this part,
• approaches; holding; and intercepting and
: tracking courses), do not apply to a Pilot In : completes the test or flight check in the calendar month before or after the
• Command who is employed by a Part 121 or • calendar month in which it is required, that crewmember is considered to have
: Part 135 air carrier [61.57(e)(2)] . : completed the test or check in the calendar month in which it is required.
•• • (b) If a pilot being checked under this subpart fails any of the required maneuvers,
• IN OTHER WORDS - A PIC for a Part 121 : the person giving the check may give additional training to the pilot during the
• or Part 135 air carrier, who has a current • course of the check. In addition to repeating the maneuvers failed, the person
•• PIC check, and while flying under Part 91, •• giving the check may require the pilot being checked to repeat any other
: 121 , or 135 for that air carrier, is legal (i.e. • maneuvers that are necessary to determine the pilot's proficiency. !! the pilot
• instrument current) for 7 months even if
•• being checked is unable to demonstrate satisfactory performance to the
• he or she has not done a single instrument • person conducting the check, the certificate holder may not use the pilot, nor
procedure during that 7-month period.
•• may the pilot serve, as a flight crewmember in operations under this part until the
• pilot has satisfactorily completed the check.
-···················································································
: GRACE MONTH: From an FAA Legal Opinion dated October 29, 1992 - "The FAA has consistently interpreted the grace month provisions
• for Part 121 and Part 135 [and 61.58(i)] to allow crewmembers to fix for up to one month following the calendar month in which a
•• check is required." " ... a pilot would NOT be held in violation for operations in which he served during the grace month should he fail
: to comply with the proficiency check requirement during that grace month." "The fact that your company will purposely allow your
• currency requirement to lapse does NOT prevent the grace month provision of 135.301 (a) from applying ." IN OTHER WORDS -
• The regulatory effect is the same as it the check is accomplished (or not accomplished) in the month due (aka base month).
'l
PIC Part 135 CHECKING MODULES:

(FAA Order 8900.1)
(For Part 121 see 121 Appendix F)
······································~
WRITTEN or ORAL TEST: • '
FAR 135.297........................................ PIC :• PIC check will INCLUDE at least:
FAR 135.293........................................ PIC : ( 1) Rejected takeoff and low visibility takeoff
-G-R~O-U~N-D~O-P~E-R-A~T---N~S-:~~~~~~.
10
(2) Engine~ilureaftertakeoff, steep turns, stalls,
• and unusual attitude recovery
Preflight Inspection .............................. PIC •• (3) Holding (may be waived)
Start Procedures .................................. PIC : (4) All engine ILS to a miss, SE ILS to a landing
Taxiing ................................................. PIC •• and two nonprecision approaches
Pretakeoff Checks ............................... PIC •• (5) Coupled approach (if equipped)
•• (6) Two missed approaches (one from an ILS)
TAKEOFFS & DEPARTURES: •
• (7) Circling approach
Normal ................................................. PIC
(8) No flap approach (actual landing not required}
Crosswind ............................................ PIC
(9) Rejected landing
Instrument ............................................ PIC
With Powerplant Failure ...................... PIC (ME only)
Rejected Takeoff ................................. PIC (ME only}(May be waived when weight, temperature and tire limits
preclude the event from being conducted in a realistic and safe manner)
Short Field ........................................... PIC (SE only) (May be waived if not new-hire or initial equipment)
Area Departure .................................... PIC (May be waived if not conducted for certification)
INFLIGHT MANEUVERS:
Steep Turns ......................................... PIC (May be waived if not new-hire or initial equipment)
Approaches to Stalls ............................ PIC
Powerplant Failure ............................... PIC
2-Engine lnop. Approach ..................... PIC (3 & 4 engine aircraft)
INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES:
Area Arrival .......................................... Pl C (May be waived if not conducted for certification)
Holding ................................................. PIC (May be waived if not new-hire or initial equipment)
Normal ILS Approach .......................... PIC (SE ILS may be substituted)
Engine-out ILS ..................................... PIC
Coupled Approach ............................... PIC (If equipped)
Nonprecision Approach ....................... PIC
Second Nonprecision Approach .......... PIC (Any two non precision approaches authorized)
.
M1sse d A pproac h from an I LS . .. .. .. .. ... . PI C .• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-......~
Second Missed Approach .................... PIC : A GPS approach may be credited for
Circling Approach ................................ PIC : other nonprecision approaches during a
check. However, if GPS approaches
LANDINGS & APPROACHES TO LANDINGS: : are approved for the certificate holder,
Normal ................................................. PIC •• Operations Specifications require the
Crosswind ............................................ PIC •• demonstration of at least one GPS
Landing from an ILS ............................ PIC approach during the 135.297 check.
Landing with Engine-out ...................... PIC (ME only)
Circling Approach ................................ PIC
Rejected Landing ................................. PIC (From 50 feet above the runway)
Short Field Landing ............................. PIC (SE only)
--------------------------------------.
No Flap Approach ................................ PIC No flap or partial flap LANDINGS are NOT required to complete the flight test. When
the flight test is conducted in a TRANSPORT category airplane, a TOUCHDOWN
from a no flap or partial flap approach is NOT required and shall NOT be attempted .
NON-NORMAL & EMERGENCY PROCEDURES:

System Malfunctions ........................... PIC
Unusual Attitude Recovery .................. PIC
Maneuver by Partial Panel .................. PIC (Airplanes not having standby instrumentation)
Emergency Landing ............................. PIC (SE only)

SIC - Part 135 CHECKING MODULES:

(FAA Order 8900.1)
(For Part 121 see 121 Appendix F)
WRITTEN or ORAL TEST: ••• •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •-...~

,: SIC check will include all of the requirements
_F_A_R_1_3_5._29_3_._···-··-···-··-···-···-··-···-··-···-···-··-···-··-···_S_IC_____________.•
GROUND OPERATIONS: : for a PIC check except DELETE:
: (1) SEILS
Preflight Inspection ............................... SIC : (2) One nonprecision approach
Start Procedures .................................. SIC : (3) Rejected takeoff
Taxiing .................................................. SIC • (4) Steep turns
_P_re_t_a_ke_o_ff_C_h_e_c_k_s_
.. _
..._.._.. _ _ _.. _.. S~IC~~~~~~~=
..._.._.. _..._.._.. _.. ... (5) Holding (required only if not current)
TAKEOFFS & DEPARTURES: •
• (6) Coupled approach
•• (7) Missed approaches
Normal .................................................. SIC
•• (8) No flap approach
Crosswind ............................................. SIC
Instrument ............................................ SIC •\ (9) Rejected landing
With Power lant Failure ....................... SIC ME onl
INFLIGHT MANEUVERS:
A roaches to Stalls ............................ SIC
INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES:
Holding ................................................. SIC (Required if not current)
Normal I LS Approach ........................... SIC
Non precision Approach ........................ SIC
Circling Approach ................................. SIC (SIC need not be evaluated in circling approaches when operators
procedures restrict SICs from conducting this event in revenue service)
LANDINGS & APPROACHES TO LANDINGS:
Normal .................................................. SIC
Crosswind ............................................. SIC
Landing with Engine-out ....................... SIC (ME only)
Circling Approach ................................. SIC (SIC need not be evaluated in circling approaches when operators
procedures restrict SICs from conducting this event in revenue service)
NON-NORMAL & EMERGENCY PROCEDURES:
System Malfunctions ............................ SIC
Unusual Attitude Recovery ................... SIC
Maneuver by Partial Panel ................... SIC (Airplanes not having standby instrumentation)
Emergency Landing ............................. SIC (SE only)
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Check rides are considered ''duty time''
: in the sense that they interrupt "rest time. "
: Check rides must be recorded in the
• company's flight time and duty records.
'
YOU AR£ GOING TO LOS£ AN ,£ NGIN£ ON TA'-<£-Ot='I='"•••

LINE CHECK -
------------------------------------------------------
ROUTES & AIRPORTS - PILOT IN COMMAND:
(135.299, 121 .440, 121 .443)
{a) No certificate holder may use a pilot, nor may any person serve, as a Pilot In Command of a flight
unless, since the beginning of the 12th calendar month before that service, that pilot has passed a
flight check in one of the types of aircraft which that pilot is to fly. The flight check shall:
(1) Be given by an approved check pilot or by the Administrator;
(2) Consist of at least one flight over one route segment; and
(3) Include takeoffs and landings at one or more representative airports. In addition to the
requirements of this paragraph, for a pilot authorized to conduct IFR operations, at least one
flight shall be flown over a civil airway, an approved off-airway route, or a portion of either of
them.
{b) The pilot who conducts the check shall determine whether the pilot being checked satisfactorily
performs the duties and responsibilities of a Pilot In Command in operations under this part, and shall
so certify in the pilot training record.
{c) Each certificate holder shall establish in its Operations Manual a procedure which will ensure that
each pilot who has not flown over a route and into an airport within the preceding 90 days will,
before beginning the flight, become familiar with all available information required for the safe
operation of that flight .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• The 135.299 line check must be performed in an aircraft in flight (or simulator approved for line
•• checks). The check can be as brief or as comprehensive as the check pilot deems necessary.
•
.. .. . . . . . . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .-.~. ---· ................................ .
••
•
: Pilot In Command Normally the Instrument Proficiency, Equipment Competency, and
•
: Line checks are all three combined and accomplished simultaneously every six months (i.e.,
: 135.293, 135.297, 135.299). If the pilot is qualified to fly two different type aircraft these
• checks will alternate types of aircraft each six months. The "PIC" check will normally include
•• a rejected takeoff, engine failure after takeoff, steep turns, stalls, at least two nonprecision
•% approaches, an all engine ILS to a missed approach, and a single-engine ILS approach to
• a landing, etc .
•
••
: Second In Command Requires an Equipment Competency check (135.293) every
: 12 months, however, the pilot must also be ''Instrument current'' [61.57(c)](i.e., 6 approaches
• and holding in the last 6 months must be logged)( 135.245). The "SIC" check is usually the
: same as the ''PIC'' check except a single-engine ILS approach is not required and only one
•.,. nonprecision approach is required .
•
................................. •
: Extended Envelope Training
: (121 .423)
• After several high profile crashes the FAA is now
: requiring training in the following maneuvers:
: 1. Manually controlled slow flight;
• 2. Manually controlled loss of reliable airspeed;
: 3. Manually controlled instrument departure and
: arrival;
: 4. Upset recovery maneuvers;
• 5. Recovery from bounced landing; and
•• 6. Recovery from full stall.
What happened to the dudes that started it all?
: Compliance is required by no later than
• Wilbur Wright died as a result of typhoid in
• March 12. 2019.
•• It's comforting to know that all airline pilots will be 1912 at the age of 45 .
: required to learn how to recover from a stall by • Orville passed away in 1948 at the age of 76,
one year after Chuck Yeager became the first
~
. no later than March 12, 2019.
to fly faster than the speed of sound .

AN ACTUAL CERTIFIED COPY OF THE VERY F/RST135 CHECKRIDE

LOCATION DATE OF CHECK
AIRMAN COMPETENCY/PROFICIENCY CHECK
FAR 136 k1 rrY !/11wJ<.. NL 1
/~·17·19P3
NAME OF AIRMAN (l• t, fir1t, m /ddlt1 in i tl•IJ TYPE OF CHEC~
WR16-H r: CJRv1L1-.e (NmN) FAR 135.293 FAR 136.297 ~ FAR 136.299 ~

PILOT Grid• f} rP MEDICAL INFORMATION: D1t1 of Exam. /(;2-/6-/ 1tJ3
CERTIFICATION I sr-
INFORMATION : Number ot D1t1ofBlrth l() ··JY- 18 71 c1-
EMPLOYED BY BASED AT (City, Sr•teJ TYPE AIRPLANE (M•k•/Modt1/) WR16-Hr /YJ e'JJi£'- A
WR1Gflr t,y,,E C11rnPA11'1 PRYTPAJ, CHJtJ -'-
Simulator/Training Device (M•k•/Mod•IJ /v "/Vt
NAME OF CHECK AIRMAN .
W1L 811 ~
SIG. OF
W,_/ ,/. Ctj~7AIR~;:;~
I~ ,,..
_. f- FLIGHT TIME
I~ SE<."1-Jl>S /V ()() J.
WR1GHr l , # b r-~~
FLIGHT MANEUVERS GRADE (S- Satisfac tory_ U- Unsatisfacto_r_y)
PILOT _i_ \vz ~ ~
,,,, L1f ./ Air · Simu· Trng.
Air· Si mu- Trng. ~ !::::-'! " t--; craft l1tor Dev.
cr1f t l1tor Dev.
..:s
P.BJ ~ FLIGHT
• HELICOPTER
1. Equipment Examinetion f'oral _l.r written} s 1. Ground and/or Air Taxi ~
2. Preflight Inspection - ./
>
s
2. Hovering Manuevers
3. Taxiing 3. Normal & Croeawind T.O. 8i landings
4. Powerplant Checks ~ - -·
4. High Altitude T1keoff1 8i Landings
TAKEOFFS 5. Sim. Engine F1ilur1
5. Normll s 6 . Confined Area, Slopes, 8i Pinnae&"
e. Instrument s 1. Rapid Deceleration (Quick Srop1)
7. Cro11Wind s 8. Autorot1tion1 (Single Engintt)
8, With Simulated Powerpl1nt F1ilur1 .s 9. Hover ifli Autorot1tion1 (Single Engint1J
9. Rejected Takeoff .5 10. T1il Rotor F1ilur11 (Oral)
INFLIGHT MANEUVERS 11. Settling With Power (Oral or Flight}
10. St11p Turns ;S SEAPLANE OPERATIONS
11. Approech" to Stalls 5 1. Taxiing, Sailing, Docking •
12. Specific Flight Ch1rect•istics 5 2. Step Taxi & Turns
13. Paw•pl1nt Failure s 3. Glaay/ROU9h Weter T .O./L1ndings t
LANDINGS 4. Normal Takeoff & Landings
14. Normal s 5. Croawind T .O. & Landings
15, From an ILS
~ OTHER
16. Cro•wind
17. With Simul1ted Powerpl1nt(s) Failure
.s
s
6. Ski Plan• Ops. (wht1n applicable}
GENERAL
...... ""
18. Rejected Landing .s 7. Judgment s
19. From Circling Approach s 8. Crew Coordination !VA
EMERGENCIES
20. Norm1I and Abnorm1I Proc1dur11 .s AIRMAN COMPETENCY INFORMATION:
21. Eme1gency Procedures s Demonstrated Current Knowledge FAR 135.293(a)

INSTRUMENT PROCEDURES Make/Model EKpires WR1vur/11D1c1. h (12 months) ( J~· 11-0~
22. ArM Departure 5 Demonstr.ted Competency FAR 135.293(b)
23. Holding .s Make/Model Expir" WRJ6->li /!JD)£'- A (12 months) , J~ - 3J ... cf1
24. ArM Arriv1I .s Satilf11ctorily Demonstrated Line Checks
25. ILS Approach• /VJ. ~ FAR 135.299 Expires (12 months) ( 1~·31 -- d'()
26. 0th• Instrument Approaches V' S.tilfectorily Demonstrated IFR Proficiency
Appro1Ch11: NDB/ADF ~A FAR 135.297 Expires ............... '"'I' ( 6 months) , ft,--3C -o'I >
VOR l!lA Use of Autopilot (i((is not) uthorized.

ILS L ~ Expir" (12 months) (~ )
""'
Other (Speci fy) .)) ~ l>
27 . Circling Approech•
Vvf\lc s;5 REMARKS
(9/2EAT .:Jo B I
, ,
I
28. Mi111d Approech" NA flop€ W IE CA /V /YJ Ii J<.-e St:JmE. /Y)t1/VIE' y
29. Comm./N1v. Procedur• IV..8_
W1rH l#IJ G-1 ~MC,.
30. U11 of Auto. Pilot IA A
.... ,/ . •
RESULT OF LY Approved CHECK AIRMAN'S ifs.tisfectory

CHECK 0 0Upproved PERFORMANCE D Un11tl1fectory
REGION DISTRICT OFFICE FAA INSPECTOR'1 SIGNATURE
5 o v T JI- 1:.- R f\.J fJtJP - £~JSr'€ /VT /JtJ I -/ii~v1 ~ € D

FAA Form 8410-3
*U. S,Govern1ent Printing Office

INITIAL OPERATING EXPERIENCE - ''IOE'': (135.244, 121 .434)

1. No certificate holder may use any person as a Pilot In Command of an aircraft operated in a
COMMUTER operation unless that person has completed, prior to designation as PIC, on the make
and basic model aircraft and in that crewmember position, the following operating experience in each
make and basic model of aircraft to be flown:
a. SINGLE engine 10 hours
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Operating experience can be transferred by the pilot to
b. Multiengine reciprocating 15 hours : another certificate holder provided satisfactory
c. Multiengine turbine 20 hours ~documentation is provided to the new certificate holder.
d. Turbojet 25 hours
2. The experience must be acquired after satisfactory completion of the ground and flight training.
3. The experience must be acquired during commuter passenger-carrying flights or during "proving"
flights or ferry flights.
4. The experience must be acquired while performing the duties of Pilot In Command under the
supervision of a qualified check pilot.
5. The hours of operating experience may be reduced to not less than 50o/o of the hours required by the
substitution of one additional takeoff and landing for each hour of flight.
FLIGHT ATTENDANT REQUIREMENTS: (91 .533, 91.1061, 91 .1105, 135.101, 121.391)

(a) No person may operate an airplane unless at least the following number of
flight attendants are on board the airplane:
(1) For airplanes having more than 19 but less than 51 passengers on
board, ONE flight attendant.
(2) For airplanes having more than 50 but less than 101
passengers on board, TWO flight attendants.
(3) For airplanes having more than 100 passengers on board, TWO
flight attendants PLUS ONE additional flight attendant for EACH
unit (or part of a unit) of 50 passengers above 100.
(b) No person may serve as a required flight attendant unless that person
has demonstrated to the Pilot In Command familiarity with the
necessary functions to be performed in an emergency or a situation.-_ ___,
requiring emergency evacuation and is capable of using the Coffee, tea,
emergency equipment installed on that airplane. or... ?
§ 121.391 FLIGHT ATTENDANTS: (121.391 )

For aircraft with a seating capacity of: Hold on
20 to 50 ONE flight attendant thar Mister.
51 to 100 TWO flight attendants You can't
do that!
101 to 150 THREE flight attendants
For aircraft with a seating capacity of more than 100 passengers TWO flight attendants PLUS ONE
ADDITIONAL flight attendant for each unit (or part of a unit) of 50 passengers seats above a seating capacity
of 100 passengers.
It has come to my attention that a very few intellectually challenged zealots have, or may be "offended" by the images on this page.
I really can't bear the fact that you're so "sensitive." This book was not intended for children or the emotionally disturbed. This is
simply a pathetic attempt at cheesy humor. In the United States we call it "satire" which is protected by the First Amendment.
You 'll find much worse on network TV. If you're too unstable to handle this, maybe you should not be trusted to fly airplanes.
Get a life .. . and smile a little damn it!;o)
Prohibition Against Carriage Of WEAPONS: (91 .11 , 135.11s, 135.120, 121 .538, 121 .587)
No person may, while on board an aircraft being operated Allah is great ...
by a certificate holder, carry on or about Life sucks!
that person a deadly or dangerous
weapon , either concealed or
unconcealed. This section does not Bt.HEA
apply to -
(a) Officials or employees of a TH 05E
municipality or a State, or of the WHO
United States, who are authorized
to carry arms; or
lNSULI
(b) Crewmembers and other persons authorized by the
certificate holder to carry arms.
(chap 8 More Commercial Stuff)
AIRCRAFT REQUIRED TESTS and INSPECTIONS: (91 .111 . 91 .201. 91 .215, 91 .409, 91 .411 . 91 .413)
1. ANNUAL inspection (Part 91 ). Must be signed off by an A&P with Inspection 8,uthorization (aka IA).
. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ·-- . . .. . . . . . .. ... . . .. ............ . . .. ....... . . .. ... . . . . .. . ·----
2. 100 hour inspection (for hire). Can be signed off by any 8,irframe & fowerplant Mechanic (A&P) .
: The 100-hour limitation may be exceeded by not more than 10 hours while en route to reach a place
• where the inspection can be accomplished. It is acceptable to exceed the 100-hour limitation during a
• commercial operation !Ethe aircraft is INADVERTENTLY delayed (due to weather or traffic). However,
: INTENTIONALLY dispatching an aircraft on a commercial operation KNOWING that the 100-hour limitation
• will be exceeded is NOT legal. Commercial operations must be halted at the 100-hour point. The
: excess time used to reach a place where the inspection can be accomplished must be included in computing
• the next 100 hours of time in service. *CAUTION* - *CAUTION* (a little FAA "got-cha") Some aircraft
: ,Airworthiness Qirectives requ ire inspection of specific components at 100 hour (or sometimes 25 or 50 hour)
• intervals. These [AD] intervals normally CANNOT be exceeded for ANY reason (unless a ferry permit is issued) .
•
: Annual or 100-hour inspections do not apply to-
• • An aircraft inspected in accordance with an 8,pproved 8,ircraft Inspection frogram (AAIP) under Part
• 125, 127, or 135 .
•
• • An aircraft inspected in accordance with a Progressive Inspection Program .
•• • An aircraft inspected in accordance with a Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program .
• Several other inspection programs listed in 91.409.
3.An ANNUAL inspection is acceptable to use as a 100-hour inspection, but a 100-hour inspection
cannot be used as an annual. An annual is a bit more intense and must be signed off by an 8,ircraft
Inspector. Annual inspections have no grace period. If it's out of annual, it's out of annual. You'll
need either a new annual or a ferry permit in order to move the aircraft.
4. 8,pproved 8,ircraft Inspection frogram (AAIP) Under Parts 125, 127 or 135 (135.419).
5. PROGRESSIVE Complete inspection by specifying intervals in hours & days when routine & detailed
inspections will be performed during a 12-month period (91.409).
6. Other inspection programs approved by the administrator for large or turbine powered aircraft (91 .409).
7. ADs have no grace period unless such a grace period is noted in the AD itself.
8. TRANSPONDER (Mode C), ALTIMETER, and PITOT/STATIC systems Must be checked and re-
certified every 24 calendar months (technically the altimeter & pitot/static check is only required for IFR
operations). (91 .411 , 91.413)
9. ELT Every 12 months Batteries must be replaced after 1 hour of cumulative use or when 50o/o of
their usable life has expired (91.207). • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
10. VOR test every 30 days for IFR flight (91.171). The OWNER OPERATOR of the aircraft is
primarily responsible for maintaining an
VOR CHECK: (91.171, AIM 1-1-4, 2-3-6, fig 2-3-20, FAA-H-8083-15) : aircraft in an airworthy condition (91 .403).
1. Required within the previous 30 days for IFR flight:
a. Surface VOR checkpoint ±4° • The PILOT IN COMMAND is
b. VOT surface (or airborne) check ±4° • responsible for determining
c. Dual VOR system check ±4° between each other I
whether the aircraft is in an
d. Airborne VOR checkpoint ±6° •
• airworthy condition [91 .7(b)].
e. Airborne over prominent landmark ±6°
f. Radio repair station Max permissible variation ±4°
2. All checks may be performed and signed off by the pilot except a radio repair station check. A radio
repair station can use a radiated test signal, but only the technician performing the test can make an
entry in the log. Locations of airborne & surface checks can be found in the A/FD.
3. Each person making a VOR check must enter:
DEPS )late, .§.rror, f.lace, and ~ignature in the aircraft log or other reliable record.
4. The course sensitivity can be checked by recording the number of degrees of change in the course
selected as you rotate the OBS to move the CDI from center to the last dot on either side. This
should be between 10° and 12° (FAA-H-8083-15).
VOT CHECK: (91.171, AIM 1-1-4, 2-3-6, FIG 2-3-20, FAA-H-8083-15)

VOR !est facility. Locations and frequencies of VOTs are published in the A/FD and Jeppesen airport
charts. With the COi centered, the OBS should read 180° TO & 360° FROM (within ±4°).

§ 135.415 Service difficulty reports: (135.415, 121 .?03)
{a) Each certificate holder shall report the occurrence or detection of each failure, malfunction, or defect in
an aircraft concerning-
(1) Fires during flight and whether the related fire-warning system functioned properly;
(2) Fires during flight not protected by related fire-warning system;
(3) False fire-warning during flight;
(4) An exhaust system that causes damage during flight to the engine, adjacent structure, equipment, or
components;
(5) An aircraft component that causes accumulation or circulation of smoke, vapor, or toxic or noxious
fumes in the crew compartment or passenger cabin during flight;
(6) Engine shutdown during flight because of flameout;
(7) Engine shutdown during flight when external damage to the engine or aircraft structure occurs;
(8) Engine shutdown during flight due to foreign object ingestion or icing;
(9) Shutdown of more than one engine during flight;
(10) A propeller feathering system or ability of the system to control overspeed during flight;
(11) A fuel or fuel-dumping system that affects fuel flow or causes hazardous leakage during flight;
(12) An unwanted landing gear extension or retraction or opening or closing of landing gear doors during
flight;
(13) Brake system components that result in loss of brake actuating force when the aircraft is in motion on
the ground;
(14) Aircraft structure that requires major repair;
(15) Cracks, permanent deformation, or corrosion of aircraft structures, if more than the maximum
acceptable to the manufacturer or the FAA; and
(16) Aircraft components or systems that result in taking emergency actions during flight (except action to
shut-down an engine).
{b) For the purpose of this section, during flight means the period from the moment the aircraft leaves the
surface of the earth on takeoff until it touches down on landing.
{c) In addition to the reports required by paragraph (a) of this section, each certificate holder shall report any
other failure, malfunction, or defect in an aircraft that occurs or is detected at any time if, in its opinion, the
failure, malfunction, or defect has endangered or may endanger the safe operation of the aircraft.
{d) Each certificate holder shall submit each report required by this section, covering each 24-hour period
beginning at 0900 local time of each day and ending at 0900 local time on the next day, to the FAA offices in
Oklahoma City, Oklahoma. Each report of occurrences during a 24-hour period shall be submitted to the
collection point within the next 96 hours. However, a report due on Saturday or Sunday may be submitted
on the following Monday, and a report due on a holiday may be submitted on the next workday.
{e) The certificate holder shall transmit the reports required by this section on a form and in a manner
prescribed by the Administrator, and shall include as much of the following as is available:
(1) The type and identification number of the aircraft.
(2) The name of the operator.
(3) The date.
(4) The nature of the failure, malfunction, or defect.
(5) Identification of the part and system involved, including available information pertaining to type
designation of the major component and time since last overhaul, if known.
(6) Apparent cause of the failure, malfunction or defect (e.g., wear, crack, design deficiency, or personnel
error).
(7) Other pertinent information necessary for more complete identification, determination of seriousness, or
corrective action.
{f) A certificate holder that is also the holder of a type certificate (including a supplemental type certificate), a
Parts Manufacturer Approval, or a Technical Standard Order Authorization, or that is the licensee of a type
certificate need not report a failure, malfunction, or defect under this section if the failure, malfunction, or
defect has been reported by it under §21.3 or §37.17 of this chapter or under the accident reporting
provisions of part 830 of the regulations of the National Transportation Safety Board.
{g) No person may withhold a report required by this section even though all information required by this section
is not available.
{h) When the certificate holder gets additional information, including information from the manufacturer or other
agency, concerning a report required by this section, it shall expeditiously submit it as a supplement to the
first report and reference the date and place of submission of the first report.

ON r1-1e
Pt-us s1oe,
FOlUS ... we
Sl-IOUL.D
l-IAV6 YOU ON
i~6 GROUND
WAY, WAY
Al-l6AD OF
SCl-l60Ut,6
Whatta need Boss.

I can fix anything
that ain't broke.
···········~·············································~
: TIME IN SERVICE (1.1) with respect to maintenance time
•• records, means the time from the moment an aircraft leaves the surface of
•• the earth until it touches it at the next point of landing (aka ''air time'').
'
[Chap 8 More Commercial Stuff)
MECHANICAL INTERRUPTION SUMMARY REPORT: (135.417, 121 .105, 91.1411)
Each certificate holder shall mail or deliver, before the end of the 10th day of the following month, a
summary report of the following occurrences in multiengine aircraft for the preceding month to the certificate-
holding district office:
(a) Each interruption to a flight, unscheduled change of aircraft enroute, or unscheduled stop or diversion
from a route, caused by known or suspected mechanical difficulties or malfunctions that are not reguired
to be reported under § 135.415.
(b) The number of propeller featherings in flight, listed by type of propeller and engine and aircraft on which it
was installed. Propeller featherings for training, demonstration, or flight check purposes need not be
reported.
APPROVED AIRCRAFT INSPECTION PROGRAM - AAI P: (91.409, 135.419, AC-135-10A)

Whenever the Administrator finds that the aircraft inspections reguired or allowed under part 91 of this
chapter are not adeguate to meet this part, or upon application by a certificate holder, the Administrator
may amend the certificate holder's operations specifications under§ 119.51, to reguire or allow an
8,pproved 8,ircraft Inspection frogram for any make and model aircraft of which the certificate holder has
the exclusive use of at least one aircraft (as defined in § 135.25(b )).
OPERATION AFTER MAINTENANCE, REBUILDING, or ALTERATION: (91.407)

(a) No person may operate any aircraft that has undergone maintenance, preventive maintenance,
rebuilding, or alteration unless-
(1) It has been approved for return to service by a person authorized under 43. 7; and
(2) The maintenance record entry required by 43.9 or 43.11 has been made.
(b) No person may carry any person (other than crewmembers) in an aircraft that has been maintained,
rebuilt, or altered in a manner that may have appreciably changed its flight characteristics or
substantially affected its operation in flight until an appropriately rated pilot with at least a private pilot
certificate FLIES the aircraft, makes an operational check of the maintenance performed or alteration
made, and logs the flight in the aircraft records.
(c) The aircraft does NOT HAVE TO BE FLOWN as required by paragraph (b) of this section IE prior to
flight, ground tests, inspection, or both show conclusively that the maintenance, preventive
maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration has not appreciably changed the flight characteristics or
substantially affected the flight operation of the aircraft.
MAINTENANCE REQUIRED: (91.405)

This regulation overlaps 91.407 to put additional responsibility on the OWNER or OPERATOR. The
OWNER or OPERATOR shall ENSURE that maintenance personnel make appropriate entries in the
aircraft maintenance records (the aircraft maintenance log) indicating that the aircraft has been approved
for return to service. If the owner or operator does not check for this written, signed and dated entry for
return to service and an incident happens the pilot could be held in violation of 91.405 and the catch-
all careless and reckless rule 91.13 .
•••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••••••
•
•• Pilots, who are not mechanics, are authorized under
•
•• Part 43 Appendix A to perform ''preventive maintenance''
•• on items such as changing oil, tires, bulbs, batteries, seat
•• belts and many other items listed in the Appendix .
•• Responsibility for ensuring that
,• The pilot is required to log each item they perform in the an aircraft is maintained in an
% maintenance records of the aircraft in the detail required by airworthy condition is primarily
: 43.9(a) and the pilot must sign a logbook entry approving that of the owner or o erator.
: the aircraft for return to service after the preventive
•.,. maintenance as required by 91.407(a).
•••••••••••••••••••
: The NTSB has ruled that a
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• : ''MECHANICAL IRREGULARITY'' is
: OPERABLE CONDITION means in a : "any deviation from the normal
•• condition so as to operate efficiently and in the
: functioning of an aircraft component
•• manner intended by the manufacturer. no matter how slight or momentary. "
'
(Chap 8 - More Commercial Stuff)
Additional INSTRUMENTS & EQUIPMENT Required: •••••••••••
(91.205, 91.207, 135.149, 135.158, 135.159, 135.161 , 135.163, 135.165, 135.167, 121 .301thru121 .310) • See Page 84
•• for Part 91 day,
(In addition to, but not requiring duplication of, the requirements of 91.205 and 91.207)
: night and IFR
1. Sensitive altimeter adjustable for barometric pressure (135.149). • EQUIPMENT
2. Heating or deicing equipment for each carburetor or, for a pressure carburetor, ~ requirements.
an alternate air source (135.149).
3. For TURBOJET airplanes, in addition to two gyroscopic Attitude Indicators, a THIRD Attitude Indicator
operated by its own source of electrical power capable of operating for 30 minutes. (121 .305, 135.149)
4. Transport category aircraft are required to have a pitot heat indication system. (135.1 58)
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED - PASSENGERS - VFR at NIGHT or VFR Over-the·

Top: (135.159, 135.161 , 121 .323, 121 .325)
In addition to, but not requiring duplication of, the requirements of 91.205 and 91.207 No person may operate
an aircraft carrying passengers under VFR at night or VFR over-the-top, unless it is equipped with:
1. A gyroscopic rate-of-turn indicator except if the aircraft is already equipped with a third Attitude
Indicator. • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••• .._
2. A slip-skid indicator. : Public Address & lnterphone:
3. A gyroscop~c ~ttitu.de ~nd.icator. : No person may operate an aircraft with
4. A gyroscopic d1rect1on 1nd1cator (DG). : more than 19 passenger seats, unless it is
5. A generator or generators able to supply all probable loads. • equipped with a public address system and
6. For NIGHT flights: ~ a crewmember interphone system. (135.150)
a. An anticollision light system.
b. Instrument lights to make all Instruments, switches, and gauges readable.
c. A FLASHLIGHT having at least two size ''D'' cells or equivalent.
7. Two-way radio able, in flight, to transmit and receive from a ground facility 25 miles away.
8. Navigational equipment able to receive radio signals from the ground facilities to be used.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED PASSENGERS IFR: (135.163, 121 .325)

In addition to, but not requiring duplication of, the requirements of 91.205 and 91.207 No person may operate
an aircraft under IFR, carrying passengers, unless it has:
1. A Vertical Speed Indicator.
2. A free-air temperature indicator.
3. A heated pitot tube for each airspeed indicator.
4. A power failure warning device or vacuum indicator to show the power available for gyro instruments
from each power source.
5. An alternate source of static pressure for the altimeter, airspeed and vertical speed indicators.
6. For SINGLE-engine aircraft:
a.Two independent electrical power-generating sources.
b. A standby battery or an alternate source of electric power capable of supplying 150o/o of the
electrical loads for emergency operation for at least one hour.
7. For MULTI-engine aircraft, at least two generators or alternators each on a separate engine capable
of powering all instruments and equipment necessary during an emergency.
8. Two independent sources of energy, of which at least one is engine-driven, each of which is able to
drive all gyroscopic instruments.
SAFETY BEL TS: (91.105, 91.107, 91 .205, 91.517, 91 .519, 91.1035, 135.128, 121 .311 , 121.571 , AC 91-62A, AC 23.562-1)
1. Each required flight crewmember shall keep the safety belt fastened while at the crewmember station.
2. During takeoff and landing each required flight crewmember must keep the shoulder harness fastened
(if equipped), unless he would be unable to perform required duties with the shoulder harness fastened.
3. Each person on board an aircraft shall occupy an approved seat or berth with a separate safety belt
properly secured about him or her during movement on the surface, takeoff, and landing (unless it is a
person pushing off a seaplane or float equipped rotorcraft from a dock).
4. A child may be held by an adult who is occupying an approved seat or berth, provided the child has
not reached his or her second birthday and the child does not occupy or use any restraining device; or
5. A child may occupy an approved child restraint system furnished by the certificate holder or by the
child's parent, guardian or designated attendant provided the restraint system is properly secured to an
approved forward-facing seat or berth and the child is properly secured within the seat (see 135.128
and 121.311 for REQUIRED LABELING of restrain systems).

RADIO & NAVIGATION EQUIPMENT REQUIRED - EXTENDED OVERWATER
or IFR: (1.1. 135.165, 91.509, 91.511, 121.325, 121 .339, 121 .351, 121 .573, 121.615)
1. EXTENDED OVERWATER Definition:
a. Fixed wing aircraft An operation over water at a distance of more than 50 NM from the
nearest shoreline. (Large & turbine powered multiengine - 30 minutes flying time Q[ 1oo NM from nearest shore)
b. Helicopters An operation over water at a distance of more than 50 NM from the nearest
shoreline and more than 50 NM from an offshore heliport (1.1 ).
2. No person may operate a turbojet airplane having a passenger seating configuration, excluding any
pilot seat, of 10 seats or more, or a multiengine airplane in a commuter operation under IFR or in
extended overwater operations unless it has at least the following radio and navigational
equipment appropriate for the facilities to be used which are capable of transmitting to, and receiving
from, at any place on the route, at least one ground facility:
a. Two transmitters, Two microphones, & Two headsets or one headset and one speaker.
b. Two independent navigation receivers & Two independent communication receivers.
c. A marker beacon.
3. Notwithstanding the requirements above, the Administrator may authorize deviations to the require-
ment of dual long-range nav/coms depending on length of route and duration of communications gap.
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT - EXTENDED OVERWATER:

(1 .1, 135.167, 91.509, 121.339, 121 .353, 121 .615)
1. No person may operate an aircraft in extended overwater operations unless it carries, in easily
accessible locations, the following equipment:
a. A life preserver equipped with an approved survivor locator light for each occupant.
b. Enough liferafts to accommodate all occupants of the aircraft. ..·····································~
2. Each liferaft must be equipped with or contain the following: :· ETOPS aka ER-OPS
• gxtended-Range Iwin-Engine
a. One survivor locator light and one pyrotechnic signaling device~ QQerationi (aka sngines I urning Qr
b. Either: : f assengers ~wimming)
t··~1~;~~(~·)·~·· • One survival kit, appropriately equipped for the route; OR: ; A showing by the carrier and
: fractional • One canopy (for sail, sunshade, or rain catcher) : airframe/engine manufacturer
• : that enough redundant safety
; ownership • One radar deflector : exists to extend the enroute
: program • One life raft repair kit : alternate time with an engine
: manager
d b • One bailing bucket failure from the normal 60
: un er su part minutes to 90, 120, 180, 240
: K may apply • One signaling mirror : or 330 minutes diversion time
·.·for a deviation ..,..
..ai.. On e po 1·ice w h"IS ti e :· with one engine inop.
: from some of •
.• this
• Oneraftknife •••• (AC120-42B,121 .162)
•
: equipment for • One C02 bottle for emergency inflation ~NliN!ill!Nilltj~liMNldl!Nill!NiN..,,,,,,,.
; a particular • One inflation pump
: over w~ter .. Two oars
•• operation.
·..__~'##~~ • One 75-foot retaining line
• One magnetic compass
• One dye marker
• One flashlight having at least two "D" cells or equivalent
• A 2-day supply of food supplying at least 1,000 calories per day for each person
• For each two persons, two pints of water or one sea water desalting kit
•. . • One fishing kit
• One book on survival appropriate for the area operated
3. At least one of the liferafts, required above, must be equipped with an approved survival type
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT).
PERFORMANCE Requirements - LAND Aircraft Operated OVER WATER:

(135.183) •
No person may operate a land aircraft carrying passengers over water unless: Lo f')
1. It is operated at an altitude that allows it to reach land in the case of engine failure. ~~-~
2. It is necessary for takeoff or landing. / _/
3. It is a multiengine aircraft operated at a weight that will allow it to climb, with the critical e"9ine
inoperative, at least 50 feet a minute, at an altitude of 1,000 feet above the surface, or
4. It is a helicopter equipped with helicopter flotation devices.

·············································~
: EXTENDED OVERWATER WEATHER: (121.615)
: A flight may not be dispatched for extended overwater
• operations unless the weather reports or forecasts indicate
•• that the weather conditions will be at or above the authorized
•• minimums at the ETA at any airport to which dispatched or
released or to any required alternate airport.
THUNDERSTORM DETECTION EQUIPMENT:

(135.173, 91 .1045)
1. No person may operate an aircraft that has a passenger seating
configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of 10 seats or more !!l
passenger-carrying operations, except a helicopter operating
under day VFR, unless the aircraft is eguipped with either
approved thunderstorm detection equipment OR approved airborne weather radar equipment.
2. Thunderstorm detection equipment is also required for helicopter operations, with 10 or more
passenger seats, under night VFR when weather reports indicate that thunderstorms or potentially
hazardous weather can reasonably be expected along the route to be flown.
AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR: (135.175, 121 .357, 91 .1045)

1. No person may operate a large, transport category aircraft in passenger-carrying operations unless
approved airborne weather radar equipment is installed in the aircraft.
2. No person may operate IFR or night VFR, if thunderstorms are expected, unless that radar is
installed and actually working (the aircraft's MEL could allow the aircraft to operate temporarily with
the radar inoperative, if there were no chance of thunderstorms along the route).
Traffic alert and Collision Avoidance System - ''TCAS'':

(1.1, 91.221, 135.180, 121 .356, 91.1045)
Unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator, after December 31, 1995, no person may operate a
turbine powered airplane that has a passenger seat configuration, excluding any pilot seat, of 10 to 30
seats unless it is equipped with an approved Iraffic alert and .Qollision 8,voidance §.ystem.
TCAS I means a TCAS that utilizes interrogations of, and replies from, airborne radar beacon
transponders and provides traffic advisories to the pilot.
TCAS 11 means a TCAS that utilizes interrogations of, and replies from airborne radar beacon transponders
and provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories in the vertical plane.
TCAS Ill means a TCAS that utilizes interrogation of, and replies from, airborne radar beacon transponders
and provides traffic advisories and resolution advisories in the vertical and horizontal planes.
FLASHLIGHT FLYING EQUIPMENT: (91 .503, 135.159, 121.310, 121.549, Ops Manual)
1. 91.503 all flights aboard LARGE and TURBINE-powered multiengine airplanes require a
''FLASHLIGHT having at least two size ''D'' cells or equivalent, that is in good working order''
accessible for each flight ''fil the pilot station of the airplane."
2. 135.159 requires the aircraft to be equipped with a FLASHLIGHT with two size ''D'' cells or equivalent
for VFR night and VFR over-the-top operations while carrying PASSENGERS. Part 135 does not
specifically require a flashlight for IFR night but the FAA would certainly interpret the rule to apply to
ALL night flights (although it might make for a lively argument during a ramp check!). In any case, if
you're flying a large or turbine-powered multiengine aircraft, you're also ruled by 91.503. In addition,
flashlight requirements are usually addressed in a company's Qeneral Qperations Manual.
In other words ... MAKE damn SURE you have a FLASHLIGHT (with 2 "D" cells) that WORKS!
3. 121.549 "EACH CREWMEMBER shall, on each flight, have readily available for his use a flashlight
that is in good working order." Also see 91.503 (two "D" cells).

AIRCRAFT AIRWORTHINESS: (91 .7)

(a) No person may operate a civil aircraft unless it is in an airworthy condition.
(b) The Pilot In Command of a civil aircraft is responsible for determining whether that aircraft is in
condition for safe flight. The Pilot In Command shall discontinue the flight when unairworthy
mechanical, electrical, or structural conditions occur.
REPORTING MECHANICAL IRREGULARITIES: (121.563, 135.65)

1. The PIC shall ensure that all mechanical irregularities occurring during a flight are entered in the
maintenance log of the aircraft at the end that flight.
2. Before each flight, the PIC shall ascertain the status of each irregularity entered in the log at the end
of the preceding flight.
FLIGHT CREWMEMBERS at STATIONS (PILOTS in their SEATS) -

SAFETY BEL TS SEAT BEL TS SHOULDER HARNESS:
(91.105, 91 .521 , 135.128, 121 .311 , 121 .543)
(a) During takeoff and landing, and while en route, each required flight crewmember shall-
(1) Be at the crewmember station unless the absence is necessary to perform duties in
connection with the operation of the aircraft or in connection with physiological needs; and
(2) Keep the SAFETY BELT fastened while at the crewmember station.
(b) Each required flight crewmember shall, during takeoff and landing, keep his or her SHOULDER
HARNESS fastened while at his or her assigned duty station. This paragraph does not apply if-
(1) The seat is not equipped with a shoulder harness; or
(2) The crewmember would be unable to perform required duties with the shoulder harness
fastened.
''Physiological needs'' using the
restroom, stretching your legs briefly,
Physiological functional or "other" physiological requirements.
• •
processes 1n an organism or
any of its parts.
C I>
91 .107 requires that you

brief your passengers to
fasten their seatbelts before . _ _.....
taxi, takeoff and landing .

Airplane Flight Manual -AFM -

Approved Aircraft Flight Manual - AAFM -
Pilot Operating Handbook - POH -
LIMITATIONS-
MARKINGS and PLACARDS:
(21 .5, 23.1581 , 23.1583, 23.1585, 23.1587, 23.1589, 91.9, 135.81, 121 .141 , AC 60-68)
1. FAR 91.9 provides that an airplane must be operated in compliance
with the operating LIMITATIONS as set forth in the ''AIRPLANE
FLIGHT MANUAL," APPROVED MANUAL MATERIALS, MARKINGS,
and PLACARDS for the particular airplane type. These documents, or
any required combination, must be CURRENT and AVAILABLE in the
airplane during operation.
2. AFMs are reguired for all airplanes certificated in the Transport
category. No provision exists for approval of an AFM for airplanes type
certificated in the normal or acrobatic categories under CAR 04.
3. AFMs are also required for airplanes type certificated under CAR 3 and
FAR Part 23 at gross weights over 6,000 pounds, however, all aircraft
that were manufactured after March 1, 1979, must have an AFM. The required information for
airplanes, type certificated at gross weights of 6,000 pounds or under, which are not required to have an
AFM, may be furnished in an airplane flight manual or in any combination of approved manual material,
markings, and placards.
4. AFMs may be required for certain other airplane types which have been issued supplementary type
certificates changing the original type certification. Notable examples are numerous DC-3s, which have
been approved for operations in the Transport category under a supplemental type certificate.
5. Supplemental operating information, which has not been formally approved by the FAA, is usually
provided in an ''Owner's Handbook," ''Owner's Manual," ''Pilot's Operating Handbook'' (POH) or
supplemental pages in an AFM. The POH is similar to the AFM , but includes more general information.
6. The principal source of information for identifying reguired airplane flight manuals, approved
manual materials, markings, and placards is the FAA ''TYPE CERTIFICATE DATA SHEET'' or Aircraft
Specification issued for each airplane. This information may be obtained from the FAA, FAA approved
repair stations, and certified mechanics holding Inspection Authorizations.
7. Prior to operating an aircraft, pilots must assure that there is available in that airplane either a
current AFM or approved manual materials, if required, along with necessary markings and placards.
8. No person may operate a civil aircraft without complying with the operating LIMITATIONS specified
!!! the approved Airplane (or Rotorcraft) Flight Manual, markings, and placards.
9. No person may operate a civil aircraft unless there is available in the aircraft a CURRENT approved
Airplane (or Rotorcraft) Flight Manual, markings, and placards, or any combination thereof.
························~,
•• An approved ''Company Flight
•• Manual'' (CFM) may be
•• accepted by the FAA as a
: substitute for an approved
: Airplane Flight Manual.
: If an approved Company Flight
: Manual is on board, it is not
: required to also carry an
·, approved Airplane Flight Manual.

MEL FAA Approved Minimum Equipment List:

(43.11, 91 .213, 91.405, 91.1115, 135.179, AC 91-67, OpSpec 0095)
1. Part 135 No person may takeoff an aircraft with inoperable instruments or equipment installed unless
an approved Minimum Equipment List exists for that aircraft ( 135.179). Without a MEL, an airplane
cannot be dispatched with ANY inoperative component, even if those items are not required for safe
flight. This includes the cigarette lighter, even if you don't smoke. Remember that the FAA has infinite
wisdom what if you decide to take up smoking during the flight you'd have no way to light up!
2. A Part 121 /135 company operating under an approved MEL would be required to operate under that
MEL even when conducting operations under Part 91.
3. A MEL is an exact listing of eguipment, instruments, and procedures that allows an aircraft to fly
under specific conditions and limitations (e.g., weather, day/night, etc.) with certain eguipment inop.
4. Each MEL is an official document that must be approved by the FAA for a specific make and model
aircraft by serial and registration numbers.
5. A MEL contains items allowed to be inoperative on an aircraft while it is still considered airworthy.
6. The MEL cannot include items that are required to be operational by the airworthiness
reguirements under which the aircraft was type certified; an Airworthiness Directive (AD); or by
Part 91 for a specific flight operation (91.205, 91.213).
7. The MEL must be on board the aircraft and located so the pilots can reach it.
8. The MEL states what flight conditions, limitations, crew operating procedures, maintenance
procedures, placards, and duration limits are necessary in order to be legal for flight with a particular
component inoperative.
9. All equipment NOT listed in the MEL MUSTbe OPERATIVE unless it is listed in an "approved"
~onfiguration Qeviation ,bist (COL) for the aircraft and the COL restrictions or limitations (noted in the
appendix to the AFM) are followed. (FAA Order 8900.1)
10. MEL items are coded to show how long the aircraft may be operated before they are repaired.
11. A MEL is created from a Master MEL (MMEL) issued for the specific aircraft type by the FAA. An FAA
group called the flight Qperations gvaluation §.oard (FOEB) meets periodically to discuss which items
should be included in the MMEL, and what limitations and provisions are included to ensure a safe
operation with that item inoperative.
12. A Part 121 or 135 operator acquires the MMEL from the FAA (www.faa.gov) and prepares an MEL for
that specific aircraft or fleet of aircraft. The operator's MEL must list the actual equipment installed and
quantity of each type of equipment on the aircraft. MEL templates can be found at www.faa.gov. The
aircraft's specific MEL must then be approved by the FAA for use by the operator.
13. Part 91 Rotorcraft, nonturbine-powered airplanes, gliders, and lighter-than air aircraft for which an
MMEL has not been developed may be operated with inoperative equipment if the equipment is not
essential to the safety of the flight and the equipment is placarded as inoperative [91.213(d)]. A Part 91
operator acquires the MMEL from the FAA, then creates a procedures document that tells the pilot or
mechanic what procedures must be followed for any MEL items that require (M) Maintenance or (0)
Operating procedures. The operator also defines a system for recording defects and for placarding the
equipment. The FAA does not approve the Part 91 operator's MEL as they would for an air carrier, but
issues a ,better Qf 8,uthorization (LOA). The MMEL, the operator's procedures, and the LOA must be
carried aboard the aircraft at all times along with a log of any DEFERRED items.
14. When an item is found inoperative, the pilot must do the following:
a. Look in the MEL to see if the item can be DEFERRED. The MEL will list the number installed and
the number reguired for dispatch. If not listed in the MEL, the item MUST be repaired or a
"special flight permit" ("ferry permit") must be obtained from the FAA in order to operate the aircraft.
b. Then look in the right hand column remarks section to see if any special provisions apply.
c. An ''(M)'' or ''(O)'' in the remarks section indicates whether a Maintenance procedure or a special
Qperating procedure is applicable.
d. The item must then be placarded as inoperative, and the details recorded in the record supplied
by the operator. If any maintenance was performed, it must be signed off by a mechanic.
e. Left column letters A, B, C, or D limit the time that the item is allowed to be DEFERRED
under the MEL:
Category A is a time limit determined by the operator;
Category B is for 72 hours I 3days;
Category C is for 240 hours I 10 days;
Category D is for 120 days.
f. If remarks section states ''As reguired by FAR'' the operator must list the FAR limitations that
apply or provide the FAR in current form.

,.- ...... ........... . ...
: MEL Item Number :
• 24·2 :
~
••••••• • • • ••••••
•
···························••P
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~-- ·
Falcon 20F •
: Lengel arid Airlines •
Minimum Equipment List •
• •
•
: Aircraft Falcon 20F N123LW Revision Number: Page: •
•• •
R-08 24-1 •
• S/N 334 Date: •
• ••
• 3/20/XX •
•
•
•
24 ELECTRICAL Repair category •
•
POWER •
•• ••
Number Installed •
• •
• Number Re uired for Dis atch •
• Maintenance Procedure Re uired •
• •
•• Operations Procedure Re uired •
•• •
Remarks or Exceptions •
•• ••
• 1. Inverters B 3 2 0 One may be inoperative provided the •
• •
• remaining two operate normally. •
•• •
•
• (01) Pilots shall ensure both •
•• remaining inverters operate normally •
•
during preflight checks. ••
DC Voltmeter c 1 0 0 May be inoperative provided all other
•
•
generator system components operate •
•
normally. •
•
•• 3. Batteries c 2 1 M 0 One may be inoperative provided: •
•
•• •
a) Both generators operate normally •
• b) Inoperative battery is disconnected ••
• in accordance with an acceptable ••
•
• maintenance procedure, and
•
•• c) A ground power unit is used for •
•• engine start . •
•
•• •
(01) Pilots shall ensure that both •
•• generators operate normally during
•
•
• preflight checks. ••
• •
•• (M1) Put switch ''OFF'' for affected •
•• •
battery and leave ''OFF." •
•• Disconnect affected battery and •
•
•• insulate the battery connector and •
battery receptacle. •
• •
• •
: 4. Battery Temperature Indicator c 2 •
0 0 May be inoperative provided battery •
• System temperature warning light operates •
•• •
normally. •
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,• •

----------------------------------------------------
1nope rat iv e Equipment WITHOUT a MEL: [43.11. 91.213(d), 91.405, 135.179, Ac 91.671
An aircraft may be operated under Part 91 with inoperative instruments or
equipment without an approved MEL provided [91 .213(d)] -
1. The flight operation is conducted in a -
a. Rotorcraft, nonturbine-powered airplane, glider, or lighter-than-
air aircraft for which a Master Minimum Equipment List has not
been developed; OR ...
b. Small rotorcraft, nonturbine-powered SMALL airplane, glider, or
lighter-than-air aircraft for which a Master Minimum Equipment
List has been developed; AND ...
2. The inoperative instruments and equipment are NOT -
a. Part of the VFR-day type certification instruments [91.205(b )] or the equipment prescribed in
the applicable airworthiness regulations under which the aircraft was type certificated;
b. Listed as ''REQUIRED'' on the aircraft's equipment list (usually found in the POH or AFM), or
on the Kinds of Operations Equipment List for the kind of flight operation being conducted;
c. Required by § 91.205 or any other rule of this part for the specific kind of flight operation being
conducted (night flight, instrument flight, high-altitude flight, etc.); OR ...
d. Required to be operational ~an 8,irworthiness Qirective; AND ...
3. The inoperative instruments and equipment are -
a. Removed from the aircraft, the cockpit control placarded, and the maintenance recorded in
accordance with § 43. 9 of this chapter; OR ...
b. Deactivated and placarded ''Inoperative." If deactivation of the inoperative instrument or
equipment involves maintenance, it must be accomplished and recorded in accordance with
part 43 of this chapter; AND ...
c. A determination is made by a pilot, who is certificated and appropriately rated under part 61 of
this chapter, or by a person, who is certificated and appropriately rated to perform
maintenance on the aircraft, that the inoperative instrument or equipment does not constitute
a hazard.
.. ·········································································~...,
•. '
:· CONFIGURATION DEVIATION LIST (CDL):
•• (AC 25-7A, AC 25.1581-1, 8900.1)
•• Operating the airplane without certain secondary airframe and engine parts is allowed through the
•• use of an approved COL. The COL should be included in the AFM as a separate appendix. The COL
•• should be prepared in accordance with the guidance provided in Advisory Circular 25-7, "Flight Test
•• Guide for Certification of Transport Category Airplanes.''
••
• Many aircraft have installed equipment that is not essential for safe operations under all operating
••
conditions. Much of this equipment is required for certain kinds of operations, such as night, instrument
••
flight rules (IFR), or operation in icing conditions. Other equipment, such as entertainment systems and
••
galley equipment may be installed for convenience. If some deviation from the type certificated
•• configuration and equipment were not permitted, the aircraft could not be flown unless all such
•• equipment was operable and/or installed .
•
•• 1. A COL works pretty much like a MEL.
•• 2. The Minimum Equipment List and the Configuration Deviation List should be carried on board
the aircraft.
3. No flight can take off from any airport with inoperative equipment other than the items
provided for !n the Minimum Equipment List and/or Configuration Deviation List.
······················· ·························· ~
• INOPERATIVE
•• means that a system and/or component
•
• has malfunctioned to the extent that it does not accomplish its
• intended purpose and/or is not consistently functioning normally
•
within its approved operating limits or tolerances. (AC 91-67)

Operating WITHOUT a Minimum Equipment List: (Ac 91-67)
MEL RESTRICTIONS Operators of SMALL rotorcraft, NONTURBINE POWERED small single and
multiengine airplanes [12,500 pounds or less], and other aircraft for which a MMEL has been developed,
may elect to operate WITH a MEL OR under the provisions of FAR§ 91.213(d) [WITHOUT a MEL].
However, the latter option does not apply if the aircraft has an MEL approved under FAR Parts 121,
125, 129, or 135. For example, an owner has leased an aircraft to an air carrier operator, and the air carrier
operator has applied for and received an approved MEL for FAR Part 135 operations. Compliance with
such a MEL is mandatory, even during FAR Part 91 operations. If the operator wants to operate under
FAR§ 91.213(d), the operator would have to surrender the MEL authorization.
DECISION PROCESS WHEN OPERATING WITHOUT a MEL:
Preflight inspection reveals an inoperative piece of equipment.
If the answer is YES, the aircraft is

Is the item required by 91.205 or any other Part 91 rule NOT airworthy and maintenance
(e.g., 91.107, 91.205, 91.207, 91.209, 91.211 , 91.215, etc.)? YES or a Special Flight Permit is
required.
NO
If you CAN NOT accept the

If the item is required for certain conditions, but not other limitations, then the aircraft is NOT
conditions (day VFR only?), and you CAN accept the airworthy and maintenance or a
limitations, then PROCEED to the NEXT STEP. Special Flight Permit is required.

Is the item required by a Part 91 rule and there is no way to NOT airworthy and maintenance
operate without it?
YES or a Special Flight Permit is
required.
NO
Is the item REQUIRED in the aircraft EQUIPMENT LIST or NOT airworthy and maintenance
Kinds of Operation Equipment List? YES or a Special Flight Permit is
required.
NO

Is the item REQUIRED by any Airworthiness Directive (AD) NOT airworthy and maintenance
to be operative? YES or a Special Flight Permit is
required .
NO
91.213(d)(3) requires that you

You got this far, and you still want to go fly ... you [the pilot] either REMOVE the inop item
or a mechanic must determine that the inop item does not YES and placard the cockpit control ; or
constitute a hazard, and it is safe to ogerate without it. DEACTIVATE the item and
placard the cockpit control.
7
If you decide to REMOVE an item, it will usually require an authorized mechanic to do the work. A
supplemental Weight & Balance report must be created and signed by the mechanic; and the equipment
list must be modified to reflect the removal. The temporary W&B and equipment list modification should be
kept in the Aircraft flight Manual. If you decide to DEACTIVATE the item, you can just switch it off, or gull
and collar the circuit breaker. Placard the cockpit control ''INOP'' and record the maintenance as per 43.9.
----------------------------------------------------------
''SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMIT'' or ''FERRY PERMIT'': [91 .213(e), 21 .1 91, 21.199, opspec 00841
1. Notwithstanding any other provision of this section (91.213), an aircraft with inoperable instruments or
equipment may be operated under a special flight permit issued in accordance with Secs. 21.197 and
21.199.
2. A "special flight permit" aka "ferry permit" may be issued by the flight .§.tandards Q.istrict Qffice (FAA
Form 8130-6) for an aircraft that may not currently meet airworthiness requirements but is capable of
safe flight.
3. Normally an authorized mechanic makes the determination as to the safety of the aircraft.
4. A ''ferry permit'' is typically issued for:
a. Repositioning an aircraft to a place where repairs or maintenance is to be performed or to a
place of storage.
b. Flight-testing or delivery of aircraft.
c. Customer demonstration flights for new production aircraft.
d. Evacuating aircraft from an area of impending danger.
e. Operating an aircraft at a weight in excess of maximum gross weight for a long-range flight such
as crossing the Atlantic.
5. A ''Special Airworthiness Certificate'' (FAA form 8130-7) is also required if the aircraft is
''out of annual''.
I
OEPAA'TMENT OF TRANSPOATATlON - FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION
SPECIAL AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATE
CATEOORY/OESIGNATIOO s:PEX::I>.1. n.IGRJ' PBIMI'T
··········~ ··········· ·············· ~ A
•••OPERABLE CONDITION means that the B

PURPOSE
t.1ANUFAC-
lURER
NAME
ADO.RESS
MAXN'l'B~Cl:
N/ A
N/ A
•• instruments and equipment required to comply FROM SHAWNBB, OKLAB.OMA
c
•• with the airworthiness requirements under which FUGKT
TO DOWNTCMN AIRPARK, O:Ja..IWOMA CITY, Olt
182-582672
N· 42565 SERIAL tlO.
• the airplane is type-certificated shall be in a D
• BUILDER CB SS.NA MODEL C-182L
• condition so as to operate efficiently and in the OATE OF ISSUANCE 03-22-99 EXPIRY 04~01-99
• OPERATING LIMITATIONS DATED 03-22-99 ARE A PART OF THJS CeRT1;1CATE

• manner intended by the manufacturer.
E
-niM °" r.u -mEH'IA'IM DESIGNATION OR OFFICE NO.
T.A. ~
.,/. c,_ "-"-"'-'- SW-PSDO-OltC
Alf'/ Bl:orul>ien 1'91)1ocb;uon or mlwllo ol lhiS certiflCltlo may be pu~ fJ>/ a line not ~ino S1,000 or~ noc
Vl<~ 3ye-;&,.., 01 l:ioth. THIS CERTIFICATE MUST 8E DISPLAYED 1H illE AIRCRAFT IN ACOOROANOE \'nTH APPllCA.-
au; FEOERALAVIATION REGULATIONS.
REVERSE SIDE OF APPLJC.AnDN OF AIRWORnflfllESS CERTIFICATE
~···················
A ferry flight of a 3 or 4
turbine engine aircraft with
one engine inoperative to a
repair station may be made
: in VFR conditions with only
: required flight crewmembers
: on board. (91 .611)
•~~flN~~"lliNt##&~'i¥¥J~

• • •
• • Example of a ''Ferry Permit'' •
•
• •
• •
•• U.S. Department ••
• Of Transportation Flight Standards District Office
••
6433 Bryan Blvd
Greensboro, NC 27407
••
• Federal Aviation 336-662-1025 Fax: 336-662-1080 ••
• Administration
• •
• •
• FAX · SPECIAL FLIGHT PERMIT
••
•• This permit is for the following aircraft for the purpose of MAINTENANCE. ••
• •
•• REG. NO. MAKE: MODEL: SERIAL NO: ••
: N4053U CESSNA CE-4028 40280447 •
• •
•• FROM: •
TO: VIA: •
• RDU CLT DIRECT NO STOPS ••
• ••
•• This authorization must be displayed in the aircraft In accordance with 14 CFR §91.203(b)
•• ••
• This authorization expires upon arrival at destination or NOVEMBER 20, 20XX. ••
• •
: These Operating Limitations are a part of the Special Flight Permit issued to the aircraft described above. Flight crew ••
• members must be properly certificated and rated in accordance with 14 CFR Part 61.
• ••
• 1. The flight described above shall be made under VFRNMC day conditions only, (unless the additional limitation ••
•
• below authorizes differently). The flight shall be made by the most direct and expeditious route consistent with
••
•• the aircraft operating limitations and weather.
• 2. Occupation of the aircraft is limited to the pilot, essential flight crew required to operate the aircraft and its •
• ••
• equipment and personal baggage. •
• •
• ••
• 3. Flight over congested areas is prohibited, and takeoffs and landings shall be conducted to avoid congested
• ••
• areas in the vicinity of any of the airports used in conjunction with this authorization. Flight over a foreign
• country must have special permission from that country . ••
••
• 4 . Prior to flight, the aircraft must be inspected by a certificated mechanic or repair station to determine the •
• aircraft is safe for the intended flight. The result of that inspection will be entered in the permanent aircraft
••
• records with the following similarly worded statement: "This aircraft has been inspected and has been •
• •
• found safe for the intended flight In accordance with Special Flight Permit dated ." •
• ••
• 5. Operation of this aircraft is subject to the approval of the registered owner. The aircraft must display U.S.
• ••
•• registration identification marks and have a registration certificate issued to its owner on board. This permit is
• valid for one flight only (Direct) with necessary fuel stops. ••
• •
• 6. Any Airworthiness Directive pertinent to this make and model of aircraft that requires compliance must be
•
•• ••
complied with before the ferry flight is initiated unless the AD specifies that the aircraft can be ferried to a
• location where the requirements of that specific AD can be accomplished .
••
•
•• Additional Limitations: ••
• •
: 1. MUST FLY WITHOUT USE OF AUTO-PILOT •
• 2. MUST FLY BELOW 10,000 FEET •
• •
• •
•
=• ~ •
•
• ••
•• Ronald McDonald ••
•
• ASI Date Issued: November 15, 20XX ••
• •
• •
• •
• •
'·································································~
PILOT RECORD SHARING Pilot Records Improvement Act (PRIA):

-
[AC 120-68E, 91 .1051 , Title V of Public Law 104-264, 110 Stat. 3259 (1996), 91 .1051]
FIVE-YEAR background checks are required for all Part 135, Part 121 and Subpart K of Part 91 pilots by the
f.ilot B.ecords Improvement 8,ct of 1996 (PRIA):
1. A check of all previous aviation employers within the past five years for records of training;
gualifications; checkride results including comments and evaluations of check airmen; any
disciplinary action that was not subsequently overturned; and results of drug and alcohol testing.
Flight time and duty records are specifically excluded. Prior employers have 30 days to respond
once they receive the request form.
2. An FAA records check of the pilot's certificate and medical including any violations, accidents or
incidents. Some air carriers also check the pilot's ''Complete Airmen File'' that includes much more
detailed information including knowledge test results, 8710 Airman Certificate and/or Rating
Applications, etc.
3. A check of the pilot's driving record through the individual State and/or the NOR for any drug or
alcohol related ''motor vehicle actions.''
4. Operators may put pilots to work doing ''on demand operations'' (not scheduled) in aircraft with
maximum payload capacities of 7,500 lbs or less (or helicopters), pending receipt of their background
check information, for no longer than 90 days. Before the end of the 90-day period, the air carrier shall
obtain and evaluate such information. An air carrier may also use a pilot if their previous employer no
longer exists but a documented good faith attempt to obtain the information has been made.
5. A pilot cannot sue a former employer for furnishing these records, however a (very wealthy) pilot could
file a lawsuit if the former employer knowingly supplies false information. It's a good idea to stay on
good terms with all previous employers. Don't burn any bridges as they say.
6. Background data from companies that no longer exist will be waived as long as a documented good
faith attempt to gain the information is made.
7. You can get a copy of your personal FAA PILOT RECORD by sending a letter requesting your
''COMPLETE AIRMAN FILE including all MEDICAL records and records of
INCIDENTS, ACCIDENTS, and ENFOREMENT proceedings.'' Include your name; address;
date and place of birth; social security and/or airman number; and your signature. You must also
provide a check for S 10 payable to the U.S. Treasury. You will only be charged for the cost of the
copies, so typically you will receive a refund for the portion of the $10 that is not used (another option is
to send a check with the amount blank and a note on the check stating ''NOT TO EXCEED $10.00."
Mail the check and information to:
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
: FAA Pilot Records are divided into th ree
FAA
: categories:
Attn: Aviation Data Systems Branch : 1. Airman certification records
: 2. Medical records
AFS 620 (PRIA) • 3. Law enforcement records
•• (violations, accidents, incidents)
PO Box 25082
: A pilot wanting a ''complete file'' must
Oklahoma City, OK 73125·0082 request all three categories.
FAX (405) 954-4655

Forms available at http://www.faa.gov/licenses certificates/airmen certification/.
Virtually EVERY scrap of information ever exchanged between you and the FAA will be included.
8. A pilot interested in a copy of their DRIVING RECORD can contact the OMV of their individual State or
the National Driver Registry at 400 7tfi Street S. W., Washington, D.C. 20590 (202) 366-4800.
The NOR will need a NOTARIZED letter including: your name; date of birth; social security number;
height, weight, and color of hair and eyes.
9. The PRIA law gives you the opportunity to correct erroneous information in any of your records.
You have the right to submit written comments to correct inaccuracies before the airline makes a final
hiring decision (good luck with that one!).
10. The airline must keep any information it receives confidential. They may not use the information for
any purpose other than for making a hiring decision. Detrimental information does not automatically
prevent an airline from hiring a pilot, but if you consider the legal implications of a possible future
incident that might involve passengers and lawsuits, unfortunately there's a lot more fish in the sea.

ACCESS INVESTIGATION CHECK ''AIRPORT BADGE'': (108.33, 1544.229)
1. Another (separate from PRIA) ''ACCESS INVESTIGATION CHECK'' is
required to screen pilots for access to secure areas of air carrier airports
mandated under FAR 108.33.
2. It requires an FBI criminal fingerprint check that looks back 10 years for certain
felony convictions (listed in the rule).
3. If you're concerned about a potential skeleton that might be lurking in your closet
(what exactly did happen after that frat party?), for a small fee you can get yourself
fingerprinted at your local police station or FBI office and check the results
personally.
CLOSING and LOCKING of FLIGHTCREW COMPARTMENT DOOR: (121.587)

(a) Except as provided in paragraph (bl of this section, a pilot in command of an
airplane that has a lockable flightcrew compartment door in accordance with
§121.313 and that is carrying passengers shall ensure that the door separating
the flightcrew compartment from the passenger compartment is closed and
locked at all times when the aircraft is being operated.
(b) The provisions of paragraph (a) of this section do not apply at any time
when it is necessary to permit access and egress by persons authorized Do Not
in accordance with § 121.547 and provided the part 119 operator complies
with FAA approved procedures regarding the opening, closing and locking of
the flightdeck doors.
EYE LOCATOR Seat Adjustment: (8900.1 Para4-218)

An eye locator is often mounted on the center windshield post to enable seat adjustment for correct
eye-to-wheel height. The eye locator is commonly mounted in conjunction with the wet compass.
' TOP VIEW /

/
FRONT VIEW
-' ,~
, /
\.
"' '-
"'\
_J
t
' /
/
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D'
/
/
PILOT
/ "' COPILOT
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Aircraft DISPATCHER:
(Part 65 Subpart C-65.51 - 65.70, 121.99, 121 .395, 121.404, 121.415, 121 .463, 121 .465, 121 .533, 121 .535, 121.557, 121.601 , 121.683)
1. An FAA certificated person who, along with the Pilot In Command, is responsible in the operational
control of a flight.
2. Part 121 DOMESTIC and FLAG operations must use CERTIFIED aircraft DISPATCHERS to control
flight operations.
3. Two-way air/ground radio communications must be available between each airplane and its
appropriate dispatch office over the entire route of each flight.
4. A pilot may not initiate or continue a flight unless both the dispatcher AND the Pilot In Command
agree that the flight can be conducted safely and legally. The PIC and the aircraft dispatcher are
jointly responsible for preflight planning and dispatch release of a flight.
5. Part 121 SUPPLEMENTAL and Part 135 operators are NOT reguired to use certificated aircraft
dispatchers to exercise control. The PIC may actually dispatch himself if the authority has been
delegated by the company (Operations Manual).
6. Responsibilities of the dispatcher normally include: •····················· ~
: While operational control is
a. Aircraft performance limitations, based on such things as
: the responsibility of the
takeoff weight, departure runway, enroute, engine-out and
: airline, the final authority to
arrival runway.
• plan and operate a Part 121
b. Weight and Balance computations.
c. Flight planning, including route, flight time, and fuel
i
flight (Domestic or Flag)
• rests with the Captain AND
requirements.
the Dispatcher.
d. Crew briefing, including weather, NOTAMs, etc.
e. Flight monitoring.
f. ATC and instrument procedures, including ground hold and flow control.
g. Minimum Equipment List (MEL) and Configuration Deviation List (COL) procedures.
h. Emergency procedures.
·················~
i. Dispatch release preparation.
••• 121 .557 - In a known
•• EMERGENCY situation arising
DISPATCH RELEASE - aka - FLIGHT RELEASE: • during flight that requires
(FAAOrder8900.1 , 121 .533, 121 .535, 121 .593, 121 .597, 121 .599, 121 .603, 121 .619, 121 .621 ,
•• immediate decision and
121.629, 121 .641 , 121 .663, 121.687, 121.693, 121 .695, 135.63, AC 25-7A) •
•
action by the dispatcher, and
if not in communication with
1. Part 121 DOMESTIC or FLAG operations may not depart unless a : the PIC, the dispatcher shall
dispatch release containing specific authorization for that single flight : declare an emergency
or series of flights is prepared and signed by BOTH the Dispatcher and : [communicate directly with
the Pilot In Command (except 121 SUPLEMENTAL). • A TC] and take any action that
he considers necessary under
2. A dispatch release must contain at least: the circumstances.
a. Identification number of the aircraft.
b. Trip number (Flight number).
c. Departure airport, intermediate stops, destination airports, and alternate airports.
d. A statement of the type of operation (e.g., I FR, VFR).
e. Minimum fuel quantity required.
f. Latest available weather for all airports involved.
3. DOMESTIC Each flight must be dispatched, unless the original dispatch was a multi-leg flight and
the aircraft does not spend more than 1 hour on the ground at a stop.
4. FLAG Each flight must be dispatched, unless the original dispatch was a multi-leg flight and the
aircraft does not spend more than 6 hours on the ground at a stop (layover).
5. SUPPLEMENTAL No reguirement for an aircraft dispatcher. The PIC or some other authorized
(by the certificate holder) person is allowed to complete the flight release. The pilot may sign the
flight release only when he and the person authorized to exercise operational control are satisfied that
the flight can be made safely. A new flight release must be generated if the aircraft has been on the
ground for more than 6 hours. The Pilot In Command may, on his own, obtain all necessary
information and he alone may sign the flight release if authorized to do so by the certificate holder.
6. DOMESTIC, FLAG, and SUPPLEMENTAL operations are required to carry on board the aircraft copies
of the load manifest, dispatch release, and a copy of the flight plan (copies must be kept for~
months). Additionally SUPPLEMENTAL carriers are required to carry on board the pilot route
certification and the aircraft's airworthiness release certificate (copies must be kept for 3 months).
7. PART 135 flights do not require a dispatcher or a dispatch release although the certificate holder must
have precise ''FLIGHT LOCATING PROCEDURES'' outlined in their operations manual. The PIC is
responsible for all information and must carry on board a copy of the load manifest only.

AGE 65 and Part 121: [61 .3, 61 .77, 121 .383]
121.383 Airman: Limitations on use of services.
121.383(.Q) No certificate holder may use the services of any person as a pilot on an airplane engaged in
operations under this part !f that person has reached his or her 65th birthday.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Crew Pairing Limitations (Over age 60 with under age 60) Canceled
•• In order to harmonize with ICAO rules, the FAA has made changes to 61.3, 61.77, and 121.383 and will
: no longer enforce the crew pairing requirements of the previous 121.383(d)(2). A pilot over the age of
: 60 (but under age 65) may now serve in international operations with another pilot over the age of 60.
Get your ass

outta that seat
ya old fart .
•• .............................................................................. ~
••
•• The Last Time Congress Actually Did Something!
• [H .R.4343, 61 .3, 121.383]
•• 1. Side-stepping the creaky wheels of the FAA, both houses of Congress unanimously passed , and (in a
• rare display of sanity) El Presidente Bush signed ''The Fair Treatment for Experienced Pilots Act''
•
•• making it the law of the land December 13, 2007, ending the nearly half-century old age discrimination
• rule. The policy of out with the old (experienced , high seniority) highly paid pilots ... and in with the
•
•• younger cheaper dudes has saved the airlines countless millions during those 50 years .
• 2 . The law forced the FAA to raise the mandatory retirement age for Part 121 pilots to age 65. (121.383)
•
: 3. This is all well and good if you have a current job with an airline that will remain in business as you
• pass age 60. Be aware that regardless of the new regulation and the supposedly looming "pilot
•• shortage" everyone always talks about. Age discrimination is still rampant. If you're over 55 and
•• lose your job for any reason , it's a tough world out there. Unless you are uniquely talented, most
•• operators will opt to invest their training dollars in younger albeit less experienced (and cheaper)
•• pilots. It's an unfortunate fact of life and I'm just tellin' it like it is. Be sure to have additional skills
•• available unless you 're willing to start over at the bottom of the seniority list at a regional , or you know
•• someone in a corporate or 135 operation that can get you a job. It's all about who you know!
• 4. The law gives pilots who have lost much of their pensions to airline bankruptcies (or numerous
••
•• ex-wives!;o) five more years to recapture lost income; and helps the airlines deal with the theoretical
• growing shortage of experienced pilots .
• 5 . The extended careers of the older pilots mean more time with lower seniority for the younger ones;
••
however it also means longer careers for all pilots. I think EVERYONEwins! IMHO .
•
•• 6 . Opinion: Immediately after signing the bill into law ... Bush went back to fighting his personal private
• war with Iraq. Obama went back to plotting ways to take more money from the rich (aka people
•
• who actually hire people) and then (after deducting a huge percentage to fund the grossly bloated
•• government bureaucracy) redistribute what's left to the poor and unemployed. Great job Robin Hood!
• Too bad you couldn't figure out how to deal with the several gazillion dollars of debt the policy created
•
• and the huge growing class of folks who see no reason to work because they've become comfortable
•
• with government handouts. By the way .. . does anyone know anvone ever hired by a poor person?
t
... Or a poor person who hired a poor pilot? Just my humble opinion!;o) .

(Chap 8 - More Commercial Stuff J
DRINK
COFFEE
················································································~
•• Safety Management System (SMS)
•• 1. The FAA's latest buzzphrase created to promote safety by adding several thousand words to their website and
•• maybe some to your Ops Manual. ''SMS is an approach to improving safety at the organizational level.''
: 2. Basic concept - ''Analyses show that accidents are rarely caused by one event. Accidents are the result
• of a chain of events. If any of the events had not occurred, an accident may have been prevented.''
•• 3. The FAA wants operators to develop a SMS program to encourage reporting of even the slightest possibility of
: a safety issue by every employee from the janitor on up to upper management. The object being to break the
: chain of events that lead to an accident - aka - basic common sense (IMHO).
• 4. The FAA's Hypothetical Scenario - Tug driver notices hydraulic fluid on a tire ... but doesn't point it out 'cause
•• he's really busy. Janitor cleans up hydraulic fluid on hangar floor ... wonders about it, but fails to report it. Fueler
: notices puddle of red fluid under a tire ... but has several others to fuel, so he fails to say anything. Pilot gets
• distracted during the walk-a-round so he fails to notice it. Airplane departs. At the destination airport, the pilot
•• executes a perfect landing and applies the brakes. The leaking hydraulic fluid heats up and ignites. The right
: main landing gear is engulfed in flames and the plane burns to the ground soon after everyone dives for the exits.
: 5. The concept is - if any one of these people had taken the time to report the abnormal presence of fluid it might
• have prevented the accident. Oh and by the way ... the pilot is fired for failure to perform an adequate preflight
•• inspection. Great story, eh? SMS is essentially about promoting attitudes of paying attention.
: 6. IMHO this is basic common sense and should be the #1 rule of airline management:
: Encourage (and reward!) every employee to report any and all possible safety related issues immediately no
• matter how annoying or trivial they might seem at the time .
•• 7. OK all you Chief pilots and D.O.s out there ... now that we understand the concept ... let's get busy and generate
: copious amounts of great sounding (but totally boring) words about it!;o). Sounds like a great opportunity for a
• PowerPoint presentation don't it? Sorry for being so irreverent folks, sometimes I just can't help myself;o ).
•• (Part 5, 119.8, FAA.gov, AC 120-92A, AC 120-100, AC 150/5200-37, 8900.1)
••
• § 119.8 Safety Management Systems.
: (a) Certificate holders authorized to conduct operations under part 121 of this chapter must have a safety
: management system that meets the requirements of part 5 of this chapter and is acceptable to the
• Administrator by March 9. 2018 .
•• (b) A person applying to the Administrator for an air carrier certificate or operating certificate to conduct
: operations under part 121 of this chapter after March 9, 2015, must demonstrate, as part of the application
• process under§ 119.35, that it has an SMS that meets the standards set forth in part 5 of this chapter and is
acceptable to the Administrator.

Chapter 9
Emergency Legal
'' ... Give us a vector for the nearest airport ...
We are landing NOW!''
Compliance with ATC Clearances and Instructions ..................................................... 330
Deviating from a Rule due to an EMERGENCY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 330
Confirm It! .. ...... ............. ................................ ............. ............. ................................ ...... 330
Do Not Mumble ............ ............. ............. ................... ............. ....... ...... ................... ...... 330
EMERGENCY Allowed to IMMEDIATELY Deviate ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 330
EMERGENCY ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 331
Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot In Command ................................................. 331
Engine Failure ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 332, 333
Critical Engine .............. ............. ............. ................... ............. ............. ................... ...... 333
Accelerate-STOP I Accelerate-GO .............................................................................. 333
Area of Decision ..... ...... ................................ ... .... ...... ................................ ... .... ...... ...... 333
Single-Engine Service Ceiling ...................................................................................... 333
Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling .................................................................................... 333
Driftdown ...................................................................................................................... 333
VMc (Red Line) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 334
Left Engine is Critical Because ................................. ............. ................................ ...... 335
It may surprise you How to CRASH an Airplane Equipped with a
to know that Sully
Perfectly Good Spare Engine ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 336
never did bother to
declare an Emergency Equipment ................................................................................................. 337
emergency and Minimum Fuel Advisory •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 337
ATC never asked. Immediately, Emergency, Priority, Mayday, Pan , Pan, Pan ........................................ 337
A formal declaration gmergency ,bocator Iransmitter (ELT) ........................................................................ 338
was simply not ELT Changes in the Works ....... ............. ................... ............. ................................ ...... 339
necessary. NASA Reports Aviation Safety Reporting Program •••••••••••••••••••••••• 340
Careless or Reckless Operation .................................................................................. 340
''Ah ... this is ah ... Enforcement Action .............................................................................................. 342, 343
Cactus fifteen thirty Accident or Incident ........................................................................... 344
nine [sic], hit birds, Major or Minor Damage ............ ............. ................... ............. ............. ................... ...... 344
we lost thrust in both Notification of Accidents, Incidents & Overdue Aircraft ... ................... ............. ............ 345
engines, we 're turning
back towards
NTSB Phone Numbers •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 345
LaGuardia. '' Preservation of Wreckage; Reports ............................................................................. 345
Aeronautical Information Manual Only an Advisory? •••••••••••••••••••• 346
Copies of ATC Tower/Center Audio/Radar Track Tapes •••••••••••••••• 346
FAA "Hot Line", AOPA "Hot Line" ................................................................................ 346
Without a doubt,
THE most
•
expensive
goose hunt
of all time.

(chap 9 Emergency & Legal)
COMPLIANCE with ATC CLEARANCES and INSTRUCTIONS: (91 .123, 135.19, 121.557)
(a) When an ATC clearance has been obtained, no pilot in command may deviate from that clearance
UNLESS an amended clearance is obtained, an EMERGENCY exists, or the deviation is in response to
a traffic alert and collision avoidance system resolution advisory. However, except in Class A airspace,
a pilot may cancel an IFR flight plan if the operation is being conducted in VFR weather conditions.
When a pilot is UNCERTAIN of an A TC clearance, that pilot shall immediately request
CLARIFICATION from ATC.
(b) Except in an EMERGENCY, no person may operate an aircraft contrary to an ATC instruction in an
area in which air traffic control is exercised.
(c) Each pilot in command who, in an EMERGENCY, or in response to a traffic alert and collision avoidance
system resolution advisory, deviates from an ATC clearance or instruction shall notify ATC of that
deviation As Soon As Possible. {Ed NOTE: It does NOT say you must declare BEFORE deviating.}
(d) Each pilot in command who (though not deviating from a rule of this subpart) is given PRIORITY by
ATC in an EMERGENCY, shall submit a detailed report of that emergency within 48 hours to the
manager of that ATC facility, IF REQUESTED by ATC.
(e) Unless otherwise authorized by ATC, no person operating an aircraft may operate that aircraft
according to any clearance or instruction that has been issued to the pilot of another aircraft for
radar air traffic control purposes .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: If you're operating under Part 135 or Part 121 and have to deviate from a rule due to an emergency
: or receive priority, the person who declares the emergency must submit a complete report to the
certificate holder's flight §.tandards Qistrict Qffice within 10 days. (135.19, 121 .557, 121 .559, 121 .565)
, __ ,________,__ _ ,_ __ ,__ ,__ __ ,__
_ ,_,_ __ ,~
I Pay ATTENTION If there is even the slightest doubt that a new clearance was for you ask them to
CONFIRM IT!
I it's very easy to think you hear new instructions for when they actually were for an aircraft with a
¥OU
similar call sign.
I hear the closer aircraft (or the one with the bigger radio) which may NOT be you He can't correct you
You and the other aircraft might read back the clearance simultaneously the controller may only
because he didn't hear you and YOUR read back is NOT on the tape You change altitude -
I YOU are BUSTED, without a leg to stand on!
Do NOT ACCEPT a new CLEARANCE or instructions unless you're ABSOLUTELY, POSITIVELY,
I 100°/o for SURE it was for YOU.
Do NOT ACCEPT a new CLEARANCE or instructions unless you're ABSOLUTELY, POSITIVELY,
1 OOo/o for SURE what the EXACT instructions are.
I ALWAYS confirm your instructions by reading back the numbers clear•ly and dis•tinct•ly so the
controller can correct you if you screwed up. If you slur your words, a busy controller may just assume
I the read back was correct and move on to the next guy. The responsibility is yours. At least get it clearly
on the tape what you thought he said. It might help a little at the ENFORCEMENT HEARING!
~···················································
: During read-back Do NOT mumble - say your words clear•ly and dis•tinct•ly.
• Especially the important ones like heading, altitude, routing or frequency.
•
. - . ----· . . . . . . . . . . . ·-- ----· . . . . . . . . . . . . . ----· . . . . . . . . . . . . --·
•
• In an EMERGENCY, you are allowed to IMMEDIATELY deviate from any clearance and do
•
• whatever needs to be done in order to deal with that emergency. (91.3, 135.19, 121.557, 121 .559)
• You ARE required to notify ATC of that deviation As §.oon As f.ossible . But that means when you
• get a chance, when you get around to it, AFTER you get all those cuss words out of your system.
• Do what you have to do FIRST to prevent any possibility of endangering your life .
• Then as soon as you get around to it give ATC a call.
t FLY the airplane FIRST TALK about it LATER!

11-11-11-m-11-11-11-m-11-11-11-m-11-11-11-•- 11-11-11-11-m-11-11-11-m-11-11-11-m-11-11-11-•- 11-11-11-11-m-11-
EMERGENCY Just like Sully did TELL them the problem.
(91.3, 91.123, 135.19, • TELL them what you're doing about it (e.g., "We are descending I turning NOW')
121.533, 121 .535, 121.537, .
121.557, 121 .559, 121 .565, •
TELL them what you need them to do DO NOT ''REQUEST'' A DAMN THING!
AIM 6-1-1 & 6-1-2) • TAKE CHARGE YOU ARE the BOSS.
•~ DO NOT LET ATC CRASH YOUR AIRPLANE!
During ANY EMERGENCY:

1. Do NOT ''request'' a damn thing! TELL THEM WHAT YOU'RE DOING.
2. Do NOT try to maintain an altitude or heading that you cannot maintain when there is a problem.
3. Example Do NOTwait for a "request" to be granted before turning back to the airport with an engine
problem or FIRE! Just START TURNING BACK TO the AIRPORT. Do what you have to do
IMMEDIATELY! Talk about it later. fi ~ ·fu·t·h~· ~·i;pl~~~ ti~~t·. ·· ·········
4. An uncountable number of pilots and passengers have been KILLED :2. Point it where it needs to go .
•
waiting for a ''REQUEST'' to be granted!! :3. Then call ATC and tell 'em
5. JUST DO IT! Tell them about it LATER! ~ what they can do for you .
6. Take charge of the situation YOU become the BOSS ATC becomes your ASSISTANT.
7. Example -
lm Falcon 123T has a FIRE in the right engine we're turning back to the airport and
descending. Need vectors for the ILS as close in as possible.
them 123T understand are you declaring an emergency? (The controller will never ask this question-
ATC automatically goes into emergency mode whenever anything out of the ordinary happens.)
lm Call it what you want We need PRIORITY please give us that heading NOW.
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: BOTH the Dispatcher AND the Captain ''PRIORITY'' will get you exactly what you want RIGHT NOW!
: have the responsibility and authority to
"Emergency" and "Priority" mean the same to a controller. See 91.123(d)
.
: declare an EMERGENCY. 121 .557 ,'
- -
91.3 Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot In Command:

(a) The Pilot In Command is directly responsible for, and !§.the final authority as to the operation of that
aircraft. [Notice it says nothing about after the pilot declares an emergency.]
(b) In an in-flight emergency requiring immediate action, the Pilot In Command may deviate from any
rule to the extent required to meet that emergency. [Again, nothing about after saying the "word."]
(c) Upon the request of the Administrator, you may be required to supply a written report of the incident.
[Usually, only when they think you might have had some part in causing the incident.]
: •
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
The fact that a pilot does not formally declare an emergency on his radio does not
.• •••••••••••••
The point is:
...
: preclude reliance on 91.3(b) as a defense [NTSB 2015]. Don 't be afraid to
: • You do NOT have to FORMALLY DECLARE an EMERGENCY before deviating say the "E-word"
: from a clearance when dealing with a potentially life threatening situation. but also don't be
: • Just do what has to be done to get the aircraft on the ground as soon as possible. afraid to do what
•
: • You have the power to ignore every regulation in the book if you need to. 1s necessary
• • Do what you have to do, tell them about it as soon as you get a chance. BEFORE getting
•• • Chat about semantics later when you get on the ground ALIVE!!! • •
perm1ss1on .
•
When it becomes necessary to SHUT-DOWN an ENGINE, a LARGE AIRPORT with a LONG RUNWAY
and an /LS providing GLIDE SLOPE information is definitely an important consideration with a large
aircraft and/or bad weather in any aircraft.
However, one must also consider 91. 7(b ), which has been interpreted to mean ; "the pilot, in an emergency
situation , must land at the first AVAILABLE and 'SUITABLE' airport at which a safe landing can be made. But
he is NOT REQUIRED to land at the first AVAILABLE airport if it is not 'SUITABLE'." According to the FAA,
safety is the paramount consideration. Convenience and comfort are not considerations at all.
The pilot is required to land at the ''FIRST AVAILABLE'' location ''CONSISTENT with SAFETY."
So, in other words , do not shut an engine down , then fly another 100 miles, passing several ''suitable''
airports along the way, just to get the airplane back home where your car is! Somebody at the local
FSDO may not consider that "consistent with safety," and you 'll probably be hearing these words-
''you're in a heap-o'-trouble Boy!''

ENGINE FAILURE (typical small recip twin): •••••• ••••••••••• ••••••••••••• ••
(FAA-P-a740 _19) : Stop the yaw with full rudder and a
1. Mixtures ........................ FULL : minimum amount of aileron. More than
2. Props ............................ FULL : 3° of bank might lower VMc but could
3. Throttles .. ................... ... FULL ' also result in a loss of altitude.
4. Flaps ............................. UP •••••••••••••••••••••••
5. (Positive rate) Gear ...... UP : Level the Wings
. : Step on the Ball
6. Identify································································· Z Dead Foot - Dead Engine •• • • • • • • •• • • • • • •
7. Verify ............. ................ CLOSE THROTTLE • : 3° Bank toward
.
8 . T rou bl es hoot . ..... . ... ... .... F ue I, M ags, A 1r (Time permitting) • OPERATING Engine ...
• k R . th d
11
a a- a1se e 0 ea
9. Feather ......................... Mixture to Idle Cut-Off - Prop to FEATHER ,
.-···---·························~
10. 2° - 3° Bank .................. Toward OPERATING Engine : Verify CLOSE THROTTLE
11. 1f4 - 3/4 Ball Out .............. Toward OPERATING Engine • Significant change in yaw wrong engine .
12. Blue Line .................... ... Best rate single engine (VvsE) •• Slight change in yaw correct engine but
13. Checklist .... .... ...... ...... ... FLY FIRST ... read it later. : it's still producing some power.
; No change in yaw correct engine, and it's
' not producing any power feather it.
IN FLIGHT TROUBLESHOOT:
1. Fuel Flow ................................ CHECK- FUEL PUMPS ON
2. Fuel Quantity .......................... CHECK SWITCH TANKS
3. Oil Press & Temp ................... CHECK Shut down engine if oil press is low
4. Mag Switches ............ ...... ....... CHECK ON CHECK
5. Alternate Air ............................ CHECK Especially during icing conditions
CLEAN UP DEAD ENGINE:

1. Prop ........................................ CHECK for FEATHER Visually
2. Throttle .... ...... ............. ............. CLOSED • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 11-11-• • • • • • • • • •
3. Mixture .... ................................ OFF •• REMEMBER

4. Fuel Selector ....... ................... OFF : When you allow a stall close to the ground ...
5. Fuel Pump .............................. OFF • the pointy end (right in front of you!) virtually
6. Mags ....................................... OFF •
• always hits the rocks first ... followed by the
7. Alternator ............. ................... OFF : rest of the airplane very shortl y thereafter.
8. Cowl Flaps .............................. CLOSED DO NOT LET IT STALL!
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••• •
•
:
**WARNING**
Propellers that use springs, counterweights and oil pressure (or actually lack of oil pressure) for feathering
• (a large portion of light twins) must be feathered BEFORE the propeller is allowed to drop below 800 to
•• 1,000 RPM. For some reason this is sometimes a very well kept secret by certain companies. (Not to
• mention any names like Cessna and McCauley!)
:% If the RPM drops below this level, the "pins" (that keep the prop from feathering on the ground during
shutdown) will set, preventing any hope of feathering the engine in flight!
:•
• Do NOT drag around a windmilling propeller for very long letting the RPM drop below 1,000 RPM .
•
•• Do NOT let the airspeed get too low before feathering the propeller. The lower the airspeed the slower the
..
•. propeller will windmill .
OPERATIVE ENGINE:
1. Power ..... ...... ............. .............. AS REQUIRED DON'T BURN IT UP (It's the only one you got left!)
2. Mixture .................................... ADJUST FOR POWER (usually full RICH)
3. Fuel Pump .............................. ON ••············~······························
•• REMEMBER
4. Fuel Selector .......................... MAIN TANK : • A GOOD landing is one you can
•
5. Cowl Flaps ................. ............. AS REQUIRED : walk away from.
: • A GREAT landing is one after which
•
: you can still use the ai rplane.
•......,..,,,_,WWlilWll.,,...~,.,..,.,,,.,N#NM~

ENGINE FAILURE STUFF: (FAA-P-8740-19)
...... ·-· .................. .
: Rule #1, #2, #3 AND #4:
1. A light twin will lose approximately 80o/o of its climb performance.
: DO NOT LET IT STALL!
2. Light twins (below 12,500 Lbs) under FAR 23 are not required to
have single engine takeoff and approach climb capability.
•
3. Standard joke" ... the second engine just gives you a little longer ride to the scene of the crash .... " This
should never be true. An airplane with a spare engine should NEVER be allowed to crash, that is
the purpose of the spare engine.
4. For starters use AT LEAST the manufacturer's recommended liftoff speed or VMC +5 knots
whichever is greater. Accelerate to AT LEAST VYsE before leaving the runway environment. If lack of
runway, trees, hills or buildings prevents you from doing this ... you're departing from the wrong airport!
5. Add plenty of fudge factors to the performance figures. A rolling takeoff (rather than holding the
brakes till maximum power), could add 500 feet to the required Accelerate/Stop distance.
6. SINGLE ENGINE GO-A-ROUNDS although possible are extremely difficult from low altitude and
low airspeed in a loaded small twin. During a landing approach on one engine, keep your speed up and
make sure you do it right the first time. Keep in mind it's better to be a little fast and go off the end at 20
knots, than to attempt a single engine go-a-round and screw it into the ground at 100 knots .
.-··············~···························································
: CRITICAL ENGINE (1.1) - The engine whose failure would most
CRITICAL ENGINE: : adversely affect the performance or handling qualities of an aircraft.
--·- · · ··~·
The LEFT engine is considered to be the ''CRITICAL ENGINE'' on most light twins simply because at high
angles of attack the descending blade produces the most thrust ("P-Factor") and both propellers almost
always turn in the same direction (clockwise as viewed from behind the engine). This puts the "thrust line"
of the right engine further away from the centerline of the fuselage than the "thrust line" of the left engine,
which tends to turn the aircraft to the left (when the left engine is inop) quicker than to the right (when the
right engine is inop )(see next page).
During an actual engine failure, I consider the ENGINE that's still RUNNING extremely CRITICAL!
Accelerate-STOP I Accelerate-GO Distance (Also See Chapter 4):

(23.55, 23.1583, 25.109, 91.605, 135.367thru 135.399, 121 .177thru 121.199, FAA-P-8740-19, FAA-H-8083-3A, AC 120-62, P/C Glossary)
1. Accelerate-Stop and Accelerate-Go distance is required for all Part 121 & Part 135 revenue flights
except small nontransport category aircraft with 9 seats or less do not require accelerate-stop or -go.
2. Accelerate-STOP Distance required to accelerate to V 1 (or liftoff speed depending on the POH)
and, assuming failure of an engine at the instant that liftoff speed is attained, to bring the airplane to a
full stop on the remaining runway and/or stopway. For most light, propeller-driven twins this is the only
option if the aircraft is still on the runway or the gear is still down immediately after liftoff.
3. Accelerate-GO Distance required to accelerate to liftoff speed (or V1 depending on the POH) and,
assuming failure of an engine at the instant liftoff speed (or V1) is attained, to continue the takeoff on the
remaining engine and climb to clear a 50-foot obstacle. Accelerate-go distance does not apply to most
light, propeller-driven twins because assuming failure of an engine at the instant liftoff speed (or V1)
is attained most light twins cannot continue a takeoff roll, actually lift off, and climb on one engine;
there is no choice but to abort.
AREA of DECISION for MUL Tl-ENGINE AIRPLANES:

1. The area just after liftoff to the point where the airplane attains VxsE·
2. An engine failure in this zone requires an immediate decision to abort or continue.
3. When accelerate-stop/go distance is questionable or just plain not available, and the aircraft is heavily
loaded, most experienced pilots will drive the airplane to VxsE on the ground before liftoff. A
controversial but effective way of staying alive.
SINGLE-ENGINE SERVICE CEILING the maximum density altitude the aircraft can maintain a
50 fpm climb with only one engine operating. Found in the f.ilot's Qperating .t:landbook or approved
Aircraft flight ,Manual.
SINGLE-ENGINE ABSOLUTE CEILING The density altitude the aircraft can maintain with the
critical engine feathered and the other engine at maximum power.
DRIFTDOWN (Also See Page 159):

1. If an engine fails at an altitude above the single-engine absolute ceiling, the aircraft will descend.
2. To minimize sink rate, maintain the single-engine best rate of climb speed (VYsE).

VMC (RED Line) Minimum speed directional control can be maintained
with the following ''worst case'' scenario. When you use full rudder and the
aircraft still rolls toward the dead engine, you have allowed the airspeed to drop below
''V Mc''. V Mc is determined for certification purposes:
(23.149 Minimum Control Speed)
(a) VMc is the calibrated airspeed at which, when the critical engine is suddenly made inoperative, it is
possible to maintain control of the airplane with that engine still inoperative, and thereafter maintain
straight flight at the same speed with an angle of bank of not more than 5 degrees. The method used to
simulate critical engine failure must represent the most critical mode of powerplant failure expected in
service with respect to controllability (normally the left).
(b) VMc for takeoff must not exceed 1.2 V 81 , where V81 is determined at the maximum takeoff weight.
VMc must be determined with the most unfavorable weight and •••• .-••••••••••••••••• .-•••••••••••• .-••••• •-.
center of gravity position and with the airplane airborne and the : 5° of bank towards the good engine
ground effect negligible, for the takeoff configuration(s) with : is a certification limit.
1. Maximum available takeoff power initially on each engine. : Banking more than 5° into the
2. The aircraft trimmed for takeoff. : operating engine can lower V Mc but
•
3. Flaps (and cowl flaps) in takeoff position. : can also result in a loss of altitude .
•
4 . La n din g g ea r U P. •~""""'t#ttN.......l#rN'flllrilf/A'if/ltrriltlA"""""#lfllit,ilfl/tlilltNlflllfltl/lrilcflr/ltlla
5. All propeller controls in the recommended takeoff position throughout.
6. Critical engine (normally the left) INOP and WINDMILLING (or feathered if equipped with auto-feather).
7. Full takeoff power on the remaining engine (normally the right).
8. At VMc, rudder pedal force required to maintain control must not exceed 150 Lbs and it must not be
necessary to reduce power of the operative engine(s). During the maneuver, the airplane must not
assume any dangerous attitude and it must be possible to prevent a heading change of more than 20° .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• CAN an AIRCRAFT be FLOWN BELOW the PUBLISHED VMc (RED LINE)?
•• The answer in almost all cases is YES. Published V Mc is determined under specific criteria (23. 149).
• Actual V Mc can be much different. In almost all cases you will NOT be at your full aft CG and in all cases
:• you will certainly be smart enough to FEATHER the correct engine won 't you ? The WINDMILLING
: PROPELLER is by far the largest cause of drag. Once it is feathered , VMc is reduced by an unspecified
: but significant amount. How much you ask? You are now the test pilot, if you want to avoid hitting the
: ground before getting to the runway, you will find out. JUST DON'T STALL IT!! The only time an aircraft
• will snap roll into the ground is if you let it!! That is why you practiced detecting the onset of a stall during
•• your Commercial Pilot training. This is not to advise you to fly below published V Mc, but just to let you know
•• that a brief excursion below V Mc might be possible to get over the top of that last tree and onto the runway.
% DO NOT LET IT STALL!!
V MC REDUCED By:
1. Feathering the propeller. Much less drag and much better climb performance.
2. Moving CG forward. Distance from CG to rudder is increased Longer rudder moment arm.
3. Reducing power (R eng). Less P factor, torque, etc. (however LESS climb performance).
4. Other than critical engine inop. Less effect of P-factor, torque, etc.
5. Higher than sea level. Typically less engine power available (also less climb ability available).
6. Gear down will reduce VMc slightly ("keel effect" of drag created by the main gear located aft of the CG)
but dramatically increase drag and DECREASE climb performance.
7. Banking more than 5° will reduce VMc but will also dramatically REDUCE climb performance.
8. VORTEX GENERATORS (small vanes affixed to the upper wing surface) can significantly reduce VMc·
V MC INCREASED By:
1. Less than 5° bank. Increases rudder deflection required but also INCREASES climb performance.
Best climb performance will be attained somewhere between 1.5° to no more than 3° of bank.
2. Less than 1f4 to 3/4 ball-width out toward operating engine. Increases rudder deflection & drag.
3. Using aileron to ease the need for pressure on rudder. Drag penalty of adverse yaw.
4. Low temperature. Engine and prop of the operating engine is more efficient (however better climb).
5. Less than max weight will increase VMc slightly but also greatly INCREASE climb performance.
6. Gear UP greatly reduces drag but slightly increases VMc· Do you want to CLIMB or GO STRAIGHT?

(chap 9 - Emergency & Legal)
••••••••••••••••••
LEFT ENGINE IS CRITICAL BECAUSE... : MostAmericanmadeaircraft
• engines turn clockwise as
(FAA-P-8740-19) : viewed from the cockpit.
P·FACTOR:
1. DESCENDING BLADE has more thrust at high
0 0 angles of attack.
1------c 11 i--r- _,._.... 11 t - - --1 2. Descending blade on the RIGHT engine has a
LONGER ARM therefore creating greater
asymmetrical thrust (further from the centerline of
the aircraft).
0 0
TORQUE:
1------c 11 i--r- _,._.... 11 t - - - - 1
1. OPPOSITE REACTION to the spinning
(clockwise as viewed from the rear) PROPELLER
tends to roll the aircraft to the LEFT.
2. More pronounced with the right engine because of
LONGER ARM .
.• -··········-- ·····································
Stop the yaw with full rudder and a minimum amount of aileron .
•• A downward deflected aileron will attempt to lift a wing, but it will
•• also create significant drag, making a bad situation even worse.
ACCELERATED SLIPSTREAM:
1. Propeller slipstream over the wings and tail causes
0 0 asymmetrical lift and control effectiveness.
II II 2. The RUDDER is more effective with LEFT engine
running because more slipstream flows by the left
side of the rudder making it easier to prevent the
aircraft from turning to the right.
3. The center of lift created by propeller-induced
slipstream is closer to the center of the aircraft
with the LEFT engine running.
SPIRALING SLIPSTREAM:
1. Spiraling slipstream from the LEFT engine AIDS
in DIRECTIONAL CONTROL.
2. That is, if the LEFT engine fails, rudder
effectiveness is greatly diminished. If the RIGHT
engine dies, propwash from the LEFT engine
actually enhances rudder effectiveness.

HOW TO CRASH AN AIRPLANE
EQUIPPED WITH A PERFECTLY GOOD SPARE ENGINE
Single engine airplanes fall out of the sky all the time. Here's the scenario: + engine quits the pilot realizes
immediately he forgot to bring along a spare engine pilot immediately says two words ''Oh S#!T!''
An OFF airport landing is usually inevitable and may or may not be survivable.
Multiengine airplanes always bring along a spare engine. In the event of an engine failure there may be some
screamin' gain' on, but an ON airport landing should always be inevitable and survivable. A spare engine is
insurance only your wife benefits from! •

................. .
the cheapest life insurance you can buy. Plus, YOU get to collect on this type of insurance. Unlike that other
• •
: Becau se an
:• accident did not
: happen you
•
: never hear about
: the uncountabl e
•
•• times that twin s
•• lose an engine
•
.: The majority of accidents are due to pilot
-······································ \ and land safely .
: error - however an AMAZING number of
~ accidents are due to pilot STUPIDITY!
COMMON MUL TIENGINE ACCIDENT SCENARIOS:

1. Pilot continues VFR flight into INSTRUMENT CONDITIONS without any instrument skills!
2. Pilot RUNS OUT OF GAS! Usually two miles from the destination airport, after passing several others.
3. Pilot becomes PARALYZED at the controls, FAILS to FEATHER the ailing ENGINE Complacency
can lead to a brain meltdown when trying to remember all those "proper procedures". Every takeoff
should be viewed as an emergency. Before every takeoff discuss with yourself what you're gonna do
if ya lose one right after liftoff. By the way, there's only ONE ''procedure'' to feather an engine in
virtually any airplane PULL or PUSH the CORRECT FEATHER LEVER or BUTTON RIGHT NOW!
Everything else will usually take care of itself if you have the gear up and maintain at least V xsE·
4. Pilot FEATHERS the WRONG ENGINE Take that extra few seconds to VERIFY you are preparing to
feather the engine NOT running as opposed to the engine that is running.
Remember: + STEP ON THE BALL DEAD FOOT = DEAD ENGINE.
Also: + LOOK at the ENGINE GAUGES (but be conscious to the fact that a completely dead piston
engine will show approximately 30" of manifold pressure).
5. Pilot FAILS to RAISE the GEAR after losing one at lift off CLEAN UP the DRAG!
6. Pilot FAILS to MAINTAIN AIRSPEED, airplane falls out of the sky Airspeed is everything when low
and slow. Especially when hot, high and heavy carry a little extra speed before liftoff so you have an
airspeed "cushion " to work with while sorting things out if you suddenly become single. Do NOT allow
the airplane to stall. Any excursion below V xsE or V Mc may be your last! Once the propeller is
feathered , TRIM for 1f4 to 3/4 ball-width out and 3° bank towards the OPERATING engine.
7. Pilot uses EXCESSIVE BANK while turning As bank angle increases; stall speed increases and
climb decreases. Use conservative bank angles when low, slow and single (especially into the dead engine).
8. Pilot gets TOO LOW and TOO SLOW on final, airplane does not make it to the runway Always stay a
little high and a little fast on the glidepath during final approach. Do NOT allow yourself to get
below the ''power curve." Do not put the gear down or flaps down until you're 100o/o positive you can
make the runway. It's almost always better to land a little long than land a little short.
9. Pilot LANDS LONG and GOES OFF the END of the RUNWAY, airplane is banged up but pilot OK If
you are much TOO FAST on FINAL, the lack of drag from the feathered propeller can contribute to a
"floater'' landing that can consume a lot of runway and could put you off the end. If you have some
altitude to work with, try to find a LARGE AIRPORT with a LONG RUNWAY and an /LS or VASI
providing GLIDE SLOPE information. Flying that few extra miles to a larger airport is usually a good
idea. Plus the larger airport will probably have a much nicer hotel and a better restaurant.
10. Pilot attempts SINGLE ENGINE GO-AROUND Single engine landings in a relatively small twin
should be considered a one-shot deal . Make your approach as precise as possible. A host of factors
including type of airplane, weight, temperature, elevation , pilot skill and good old fashioned luck make
the single engine go-around a hair-raising choice of action. Do NOT SCREW UP the APPROACH!!!
KEEP YOUR SPEED UP DO NOT GET BEHIND the POWER CURVE PICK a BIG AIRPORT.

(chap 9 - Emergency & Legal)
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT: (91 .513, 121 .309, 121.310. 121 .353, 135.177)
No person may operate an airplane with a passenger seating of more than 19 passengers unless it is equipped
with the emergency equipment listed below:
1. Hand FIRE EXTINGUISHERS must be provided for use in crew, passenger and cargo compartments:
a. Type and quantity of extinguishing agent must be suitable for the kinds of fires likely to occur
in the compartment where the extinguisher is to be used.
b. At least one hand fire extinguisher must be provided on or near the flight deck accessible to
the flight crew and at least one located in the passenger compartment for every 30 passenger
seats.
2. FIRST AID KITS for treatment of injuries likely to occur in flight.
3. CRASH AXE carried so as to be accessible to the crew but inaccessible to passengers during normal
operations.
4. One MEGAPHONE (located in the rear) for more than 60 but less than 100 passenger seats and two
megaphones for an airplane with more than 100 passenger seats (located one in the front and one in
the rear) .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••
: ''MINIMUM FUEL ADVISORY'': (AIM 5-5-15)
:+ After stating your call sign , the term "Minimum Fuel" should be used. '' Falcon 48A Minimum Fuel."
:+ This is NOT an emergency but an ADVISORY that an emergency is possible should any undue
: delay occur.
:+ This term does not imply the need for traffic ''priority."
:+ Really getting nervous? Tell them you need ''PRIORITY''-or declare an ''EMERGENCY''(means the
• same).
~ +
• .. ..................................................
NEVER use this as a ploy to cut in front of other traffic when you really don't have a problem .
• "FUEL REMAINING" -The approximate number of
.
minutes ,
: the flight can continue until actual fuel exhaustion .
IMMEDIATELY: (P/C Glossary) •aa w
1. Used by ATC or pilots when such action compliance is required to avoid an imminent situation.
2. Used by pilots to communicate an urgent situation without formally declaring an emergency.
3. Weather problems such as thunderstorm avoidance, icing and deteriorating weather that creates the
need for an I FR clearance "immediately" would all qualify.
EMERGENCY Means EMERGENCY A distress or an urgency condition PRIORITY handling is

necessary RIGHT NOW! (91 .123, P/C Glossary) •• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
: EMERGENCY FREQUENCIES
PRIORITY as in ''We need PRIORITY'' Means • => 121.5 MHz and 243.0 MHz - Monitored by civil
EMERGENCY I PRIORITY handling is necessary : and military towers, FSS and radar facilities.
• => 2182 kHz - Monitored by Coast Guard Rescue.
RIGHT NOW! (91 .123)
MAYDAY
'
When repeated three times is the international DISTRESS signal.
It indicates IMMINENT and
GRAVE DANGER and that IMMEDIATE ASSISTANCE is requested. This distress call has absolute
priority over all other communications and commands radio silence. (AIM 6-3-1 , P/C Glossary)
PAN-PAN When repeated three times is the international URGENCY signal. It indicates uncertainty or
alert and warns other stations not to interfere with urgency transmissions. Urgency communications
have priority over all other communications except distress. (AIM 6-3-1, P/C Glossary)

Chap 9 - Emergency & Legal
Emergency Locator Transmitters EL T: (91 .201, AIM 6-2-4, 6-3-2, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-25)
1. Required by all U.S. civil aircraft except as provided below [91.207(e)&(f)].
2. Transmits on 121.5 or the newer 406 MHz (highly recommended).
3. Batteries must be replaced after 1 hour of cumulative use or when 50o/o of their usable life has expired.
4. Expiration date for replacing (or recharging) the battery must be legibly marked
on the outside of the transmitter and entered in the aircraft maintenance record.
5. Must be inspected every 12 calendar months.
6. Testing of an analog 121.5 ELT can only be done within the first 5 minutes after
the hour and you may transmit no more than 3 audible sweeps.
7. Digital 406 ELTs should only be tested in accordance with the manufacturer's
instructions.
8. Airborne tests are not authorized for any ELT.
Operating WITHOUT an EL T A Person May: [91 .201(e)J

1. Ferry a newly acquired airplane from the place where possession of it was taken to
a place where the ELT is to be installed; and
2. Ferry an airplane with an inoperative ELT from a place where repairs or
replacements cannot be made to a place where they can be made.
3. No person other than required crewmembers may be carried aboard an airplane being ferried for the
purpose of ELT installation or repairs. •••••••••••••••••••••••
The 91.207 ELT rules apply to
•
Airplanes That Do NOT REQUIRE an EL T: [91 .207(f)1 • the airplane category only.
: Rotorcraft; glider; lighter-than-air;
The ELT requirements of 91.207(a) do not apply to: • etc. are exempt.
1. Aircraft while engaged in scheduled air carrier flights; '
2. Aircraft while engaged in training operations conducted entirely within a 50-NM radius of the airport
from which such local flight operations began;
3. Aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to design and testing;
4. New aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to their manufacture, preparation, and delivery;
5. Aircraft while engaged in flight operations incident to the aerial application of chemicals and other
substances for agricultural purposes;
6. Aircraft certificated by the Administrator for research and development purposes;
7. Aircraft while used for showing compliance with regulations, crew training, exhibition, air racing,
or market surveys;
8. Aircraft equipped to carry not more than one person; and
9. An aircraft during any period for which the transmitter has been temporarily removed for inspection,
repair, modification, or replacement, subject to the following:
a. No person may operate the aircraft unless the aircraft records contain an entry which includes
the date of initial removal, the make, model, serial number, and reason for removing the
transmitter, and a placard located in view of the pilot to show ''ELT not installed."
b. No person may operate the aircraft more than 90 days after the ELT is initially removed from
the aircraft.
11. Aircraft with a maximum payload capacity of more than 18,000 lbs when used in air transportation.
Aircraft That Do NOT REQUIRE an EL T
"
...-..._.
~
Training 50 NM radius
Air racing
A:JCIC'
1111111t;} 1111111111111111 111111111 I Payload more than 18,000 lbs
Scheduled Air Carrier

Aerial Spraying

ELT CHANGES
121.5 MHz is OUT 406 MHz is /N: (9 1.207, AIM 6-2-4, 6-3-2, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-25)
1. As of February 1st. 2009, satellite-based monitoring of 121.5/243 MHz distress alerts terminated.
Cospas-Sarsat satellites now only monitor the new 406 MHz digital signal.
2. Presently the only monitoring of 121.5 transmissions are ground based facilities or over-flying
aircraft that might happen to be monitoring the frequency.
3. It now could take days before anyone detects a 121.5 signal especially if the aircraft was not on a
flight plan.
4. The unprotected 121.5 MHz frequency was never intended for space-based monitoring and
interference causes up to 98o/o of the false alerts (406 MHz will reduce false alerts by at least 95°/o).
5. Aircraft owners faced with replacing or installing a new ELT must decide whether to install a cheap
($500) 121.5 MHz ELT or the much more expensive ($2,500) 406 MHz EL T.
6. The FAA has no plans to require the installation of 406 MHz ELTs at this time
but Congress could mandate it in future legislation.
7. By the time you read this, 406 MHz ELTs will almost certainly be required for
flights into or over Canada, Mexico, and the Bahamas.
8. The goal of the .§.earch 8,nd Rescue (SAR) community is to eliminate the
usage of all 121.5 MHz devices on land , sea, and in the air.
--------------------------------------------
ADVANTAGES of the 406 MHz ELT:
C}i-,
'J
ov
1. More transmitter power(~ second, five-watt bursts every 50 seconds).
2. Dedicated and protected frequency designed specifically for detection by satellites. ~
3. Near instantaneous satellite detection by low orbit and geostationary satellites.
4. More accurate location calculations resulting in a smaller search area (1 to 3 miles).
5. Faster search-and-rescue response (approximately 45 minutes to pinpoint an exact location).
6. Positioning data and owner data encoded (the satellites can track up to 90 signals simultaneously).
BUSINESS JETS - EL Ts:

1. Business Jets are now required to have ELTs installed as of January 1st, 2004.
2. The new ruling is by order of Congress mandated Public Law 106-181 aka the Wendell H. Ford
.Aviation !nvestment and Reform Act for the 21st Century (AIR-21 ).
3. The ruling requires installation of an ELTusing 121.5 MHz or 406 MHz.
4. The FAA is urging operators to install ELTs operating on the 406-MHz frequency.
5. Motivation for the requirement of EL Ts on bizjets was the Christmas Eve 1996 crash of a Lear 35A
shooting an approach to the Lebanon NH Municipal Airport. Despite extensive search efforts, the
crash was shrouded in mystery until someone stumbled across the wreckage three years later.
I sure am glad we got that

new 406-MHz ELT installed
ain't you Captain Bill?
------- Yeah, it's gonna be great.
They'll find this smokin'
hole in the ground in no time!
By the way, it's probably a

good time to bend over and
kiss your ass goodbye Wendell.

[chap 9 - Emergency & Legal)
''NASA REPORTS'' Aviation Safety Reporting Program: (91.2s, Ac oo-46E)
1. A "NASA Report" can be your "get out of jail (almost) free card."
2. 91.25 The Administrator of the FAA will not use reports submitted to
the fiational Aeronautics and §.pace Administration (NASA) under the
Aviation §.afety Reporting §.ystem (ASRS) (or information derived there
from) in any enforcement action except information concerning accidents or criminal offenses
which are wholly excluded from the program.
3. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration acts as a third party to receive and de-identify the
report, by removing and/or deleting all information that could be used to identify the reporter. Therefore
protecting the anonymous nature of the program, which is to provide a free flow of safety information.
4. The portion of the report that identifies the person is removed, time/date stamped, and returned to the
reporter. This is the proof the FAA will be looking for if the case turns into a formal enforcement action.
5. The person must prove that, ''within 10 days after the violation, or date when the person became
aware or should have been aware of the violation, he or she completed and
delivered or mailed a written report of the incident or occurrence to NASA.''
6. You can do it on line http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov (read the instructions carefully)
-or send it by CERTIFIED MAIL, RETURN-RECEIPT requested.
7. If more than one pilot is involved, each pilot must submit an individual report.
8. Immunity will be granted only if the violation was inadvertent, not deliberate,
and did not involve a criminal act or aircraft accident (about 90o/o of all cases).
9. There is no limitation as to how often a pilot may submit a report.
10. Immunity will not be granted if the pilot was involved in an enforcement action
and found in violation of any part of the FARs in the previous 5 years.
11. Immunity is only a waiver of disciplinary action, i.e., no fine or suspension.
The FAA will still fully investigate the incident if a violation is found it will remain as part of the
pilot's record and will bar against further immunity for 5 years.
12. NASA forms can be obtained from your local FSDO; directly from NASA via snail-mail to -
NASA I ASRS, PO Box 189, Moffett Field NAS, Mountain View, CA 94035; or downloaded from -
http://asrs.arc.nasa.gov.
········~ ·······················~ ········· ······· ·····················
• *WARNING*
•• The anonymous nature of the program only goes so far. If you report an accident, a criminal offense, or a
: deliberate action NASA will send the report, along WITH your name and address, directly to the
FAA, the NTSB, and/or possibly the Department of Justice, as appropriate.
CARELESS or RECKLESS Operation: (91.13)

(a) Aircraft operations for the purpose of air navigation. No person may operate an aircraft in a careless
or reckless manner so as to endanger the life or property of another.
(b) Aircraft operations other than for the purpose of air navigation. No person may operate an aircraft,
other than for the purpose of air navigation, on any part of the surface of an airport used by aircraft for
air commerce (including areas used by those aircraft for receiving or discharging persons or cargo), in a
careless or reckless manner so as to endanger the life or property of another.
DEFINITIONS:
1. CARELESS inadvertent, lack of forethought or thoroughness, FAA
a careless mistake.
2. RECKLESS deliberate, indifferent to or disregardful of the
consequences.
EXAMPLES:
1. Landing at the wrong airport would probably be considered careless.
2. A gear-up landing may be considered careless if the pilot inadvertently forgot to put the gear down.
3. Failure to discover a pitot tube cover or an improperly installed fuel cap during preflight would probably
be considered careless.
4. Running out of fuel would probably be considered careless, if not reckless.
5. Flying an aircraft under a bridge, and then landing on a highway next to a rest stop to pick up a Pepsi -
would probably be considered reckless no matter how thirsty you are.

________
______________________________________________...Chap 9 - __Emergency & Legal
Well they say a good landing is one you can walk away from ...
I guess this falls in the category of not so good.
·············· ··················~
• Does the Captain Automatically Get Violated
: When the SIC Screws Up?
• "As a general rule, the filot-!n-~ommand is responsible for ro
()
Q)
• the overall safe operation of the aircraft. If however, a
•
Cf)
c
0
• particular task is the responsibility of another, if the PIC has u..
Cf)
• no independent obligation (e.g., based on operating ::::l

_J
• procedures or manuals) or ability to ascertain the information , 0
•
• and if the captain has no reason to question the other's
.0
ro
u..
• performance, then and only then will no violation be found ."

• (Administrator v. Takas, NTSB Order No. EA-3501)
•
''Damn ... now that was a big pothole!''
''Great landing Capt'n Bozo ...

how 'bout if we aim a little closer to the centerline next time?''

If You Do Become Involved In An ENFORCEMENT ACTION:
1. The ''Pilot's Bill of Rights'' (S. 1335) was signed into law in August of 2012 giving pilots a
teeny-tiny sliver of rights. In general it says that the FAA shall provide a timely, written
notification to an individual who is the subject of an investigation. Of course the FAA may
delay that notification if they determine it ''may threaten the integrity of the investigation''
(really?). That notification must inform you that (1) a response to a ,better .Q.f !nvestigation is
not required; (2) no adverse action can be taken against you for declining to respond ; (3)
any response to the LOI may be used as evidence against you; (4) ''releasable portions'' of
the investigative report will be available to you; and (5) you are entitled to obtain air traffic data (i.e., ATC
tapes, radar plots, air traffic controller statements, etc.). Basically Miranda Rights for pilots. In reality though, not
a whole lot has changed. If the FAA cops ... er, Inspectors ... truly want your ass ... you're still screwed!;o)
(IMHO). And ... when in pursuit of your ass the FAA breaks their own rules, they can simply change the rules.
2. Many enforcement actions start with a request by a controller to call the tower after you're on the ground. You
can be absolutely positive they do not want to invite you to lunch; this is serious business. You either did or id
not do something that made someone very angry aka ''pilot deviation."
You are NOT legally obligated to make this call; HOWEVER -
a. If you do NOT call you will miss your one opportunity to put forth an
explanation that could very easily end the entire matter right then and there.
Maybe he does just want to talk to you and discuss your actions. If you haven't done
anything too ridiculous you can probably fix it on the telephone with a little dose of "puppy dog." If
you ignore him you can bet the farm he'll be letting the BIG dogs loose to track you down.
b. If you DO call you'll provide your identity and probably some corroborating information that could
later be used against you , especially if you say something incredibly STUPID!
c. If you do NOT call if you just try to run away and hide be assured that a large posse will mount-
up. They'll ride through the badlands for as long as it takes to hunt you down and they got some
REALLY good dogs. Once they do find their man, they don't usually give out spankings for
punishment. They'll have several ropes with them and they WILL find a tree!
3. Another clue that you might be suspect of an enforcement action is if an FAA inspector makes inquires about a
previous flight (i.e., an occurrence in the past).
4. Immediately fill out and send in a NASA report by certified or registered mail with return receipt (Aviation
.§.afety Reporting f.rogram 91.25) (as long as it does not involve an accident or any criminal activity).
5. Take it upon yourself to KNOW the REGULATIONS so you don't get yourself into even more trouble during your
initial contacts with the FAA. Do NOT trust YOUR interpretation of the regulations. Even many high-time
"professional" pilots don't really know the regs. Find an AVIATION LAWYER who REALL Yknows the
regulations to handle it for you. These lawyers are VERY difficult to find and require BIG bags of money to keep
up with their boat payments and alimony checks. Talk to the AOPA on their hot line 800-872-2672 you ARE
a member aren't you? Remember, the FAA considers you GUilTY until you somehow prove yourself
innocent (typically requiring a miracle! ;o).
6. A serious violation most certainly needs a GOOD aviation lawyer, however the pilot can undoubtedly handle
most minor infractions if he does his homework and goes in with a good attitude.
7. Do not be intimidated by the inspector he's just a guy doing his job trying to keep you from killing yourself or
running an airplane into that hypothetical schoolyard full of kids. A great deal of discretion is given to the
individual inspector in most cases. Any reasonably down to earth guy will do his best to not violate a cooperating
pilot who understands the regulations but simply became confused or disoriented. Of course there is the
occasional inspector who became one just to have the power to make other people's lives miserable. They
probably pulled the wings off butterflies when they where kids. Remember though .. . even a good lawyer can't
help much if you're truly guilty of a major infraction.
8. A pilot has no legal obligation to respond to the FAA's phone calls or letters, but failure to do so will almost
certainly guarantee pursuit of a violation. It's up to YOU not to say something so incredibly STUPID that the
inspector will be forced to take a heading down Violation Boulevard.
9. Exhibit a friendly, cooperative; ''constructive attitude'' (I like to call it the ''puppy dog'') and you may go home
with a verbal reprimand, or at worst, an ''administrative action'' in the form of a ''warning notice," a ''letter of
correction," or some remedial training. An administrative action is possible if the situation was not significantly
unsafe, no lack of competency or qualification was involved, and the violation wasn't deliberate. Worst case could
be a reexamination ''709-ride'' to determine if a perceived airmanship weakness has been corrected.
10. An administrative action does not suspend or revoke your license but will be a matter of record against the pilot
until it is ''expunged'' after two years.
11. The FAA's ''Letter of Investigation'' [LOI] or ''10 day letter'' warns that the FAA is investigating an incident and
would "appreciate receiving any evidence or statements you might care to make regarding the matter within 10
days of receipt of the letter ... If we do not hear from you, the report will be processed without benefit of your
statement." If ''remedial training'' is an option, the letter will state something to that effect. It is no guarantee
that remedial training will be used as your "out," but if you pursue it with a friendly, cooperative and
constructive attitude it is by far the best option. It is important to remember that this letter is not a statement of
charges but simply a way for the FAA to gather more information (i.e. evidence i.e. against YOU). You're
under no obligation to answer this letter but the FAA does not look kindly on stonewalling. In fact you may
guarantee a violation if you don't answer of course you could guarantee a violation if you
answer by supplying information that incriminates yourself. Time to contact an aviation
lawyer if you don't know exactly what you're doing.
12. If the FAA decides to pursue a ''certificate action ," it will issue a ''Notice of Proposed
Certificate Action'' (NPCA) usually within 6 months of the incident. This letter will detail
the facts of the violation and requires you to respond in writing or face an order of
suspension. Once this letter has been received , you can make a formal request under the
''freedom .Q.f Information Act'' (FOIA) and get the FAA's ''.Enforcement !nvestigative
,Beport'' (EIR), that will show all the information held against you. If it looks like the FAA has
a GOOD case, you might want to request an ''informal hearing'' during which the possibility of ~-::~::::;..
a settlement can be discussed. The majority of enforcement actions are settled at an informal hearing. Be
advised however that an Informal Conference conducted on the telephone is usually NOT a good option. Meet
with these people face to face. Have a good aviation lawyer at your side, and your chances of dismissal or
favorable settlement are far greater.
13. If the '',Enforcement !nvestigative ,Beport'' shows that the FAA has a LOUSY case, you might want to forget
about the informal hearing, and ask the FAA to go ahead with the suspension or revocation order so you can start
the "appeal" process. The FAA must issue the ''Order of Suspension or Revocation'' before you are
allowed to appeal the decision to the NTSB.
14. Until you get the ''Order of Suspension or Revocation'' you could have ignored all previous letters. The "Order"
is different. It clearly states that you have 20 days, from the date they mailed the letter to respond with an
appeal to the NTSB or the "order" will become effective therefore suspending or revoking your certificate .
15. An appeal to the NTSB prevents the FAA from taking your license until the appeal process is complete.
16. When the appeal is filed to the NTSB, one of the five regional Administrative Law Judges is assigned to your
case. It could take six months or longer for him to travel to a location near the majority of the witnesses for the
hearing.
17. A ''hearing'' is very much like a trial, except you do not have the civil rights of even the lowest of common
criminals. There is no jury, the rules of evidence are almost non-existent, and hearsay is permissible. First
the FAA will present its evidence and witnesses, and your dreadfully over paid lawyer will have a chance to cross-
examine. Then your lawyer will present your evidence and witnesses. If your team can convince the judge that
the violation is erroneous, the enforcement action will be dropped. Reversals are possible but unfortunately rare.
A not guilty verdict is even less likely if you failed to respond to the "Letter of Investigation" [LOI] or you did
respond but with evidence that incriminated yourself. Most often the judge will announce his or her decision on
the spot.
18. If you or the FAA are not happy with the judge's ruling, you or the FAA can appeal again to the full board. Be
advised, as a matter of record, the board usually sides with the FAA (really?).
19. If you are again disappointed with the decision, you can appeal to the U.S. Court of Appeals. This Court will
uphold or reverse the Board based on something called the "arbitrary and capricious" standard. In other words
the Court will decide if the Board's decision was fair, reasonable, and historically consistent with policy.
20. If all else fails, that NASA report you sent in could still prevent the suspension or revocation from taking place,
but the violation will still be on your record.
21. Expunction policy:
a. Cases that are closed without an enforcement action are expunged after 90 days.
b. Violations resulting in an ''administrative action'' (letter of correction or warning notice) should be
expunged automatically after two years.
c. Violations resulting in suspension or civil penalty used to be erased from your record after five years.
FAA chief Randy Babbitt ended that silly expunction policy on Nov 1, 2010.
I wonder what his ''BAL'' (§.load Alcohol ,bevel) was that day! ;o ).
d. The record is NEVER expunged if it involved a certificate revocation, or for records pertaining to an
airman application, medical records, or records of the NTSB.
e. To check on your record Request a copy of your ''EIS'' (,Enforcement !nformation .§.ubsystem) and/or
your ''AID'' (Accident I !ncident Qatabase) file. Write a statement requesting a copy of your ''EIS I AID''
file, including your full name, date of birth, certificate number and address. FAX the request to the FAA
- 405-954-4655; Attn.: AFS-624
22. ''EMERGENCY REVOCATION'' of your certificate can occur if you have managed to convince the FAA that you
are a total and complete fruitcake, or as in the famous Bob Hoover case an inspector just feels like pulling your
wings off for the hell of it. Don't EVER trip over your own feet when you get out of an airplane especially after
you've just completed one of your best air show routines looping and rolling your Shrike Commander to a
perfect dead-stick landing in front of a cheering crowd !;o ).
23. Even though some violations or administrative actions may eventually be erased from your record, many job and
insurance applications ask if you have EVER had a violation or action. It would be foolish to lie.

ACCIDENT or INCIDENT? 830.2: (NTSB Part 830)
1. In the case of aircraft accidents, the FAA is NOT the controlling agency The NTSB is (Part 830.1 ).
You do NOT have to notify the FAA. Based on its findings, the NTSB may or may not notify the FAA.
2. You are REQUIRED to report aircraft ACCIDENTS and INCIDENTS (i.e., accidents or incidents listed on the
next page; 830.5) expeditiously to the NTSB (not the FAA). INTSB 844-373-9922 (24/7) I.
3. INCIDENT An occurrence other than an accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft, which
affects or could affect the safety of operations (see next page and 830.5).
4. ACCIDENT An occurrence that takes place between the time any person boards an aircraft with the
intention to fly and the time they disembark And must involve death or ''serious injury'' or result in
''substantial damage'' to the aircraft.
5. SERIOUS INJURY any injury which:
a. Requires hospitalization for more than 48 hours within 7 days from the date of the injury;
b. Results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes, or nose);
c. Causes severe hemorrhages, nerve, muscle, or tendon damage;
d. Involves an/ internal organ; or
e. Involves 2" or 3rd degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5o/o of the body surface.
6. FATAL INJURY Any injury which results in death within 30 days of the accident.
7. SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGE IS Anything that adversely affects the structural strength,
performance, or flight characteristics of the aircraft and would normally require major repair or
replacement of components. If in doubt, seek the opinion of an A&P mechanic (in writing if possible).
8. SUBSTANTIAL DAMAGE is NOT Engine failure or damage limited to an engine if only one engine
fails or is damaged, bent fairings or cowlings, dented skin, small punctured holes in the skin or
fabric, ground damage to rotor or propeller blades, or damage to the landing gear, wheels, tires,
flaps, engine accessories, brakes, or wing tips are NOT considered 'substantial damage' for the
purpose of this part. If in doubt, seek the opinion of an A&P mechanic (in writing if possible).
9. A GEAR-UP LANDING Generally, is NOT considered substantial damage.
10. If the mishap does not involve substantial damage or serious
bodily injury, theoretically, you do NOT have to report anything
to the NTSB or FAA. Get the airplane into a hangar. Of course if
someone decides later that in their opinion it was substantial
damage, it is possible you could still get busted. The FAA often '
hears about incidents from sources other than the pilot or the
NTSB such as ATC, FSS or even local police. Hopefully the
incident was not caused by a violation of an FAR. "Careless or
Reckless" (91.13) is their favorite all-encompassing regulation.
11. The FAA regularly uses incident reports as a source for Don't forget to put the
enforcement actions. A violation could constitute a warning, • gear handle in the
suspension, revocation and/or recertification the dreaded ''709 ride.'' • down position before
• exiting the aircraft!;o ).
MAJOR & MINOR DAMAGE: (1 .1, AC 43.13-1A, Part 43 Appendix A)

1. "Major" and "minor" do not refer to the extent of damage as related to cost. They do reflect to the
extent of damage as it affects the airworthiness of
the aircraft.
2. MAJOR repair means a repair:
a. That, if improperly done, might appreciably
affect weight, balance, structural strength,
performance, powerplant operation, flight
characteristics, or other qualities affecting
airworthiness; or
b. That is not done according to accepted
practices or cannot be done by elementary
operations.
c. NOTE: An A&P with Inspection Authorization
(IA) must approve major repairs.
3. MINOR repair means a repair other than a major
repair. Any normal A&P mechanic can do a minor
repair and return the aircraft to service without the approval of an "IA" (a mechanic with Inspection
Authorization [65.91 ]).

(Chap 9 Emergency & Legal)
NOTIFICATION OF ACCIDENTS, INCIDENTS & OVERDUE AIRCRAFT: (830.5)
The operator of an aircraft shall immediately notify the nearest lfational
Iransportation §.afety §.oard field office (NOT the FAA) when an aircraft accident
or any of the following listed incidents occur:
1. Flight control malfunction;
2. Inability of a flight crewmember to perform flight duties as a result of injury or
illness;
3. Failure of any internal turbine engine component that results in the escape of
debris other than out the exhaust path;
4. In-flight fire;
5. Aircraft collision in flight;
6. Damage to property, other than the aircraft, estimated to exceed $25,000 for repair;
7. For large multiengine aircraft (more than 12,500 lbs max takeoff weight):
a. In-flight failure of electrical systems requiring sustained use of an emergency bus
powered by a back-up source such as a battery, Auxiliary Power Unit, or air-driven
generator to retain flight control or essential instruments;
b. In-flight failure of hydraulic systems that results in sustained reliance on the sole remaining
hydraulic or mechanical system for movement of flight control surfaces;
c. Sustained loss of power produced by two or more engines;
d. An evacuation of an aircraft in which an emergency egress system is utilized.
8. Release of all or a portion of a propeller blade excluding release caused solely by ground contact;
9. A complete loss of information, excluding flickering, from more than 50o/o of an aircraft's cockpit
displays known as EFIS, EICAS, ECAM, PFD, PND, and other integrated displays;
10. Airborne ~ollision and Avoidance §.ystem (ACAS) resolution advisories issued when operating IFR or in
Class A airspace and compliance with the advisory is necessary to avert a substantial risk of collision.
11. Damage to helicopter rotor blades, including ground damage, that requires major repair/replacement;
12. Any event in which an aircraft operated by an air carrier lands or departs on a taxiway, incorrect
runway, or other area not designated as a runway; or experiences a runway incursion that requires
the operator of another aircraft or vehicle to take immediate corrective action to avoid a collision.
13. An aircraft is overdue and is believed to have been involved in an accident.
. ............ ..
Popular Phrases
••••••••••••• that have the potential
• Pilot Error:
•
• If an earthquake
to get you involved
with the NTSB :
• suddenly opened a
''Was that for us?''
• fissure in a runway
•
• that caused an
htt s://www.ntsb. ov/about/contact.html
~~~~~--l::::====~=======
''What'd he say?''
''Oh S#!t"
• accident, it might take Region CITY PHONE# ''Holy S#!t''
• a year, but the NTSB Washin ton, DC 202-314-6000 ''We 're in deep S#!t''
: would find a way to
Alaska Anchora e, AK 907-271-5001 And now that
• blame the pilot.
computers are
• (And all too often Western Federal Wa , WA 253-874-2880 involved -
they'd be correct.) Central Denver, CO 303-373-3500 ''What the hell is it
Eastern Ashburn, VA 571-223-3930 doin' now?"
PRESERVATION of WRECKAGE: (830.10)

1. Aircraft wreckage, cargo, mail, and all records shall not be disturbed
until the NTSB takes custody.
2. Aircraft wreckage, cargo, mail, and records can be moved to remove
persons injured or trapped, protect wreckage from further damage, or
protect the public from injury (take pictures if possible).
REPORTS: (830.15)
1. The operator of an aircraft shall file a report within 10 days of
an ACCIDENT, or after 7 days if an overdue aircraft is still
• •
m1ss1ng.
2. An INCIDENT report shall be filed only if requested by the
NTSB.

Chap 9 Emergency & Legal
------------------------------------------------------
Aeronautic a I Information Manual - ONLY an ADVISORY?:
-
1. FAA statement concerning the AIM ''This publication, while NOT
REGULATORY, provides information which reflects examples of
operating techniques and procedures which may be requirements in
other federal publications or regulations. It is made available solely to
assist pilots in executing their responsibilities required by other
publications.'' The FAA has a similar attitude relative to Advisory i
Circulars and other FAA publications. a
2. The AIM may not be regulatory, but it is authoritative and therefore has
the de facto effect of law ... especially if you ignore the Al M's "advice"
and manage to crash shortly thereafter.
3. The FAA can view statements in these publications as "interpretations" of
the regulations and therefore binding to the pilot. The NTSB is also bound
by the FAA's interpretations unless the interpretation is proved to be "arbitrary, capricious, or
otherwise illegal."
4. The AIM provides basic flight information, recommendations, explanations of procedures and factors
affecting safety that are not NECESSARILY legally binding but where applicable, the AIM refers
to regulations that ARE legally binding.
5. Furthermore You CAN be cited under FAR 91.13 careless and reckless operations for failure
to follow the ''advisory'' procedures in the AIM. Especially if it contributes to an accident or incident.
In other words, you could receive a VIOLATION for not complying with FAA GUIDANCE.
COPIES of ATC Tower/Center - Audio/Radar Track (data plot) TAPES:

Let's say you have a little "problem" with ATC or just want to amuse yourself with what you sounded like the
day you almost crashed. A copy of the tape is available to you under the freedom Qf Information Act:
1. Ask on the air for the tape to be saved Tapes are required to be kept for only 15 days.
2. You can also ask on the air for the ''sector identifier'' and/or the ''operating initials'' of the controller
(and maybe even his home phone number if you really want to stir up a hornet's nest!).
3. Note the exact time, altitude, and the frequency you're on.
4. After landing you will have to make a ''formal request'' for the tape:
a. Look in the Airport Facility Directory or call Flight Service for the phone number of the
Tower or Center. An alternative is to call the local FSDO for assistance.
b. Call the facility get the address of the ''Air Traffic Division'' for that region and the name
of the person responsible for freedom Qf Information Act requests. The proper procedure
and contact information is available at http://www.faa.gov/foia/ or by calling the FAA-FOIA
headquarters at 202-267-9165.
c. Your letter should open with the statement:
''Under the federal Freedom of Information Act. I am requesting a copy of... ''
d. Include ALL the details and be sure to mail it certified return receipt As Soon As Possible-
remember you only have 15 days before the tapes are erased.
5. ATC audiotapes will cost $30 to over a $100 depending on length, while data plots (radar tracks) may
cost significantly more.
6. A formal tape request gets a lot of attention it will be listened to if it's entertaining enough, it could
make it all the way up to legal counsel at the regional level.
FAA ''HOT LINE'':

800·255· 1111 Provided to report unsafe practices or conditions
that affect aviation safety. The call can remain confidential.
.• ...... .......... .
AOPA ''HOT LINE'': • Official FAA Motto:
•• We're not happy,
800-872-2672 (Must be an AOPA Member) A team of experts 'til you're not happy.
will answer any aviation related question pertaining to the regulations,
medicals, legal, etc. (www.aopa.org )

Chapter 10
iscellaneous, Definitions,
Aerodynamics Trivia
... the rest of
the story. FREE Extra Stuff
Piper Numbers & Names •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 348
Beech craft Numbers & Names ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 349
Hypoxia; Hyperventilation; Carbon Monoxide; Ear Block ............................................ 350
Air Ambulance Flights "Life Guard" ... ................... ............................................. ...... 350
Aerodynamics •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 351 ·353
Flaps/Slots/Slats .................................................................................................. 354, 355
Laminar Flow................................................................................................................ 356
Boundary Layer ............................................................................................................ 356
Reynolds Number ........................................................................................................ 356
Adverse vs. Pro verse Yaw •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 35 7
Dutch Roll ..................................................................................................................... 357
Yaw Damper ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 357
Trim Tabs ..................................................................................................................... 3 57
Service Ceiling All Engine Service Ceiling Single-Engine Service Ceiling ......... 358
Certified Ceiling Maximum Certified Ceiling Maximum Certified Altitude ........... 358
Absolute Ceiling Single-Engine Absolute Ceiling Driftdown ............................... 358
Fastest and Highest Flying Aircraft .............................................................................. 358
Contrails ....................................................................................................................... 358
Pilot In Command ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 359
Pilot In Command Seating Position •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 359
Active Pilots in the United States •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 359
English Language; Wilco; Tango; Flight Check ........................................................... 359
Manifold Pressure & the Constant Speed Propeller •••••••••••••••••••••••••• 360
Supercharged I Turbocharged Engines ....................................................................... 361
Horsepower .......................................................................................................... 362, 363
Time In Service; PMA; FAA 337 Form Major Repair and Alteration ......................... 363
TBO; STC; TSO •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 364
Preventive Maintenance .............................................................................................. 365
Oil Mineral, Ashless Dispersant ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 366
Oil Vi!;C:C>!;ity ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 366
Piston Engine Smoke; Backfiring ................................................................................. 366
Clearway, Stopway ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 367
Flight Visibility, Visibility and the Earth's Horizon; Radar Reflectors ........................... 367
lfotice of froposed B.ule ,Making (NPRM) ................................................................... 368
Shadows; Mountains; Empire State Building ................... ............. ............................... 368
Charts; Sectional Charts Runways Longer than 8,069 ft .......................................... 369
Night Four Definitions ................................................................................................ 370
Aircraft Lights ............................................................................................................... 371
Hydroplaning •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 372
Test to Detect Contamination of Jet Fuel ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 373
Specific Gravity (SG) ................................................................................................... 373
Control Towers; Aircraft [weight] Classes; Crosswinds ............................................... 373
Simulators Four Levels ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 374
Gold Seal Flight Instructor Certificate .......................................................................... 375

Chap 10 Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia
PIPER NUMBERS & NAMES:
A Piper J-3 is a Cub everyone knows that. But unless you've had extensive contact with Pipers, attaching
the names to the numbers is not an easy task for most people. Here's a partial list:
J-2 ................................................................... Cub
J-3 ................................................................... Cub
J-4 ....................................................... Cub Coupe
J-5 ...................................................... Cub Cruiser
P A-11 ................................................. Cu b Spec ia I
PA-12 .............................................. Super Cruiser
PA-14 ............................................. Family Cruiser
PA-15 ........................................ Vagabond Trainer
PA-16 ......................................................... Clipper
PA-17 .................................................... Vagabond
PA-1 8 .. .. .. .... ... .... .. ... . ... .... .. .. .. .. .... ... .... .. Su per Cu b
PA-20 ........................................................... Pacer '---_..-
PA-22 ........................... Tri Pacer, Colt, Caribbean
PA-23 .......................................... Apache 150/160
PA-24 ................................................... Comanche
PA-25 ( & 36) ....................... (crop duster) Pawnee
PA-27 ..................................... Aztec I Turbo Aztec
PA-28-A 14011s11161Cherokee, Cruiser, Flight Liner
PA-28-A-151 (161) .................. Warrior (II) (Cadet)
PA-28-181 ........................................ Archer (11)(111)
PA-28-B-201 T (235/236) Dakota, Turbo Dakota, Charger, Pathfinder
PA-28-R-200 (201 )(T) Arrow I & II (Arrow lll)(Turbo)
PILL .......................................... Pi IIan PA-28R-300
PA-28-T ........... Cherokee Arrow 4, Turbo Arrow 4
PA-30 ( & 39T) ............................. Twin Comanche
PA-31 (31T) Navajo/Chieftain/Mojave (Cheyenne)
PA-32-260 or 300 ................................ Cherokee 6
PA-32R-300 ................................................. Lance
PA-32-300RT .................................... T-Tail Lance
PA-32T ............................... Lance 2, Turbo Lance
PA-32R-301 HP or T ................................ Saratoga
PA-34 .................................................. Seneca 2/3
PA-36 ..... (crop duster) Pawnee Brave, Super Brave
PA-38 ............................................. Tomahawk (11)
PA-42 (& 31 T) ....................................... Cheyenne
PAT4 .......................................................... T-1 040
PAY1 .................................................. Cheyenne 1
PAY2 .................................................. Cheyenne 2
PAY3 .................................................. Cheyenne 3
PAY4 .............................................. Cheyenne 400
PA-44 .......................... Seminole, Turbo Seminole
PA-46 ................................. Malibu, Malibu Mirage
PA-46T ......................................... Malibu Meridian
PA-60(AEST) (no longer associated with Piper) Aerostar
S 108 .... (small piston/single) Voyager, Station Wagon 108

BEECHCRAFT - NUMBERS & NAMES:
Different company Same problem:
BE-9L .......... King Air 90, A90 to E90 (T-44, V-C6)
BE-9T ................................................. King Air F90
BE-10 ...................... King Air 100 A/B (U-21 F Ute)
BE-D 17S ......... Stagger Wing 17 (UC-43 Traveler)
BE-18 [C-45] .. Twin Beech, Beech 18, Super H 18
BE-19 ........................... Sport 19, Musketeer Sport
BE-20 ............................. Super King Air 200, 1300
BE-23 ...................... Sundowner 23, Musketeer 23
BE-24 ......................... Sierra 24, Musketeer Super
BE-30 .......................... Super King Air 300/300LW
. ." •
BE-33 ...................... Bonanza 33, Debonair ( E-24)
BE-F33C ............................... (aerobatic) Bonanza
BE-T34P .................... Mentor, D45, T34A/B, E-17
BE-T34 T ............................... Turbo Mentor T-34C
BE-V35B ................................. (V-tail) Bonanza 35
BE-A36 ............................ (stretched) Bonanza 36
BE-40 (BE-400) .......... Beechjet 400/T-1 Jayhawk
BE-50 ......................................... Twin Bonanza 50
BE-55 ...................................... Baron 55/Chochise
BE-58 ........................................ Baron 58, Foxstar
BE-60 ........................................................ Duke 60
BE-65 .................... Queen Air 65 (U-8F Seminole)
BE-76 .................................................. Duchess 76
BE-77 .................................................... Skipper 77 ,. . . . .,.
BE-80 ................................................ Queen Air 80
BE-95 (D95) ........................................ Travelair 95
BE-99 ............ (small commuter) Airliner 99, Beech 99
B 190 ................. (small commuter) Beech 1900/C-12J
B350 ........................................ Super King Air 350
B2000 (STAR) ................ (only a couple left!) Starship
BE-400 (BE-40) ......... Beechjet 400/T-1 Jayhawk

(Chap 10 Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia)
HYPOXIA: (AIM 8-1-2)
1. Insufficient oxygen.
2. SYMPTOMS: Sense of well-being, euphoria, impaired judgment, increased breathing rate,
lightheaded or dizzy, tingling or warm sensation, perspiration, reduced eyesight,
sleepiness, blue coloring of the skin, fingernails, and lips. Propensity to do stupid s#!t.
HYPERVENTILATION: (AIM 8-1-3)

1. An excessive increase in breathing rate brought on by tension from a stressful situation in
flight, anxiety, or apprehension.
2. SYMPTOMS: Sensation of lightheadedness, suffocation, drowsiness, tingling in the
extremities, coolness, disorientation, muscle spasms and eventual unconsciousness.
3. Sometimes mistaken for hypoxia.
4. Consciously bring the breathing rate back under control and/or breathe into a paper bag.
"
CARBON MONOXIDE: (AIM 8-1-4)
1. Odor of exhaust.
2. SYMPTOMS: Headache, drowsiness or dizziness.
EAR BLOCK: (AIM 8-1-2)

1. As the aircraft cabin pressure decreases during CLIMB, the expanding air in the middle
ear pushes the Eustachian tube open and by escaping down the nasal passages-
equalizes with cabin pressure.
2. On DESCENT, pilot must periodically open the Eustachian tube to equalize pressure.
3. Pressure can be equalized by using the ''TOYNBEE maneuver:'' pinching the nose and
swallowing/yawning or if that doesn't work the ''VALSALVA maneuver:'' close the
mouth, pinch the nose closed, and attempt to blow through the nostrils.
AIR AMBULANCE FLIGHTS ''MEDEVAC'' (formerly Lifeguard): [AIM 4-2-4(b)l

1. Because of the priority afforded air ambulance flights in the ATC system, EXTREME discretion is
necessary when using the term ''MEDEVAC." It is only intended for those missions of an URGENT
medical nature and to be utilized only for that portion of the flight requiring expeditious handling.
When requested by the pilot, necessary notification to expedite ground handling of patients, etc., is
provided by ATC; however, when possible, this information should be passed in advance through non-
ATC communications systems. NOTE: It's been said that a grandmother going in for hip replacement
(elective surgery) is not likely to warrant the "MEDEVAC" call sign unless she's unstable for some
reason. Of course I flew medical transport and organ procurement for years ... IMHO most all of those
patients (and organs) looked dreadfully unstable when riding in that little Citation.
2. Civilian air ambulance flights responding to medical emergencies (first call to an accident scene,
carrying patients, organ donors, organs, or other urgently needed lifesaving medical material) will be
expedited by ATC when necessary. When expeditious handling is necessary, add the word
''MEDEVAC'' in the remarks section of the flight plan. In radio communications, use the call sign
''MEDEVAC'' followed by the aircraft registration letters/numbers.
3. Similar provisions have been made for the use of ''AIR EVAC'' and ''HOSP'' by air ambulance flights,
except that these flights will receive priority handling only when specifically requested.
EXAMPLE:
''MEDEVAC Two Zero Five Charlie Mike''
4. Air carrier and Air Taxi flights responding to medical emergencies will also be expedited by ATC
when necessary. The nature of these medical emergency flights usually concerns the transportation of
urgently needed lifesaving medical materials or vital organs. It is imperative that the company/PILOT
DETERMINE, by the nature/urgency of the specific medical cargo, if PRIORITY A TC ASSISTANCE is
REQUIRED. Pilots shall ensure that the word "MEDEVAC" is included in the remarks section of the
flight plan and use the call sign "MEDEVAC" followed by the company name and flight number for all
transmissions when expeditious handling is required. It is important for ATC to be aware of
"MEDEVAC" status, and it is the pilot's responsibility to ensure that this information is provided to ATC.
EXAMPLE:
''MEDEVAC Delta Thirty-Seven''

FORCES ACTING ON AN AIRCRAFT IN FLIGHT: (FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25)
LIFT
ANGLE OF (dreams)
FLIGHT PATH DRAG

FLIGHT PATH (FAA)
ANGLE OF
ATTACK ANGLE OF THRUST I
•
10° :{;;;,._ ATTACK A~;,.~C~F ($$$$$) '
ANGLE OF ATTACK is the angle between the wing chord and the flightpath. The angle of attack is
always based on the flightpath, not the ground. The angle between the chord line of the wing and the direction
of the relative wind. Leading Edge
Trailing Edge
CHORD LINE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE
ANGLE OF INCIDENCE the angle formed by the chord line of the wing and the longitudinal axis
of the airplane (imaginary line from the nose to the tail). It is determined during the design of the airplane and is
the angle at which the wing is attached to the fuselage. It is a fixed angle and cannot be changed by the
pilot. Angle of incidence should not be confused with angle of attack. Upper
Leading Edge :-:::;_:_::_:_:_:_:_:_~-=:::~f:c:amber

--: -~-
--- --
Trailing Edge
Mean -
Mean
Chord Lower
Camber
Line Camber
Line
CAMBER the curvature of the airfoil from the leading edge to the trailing edge. ''Upper camber'' refers to
the curvature of the upper surface; ''lower camber'' refers to the curvature of the lower surface; and ''mean
camber'' refers to the mean line which is equidistant at all points between the upper and lower surfaces.
CHORD or CHORD LI NE an imaginary straight line drawn from the leading edge to the trailing edge of a
cross section of an airfoil.
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.,.•':.:~··.~~.;~ .....:~; ,.·,;:~.;;i:~: :: '. .
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RELATIVE WI ND the direction of the airflow produced by an object movfng through the air. The relative
wind for an airplane in flight flows in a direction parallel with and opposite to the direction of flight. Therefore,
the actual flightpath of the airplane determines the direction of the relative wind.
WING PLAN FORM the shape or form of a wing as viewed from above. It may be long and tapered, short
and rectangular, or various other shapes (e.g., straight wing, sweptback wing, delta wing, straight leading edge
w/tapered trailing edge, etc.).
ASPECT RATIO ratio of wingspan to wing chord (width). The primary factor in determining lift/drag ratio.
LONG WING with high aspect ratio is more efficient in producing lift (gliders) with the least drag (Piper
Meridian= 10.3). SHORT WING low aspect ratio but cheaper to build (Cessna 182 = 7.4).
LIFT-DRAG RATIO L/D Maximum UD ratio determines the airspeed at which the most lift is
produced for the least amount of drag. At this point the least amount of power is required for both maximum
lift and minimum total drag. This will determine max endurance, max range and best glide speed.
(Chap 10 - Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia)
Suspended from Center of Gravity Stall & Stick Pusher Training

(N 8900.205, AC 120-109)
Total weight of aircraft Due to the Colgan Air and Air France crashes
the FAA in their infinite wisdom has finally
realized that immediately reducing the angle of
attack at the first indication of a stall should be
the primary means of stall recovery. Emphasis
is no longer on minimal altitude loss.
GRAVITY is the downward force that tends to draw all bodies vertically toward the center of the Earth. The
airplane's center of gravity (CG) is the point at which all weight is considered to be concentrated.
CENTER OF GRAVITY is located along the longitudinal centerline of the airplane (imaginary line from the
nose to the tail) and somewhere near the center of lift of the wing. The location of the center of gravity depends
upon the location and weight of the load placed in the airplane. • •• •••••••••••••••••••••• • •••••.
. • •• • • • • • • • • • • •-• • • ~
: LIFT has nothing to do
.
• The cause of lift is somewhat irrelevant;
• a barn door will fly if you put a
• with Bernoulli. : big enough engine on it.
• LIFT is created with
; MONEY. CH ob
-;:. ... rlO l..l••
•• Given enough money, ANGLE ~ ::t!.e-----.
ATTACK
: you can LIFT just about RELATIVE WIND ••••••••••••••••••••••
: ANYTHING! : With enough thrust
• CEN ER OF
PRESSURE """'°',,
: pigs fly just fine .
~'"¥fl'flltN'lllllllllllllll......¥1111"91111
Lift acts upward and perpendicular to the relative wind and to the wingspan. Although lift is generated over the
entire wing, an imaginary point is established which represents the resultant of all lift forces. This single point is
the CENTER OF LIFT, sometimes referred to as the CENTER OF PRESSURE.
DRAG is the rearward acting force, which resists the forward movement of the airplane through the air.
Drag acts parallel to and in the same direction as the relative wind.
INDUCED DRAG is the undesirable but unavoidable byproduct of lift, and increases in direct proportion to
increases in angle of attack. The greater the angle of attack (up to the critical angle), the greater the amount
of lift developed, and the greater the induced drag. The airflow around the wing is deflected downward,
producing a rearward component to the lift vector, which is, induced drag. The amount of air deflected
downward decreases greatly at higher angles of attack; therefore, the higher the angle of attack or the slower
the airplane is flown, the greater the induced drag. As airspeed INCREASES, induced drag DECREASES.
EFFECT of AIR DENSITY on LIFT and DRAG:

Lift and drag vary directly with the density of the air. As air density INCREASES, lift and drag increase and
as air density DECREASES, lift and drag decrease. Air density is affected by pressure, temperature, and
humidity. At an altitude of 18,000 feet, the density of the air is half the air density at sea level. Therefore, if an
airplane is to maintain the same lift at high altitudes, the amount of air flowing over the wing must be the
same as at lower altitudes. To do this the speed of the air over the wings must be increased. This is why
an airplane requires a longer takeoff distance to become airborne at higher altitudes than with similar
conditions at lower altitudes. Because air expands when heated, warm air is less dense than cool air. When
other conditions remain the same, an airplane will require a longer takeoff run on a hot day than on a cool day.
Effect of ALTITUDE, TEMPERATURE, and HUMIDITY on TAKEOFF and RATE of CLIMB:

Because water vapor weighs less than an equal amount of dry air, moist air (high relative humidity) is less
dense than dry air (low relative humidity). Therefore, when other conditions remain the same, the airplane will
require a longer takeoff run on a humid day than on a dry day. This is especially true on a hot, humid day
because the air can hold much more water vapor than on a cool day. The more moisture in the air, the less
dense the air. Less dense air also produces other performance losses beside the loss of lift. Engine
horsepower (thrust) falls off and propeller or turbine blade efficiency decreases because of power loss and
propeller or turbine blades, being airfoils, are less effective when air is less dense. Since the blade is not pulling
with the force and efficiency it would were the air dense, it takes longer to obtain the necessary forward
speed to produce the required lift for takeoff, thus the airplane requires a longer takeoff run. The rate of climb
will also be less for the same reasons.

. 1
~
J
••• ••• ••• •• ••• •• ••• ••• •• •• ••• ••• ••• •• ••...................................•
.. ) :· An aircraft can stall at any attitude or • : A reduction of A ngle Qf Attack is
.. " r;~ : : airspeed if its Critical Angle Qf Attack : required to initiate stall recovery and
... "' J j .. • : is exceeded. Of course at very high : will likely result in a " minimal loss of
: ', Ir ~ : airspeeds, the wings may depart the : altitude." The PTS does not mandate
~J : aircraft before the stall actually occurs. : how much altitude loss is acceptable as
Form Drag Skin Friction Drag • \ it is affected by many variables.
PARASITE DRAG is the resistance of the air produced by any part of the airplane that does not produce lift.
Parasite drag can be further classified into form drag, skin friction, and interference drag. As airspeed
increases induced drag decreases and parasite drag increases.
FORM DRAG is caused by the frontal area of the airplane components being exposed to the airstream. A
similar reaction is where the side of a flat plate is exposed to the airstream. This drag is caused by the form of
the plate, and is the reason streamlining is necessary to increased airplane efficiency and speed. When the
face of the plate is parallel to the airstream, the largest part of the drag is skin friction.
SKIN FRICTION DRAG is caused by air passing over the airplane's surfaces and increases considerably
if the airplane surfaces are rough and dirty.
INTERFERENCE DRAG is caused by interference of the airflow between adjacent parts of the airplane such
as the intersection of wings and tail sections with the fuselage. Fairings are used to streamline these
intersections and decrease interference drag.
l
90 10°
.. .. .., . .,
... 20°
CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK

Relationship Between ANGLE OF ATTACK and LIFT:
At small angles of attack, most of the wing's lift is a result of the difference in pressure between the upper
and lower surfaces of the wing (Bernoulli's Principle). Additional lift is generated by the equal and opposite
reaction of the airstream being deflected downward from the wing (Newton's Law). As the angle of attack is
increased, the airstream is forced to travel faster because of the greater distance over the upper surface
of the wing, creating a greater pressure differential between the upper and lower surfaces. At the same time,
the airstream is deflected downward at a greater angle, causing an increased opposite reaction (drag).
Both the increased pressure differential and increased opposite reaction increase lift and also drag. Therefore
as angle of attack is increased, lift is increased up to the CRITICAL ANGLE OF ATTACK (STALL).
When the angle of attack is increased to approximately 15° to 20° (critical angle of attack)
the airstream can no longer follow the upper curvature of the wing because of the excessive change in
direction. As the critical angle of attack is approached, the airstream begins separating from the rear of the
upper wing surface. As the angle of attack is further increased, the separation moves forward to the area of
the highest camber. This causes a swirling or burbling of the air as it attempts to follow the upper surface of the
wing. When the critical angle of attack is reached, the turbulent airflow, which appeared near the trailing
edge of the wing at lower angles of attack, quickly spreads forward over the entire upper wing surface. This
results in a sudden increase in pressure on the upper wing surface and a considerable loss of lift. Due to the
loss of lift and increase in form drag, the remaining lift is insufficient to support the airplane, and the wing stalls.
LOAD FACTOR ratio of the total air-load to gross weight. Any force applied to deflect an aircraft from
flight in a straight line produces an additional load on the structure. In order to maintain altitude in a turn, a
60°-bank will produce a load factor of 2 G's; an 80°-bank will produce 5.76 G's.

FLAPS, SLOTS, SLATS, and BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL:

(FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25, NAVWEPS 00-80T-80)
Basic Section
Split Flap
----:-
Fowler Flap
Fixed Slot
Full Flaps!
Automatic Slot
Boundary Layer Control by

Upper Surface Suction
Boundary Layer Control

by Flap Augmentation
~~~~~
•
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Q ooooooooQoooo~aooooooooQ owoooalllll.cooo~o 0
' ve.r~ ; Mporl-on+

l""\Q 9i (.

Plain Flap A simple hinged portion of the trailing edge. The effect of the camber added well aft on the
chord causes a significant increase in Clmax (wing section maximum lift coefficient). In addition, the
zero lift angle changes to a more negative value and the drag increases greatly.
Split Flap Consists of a plate deflected from the lower surface of the section and produces a slightly
greater change in Clmax than the plain flap. However, a much larger change in drag results from the
great turbulent wake produced by this type flap. The greater drag may not be such a disadvantage when it
is realized that it may be advantageous to accomplish steeper landing approaches over obstacles or
require higher power from the engine during approach (to minimize engine acceleration time for go-
around).
Slotted Flap Similar to the plain flap but the gap between the main section and flap leading edge is given
specific contours. High energy air from the lower surface is ducted to the flap upper surface. The high
energy air from the slot accelerates the upper surface boundary layer and delays airflow separation to
some higher lift coefficient. The slotted flap can cause much greater increases in Clmax than the plain or
split flap and section drags are much lower.
Fowler Flap Similar to the slotted flap. The difference is that the deflected flap segment is moved aft
along a set of tracks, which increases the chord and effects an increase in wing area. The Fowler flap is
characterized by large increases in Clmax with minimum changes in drag.
NOTE: Aerodynamic twisting moments caused by the flap. Positive camber produces a nose-down
twisting moment especially great when large camber is used well aft on the chord. The deflection of
a flap causes large nose-down moments, which create important twisting loads on the structure and
pitching moments that must be controlled with the horizontal tail. Unfortunately, the flap types producing
the greatest increases in C1max usually cause the greatest twisting moments. The Fowler Flap causes
the greatest change in twisting moment while the Split Flap causes the least.
Fixed Slot Conducts flow of high energy air into the boundary layer on the upper surface and delays
airflow separation to some higher angle of attack and lift coefficient. Since the slot alone effects no
change in camber, the higher maximum lift coefficient will be obtained at a higher angle of attack, that is, the
slot simply delays stall to a higher angle of attack.
Automatic Slot Consists of a leading edge segment (slat), which is free to move on tracks. At LOW
angles of attack the slat is held flush against the leading edge by the high positive local pressure.
When the section is at HIGH angles of attack, the high local suction pressures at the leading edge create
a chordwise force forward to actuate the slat. The slot formed then allows the section to continue to a
higher angle of attack and produce a Clmax greater than that of the basic section.
Slots or Slats are usually used in conjunction with flaps since the flaps provide reduction in the maximum lift
angle of attack. The use of a slot has two important advantages: there is only a negligible change in the
pitching moment due to the slot and no significant change in section drag at low angles of attack. In fact, the
slotted section will have less drag than the basic section near the maximum lift angle for the basic section.
Boundary Layer Control by Upper Surface Suction Application of a suction through ports to
draw off low energy boundary layer and replace it with high velocity air from outside the boundary
layer. The effect is similar to that of a slot because the slot is essentially a boundary layer control device
ducting high energy air to the upper surface.
Boundary Layer Control by Flap Augmentation Another method of boundary layer control is
accomplished by injecting a high speed jet of air into the boundary layer. This method produces
essentially the same results as the suction method and is the more practical installation. The suction type
BLC requires the installation of a separate pump while the "blown" BLC system can utilize the high-
pressure source of a jet engine compressor (BLEED AIR). The typical installation of a high pressure BLC
system would be the augmentation of a deflected flap. Since any boundary layer control tends to increase
the angle of attack for maximum lift, it is important to combine the boundary layer control with flaps
since the flap deflection tends to reduce the angle of attack for maximum lift.

LAMINAR FLOW:
The flow of air over a surface in smooth layers without turbulence.
BOUNDARY LAYER:
1. The extremely thin layer of air between the surface, such as an airfoil or other object, and the
surrounding free-flowing stream of air.
2. At the surface of an airfoil (or any other part of an aircraft), the air molecules are slowed to a velocity
of near zero relative to the object due to the viscosity of the air.
3. As you move away from the surface, the air gradually increases in speed until it reaches the velocity
of the free-flowing stream of air at a given distance from the surface.
4. The airflow in the boundary layer can be either laminar (smooth), turbulent, or a combination of both.
5. At the leading edge of the wing the flow pattern is normally very smooth (laminar), and the
boundary layer is comparatively shallow. As the air continues rearward, the boundary layer becomes
thicker and the airflow more turbulent.
6. An abrupt change from laminar to turbulent in the flow pattern of the boundary layer causes more
drag than a gradual transition.
7. VORTEX GENERATORS (small vanes affixed to the upper wing surface) are sometimes used to
prevent this abrupt change in flow pattern and prevent the air from separating from the surface of the
wing too early; thus decreasing drag. Air spilling over the generators forms swirls, or vortices that
force the high-energy air to resist separation, and stay down at the surface of the wing longer. This
same principle is the reason for the dimples on a golf ball and the fuzz on a tennis ball. Vortex
generators can result in reductions in stall speed and VMc; and an increase in allowable gross takeoff
weight. Transition Point
Laminar Layer
Turbulent Layer
REYNOLDS NUMBER:
1. The combined effects of velocity, viscosity, distance from the leading edge, density, etc.; determine
whether a laminar or turbulent boundary layer exists. The effect of the most important factors is
combined in a dimensionless parameter called the "Reynolds Number" (RN). It is a dimensionless ratio,
which portrays the relative magnitude of dynamic and viscous forces in the flow.
Vx
RN=--
v
RN = Reynolds Number (a dimensionless ratio) •••••••••••••••••••••••••
V = Velocity (feet/second) : Kinematic viscosity the
x = Distance from leading edge (feet) : absolute viscosity of the fluid (air)
v = Kinematic viscosity (square feet/second) divided by its density.
Reynolds Number I Boundary Layer Flow

Less than 500,000 Entirely Laminar
1 Million to 5 Million Combination Laminar & Turbulent
Greater than 10 Million Mostly Turbulent
2. LOW RN's A sudden shift in boundary area flow from laminar to turbulent will occur which has the
tendency to create excessive drag. Small surfaces, low flight speeds, or very high altitudes provide the
regime of low Reynolds Numbers. The golf ball operates at low RN and would have very high form
drag without dimpling. The surface roughness from dimpling disturbs the laminar boundary layer
forcing a premature transition to turbulent. The forced turbulence in the boundary layer reduces the
form drag by providing a higher energy boundary layer to reduce the intensity of separation.
3. HIGH RN's Airflow in the boundary area makes a gradual and controlled transition to turbulent, which
energizes the boundary area resulting in reduced drag. High RNs are obtained with large chord
surfaces, high velocities, and low altitude.

Chap 10 - Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia
----------------------------
ADVERSE vs. PROVERSE YAW:
(FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-25, Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators)
1. An airplane rolled into a turn produces yawing moments, which require rudder deflection to maintain zero
sideslip, that is, coordinate the turn. When the airplane is subject to a roll to the left, the DOWN-going wing will
experience a new relative wind and an increase in angle of attack. The inclination of the lift vector produces a
component force FORWARD on the DOWN-going wing. The UP-going wing has its lift inclined with a
component force AFT. The resulting yawing moment due to rolling motion is in a direction OPPOSITE to the
ROLL and is hence ''ADVERSE yaw." The yaw due to roll is primarily a function of the wing lift coefficient and is
greatest at high coefficients of lift.
2. In addition to the yaw due to rolling motion there will be a yawing moment contribution due to control surface
deflection. Conventional AILERONS usually contribute an ''ADVERSE yaw'' while SPOILERS may contribute a
favorable or ''PROVERSE yaw." The high wing airplane with a large vertical tail may encounter an influence from
inboard ailerons. Such a configuration may induce flow directions at the vertical tail to cause proverse yaw.
Increased lift
More Lift causes increased
induced drag. / x Proverse Yaw
~-+A
.,..dverse Ya~ / ·
/ •
/x
/ ' Decreased lift •
/
• / • causes decreased /
I/ induced drag /
•
• • Less Lift /
Down
~ ·1 I Spoiler
Aileron Raised •
I
z
I
I
zf Up
Aileron ...--
Spoiler
DUTCH ROLL - FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25, AC 23-88, AC 25-?A, and Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators:
''A combination of rolling and yawing oscillations that normally occurs when the dihedral effects of an aircraft are
more powerful than the directional stability. Usually dynamically stable but objectionable in an airplane because of
the oscillatory nature."
AC 61-107 A - Operations of Aircraft at Altitudes Above 25,000 Feet - A coupled oscillation in roll and yaw that
becomes objectionable when roll , or lateral stability is reduced in comparison with yaw or directional stability. A
stability augmentation system (yaw damper) is required to be installed on the aircraft to dampen the Dutch roll
tendency when it is determined to be objectionable, or when it adversely affects the control stability requirements for
certification. Swept wing jet aircraft are especially prone to serious Dutch roll and therefore are almost always
equipped with a yaw damper.
YAW DAMPER a gyro operated stability augmentation autocontrol system installed to

automatically provide immediate rudder input when necessary to aid in canceling out yaw
tendencies such as those of ''Dutch roll." Basically an autopilot for the rudder that automatically
cancels out yaw so you can keep your feet on the floor. Early type (Parallel) yaw dampers are
required to be off during takeoff and landing because they deflect the pedals, increase pedal
force and can make matters worse in case of engine failure. More modern (Series) dampers do
not deflect the pedals, pedal forces do not change, and are normally safe to use for takeoff,
landing, crosswind landings, as well as engine out scenarios.
TRIM TABS:
1. CONTROL TAB used on some transport aircraft as a "manual reversion" backup to flight controls
that are normally operated hydraulically. Manual reversion unlocks the tabs allowing the pilot to
operate the tabs by moving the control wheel and thereby causing the flight controls to move.
2. ELEVATOR TRIM TAB normally used to balance the elevator load to reduce or eliminate control
pressures. Elevator trim remains fixed for all positions when the flight controls are moved.
3. SERVO TAB moves in the opposite direction from the primary control surface to reduce the
control force that needs to be provided by the pilot in order to move a primary control surface. The
servo tab reduces control forces by deflecting in the proper direction to help move the primary surface.
4. ANTI-SERVO TAB moves in the same direction as the primary control surface in order to
increase required control force pressure. It also acts to prevent the control surface from moving to
full deflection.
SERVICE CEILING aka ALL-ENGINE SERVICE CEILING With ALL ENGINES

RUNNING, it is the maximum density altitude the aircraft can maintain a 100 fpm rate of climb at near
gross weight and standard temperature.
SINGLE-ENGINE SERVICE CEILING - aka - ENGINE-OUT SERVICE CEILING

The maximum density altitude the aircraft can maintain a 50 fpm climb with only one engine operating.
Found in the f.ilot's Qperating H.andbook or approved Aircraft flight Manual.
CERTIFIED CEILING aka MAXIMUM CERTIFIED CEILING or MAXIMUM

CERTIFIED ALTITUDE Some turbine-powered and a few turbocharged piston-powered aircraft
flight manuals restrict operations above a certain altitude even though the actual service ceiling might be
above that altitude.
ABSOLUTE CEILING The maximum height (density altitude) above sea level at which an aircraft
can maintain level flight under standard atmospheric conditions with all engines running. There is no
excess of power or thrust, the airplane produces zero rate of climb and only one speed will allow steady
level flight. Vx and V':< become the same. Vy decreases with altitude, Vx increases with altitude. When Vx
and Vy merge, the aircraft has reached its absolute altitude and will no longer climb. A "zero" rate-of-climb
occurs at the airplane's absolute ceiling Vx, Vy, V MiN, and V MAX are all the same speed at this point.
SINGLE-ENGi NE ABSOLUTE CEILING The density altitude the aircraft can maintain with the
critical engine feathered and the other engine at maximum power.
DRIFTDOWN (Also See Page 159):

1. If an engine fails at an altitude above the single-engine absolute ceiling , the aircraft will descend.
2. To minimize sink rate , maintain the single-engine best rate of climb speed (VYSE).
FASTEST and HIGHEST FLYING AIRCRAFT Interesting History:

The rocket powered X-15 achieved a speed of 3,940 knots in 1967. In 2004, SpaceShipOne became the
first private manned spacecraft to exceed an altitude of greater than 328,000 feet twice in 14 days, thus
claiming the ten million dollar Ansari X-Prize. It also broke the 1963 the X-15 altitude record (67 miles) by
reaching 69.6 miles above the Earth's surface. SpaceShipTwo is preparing for operations that will carry 6
passengers and 2 crewmembers at 2,260 knots to an altitude of approximately 68 miles. An unfortunate
accident during a test flight in late 2014 caused a significant delay. Designer Burt Rutan has been quoted
as saying it will be "at least as safe as a 1920s airliner." Time to buy a ticket?
An SR-71 with a top speed of 1.905 kts (Mach 3.3) is faster
than a 30.06 bullet which leaves the muzzle at 1. 718 kts.
''
SPEED
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--::-Y'
LIMIT
186,000
Miles per
Second
CONTRAILS: (Ac oo-6A)

1. Contrails are ice crystal clouds formed by water vapor and microscopic particles emitted from the
high temperature exhaust of jet (or large piston) engines usually in cold, moist air.
2. Most of the contrails you see are caused by jet engines, but if the airplane you normally fly everyday is a
B-17 or B-29 and you do it at high altitude you 'll have the same problem.
3. High altitude cold, humid air is the most likely place for the formation of contrails. Under these
conditions the energy and water vapor added to the atmosphere is enough to saturate the air,
condensing out to form the ice crystal cloud. This scenario can produce super long contrails that
could last for several hours.
4 . In warmer, drier air the contrail may not form at all, or may form just briefly and only last a few minutes.

(chap 10 Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia)
PILOT IN COMMAND (1.1)
Means the person who:
1. Has final authority and responsibility for the operation and safety of the flight;
2. Has been designated as pilot in command before or during the flight; and
3. Holds the appropriate category, class, and type rating, if appropriate, for the
conduct of the flight.
PILOT IN COMMAND SEATING POSITION:

1. AIRPLANES The PIC normally sits on the LEFT Evolved from the maritime rule that states
vessels approaching head-on must pass to the right of each other. Sitting on the left provided the best
view when passing at close quarters such as in a harbor. It is curious that most all present-day pleasure
boats seat the driver on the right.
2. HELICOPTERS The PIC normally sits on the RIGHT The first successful helicopters (developed
by Igor Sikorsky) had a single ''collective'' I throttle control located between the two pilots. Both pilots
were provided a control stick (''cyclic''). Since it was more desirable to operate
~
the stick with the right hand and the collective with the left hand, the PIC
would normally sit on the right. Most modern helicopters have a collective
installed on the left side of both pilot seats, but the custom
continues. Many manufacturers also place slightly more fuel on
the left side of the helicopter to help balance the load when the
pilot is the only one on board. 1
ACTIVE PILOTS in the UNITED STATES: (FAA)

1. Approximately 627 ,588 total certificated pilots in the U.S.
(The most current FAA data available at press time)
Approximate breakdown: •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•
+ 119, 119 Student Pilots : According to the FAA the
+ 3,682 Sport Pilots : average age of pilots as a
+ 212 Recreational Pilots : whole is 45.6 years. The
+ 202,020 Private Pilots (airplane) : average age of sport pilot
•
+ 123, 705 Commercial Pilots (airplane) :• holders was 52.9 years .
+ 96, 4 73 FI ig ht In stru cto rs ~MAJ~ldll#lr.tl:iM'/lil;/llJ.~~~
+ 142, 198 Airline Transport Pilots (airplane)
+ 36,652 "Other" includes helicopter (only) and glider (only)
2. The number of active pilots peaked at 820,000 in 1980
3. As a rule of thumb approximately 20°/o of all pilots are actually employed as full-time pilots (124,800).
ENGLISH -The UNIVERSAL LANGUAGE:

International _g_ivil 8,viation Qrganization (ICAO), Annex 10 (Aeronautical Telecommunications)
Chapter 5.2.1.1.2 " ... pending the development and adoption of a more suitable form of speech for
universal use in aeronautical radiotelephony communications, the English language should be used as such
and should be available at all stations on the ground serving designated airports and routes used by
international air services."
WI LCO: (P/C Glossary)

I have received your message, understand it, and will comply with it.
TANGO: (AIM 4-2-4)

Air Taxi or other commercial operators not having FAA authorized call signs should prefix their normal
identification with the phonetic word ''Tango.''
FLIGHT CHECK: (P/C Glossary)

A call-sign prefix used by FAA aircraft engaged in flight inspection/certification of navigational aids and flight
procedures. The word "recorded" may be added as a suffix; e.g., "Flight Check 320 recorded" to indicate
that an automated flight inspection is in progress in terminal areas.

MANIFOLD PRESSURE and the CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER: (1 .1. FAA-H-ao30-2s)
1. The Manifold Pressure Gauge measures the absolute pressure existing in
the intake manifold of an engine. It is a simple aneroid barometer and is
actually used as a combination suction and/or pressure gauge. It
measures the vacuum (or pressure) of the air/fuel mixture in the intake
manifold that is being sucked or ... in the case of a turbocharged engine
- sucked and pushed into the cylinders when an intake valve is open and
the piston is on a down stroke (i.e., suck stroke as associated with the
suck, squeeze, bang and blow concept). It is an indication of the
performance that can be expected from the engine.
2. When the engine is NOT RUNNING the gauge records the existing
atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (usually about 30").
3. When the engine is RUNNING the reading obtained on the manifold pressure gauge depends on
the engine's RPM and the power being produced at a given propeller pitch angle.
4. A HIGHER than normal manifold PRESSURE at IDLE, is a good indication of an induction leak or an
otherwise sick engine. At least one cylinder may be defective (cracked) and that cylinder will certainly
be running extremely lean. Upon noticing this discrepancy the appropriate response should be to -
shut down the engine; go back into the FBO; and ask this question ''do y'all have a MECHANIC?''
5. The manifold pressure of an engine that is NOT supercharged or turbocharged can never be higher
than the pressure of the surrounding air, however SUPERCHARGING or TURBOCHARGING can
increase the manifold pressure to well above that of the atmosphere.
6. The Manifold Pressure Gauge contains an aneroid diaphragm and a linkage for transmitting the motion
of the diaphragm to the pointer. The pressure existing in the intake manifold enters the sealed chamber
of the diaphragm through a damping tube (a short length of capillary tubing). This damping tube acts
as a safety valve to prevent damage to the instrument from an engine backfire. The sudden surge of
__pressure caused by a backfire is considerably reduced by the restricted capillary tubin~.·_ _
7. Within a given power setting, when using a CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLER, the pilot can
set the propeller control to a given RPM and the propeller governor will automatically change
the pitch (blade angle) to counteract any tendency for the engine to vary from this RPM.
For example, jf the manifold pressure (i.e., engine POWER) is INCREASED, the propeller
GOVERNOR automatically INCREASES the PITCH of the blade (more propeller drag) to
maintain the same RPM.
8. A CONTROLLABLE-PITCH PROPELLER permits the pilot to select the blade angle that will
result in the most efficient performance for a particular flight condition:
a. For TAKEOFF or CLIMB, a low blade angle or decreased pitch, reduces the
propeller drag and allows more engine power (think low gear increased RPM).
b. For CRUISE flight, the propeller blade is changed to a higher angle or increased
pitch. Consequently, the blade takes a larger bite of air at a lower power setting,
and therefore increases efficiency. This process is similar to shifting gears in an
automobile from low gear to high gear (decreased RPM).
9. For any given RPM there is a manifold pressure that should not be exceeded.
If manifold pressure is excessive for a given RPM, the maximum allowable
pressure within the cylinders could be exceeded, thus placing undue stress
on them. If repeated too frequently, this stress could weaken the cylinder
components and eventually cause engine failure.
10. The COMBINATION to AVOID is a high manifold pressure indication and a low RPM.
11. When the POWER setting needs to be DECREASED reduce manifold pressure before
reducing RPM. If RPM is reduced before manifold pressure, the manifold pressure will
automatically increase and possibly exceed the manufacturer's tolerances.
12. When the POWER setting needs to be INCREASED increase RPM FIRST shift to "low
gear" and then increase the manifold pressure. If the manifold pressure is increased before
increasing RPM, it is possible to ''overboost'' the engine by exceeding the maximum
allowable pressure within the cylinders.
13. In most cases, especially with turbocharged or radial engines, it is always preferable to keep
the MANIFOLD PRESSURE value at least slightly HIGHER THAN the first two numbers of
the RPM (called keeping the power above ''SQUARE'') until very short final during the landing
approach. This avoids ''supercooling'' of the cylinders or the possibility of the ''propeller
driving the engine'' (instead of the engine driving the propeller), either of which could be
extremely DETRIMENTAL to ENGINE LIFE.

(chap 10 Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia)
SUPERCHARGED ENGINE:
Engine Compressor
1. A supercharger uses a system of gears to mechanically compress the air Gears ~
supplied to the intake manifold.

2. This increase in air pressure allows the burning of more fuel, which in turn
results in more available power as air density decreases with altitude (or
temperature). Superchargers can supply sea level horsepower well above ' ~ir
10,000 feet. {t)
f-· ·
Intake
3. Superchargers are a somewhat older design that sometimes incorporates To Enginel'Cylinders
dual speed ''low blower'' and ''high blower'' mechanisms.
TURBOCHARGED ENGINE:
1. A turbocharger uses exhaust gases passing over a turbine wheel to compress the air supplied to the
intake manifold.
2. This increase in air pressure allows the burning of more fuel, which in turn results in more available
power as air density decreases with altitude (or temperature). Turbochargers can supply sea level
horsepower well above 10,000 feet.
3. Turbocharged engines usually are equipped with a manual or automatic ''waste gate'' which limits the
amount of available pressure to prevent overboosting and therefore damage to the engine.
Typical TURBOCHARGED Engine

.... ....................
,.
.. .4
. ....,.... -- . ........ . .. .......... .. ..........
' •~ .... ~ Iii!.....
... . •• ••• ••
··· · ·········~·······•·:·-··
.. · - · .....
.... .
. . . . . . ..
:.-.~·;:
...•'... ••• • ...•••., ••••• ••·.... . •••••• •••••• .... ....... .
" .. . ······.. • ••••••••
:····················· •111 .. . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . · · - · · · · · ......... ~ ••••: •••••
••• •' ..
- • • •• • •
'!••••f • •••
• •
~";::~ THROTTLE
........... •••
••• •
••:·+·
•••
•• ••
•
•••••
•• •
COMPRESSOR
...••t•·
•·:··•. -i.....---..J
...••• "
.........
..... '•
·- :
.
.........···--·
,
'•
.....
- .···
........
.........
-·..·········
1te•.
... .
.
,.
..
........
II
.
......
.
.. · ~ ..
....··~··.'
. •"'
•'•t••l
-
~
..
.. TURBINE
=· :- y· .
···~·· •
. ...
• •
••. ···;··,
·········'
• •
......
···:· .s............. ....... .......
•·•:.-....... ·=· ·.-................................. ,. ..
•
•• •• • •.•.
.•.•••••••••
,,
.......
·:·....
-,; ........... :":'.......
-... ·:···-.....
•-.:·.···· ·· . -·.••·.
... ..... ...-··............. ·-··-·1......... . . . .WA s TE '····~
~·:.·.·.·:-·:'re" ·~··:···;e:
·!-.~····
•••
•••
•••
~·
INDUCTION
·~·-·· .~
•··· ·-:Xt~~ PRIMARY EXHAUST
MANIFOLD
•:c.'..... ,.°'
EXHAUST GATE
MANIFOLD
·-·············· .............•
:·Exhaust gas exits here after spinning
··-································· ··~
: turbine that spins compressor, which
: WASTE GATE Automatic valve that dumps
• : compresses the intake air.
: excess exhaust gasses overboard when not ••
: needed by the turbocharger (low altitude). •
•• • This is one hell of a machine ain't it?
•
: Overboosting is possible if the waste gate is
• not opening properly, especially during takeoff
and low altitude.
Graphic courtesy of Cessna Aircraft

HORSEPOWER: ••••••••••••••••••••
: Electrical Watts
One horsepower equals the amount of work required to lift: •• Watts = volts x amps
+ 550 pounds one foot per second; or.. .
+ 275 pounds two feet per second; or .. .
+ 1, 100 pounds one foot in two seconds.
If you multiply by 60 you get the amount of work done in one minute:
33,000 foot-pounds= 1 Horse Power= .7457 Kilowatts= 745.7 Watts
WATTAGE vs. KILOWATTS vs. HORSEPOWER:

1. Horsepower and Watts measure the same thing (thanks to our good ol' buddy James Watt).
2. Light bulb wattage tells you how much work is required to light the bulb for one hour.
3. 1000 watts = 1 kilowatt = 1.341 horsepower.
4. Many countries use kilowatts to rate engine power ...
So a 100 horsepower engine would produce about 74. 7 kilowatts (100 + 1.341 ).
5. One horsepower could keep ten 75-watt light bulbs lit for about an hour (1000 + 1.341 = 747 watts)
PO wER and wEIGHT: (AC 65-12A - Airframe and Powerplant Mechanic's Powerplant Handbook)
1. The useful output of all aircraft powerplants is thrust, the force which propels the aircraft. Since the
reciprocating engine is rated in bhp (brake horsepower) and the gas turbine engine is rated in pounds of
thrust, no direct comparison can be made. However, since the reciprocating engine/propeller
combination receives its thrust from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the
horsepower developed by the reciprocating engine to thrust.
2. If desired, the thrust of a gas turbine engine can be converted into thp (thrust horsepower). But it is
necessary to consider the speed of the aircraft. This conversion can be accomplished by using the
formula:
thp = thrust x aircraft speed (mph} I 375 mile-pounds per hour
The value 375 mile-pounds per hour is derived from the basic horsepower formula as follows:
1 hp = 33,000 ft-lb per minute.

33,000 x 60 = 1,980,000 ft-lb per hour.
1,980,000 I 5,280 = 375 mile-pounds per hour.
One horsepower equals 33,000 ft-lb per minute or 375 mile-pounds per hour. Under static conditions, thrust is
figured as equivalent to approximately 2.6 pounds per hour. If a gas turbine is producing 4,000 pounds of thrust
and the aircraft in which the engine is installed is traveling at 500 mph, the thp will be:
(4000 x 500) I 375 = 5,333.33 thp

BRAKE HORSEPOWER:
The actual horsepower of a PISTON engine, measured by a brake attached to the driveshaft and
recorded on a dynamometer.
SHAFT HORSEPOWER:
The actual horsepower of a TURBINE engine, measured on the power turbine shaft, normally mounted at
the rear of the engine.
························~
•• ANOTHER ••••••••••••••••••••••
• : TORQUE
: HORSEPOWER FORMULA
• •• Torque = Force x Distance
•• HP = Torque x RPM '
• 5250
TIME IN SERVICE: (1.1)

With respect to maintenance time records, means the
time from the moment an aircraft leaves the surface of
the earth until it touches it at the next point of landing
(aka ''air time'').
PMA - Parts Manufacturer Approval:

Part 21 approval, granted by the FAA, which allows a
person or company to manufacture a replacement part or
modification with the intent to sell for installation on a
type-certificated aircraft.
FAA 337 Form - Major Repair and Alteration:

(FAA-H-8083-1, FAA-H-8083-15, FAA-H-8083-19, AC 00-2.13, AC 21-40, AC 43-9C, AC 43-16A, AC 43.9-1E)
Rules of Thumb -
1. If an item is hardwired into the electrical system a 337 form is reauired. AVIATION PRODUCTS
2. If a tool is used to mount an item a 337 form is required.

3. If an item is plugged into the cigarette lighter a 337 form is not required.
4. If an item is attached to the airplane with a simple clamp or Velcro a 337 form is
not required.
So here's the deal Doc ... both engines are

totally trashed. It's gonna cost you
$262,000.99 per side to replace 'em. That's
a subtotal of $524,001.98 and then of course
my standard 18°/o gratuity brings the grand
total to $618,322.33 plus tax. And if you
want me to start on that right away there's a
1Oo/o up-charge for rush service.

TBO Time Between Overhauls: [91 .409(e), 135.411 , 135.421 , 135.425, Ac 21-40, FAA-H-8083-321
1. For Part 91 operations !ime §.etween Qverhauls is a
RECOMMENDED time (for reciprocating engines) that can be
exceeded as long as a mechanic with "!nspection Authorization"
(an ''IA'') has inspected the engine during its normal annual or in
some cases 100-hour inspection and approves it to be returned
to service. However, it is not legal to fly even a low-time engine if it
does not pass this inspection. NOTE: Insurance requirements sometimes
have a large bearing on whether or not the airplane may be operated with
an engine beyond "normal" TBO.
2. TBO recommendations also have a calendar limit in addition to the flight hour's
limit. After a certain number of months the engine is recommended for overhaul no
matter how many flight hours have been flown. Usually determined by dividing the
TBO flight time by 40 hours a month. So a 1,800-hour TBO will be 1.800 flight hours OR three years
and nine months, whatever comes first.
3. For Part 135 operations Engines must be maintained under an FAA approved plan that normally calls for
overhaul at the manufacturers recommended TBO (135.421) the FAA may also allow an extension
based on that specific operator's experience with the engine type and the engine shows little wear during
inspection at recommended TBO in some circumstances the FAA may approve an ''on condition''
overhaul, meaning the engine must be overhauled when it shows signs of wear.
4. For Turbine Engines TBO (or replacement of life-limited engine components) is a REQUIREMENT, not a
recommendation, whether it is operated under Part 91, 135 or 121. Certain highly stressed components
have ''hard time'' life-limits and MUST be replaced or overhauled when that limit is reached. "Hard times"
can be expressed in terms of flight hours or cycles. The manufacturer establishes the definition of a ''cycle''
during the type-certification process. Typically a cycle includes an engine start, acceleration to some high
power setting (usually takeoff power), and then a shutdown. Under this definition, multiple takeoffs and
landings could be made, and only one cycle would occur. Engine cycles (or hours) are counted for engine
life-limited parts, landings are usually only counted for airframe life-limits. It all depends on the
manufacturer's definition of "cycle."
5. ''Life-limited'' components have life-limits determined by the manufacturer and approved by the FAA. These
life-limits cannot be exceeded (except when an alteration is made by the manufacturer and the FAA gives its
approval).
6. Inspection and overhaul intervals are defined in the maintenance program selected by the operator of
the aircraft. It can be the manufacturer's program, or a program developed by the operator and approved by
the FAA (e.g. Approved Aircraft !nspection frogram). Life-limited item intervals will always be as per the
limits defined in the manufacturer's type certificate as approved by the FAA. However, engine total overhaul
times may be extended with enough in-service reliability data collected by the operator (or by another
operator). Typically, a small operator will have to rely on the holder of an STC (.§.upplemental Iype
,g,ertificate) for TBO modification. The operator pays the holder of the STC for the use of the data and must
comply with specific trend monitoring and data analysis and of course the FAA must grant approval. A
well-known example is the "MORE" program for Pratt & Whitney engines.
7. The FAA may also approve a TBO extension if there is a scheduling problem with the maintenance facility
that is to perform the overhaul. Again, data from trend monitoring will be required and the manufacturer may
have to concur before approval can be granted.
8. For Part 135 or 121 operations, the FAA approves an overhaul and maintenance plan for each operator.
Practically all airlines have some kind of approval to maintain their engines ''on condition," but for certain
components, "hard time" life limits are strictly enforced.
STC - Supplemental Type Certificate: (21 .19, 21 .93, 21 .113, Ac 21-40, FAA Form 8110-12)
1. The Supplemental Type Certificate is issued for major design changes to type certificated products
when the change is not so extensive as to require a new Type Certificate. An example would be
installation of a powerplant different from what was included in the original type certificate.
2. An FAA certificate attesting to the fact that modifications to the respective aircraft, engines, or other
components meet airworthiness requirements of the FAR.
TSO - Technical Standard Order: (21 .601thru21 .621 , Ac 20-110L)

1. An approval by the FAA for the manufacture of a component for installation on a certificated aircraft.
2. A Iechnical §.tandard Qrder is issued by the Administrator and is a minimum performance standard for
specified materials, parts, processes, and appliances used on civil aircraft.

PREVENTIVE MAINTENANCE: [43xA.c - aka-AppendixA to Part43(c)J
(c) Preventive maintenance is limited to the following work, provided it does not involve complex assembly operations:
(1) Removal , installation, and repair of landing gear tires.
(2) Replacing elastic shock absorber cords on landing gear.
(3) Servicing landing gear shock struts by adding oil , air, or both.
(4) Servicing landing gear wheel bearings, such as cleaning and greasing.
(5) Replacing defective safety wiring or cotter keys.
(6) Lubrication not requiring disassembly other than removal of nonstructural items such as cover plates,
cowlings, and fairings .
(7) Making simple fabric patches not requiring rib stitching or the removal of structural parts or control
surfaces. In the case of balloons, the making of small fabric repairs to envelopes (as defined in , and in
accordance with, the balloon manufacturers' instructions) not requiring load tape repair or replacement.
(8) Replenishing hydraulic fluid in the hydraulic reservoir.
(9) Refinishing decorative coating of fuselage , balloon baskets, wings, tail group surfaces (excluding balanced
control surfaces), fairings , cowlings, landing gear, cabin, or cockpit interior when removal or disassembly of
any primary structure or operating system is not required .
(10) Applying preservative or protective material to components where no disassembly of any primary
structure or operating system is involved and where such coating is not prohibited or is not contrary to good
practices.
(11) Repairing upholstery and decorative furnishings of the cabin , cockpit, or balloon basket interior when the
repairing does not require disassembly of any primary structure or operating system or interfere with an
operating system or affect the primary structure of the aircraft.
(12) Making small simple repairs to fairings , nonstructural cover plates, cowlings, and small patches and reinforcements not
changing the contour so as to interfere with proper airflow.
(13) Replacing side windows where that work does not interfere with the structure or any operating system such as controls, electrical
equipment, etc.
( 14) Replacing safety belts.
(15) Replacing seats or seat parts with replacement parts approved for the aircraft, not involving
disassembly of any primary structure or operating system.
(16) Trouble shooting and repairing broken circuits in landing light wiring circuits.
(17) Replacing bulbs, reflectors, and lenses of position and landing lights.
(18) Replacing wheels and skis where no weight and balance computation is involved .
(19) Replacing any cowling not requiring removal of the propeller or disconnection of flight controls.
(20) Replacing or cleaning spark plugs and setting of spark plug gap clearance.
(21) Replacing any hose connection except hydraulic connections.
(22) Replacing prefabricated fuel lines.
(23) Cleaning or replacing fuel and oil strainers or filter elements.
C.
(24) Replacing and servicing batteries.
(25) Cleaning of balloon burner pilot and main nozzles in accordance with the balloon manufacturer's
instructions.
(26) Replacement or adjustment of nonstructural standard fasteners incidental to operations.
(27) The interchange of balloon baskets and burners on envelopes when the basket or burner is
designated as interchangeable in the balloon type certificate data and the baskets and burners
are specifically designed for quick removal and installation .
(28) The installation of antimisfueling devices to reduce the diameter of fuel tank filler openings
provided the specific device has been made a part of the aircraft type certificate data by the aircraft
manufacturer, the aircraft manufacturer has provided FAA approved instructions for installation of the
specific device, and installation does not involve the disassembly of the existing tank filler opening.
(29) Removing, checking, and replacing magnetic chip detectors.
(30) The inspection and maintenance tasks prescribed and specifically identified as preventive maintenance in a primary
category aircraft type certificate or supplemental type certificate holder's approved special inspection and preventive maintenance
program when accomplished on a primary category aircraft provided:
(i) They are performed by the holder of at least a private pilot certificate issued under part 61 who is the registered owner
(including co-owners) of the affected aircraft and who holds a certificate of competency for the affected aircraft
(1) issued by a school approved under§ 147.21 (e) of this chapter;
(2) issued by the holder of the production certificate for that primary category aircraft that has a special training program
approved under§ 21 .24 of this subchapter; or
(3) issued by another entity that has a course approved by the Administrator; and
(ii) The inspections and maintenance tasks are performed in accordance with instructions contained by the special
inspection and preventive maintenance program approved as part of the aircraft's type design or supplemental type design .
(31) Removing and replacing self-contained , front instrument panel-mounted navigation and communication devices that
employ tray-mounted connectors that connect the unit when the unit is installed into the instrument panel, (excluding automatic
flight control systems, transponders, and microwave frequency distance measuring equipment (DME)). The approved unit must be
designed to be readily and repeatedly removed and replaced, and pertinent instructions must be provided . Prior to the unit's
intended use, and operational check must be performed in accordance with the applicable sections of part 91 of this chapter.
•·-··················································~······················~· •
: §43.3(k) states that "Updates of databases in installed avionics meeting the
• A non-mechanic owner/operator, who performs
: conditions of this paragraph are not considered maintenance and may be
preventive maintenance on his aircraft, must log the
: performed by pilots." They must be uploadable from the flight deck without
work in the aircraft maintenance records and include the
: use of tools or special equipment. The holder of operating certificates (e.g.,
• date, his signature and pilot certificate number. (43.9)
: 121 , 135) must make available written procedures consistent with
: manufacturer's instructions to the pilot that describe how to perform the
•
~ database update; and determine the status of the data upload .
•"'llllllr#l._...."""#N"""""811'NrfJ~ll#ift#l.#1'1#ijl#i~'#Nt#i~~'#fNli'illlll#itl#fl~l#llM/>,#flwi.tl

OIL: (AC 65-12 , AC 65-15)
1. MINERAL OIL Also known as non-detergent oil because it contains no additives. Normally used
in a new or over-hauled engine for break-in.
2. ASHLESS DISPERSANT Mineral oil with additives that give it high anti-
wear properties and is available in multi-viscosity formulas. Ashless dispersant
oil picks up contamination and carbon (ash) particles and keeps them
suspended so buildups of sludge do not form.
3. VISCOSITY: ~/yo//ne
a. Viscosity is internal resistance to flow. A liquid such as gasoline flows
easily (has a low viscosity) while a liquid such as tar flows slowly (has a high
viscosity). Viscosity increases as temperature decreases. Quaker
b. Generally, oils of lower viscosity are used in colder weather and oils of higher State®
viscosity are used in warmer weather.
c. Commercial aviation oils are classified numerically, such as 80, 100, 120, etc. ,
which are an approximation of their viscosity as measured by a testing instrument called the
Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter. In this instrument a tube holds a specific quantity of the oil to be
tested. The oil is brought to an exact temperature by a liquid bath surrounding the tube. The time in
seconds required for exactly 60 cubic centimeters (about 2 ounces) of oil to flow through the
accurately calibrated orifice is recorded as a measure of the oil's viscosity.
d. 120 (Commercial Aviation no.) = The approximate number of seconds it takes for exactly 60cc of
oil (heated to 210°F) to flow through the outlet orifice of the Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter.
e. The letter ''W'' occasionally is included in the SAE number giving a designation such as SAE 20W.
This letter ''W'' indicates that the oil, in addition to meeting the viscosity requirements at the
testing temperature specifications, is a satisfactory oil for winter use in cold climates.
f. Although each grade of oil is rated by an SAE number (.§.ociety of Automotive gngineers),
depending on its specific use, it may be rated with a commercial aviation grade number or an
Army and Navy specification number. The correlation between these grade numbering systems
is shown below. / HEA TING UNIT THERMOMETER
iiiiiiiiiiiii~)
LIQUID BATH
Saybolt Universal Viscosimeter OIL
Grading System Correlation

Automotive Army & Navy
Commercial
Equivalent Specification
Aviation No.
(SAE) (AN)
65 30 1065
80 40 1080
100 50 1100
120 60 1120
140 70
••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••
•
: Oil analysis is a helpful tool that will spot engine wear trends if done on a
•
: regularly basis. Analysis at every oil change is ideal because it compares
J
! the current report to previous reports and a set of standards. Don't forget to CONTA INER CORK
: check the oil filter or screen for larger chunks. This is even more important
60 C.C ·~-
~ if your aircraft doesn't happen to be equipped with a spare engine. ;oom111 RESERVOIR
•
Piston Engine SMOKE:

1. BLUE Smoke Oil burn in the cylinders most likely due to worn or broken piston rings.
2. BLACK Smoke Residual carbon granules exhausting due to an excessively rich mixture causing
some of the fuel to not be burnt, turning it into carbon granules.
3. WHITE Smoke High water content in the combustion chamber exhausted as "steam" smoke.
BACKFIRING of a reciprocating engine is caused when the fuel-air mixture in the induction system is
ignited by gases that are still burning in a cylinder when its intake valve opens. This is usually an
indication of a mixture that is too lean, which can be caused by any number of reasons.

CLEARWAY: (1 .1, AIM 4-3-6)
1. For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after August 29, 1959, an area beyond the
runway, not less than 500 feet wide, centrally located about the extended centerline of the runway,
and under the control of the airport authorities. The clearway is expressed in terms of a clearway
plane, extending from the end of the runway with an upward slope not exceeding 1.25o/o, above which
no object nor any terrain protrudes. However, threshold lights may protrude above the plane if their
height above the end of the runway is 26 inches or less and if they are located to each side of the
runway.
2. For turbine engine powered airplanes certificated after September 30, 1958, but before August 30,
1959, an area beyond the takeoff runway extending no less than 300 feet on either side of the
extended centerline of the runway, at an elevation no higher than the elevation of the end of the
runway, clear of all fixed obstacles, and under the ········•··••······•··•
: Clearway:
control of the airport authorities. lr::>::-~
-:::-~f~l~~-----~Stopway ;
•
••............ l ~·······'••
STOPWAY: (1.1, AIM 4-3-6) LOA
Means an area beyond the takeoff runway, no less wide TORA--------
than the runway and centered upon the extended ASOA-------
centerli ne of the runway, able to support the airplane TODA- - - - - -
during an aborted takeoff, without causing structural damage to the airplane, and designated by the
airport authorities for use in decelerating the airplane during an aborted takeoff.
FLIGHT VISIBILITY: [Ll., 91.155, 91.157, 91 .175, 91 .303, 135.205, AIM 4-4-6, 5-4-5, 5-4-20, 5-4-24, 5-5-3]
1. The average forward horizontal distance, from the cockpit in flight, at
which prominent unlighted objects may be seen and identified by day
and prominent lighted objects may be seen and identified by night.
2. For the purposes of Special VFR (only) during operations from a
SATELLITE AIRPORT that does not have weather reporting If
ground visibility is not reported, 1 SM flight visibility may be
used. For the purposes of Special VFR (only), flight visibility
includes the visibility from the cockpit of an aircraft in takeoff
position, operating under Part 91, at a satellite airport that does
not have weather reporting capabilities.
VISIBILITY and the Earth's HORIZON:

1. At sea level on a clear day you can see about 3 SM before the horizon curves away.
2. At 5,000 feet AGL on a clear day you can see about 95 miles.
RUNWAY RADAR REFLECTORS:

Positioned at the approach ends of specific (mostly military) runways. Reflectors are used for
runway alignment utilizing the aircraft's targeting or ground mapping radar. The reflectors help
highlight the runway edges as displayed on the radar's scope. The symbol resembles a triangle
balanced on top of another triangle. One of the few examples found on civilian approach charts is at
Washington Dulles (IAD) runway 30.
CAMP - Continuous Airworthiness Maintenance Program:

(43.9, 43.11, 91.401, 91.409, 91.1411, 121 .374, 121 .379, 145.205)
A method of tracking maintenance that allows for continuous analysis, inspection and AVIATION PRODUCTS
surveillance of all aircraft repairs and preventative maintenance. The continuous

airworthiness maintenance program must be sufficiently comprehensive in scope and
detail to fulfill its responsibility to maintain the aircraft in an airworthy condition in
accordance with applicable Federal Aviation Regulations and standards prescribed and
approved by the Administrator. The program must be included in the certificate holder's
manual.

- Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia)
NOTICE of PROPOSED RULE MAKING - NPRM: (CFR 14Part11 .5)

1. There are three main ways a new regulation comes about or an existing one changes.
a. The FAA determines there is a need for a rule change, often
because of an accident or a series of accidents/incidents.
b. A company, association or even an individual private citizen
petitions the FAA for a rule change.
c. The Aviation Rulemaking Advisory Council (ARAC) suggests a ,,c \) 't
1 0
change. poc\:• " ·
o~»>l>l \Oil"'
2. After considerable deliberation, the FAA publishes a "Notice of Proposed ro:'='"·"' "1',10te-"¢'v.tTvro\"''
Rule Making" (NPRM) in the Federal Register, available on the web at t0'1~1'"ll&
www.gpoaccess.gov/fr/index.html or in book form by subscription. The Federal Register
contains all proposed rule changes for the FAA and the entire Federal Government.
3. A Notice of Proposed Rule Making is a ''public notice'' of proposed new rules and is an invitation for
individuals or associations (such as ALPA, AOPA or EAA) to enter comments on how the rule would
impact aviation.
4. Customarily, the NPRM allows the public to review the proposal for 30, 60 or 90 days and send written
comments to the FAA.
5. At the end of the time period, the FAA analyzes the remarks it has received. They must address every
subject of concern especially if a safety issue is brought to light or there is a significant difference in the
projected cost to the aviation community than what the FAA has estimated. The Feds don't really care
how many people like or dislike the new rule.
6. If the agency can address all the comments in a reasonable fashion a ''final rule'' is published.
7. If the FAA has to make a major change to the proposal because of problems uncovered during the
feedback process, it will have to be published again as a new proposal.
SHADOWS can be a good way of gauging distance from other aircraft while taxiing or parking on a tight
ramp. If the shadows don't touch, then neither can the wingtips [theoretically!]. Another good policy is
to look (briefly) for your shadow while in the traffic pattern at an uncontrolled field. If there's another
shadow that's close to yours, it might be time to take a little evasive action!
MOUNTAINS on sectional charts are shaded to appear as though the sun is positioned in the northwest.
NOAA has stated that their studies have shown most people's visual perception has been conditioned to
this view. You will also notice that all shaded text boxes in this book appear as though the light is coming
from the northwest. This is quite a coincidence don't ya think?
EMPIRE STATE BUILDING was originally designed with a tower on top intended for use as a
mooring mast for transatlantic airships (what a great idea). After several unsuccessful docking attempts, in
the gusty winds above 1,300 feet, the plan was scrapped (fortunately, before they scraped an airship).

CHARTS: (91 .103, 91.so3)

1. The FAA believes all pilots should use current charts even if the regulations
do not expressly require them for certain operations.
2. § 91.103 does say, " .. .each pilot in command shall, before beginning a flight,
become familiar with all available information concerning that flight ... "
However, it does not say you must carry a chart;
you could just memorize everything before you
leave.
3. Old charts are not forbidden in an aircraft. An
old chart is better than no chart at all .
4. However, if the pilot has an accident or makes an
error such as busting Class B airspace, the question
of did the pilot have all available information will be
asked, which may become an element of any
subsequent enforcement proceedings.
5. § 91.503 REQUIRES pilots of all LARGE and TURBINE-
powered multi-engine aircraft to carry current charts.
6. All Part 121 and Part 135 operations REQUIRE current
charts .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• The iPad has become the most popular way to carry those
-......... .
•• CAUTION: Not to be used
: charts. A Commercial operator's OpSpecs must include the • for navigation.
: authority to use an ~Jectronic f light §.ag. (91.21, AC 91-21 .1B,
ii. AC 91-78, AC 120-768, 8900.1-"Electronic Flight Bag ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
Operational Authorization ," OpSpec A004 & A061) •: iPad - Replacement for FMS?
: The FAA is now allowing an appropriately programed It
- - - - - - - - - - . iPad to send routing, routing changes, and other data
: to a suitably capable JFR certified GPS. The pilot must
, ": : manually accept the transfer of data .
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Sectional Charts Runways Longer than 8,069 feet:

1. The scale of a Sectional chart is 1 :500,000 this means one inch 500,000 inches. =
2. The circles used to depict airports (with runways 8,069 feet or less) are of a fixed size, and the
runways are illustrated in proper scale.
3. The longest runway that can fit to scale in the fixed circle is 8,069 feet. Therefore if the longest
runway is more than 8,069 feet, a more appropriate graphical representation is used. This method is
also used for multiple runways, if the maximum distance between the two furthest points between
the opposite ends of two runways exceeds 8069 feet even if the longest runway is less than 8069 feet.
Hard surface runways 1,500 feet to 8,069 feet long.
Hard surface runways greater than 8,069 feet long or in the case of multiple runways;
the maximum distance between the two furthest points between the opposite ends of
two runways exceeds 8,069 feet, even if the longest runway is less than 8,069 feet.

NIGHT FOUR Definitions:
TWILIGHT, as published in the Air Almanac,

converted to local time. <>?
2. NIGHT [ICAO] The hours between the END of
EVENING CIVIL TWILIGHT and the
BEGINNING of MORNING CIVIL TWILIGHT
or such other period between sunset and
sunrise as may be specified by the appropriate
authority.
NOTE: Civil twilight ENDS in the evening when the center of the
sun's disk is 6 degrees below the horizon and BEGINS in the morning
when the center of the sun's disk is 6 degrees below the horizon.
3. § 61.57(b) NIGHT TAKEOFF and LANDING experience. (1) Except as provided in paragraph (e) of
this section, no person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers during the period
BEGINNING 1 hour AFTER SUNSET and ENDING 1 hour BEFORE SUNRISE, unless within the
preceding 90 days that person has made at least THREE TAKEOFFS and THREE LANDINGS to a full
stop during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise, and (i) That
person acted as sole manipulator of the flight controls; and (ii) The required takeoffs and landings
were performed in an aircraft of the same category, class, and type (if a type rating is required).
NOTE:§ 61.57(e) This section [three takeoffs and landings at night] does not apply to a pilot in
command who is employed by an air carrier certificated under Part 121, 125, or 135 and is engaged
l!1 a flight operation under Part 91, 121, 125, or 135 for that air carrier if the pilot is in compliance with
§§ 121.437 & 121.439, 125.281 & 125.285, or 135.243 & 135.247 as appropriate. There is also a
similar exemption for Part 91 turbine operations if the pilot has attended a Part 142
school in the previous 12 months. (See page 173 for details.)
4. § 91.209 AIRCRAFT LIGHTS: No person may:
(a) During the period from SUNSET TO SUNRISE (or, in
Alaska, during the period a prominent unlighted object
cannot be seen from a distance of 3 statute miles or
the sun is more than 6 degrees below the horizon) - ,,
(1) Operate an aircraft unless it has lighted
position lights;
(2) Park or move an aircraft in, or in dangerous proximity to, a
night flight operations area of an airport unless the aircraft -
(i) Is clearly illuminated;
(ii) Has lighted position lights; or
(iii) Is in an area that is marked by obstruction lights;
(3) Anchor an aircraft unless the aircraft -
(i) Has lighted anchor lights; or
(ii) Is in an area where anchor lights are not required on vessels; or
(b) Operate an aircraft [day or night] that is equipped with an anticollision light
system, unless it has lighted anticollision lights. However, the
anticollision lights need not be lighted when the pilot-in-command determines that, because
of operating conditions, it would be in the interest of safety to turn the lights off.
•···················································~
: Sunset Times:
•• 1. The Weather Channel
•• 2. Local newspaper
•• 3. wund erground .com
: 4. Weather.com
: Civil Twilight Times:
•• 1. The ''Air Almanac'' published by the U.S. Naval Observatory
(http://aa.usno.navy.mil)

AIRCRAFT LIGHTS: (AIM 4-3-23, FAA-H-8083-21, AC 90-42, AC 90-66A, AC 91-73, AC 120-74A)
1. RED On the LEFT wing. If you see a red light, it means the other aircraft is to your right, which
means it has the right of way.
2. GREEN On the RIGHT wing. If you see a green light, you are to the right of the other aircraft and
you (theoretically) have the right of way. However, don't count on the other guy knowing that!
3. WHITE On the TAIL. The taillight is most often on the rudder but can be rear-facing white lights on
the wingtips.
4. ANTICOLLISION LIGHTS Normally you would turn on the anticollision lights before starting an
engine whether day or night. About the only time you'd want to turn off the anticollision lights would be
while flying in the clouds or while taxiing at night if you ever get the urge to be concerned about the
sensitive eyes of your fellow pilot in the next airplane or when your fellow pilot starts yelling at you!
5. LANDING LIGHT Only required on aircraft for hire. The FAA has a voluntary pilot safety program,
''Operation Lights On,'' to enhance the see-and-avoid concept. Pilots are encouraged to turn on
their landing lights during takeoff; i.e., either after takeoff clearance has been received or when
beginning takeoff roll. Pilots are further encouraged to turn on their landing lights when operating below
10,000 feet, day or night, especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport, or in conditions of
reduced visibility and in areas where flocks of birds may be expected, i.e., coastal areas, lake areas,
around refuse dumps, etc.
RED , RED '
6
WHITE
WHITE
GREEN 'GREEN
••
• •••••••••••••••
Birds reportedly have a tendency to dive
so if a collision seems imminent the best
option is to start an immediate climb.
Ducking is also approved! (AIM 7-4-2)
''Operation Lights On'' (AIM 4-3-23) encourages the use of landing lights when operating
below 10,000 feet, day or night, especially when operating within 10 miles of any airport, or
in conditions of reduced visibility, coastal areas, lake areas, and especially around refuse
dumps. You can see how well the tactic worked for the crew of this British Airways flight!

HYDROPLANING: (AC 91-6A, AC 25-7A, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-25) ----------------~ I'm definitely feelin'
1. Hydroplaning occurs when there is a film of water on the ---

dynamic today!
runway. As the speed of the aircraft and depth of the water

increase, the result is the formation of a wedge of water
beneath the tire. This water-wedge progressively lifts the tire
away from contact with the runway to the point where
•
directional control and braking action is nil:
a. DYNAMIC Occurs when there is standing water on
the runway of at least one-tenth of an inch. This
amount of water acts to lift the tire off the runway
surface and can result in complete loss of braking •
effectiveness.
b. VISCOUS Associated with a thin film of water and
relatively low tire speeds. Anything more than gentle
braking could lock the wheels. This can occur at a
much lower speed than dynamic hydroplaning , but
requires a very smooth surface.
c. REVERTED RUBBER requires a prolonged locked
wheel skid and a wet runway surface. The reverted
rubber acts as a seal between the tire and the runway,
and delays water exit from the tire footprint area. The water heats and is converted to steam.
The steam supports the tire, lifting it off the runway.
2. HYDROPLANE SPEED The minimum speed at which dynamic hydroplaning occurs differs for
takeoff and landing and can be approximated with the following formulas:
a. Takeoff (tires have spun up) 8.6 times (approximate, normally rounded to 9.0) the square
root of the (main wheel) tire pressure (PSI).
b. Landing (because tires have not spun up) 7. 7 times (approximate) the square root of the
(main wheel) tire pressure (PSI).
3. Even though hydroplane speed is predicted using tire pressure alone, hydroplaning and deceleration
performance on wet runways must take into account many variables such as:
a. Varying inflation pressures;
b. Tire tread design and condition;
c. Runway surface texture [Grooved or f.orous friction _g_ourse (PFC) overlay];
d. Depth of water; and
e. Anti-skid system efficiency.
4. Any runway which is not dry is considered to be wet. Standing water, puddles, or continuous rain
are not necessary for a runway to be considered wet. Runway braking friction can change when there
is a light drizzle. In some cases, even dew or frost which changes the color of a runway will result in a
significant change in runway friction. The WET to DRY STOPPING DISTANCE RATIO on a well
maintained, grooved, wet runway is usually around 1.15 to 1. On a runway where the grooves are
not maintained and rubber deposits are heavy, the stopping distance ratio could be as high as
1.9 to 1. On ungrooved runways, the stopping distance ratio is usually about 2 to 1. In the case of a
runway with new pavement or where rubber deposits are present, the ratio could be as high as 4 to 1.
Some newly surfaced asphalt runway surfaces can be extremely slippery when only slightly wet.
Locked Tire
, Thin Layer
Flooded ~ of Moisture
Runway .IJ9 orWater
············~············
: Hydroplane An airplane
: designed to land long on a
•: short and wet runway.

(Chap 10 Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia J
TEST to DETECT CONTAMINATION of JET FUEL: (Ac20-43C)
1. Obtain an unchipped, spotlessly clean, white enamel bucket (approximately ten
quart size).
2. Drain about four to five inches of fuel, from the sump to be tested, into the
bucket.
3. With a clean mixing paddle, stir the fuel into a swirling ''tornado shaped'' cone.
Remove the paddle. As the swirling stops, the solid contaminants will gather
at the center of the bucket bottom.
4. Add several drops of household RED FOOD DYE. The dye will mix with water
and the solids in the bottom of the bucket. It will not mix with fuel. If no water is
present, the dye will settle in the bottom of the bucket. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·-- • • • • --· • • •
: Be sure to perform this test
: before EVERYtakeoff!;o)
SPECIFIC GRAVITY (SG):
The ratio of the weight of a unit volume of a substance to the weight of the same volume of fresh water
under equal conditions of temperature and pressure.
• 1 liter of water weighs 1 kilogram = SG 1.0
• 1 liter of Jet A 1 weighs 0.8 kilograms= SG 0.8
This is why water goes to the bottom of the tank.
CONTROL TOWERS:
Only about 350 of the more than 18,000 airports in the United States have control towers
manned by FAA air traffic controllers.
AIRCRAFT CLASSES (Also see Page 40) For the purposes of Wake Turbulence Separation
Minima, ATC classifies aircraft as Super, Heavy, Large, and Small as follows:
a. SUPER-Airbus A380-800 (A388)(MTOW may be as much as 1,433,000 lbs)(N JO 7110.582)
b. HEAVY Aircraft capable of takeoff weights of 300,000 pounds or more whether or not they are
operating at this weight during a particular phase of flight. NOTE: A B-757 actually weighs less than
255,000 pounds, but is (essentially) considered heavv for wake turbulence separation purposes.
c. LARGE Aircraft of more than 41,000 pounds, maximum certificated takeoff weight, up to but
not including 300,000 pounds.
d. SMALL Aircraft of 41,000 pounds or less maximum certificated takeoff weight.
HEAVY Civilian and military aircraft will add the word ''HEAVY'' to their call-sign when the aircraft is
capable of a takeoff weight that is greater than 300,000 pounds whether or not they are operating at this
weight during a particular phase of flight. (P/C Glossary "Aircraft Classes")
CROSSWINDS:
1. Max DEMONSTRATED The maximum crosswind component that the manufacturer has tested.
This figure may be exceeded based on technique or pilot ability.
2. Max ALLOWABLE The maximum component allowed to be attempted. A limitation specified by
the manufacturer to limit the operation of the aircraft (can you spell "l-i-a-b-i-1-i-t-y"?). Some airline
Operations Specifications may also specifically limit the allowable crosswind component for certain
aircraft or for operations when the runway is contaminated with snow, ice or water.
CROSSWINDS :
········--·····················--·················--···············
Remember Aileron (first letter of the alphabet) into the wind .. .
Wind Crosswind : then as much opposite rudder as necessary to align with the centerline.
ANGLE COMPONENT
goo 1OOo/o (of wind)
60° 90o/o
45° 70o/o
30° 50o/o

.-········································~··················
• Flight Training Device (FTD)- Relatively accurate aerodynamic and system controls. Often full-size
: cockpit mockups with visual presentations. Some have impressive motion capability.
• Personal Computer-Based Aviation Training Device (PCATD)-A personal computer-based
Z simulation package. An approved PCATD may be used to accomplish up to 10 hours of instrument
• training for an instrument rating .
: Basic Aviation Training Device (BATD)-Similar to PCATDs but better hardware and software.
: Actual aircraft system controls. Approved for logging up to 2.5 hours toward a private pilot
• certificate (5 hours at a Part 142 school) and 10 hours toward instrument rating including
: approaches, holds and tracking for instrument currency.
• Advanced Aviation Training Device (AATD)- Replicates a certain category and class. An applicant
: for an instrument rating under Part 61 may credit up to 10 hours in an ATD toward the experience
requirements for the practical test. No graduate of a Part 141 training program may credit more
than 10°/o of the required coursework in ATDs (unless approved in accordance with 141.55(d) or (e)) .
•• Also possible - 50 hours towards a commercial; and 25 hours towards an ATP .
• (61.109, 61 .129, 61 .159, AC 61-136) :••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
• In Dec 2014 the FAA issued a "direct final rule" allowing up to
• 20 hours in an AATD towards an instrument rating. In Jan 2015 they
: rescinded that rule! At press time there was speculation that they would
SIMULATORS - FOUR LEVELS: : issue an NPRM to again allow 20 hours in an AATD. Schizophrenia?
.'#t#Wfll#tlli#I~
AC 120-408, AC 61-136A) -
Level A-Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD):

1. The most basic. A full-scale replica of the cockpit including -
•
the seats, instruments, controls and circuit breakers. ·~ •
2. Programmed to have the flight characteristics and the
corresponding visual display of the real airplane including
representative crosswinds.
3. Must be able to simulate the effect of aerodynamic changes for various
combinations of drag and thrust.
4. Night visual system with ±45° horizontal and 30° vertical field of vision.
5. Cannot replicate takeoffs or landings, therefore approved only for in-
flight checks and instrument refresher training.
Level 8-Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD):

1. Can simulate takeoffs, landings and taxi. Can also reproduce the feel
(airframe buffet) of configuration changes such as flaps, gear and airbrake
extensions; and a very convincing stall buffet.
2. Most of these sims still have night visuals because those few points of light are
much easier (and far cheaper) to reproduce than a daylight scene.
3. Level B is approved for instrument competency and recurrent landing experience requirements.
Level C-Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD):

1. A much more sophisticated motion system with six-degrees-of-freedom convincingly fools you into thinking you're in
the real airplane most of the time (except maybe when in a steep turn).
2. ±75° horizontal and 30° vertical field of vision reproduces night and dusk visual conditions. The dusk scene will
enable identification of a visible horizon and typical terrain characteristics such as fields, roads, and bodies of water.
3. Can be configured for ,bine Qriented flight !raining (LOFT), simulating a flight from one airport to another airport
including a straight-in or circle-to-land approach.
4. Windshear, crosswinds and runway contamination such as rain, snow and ice; along with tire and brake failures
(including anti-skid) can be introduced.
5. Realistic audio reproduces the sounds of precipitation, windshield wipers, and other significant airplane noises; and
the sound of a crash when the simulator is landed in excess of the landing gear limitation.
6. Level C is certified for Part 91/121/135 type ratings (with certain limitations) and Part 121/135 recurrent, transition,
and differences training. :•Wh~·n· t~·ki~;; ·f~~ht• t~~t T;;
~j~~i;t~;,· ~;ith;rth~·;iiot t;ki~~ ·th~~
: test nor the examiner would need any medical certificate at all.
Level D-Flight Simulation Training Device (FSTD): •
1. Full daytime VFR visuals are possible, however you won't need your Ray-Bans. You can watch the mountains go
by, other airplanes trying to run into you, thunderstorms develop, etc. Virtually no difference can be perceived
between fantasy and reality (according to the sales brochures anyway).
2. It's actually possible to do a circling approach in daylight conditions that actually looks and feels like a circling
approach to a real airport, in a real airplane (flying in a fantasy world of course).
3. Level D is approved for all phases of training with essentially no exceptions. It's possible to get a type rating in a
Level D (or C) simulator, and immediately walk out to the real airplane and legally fly it (if the owner is insane
enough to let you do it). Not extremely safe or very smart, but perfectly legal.
4. If you have no prior jet type ratings and little prior jet or turbine time, after you pass your type ride in a simulator
you will need to log 25 hours of .§.upplemental Qperating 5,xperience in the aircraft with someone who is type rated
without restriction before you can act as pilot in command. (61 .64)

GOLD SEAL FLIGHT INSTRUCTOR CERTIFICATES: (AC61-65)
The specific requirements for the gold seal flight instructor certificate are contained in AC 61-65, 8900.1 Para 5-538 thru
5-567 and 8900.2. Flight instructor certificates bearing distinctive gold seals are issued to flight instructors who have
FUGHT
maintained a high level of flight training activity and who meet special criteria . Once issued , a gold seal flight instructor INSTRUCTOR
ON DUTY
certificate will be reissued each time the instructor's certificate is renewed. Applicants for gold seal flight instructor
certificates must meet the following requirements:
a. The flight instructor must hold a commercial pilot certificate with an instrument rating (glider flight instructors need
not hold an instrument rating) or an ATP certificate; -
b. The flight instructor must hold a ground instructor certificate with an advanced or instrument ground instructor rating; and
c. The flight instructor must have accomplished the following within the previous 24 months:
(1) Trained and recommended at least 10 applicants for a practical test, and at least 80°/o of the applicants passed their tests
on the first attempt;
(2) Conducted at least 20 practical tests as a designated pilot examiner, or graduation tests as chief instructor of a 14
CFR part 141 approved pilot school course; or
(3) A combination of the above requirements. (Two practical tests conducted equal the credit given for one applicant trained
and recommended for a practical test.) • ••••••••••••••••• ••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~= FAA statute defines an ''AIRCRAFT'' as ''any contrivance
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
: Highpoints of the Small UAS (Unmanned Aircraft Systems) Notice of Proposed
•
: Rulemaking (NPRM) issued 2·15·15-Part 107-For Commercial Operations:
: • Unmanned aircraft must weigh less than 55 lbs.
: • Visual line-of-sight only (a "Visual Observer" may assist) .
•• • May not operate over any persons not directly involved in the operation .
•• • Maximum airspeed 100 mph.
: • Maximum altitude 500 ft .
•• • Minimum visibility 3 SM .
•• • Operations in Class B. C, D, and g (airport) airspace allowed with ATC permission .
•• • Operations in Class G allowed without ATC permission .
•
: Small UAS ''Operators'' would be required to:
: • Be at least 17 years old.
: • Pass an initial aeronautical knowledge test and recurrent test every 24 months.
: • Be vetted by the TSA.
: • Obtain an "Unmanned Aircraft Operator Certificate" with a "small UAS rating."
: Aircraft Requirements:
•: • Airworthiness certificate not reguired.
: • Aircraft registration is reguired.
: • Aircraft markings required to display in the largest practical manner.
: Model Aircraft:
• • These rules would not apply to model aircraft used for hobby or recreational purposes.
• Must not endanger the safety of the NAS. (AC 91-57)
••• • •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
•• Model Aircraft aka Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS)
:•
• and Your Pilot Certificate
• (FAA Order 2150.38 Compliance & Enforcement Bulletin 2014-2)
•
:• • The FAA claims ownership of a// airspace from the ground up and fill "Aircraft" that fly within it. Their
• definition of "Aircraft" includes virtually anything that flies in "their" airspace .
=•• ·
"!f the operation of a Model Aircraft endangers the safety of the National Airspace, the FAA may cite
violations of applicable operational regulations in any enforcement action determined to be appropriate."
=
•
••
· "A certificate holder [pilot/ should appreciate the potential for endangerment that operating a UAS
contrary to the FAA's safety regulations may cause [better than a non-pilot]. Accordingly, a violator's
• status as a certificate holder is an aggravating factor that may warrant a civil penalty above the
• moderate range for [even] a single, first-time, inadvertent violation."
•
!f the Model Aircraft endangers the safety of the National Airspace, the FAA may site violations of
• 91.13, 91 .15, 91 .113, 91 .126-135, 91 .137-145, and/or Part 73 .
•
:.
••
In other words ... If you're a pilot you stand a much better chance of receiving a violation if you do
something which ... in the opinion of an FAA inspector ... is a " potential risk to safety."
:. In other words ... If you're a pilot ... you could have your certificate suspended or revoked if some anal
•
•
•
FAA Inspector doesn't like when , where or how you fly your toy airplane. Holy crap!

(chap 10 - Miscellaneous, Definitions, Aerodynamics & Trivia)
\
\
It says here all we need to do is deliver

a suitcase to America and we get
72 virgins and a new car!
Sounds like a hell of a deal don't it?
Ml!J~ c;.r r rit~t rt.. n1!S1 1""'

Thlo~int abOUt SUICIOE 80
By 0 . bin Loden
and Mullah
Mohammad Omar
bltrocNtllon by
.......
"'-f lslom
l/onM'fly -
•• Cot St•....,sl

Chapter 11
Reference, Rules of Thumb,

•
onvers1ons
Getting close to... More FREE Extra Stuff!
the end of the story.
ICAO Airport Identifier Country Prefix ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 378
Aircraft Country Registration Number Codes .................. ................................ ............ 378
Airport Identifier Logic .................................................................................................. 379
ZULU Time •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 380
Pitot-Static Malfunctions; Effects of Forward I Aft CG; Fuel & Fluid Colors .... ............ 381
Draining Fuel Sumps; Crosswinds ............................................................................... 381
Cutouts (placards) ........................................................................................................ 382
°C to °F (placard) •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
Reciprocals (placard) ................................................................................................... 382
TAKEOFF Mnemonic ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 382
Flight Plan (wallet-sized); Measurements (1 /64-1 /32-3/64-1 /16, etc.) ............. ... .... ..... 382
Spin Recovery; SHUTDOWN Mnemonic ..................................................................... 382
Quickie Conversions .................................................................................................... 383
Liquid Measures (ounce, cup, pint, quart, etc.) ... ................... ...................................... 383
Radio Call .. ................................................... ............. ............................................. ...... 383
Acre .... ... .... ...... ... .... ...................................... ... .... ...... ... .... ...................................... ...... 383
Reciprocals 22 Rule .................................................................................................. 383
Fllt!I W~ight ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 384
Conversions, Comparisons, Formulas & Weights •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 385
Formulas & Rules of Thumb •••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 386·389
Conversion Tables ................................................................................................390-394
I+-------- 6 inches ----------+I
: AE 77665544 B
•
ES
..,......_ 1 J ..
Knuckle t o nail = inch MAXIMUM MAXIMUM
MPH km/h

A Nauru, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands
B Greenland, Iceland
C Canada, Haiti
D Algeria, Benin, Burkina, Cote d'Ivoire, Ghana, Niger, Nigeria, Togo

E Belarus, Belgium, Denmark, Finland, Germany, Lithuania, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Norway, Poland,
Sweden, United Kingdom
F Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Congo, Lesotho,
Madagascar, Mozambique, Namibia, Seychelles, South Africa, Swaziland, Zaire, Zambia, Zimbabwe
G Cape Verde, Gambia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Mali, Morocco, Sierra Leone, Spain, Western Sahara
H Burundi, Djibouti, Egypt, Ethiopia, Jamahiriya, Kenya, Rwanda, Somalia, Susan, Tanzania, Uganda
K United States except Alaska and Hawaii which use a ''f'' (for Pacific)
L Albania, Austria, Bulgaria, Bosnia/Herzegovina, Cyprus, Croatia, Czech Republic, France, Gibraltar,
Greece, Hungary, Israel, Italy, Jordan, Macedonia, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain,
Switzerland, Yugoslavia
M Bahamas, Belize, Cayman Islands, Costa Rica, Cuba, Dominican Republic, El Salvador, Guatemala,
Haiti, Honduras, Jamaica, Mexico, Nicaragua, Panama
N Cook Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Kiribati, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Pago Pago, Samoa, Tahiti,
Tonga, Tuvalu, Vanuatu
0 Afghanistan, Arab Republic, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syrian,
United Arab Emirates, Yemen Jordan
p Alaska, Hawaii, New Zealand, Guam, Mariana Island, Micronesia, Saipan, Micronesia, Johnston Island,
Marshall Islands, Wake Island
R Japan, Philippines, Taiwan, Korea
s Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Falkland Islands, French Guinea, Guyana,
Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay, Venezuela
T Antigua, Aruba, Barbados, Barbuda, Dominica, Grenadines, Netherlands Antilles, Puerto Rico, Saint
Lucia, Saint Vincent, Tobago, Trinidad, Virgin Islands
u Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus Latvia, Estonia, Georgia, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Moldova, Russian
Federation, Tajikistan, Ukraine, Uzbekistan
v Bangladesh, Cambodia, Hong Kong, India, Laos, Macao, Maldives, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, Vietnam
w Brunei, Darussalam, East Timar, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore
y Australia, Christmas Island
z China
AIRCRAFT COUNTRY REGISTRATION NUMBER CODES

Aircraft nationality/registration marks can be found in ''FAA Order 7340.1V, Chapter 4,
Contractions'' or ''ICAO Annex 7. Aircraft Nationality and Registration Marks."
A few selected countries N = United States; C or CF = Canada; XA or XB or XC = Mexico;
CU= Cuba; D =Germany; G = United Kingdom; HZ= Saudi Arabia; I= Italy; JA =Japan;
YI= Iraq; 4X =Israel; B =China; EP =Iran; JV= Jordan; RA= Russian Federation;
CCCP = Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; SE= Sweden; SU = Egypt; VT= India.
=> Also see: http://www.icao.int/safety/airnavigation/Pages/nationality.aspx

(Chap 11 Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions)
AIRPORT IDENTIFIER LOGIC: (FAA0rder7350.7)
1. Originally, airports in the 1930's came to be known by the two-letter identifier the FCC had assigned to
their local weather station.
2. When three-letter identifiers became necessary, some airports (like LA) simply added another letter
(LAX). There are approximately 18,000 possible combinations of the three letters and more than
19,000 airports in the United States today.
3. Exceptions Airport identifiers in the United States could not begin with the letters J:S., W, g, li, y_ or~-
.l:S. and W were already secured by the FCC for radio stations. g is used for international
communications. li by the Navy. y_ and~ earmarked for Canada.
There are many exceptions to these rules.
4. For international operations, U.S. airports within the contiguous 48 states have the prefix K added.
However Alaskan and Hawaiian airports get the prefix P (for Pacific) (along with New Zealand, Guam,
Saipan, Wake Island, etc.). Examples: Anchorage (ANC) is PANC and Honolulu (HNL) is PHNL.
5. Three-letter designations already assigned to overseas airports are avoided if possible.
6. Similar identifiers for airports within 200 miles of one another are avoided (with exceptions of course).
ABE Serves the cities of Allentown, Bethlehem and Easton, Penns lvania.
ACY Atlantic CitY, New Jerse .
BDL BraDLe International, Windsor Locks, CT ve similar name onl 60 miles north of BDR.
BDR BriD e oRt, CT I or Sikorsk Memorial ve similar name onl 60 miles south of BDL.
BED BEDford, Massachusetts Laurence G. Hanscom Field.
BET BEThel, Alaska not Las Ve as.
BNA Nashville Intl Ori inall named Ber Field, then Ber Nashville Air art in honor of Col Har Ber .
BRO BROwnsville/South Padre Island International, Texas.
CAR CARibou Munici al, Maine.
CLT CharLoTte, North Carolina Charlotte/Dou las International
CVG CoVinGton, KY Cincinnati Ohio's main air art is actuall located in Covin ton, Kentuck .
DFW Dallas-Fort Worth International, Texas.
DTW Detroit MeTro Wa ne Count , Michi an.
EAR KEARne Munici al, Nebraska.
EGT WEllinGTon Munici al, Kansas.
EYW KEY West FL K, W, Q, N, Y and Z were not to be used; some air arts used their 2n or 3r letters.
FAT Fresno, California Ori inal air art name Fresno Air Terminal.
GAL GALena, Alaska.
GAS GAiii oliS, Ohio Gallia-Mei s Re ional.
GUY GUYmon, Oklahoma
HPN Westchester Count , NY Serves the cities of Harrison, Purchase and North Castle, New York
HSI HaStln s, Nebraska Hastin s Count .
IRS Stur is, Michi an KIRSch Munici al
JFK Formerl NYC's IDLewild Air art chan ed in 1964 to John F. Kenned International
LAX Los An eles, CA LA lus X.
MCO Orlando, Florida Formerl known as McCO Air Force Base.
MIA Miami International Air art, Florida
MCI Kansas Cit Formerl known as Mid Continent International
MSY New Orleans International Formerl known as MoiSant Field lus a Y
NEW Lakefront Air art, NEW Orleans the N refix redated the Nav 's claim and the ot awa with it
ORD O'Hare International, Chica o IL Formerl known as ORcharD Field.
PHF New art News/Williamsbur International, Vir inia Formerl known as Patrick Hen Field
PIE St. Pete-Clearwater, Florida They used to have a restaurant on the field that served good apple pie??)
SEA SEAttle-Tacoma International, Washin ton.
SKY SanduSKY, Ohio
STC ST. Cloud, Minnesota St. Cloud Re ional
SUN Haile , Idaho Friedman Memorial SUN Valle , Idaho
TNT Miami, Florida Dade-Collier TraiNin and Transition
TVS McGhee TYSon, Knoxville, TN T son famil donated the land in memo of a son killed in World War I

(Chap 11 - Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions)
LOCAL LOCAL
12 Midni ht 11 PM 0400 10 PM 9PM
1 AM osoo 11 PM 10 PM
2AM 1 AM 0700 11 PM
3AM 2AM 0700 osoo 1 AM
4AM 3AM osoo 0900 2AM 1 AM
SAM 4AM 0900 1000 3AM 2AM
6AM SAM 1000 1100 4AM 3AM
7AM 6AM 1100 SAM 4AM
SAM 7AM 1300 6AM SAM
9AM SAM 1300 1400 7AM 6AM
10AM 9AM 1400 1SOO SAM 7AM
11 AM 10AM 1SOO 1600 9AM SAM
12 Noon 11 AM 1600 1700 10AM 9AM
1 PM 12 Noon 1700 11 AM 10AM
2 PM 1 pm 1900 12 Noon 11 AM
3 PM 2 PM 1900 2000 1 PM 12 Noon
4PM 3PM 2000 2100 2 PM 1 PM
S PM 4PM 2100 2200 3 PM 2 PM
6 PM SPM 2200 2300 4PM 3PM
7 PM 6PM 2300 S PM 4PM
S PM 7PM 0100 6 PM SPM
9 PM SPM 0100 0200 7 PM 6PM
10 PM 9PM 0200 0300 S PM 7PM
11 PM 10 PM 0300 0400 9 PM SPM
120° 90°
Convert I Summer I Winter PACIFIC STANDARD
TIME MERIDIAN
1050
CENTRAL STANDARD
MOUNTAIN STANDARD
TIME MERIDIAN
750
Eastern to Zulu +4 +5 TIME MERIDIAN EASTERN STANDARD
TIME MERIDIAN
Central to Zulu +5 +6
Mountain to Zulu +6 +7
Pacific to Zulu +7 +8 11:00 AM
Convert I Summer I Winter Tango _____,
Time Romeo
Time
Zulu to Eastern -4 -5
Zulu to Central -5 -6
Zulu to Mountain -6 -7
Zulu to Pacific -7 -8
•• ··········································~~ ~
: ZULU Time
•• 1. Slang for ''Greenwich Mean Time'' (GMT) or ''Coordinated Universal
Time'' (aka !!niversal !ime £oordinated - UTC).
12 ••
•
2. Solar time at the prime meridian (0°) of longitude, which passes through
the Royal Observatory at Greenwich, England .
•• 3. There are actually 25 time zones (the International Date Line time zone is
•• broken down into 2 time zones, one day apart) spaced approximately 15° of
3 ••
• longitude apart (adjusted for political & economic reasons). Each is assigned
a letter of the alphabet (leaving out J) .
•• In the US ... Eastern Time is actually ''Romeo''; Central is ''Sierra'';
Mountain is ''Tango''; and Pacific is ''Uniform'' .
• England was determined the reference time zone and given the last letter
- '''?:." - therefore, ''Zulu'' time.
3SO EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

- Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions)
Blocked pitot tube with

Drops to Zero Normal Normal
o en drain hole
Blocked pitot tube and High in climb
Normal Normal
drain hole Low in descent
Blocked static line, Low in climb
Freezes Freezes
normal itot ressure Hi h in descent
Using alternate static
Reads high Reads high Momentarily shows climb
source
Blocked static source
with no alternate static Reads high
.·-·······················································
source. Break the VSI 1For IFR flight FAR 23.1325 Reads high Reversed
1requires either heated static vents
glass (do not break in ~or an alternate static source.
pressurized aircraft ·~~~~~~~~~~
Broken static line in

Reads low Cabin altitude Fails
ressurized aircraft
1. Increased longitudinal stability As angle of attack is increased, the airplane

tends to reduce that angle (higher stick forces).
2. Lower cruise speed Increased drag, greater angle of attack required to
maintain altitude. More elevator down force to drag around.
3. Higher stall speed Stalling angle of attack reached at a higher speed due to
increased wing loading.
4. Greater elevator back pressure required More airflow will be required over
the elevator in order to raise the aircraft's pitch attitude therefore you'll need
more speed for takeoff, a longer takeoff roll, higher approach speeds, and more
elevator back pressure will be needed for the landing flare. It is possible, that
with the power off, full up elevator will not be sufficient to keep the nose pitched
up high enough for a safe landing.
5. Good stall/spin recovery.
1. Decreased longitudinal stability As angle of attack is increased it tends to

result in additional increased angle of attack (very light stick forces). The aircraft
will tend to pitch up toward stall during takeoff, and may require full-down
elevator at slow speeds to counteract the nose-up tendency. May attempt to
pitch-up toward a stall on landing.
2. Higher cruise speed Reduced drag, as a smaller angle of attack is required
to maintain altitude. Less elevator down force to drag around.
3. Lower stall speed Less wing loading.
4. Poor stall/spin recovery.
BLUE RED GREEN PURPLE CLEAR RED

100LL 80 100 115 Jet Fuel 5606 H draulic Fluid
Infrequently used fuel tanks should have their sumps drained before CROSSWINDS
filling. Agitation action of fuel entering the tank may suspend or entrain
liquid water or other contaminants - which can remain suspended for Wind Crosswind
many minutes and may not settle out until after the aircraft is airborne. ANGLE COMPONENT
After fueling - wait at least 15 minutes per foot depth of the tank goo
'
1OOo/o (of wind)
before sumping the tank.
Drain a generous sample of fuel - considerably more than just a trickle - 60° 90°10
into a transparent container from each of the fuel sumps and from the 45° 70°10
main fuel strainer(s) or gascolator(s).
30° 50°10

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••r
•• ••
oc OF Reci~rocals 800·992·7433 :
: 1/64
Measurements
- 1/32 - 3/ 64 -
•
1/16 :
:
360° - 180° IFR (VFR) •
38 100 (Tail#)
- - - ---r----
:• 5/64 - 3/32 - 7/64 - 1/8 :
0 10° -190° (AC Type )_ _ _ .....~__
U_/A/
_G_ : 9/64 - 5/32 - 11 /64 - 3/16 :
35 95 • •
020° - 200° Knots : 13/64 - 7 /32 - 15/64 - 1 /4 :
32 90 •
29 85
0 30°-210°
040° - 220°
-- (Where am I?) -
Qeparture Time
---
(or ASAP)
:
:
17/64
21 /64
-
-
9/32
11 /32
-
-
19/64
23/64
-
-
5/16
3/8
:
•
:
•
27 80 0 50° - 230° -
1thousand
--.,.....----..,--- -.1
:• 25/64 - 13/32 - 27/64 - fl/16 :
D-+ D-+ & Lndg,_ _ • •
24 75 •• 29/64 - 15/32 - 31 /64 - 1 /2 :•
060° - 240°
21 70 0 70° -250° - -hours enroute
Remarks
.
:
:
•
33/64
37 /64
-
-
17/32
19/32
-
-
35/64
39/64
-
-
9/16
.,
5/8
.::
18 65 080° - 260° r-h
i o-u-rs- fu_e_I- - - •
-- :
•
41 /64 - 21 /32 - 43/64 - 11/16 :
•
15 59 b90° -270° Alternate?,
. ---
L : 45/64 - 23/32 - 4 7/64 - 3/4 :
Name SQelled__ _ • •
13 55 100°
.--
- 280° Based in - - - Phone #- -
: 49/64 - 25/32 - 51 /64 - 13/16 :
•
10 50 ~ 10° -290° : 53/64 - 27/32 - 55/64 - 718 :
- - on board : 57 /64 - 29/32 - 59/64 - 15/16 :
7 45 120° - 300°
r--
(color) & _ __ • •
~30° -310° : 61 /64 - 31 /32 - 63/64 - 1 '' :
4 40 •• === :
••·-······················································ • ~····································
2 35 140° - 320° :• FAA Press Release
: "Beginning on October 1, 2015, the FAA will
0 32 ...~50° -330°.... : implement flight plan fi ling for civil aircraft
-4 25 160° - 340° : exclusively under the format used by the
: International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)."
DG
~70° -350°
-7 20 ~
•
(Page 222, 223, AIM 5-1 -4 thru 5-1 -9)
Transponder
-9 15
-12 10
••
• ••
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . •-11 •• Pumps I Props
-15 5 : This TAKEOFF mnemonic will keep you •••
~acuum
-18 0 : alive in virtually any airplane. ••• t
-21 -5 ••••••• •• . ••••••• ····~ -· irrim
-23 -10 • ••
...
-26 -15 Always do the real checklist FIRST, and
-29 -20 then back it up with this mnemonic.
You 'd be amazed how often a checklist item
-32 -25
inadvertently gets omitted , even in a 737 .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• •••••••••••••••••••••
•• SPIN Recovery
• : Keep lookin' around .. . there's
•• • always somethin' you missed .
•• PARE •
: Power - IDLE
: Ailerons NEUTRAL
•• Rudder OPPOSITE direction of spin
• SHUTDOWN
~ Elevator Briskly FORWARD
• Radios
.•........ ·--- --· .............. . Mags
• IMHO An airplane only does what
•• you tell it to do, but it keeps doing Lights
! that until you tell it not to. MASTER

QUICKIE CONVERSIONS
·······························~
••
•.
··-··································~
•
; POUNDS of Jet A into GALLONS
'
: POUNDS of Jet A into LITERS
•• ••
• •
: Drop the zero then add 50°/o : Pounds needed
•
•• Examples: • + 10°/o = Liters
•• 4.000 lbs of Jet A needed ''• 2
•• 400 + 200 = 600 gallons %
• •• Examples:
•• 4,000 lbs of Jet A needed
: 10,000 lbs of Jet A needed •• 2000 + 200 = 2200 liters
\ 1000 + 500 = 1500 gallons •
' ............. ,
: 10,000 lbs of Jet A needed
·, 5000 + 500 = 5500 liters
:
• Celsius to
•• Fahrenheit
-----------------------------------------
• (ballpark)
•
•• °C times 2
•• Add 32
• •. 1 ounce = 2 tablespoons = 6 teaspoons = 28.316 grams = 29.57 ml •
• '------~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~----·
: Example: •. 1 cup = 8 oz= 227 grams = 0.237 liters = 237ml •
~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~------·
: 15°C x 2 = 30
+ 32 = 62°F • 1 pint = 16 oz= 2 cups= 453 grams= 0.473 liters= 473ml •
.•................... ·- • 1 quart = 32 oz= 2 pts = 1.25 fifths= 906 grams= .946 liters= 946ml •
: Zero degrees Fahrenheit 1 gallon = 128 oz= 4 qts = 8 pts = 16 cups= 3624 grams= 3.7853 liters •
: is the temperature at which
1 liter = 1.0567 quarts = 0.26418 U.S. gallons = 1OOOml = 958 grams •
: salt no longer prevents
water from freezing. 1 Fifth = 25.6oz = 757ml = .8qt = 17.067 jiggers (1.5 oz/shot)
--
••••••• -----------------------------------
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••
••
• RECIPROCALS - 22 RULE
: To the 1st digit of the original three-digit number, add or 1 acre 43560 sq ft or
•• subtract 2. Whether you add or subtract depends on the approximately 209 ft x 209 ft
: answer, which must be a 0, 1, 2, or 3.
•• 640 acres 1 sq mile
: To the 2"d digit of the original number, again use 2, but A 6,000 ft long runway that is 100 ft wide
: perform the op~osite funct_ion .. I! you added the 1 st time, will cover approximately 13.8 acres.
: subtract the 2n time. The third d1g1t never changes .
•
•
: Examples:
•a. The reciprocal of 236° is 056°. 2 is subtracted from
: the 1sf digit therefore 2 must be added to the 2nd digit.
: b. The reciprocal of 027° is 207°. Add 2 to the 1 st
: number and subtract 2 from the 2nd .
•• c. The reciprocal of 186° is 366°, or 006°.
•
••••••••••••••••••••
: Radio Call:
• • Who you are?
••
• Where you are?
••
• What do you want?

(Chap 11 - Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions )
I love the smell of jet

fuel in the morning. FUEL WEIGHT
c < (FAA-H-8083-1 Aircraft W & B Handbook)
oc Of Jet A 100LL
Lbs/Gal Lbs/Gal
40 104 6.64 5.56
35 95 6.67 5.62
....
30 86 6.71 5.66
"""" 25 77 6.74 5.70
20 68 6.77 5.75
15 59 6.80 5.80
10 50 6.83 5.84
5 41 6.86 5.88
0 32 6.89 5.93
-5 23 6.93 5.98
-10 14 6.96 6.03
-15 5 6.99 6.07
-20 -4 7.02 6.12
-25 - 13 7.05 6.16
-30 - 22 7.08 6.21
.• •••••••• • •••••••••••••••••
Things that do ~ouno good:
~ -35 -31 7.12 6.26
•• 1. Altitude above; -40 -40 7.15 6.30
• 2. Runway behind ;
•
•• 3. Fuel in the truck; and
4. Airspeed you don't have.
•: ············ ···· ~········································ ························

With ample runway available ... it's a virtual certainty an airplane will fly a little over gross;
however ... without enough gas onboard ... it will most definitely not reach its destination.
7.5 .
WEIGHT
lbs
7.0 ~VIATION KEROSENE
per ..l - .JET A & JE~~A1
:J ...!..
U.S.
GALLONS 1JET B (Jp. 4 )
6.5
AVIATION G
ASOLINE GffA
6.0 DE 100LL
5.5
-40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30 40
TEMPERATURE °C

Chap 11 - Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions
Conversions, Comparisons, Formulas & Weights

Aeronautical Chart Sectional ........................................................................8 SM or 7 NM per inch
WAC and ONC .......................................................... 16 SM or 14 NM per inch
Scales Terminal Area .............................................................4 SM or 3.5 NM per inch
1 NM = 1.15078 SM = 6,076.12 feet = 2025.3733 yards = 1.852 kilometers
MILES I KILOMETERS 1 SM= .86898 NM= 5,280 feet= 1760 yards= 1.6093 kilometers
1 Kilometer= 3,281 feet= 0.62137 SM = 0.53996 NM = 1093.6666 yards
1 SM Per Hour= 88 Feet Per Minute = 1.46 Feet Per Second
SPEED 1 NM Per Hour (1 Knot) = 101.288 Feet Per Minute= 1.69 Feet Per Second
120 knots = 2 NM per min or 5:00 to go 10 miles ••••••••••••••••••••
240 knots = 4 NM per min or 2:30 to go 1O miles : Speed of Sound
••
• @ 15°C = •
480 knots = 8 NM per min or 1: 15 to go 10 miles : 661 .7 knots or :
••••••••••••••••••••••••• •
Speed of Sound : This formula will determine the: • 1116.9 feet per second :
:speed of sound to within 1 knot: - / OAT in Kelvin
39 x v •. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ·•
••......................•
(knots) ••••••••••••••••••••••••••
r - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 1 - -.-. -. -• •- .-. -. -• •- .-. -. -• •- .-. -. -• •- .-. -••- - - - - - - - - ---. °C to °F Ballpark Figure: •
TEMPERATURE oc to OF • Kelvin = ocelsius + 273 : Double the number of oc and :
30's hot, 20's nice, 10 is cold ; (°C X 1.8) + 32 = °F • add 30. •
and O's ice : (oF _ 32) 5/9 = oc :. 2 x 15°C 30 + 30 60°F = = .:
•......................• 0
Rankin = °Fahrenheit + 459. 7
················•••1•••
100LL Av Gas= 6.0 lbs/gal (2.72 kg) (1 liter= 1.6 lbs or .719 kg)
WEIGHT (Av Gas= 6 lbs/gal@ +20°F = 6.3 lbs/gal@ -40°F = 5.56 lbs/gal@ +104°F)
SOW Oil = 7.5 lbs/gal (1.875 lbs/qt = 1.981 lbs/liter)
Excellent and FREE Jet A = 6.75 lbs/gal (3.06 kg) (1 liter= 1.8 lbs or .8 kg)
conversion software can Kerosene= 6.75 lbs/gal
be found at: Prop Alcohol = 6.8 lbs/gal
www.joshmadison.com 5606 Hydraulic Fluid = 7.2 lbs/gal
Water = 8.33 lbs/gal
Methanol = 6.62 lbs/gal
U.S. to METRIC 1 quart ............................................ 0.95 liter= 906 grams = .95L = 946ml
1 U.S. gallon .................................. 3. 7853 liters = 3624 grams
1 U.S. gallon ................................... 0.83268 Imperial gallons
•,
1 inch .............................................. 25.4 millimeters (mm) or 2.54 centimeters
Gallons x 3. 785 = ;' ,
1 foot ............................................... 0. 3048 meters or 30 .48 centimeters
Liters "
-,,
1 yard .............................................. 0. 9144 meters
,. -..,, ~
-,, ....
•~• ,,,_ --,. " r.
,1
~·
..
~
,J.-
"" • • ...,.. ._,,
' ".
•Al
..
••;
~-
'°''
"'
. ._
-t1 -
~.,
....
.,.
'.
,..,
....
}L-
-.
.._Ji
1 Statute Mile ................................ 1.6 kilometers (5280 feet)
1 Nautical Mile ............................... 1.85 kilometers or 6076 feet
1 ounce .......................................... 28.35 Grams
1 pound ........................................... 0.45359 kilogram
1 horsepower .................................. 0. 75 kilowatt
METRIC to U.S. 1 liter .............................................. 0.26418 U.S. gallons (1.0567 qts)
1 Imperial gallon ............................. 1.2 U.S. gallons
1 millimeter ..................................... 0.04 inch
1 centimeter .................................... 0.39 inch
Liters x . 264 = ;~ 1 meter ........................................... 3.2808 feet or 39.37 inches or 1.0936 yds
Gallons 1 kilometer ..................................... 0.62 SM or 0.54 NM or 3281 feet
~ ·~"'~. f' c.._ ~..., ~-~"~ .fF. -~- -.r. --?-'.-.~-2"~-nli~- ..,...~ -~· '. =};" -~,"
.1·
1 gram ............................................ 0.035 ounce
1 kilogram ...................................... 2.2046 pounds or 35.27396 ounces
1 kilowatt ......................................... 1.3 horsepower
METRIC to METRIC 1 centimeter .................................... 10 millimeters
1 meter ........................................... 100 centimeters ( 1, 000 millimeters)
1 kilometer ...................................... 1,000 meters
1 liter ............................................... 1,000 milliliters
1 kiloliter ......................................... 1,000 liters
1 gram ............................................ 1,000 milligrams
1 kilogram ....................................... 1,000 grams
1 metric ton ..................................... 1,000 kilograms

FORMULAS & RULES OF THUMB

JET Altitude Planning
1 Oo/o of the distance + 5 = FL Ex. 200 NM use 20 + 5 =FL 250
for Short Trips
Weight & Balance Weight x Arm = Moment
Weight & Balance Total Moment+ Total Weight= CG (inches)
Weight & Balance CG Distance Aft of LEMAC + MAC = CG in o/o MAC
Weight Shifted _ Distance CG Shifted
Weight & Balance
Total Weight
-
Distance Weight Shifted
TAKEOFF DISTANCE Increases 1 Oo/o for each 1,000 ft Density Altitude above Sea Level.
TAKEOFF DISTANCE 1 Oo/o change in aircraft weight will result in a 20°/o change in takeoff distance
Increases or decreases by 1 Oo/o for every 10°C
TAKEOFF GROUND ROLL
change in temperature from ISA (1 o/o change for each 1°C).
A headwind equal to 10°/o of takeoff speed will reduce ground roll by 20°/o.
TAKEOFF
A tailwind of 1 Oo/o takeoff speed will increase roll by 20°/o.
HIGH HUMIDITY conditions add 10o/o to the computed takeoff distance
TAKEOFF & HUMIDITY
and anticipate a reduced climb rate.
If 70o/o of takeoff speed is not reached by 50o/o of the available runway
TAKEOFF
ABORT the TAKEOFF.
Runway contamination such as mud , deep grass, wet snow or slush can
TAKEOFF
more than double takeoff distance or make takeoff impossible.
TAKEOFF on GRASS DRY grass adds 25o/o to the takeoff distance. WET grass adds 30o/o.
•• ....................•• A SOFT SURFACE adds 25o/o to the above.
1 - - - - - - - - - - - - - -: GENERALLY it's •• ••
•
: preferred to takeoff 0.5o/o up-slope - takeoff roll increased by 2o/o : Consult the .
TAKEOFF : uphill into a headwind 1.0o/o up-slope takeoff roll increased by 4o/o ~Aircraft flight
: than downhill with a
UP-SLOPING RUNWAY •~ tailwind.
1.5o/o up-slope takeoff roll increased by 6o/o :
. Manual
-
(runway gradient) ·~
· ~~~~~ 2.0o/o up-slope takeoff roll increased by 8o/o ·~~~JUNIM
(2.0o/o up-slope= 120 foot rise for a 6,000 foot runway)(120/6000 = 2.0°/o )
ROTATION SPEED (VR) Typically equal to 1.15 times V5 (stall speed clean).
Altitude to gain 8,000 ft = 8 minutes
TIME to CLIMB
Rate of climb = Time to Climb 1,000 fpm
CLIMB GRADIENT in °/o ••.....~!~~-~~~-~-~~~.::.!.~........... 440 ft per NM = 7.2o/o Climb Gradient
: Standard climb gradient is 200 ft per NM. 6076 (ft in a NM)
i------------~. Whennogradient isspecified,you are ~-~-~~------------~
CLIMB GRADIENT: : expected to climb at least 200 ft per NM.
FEET per NM to FEET per 140 kts x 200 ft/NM = 466 ft/min
Groundspeed x feet per NM (climb 60
MINUl"E gradient from DP) then divide by 60
To reduce effects of a
Climb at cruise climb airspeed
HEADWIND during climb
To take advantage of a
Climb at Vv (best rate)
TAILWIND during climb
STANDARD RATE of 180° in 1 minute
3° per second
TURN 360° in 2 minutes
ANGLE of BANK for a
10o/o of the TAS + 5 160 x . 1 = 16 + 5 = 21 °
STANDARD RATE TURN
DIAMETER of a TAS = 150 kts
1o/o of the airspeed
STANDARD RATE TURN Diameter of Turn= 1.5 NM

Chap 11 Reference, Rules of Thumb, Conversions
One inch is equal to 1,000 ft
If your altimeter is set to 30 .11, but 30.11
ALTIMETER actual local altimeter setting is 29.11, -29.96
you will actually be 1,000 ft lower than .15 x 1,000 ft = 150 ft lower
you think you are!
Move Kollsman numbers UP - Indicated Altitude goes UP
ALTIMETER
Move Kollsman numbers DOWN Indicated Altitude goes DOWN
••••••••••••••••••••
••• •••
The difference between 29.92 and the : For every
current altimeter setting changes Field elevation = 800 ft .01 inches,
pressure altitude at the rate of 10 ft Altimeter Setting = 29.75 pressure
altitude
for every .01 inches of change. changes by
PRESSURE ALTITUDE
If you must ADD the difference to 29.92 - 29. 75 = .17" ~• 10 feet •.
equal 29.92, then you must ADD to .17x10(per.01)=170ft ......................·
the field elevation to obtain the 800 ft+ 170 ft=
pressure altitude. 970 ft Pressure Altitude
Set the altimeter to 29.92 and read Much easier method. Plus you get
PRESSURE ALTITUDE the Pressure Altitude from the dial. the added benefit of that exercise
walking out to the airplane.
ISA (°C} ISA = 15°C @ sea level Altitude = 6, 000 ft
Temperature Lapse Rate ISA decreases 2°C per 1,000 ft (-2° x 6) + 15 = 3°C
(Rule of Thumb) increase in altitude.
(International Standard Atmosphere) (-2° x each 1,000 ft MSL) + 15°= ISA ISA@ 6,000 ft = 3°C
ISA (°F} ISA= 59°F@ sea level Altitude = 6, 000 ft
Temperature Lapse Rate ISA decreases 3.5°F per 1,000 ft (-3.5° x 6) + 59 = 38°F
(Rule of Thumb) increase in altitude.
(International Standard Atmosphere) (-3.5 x each 1,000 ft MSL) + 59°= ISA ISA@ 6,000 ft = 38°F
Increases or decreases 120 ft for Pressure Altitude= 6,000 ft
each 1°C difference from ISA. Outside Air Temp = 13°C
DENSITY ALTITUDE (www.wahiduddin.net/calc/calc_da.htm) ISA = 3°C (from rule of thumb)
(Rule of Thumb) (OAT-ISA) x 120 + Pressure Altitude ( 13-3) x 120 + 6000 =
= Density Altitude 7 ,200 ft Density Altitude
RELATIVE HUMIDITY Dew point I Temp = 0/o 9°C I 19°C = 47°/o
Indicated Altitude = 5,000 ft
TRUE ALTITUDE Outside Air Temp = -20°C
Multiply by 4 ft per 1,000 ft for each
(Indicated Altitude
1°C the temperature varies from ISA ISA @ 5,000 ft = 15° - 10° = 5°C
corrected for non· at that altitude. -20° - 5° = -25° colder than ISA
standard temperature) 5(thousand) X 4 ft = 20 ft
(Rule of Thumb) 20 ft x -25 = -500 ft
5,000 - 500 = 4,500ft True Altitude
TRUE AIRSPEED (TAS) Increase Indicated Airspeed by 2o/o 125 kts IAS @ 10,000 feet MSL
based on Indicated for each 1,000 feet above sea level 10 x 2°/o = 20°/o
Airspeed (IAS) (1.6°/o / 1000 might be more accurate but 2% is close enough) 125 kts IAS x 1.20 = 150 kts TAS
Speed of Sound 39 x ~OAT in Kelvin 39 x ~288 = 662 knots

(knots) Kelvin = °Celsius + 273
Speed of Sound @15°C x square root of the
OAT at your altitude (K) divided by standard 238.5 K (-34.5°C @FL250)
temperature (K) 661.7 kts ~ 288.0 K (@15°C)
Speed of Sound
(knots) OAT(K) @your altitude = 602.2 kts @-34.5°C
661.7 kts x (standard temp @25, OOOfeet)
Standard Temp(K)(15°C)
Approximate TRUE Mach= .72

AIRSPEED in KNOTS Multiply the Mach number by 570
from MACH# .72 x 57 0 = 41 0 knots

I gotta a rule o' thumb for ya .. .

An airplane will kill you quick .. .
a woman takes her time.
AYYY!
Stall speed times the square root of the Square root of 3.8 G's= 1.95
Maneuvering Speed (VA) load limit factor: Flaps-up stall speed = 72 knots
Normal category = 3.8 G's 72 knots x 1.95 = 140.4 knots (VA)
Determine Maneuvering
Speed (VA) at less than 5000 Lbs
Current weight V A2 : 140 kts X
6200 Lbs
max landing weight Max Landing weight
(VA decreases as weight V A2: 125.7 kts
decreases)
Subtract 1 knot for each 100 pounds Gross wt 6200 Lbs - Op wt 5000 Lbs
Maneuvering Speed (VA) under gross landing weight (approx Gross wt VA= 140 kts
number for most light twins) Operating wt VA = 128 kts
Estimate HEIGHT of Temperature (°F) - Dewpoint = 59° - 46 = 13 x 227 = 2,951 feet
CLOUD BASES (°F) Spread x 227 = Height AGL AGL
Estimate HEIGHT of Temperature (°C) - Dewpoint =
15-10 = 5 x 400 = 2000 feet AGL
CLOUD BASES (°C) Spread x 400 = Height AGL
5.5 x 5 = 27.5°F lower
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate 5.5°F per 1000 feet
@5000 ft above
Dew Point Lapse Rate 1°F per 1000 feet 1 x 5 = 5°F lower @5000 ft above
FREEZING Level °C + 2 x 1000 = Freezing Level 15°C + 2 x 1000 = 7,500 feet
TIME Enroute Distance + Groundspeed = Time 500 NM + 160 kts = 3.125 hours
GROUNDSPEED Distance + Time = Groundspeed 500 NM + 3.125 hours = 160 kts
FUEL BURN rate Fuel burned + time = Burn rate 100 gals + 3.125 hours = 32 gph
Total fuel quantity+ Burn rate= Time 140 gals+ 32 gph = 4.375 hours
ENDURANCE
until you die!
FUEL QUANTITY USED Time x Burn rate = Fuel used 3.125 hours x 32 gph = 100 gals
NM per Gallon NM flown + Gallons used = NM I gal 300 NM + 75 = 4 NM per gal
DISTANCE Time x Groundspeed = Distance 3.125 hours x 160 kts = 500 NM
Nautical Miles per Minute True Airspeed + 60 = NM per minute 240 kts + 60 = 4 NM per minute
Round the airspeed to the nearest 10 177 kts = 180 kts
Nautical Miles per Minute
- drop the zero divide by 6 18 + 6 = 3
Nautical Miles per Minute Multiply indicated Mach # by 10 .80 x 10 = 8 NM per min
Minutes per NM 60 + Groundspeed = Minutes per NM 60 + 120 = .5 Minutes per NM

60 x Time between bearings 60 x 6 min = 36 min to station
TIME to STATION Bearing change = Time 10°
TAS x Min flown 160 x 6 min = 96 miles
DISTANCE to STATION
Degree of bearing change = Distance 10°

Altitude to Lose = Time to Descend 81000 ft = 16 minutes

TIME to DESCEND
Rate of Descent 500 fpm
MILES to DESCEND Flight Level = Nautical Miles 310 = 103 NM 80 = 27 NM
(3° Descent) 3 3 3
MILES to DESCEND Altitude to Lose (in thousands) 31 (thousand) X 3 = 93NM + 10 = 103NM

x3
(3° Descent) 8(thousand) X 3 = 24NM + 3 = 27NM
NM (add 10°/o)
Altitude to Lose =Rate of Descent 24.000 ft = 3,000 fpm
RATE of DESCENT
Time to Fix 8 minutes
Ground speed = 300 kts
3° RATE of DESCENT Half your ground speed & add a zero Descent angle = 3°
(300 + 2) x 10 = 1,500 fpm
Ground speed = 300 kts
3° RATE of DESCENT Multiply ground speed times 5 Descent angle = 3°
300 x 5 = 1,500 fpm
3° RATE of DESCENT Divide the groundspeed by 2, then 100 kts (GS) + 2 x 10 =
from the Visual Descent multiply the result by 10 500 fpm descent
Point (VDP) to landing
A HEADWIND of 10o/o of your Approach speed = 100 kts

Headwind = 10 kts
LANDING approach speed will decrease your
Normal landing distance = 2,500 ft
landing distance by 20o/o
2,500 x .80 = 2,000 ft
Approach speed = 100 kts
A TAILWIND of 10o/o of your
Tailwind = 10 kts
LANDING approach speed will increase your
Normal landing distance = 2,500 ft
landing distance by 20o/o
2,500 x 1.20 = 3,000 ft
A 10°/o change in airspeed will result in a
LANDING
20o/o change in stopping distance
For each knot above VREF
LANDING (jet)
The touchdown point will be 100 ft further down the runway
A 1,000 ft change in field elevation will cause a 4o/o change in stopping
LANDING
distance (greater the altitude, greater the landing distance)
A 10°C deviation from standard temperature will cause a 5o/o change in
LANDING
stopping distance (higher temperature, longer stopping distance)
LANDING (small aircraft) GUSTING Conditions Add 5 to 10 kts to V REF on final approach
LANDING GUSTING Conditions
(large or jet aircraft) Typically add 1/2 the headwind component & all the gust factor
(for a maximum total of 20 knots) to VREF for final approach speed (VAP)
LANDING A slippery or wet runway can increase landing distance by 50o/o or more
Dynamic HYDROPLANE
Speed TAKEOFF (tires 8.6 x '\j Main wheel tire pressure (PSI)
have spun up)_._
Dynamic HYDROPLANE
Speed LANDING (tires 7. 7 x '\j Main wheel tire pressure (PSI)
have not spun up)
Wing Loading Gross weight {lbs} = Wing Loading 63001bs
= 32.2 lb/sq ft
Wing area (sq ft) 195.6 sq ft
Power Loading Gross weight {lbs} = Power Loading 63001bs = 10.5 lbs/hp
Brake HP 600 HP

TO CONVERT FROM: INTO: MULTIPLY BY:

Acres
Centimeters
Inches 0.3937
Excellent and FREE conversion
software can be found at:
Meters 0.01
www .joshmadison.com Millimeters 10
Cm/sec
Feet/sec 0.0328
Km/hr 0.036
Knots 0.0194
Miles/hr
Feet Centimeters
Inches 12
Meters 0.3048
Miles nautical 0.000165
Miles statute 0.000189
Yards 0.333333333
Feet/sec Kilometers/hr 1.09728
Knots 0.5921
Meters/sec 0.3048
Miles/hr 0.681818
Miles/min
Fifth Mi Iii liters
Ounces 25.6
Pints 1.6
Quart 0.80
Shots
Gallons (British-Imperial) Gallons (US)
Liters
Gallons (US) Gallons (British-Imperial)
Liters 3.7854
Ounces 128
Pints 8
Grams
1000
Ounces
Horsepower Foot pound-force/min
Foot ound-force/sec 550
Kilowatts 0.7457
Watts
Inches Centimeters
Millimeters

TO CONVERT FROM: I INTO: I MULTIPLY BY:
Kilograms • .. 35.27396
Pounds 2.20462
Tons Ion 0.00098
Tons metric 0.001
Kilometers
Yards
Kilowatts Foot pound-force/sec
1.341
Knots
Meters/sec 0.5144
Miles nautical /hr 1
Miles statute /hr
Liters Gallons (US)
Gallons British-Im erial 0.220
Ounces 33.81402
Quarts
Meters Centimeters
Feet 3.28084
Inches 39.3701
Kilometers 0.001
Millimeters 1000
Meters/sec
Knots nautical miles/hr 1.9438124
Miles statute /hr
Miles (nautical) Feet
Kilometers 1.852
Meters 1852
Miles (statute)
Kilometers 1.609344
Meters 1609.344
Miles Per Hour

Kilometers/hr 1.6093
Knots nautical miles/hr 0.868976
Meters/sec 0.4470555
Miles/min
Millibars/HectoPascals Pound-force/sq inch
Inches of Mercury
Milliliters Liters
Ounces 0.0338
Pints 0.00211


Millimeters Centimeters 0.1
Decimeters 0.01
Dekameters 0.0001
Feet 0.00328
Inches 0.03937
Meters 0.001
Micrometers 1000
Microns 1000
Mils 39.37
Ounces (US weight)(avoirdupois) Grams 28.3495

-------------------------------!
Pounds 0.0625
Ounces (US fluid) Cups 0.125
Fifths 0.039
Gallons 0.00781
Liters 0.02957
Pints 0.0625
Quarts 0.031
Shots 1.0
Teas oons 6.0
Tables oons 2.0
Paces Centimeters 76.2
---------------------------------!
Feet 2.5
Inches 30
Meters 0. 762
Pints Cups 2
Fifths 0.625
Gallons 0.125
Liters 0.473176
Milliliters 4 73.176
Ounces 16.0
Quarts 0.5
Shots 16
Pounds Grams 453.59
Kilo rams 0.4536
Ounces 16
Tons Ion 0.0004464
Tons metric 0.0004536
Tons US short 0.0005
Quarts Fifth 1.25
Gallons 0.25
Liters 0.94635
Ounces 32
Pints 2


Tablespoons Cups 0.0625
Oro s 180
Ounces 0.5
3
Teaspoons Cups 0.0208333
Drops 60
Ounces 0.16667
Tablespoons 0.3333333
Tons (long) Kilograms 1016.05

Pounds 2240
Tons metric 1.01605
Tons-US short
Tons (metric) Kilograms
Pounds 2204.62
Tonne 1.0
Tons Ion 0.98421
Tons-US
Tons-US (short) Kilograms
Pounds 2000
Tons Ion 0.89286
Tons metric
Watts BTU/hr
Foot ound-force/sec 0.737562
0.00134
Kilowatts
Yards Centi meters
Feet 3
Inches 36
Meters 0.9144
Miles nautical 4.937 x 10
Miles statute 5.682 x 10
Millimeters
Years Days (mean solar)
Weeks mean calendar 52.17746

Another small gift for the Cub Scouts, Girl Scouts, and most especially
the fanatically ''sensitive'' and rabidly ''offended'' PC Police.
I sincerely hope nobody's head explodes.
Geo_.r Ca tci' n
nJ n !l ~e {i/colct I h'I
IS
yerJ rs. o Id, t h1's Is Tl'1J f; r9t:

but 1~ sc~~~d.
for
LU
Y'all be careful up thar!

Hey now.
It's time to finallv say it like it is. Chapter 12
Let's get real.
Lengel's Radio Manual

Communicating in the ''Real World'' ...
... NOT the ''Student Pilot World'' of the AIM
Introd ucti on .................................................................................................................. 3 96
Clearance ..................................................................................................................... 398
Taxi, Takeoff ................................................................................................................ 401
En route ......................................................................................................................... 402
Approach ...................................................................................................................... 405
Emergencies ................................................................................................................ 410
Miscellaneous .............................................................................................................. 412
Hello down there on the ground.

It's me up here in the sky.
Do you hear me? Over!
We hear you up there in the sky.

Now Who are you ... Where are you ...
and What the hell do you want?
Over!

(Chap 12 Lengel's Radio Manual)
I Saved My Personal Pet Peeve for Last!
Communicating In the Real World Quickly, Safely, Legally and Professionally ...
... NOTthe ''Student Pilot World'' of the AIM
WARNING You are about to enter a subject area that is highly controversial. If you 've been clogging up
the airwaves with useless redundant bulls#!+ for many years, you may be totally set in your ways and totally
beyond hope. Those individuals will take issue with many of these concepts claiming the Al M says you
MUST say all those extra redundant words. Trust me .. . you don't! But I may never convince you.
Now for the rest of you, if you approach this chapter with an open mind I guarantee you will learn a lot.
I also guarantee:
1. The CONTROLLERS will appreciate it and you 'll be given preferential treatment more often than
you realize . A few seconds here and there add up to major time in the controller's world.
2. Your FELLOW PILOTS will appreciate the fact they can now get a word in edgewise.
3. YOU will appreciate your new found freedom to communicate in a more logical and safer manner.
Let's Get Started:

Survival in the high traffic environment of a Class B airspace during rush hour or even en route in certain
areas is an art form usually developed only from years of experience. The guidelines given in the ,Aeronautical
Information Manual do-not-work when the controller is spitting out instructions like a machine gun. Seconds,
even milliseconds are crucial in getting the job done safely and efficiently. If everyone expressed themselves
precisely as the AIM recommended every time they spoke, the entire ATC system would come to a
crashing halt at many high volume locations! There simply is not enough time available to say all those extra,
redundant words every time you speak.
The AIM (4-2-1) also says ''The single most important thought is understanding." ''Brevity is important
and contacts should be keep as brief as possible." AIM (4-4-7) ''Pilots should readback 'those parts'of
ATC instructions containing altitude assignments or vectors, read-back of the 'numbers' serves as a double
check.''
Pilots who ''babble'' on the radio, especially when traffic is extremely busv, are tying up valuable air-time
potentially needed by someone with something important to say for example:
_. The controller needing to turn another aircraft immediately to avoid a conflict.
_. Another pilot with a "PROBLEM" or just trying to get a word in edgewise.
Even many so-called ''professional pilots'' are guilty and most certainly picked up
the habit early in their careers from a 250-hour flight instructor (with zero real world Old FAA proverb:
experience), a 500-hour "mentor" friend (with little real world experience), or from Controller say ...
one of the multitude of books WRITTEN for student pilots that teach you how to ''He who sound like
TALK like a student pilot. They certainly don't teach you to talk like an airline ilot bonehead shall be
going into JFK during a push. Spend some time listening to ww.LiveATC.ne . treated like bonehead."
Hopefully, you'll soon figure out who is getting their message across clearly and Boneheads are often
distinctly ... and who is eating up copious amounts of air time entertaining directed to spend time in
themselves, but annoying the hell out of the controllers and other pilots. the Penalty Box.
Yup, it does exist!
Old habits are hard to break and are passed on from generation to generation.
Also IN ORDER TO GET IN ALL THOSE EXTRA WORDS they feel they mustsay most
"babblers" speak too rapidly, inarticulately, and usually unintelligibly when it comes to the
IMPORTANT WORDS such as HEADING, ALTITUDE, ROUTING, or FREQUENCY. This has
also been known to cause a PROBLEM ... a very BIG PROBLEM.
The vast majority of pilot violations start with the misunderstanding of instructions ~~~
aggravated by an unacceptable read-back given by you the pilot. When you mumble a read- t - - f r--. f..;\ttt(r-~Ci5l
~
back, a busy controller may assume you read it back correctly and move on .. . even when •
your read-back may be totally bogus. Your next trip may be an annoying and expensive ride
down the FAA's Violation Boulevard (in a rental car with your lawyer on board!;o).
Puleeeze ... dump the babble and concentrate on ~·nun·.~j:~·ting the words that really matter
clear·!v and dis·tinct·!v with the grea·test de·gree of clar·i·~. Do NOT mum·ble!
State your information/request/intentions with the minimum words possible. Ditch the
unnecessary pronouns.

Key Words to Avoid List of Truly Silly Words & Phrases
1. DO NOT clog up air-time with extra ''verbiage'' (or as some might say ... "garbage") A VOID-like a
festering case of herpes using the words:
(a) ''Good morning'' -A very touchy subject. Some feel they must say these words in order to be friendly
and courteous. FINE If things are really quiet and you feel you must say these words then go ahead
and say them. Make yourself happy. But, when traffic is busy, and the controller is spitting out
instructions like a tobacco auctioneer on amphetamines then shut the hell up by golly gosh darn it -
be professional stick to the facts. Use the extra 1.3 seconds to ar·tic·y·late your call·sign &
fil•!!•tude a !!!•tie more clear·!Y,. You can be just as "friendly" with the tone of your voice and a
professional attitude.
(b) ''This is'' - Let's hope it is Mr. Student Pilot!! Just state your call sign and your request.
(c) ''Ready to (copy/taxi)'' Another impressive term. It lets them know you're ready to clog up their
frequency with copious amounts of extra, redundant, student pilot bull s#lt!!
(d) ''Standing by for ... " Just tell 'em what you want!
(e) ''With you at'' - Is this opposed to being "not with you?" He has a strong suspicion you're "with him"
'cause he hears you babbling on his radio.
(f) ''Checking in at'' Spend your time checking your heading and altitude please!!
(g) ''Level at'' Let's hope you're not in a 45° bank!! You've likely been "level at" FL 330 for the last 200
miles. So there's a damn good chance he already knows you're level.
(h) ''Out of'' Just read back your Tail# and the Altitude you're climbing or descending to when given a
new altitude assignment. ''Out of 5 for 8'' or ''Leaving 5 for 8'' is kind of poor taste (5 for 8 what?).
He knows you're going to be "out of' or "leaving" 5000 'cause he just gave you a new
altitude you told him you were climbing to it and he's gonna be monitoring you to
make sure you actually comply! THAT'S LIKE ... HIS JOB!!
(i) ''Leaving'' Something trees do in the fall. Just as redundant as "out of."
U) ''Ah ... ah ... ah ... ah ... " etc., etc. Ah ... no smart ass remark deemed necessary-
think before you talk.
2. Do NOT clog up air-time calling the facility or next controller by its ''name''** THEY
ALREADY KNOW WHAT THEIR ''NAME'' IS and they will most certainly tell you what
their "name" is when they answer your call. And by the way, WHO GIVES A RAT'S ASS
what their ''name''!.§. anyway? What matters is you have the proper frequency or
information. Expend your minuscule brainpower concentrating on that!! I've flown with
numerous ''professional'' pilots who just can't seem to get past this. It drives me
crazy when a copilot asks me ''who are we talkin' to?'' My response: ''Who gives a
crap? We're talkin' to some dude on 134.75. That's all that really matters ain't it?''
3. In other words ... Do NOT say** Charlotte Clearance, Charlotte Ground, Charlotte Tower, Charlotte
Departure, Atlanta Center, etc., etc. Trust me they already know who THEY are. That's why they get the
big bucks! What they need to know is who YOU are and what you want.
In a high traffic environment, radio time is precious.
Don't waste it on stupid, redundant BS.
**EXCEPTIONS:
When you're VFR-IN FLIGHT ... and nobody knows you're up there ... and you
need to:
1. Pick up your IFR clearance;
2. Request VFR flight following; or
3. Request VFR clearance into Class B, C, or D airspace.
In these three scenarios ... you should first introduce yourself to them as a
new aircraft by calling the facility its ''name'' followed by your full call sign -
to get their attention wait for a response then say your request.
~ The Goal Pack the maximum amount of meaning into the minimum amount of band-width.
~ Extra words cost time There's no place for wasted time regardless of how calm the frequency may seem.
~ When one word will do ... don't use three!
~ Flush the garbage! Say more, talk less. Less filling , tastes great!;-).
~ Politeness does count, but only so far. A quick ''Thanks'' gets the message across with only one syllable.
~ Always be 110°/o certain as to exactly what your clearance is You as a pilot should know that a violation
is the kiss of death, whereas the controller will not get fired for making a simple mistake on a clearance or
failing to catch a read-back error. They screw it up all the time so be ready to correct them!

(Chap 12 Lengel's Radio Manual J
NOMENCLATURE
Definition (for all you unsophisticated slobs out there) - Conventions, system of principles, procedures and terms.
UNDERLINED TERMS usually HEADING, ALTITUDE, and FREQUENCY changes need to be verbalized
with the greatest degree of dis·tinc·tion and clar·i·~ to avoid any possibility of a mis·un·der·stand·ing.
SLOW DOWN ... Ar·tic·y·late your words guick·~ but clear·~. Do NOT mum·ble.
I FR CLEARANCE Large, Extremely Busy Airport

Class B or C with a dedicated Clearance Frequency
(CL T JFK)
Clearance IFR:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike to New York (or JFK) with November
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike is cleared to JFK as filed HORNET SIX departure MERIL transition-
maintain 8000-departure frequency 124.0 squawk 5637 and did you say you had November?
(you) HORNET SIX-MERIL-8000 124.0 & 5637 for 3 Charlie Mike-we do have November
--------
Actually at most Class B airports you only need to read back
the sguawk and your call sign (it usually says so on the ATIS).
Best Example:
(you) 5637 for 3 Charlie Mike-we do have November
(them) 3 Charlie Mike read back correct contact ground on 121.8 for taxi
(you) Point 8-thanks (No need for your call sign here, this is just a friendly reminder to
call the ground guy next)
Notice that we did NOT call them "Charlotte Clearance," because THEY ALREADY
KNOW THEY' RE ''Charlotte Clearance.'' Those dudes in the Tower are real smart.
You do NOT have to say the words ''IFR'' or ''INSTRUMENTS'' or that cute
(and nauseating) phrase ''STANDING BY FOR IFR CLEARANCE."
They assume EVERYONE is "instruments" unless you tell them you 're not instruments.
95°/o of all the traffic leaving any Class B or C airport will be on "instruments."
All they really need to know is your Tail # and Where you 're going
so they can locate your strip.
At a smaller Class D airport without a dedicated clearance frequency or late night

at Class 8/C airport when the controller may be monitoring several frequencies
you might want to include the word "clearance" or "I FR" in your initial call.
Example:
(you ) Citation 123 Charlie Mike ''clearance'' to New York (or JFK) with Mike, or
Citation 123 Charlie Mike ''IFR'' New York (or JFK) with Mike
You only need to read back the SQUAWK and your CALL SIGN unless you have a question.
If you listen closely to the ATIS you'll find that most only want a read back of the
SQUAWK and CALL SIGN ONLY (unless you have a guestion).
They just don't have the time to listen to full read backs from every aircraft especially during busy periods.
Try it ... you'll like it!© .
All that being said ... I must add that at smaller airports, where
they have plenty of time, it's best to do a full read back.

(Chap 12 Lengel's Radio Manual )
VFR CLEARANCE Large, Extremely Busy Airport

(CLT RDU)
Clearance VFR:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-VFR-Raleigh (or RDU)-9,500
or... Citation 123 Charlie Mike VFR to Raleigh (or RDU)-9,500-

''flight-following all the way'' if you have the time
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike is cleared out of the Class B airspace-
maintain at or below 4000 departure frequency 124.0 squawk 0345
(you) 0345-3 Charlie Mike
(them) 123 Charlie Mike read-back correct contact ground on 121.8 for taxi
(you) Point 8-thanks (No need for your call sign here, this is just a friendly reminder to call the ground guy
next)
During an extremely busy time it might be better to GET THEIR ATTENTION FIRST, stating just your
callsign and VFR before you blurt out all your information (e.g.; ''Citation 123 Charlie Mike-VFR'' or ...
''Citation 123 Charlie Mike-VFR-Raleigh'') or you'll just end up having to repeat everything all over
again. Remember, YOU are the oddball VFR departure, everyone else is I FR. When you call, he will
actually have to find a pencil pick up the pencil possibly have to sharpen the pencil then write down the
information. So ... if it's extremely busy ... get his attention FIRST, so he can start looking for that pencil©
Remember, for VFR, what they need to know is Where you want to go at what Altitude and the Aircraft
Type. If you're going a long distance, they may also need your initial heading, so try to have that handy.
Flight Following:
VFR ''Flight Following all the way'' is a great idea if you're going more than a hundred miles or so. If the
clearance dude or dudette isn't too busy, they'll create a ''strip'' for you and you'll be handed off from
controller to controller almost like you're IFR. That is until you start to approach the Northeast portion of the
country they go by a different set of rules up there than the rest of the country in fact it /Sa different
country it's called ''YANKEE LAND!'' (I affectionately call it that because I'm originally from that country.
I hate it when the PC Police send me those threatening emails!;o ).
Get used to the term ''sguawk 1200 cleared from Center freguency, I ain't got time to mess with your
ass'' just as you're fixin' to enter somebody's Class B airspace!! I love those guys. I bet they have a great
time watching you do ''360s'' trying to sort things out after they dump you!!
Now you know the reason WHY you spent all that time practicing steep turns when you were learning to fly!!
Seriously folks ... always be aware of your location ... controllers can dump you out of the system at any time.
It doesn't necessarily happen that often. But on the rare occasion that you are dumped ... it can be a little
startling if you're not prepared for it.
Important NOTE:
Remember that ''Flight Following'' does NOT automatically clear you into or through anyone's Class B or
~(or D) airspace. You must get clearance directly from the facility that controls that airspace. It also
doesn't guarantee passage through one of those delightful TFRs that have a habit of popping up at
random. Legally that's your responsibility. You know how important those TFRs are ... they pretend to
"protect" El Senor Presidente and his entourage from a Skyhawk loaded with high explosives.
Another important note about Flight Following:

You should pick up on the fact that you were assigned a transponder code starting with 03. Codes that start
with 03 (for Charlotte anyway, 0-somethin' else at other locations) are local VFR codes. This implies the
controller may be too busy (at the moment) to enter you in the "flight following" system. That means ... for
the time being anyway ... you have NOT been entered into the "flight following" system ... and you will NOT be
handed off to Center or the next controller automatically as you leave Charlotte's airspace. That being said ...
Departure Control (or sometimes even Ground) may very well give you a new code (that starts with a
number other than 03). If that happens ... you will know you are now IN the "flight following" system and
WILL be handed off automatically as you leave the area.

CLEARANCE - Small, Uncontrolled Airport

-Two Scenarios-
#1 Getting your IFR clearance while you're still ON the GROUND
(before departure) at a small uncontrolled airport:
FYI If the weather is truly IFR you have absolutely no choice but to get your clearance before you depart.
HOWEVER ... .if the weather is VFR you should know that getting your IFR clearance before departure can
often be a very time consuming process. For starters it usually involves a middleman i.e.; Lockheed
Martin AFSS (not necessarily the most reliable outfit on the planet;o). You will have to call them and ask for
your clearance they must then call ATC to get your clearance then they call you back to give you the
clearance then you read it back to them. After departure you'll have to establish contact with ATC on
the frequency FSS has given you. If there is any other IFR traffic inbound to that airport that might conflict with
required separation ... your IFR clearance cannot be issued until that other aircraft has canceled. This could
take a LOOONG time in many situations even if the weather is clear and a million. If possible, I also suggest
asking someone at the FBO what the local procedures are. So ... if you choose to get your clearance while
you're still on the ground ... here are the normal options:
1. Call Lockheed Martin AFSS on their dedicated IFR clearance number ~88-766-82671; or
2. If available Call FSS on the advertised ''RCO'' CB.emote ~ommunications Qutlet) frequency; or
3. If available Call ATC directly on the advertised ''RTR'' CB.emote Iransmitter/.B.eceiver) frequency; or
4. If available Call ATC/FSS on the advertised ''GCO'' (ground ~ommunication Qutlet) frequency.
5. *WARNING* Please be aware that in virtually all cases you will be issued a ''Clearance Void time."
You must NOT depart after the ''Void time'' or you will be in violation of FAR 91.173. Quite simply
because your clearance is ''Void'' after that time. (Duh ... thank you Captain Obvious!;o)
#2 Picking up your IFR clearance AFTER DEPARTING VFR (airborne) from a

small uncontrolled airport: (Example Rocky Mount, NC RWI)
1. This type of clearance is totally different from the one you get when you're still on the ground.
2. Is it more expeditious? Usually ... almost always. It cuts out the middle man and almost always gets
you in the system and on the road to your destination quicker. Then again ... if you're getting paid by
the hour ... maybe you should revert back to Scenario_#1 and get it while you're still on the ground;o).
3. Of course it must actually BE VFR in order to do this.
4. Also I HIGHLY recommend CLIMBING while CIRCLING over the top of the airport.
5. I do NOT recommend striking out cross-country while trying to raise ATC for your clearance unless you
are extremely familiar with the surrounding airspace and terrain. Also ... are you 1OOo/o confident one of
those delightful little TFRs didn't just pop up nearby?!;o ).
6. NOTE: I must mention there may be a rare occasion when departing from a small airport in a high traffic
area when it may take a few minutes to get a word in edgewise to get your clearance.
7. Anyway ... here's how you do it:
How to Pick Up Your IFR Clearance in the air after departing VFR:
(you) Washington Center-Citation 123 Charlie Mike (ALWAYS get their attention FIRST.~
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike go ahead
(you) 123 Charlie Mike is OFF the ground from Rocky Mount-IFR to New York
(them) 123 Charlie Mike can you maintain your own terrain/obstruction clearance through 3000 feet?
(you) No problem sir
(them) 123 Charlie Mike is cleared to JFK as filed climb and maintain 8000 for now squawk 6453
(you) As filed-8000-6453- 123 Charlie Mike
GET THEIR ATTENTION FIRST. Introduce yourself to them as a new aircraft by calling them
''Washington Center," or whatever their "name" is, and your full call sign , before you blurt out all your
information or you 'll just end up having to repeat everything all over again. If you 're not sure of their
"name," then just call them ''Center'' or ''Approach." Let them figure out who they are! ;-).
The controller is accustomed to most pilots getting their IFR clearance while they're still ''ON the ground,"
usually a very time consuming process. They must be made to understand that you are in fact ''OFF the
ground'' aka ''airborne." An ''OFF the ground'' clearance is completely different from one given when
the aircraft is still ''ON the ground." Personally I've found that the words "off the ground" work better than
the word "airborne."

TAXI
Taxi (CL Tl:

(you) 123 Charlie Mike taxi from Wilson
(them) 123 Charlie Mike expect 36R taxi via left turn on Delta hold short of runway 36R at Delta 2
(you) Hold short of 36R at Delta 2- 123 Charlie Mike (no need to read back "expect 36R," this is only an advisory at
this point)
Notice we did not call them "Charlotte Ground" because they already know they're ''Charlotte Ground.''
What they need to know is Who YOU are What YOU want to do-and Where the hell you're at.
Notice we did not say ''ready to'' taxi ( verv student pilot); or ''standing by for'' taxi ( very, very student pilot);
or the very entertaining ''standing by with clearance for'' taxi ( verv, verv, very student pilot).
Just say your ''full call sign'' -''taxi from'' the ''location'' you 're at. Yup, that's it!
They MUST hear the words ''Hold Short'' and the location you're going to hold short in your read back.
Taxi (continued):
(them)Citation 123 Charlie Mike cross 36R at Delta 2, and taxi to 36R
(you) 123 Charlie Mike is crossing 36R-(he'll understand you're going to the end of 36R)
Remind them that you are crossing the runway in your read back just to confirm. ''Runway incursions''
are a VERY big deal. In addition like yo' mama used to say, regardless of your clearance, always look both
ways before you go charging across any runway. Make damn sure no one's on short final. It happens!
TAKE OFF & Departure

Take Off - You're ready and waiting at the end of the runway #1 for departure-
and nobody seems to give a damn:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike ''ready when you are'' (Once again - he already knows he's Charlotte Tower!)
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike after departure turn right heading 090 maintain 8000 cleared for takeoff
(you) Zero Nine Zero-8000-3 Charlie Mike rollin'
If you are #6 in line for takeoff (or even if you 're #2), do NOTsay ''123 Charlie Mike is ready in seguence.''
That statement is ABSURDLY meaningless and stupid. DO NOT SAY IT!
After Take Off:

(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact departure
(you) Departure-3 Charlie Mike
(or ... ''OK we'll see ya, thanks," or even ... ''Departure, thanks'' (tail# is not very important here)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike - 2.6 for 8000 (they must verify your Mode C readout at this point)
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike turn left heading 060 climb and maintain One Zero thousand
(you) Zero Six Zero and One Zero, Ten Thousand-123 Charlie Mike (left or right is not important here,
unless it doesn't make sense)
On your first call to departure they MUST confirm your Mode C read out. That's why you need to mention the
altitude you're passing through. 2.6 is a little guicker and cleaner than saying 2,600 feet. It's not
necessarily extremely important to tell them what altitude you are cleared to ... but it's probably a good idea.
Actually what usually happens they'll give you a new altitude and/or heading at this time.
NOTE #1: NOTE #2:

Do NOT mumble - say your words clear·ly and If they ask you a question that requires a yes
dis·tinct·ly. Especially the important ones like or no answer - the words affirmative or
heading , altitude, routing or freguency. negative are the appropriate responses.

(Chap 12 - Lengel's Radio Manual)
ENROUTE Scenarios .---.......
Frequency Change (you are level at 10,000):

(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact Washington Center now on 135.2
(you) One Three Five Point Two-3 Charlie Mike
(Change frequency-but LISTEN a few seconds before talking so you don't step on an on-going conversation)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-One Zero thousand
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike Washington Center good morning altimeter at Raleigh is ah ... ah ... ah ...
30.02
(you) Three Zero Zero Two (no need for your tail# here, you're in a conversation, this is NOT a clearance)
Remember, you do not have to call "Washington Center" - "Washington Center." He already knows he's ''Washington
Center'' and he will most certainly tell you he's "Washington Center" when he answers your call. What he needs to
know is your FULL Call Sign and Altitude. He'll be expecting you 'cause he has accepted the "hand-off' from Charlotte.
Do NOT tell him you're ''checking in at,'' ''level at,'' or ''with you at.'' He already knows that 'cause you're talkin' to
him. The guys that work the "Center" frequencies have a much higher pay grade than local controllers. All that extra
money makes them very, very smart!;o). All he needs to know is your Tail# and the Altitude you're at to confirm your
Mode C. He'll let you know if it's Good Morning or not!;o).
When you READ BACK the altimeter setting, do NOT bother to include your tail#. You're in a conversation, it's
NOT a new clearance, it's just the current altimeter which is normally not much different than the last one you had.
Pay ATTENTION-If there is even the slightest doubt that a new clearance was for you-ask them to CONFIRM IT. It's
very easy to think you hear new instructions for you-when they actually were for an aircraft with a similar call sign. You
and the other aircraft might read back the clearance simultaneously-the controller may only hear the closer aircraft-
which may NOT be you. He can't correct you because he didn't hear you-and YOUR read back is NOT on the tape.
You change altitudes-YOU are BUSTED, without a leg to stand on! This type of error happens all the time.
Don't let this happen to you!
Do NOT ACCEPT a NEW CLEARANCE unless
you're ABSOLUTELY - 110°/o - POSITIVE it was for YOU.
If you have even 1°/o of doubt ... call them back and ask them to CONFIRM IT!
**NOW CONSIDER THIS**
When a pilot screws up a ''readback'' ... if the controller catches it ... he will correct you ... everyone goes home happy!;o).
When a controller screws up a ''hearback'' ... the controller's silence implies that the read back was correct ... in good faith
the pilot goes where he shouldn't go and can be virtually assured of getting a violation!:o( ... the controller gets a dope-slap
(whappp upside the head), but usually just goes right back to work. There is a verv strong message here.
•·-······················· ························~ ·························· ························~ ·························· ························~ ········· ·

: '' ... read back of an air traffic control transmission could result in the mitigation of sanction for a regulatory violation
•
: when the air traffic controller, under the circumstances, reasonably should correct the pilot's error but fails to do so.
: Accordingly, the FAA may take this factor into consideration in setting the amount of sanction in FAA enforcement orders.
~ However, the simple act of giving a readback does not shift full responsibility to air traffic control and cannot
: insulate pilots from their primary responsibility under 14 CFR 91.123 and related regulations to listen attentively, to
•
:. hear accurately, and to construe reasonably in the first instance." (FAA interpretive rule March 26, 1999)
•• In Other Words
•
Altitude Change: : If your readback is incorrect,
•
: and the controller doesn't
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climb and maintain one five, fifteen thousand •
: catch it, you WILL be adding
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climbing ''ta*'' - One-Five, Fifteen thousand •
~ a violation to your resume.
or ... climbing ''ta*'' (or ''a*'') One-Five-Fifteen thousand-123 Charlie Mike; or ...
One-Five-Fifteen thousand for 123 Charlie Mike; or ... One-Five-Fifteen thousand-123 Charlie Mike)
''Out of 10 for 15'' or ''Leaving 10 for 15'' is kind of redundant. He knows you're going to "leave" 10,000 'cause he just
gave you a new altitude-you told him you were climbing to it-and he's gonna be monitoring you to make sure you
actually comply! THAT'S LIKE - HIS JOB!!
Just read back your Tail# and the Altitude you're climbing or descending to.
L
*The word ''li!'' is not a typo. ''Ta'' (or ''!") might look a little weird out of context, but it
avoids any confusion that might arise between the word !Q. and the number two (2),
especially if your tail# happens to end with a number instead of a letter.
Let's be real - That's how real people actually talk, ain't it?;o)

ENROUTE Scenarios (continued)
You Haven't Heard Anyone Talk On the Radio For A Long Time:
(Check your squelch and volume first before you make this call)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike radio check This is called getting a
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike loud and clear how me? "radio check. " It's amazing
(you) Loud and clear also, thanks. Just got a little quiet up here. how many pilots have never
. - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ----1 heard of this term.
NOTE #3:
When you 're in a ''conversation'' with a controller Puleeeze do NOT repeat
your tail# after each sentence (that is sooo student pilot) (also extremely
annoying and time consuming). Wait till the END of the conversation. Then, j[, and
ONLY if, they have given you NEW clearance instructions, you would then read back
the new instructions with your tail # at the end.
''Niner'' is more explicit than ''Nine.''

Especially if your controller is of German descent. He might get confused and think you
meant "no" instead of "9" (some of those ex-Nazi's never learn!;o ).
Plus "niner" makes you sound like you know what you're doin' even if you don't!
You Want an Altitude Change Enroute:

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-request-Niner thousand
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike descend and maintain Niner thousand
(you) 123 Charlie Mike descending ta Niner thousand
When you make a request for an enroute altitude change, go ahead and tell them what altitude you want
on the F/RSTtransmission. It's only two extra words and usuallvthey'll catch it.
If you just tell them you have a request without saying the altitude you get into this ugly mess:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike has a request
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike go ahead with your request
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike requesting Niner thousand
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike descend and maintain niner thousand
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike descending ta Niner thousand
As you can see this is a lot more time consuming.
NOTE for all pilots with a ''FEET'' fetish:

It is NEVER necessary to say the word ''FEET."
Altitudes are alwavs
•
in "FEET" never in Miles, Yards, Inches, Kilometers, Meters or Centimeters .
ATC does not bother using the word "feet" because an altitude can never be construed as anything but an altitude.
5,000 cannot be a heading, frequency or route. Think about it!!
You Want an Altitude Change Enroute The Double Read Back:

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-request-One-Zero thousand
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climb and maintain One-Zero Ten thousand
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike climbing ta One-Zero - Ten thousand (notice the ''double read-back'' for
the initial clearance)
A disproportionately large percentage of altitude busts occur because of misunderstandings between 10,000
and 15,000 feet. Avoid a violation on your ticket (and maybe a chunk of aluminum up your ass) by doing the ''double
read-back'' (for initial clearance onl y .. . after that ... one-zero thousand ; or one-one thousand ; etc. is more appropriate):
One-Zero- Ten thousand
One-One-Eleven thousand FL 200 and FL 220 confusion is also quite common.
One-Two- Twelve thousand, etc.
'-e~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ The "double read back" is only really necessary for the initial altitude
assignment. After that - such as when you're checking in with a new
controller during a frequency change - it's more appropriate to just use
One-Zero thousand ; or One-One thousand; or One-Two thousand ; etc.

(Chap 12 - Lengel's Radio Manual J
ENROUTE Scenarios (continued)
Traffic Alert Enroute:

(them)Citation 123 Charlie Mike traffic at 10 o'clock 10 miles a Jetstream at 9000
(you) 3 Charlie Mike lookin' (PLEASE do NOT say "no joy" or "not in sight". Just tell him you're lookin')(100 bucks
says you miss him regardless!! ;o)
Do NOT make a big deal out of an enroute traffic alert. Keep an eye out for the other aircraft but don't
dwell on it. FLY THE AIRPLANE!! If it's other IFR traffic, there will always be at least a thousand foot
altitude difference. If you do eventually see the traffic, you do NOT have to instantly jump on the microphone
and report it immediately. Get to it when you get to it or get to it when he points out the traffic again.
Remember ... Once you call the traffic in sight, you assume the responsibility of keeping it in sight.
HOWEVER, if it's VFR traffic that they're not talking to, without a confirmed Mode C, or there's only a 500
foot altitude difference, it's time to get all eyes a-lookin'.
If you DO get the traffic in sight, please don't say ''Tally Ho''-
that's sooo frightfully British and sooo dreadfully corny!
Climb Clearance into the Flight Levels:

(them)Citation 123 Charlie Mike climb and maintain FL320
(you) FL320 for 123 Charlie Mike (or Climbin' ta FL320 123 CM)
············· ~········································ ~·······
: Don't forget to set your altimeter to 29.92 as you approach FL 180 .
•
It looks like I picked the wrong No dice, Chicago. I'm giving the
week to quit drinkin'. Now where --. orders and we're coming in.
the hell are my cigarettes? I guess the foot's on the other hand
now, isn't it, Kramer?
And by the way, do you have anyone
down there that speaks Jive?
~
$
t! .....
t: ..,
•r •
It's a damn good thing he doesn't

know how much you hate his guts!
Frequency Change Enroute While Still Climbing to FL320:

(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact Washington Center now on 128.6
(you) One two eight point six - 3 Charlie Mike thanks (change frequency-but listen before you talk)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike - 31.6 for FL320
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike Washington Center Roger Radar contact Expect lower in 50 miles
(you) A response is not necessarily necessary, however you can say ''Roger'' if you like just to let him know
you heard him. ''Alrighty'' could also be acceptable.
Be careful to transmit the ACTUAL altitude you're passing through.

There's a large potential for error when using analog gauges.

APPROACHING your DESTINATION (IFR>

You Want A Lower Altitude Approaching Your Destination:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike looking for lower ''IF YOU GOT IT''
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike "pilots discretion" descend and maintain 7000 NY altimeter 30.03
(you) Pilot's discretion ta 7000-we're starting down now-30.03-123 Charlie Mike
11
/F YOU GOT IT'' or ''IF YOU HAVE IT'': (Equally lousy English:o)
Lets them know-that you know-you're in their airspace-but you also know-you're approaching the
Class B airspace of your destination (that is not controlled by your current controller). They may not be able
to give you lower because of the proximity of the Class B or traffic but !E they can you sure would like it.
They'll pick up on how smart you are and be real nice to you. This is called "public relations" (aka Kissin' a
little Ass). 1·f you don't use this phrase ... but simply ask for lower ... controllers often feel the need to explain
all the details of why they can't give you lower at this time.
PILOT'S DISCRETION:
The controller has offered you the option of starting the descent (or climb) whenever you wish and at any
rate of descent (or climb} you want. You have the freedom to temporarily level off at any intermediate
altitude, but once you have vacated an altitude, you cannot go back up (or down)[AIM 4-4-10 &
Pilot/Controller Glossary]. You SHOULD (MUST?) let them know when you are starting down. If they
do NOT say the words "pilot's discretion," you are expected to climb or descend "at an optimum rate
consistent with the operating characteristics of the aircraft to 1,000 feet above or below the assigned
altitude, and then attempt to descend or climb at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 FPM until the assigned
altitude is reached.'' (AIM 4-4-1 O)
?•
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• • ••••••••••••••••••••••••
!You're VFR (with Flight Following) and want to change altitude:
: Be sure to ASK them if it's OK. It's not really necessarily necessary or technically required ... but
•
: you don't want to throw any surprises at the controller.
: (you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike would like to descend to 4,500 ''if it's OK with y'all''
: (them) 123 Charlie Mike VFR descent is approved remain VFR at all times
•\ (you) All righty-thanks
•
······································~·················~················
•• •
•• *Another IMPORTANT WARNING about VFR Flight Following*
• ''Center'' canNOT clear you into anyone's Class B, C or D airspace .
•
••
• The only one that can give you that clearance is the
• approach control or tower that has jurisdiction over that airspace .
••
• DO NOT get suckered into a violation!
•• It is your responsibility to always know where you're at.
•
: If you're talking to Center; and it looks like you're going to enter Class B airspace;
: and you can 't get a word in edgewise .. .
•
•• then start practicing some 360s until you can sort things out.
•., Here's another reason why you had to learn how to do 360s!! ;o)

(Chap 1 2 Lengel's Radio Manual )
You Want A Lower Altitude When First Entering Class B

(while descending to 7000):
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact New York Approach on 127 .4
(you) 127.4-3 Charlie Mike (change frequency-but wait a moment!)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-7.6 for 7000-looking for lower- ''WHEN YOU GOT IT''
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike New York Approach Expect ILS runway 31 L Kennedy altimeter 30.01
expect lower in 5 miles Did you say you had Yankee?
(you) 30.01-We have Yankee (no need for your tail#, the runway, or expect lower in 5 this is NOT a
clearance it's just an advisory and you're in a conversation)
WHEN YOU GOT IT''

11
or ''WHEN YOU HAVE IT'' (Equally lousy English:o)
You know-you're not quite in their airspace yet so therefore you
('cause you just got the "hand-off')
know-they probably can't get you lower right at this moment. But as soon as they can, you sure would
like it. Again, they'll pick up on how smart you are and be real nice to you. Once again, good PR.
The ''HAND OFF'' -You should be aware that you are virtually NEVER in the new controller's
airspace when you receive a ''hand off." You must be "handed off" BEFORE you enter the new
controller's airspace. That's why, most of the time, your new controller cannot give you a different altitude
right away 'cause you ain't in his airspace.
Also, on rare occasion, you'll be asked to do some ''360's'' out in the middle of nowhere because your
current controller ''cannot facilitate the hand off." You're not allowed in a controller's airspace unless
you've been ''accepted." Usually done with a mouse click.
You Want A Lower Altitude While In Class B (or close to the destination airport):
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike lookin' for lower ''IF YOU HA VE IT'
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike descend and maintain 4000, expect the ILS 31 L
(you) 4000-123 Charlie Mike (again, no need to read back the runway, this is not yet a clearance, it's only
an advisory)
11
IF YOU HA VE IT''
Lets them know that you know you're in his airspace but they might not have a lower altitude right now
due to airspace restrictions, obstructions or other traffic. But, if they DO have it. You sure would like to get
it! See what a smarty-pants you're turning into. And the controller will love you for it. He might
even offer to take you out to lunch after you land ©! !
''Minimum Fuel Advisory'' (AIM 5-5-15)

+ After stating your call sign , the term "Minimum Fuel " should be used. ''Citation 123 Charlie Mike -
Minimum Fuel''
+ This is not an emergency but an advisory that an emergency is possible should any undue delay
occur.
+ This term does not imply the need for traffic ''priority.''
+ Really getting nervous? Tell them you need ''PRIORITY''-or declare an ''EMERGENCY''(means
the same)
NEVER use this as a ploy to cut in front of other traffic when you really don't have a problem. You
never know who might be listening. Not a good idea to draw undue attention to yourself that may
stimulate the curiosity of an overpaid and underworked FAA cop .. . eer inspector!

APPROACH & LANDING

Heading Altitude Frequency Change:
(them)Citation 123 Charlie Mike turnleftheading31Odescendandmaintain3000contactapproach124.05
(you) 310-3000-124.05-123 Charlie Mike (read back of "right" or "left" turn not important unless it doesn't
make sense)
(or ... Would you mind saying that again a little slower please!!)
Final Approach ILS:

(them)Citation 123 Charlie Mike turn right heading 360 maintain 2900 till established cleared ILS Rwy 31 L
(you) 360-2900-cleared the approach for the left side-3 Charlie Mike
Landing Clearance: eee~8e" •~--ir--

(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike contact tower now on 123.9
(you) 123.9-3 Charlie Mike (change frequency-but don't forget to wait a few seconds)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike for the LEFT side (no need to say "ILS" EVERYONE is doing the "ILS!")
(them) 123 Charlie Mike Kennedy Tower Keep your speed up as long as practical cleared to land 31 L
(you) Cleared to land on the left-3 Charlie Mike
When you call the tower, it's a good idea to remind him what runway you were cleared the approach for,
especially if they are running parallel approaches to left and right runways , but you really DON'T NEED TO
BOTHER telling him you're on the ''ILS'' trust me EVERYONE is on the ''ILS." And even if
someone ain't. He really could care less. His only job is to clear you to land and then tell you to contact
ground. It's a wonderful job. I wish I could get it!!
After Landing:
(them)Citation 123 Charlie Mike any right turn off the runway contact ground 121.9
(you) Point nine-Thanks (tail# not important)( change frequency-but only when CLEAR of the runway - PAST the
hold short line)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike going to the General Aviation Terminal and we are ''not familiar''
It's best to just tell him you're ''not familiar.'' Give him a chance to volunteer to give you ''progressive''
- this makes him feel real important. Don't forget to read back all ''hold short'' instructions as he gives you
"progressive" to your destination on the airport.
Congratulations, you have successfully arrived at New York's JFK Airport!
NOTE: If you land at JFK and you're truly "not familiar." Just tell them to bring out the ''Follow Me'' truck.
Yup they got one; and yup, you just might need it! Finding that dive they call an FBO run by the NY Port
Authority can be a bit challenging without one. I've seen better FBOs in third world countries!
John F. K·e nnedy Intl. Airport
New York
(Chap 12 - Lengel's Radio Manual)
IFR ARRIVAL at Small Uncontrolled Airport

IFR Arrival at Small Airport no tower VFR conditions you have the airport in sight:
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike the airport is 12 o'clock and 8 miles report cancellation with me or with FSS on
the ground change to advisory is approved
(you) 123 Charlie Mike has the airport in sight-we can ''CANCEL'' with you now
(them) 123 Charlie Mike cancellation received squawk 1200 have a nice day
(you) All righty-thanks a lot for your help (your tail# and "squawk 1200" is not important at this point)
The important key word here is ''CANCEL.'' You should always CANCEL as soon as possible in visual
conditions so as to clear the way for other IFR traffic behind you or waiting to depart. This also eliminates
the chance of forgetting to cancel after landing. Once he has received your cancellation, your tail#
becomes irrelevant, and he really doesn't need you to read back the ''squawk 1200'' part either. Just
thank him for his help and get on with the show.
*IMPORTANT* Do NOTcancel early unless legal VFR conditions actually exist!
You never know who might be lurking in the weeds looking for someone to slap with a violation!
Don't you just love those self-righteous "Inspector Bullies" who take great pleasure
in making other people's lives miserable over what is very often petty bull s#!+?
TRAFFIC PATTERN at an UNCONTROLLED AIRPORT

''Unicom Babble'' must be kept to an absolute minimum by all participants in order for it to work. Your
tail# is kind of irrelevant and nobody gives a damn what it is anyway. Typical reports landing Runway 20-
Rock Hill, SC (KUZA):
+ Rock Hill Unicom-Citation 123 Charlie Mike -airport advisory (It's important to see if anyone's home so you
can get to the snack machine)
+ Rock Hill traffic-Citation entering left downwind-two zero (the word "runway" is not really
necessary your Tail# is definitely not necessary unless there are two Citations in the pattern)
+ Rock Hill traffic-Citation turning left base-two zero (Tail# not necessary)
+ Rock Hill traffic-Citation-on final-two zero (Tail# not necessary)
+ After landing-unless there's other traffic in the pattern or waiting for takeoff-there's usually no
need to announce you're ''clear of the runway'' every time you exit. Consider the enigma ... If a tree
falls in the wilderness and there's no one there to hear it does it really make a sound? does anyone
give a damn if it makes a sound? The only one that might give a damn is another pilot in-flight...
hoping to avoid other in-flight traffic ... maybe at another airport close by... who's position report
you might inadvertently step on with your call. Sure it's courteous to announce you're clear when
there's other traffic in the pattern. But when there's no other known traffic, the possibility of anyone
colliding with you while you taxi to the ramp is pretty close to zero. There's also only a slim chance you'll
step on a call from another aircraft and actually cause a mid-air collision ... but the possibility exists.
Now here's an opportunity for all you righteous folks out there to tell your buddies how crazy I am.
Hey ... it's just my humble opinion. We report ... you decide!;o).
Hello thar 3 Charlie Mike.

Rock Hill's landin' runway 20.
Wind's 110°@ 31 gustin' to 50.
Thar's no other reported traffic.
We're poppin' some fresh
popcorn for ya right now and
you're in luck ... the O'Reilly
Factor's just now gettin' started!
CAUTION... YOU are about

to enter THE No Spin Zone.
Keep your eye on your airspeed
while in the traffic pattern
or you might die today.
And that's a memo.

(Chap 1 2 Lengel's Radio Manual )
VFR ARRIVAL at Large, Class B or C Airport

VFR Arrival at Class B Airport (when nobody knows you're up there):
Scenario #1 - Approach from airport under the Class B or close by
(you) Charlotte Approach-Citation 123 Charlie Mike
(you) 3 Charlie Mike is over Rock Hill-landing Charlotte-Citation 560-Two thousand five hundred
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike squawk 0347
(you) 0347 (no need for the tail# here 'cause you're in a conversation and this is not a clearance)
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike Radar contact over Rock Hill Cleared Class B Turn right heading 060-
Climb and maintain 3000 Expect 36R Altimeter 30.02 Did you say you had Whiskey?
(you) 060 3000 We have Whiskey 123 Charlie Mike
Scenario #2 - Approaching from well outside the Class B or C

(you) Charlotte Approach-Citation 123 Charlie Mike
(you) 3 Charlie Mike-approaching from the NW-landing Charlotte-Citation 560-descending ta
Three thousand five hundred
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike squawk 0347
(you) 0347 (no need for the tail# here 'cause you're in a conversation and this is not a clearance)
Make your initial call about 40 miles out. That's usually where they start controlling the airspace (even if
the Class B only extends out 30 miles). Make your initial call early, especially if it's a busy time of day, so
you don't chance busting Class B airspace before you're cleared into it.
GET THEIR ATTENTION FIRST Introduce yourself as a new aircraft by calling them
''Charlotte Approach'' and your full call sign, before you blurt out all your information
-or you'll just end up having to repeat everything all over again. Remember, you 're the
oddball VFR arrival, everyone else is I FR. This is a very busy dude.
Remember, for VFR, what they need to know is approximately (not exactly) Where you are What
you want to do ("landing Charlotte") the Aircraft Type and the Altitude you're at or descending to.
Hello down there on the ground.

We're up here in the sky and we'd like
to come over and land at your very
impressive looking airport please.

EMERGENCIES
In ANY emergency, do NOT ''REQUEST'' a damn thing! TELL THEM WHAT YOU'RE DOING.
Do NOTtry to maintain an altitude or heading that you cannot maintain JUST DO WHAT YOU HAVE
TO DO ... NOW! Numerous pilots have died because they waited for a ''request'' to be granted!!
JUST DO IT! TELL THEM about it later! Take charge of the situation YOU ARE THE BOSS !!
91.3 Responsibility and Authority of the Pilot In Command (also 135.19):
a) The Pilot In Command is directly responsible for, and is the final authority as to the operation of
that aircraft.
b) In an in-flight emergency reguiring immediate action, the Pilot In Command may deviate from
any rule to the extent reguired to meet that emergency.
c) "Upon the request of the Administrator," you may be required to supply a written report of the
incident Usually, only when they think you might have had some part in causing the incident
( 135.19 says you must file a report within 10 days).
·························· ~· ·· ··········
EMERGENCY-Engine Fire I Smoke :1. fu the airplane first.
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-We have an engine fire and smoke in the ;2. Point it where it needs to go.
cockpit We're turning back to the airport and descending-need :3. Then call ATC and tell 'em
- - - : what they can do for you.
vectors for the nearest runway. ·#l#flfl#ft#lll.#MNM11#4111~~~-
(them) 3 Charlie Mike understand smoke in cockpit continue your turn to a heading of 360 cleared direct
Charlotte Descend and maintain 3,000 Expect vectors ILS Runway 36R You're 10 miles from the
~~
airport right now and we'll have the equipment standing by.
(you) 360
•
Some History
SwissAir Flight 111 Wednesday, September 2, 1998:
-+ The flight took off from JFK at 8:18 pm bound for Geneva.
-+ At 9:10 pm, cruising at FL 330, the flight crew detected an odor of smoke in the cockpit. Four minutes
later, the smoke was visible.
-+ At 9:14 pm the flight crew made a ''pan-pan'' radio call to ATC, indicating that there was an urgent problem
with the flight, but not an emergency (denoted by a "Mayday" call) REQUESTING deviation to Boston 300
nm away. ATC offered the crew a vector to the closer Halifax, Nova Scotia, 66 nm away, which the crew
accepted.
-+ The crew then put on their oxygen masks and the aircraft began its descent. They ran through the two
Swissair checklists for smoke in the cockpit, a process that would take approximately 20 minutes and
become a later source of controversy.
-+ At 9:19 the plane was 30 nautical miles from Halifax, but the crew requested more time to descend from
21,000 ft.
-+ At 9:20, they informed ATC they needed to dump fuel. ATC Halifax subsequently diverted the flight
toward a location where they could more safely dump fuel about 30 nm from Halifax.
-+ At 9:24, the aircraft announced [finally] "Swissair 111 heavy is declaring emergency" and stated that they
had descended to "between 12,000 and 5,000 ft." The aircraft struck the ocean at 9:31 pm killing all on
board instantly.
-+ This aircraft almost certainly could have landed safely if the crew had acted more decisively.
ValuJet Flight 592 Saturday, May 11, 1996:
+ At 2:04 pm the DC-9 took off from Miami bound for Atlanta. . __
+ At 2:10 pm the flight crew noted an electrical problem. Seconds later, a flight attendant entered
the cockpit and advised the flight crew of a fire in the passenger cabin. Passengers' shouts of
"fire, fire, fire" were recorded on the cockpit voice recorder when the cockpit door was opened.
+ The crew immediately ASKED air traffic control for a return to Miami due to smoke !!1 the cockpit.
Aircraft was given instructions for a return to the airport.
+ One minute later, the First Officer requested the nearest available airport.
+ Flight 592 disappeared from radar at 2:14 pm and crashed in the Everglades, a few miles west of
Miami, at a speed in excess of 500 miles per hour. All 110 people aboard were killed instantly.
+ With only four minutes from problem detection to crash, unfortunately no action by the crew could
have saved this flight.

US Airways Flight 1549 January 15, 2009:
+ Flight 1549 "Ah, this is, uh, Cactus 1539 [sic]. Hit birds. We lost
thrust in both engines. We're turning back towards La Guardia." - . . ... ....
\\ ~
... ""'~
• •• '. ~'\\'¥iii
+ Departure "OK yeah, you need to return to La Guardia, turn left, '--
I
•••
l •• , • -
heading of, uh, 220."

Sully starts the turn without wasting time "requesting."
+ Flight 1549 "220."
+ Departure contacts the LaGuardia tower via land line "Tower, stop
your departures. We got an emergency returning."
+ Tower "Who is it?"
+ Departure "It's 1529 [sic], he ah, bird strike. He lost all engines. He lost the thrust in the engines. He
is returning immediately."
Notice that Sully was too busy to officially
+ Tower "Cactus 1529 [sic], which engine?" declare an emergency. Also notice the
+ Departure "He lost thrust in both engines, he said. " confusion over the call sign .
+ Tower "Got it."
+ Departure "Cactus 1529 [sic], if we can get it to you, do you want to try to land runway 1-3?"
+ Flight 1549 "We're unable. We may end up in the Hudson."
+ Departure "All right cactus 1549. It's going to be a left. Traffic to runway 3-1."
+ Flight 1549 "Unable."
+ Departure "Cactus 1549, runway four is available if you want to make left traffic to runway four. "
+ Flight 1549 "I am not sure if we can make any runway. Oh, what's that over to our right? Anything
in New Jersey, maybe Teterboro?"
+ Departure "Cactus 1529 [sic], turn right 2-8-0, you can land runway one at Teterboro. "
+ Flight 1549 "We can't do it." [A few seconds later] "We're gonna be in the Hudson."
+ Departure "I'm sorry, say again , Cactus." (No response as Capt Sully prepares for splashdown!)
''Minor'' EMERGENCY-Relatively minor Problem-A light indicates an issue with the Hydraulic System:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-We're having a problem with the hydraulic system and we'd like to
get back on the ground as soon as practical.
(them) 3 Charlie Mike understand are you declaring an emergency?
(you) Well-we're doing OK right now-But as a precaution-We do need to get it on the ground As
Soon As Possible.
However, if they do not give you almost direct to the airport and/or the problem starts getting worse ...
It's time to tell them you need ''PRIORITY.'' Saying the words ''We need PRIORITY'' will get you exactly
what you want RIGHT NOW! ''Emergency'' and ''Priority'' mean the same to ATC. See 91.123(d)
EMERGENCY-Thunderstorm-Updraft:
(AFTER you've powered back and put the speed brakes out and/or dropped the landing gear in order to
slow and stabilize the aircraft)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike is in EXTREME turbulence-we're going up 4000 FPM-we'll let you
know when we can level off
(them) 3 Charlie Mike understand sir what altitude are you leaving now?
(you) Right now we're passing through Flight Level 480-still going up 4000 FPM!!
(them) Roger sir let us know when you decide to level off We'll divert the International Space Station traffic
above you just in case!;o) .
''EXTREME Turbulence'' The aircraft is being violently tossed about and is practically impossible to
control. It may cause structural damage, if the pilot doesn't do something about it immediately. AIM 7-1-20.
In an emergency-A LARGE AIRPORT with a LONG RUNWAY and an ILS providing glide slope
information is definitely an important consideration with a large aircraft and/or bad weather. However,
one must also consider 91.7(b), which has been interpreted to mean; "the pilot, in an emergency situation ,
must land at the FIRST AVAILABLE and 'SUITABLE' airport AT WHICH A SAFE LANDING CAN BE MADE.
But he is NOT REQUIRED TO LAND AT THE FIRST AVAILABLE AIRPORT IF IT IS NOT 'SUITABLE'."
According to the FAA, safety is the paramount consideration. Convenience and comfort are not
considerations at all . The pilot is required to land at the ''FIRST AVAILABLE'' location ''CONSISTENT with
SAFETY.'' So, in other words, do not shut down an engine, and then fly another 100 miles, passing
several ''suitable'' airports along the way, just to get the airplane back home where your car is!
Somebody at the local FSDO may not consider that "consistent with safety," and you may very well hear these
words these disturbing words ''you're in a heap-o'-trouble Boy!''

MISCELLANEOUS
You Need a Frequency Change to Call FSS for Weather, etc.:
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike needs a frequency change for a ''couple of minutes''
(them) 3 Charlie Mike roger sir that's approved report back up within 5 minutes
(you) We'll do it, thanks
(you) Louisville Radio-Louisville Radio-Citation 123 Charlie Mike LISTENING ON 112.6-0VER
(them) Citation 123 Charlie Mike Louisville Radio What can we do for you today Sir?
(you) Blah ... blah ... blah .. .
(them) Blah ... blah ... blah .. .
(you) OK-Sounds great-That's all we need for now-Thanks a lot for your help today
Now You Must Report Back In to Center:

(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike-''back up'' at 380
(them) 3 Charlie Mike roger sir contact Atlanta Center now on 132.9
(you) One three two point niner-3 Charlie Mike
1. Don't bother telling them you want to "talk to FSS about the weather." THEY DON'T GIVE A RAT'S ASS
WHAT YOU WANT the FREQUENCY CHANGE FOR, but they do need some kind of TIME FRAME as
to HOW LONG you might need, in case you're getting close to the edge of their airspace. A ''couple of
minutes'' usually works.
2. When you call FSS, be sure to tell them what frequency you're listening on or you won't get a response.
3. When you check back on with ATC, it is common courtesy to mention the altitude you're back up at.
It's 2 am - You're a Freight Dog and you need to call Dispatch to check for messages:
(Check in GPS or flight guide for a Unicom Frequency close by usually 122.95 or 122.8 works best)
(you) Citation 123 Charlie Mike needs a frequency change for a ''couple of minutes''
(them) 3 Charlie Mike roger sir that's approved report back up
(you) We'll do it, thanks
(you) Tri-City Aviation-Citation 123 Charlie Mike on 122.95 over
(Peggy) Hey there 3 Charlie Mike, this is Peggy Sue at Tri-City haven't heard from you in a
while-go 'head Darlin'
(you) Howzit goin' Peggy Sue-you know I miss ya-I wonder if you could make an 800
call for me?
(Peggy) Well OK but it's gonna cost ya next time I see ya-go ahead with the number BIG BOY!
(you) OK-the number is-800-555-1234-just see if they have any messages for us and we'll standby
for a reply.
(Peggy) Okey Dokey I'll get right back to ya ya know I'd dial a ''900'' number for YOU Sugar Pie
(you) Sure do 'preciate it Peggy Sue
[So ... Peggy Sue makes the telephone call to operations then calls you back on the radio]
(Peggy)3 Charlie Mike they said "just call us when you get to the house." But I sure wish you'd come in for a
landin' at MY HOUSE Sugar
(you) Next time for sure Peggy Sue-gotta git along home right now-but I'll be a seein' ya
(Peggy) Come see me soon Big Boy I'm hotter than a billy goat in a pepper patch, if you catch my drift-
hugs & kisses!
NOTE 4:
If you can't find a suitable Unicom or it's 2:00 am and no one seems to want to answer try a call in the
blind on 122.95 with this kind of desperate (but very effective) plea:
''Citation 123 Charlie Mike calling anyone on the ground with a telephone that can make an
'800' call for us-that's ANYONE on the ground-on 122.95-that can make an '800' call for
us-please come back to 3 Charlie Mike -OVER."
This call WILL get a response!
NOTE 5:
If you're really desperate sometimes you can get FSS to make the call for you if they're not too
busy. But do NOT count on them unless you're desperate ... it's simply NOT their job.

Aircraft classes for wake turbulence separation ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ... 373
A Aircraft country registration number codes .................................. 378
Aircraft dispatcher ........................................................................ 326
AAFM-Approved Aircraft Flight Manual. ................... 174, 175, 317 Aircraft Flight Manual-AFM ....................................... 174, 175, 317
AAIP-Approved Aircraft Inspection Program .................... 309, 312 Aircraft lights ..................................... .............................. 84, 85, 371
Abbreviated briefing .................................................................. 223 Aircraft proving runs .....................................................................294
Absolute altitude ....... .. ............ .. ....... ....... ....... ........................... . 118 Aircraft required tests & inspections-100 hour, annual , etc .. .. ... 309
Absolute ceiling ................................................................... 333, 358 Aircraft requirements for commercial operations ...... ................... 237
A CARS Airborne Communications Addressing & Reporting .... 105, 152 Aircraft requiring more than one pilot flight crewmember ............ 196
Accelerated slipstream .............................................................. 335 Aircraft specific emergency training .............................................297
Accelerate-stop/accelerate go distance ............ 154, 156, 278, 333 Air-Cycle Machine-ACM .......................................................... 151
Accelerate-stop/accelerate go distance-dry/wet ....................... 156 Airline Transport Pilot qualifications/privileges ................ 188, 189
Acceptance of passenger supplied medical oxygen .................. 142 Airman Certification Standards-ACS ........................................ 166
Access investigation check-airport badge ... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... 325 Airman file-your pilot records-how to obtain copy ... .... ..... .... ... 324
Accident or incident ................................. .................................. 344 AIRMET-WA .............................................................................. 224
Accident report ............................................................................ 345 Airplane Flight Manual-AFM .................................... 174 , 175, 317
Accident scenarios-common multiengine accident scenarios .. 336 Airplane-is the airplane legal? ..................................................... 30
Accidents-notification of............................................................ 345 Airport Advisory Area-AAA ........................................................... 8
AC-Convective outlook ............................................................. 225 Airport analysis, destination ................................................ 284, 286
Accumulator .. ....... ....... ............ .. .............. ....... .. ............. ....... ..... 151 Airport badge-access investigation check ... ... .. .... ... .. .... .. ... ...... .325
Acetaminophen ......................................................................... 201 Airport beacons ................................................................................4
ACM-Air-Cycle Machine ........................................................... 151 Airport elevation & reference point ....... ......................................... 26
Acre ............................................................................................ 383 Airport identifier country prefix .....................................................378
Acrobatic category aircraft ................................................... 11 , 168 Airport identifier logic ...................................................................379
ACS-Airman Certification Standards ........................................ 166 Airport reference point & elevation ................................................ 26
Active number of pilots in the United States .............................. 359 Airport requirements-runway lighting (135/121) ........................ 276
Actual instrument time logging .. ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... ... .. .... ... 177 Airport signs .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... .... 22
Actual takeoff path-jet ............................................................... 158 Airport Surveillance Radar approach-ASR .................................. 61
ADC US ADvise customs remark on flight plan ...................... 277 Airport without an instrument approach-file IFR? ...... .................. 34
Additional instruments & equipment required-Part 135/121 ... 313 Airports with no weather reporting-arrival at (Part 135) ........... 264
Additional miscellaneous terms from around the world .............. 158 Airports with no weather reporting-departing (Part 135) ........... 265
Additional reports to be made at all times ..................................... 45 Airspace-graphic overview ...........................................................2
Address change ......................................................................... 180 Airspeed indicator color-codes and errors .................................. 114
ADF-all ADF-NDB stuff ................................................. 63, 64, 101 Airspeed in knots vs Mach .................................................. 111 , 116
ADF airway-colored airways-LIM F .... ............................... ........ 4 7 Airspeeds-indicated, calibrated, equivalent, etc ........................ 114
ADF antenna (on aircraft) ..... ........................................................ 98 Airstart-windmill start-jet engine ... ............................................ 162
ADF-GPS-DME-substitute GPS for ADF, VOR or DME ............. 94 Air-to-air frequencies .................................................................. 102
ADF/GPS-general ADF/GPS information ................................... 52 Airways-federal victor .................................. ...............................4 7
ADF (NOB) approach .................................................................... 64 Airworthiness certificate must be displayed ................................ 34
Adiabatic lapse rate-rule of thumb ....... ......... .... ..... .... ..... ..... ... 388 Airworthiness certificate-on board the aircraft .. ......... .... ..... .... ... 175
ADIZ & DEWIZ boundaries and mountainous areas .................... 12 Airworthiness check/inspection-Parts 135 & 121 ...................... 24 7
Administrative action-violation-enforcement action ..... 342, 343 Airworthiness-PIG is responsible for ......................................... 316
Administrative law judge enforcement action ........................... 343 Alcoholic beverages for passengers ................................. 203, 282
Admission to flight deck ............................................................ 249 Alcohol or drugs ......................................................... 202, 203, 285
Admission to pilot's compartment-en route check .................... 292 Alcohol-weight ........................................................................... 385
ADS-8-Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast ............ 103 Alert areas .....................................................................................10
ADS-C-Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract ............... 105 Algae in jet fuel ... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... . 145
Adult-standard average passenger weights ...................... ...... 244 All available information (preflight action) ..................................... 34
Advection fog ............................................................................. 228 All certificate holders-flight time & duty (Part 135) .... ................266
Adverse vs. proverse yaw .......................................................... 357 All-cargo operations-? ,500 pounds or less (Part 135) ............... 233
Aerial photography ..................................................................... 236 All-engine service ceiling ... ........................................... ............... 358
Aerobatic flight ............................................................................. 11 ALS-ALSF-1 &2 - Approach Light Systems ................ 73-75, 262
Aerodynamic twisting moments caused by flaps .... ...... ... .. ..... .. 355 Alteration-major repair and alteration-FAA 337 form ... ... .... ... 363
Aeronautical Information Manual-AIM-only an advisory? ..... 346 Alteration-operation after maintenance, rebuilding- test flight? .......... 312
AeroNav approach plate revision date ... ...................................... 49 Alternate & destination weather required (Part 135/121) .. 252, 253
AFM-Airplane Flight Manual ..................................... 174, 175, 317 Alternate-airport IFR weather minimums (Part 135/121 ) ........... 255
Aft CG-effects of ............................................. ................. 247, 381 Alternate-airport IFR weather minimums (Part 91 ) ...................... 35
Age 65 and Part 121 ................................................................... 327 Alternate-airport means ...................................................... 35, 255
Agonic line-compass ................................................................. 90 Alternate-ALWAYS required except when .................................. 35
AHARMMMS-approach briefing mnemonic ............................... 50 Alternate-Aspen CO, Bishop CA, Lake Tahoe CA ... ..... .. ... .... ..... 35
AIM-Aeronautical Information Manual-only an advisory? ...... 346 Alternate-do you need an alternate? (Part 91) ............................ 35
Aiming point marking ................................................................... 20 Alternate-do you need an alternate? (Part 135/121) .................254
Air ambulance flights-MEDEVAC ............................................. 350 Alternate-must have non-GPS approach available ..................... 94
Air carrier .................................................................................... 232 Alternate-takeoff alternate (Part 135/121) .................. ............... 259
Air conditioning terminology ........................................................ 151 Alternate-WAAS capable GPS .................................................... 96
Air Data Computer (ADC) ... .. .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ... 164 Altimeter errors-extremely cold weather ... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. .. 119-121
Air Defense Identification Zones-ADIZ & DEWIZ ....................... 12 Altimeter pitot/static check-every two years ..................... 119, 135
Air turbine starter aka Pneumatic starter .................................... 149 Altimeter pitot/static system-tested every 2 years ..................... 119
AIR EVAC ................................................................................... 350 Altimeter rules of thumb ..... .......................................................... 387
Airborne Communications Addressing & Reporting- AGARS .... 105, 152 Altimeter setting ...........................................................................119
Airborne weather radar required ................................................. 315 Altimeter setting-when not available-approach NA ............ 50, 53
Aircraft airworthiness ................................................................. 316 Altimeter setting and the flight levels ........................................... 134
Aircraft approach categories-A, B, C , D, E ..... .... ..... .... ..... .. 55, 110 Altimeter setting-high & low altimeter setting restrictions ... .... ... 126
Aircraft categories (normal, commuter, utility, etc.) ............... 11 , 168 Altimeter setting-Q codes-QNH , QNE, QFE ................. .......... 140
Aircraft category & class ....... ...................................................... 168 Altimeters should agree within ±75 feet ....................................... 119
INDEX
Altimetry and temperature ...... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... . 119, 121 ATC Clearance and flight plan required ....... .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .34
Altimetry around the world ....................... .......................... .. 140-141 ATC clearances and instructions-compliance with .................... 330
Altimetry in extremely cold weather ... ......................................... 119 ATC light signals ............................................................................ 83
Altitude-alerting system-turbojet ........................................... 162 ATC Radar Beacon System-ATC RBS ........................................53
Altitude-cardinal altitude ............................................... ............ 132 ATIS-ATS-approach briefing mnemonic ..................................... 50
Altitude changing altitude-Pilot's discretion ...................... 45, 129 ATIS-0-ATIS ...............................................................................49
Altitude-chambers-Physiological training .... ... .. .... .... ..... . 142, 195 ATP-Airline Transport Pilot .. ..... .... ..... .... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... 188, 189
Altitude-cross-reference .................................................... 135-138 Attitude Indicator (Al) .... ................................................................ 38
Altitude-cruising ........................................................................ 132 Authorization (additional) .......................... 57, 62, 67, 88, 133, 194
Altitude-density .... ............................................. 118, 124, 125, 387 Authorized flight instructor means .............................................. 300
Altitude-indicated ............................................ .......................... 118 Authorized flight instructor-gold seal flight instructor ................. 375
Altitude-loss during stall recovery ............................................. 353 Authorized flight instructor-qualifications ........................... 190, 191
Altitude minimum altitudes for IFR operations .......................... 128 Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Broadcast-ADS-B ............ 103
Altitude minimum safe altitudes .. ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .. 129 Automatic Dependent Surveillance-Contract-ADS-C .. .. .... .... .... 105
Altitude-oxygen altitudes ...... ............................... ..................... 139 Automated Unicom .. ......................................................................... 102
Altitude-pattern altitude at airports without control tower .... 18, 131 Automatic slot-wing .......................................................... 354, 355
Altitude-planning for short jet trips ............................................ 386 Autopilot ......................................................................................281
Altitude-pressure altitude .............................................. ............ 118 Auxiliary flight controls ............................................... ................ 151
Altitude-reporting-Transponder-Mode C .............................. 127 Auxiliary Power Unit-APU .......................................................... 150
Altitude-restriction-crossing restriction .. ...... ..... .... .... .. 42, 4 7, 111 Average passenger weights-standard ....... ... .. .... ... .. .... ..... ..... ... 244
Altitude-temperature correction chart ....................................... 119 Avgas-1 OOLL-weight ......................................................384, 385
Altitude-temperature and humidity effect on air density ......... 123 Aviation Area Forecast-FA ............................ ........................... 225
Altitude-temperature and humidity-effect on takeoff .............. 352 Aviation gasoline 1OOLL-weight ...................................... 384, 385
Altitude-traffic pattern at airports without control tower ...... 18, 131 Aviation number-commercial aviation oil grade number ........... 366
Altitude-traffic pattern-Class B, C, or D ...................... 19, 60, 130 Aviation physiology training (altitude chambers) ................. 142, 195
Altitude-types-pressure, density, indicated, etc ...................... 118 Aviation Safety Reporting System-NASA reports ...................... 340
AM-Amplitude Modulation broadcast ... ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... .. 97 Avionics terminology .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... .. 152
Analysis, destination airport analysis ................................. 284, 286 Avion ics-trou bleshooti ng ............................................................99
Angle of attack and lift-relationship .......................................... 353 AWOS cannot be used as weather if visibility missing (135/121) .... 76
Angle of attack ..................................................................... 351-353 AWOS vs. ASOS ..........................................................................217
Angle of bank for a standard rate turn-rule of thumb ................ 386 AWSS-Automatic Weather Sensor System ..............................217
Angle of incidence ....................................................................... 351 A WW-severe weather forecast alerts ........................................224
Angular deviation-VCR-full scale, % scale deflection ........ 46, 91 Axe crash axe ...........................................................................337
Annual inspection ....................................................................... 309
AN-oil-Army & Navy specification equivalent number ... ......... 366
Antenna-for localizer and glideslope (ground) ........................... 59
B
ANTENNAS-everything about ANTENNAS ........................... 97-99 Backcourse approach ..................................................................61
Anticollision lights ......................................................... 84, 85, 371 Backcourse marker ........................................................................ 59
Anti-ice I de-ice fluids ................................................................. 212 Backfiring ...................................................................................366
Anti-servo tab .... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... ... 357 Bad stuff for takeoff performance ... .... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... .... 122
AOPA "hotline" phone number ................................................... 346 Badge airport badge-access investigation check ................... 325
Approach briefing mnemonic-ATIS-ATS ................................... 50 Balanced Field Length-BFL ......................... ................... 154, 155
Approach categories-A, B, C, D, E ..................................... 55, 110 Bank angle for a standard rate turn-rule of thumb .................... 386
Approach Light Systems-ALS ......................... ............... 73-75, 262 Banner towing ... .. ........................................................................ 236
Approach plate revision date (AeroNav - aka NOS, NACO) ...... 49 Barber pole-Vmo, Mmo ............................................................ 114
Approach-radio lingo ................................................................ 405 Barometric altimeter ................................................................... 127
Approach weather not required for Part 91 ..... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... 260 Baro-VNAV .................................................. 32, 35, 62, 94, 96, 254
Approach weather required for Parts 135 & 121 .. ....................... 260 Base of clouds-estimate height of-rule of thumb ... ... .............. 388
APproach with Vertical guidance-APV ........................... 58, 62, 66 Basic "T" design for approaches .... ......................................... 68, 69
Approach-I FR to an airport without an instrument approach ...... 34 Basic currency requirements ....................................................... 169
Approach-no pilot may begin an instrument approach (135/121) .. 252 Basic flight time & duty limitations ( 121) ......................................273
Approved Aircraft Flight Manual-AAFM ................... 174 , 175, 317 Basic Operating Weight-BOW ...................................................245
Approved Aircraft Inspection Program-AAIP ..... ..... .... ..... . 309, 312 Basic Part 135 operator .. .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... .... ..... .... ... 238
APU-Auxiliary Power Unit ......................................................... 150 Basic VFR weather minimums .........................................................9
APV-APproach with Vertical guidance ................ ........... 58, 62, 66 Batteries-Double Os ................................................................. 150
Arc-DME arc procedures .. ................................................... 61 , 93 Battery start-turbine engine ...................................................... 148
Area Forecast-FA-aviation Area Forecast ............................. 225 Beacons-airport .............. ..............................................................4
ARea NAVigation approaches-RNAV-GPS ....................... 68, 69 Beechcraft-numbers & names ................................................. 349
ARea NAVigation-RNAV-RPN ......................................... 33, 152 Before takeoff checklist mnemonic ............................................. 382
Area of decision for multi-engine airplanes .. .... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... 333 Before takeoff passenger briefing ................................................293
ARINC-Aero-nautical Radio INC-HF radio ...................... ....... 104 Below DH or MDA-operating below ............................. ....... 70, 262
Arm-moment arm-W&B .. ....................................................... 245 BFL-Balanced Field length ................................................ 154, 155
Arrival at airports with no weather reporting .............................. 264 BFO-Beat Frequency Oscillator-ADF radio ......................63, 101
Arrival-radio lingo ............................................ .......... 407, 408, 409 BFR-Biennial Flight Review-flight review ................................ 169
ARROW-Airworthiness, Registration, Radio license, etc ......... 175 Bifocal contact lenses .................................................................200
AS DA-Accelerate Stop Distance Available ..... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. 158 Bird chasing ....... .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 236
Ash less dispersant oil ...... .......................................................... 366 Bird strikes ...................................................................................371
ASOS vs. AWOS ... ... ............................................................... ........ 217 Bishop, CA .........................................................................................35
Aspect ratio ................................................................................ 351 Black box-flight data recorders-FDR & CVR ..........................294
Aspen , CO .............. ...................................................................... 35 Black smoke-piston engine smoke ............................ ................ 366
Aspirin ........................................................................................ 201 Bleed air .............................................................................. 149, 153
ASR approach .............................................................................. 61 Bleeds-off takeoff ........................................................................ 149
ASRS-Aviation Safety Reporting System-NASA reports ... .... 340 Blind encoder-transponder ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... .. 127
Assaulting a pilot ................................................................. 86, 308 Blood alcohol level ......................................................................203
At or above the glideslope at Class B, C, or D airport .. ............... 57 Blood pressure .... .........................................................................201
INDEX
Blue line-multi engine ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... ... 114 CFl-hours of training (limitation on) ... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... . 191
Blue smoke-piston engine smoke ........ ............................. ........ 366 CFl-qualifications, records , renewal of certificate .......... ... 190, 191
Bonding strap ............................................................................ 152 CFM-Company Flight Manual ....... ................................... 174 , 317
Boundary layer .......................................................... 354, 355, 356 CG-effects of forward I aft CG .......................................... 24 7, 381
BOW weight-Basic Operating Weight ...................................... 245 Chamber-altitude chamber .............................................. 142, 195
Brake horsepower ...................................................................... 363 Chance of, occasional , intermittent, tempo, possibility ..... 35, 253, 254
Braking action-runway friction reports-MU value ..... . 26, 72, 213 Change of address .. .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... .. 180
Breakout maneuver-ILS PRM approach .... ............................... 79 Changing altitude-Pilot's discretion ................................... 45, 129
Brief passengers to fasten seat belts .... ....................................... 34 Charitable organization ..................................... ......................... . 185
Briefing for approach-ATIS-ATS ..... .......................................... 50 Charted Visual Flight Procedure approach-CVFP .... .................. 77
Briefing-passenger briefing before takeoff ................................ 293 Charts-aeronautical chart scales .............................................. 385
Briefing-takeoff ........................................................................... 39 Charts-checklist-performance data ........ ........................ 293, 284
Briefing-weather briefings ......................................................... 223 Charts-use of old charts for Part 91 operations ......................... 369
Burner can ... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ...... 149 Charts-VFR charts required .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .293
Bus bar & bus tie .......... .......................................... ........................ 150 Check airmen qualifications, training, checking , currency ......... .301
Business names-Doing Business As-OBA ........................... 237 Check ride-a quick synopsis of Part 135 checkrides .................242
B ass ratio-turbofan en ine ................................................... 146 Check ride-Part 135 PIC checking modules .............................. 304
Check ride-Part 135 SIC checking modules ............................. .305
c Check ride-the very first Part 135 check ride ......... ................... 307
Check rides are considered duty time ...... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ......... .302
Cabin air pressure safety valve .................................................. 142 Checklist-charts-performance data ............................... 293, 284
Cabin altimeter & cabin vertical speed indicator .. ....................... 153 Checkli sts-m ne mon i cs ..... ... ............................... ........................ 382
Cabin pressure regulator ...... ...................................................... 142 Chevrons-runway markings ......... .............................................. 21
Calendar quarter/year ................................................................ 267 Chief pilot-Part 135 & 121 ........................................................291
Calibrated airspeed .................................................................... 114 Children-standard average passenger weights ........................ 244
Camber ....................................................................................... 351 Chined ti res .................................................................................163
CAMI (Civil Aerospace Medical Institute) Physiological trng ..... 142, 195 Chord of an airfoil .... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ......... .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... .. 245
CAMP-Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program ............. 367 Chord or chord line ......................................................................351
Canada-flights between Mexico, Canada & the U.S .... ............ 277 Circling approach ................................................................. 67, 110
Canceling IFR flight plan .......................................................... 6, 81 Circling approach-30° of bank limitation .................................... 166
Candidates in elections, carriage of 91 .321 .... .. ......................... 236 Circuit breaker ... .. ....................................................................... 150
Captain-high minimum captain ................................................ 263 Civil Aerospace Medical Institute Physiological trng .......... 142, 195
Captain qualifications-Part 121 & 135 ...................................... 240 Civil twilight times .........................................................................370
Captain , does the captain get busted when SIC screws up? ...... 341 Class-aircraft ............................................................................. 168
Carbon monoxide ..... .............................................. ....................... 350 Class-category-pilot certificate & aircraft .................... ............ 168
Carburetor icing ..... .................................................................... 210 Class I & Class II Navigation .................................................. 46, 92
Cardinal altitudes ...................................................................... 134 Class A airspace ..............................................................................3
Cardiovascular requirements for medical ................................. 201 Class A , B , C, D, E-Cargo compartment classification ........... .. .248
Careless or reckless operation ................................................... 340 Class B airspace .............................................................................3
Cargo compartment classification-Class A , B, C, D, E .... .. ... ... 248 Class B VFR ... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .9
Cargo floor loading limits ............................................................ 244 Class C airspace .............................................................................4
Cargo-must be secured .......... .. ................................................ 243 Class C VFR ............. ............................................................... ..............9
Cargo-weight & balance-load manifest ........................... 243-246 Class D airspace ..............................................................................5
Carriage of candidates in elections 91 .321 .. .............................. 236 Class D VFR ..... .................. .............................................................9
Carriage of narcotic drugs, marihuana, and depressant ............. 202 Class E airspace ............................................................................. 6
CAT-Clear Air Turbulence ................................................ 215, 223 Class E VFR ....................................................................................9
Categories for approach-A, B, C, D, E ...................................... 55 Class F airspace ...... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... 10
Categories-aircraft (normal, commuter, utility, etc.) ............ 11 , 168 Class G airport-·take off in inst conditions without clearance ......... 7, 34
Category & class-pilot certificate & aircraft .............................. 168 Class G airspace .. ............................................................................ 7
Category A , B, C, D-MEL categories of deferred items ............ 318 Class G airspace-flap setting for turbojets .................................. 14
Category I, II , and, Ill ILS minimums ............................................. 57 Class G airspace IFR flight without a clearance .................... 7, 34
Category I, II, Ill aircraft-same runway separation categories .... 88 Class G airspace take off in inst conditions without clearance ....... 7, 34
Cavitation of hydraulic pump .... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ... 151 Class G control towers (temporary) (communications with) .... .. .... 83
COi-fuii-scaie deflection .............................................................. 55 Class G VFR ..... ...............................................................................9
COL-Configuration Deviation List ..... ... ..................................... 320 Classes of aircraft for wake turbulence separation ......... ............ 373
Ceiling definition ......................................................................... 218 Clear Air Turbulence-CAT ................................................ 215, 223
Cell phone-FSS direct line telephone numbers ............. ........... 229 Clear ice .............................. .........................................................211
Celsius to Fahrenheit conversion ............................................... 125 Clearance and flight plan required .. .............................................. 34
Center of Gravity & W&B table-all W&B stuff ........................... 245 Clearance-ATC clearances and instructions, compliance ......... 330
Center of Gravity ......................................................... 245, 24 7, 352 Clearance from clouds .... .................................................................9
Center of Gravity-effects of forward or aft CG .... ........... ... ........ 24 7 Clearance-large airports-radio lingo ................ ........................ 398
Center of lift ................................................................................. 352 Clearance Void time .................................................................. 8, 38
Center of pressure ....................................................................... 352 Cleared for the approach ..............................................................52
Center Weather Advisories-CWA ............................................. 224 Cleared for the option .................................................................... 63
Centerline lights ..................................................................... 24, 25 Cleared into Class B ........................................................................3
Certificate action-violation-enforcement action ... .... ..... . 342, 343 Cleared via SID/STAR .. .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. ... 42
Certificate-Holding District Office-CHOO .................................. 237 Clearway means ......................................................................... 367
Certificate-pilot certificate-category I class ....... ........... ... ........ 168 Clearw-ay ..................... ........................ ... ........................................... 155
Certificate-replacement of a lost airman or medical certificate . 180 Climb gradient ................................................................ 41 , 43, 386
Certificates required in pilot's possession ........................... 175, 177 Climb gradient-engine out climb gradient ................................. . 149
Certified ceiling .......................................................................... 358 Climb gradient-feet/NM to feet/minute formula .... ................... 386
Certified flight instructor qualifications ................................ 190, 191 Climb via SID .................................................................................42
Certified landing distance ..... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ...... 159 Climbing with a headwind/tailwind .............................................. 386
CFl-company flight instructor .................................................... 300 CLOCK-it can 't be just ANY clock ..... .. ........................... ...... 84, 85
CF I-gold seal flight instructor ···················································· 375 Close parallel approach-PRM (Precision Approach Monitor) .. .... 79
INDEX
Closing and locking flightcrew compartment door .. ... .. .... ..... ..... 325 CPDLC-Controller-Pilot Data Link Communications ..... ..... ........ 105
Cloud bases estimate height of-rule of thumb ....................... 388 Crash axe ......................................................................................... 337
Cloud clearance - VFR ...... ........................................................... 9 Crash-HOW TO CRASH an airplane ........................................336
Clutter-contaminated runway-precipitation ............................ 213 Crew pairing .................................................................263,285, 286
CNF - Computer Navigation Fix ................................................. 69 ~rew fiesource .Management (CRM) ............ ..............................295
Cockpit Voice Recorders-CVR ........................................ 294, 285 Critical angle of attack-stall ...................................................... 353
Cockpit-admission to pilot's compartment-en route check ..... 292 Critical engine ..... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ... 155, 333
Coffin Corner .............................................................................. 144 Critical field length ....................................................................... 155
Cold weather-altimeter errors in extremely cold weather ........ 119 Critical Mach .......................... ............... ................................. ........... 144
Color codes for airspeed indicators ... ......................................... 114 Critical phase of flight-sterile cockpit .........................................249
Color codes for flight plan ............................................... ............ 221 Crop dusting, seeding, spraying, and bird chasing .....................236
Color vision ................................................................................. 200 Cross-country time means .......................................................... 193
Colored (federal) airways (L/MF aka ADF) .................................. 47 Crossing restrictions .............................................................4 7, 111
CO MAT-COMpany MATerial ...... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... .... 246 Crosswind component .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ... 373, 381
Command bars ............................................................................... 152 Crosswinds-demonstrated vs. max allowable ........................... 373
Commercial aviation number-oil grade number ...................... 366 Cruise clearance-Cruise climb .................................................... 49
Commercial operator aka common carrier .................................. 232 Cruising altitudes ........................................................................ 132
Commercial pilot certificate qualifications ................................... 187 Currency requirements-flight review-3 landings .................... 169
Common carriage .............................................................. 232 , 237 Currency requirements-instrument experience ................. 170, 186
Common carrier aka commercial operator.. .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... .... 232 Currency requirements-Type Rating .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... .... 196
Common multiengine accident scenarios ................................... 336 Current limiter ............................................................................. 150
Communication antennas (on aircraft) ............................. ........... 97 Customs-flights between Mexico, Canada & U.S .................... 277
Communications failure IFR ................................................. 82 , 83 Cutouts-flight plan , °C to °F, reciprocals, mnemonics .............. 382
Communications with control towers-Class G ............................ 83 CVFP-Charted Visual Flight Procedure approach .......................77
Communications with tower when radio inop-light signals ......... 83 CVR-Cockpit Voice Recorders .......................................... 294, 285
Commuter category aircraft ................................................. 11 , 168 CWA-Center Weather Advisories ..............................................224
Commuter operation-Part 135 .... ......... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... .... 233
Company flight instructors ......................................................... 300
Company Flight Manual-CFM ........................................... 174 , 317
D
Comparable values of RVR and ground visibility ......................... 72 Damage-major or minor damage .............................................. 344
Comparisons, conversions, formulas & weights ....................... 385 Database updates .........................................................................94
Compass-all compass stuff ....................................................... 90 Datalinks ..................................................................................... 105
Compensation or hire ................................................................ 232 Date approach plate revision date (NOS-NACO) .......................49
Competency check-equipment check-SIC check ......... 242 , 302 D-ATIS-ATIS that is transmitted digitally as well as voice ... ........ 49
Complete airman file-how to obtain copy ................................ 324 Datum ...................................... ............................................. ............245
Complex airplanes-endorsement ............................................. 194 Day-aircraft instruments and equipment .... ................................. 84
Compliance with ATC clearances and instructions ................... 330 OBA-Doing Business As-business names ..............................237
Comply with restrictions/speed restrictions .................... ...... 42 , 111 DC flight fiestricted ~one (DC FRZ) (DC SFRA) ......................... 12
Compressed oxygen .................................................................. 142 Dead Reckoning ............................................................................41
Compressibility error-airspeed indicator ..... .... .. ... ......... .. ... .... 114 Deadhead transportation-flight time & duty ... .. ... ......... .. .. .267, 271
Compressor stall ....................................................................... 149 Decision-area of decision for multi-engine airplanes ............... 333
Computer Navigation Fix (CNF) .................................................. 69 Declare an emergency-not required before deviating .. .............331
Configuration Deviation List-COL ........................................... 320 Decompression sickness after scuba diving .............................. 123
Congested area-minimum safe altitude ....... .. .......................... 129 Decompression-rapid or explosive .................................... 142, 153
Constant speed propeller & manifold pressure .......................... 360 Decompression training (altitude chambers) ....................... 142, 195
Contact approach ......................................................................... 62 De-ice I anti-ice fluids ..................................................................212
Contact lenses ... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ....... 200 Delays-flight time & duty ...........................................................269
Containment region (RNP) ..... .. ........................................ ........... 33 Delete speed restrictions ...... ............................ ..................... 42, 111
Contaminated runway (clutter)-precipitation ........................... 213 Demarcation bar-runway ............................................................ 21
Contamination-test to detect contamination of jet fuel. ........... 373 Demonstrated crosswind ............................................................373
Continuous Airworthiness Inspection Program-CAMP ........... 367 Demonstrated landing distance ................................................... 159
Continuous turbulence ................................................................ 223 Density altitude ...........................................................................118
Contract carrier I Contract pilot ......... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... 232 Density altitude and performance ... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... .. 122
Contrails .................................................................................... 358 Density altitude charts & rules of thumb ..................... 124, 125, 387
Control tab .. ............................. ........................................................ 357 Density altitude-rules of thumb ....................... .............. ............. 387
Control tower-Class G ................................................................ 83 Density altitude-temperature affects on density altitude ............ 124
Control tower-non-federal ... .......................................................... 5 Density error-airspeed indicator ................................ ................ 114
Control towers-number in operation ......................................... 373 Departure Procedure-DP early turn .........................................43
Controllable-pitch propeller ....................................................... 360 Departure radio lingo .................................................................401
Controlled firing areas ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... 10 Departing airports with no weather reporting .............................. 265
Convective outlook-AC ............................................................ 225 Departing uncontrolled field in inst conditions w/o clearance .... 7, 34
Convective SIGMET-WST ........................................................ 224 DEPS-VOR check .....................................................................309
Converging !LS-simultaneous converging instrument approach ........ 80 Descend via STAR ..................................................................42, 48
Conversion placard-°C to °F ................................................... 382 Descent below DH or MDA .........................................................260
Conversion tables ................................................................ 390-393 Designated Pilot Examiner-OPE .............................................. 192
Conversions, comparisons, formulas & weights .......... .... ..... .... 385 Designation required for PIC/SIC .. .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. .. .249, 284
Convert pounds or liters of jet A into gallons ............................. 383 Destination airport analysis ................................................284, 286
Convert inches of mercury to millibars or hectopascals ..... . 141 , 218 Destination & alternate weather required (Part 135/121) .... 252, 253
Cooling packs-air conditioning in air carrier aircraft ... ............. 151 Destination sign .. ........................................................................... 22
Coordinated Universal Time-UTC ........................................... 380 Destination weather must be at least (Part 135/ 121 ) ... ................254
Copies of A TC tower/center tapes ............................................. 346 Destination weather must be at or above minimums ..................... 38
Copilot qualifications (SIC) ................................................ 182, 241 Destroyed airman or medical certificate-replacement of .......... 180
Copy of load manifest .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ....... 246 Deviation error-compass .... ......... .... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .90
Country prefix-airport identifier ................................................ 378 Deviation from ATC clearance or instructions ............................. 330
Country registration-aircraft number codes ... ........................... 378 Dew point lapse rate-rule of thumb .......................................... 388
INDEX
DEWIZ & ADIZ ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ....... . 12 Earth's horizon-visibility and the earth's horizon ..... .... ..... .... ... 367
DFDR & FDR-flight data recorders ...... ..................................... 294 ECAM-Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor .......................... 152
DH or MDA-operating below ............................................... 70, 262 ECU-Electronic Control Units ........ ............................................ 151
Diabetes mellitus ........................................................................ 201 EEC-Electronic Engine Control ................................................. 151
Diameter of a standard rate turn-rule of thumb ............. ........... 386 EFAS I flight watch I FSS - frequencies ... .................. ............... 102
Differences training .................................................................... 296 EFB-Electronic Flight Bag-iPad .............................................. 369
Differential-maximum allowable pressure differential .... .. ....... 153 Effect of air density on lift & drag ... ..... .. ......... ..... .... .... ..... .. ... ...... 352
Diode .......................................................................................... 150 Effect of altitude, temperature, and humidity on takeoff .............. 352
Dip errors-c.ompass .................. ...................................................... 90 Effect of Subpart K on Part 135 ................................................... 286
Direct air carrier .......................................................................... 237 Effective runway length .............................................................279
Direct line telephone numbers to FSS for cell phones ................ 229 Effects of forward I aft CG ........................................... ...... 247, 381
Direct with a VFR GPS ................................................................. 95 EFIS-Electronic Flight Instrumentation System ......................... 152
Direct-drive turboprop ................................................................. 147 EGT-Exhaust Gas Temperature ................................................ 149
Direction sign-airport signs ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... . 22 EHSl-Electronic Horizontal Situation Indicator ..... ... .. .... .. ... ...... . 152
Director of Maintenance Part 135 & 121 ............. .................... 291 EICAS-Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System ... ............. 152
Director of Operations-Part 135 & 121 ..................................... 291 Eighty (80)% landing limitations ................................. 279, 284, 286
Director of Safety-Part 121 ....................................................... 291 EKG-required for 1st class medical ............................................ 199
Discretionary issuance of a medical certificate ......................... 201 Elections-carriage of candidates in elections (91.321) ............ 236
Discretion-Pilot's Discretion .............................................. 45, 129 Electrical failure in IMC conditions ............................................... 82
Dispatch release aka flight release .. .. .... .. ... ...... ... .. .... ... .. .... .. ... .. 326 Electrical terminology ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... . 150
Dispatcher-aircraft-Part 121 .................................................. 326 Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor-ECAM ......................... 152
Displaced threshold .. ........................................................... 22, 279 Electronic Control Units-ECU .................................................... 151
Displayed , certificate number displayed on the aircraft .. ............ 237 Electronic devices-Portable ......................................................... 93
Distance off-course ................................................................ 46, 91 Electronic Engine Control-EEC ................................................. 151
Distance to station-formula ....................................................... 388 Electronic Flight Bag-EFB-iPad .............................................. 369
Distance formul.a ...................................................................... 388 Electronic Flight Instrumentation System-EFIS ......................... 152
Ditching procedures-Passenger briefing before takeoff ... ... .... 293 Electronic Horizontal Situation lndicator-EHSI ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... .152
Dive & Drive ................................................................................. 64 Elevation-airport elevation & reference point ............................. 26
Diverse Vector Area-DV A .. ........................................................ 43 Elevator tr·im tab .. ........................................................................ 357
DME antenna (on aircraft) ............................................................. 99 Eligible on-demand operator ................................... 286, 260, 279
DME arc procedures ......................................................... 54, 61 , 93 ELT antenna ....... .. ......................................................................... 97
DME-all DME stuff ...................................................................... 93 ELT check ....................................................................................309
DME-GPS substitute for ............................................................. 94 ELT -aircraft that do not require an ELT ............................ 338, 339
DME-required above 24,000 feet .. ............................................. 84 ELT-changes in the works ......................................................... 339
Do you need an alternate? (Part 135/121) ................................ 254 ELT -Emergency Locator Transmitters ....................... 84, 338, 339
Do you need an alternate? (Part 91 ) ... .......................................... 35 EMAS-Engineered Materials Arresting System ........ ................ 157
Documents-presentation of pilot's documents ........................ 177 Emergency air traffic rules ..........................................................226
Documents required on board aircraft ............... ......................... 175 Emergency drill training ...............................................................297
Doing Business As-OBA ........................................................ 237 Emergency equipment required-extended overwater ............... 313
Domestic operation means-Part 121 ... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... 234, 235 Emergency equipment-more than 19 passengers .... .... ..... .... ... 337
Domestic operation-flight time limitations & rest ( 121) ............. 271 Emergency exits-passenger briefing before takeoff .................. 293
Domestic operation-fuel supply ................................................ 250 Emergency Locator Transmitter antenna .......... .. .......................... 97
Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums-DRVSM .... 133 Emergency Locator Transmitters-ELT ....................... 84, 338, 339
Don't let it go over there ............................................................ 240 Emergency mail service .................................. .............................236
Door-closing and locking flightcrew compartment door ........... 325 Emergency maintenance .................................................... 285, 286
Double Os (batteries) ......................................................... 150, 315 Emergency means .......................................................................337
Doubt-1 o/o of Doubt .. .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 106 Emergency revocation of pilot certificate ....... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... .343
DP-Departure Procedures ...... .................................................... 43 Emergency training ... ....................................................................... 297
Drag ..................................................................................... 351-353 Emergency-reports required ...................................................... 330
Draining sumps advice .............................................................. 381 Emergency-radio lingo ..............................................................410
Driftdown ........................................................................... 333, 358 EMERGENCY-you may deviate immediately ......... .......... 330, 331
Driftdown-enroute-transport category turbine ........................ 159 Empire State building ................................................................368
Driving record-how to obtain copy ...... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ...... 324 Empty weight ..... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..245
Drones-Unmanned Aircraft Systems ....................................... 375 Encoding altimeter .................................................................... 127
Dropping objects ............................................................................ 86 End of the feather-GSIA .... ............................................... 56, 128
Drugs or alcohol ..... .................................................... 202, 203, 285 Endorsements-complex, high performance, etc ...... ................ 194
Drugs-over-the counter ............................................................. 204 Endurance formula ...................................................................388
DRVSM-Domestic Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums .... 133 Enforcement action-if you become involved in ............... 342, 343
Dry adiabatic lapse rate rule of thumb ..................................... 388 Enforcement investigative report ................................................. 343
Dry lease ... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... .. 236 Enforcement, does the PIC get busted when SIC screws up? .... 341
DUI-Driving Under the Influence ............. .......................... 202, 203 Engineered Materials Arresting System (EMAS) ........................ 157
Dump valve ........................................................................ 142, 153 Engine failure stuff ............................................................. 332, 333
Duration of a medical certificate ................................................ 199 Engine Indication and Crew Alerting System-EICAS ................ 152
Dutch roll ........................................................................... 163, 357 Engine Pressure Ratio-EPR ...................................................... 149
Duty period-flight time & duty ................................................... 269 Engine starting-jet I turbine ....................................................... 144
Duty time-flight time & duty ...... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... . 266-275 Engine-out climb gradient ....... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... . 149
DVA-Diverse Vector Area ........................................................... 43 Engine-out service ceiling ............................................................358
............... ................................ 111 , 372, 389 English-the universal language ........ .. ...................................... 359
En route inspection en route check ............................................ 292
E Enroute radio lingo ....... .............................................................402
En route time-formula ................................................................. 388
EADl-Electronic Attitude Direction Indicator ............................. 152 Epilepsy and your medical. .........................................................201
Ear block .. ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ...... 350 EPR-Engine Pressure Ratio .......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... . 149
Ear, nose, throat, and equilibrium medical requirements ........... 201 Equilibrium requirements for medical ........................................201
Early turn on a Departure Procedure ........................................... 43 Eguipment & instruments required IFRNFR ................................ 84
INDEX
Equipment and instruments required-Part 135/121 .... ..... .. ... .... 313 First-class medical certificate-duration of ... .... .. ... ....... .. ... .... .... .. 199
Equipment check-SIC check-competency check ......... .......... 302 First-class medical-required for ........ .. ................ .............. ......... 197
Equipment required-passengers-I FR I VFR ........................... 313 FIS-B - flight Information §.ervice-~roadcast ........................... 103
Equipment requirements-IFR I VFR ........................................... 84 Five year background check-PRIA-135/121 ...................239, 324
Equipment suffixes ................ ........................................................ 32 Fixed slot-wing ............................ ...................................... 354, 355
Equivalent airspeed ......... .......................................................... 114 Flag operation-fuel supply ......................................................... 250
ER-OPS .. ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... . 159, 314 Flag operation-Part 121 ...... ..... ....... .. ... .. ......... ... ........ ... ... ..234, 235
Error in your logbook ........ .......................................................... 181 Flag operations-flight time limitations ........................................272
Errors-altimeter errors in extremely cold weather ..................... 119 Flameout .. ........... ... ............................................................... ........... 149
Established-on course or on the approach .. .. ........................... 55 Flap setting for turbojet aircraft in Class G airspace ... .................. 14
Estimate height of cloud bases-rule of thumb ......................... 388 Flaps, slots, slats, boundary layer control. ................... ........ 354, 355
ETOPS-Extended-range Twin-engine Operations ........... 159, 314 Flashlight-flying equipment .............................................. 150, 315
Examiner [flight examiner] means .............................................. 192 Flight attendant requirements-number required ....................... 308
Examiner-status during a practical test .... .... ..... .. ... ....... .. ... .... .. 192 Flight check-a quick synopsis of Part 135 checkrides .... ... .... .... 242
Exemption 3585-People Express exemption .. .... ............ 256, 257 Flight check-FAA aircraft flight checking navigation aids .......... 359
Exemption 5549-High Minimums captain ...................... ........... 263 Flight control terminology-primary, secondary, auxiliary ........... 151
Exhaust Gas Temperature-EGT .............................................. 149 Flight crewmember duties-sterile cockpit ..................................249
Exit seating ......................................... ........................................ 282 Flight crewmembers at their stations-seat belts ... ............... 34, 316
Exiting the runway after landing ...................................... 26, 72, 81 Flight crew pairing ............................................... 263, 285, 286, 327
Experimental category ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ....... 168 Flight Data Recorders-FDR & DFDR .. .. ......... ... .... .... ...... ..294, 285
Explosive decompression-rapid decompression ............. 142, 153 Flight deck-Admission to flight deck ..........................................249
Expunction duration-enforcement action ........ .... .............. ...... 343 Flight director ......................... ........................................................... 152
Extended envelope training ............... ............... ......................... 306 Flight examiner means I status during a practical test ................. 192
Extended overwater weather ...................................................... 315 Flight following ................................. ..............................................44
Extended overwater-emergency equipment ............. 314, 285, 286 Flight instructor-company flight instructor .................................. 300
Extended overwater-radio & navigation equipment required ... . 314 Flight instructor-gold seal flight instructor .................................. 375
Extended range Twin-engine Operations-ETOPS .. ..... .... . 159, 314 Flight instructor-hours of training (limitation on) .. .... ..... ..... ....... . 191
Extreme turbulence ......... ................................................... 207, 224 Flight instructor-qualifications .................................................... 190
Extremely cold weather-altimeter errors ........ .. ......................... 119 Flight instructor-records I renewal of certificate ....... .. ................ 191
Eye locator-seat adjustment ..................................................... 325 Flight into known icing .................................................................208
E e-vision re uirements for medical .............. .................. 199, 200 Flight leader-formation flight-operating near other aircraft ........ 27
Flight Level-cruising altitude orientation-lowest usable ........... 132
F Flight Levels-altimeter setting ....... ... ... ... ... .. .... ..... ..... .... ... .. ........ 134
Flight locating procedures .............. .............................................. 276
FA-aviation Area Forecast ..... ......................... ... ....................... 225 Flight Management System Procedures for Arrivals-FM SP ...... .. 48
FAA "hotline" phone number ............................. ......................... 346 Flight Management System-FMS .. ......................... 32, 48, 78, 152
FAA 337 form-major repair and alteration ................................ 363 Flight of two-formation flight-operating near other aircraft ........ 27
FAA pilot records-how to obtain copy ....................................... 324 Flight operations evaluation board-MEL ....................................318
Fahrenheit to Celsius ................................................................. 125 Flight path ....................................................................................351
FADEC-Full Authority Digital Engine Control .. .. ..... ......... .. 151 , 194 Flight plan and ATC Clearance required .... .. .... ..... ..... .... ..... ....... .. .34
False GlideSlopes ................................................................ 56, 128 Flight plan form ............................................................................222
Falsification of applications, certificates, logbooks, etc .... .. ....... 181 Flight plan-IFR to an airport without an instrument approach ..... 34
Falsification on application for a medical certificate .................... 198 Flight plan-wallet size cutout ....................................... 32, 221, 382
FAP-Final Approach Point ............................................ .............. 57 Flight regimes-subsonic, transonic, supersonic, hypersonic ..... 116
FAS-Final Approach Segment .................................................... 57 Flight release aka dispatch release ............................................. 326
Fastest and highest flying aircraft .............................................. 358 flight B.estricted ~one (DC FRZ) ........ ... .. ......... ... .... .... ... .. .... .... ..... 12
Fatal injury .................................................................................. 344 Flight restrictions-temporary NOTAMs .. ... .. .... ..... ..... .... ..... ....... .226
FCC radio license-pilot's personal and aircraft .. .. ............ .. ....... 175 Flight review (BFR) .... ........... .. ................ .............. ........... .. .......... 169
FCU-Fuel Control Unit ...... .. ........................................... ........... 151 Flight Service Station - Lockheed Martin .................................. .229
FDC NOTAM ............................................................................... 227 Flight Service Station frequencies ....................................... 102, 223
FDR & DFDR-flight data recorders ................................... 294, 285 Flight Simulation Training Device ................................................ 374
FD-winds and temperature aloft forecast ................................. 225 Flight test-operation after maintenance, rebuilding, or alteration ... 312
Federal (victor) airways ....... ... ... ........... ... .. ......... ..... ..... .... ..... .... ... 47 Flight time & duty limitations-basic (121 ) .... ... .. .... .... ..... ..... ........273
Federal elections-carriage of candidates in elections ............... 236 FLIGHT TIME & DUTY ........................................................ 266-275
Feet per minute-feet per second-miles per hour ............... ..... 385 Flight time limitation-flag operations (121) .... .... ........... .. ........... 272
Ferry flight-flight time and duty ......................................... 268, 274 Flight time limitations & rest requirements (135) ....... .. ................ 266
Ferry permit example ....... ................................. .......................... 323 Flight time limitations & rest requirements-unscheduled (135) .267
Ferry permit-special flight permit .............................................. 322 Flight time limitations-pilots not regularly assigned (121) .......... 274
Filing IFR to an airport without an instrument approach .............. 34 Flight time limitations-supplemental operations (121) ............... 275
Final Approach Fix-FAF & Glideslope Intercept Altitude ....... ..... 56 Flight time means .. .. .... ..... .... ..... ....... .. ... ........ ...... ... ... .. .... ... .269, 274
Final Approach Point-FAP ..... .. ............ .. ................ .............. ....... 57 Flight visibility when operating from a satellite airport .... .. ............. 70
Final Approach Segment (on ILS) ...... .. ......................................... 56 Flight visibility ..................... .............. ..................... 70, 260, 261 , 367
Final Approach Segment-FAS .................................................... 57 Flight visibility-operation below DH or MDA ................................70
Final segment climb-jet takeoff ................................................. 154 Flight watch I EFAS I FSS frequencies ..... ................... ................ 102
Fingerprints-airport badge-access investigation check ....... . 325 Fliqhtcrew of two pilots lower than standard takeoff minimums .259
Fire detection and protection-jet ...... .... ..... ....... .. ... .. ......... ... .... .. 162 Floor loading limits-cargo ... ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ..... .... ... .. ... 244
Fire extinguishers ........................................................................ 337 Floor-used as a seat-parachute jumps-Part 91 only ............... 84
Fire extinguishers-passenger briefing before takeoff ...... .... ..... 293 Flotation device ...... ................ ............. .......................... ... ................30
Fire extinguishers-passenger carrying aircraft ............. ............ 297 Fluid & fuel colors ............. .............. ............... ............................. 381
Fire fighting ......... ................................ ........................................ 236 Flying equipment-flashlight .......................................................315
Fire protection and detection-jet ............................................... 162 FMS-Flight Management System ........................... 32, 48, 78, 152
First aid kits ................................................................................ 337 FOG .............................................................................................228
First checkride-December 17, 1903 .. .... ... ... .. ... .. .... .... ..... .. ... .... 307 Forces acting on an aircraft in flight .. ... ........ ... ... ........ ...... ... ... .. ... 351
First segment climb-definition variations .................................. 155 Forecast-aviation area forecast-FA ........................................225
First segment climb-jet takeoff .................................................. 154 Forecast icing conditions-definition ............. ............... .............. .210
INDEX
Form drag ..... .. ... .... ..... ..... ... .. ..... ..... .... ... .. ......... ... .. ... ......... .. ... .... 353 GPWS-Ground proximity/terrain awareness warning system ... 294
Formation flight-operating near other aircraft .................... ........ 27 Grace month-instrument currency-commercial pilots .... ......... 170
Formulas and rules of thumb .............. .............. .................. 386-389 Grace month-Part 135 & 121 ................................... 170, 296, 303
Formulas, weights, conversions & comparisons ......................... 385 Gradient-up-sloping runway takeoff-rule of thumb ................. 386
Forward CG-effects of ..................................................... 24 7, 381 Gravity .. .. ..................................................................................... 352
Forward observer's seat ............................................................. 292 Great circle track-GPS ..............................................................94
Forward scatter technology .... .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .... .. .... .... .... .. ...... .. ... 72, 261 Green arc ... .. ... .... ..... ..... ... .. .... .......... ..... ..... .... ... .. ......... ... .. ... .... .... 114
Fowler flap .......................................................................... 354, 355 Green threshold lights ............................................................... ... 262
FPO (Freezing Point Depressant) de-ice/anti-ice fluids ...... .. ...... 212 Greenwich Mean Time GMT .............. .............. .............. ......... 380
Fractional ownership-subpart K of part 91 .... .. ................. 284-286 Gross takeoff path-jet .... .......................................................... 158
Fractions table-1 /64-1 /32-3/64-1 /16-5/64-3/32-7/64-1 /8 ........ 382 Ground Based Augmentation System (GBAS) ............................. 96
Free-turbine turboprop ............................................................... 147 Ground Communications Outlet (GC0) .........................................42
Freezing level-rule of thumb .................................................... 388 Ground fog ...................................................................................228
Freezing Point Depressant (FPO) de-ice/anti-ice fluids .. .... .. .. .. .. 212 Ground icing conditions .. .. .. .. .... .. .... .... .... .. ...... .. .... .... .... .. .... ........ .211
Freezing rain ... ................................................................................... 211 Ground Proximity Warning System-GPWS .... .. ................ 152, 285
Frequencies and frequency bands .... .. .............. .................. 97, 100 Ground Proximity/terrain awareness Warning System-GPWS .294
Frequencies for FSS I flight watch I EFAS .................................. 102 Ground speed ....................................................................... 114, 388
Friction reports-MU-runway braking action ............... 26, 72 , 213 Ground speed I miles per minute .. .. ................ ............................. 111
Frost ice or snow on the aircraft ................................................... 38 Ground training-initial, transition, and upgrade ......................... 295
Fro st . ... .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. . 211 Ground visibility ... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... ... 72
FAZ-Flight Restricted Zone ........................................................ 12 Group I & Group II airplanes .......................................................296
FSS flight watch-EFAS frequencies ...... .............. ................... 102 GSIA-GlideSlo e lnterce t Altitude .. .... .............. .............. ........... 56
FSS-Lockheed Martin ............................................................... 229
FSTD-Flight Simulation Training Device .................................. 374
Fuel & fluid colors ....................................................................... 381
H
Fuel burn rate-formula .............................................................. 388 Hash marked pointer-red & white barber pole-Vmo, Mmo ... 114
Fuel Control Unit-FCU .. .. .... .... .. .. .......... .. .. .......... .. .... ...... .... .... .. 151 Hazardous inflight weather advisory service .... .... ...... .. .. .... .. .. .. .. 224
Fuel dumping ....... ....................................................................... 159 HAZardous MATerials operations/training .. .. .............. ........ 298, 285
Fuel load-W&B ..... .................................................................... 245 HAZMAT paperwork-example ....... ............................................299
Fuel quantity used-formula ....................................................... 388 Headwind during climb-reduce the effect of ............................. 386
Fuel sump draining advice .......................................................... 381 Hearing requirements for medical .. .. .............................. ............. 201
Fuel supply IFR ..................................................................... 36, 250 Heart disease ..............................................................................201
Fuel supply VFR ........................................................................... 36 Heat exchanger .......................................................................... 153
Fuel supply-domestic, flag or supplemental operations ........... 250 Heated pitot-required for passengers IFR ................................ 313
Fuel terminology .............................................................................. 151 Heavy-classification for wake turbulence separation .... .. ... 40, 373
Fuel types-Jet A, B, A-1 ...... .. .............. ...................................... 151 hectoPascals to inches of mercury-conversion ...... .. ...... 141 , 218
Fuel weight .................................................................................. 384 Helicopter-alternate required .....................................................32
Fuel-test to detect contamination of jet fuel .............................. 373 Helicopter flights within 25 SM radius of the airport of takeoff ..... 236
Full Authority Digital Engine Control-FAD EC ........................... 151 Helicopter-Minimum Safe Altitudes ........................................... 129
Full Part 135 operator ...... .... .... ...... ...... .. .... ........ .. .... ........ .... .. .. .. . 238 Helicopter-pilot in command seating position .... .... .... .... .. .. ...... .. 359
Full scale deflection of COi ................ .............. ............................. 55 Hemispheric rule-cruising altitudes .......................................... 132
Fuse . .. . .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. . .. .. .. ... .. .. . . ... 150 HF radio-everything about High Frequency radio ........ .. ........... 104
Fusible plu s-tires ................................................................... 163 HFDL-High Frequency Data Link .............................................. 105
High altimeter setting ................................................................ ... 126
G High altitude airports, Aspen, S Lake Tahoe, Bishop .................... 35
High altitude charts ........................................................................47
Gallons to liters-conversion ........................................ ............. 385 High altitude destinations ................ ...............................................35
Gallons to pounds of jet A-conversion .... .............. ................ .... 383 High altitude endorsement ...... .. ............ ................ .............. ......... 195
Gallons-convert pounds or liters of jet A into gallons .. .. ........... 383 High altitude chamber training ........ .. .............. .................... 142, 195
Gallons-fuel weight-pounds per U.S. gallons ......................... 384 High-bypass engine ..................................................................... 146
Garrett engine ............................................................................ 147 High Frequency radio-everything about HF radio ..................... 104
Gas, fuel supply required ...................................................... 36, 250 High Frequency radio signals ........................................................97
Gasoline weight .. ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .. 385 High humidity and performance .. ...... .. .. .... .. .. .. .. .... .. ...... .. .... ........ . 124
G BAS-Ground Based Augmentation System ............................. 96 High minimums captain-Exemption 5549 .................................. 263
GCO-Ground Communication Outlet .... .... .............. .............. ...... 42 High minimums captain-turbine-powered aircraft ............ .......... 263
General emergency training ....................................................... 297 High-performance airplanes-endorsement ................................ 194
General medical condition-diabetes mellitus ............................ 201 High speed buffet .............................. ........................................... 144
General Operations Manual-GOM ............................................ 289 High to low lookout below ............................................................ 120
General Operations Manual-GOM-information & changes .... 290 Highest flying aircraft ..................................................................358
Glide path (visual) .............................. ............................ .............. 75 H MU-HydroMechanical Unit ....................... ............................... 151
Glide Slope antenna (on aircraft) .............. .............. ................ ...... 98 Hold in lieu of a procedure turn ............................ .......... 54, 65, 109
Glide Slope antenna (on ground) ........ .. .............. .......................... 59 Holding-I FR recency ................................................................. 170
Glide Slope critical area ................................................................ 23 Holding out ...................................................................................232
Glide Slope Intercept Altitude-GSIA ................................... 56, 128 Holding Pattern .............................................................. . 64, 65, 109
Glide Slope-Class B, C, or D (remain at or above) ....... 19, 60, 130 Holding position markings-ILS Critical Area ......................... 23, 57
GMT-Greenwich mean time .. ...... .... .... ...... ...... .. .... ........ .. .... ..... 380 Holdover times-ground icing conditions ...... .. .. .. .......... .. .... ...... .212
GNSS-Global Navigation Satellite System .. ............................... 32 Horizon-visibility and the earth's horizon .................................. 367
Gold Seal flight instructor ...... .... .............. .............. .............. .... 375 Horsepower ............................................. .............................. 362, 362
Good stuff for takeoff performance .... .. ....................................... 122 HOSP-MEDEVAC ..................................................................... 350
G PS ......................... .............. .................................................. 94-96 Hot battery bus ... .. ....................................................................... 150
GPS antenna (on aircraft) ............................................................. 99 Hot glycol de-ice fluid ...................................................................212
GPS approaches ..................................................................... 68, 69 Hot start-turbine engine ............................................................. 148
GPS-IFR direct with a VFR GPS ........ .. .. .. .......... .. .. ........ .. .. .... .... 95 Hot-high-humid-bad for performance .. .. .. .. .. .... .. .. ...... .... .. .. ........ 122
GPS-substitute for VOR, ADF or DME ........ .. ............................. 94 How to crash an airplane equipped with a spare engine ........ .. ... 336
GPWS-Ground Proximity Warning System .... .. ........................ 152 Humidity & takeoff-rule of thumb .. .. .......................................... 386
INDEX
Humidity, altitude & temperature-effect on takeoff ...... .... ..... .... 352 INS-Inertial Navigation System .... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 152
Humidity-high humidity and performance .......................... ....... 124 Inspection Authorization - IA ......................... .. ......................... 344
Hundred (100) hour inspection .................................................. 309 lnspection-100 hour I annual .....................................................309
Hundred (100) hour-high minimums captain ............................ 263 Inspections and tests-ramp check ...........................................292
Hung start-turbine engine .............................. .......................... 148 Inspectors admission to pilot's compartment-en route check .. 292
Hush kits-noise ........................................................................ 165 Instructor-company flight instructor ......................................... 300
Hydraulic fluid-weight ....... ... .. .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... .... 385 Instructor-flight instructor .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... 190, 191
Hydraulic fuse ............................................................................. 151 Instructor-gold sea I flight instructor ........................................... 3 7 5
Hydraulic pump cavitation ... ... .............. .............. ......................... 151 Instructor-hours of training (limitation on) ....................... ........... 191
Hydraulic terminology ................................................................. 151 Instructor-qualifications .. ...........................................................190
HydroMechanical Unit (HMU) ................................................... 151 Instructor-records I renewal of certificate .................................. 191
Hydroplane speed ............................................................. 372 , 389 Instrument & equipment requirements-VFR I IFR ..................... 84
Hypersonic flight regime ............................................................ 116 Instrument approach-IFR to an airport without a published IAP ........ 34
Hypertension and your medical. .. ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .. 201 Instrument approach-no pilot may begin an approach .. ..... .... ... 252
Hyperventilation ........................................................................ 350 Instrument currency-IFR recency-6 month .. ................... 170, 186
H oxia ............................................................................................. 350 Instrument Landing System-ILS ... ............................................... 59
Instrument Proficiency Check .............................................. 170, 186
I Instrument Proficiency Check-Part 135 checking modules ....... 304
Instrument Proficiency Check-Part 135-a quick synopsis ....... 242
!A - Inspection Authorization ...... ......... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ...... 344 Instrument Proficiency Check-PIC check-Part 135/121 .. ........ 303
ICAO airport identifier country prefix ........................................... 378 Instrument rating qualifications .................................................... 186
ICAO flight plan ......................... .. .................................................... 222 Instrument training in VMC conditions .......................................... .84
Ice ............................................................................................. 208-213 Instruments & equipment required IFRNFR ................................ 84
Ice bridging .................................................................................. 209 Instruments and equipment required-part 135/121 ................... 313
Ice fog ... ...................................................................................... 228 Intercept procedures ..... ................................................................ 13
Ice or snow on the aircraft .............................................. 38, 208-213 Interchange agreement ..............................................................280
Ice pellets ..... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... .... 211 Interference drag ... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .. 353
Iced-over sparkplug electrodes ...... ............................................ 213 Interference with crewmembers ............................................. 86, 308
Icing-ground icing conditions ................................................... 211 Intermittent turbulence .... ...........................................................223
Icing-forecast/known icing conditions-definition ..................... 210 Intermittent, chance of, occasional , tempo, possibility ... 35, 253, 254
Identifier-airport identifier logic ................................................ 379 lnternational-altimetry around the world .......................... 140-141
IFR I VFR instruments and equipment .......................................... 84 International checklist .................................................................. 141
I FR altitudes-minimum altitudes for IFR operations ................. 128 International-country registration-aircraft number codes ........ 378
IFR arrival at small uncontrolled airport-radio lingo .................. 408 International flight plan form ........................................................222
I FR cruising altitudes ........................................... ....................... 132 International-flights between Mexico, Canada & U.S ... .............277
IFR direct with a VFR GPS ........................................................... 95 lnternational-ICAO airport identifier country prefix ... ................. 378
IFR fuel supply ............................................................................... 36 International Standard Atmosphere-ISA-rules of thumb .125, 387
IFR fuel supply-domestic, flag or supplemental operations .... .. 250 lnterphone & public address system required ............................313
IFR recency I currency I experience ................................... 170, 186 Interpretations, legally binding? ................................................. 341
IFR takeoff limitations (Part 135/121) ..... .... ... .. .... ..... ......... .. ... ...... 38 Inter-stage Turbine Temperature-ITT ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 149
IFR takeoff minimums (Part 135/121) ................................. 258, 259 Intimidating a pilot ................................................................86, 308
IFR to an airport without an instrument approach ......................... 34 Inverters ...................................................................................... 150
IFR training in VMC conditions ..................................................... 84 IOE-lnitial Operating Experience ............................................... 308
IFR-radio & navigation equipment required .............................. 314 iPad ..................... .............. .............. .............. .............. .......... 95, 369
If you don't want the airplane to go over there ......................... 240 IRS-Inertial Reference System .. ................................................ 152
lgniters-turbine engine ..................................................... 146, 149 !.§. the Airplane legal? ...................................................................30
Illegal drugs ................................................................................ 202 Is the Pilot legal? ..... .............. ................................................. ...... 31
ILS critical area ...................................... .. ............................... 23, 57 I SA-conversions & rules of thumb .................. .............. ..... 125, 387
ILS frequencies ...... ................................................................. 46, 91 ISA-1 nternational Standard Atmosphere ..... ...............................117
ILS PRM approach-Precision Approach Monitor ........................ 79 lsogonic lines-compass ..............................................................90
!LS-Category I, II , Ill minimums .................................................. 57 ITT-lnter-sta e Turbine Tern erature ........................................ 149
ILS-Converging ILS .................................................................... 80
!LS-Instrument Landing System .... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... 59
Immediately means ................................................................... 337
J
Inches of mercury to millibars/hectoPascals- conversion ... . 141 , 218 Jet A , Jet A-1 , Jet B-fuel .... .. ............ ............................ ............. 151
Incident or accident .................................................................... 344 Jet-altitude planning for short trips ............................................ 386
Incident report ....... .. .................................................................... 345 Jet engine starting ........................... .................................... 144, 148
Incidents-notification of ............................................................. 345 Jet engine-windmill start I airstart .............................................. 162
Indicated airspeed ..................................................................... 114 Jet fuel pounds vs. avgas gallons ................................................ 145
Indicated airspeed vs Mach ................................................ 111 , 116 Jet fuel-test to detect contamination of .... .................................. 373
Indicated altitude ........................ .......................... ....................... 118 Jet fuel-weight ...... .. .......................... ................................. 384, 385
Induced drag .............................................................................. 352 Jetpump ......................................................................................151
Induction manifold ..................................................................... 361 Jet routes ........................................................................................4 7
Inertial Navigation System-I NS ...... .. ........................................ 152 Jet stream ................................................................................... .214
Inertial Reference System-I RS ................................................. 152 Jet takeoff-all jet takeoff stuff ............................................. 154-158
Inflight briefing ...... .... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... 223 Jet I turbine engine terminology .... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 149
lnflight training ..... ........................................................................ 296 Jet I turbine engine-101 ............................................................. 146
Information, all available information (preflight action) ...... .......... 34 Jet I turbine operations-101 ............................ ........................... 144
Information sign-airport ...... ......................................................... 22 Jets-limitations on the use of landing minimums for turbojets ... 264
Initial Approach Fix-OM E arc must start at ................................ 61 Joint ownership agreement ............. ............................................280
Initial Operating Experience-ICE .............................................. 308 Justifiable aircraft e ui ment W&B ..........................................244
Initial training ............................................................................... 296
Initial , transition, and upgrade ground training .... .. ......... .... ..... .... 295
Inner marker ................................................................................. 59
K
Inoperative equipment without a MEL ....................................... 320 Kelvin temperature .............................................................. 115, 385
INDEX
Kerosene Jet A and Jet A 1-weight per gallon .. .... ... .. .... ..... ... 384 Lights-runway edge, centerline, touchdown zone .... ..... .. ... .. 24, 25
Key words to avoid-radio lingo ............... .................................. 397 Lights-runway lighting-airport requirements (135/121) ........... 276
Kidney stones ............................................................................ 201 Lights-runway lights-pilot controlled .......................................... 55
Kilometers to miles conversion .................................................. 385 Limitations on the use of landing minimums for turbojets .......... 264
Kilowatts vs. wattage vs. horsepower ....................................... 362 Limitations, pilot operating limitations and pairing .... .. 263, 285, 286
Kinematic viscosity .................................................................... 356 Limitations, markings & placards ................................................. 317
Knots vs ma ch ... .... ..... ......... .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... 111 , 116 Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station (LAWRS) .. .. ......... .. 218
Knowledge (written) test validity/duration .................................. 192 Limited category aircraft ............................................................... 168
Known icing .. .. ................................................................................. 208 Line check-Part 135-a quick synopsis .................................... 242
Known icing conditions-definition ............................................. 210 Line check-routes & airports-PIG ............................................306
K-Sub art K ........... .............. .............................................. 284-286 Line oriented Flight Training-LOFT .............. ............................. 374
Line Up and Wait .......................................................................... 38
L Liquid measures .........................................................................383
Liters to gallons-conversion .... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ..... .... ... .. .. 385
UD Maximum .. ................................................................................. 351 Liters to pounds of jet A-conversion .......................................... 383
UMF Colored (federal) airways .................................................... 4 7 LNAV I VNAV Approaches ............................................................ 62
LAAS-Local Area Augmentation System ................................... 96 LNN HEADLINE NEWS-SUBPART K to PART 91 .......... 284, 285
Lake Tahoe, CA ............................................................................ 35 Load factor-maintaining altitude in a turn .................................. 353
Laminar flow ............................................................................... 356 Load manifest-weight & balance ...................................... 243, 284
Land And Hold Short Operations - LAH SO .. ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... . 14 Load manifest-weight & balance-record keeping .... ... .. .. 244, 284
Landing criteria-Transport category ........................................ 159 Local or not local transportation-flight time & duty ....................267
Landing Distance Available-LOA .............................................. 279 Local to ZULU time .. .............. .............. .............. .............. ............ 380
Landing distance-demonstrated ............................................... 159 Local transportation .....................................................................271
Landing-exiting the runway after landing ........................ 26, 72, 81 Localizer antenna (on aircraft) ......................................................98
Landing !FR-Operation below DH or MDA ................................. 70 Localizer antenna (on ground) .......................................................59
Landing light .......................................................................... 84, 371 Localizer approach-LOG .............................................................61
Landing limitations for Part 135 under proposed subpart K ...... .. 286 Localizer backcourse approach-BC ... .... ... .. .... .. ... .... ..... .. ......... ... 61
Landing limitations-60o/o, 70°/o, 80°/o ......................... 279, 284, 286 Location sig n-ai rpo rt ................................................................... 22
Landing minimums for turbojets-limitations on the use of ........ 264 Locator Outer Marker-LOM ...................................................... 101
Landing under IFR-Operation below DH or MDA ............... 70, 261 Lockheed Martin - FSS ............................................................229
Landing-no pilot may land with flight visibility less than ............ 261 Locking flightcrew compartment door ......................................... 325
Landing-rules of thumb ............................................................. 389 LOFT-Line Oriented Flight Training .......................................... 374
Language-English-the universal language ............................ 359 Log of maintenance records ........................................................312
Lapse rate-dew point-dry adiabatic-rule of thumb ............... 388 Logbook-correcting an error in your logbook ........................... 181
Lapse rate-temperature lapse rate-rule of thumb ... 116, 117, 387 Logbook-logging flight time ....................................................... 176
Laptop computer-no flight crewmember may use ................... 249 Logbook-lost or stolen logbook ..... ............................................ 181
Large aircraft definition ............................................................... 278 Logging pilot-in-command time ................................. 176, 194, 195
Large aircraft-type rating requirements .................................... 194 Logging second-in-command time ...................................... 176, 178
Large and turbine-powered multiengine aircraft ......................... 280 LOM-Locator Outer Marker ....................................................... 101
Large nontransport category ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 168 Long sense antenna (AD F) ... ... ...... ... .. .... ..... .... .. ... ...... ... .. .... ..... .. 98
Large-classification for wake turbulence separation ........... 40, 373 Loop antenna (AD F) ...... ............................................................... 98
LASIK eye surgery ..... ................................................................ 200 Loran ...................................................... ....................................... 97
LAWRS Limited Aviation Weather Reporting Station .............. 218 Lost airman or medical certificate-replacement of .................... 180
LOA approach-Approach with Vertical Guidance ....................... 66 Lost Communications ..................................... ............................... 82
LOA with glidepath ........................................................................ 58 Lost or stolen logbook .................................................................. 181
LOA-Landing Distance Available .............................................. 158 Low al ti meter setting restrictions ................................................. 126
Lead acid batteries ..................................................................... 150 Low altitude alert ...... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... 19, 26, 60, 130
Lead the turn ............... ............... ............... ............... ............... ........... 4 7 Low approach .......... .. ............ .............. .............. ................ ............ 62
Left engine is critical because .................................................... 335 Low bypass engine ......................................................................146
Legal-is the Al RP LANE legal? ................................................... 30 Low frequency radio signals ..........................................................97
Legal-is the PILOT legal? ........................................................... 31 Low speed buffet ............................................ .............. ............... 144
LEMAC I TE MAC ........................................................................ 245 Low time captain-higher approach minimums ........................... 263
Lengel's Radio Manual ... ... .. .... ..... ..... .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ...... 395 Lower Side Band-HF radio ... ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... . 104
Length of runway-effective runway length ............................... 279 Lower than standard takeoff minimums (Part 135/121) ...... 258, 259
Letter Of Authorization-MEL .. .................................................. 318 Lowest usable flight level ..... ....................................................... 132
Letter Of Investigation-enforcement action ....................... 342, 343 LPV Approaches .. ....................................................................... ... 62
Level A , B, C, D simulators ........................................................ 374 LSA - Light Sport Aircraft .......................................................... 184
License pilot certificate category/class .................................... 168 LUAW - Line U And Wait ..........................................................38
License-pilot's license & medical-required in possession ...... 175
Lifeguard-now MED EVAC-air ambulance flights .................. 350
Liferaft-extend ed overwater ... .................................................. 314
M
Lift ....................................................................................... 351-353 MAA-Maximum Authorized Altitude .......................................... 128
Lift & drag-effect of air density .................................................. 352 MAC-Mean Aerodynamic Chord ...............................................245
Lift-drag ratio-LID ...................................................................... 351 Mach & speed of sound .................................. ..................... 115-117
Lift-relationship between angle of attack and lift ....................... 353 Mach buffet I mach number I mach tuck ...................................... 144
Light gun signals-ATC light signals .... ..... ..... .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... 83 Mach number-convert to true airspeed-rule of thumb ...... .... ... 387
Light icing .................................................................................... 211 Mach number vs indicated airspeed in knots ...................... 111 , 116
Light signals-light gun signals-ATC light signals ...................... 83 Magnetic north vs. true north ...................................................... 220
Light Sport Aircraft .. .................................................................... 184 Maintaining currency for a Type Rating ..................................... 196
Light turbulence ................................................. ......................... 224 Maintenance, emergency maintenance ....................... ...... 285, 286
Lighting for approach .............................................................. 73-75 Maintenance-operation after maintenance, rebuilding-test flight? ..... 312
Lightning bolt-GS IA .................................................................. 128 Maintenance required I records ................................................... 312
Light Sport Aircraft ...... ....... .. .................. .. ....... ....... ............ .. ...... 184 Major or minor damage I repair .. ..... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... .344
Lights-position, landing , anticollision ........................... 84, 85, 371 Major repair and alteration-FAA 337 form ................................. 363
Lights-runway edge lights ... ........................................................ 20 Malfunction reports, nav or com equipment ................................. 45
INDEX
MALSR-approach light system ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... 74 Mineral oil engine oil .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 366
Maltese cross ............... ...................................................................... 56 Minimal loss of altitude .................................................... ........... 353
Management personnel qualifications-Part 135 & 121 ............ 291 Minimum all-engine cruising altitude .......................................... 159
Mandatory instruction sign-airport ............................................. 22 Minimum altitudes for IFR operations .......................................... 128
Mandatory airspeed .......................................... .......................... 111 Minimum Crossing Altitude MCA .............................................. 128
Mandatory, maximum & minimum altitudes .......................... 56, 128 Minimum En route Altitude-MEA ................................................ 128
Maneuvering speed @ less than max weight .... .. ......... ... .. .... .... 388 Minimum Equipment List-MEL ..... ... .. .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... 318-321
Maneuvering speed-Va-rule of thumb .................................... 388 Minimum Equipment List-MEL-example ................................. 319
Manifold pressure & the constant speed propeller .................... 360 Minimum Equipment List-MEL-flow chart ... ............................ 321
Manipulation of controls (Part 135/121) .................................. 249 Minimum fuel advisory ...... .....................................................44, 337
Marginal weather (Part 135/121) ....................................... 253, 255 Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude-MOGA ...... .................... 128
Marijuana ................................................................................... 202 Minimum Operational Network (MON) of VORs ............................ 91
Marker beacon antenna (on aircraft) ............................................ 99 Minimum Reception Altitude-MRA ............................................ 128
Marker beacons ... .. .... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... 59 Minimum Safe/sector Altitude-MSA ... ..... .... ..... .... .... ..... .. ... ...... .. 129
Markings & placards .. ............... ......................................... 174, 317 Minimum single engine ceiling ..................................................... 159
Mask-quick-donning type oxygen masks ...... ........................... 139 Minimum Vectoring Altitude-MVA ........................................ 52, 129
Master MEL-MM EL ................................................................... 318 Minimum, maximum & mandatory altitudes ................................. 128
Maximum allowable crosswind ....... .. ......................................... 373 Minimums, high minimums captain ............................ ................263
Maximum allowable pressure differential .................................... 153 Minimums, takeoff - 121 /135, subpart K ................... 258, 259, 284
Maximum allowable Zero Fuel Weight-MZFW .. .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .. 245 Minor or major damage/repair .... .... ... .. ......... .... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... .... 344
Maximum Authorized Altitude-MM .......................................... 128 Minutes per nautical mile-formula ............................................ 388
Maximum certified altitude I ceiling ............................................. 358 Miscellaneous-radio lingo .. ........................................................ 412
Maximum L/D ............................................................................... 351 Missed approach ................................................................... 70, 261
Maximum Landing Weight-MLW .............................................. 245 Missed approach-prior to MAP ....................................................71
Maximum payload capacity ......................................................... 244 MLW-Maximum Landing Weight ...............................................245
Maximum TakeOff Weight-MTOW ........................................... 245 MMEL-Master Minimum Equipment List ................................... 373
Maximum, minimum & mandatory altitudes ..... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... 128 Mnemonics-checklists ... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... .. 382
Mayday means ... ........................................................................ 337 MCA-Military Operations Areas .................................................. 10
MCA-Minimum Crossing Altitude ............................................. 128 MOCA-Minimum Obstacle Clearance Altitude .......................... 128
MOA or DH-operating below .............................................. 70, 262 Mode C & Mode S transponder-altitude reporting .................... 127
MEA-Minimum En route Altitude I gap ...................................... 128 Model aircraft-Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) .....................375
Mean Aerodynamic Chord-MAC ............................................ 245 Moderate icing ............................................................................211
Measurements-fractions table ................................................. 382 Moderate turbulence ....................................................................224
Mechanical interruption summary report ................................... 312 Modified basic "T" for approaches ................................................ 69
Mechanical irregularities-reporting of .................. ............. 24 7, 316 Moment arm-index-W&B .. ...................................................... 245
Mechanical irregularity means ............................................ 247, 312 MON-Minimum Operational Network of VORs ............................91
ME DEVAC ................................................................................... 350 Monovision contact lenses .......................................................200
Medical certificate required in pilot's possession ....................... 175 Most critical point en route ........................................................ 159
Medical certificate-duration of................................................... 199 Motor vehicle action-DU I ........................................................202
Medical certificate-falsification on application .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... 198 Mountain flying-the Venturi effect .... .. ..... .... .... ..... .... ..... .. ..... .... .134
Medical certificate-operations not requiring a medical ............. 197 Mountains on sectional charts-shading ... .................................. 368
Medical certificate-operations requiring a medical ................... 197 Mountainous areas ......................................................................12
Medical certificate-special issuance I discretionary issuance ... 201 MRA-Minimum Reception Altitude ............................................ 128
Medical deficiency-prohibition on operations with .... ................ 198 MTR-Military Training Routes ...................................................... 10
Medical oxygen-passenger supplied ........................................ 142 MTOW-Maximum TakeOff Weight ............................................245
Medical records-how to obtain copy ......................................... 324 MU value-runway friction reports-braking action ......... 26, 72, 213
Medications-over-the-counter ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ....... 204 Multicom I Unicom & air-to-air frequencies ...... .... .... ..... .. ... ...... .. 102
Megaphone ................. ............................................................... 337 Multiengine accident scenarios-common ..... ............................ 336
MEL-decision process when operating without a MEL ............. 321 Multiengine rating ................................................................ 185, 187
MEL-inoperative equipment without a MEL .............................. 320 Multiengine training required for flight instructor to instruct ......... 191
MEL-Minimum Equipment List ........ .. ........................................ 318 Multi-Function Oisplay-M FD ................................................... 152
MEL-operating without a MEL-flow chart ............................... 321 MVA-Minimum Vectoring Altitude ....................................... 52, 129
Mental requirements for a medical certificate ...... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... 201 MZFW-Maximum allowable Zero fuel wei ht .. ......... .... ..... .... .... 245
Mesosphere ............................................................................... 116
METAR I TAF explanation ....... .. ................................................. 219
METAR I TAF explanation-wallet size cutout ........................... 221
N
METAR vs. TAF .................................. ................................ 218, 219 N1, N2, N3-turbine engine terminology ... .................. ................ 149
Meters instead of feet for altitude assignments ................... 140-141 NACO (NOS) approach plate revision date ...................................49
Methanol-weight ...................................................................... 385 NASA reports .............................................................................. 340
Metric to metric to U.S . conversions .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... . 385 National Driving Record-NOR-how to obtain copy ................. 324
Mexico-flights between Mexico, Canada & U.S ....................... 277 National Transportation Safety Board-phone numbers ............. 345
MFO-Multi-Function Display ..................................................... 152 Nautical Mile conversions ........................................................... 385
Microburst .................................................................................. 206 Nautical Miles per gallon/minute-formulas ................................ 388
Middle compass locator ....................................................... 63, 101 Navigation antennas ....................... ........................................ 97-99
Middle marker ............................................................................... 59 NOB-all NOB stuff .........................................................63, 64, 101
Miles I kilometers ... ... .. ......... .... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... .... 385 NOR driving record-how to obtain copy .... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... .... 324
Miles per gallon-formula ........................................................... 388 Net flight path .. ............................................................................159
Miles per hour I feet per minute I feet per second ...................... 385 Net takeoff flight path-jet ..... ...................................................... 158
Miles per minute I ground speed ................................................. 111 Neurological requirements for a medical .... ...............................201
Miles to descend-3° descent-rule of thumb ............................ 389 NextGen ......................................................... .............................103
Miles to kilometers conversion .................................................... 385 Ni Cad batteries ............................................................................ 150
Military NOTAMs ........................................................................ 227 Night-aircraft instruments and equipment ................................... 84
Military Operations Areas-MO A ... .... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... 10 Night-civil twilight times ...... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .. 370
Military Training Routes-MTR ..................................................... 10 Night currency ...................................................................... 172, 286
Millibars to inches of mercury ............................................ 141 , 218 Night-equipment required when carrying passengers ............... 313
INDEX
Night-four definitions ...... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 370 Operational control-aircraft dispatcher ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... .326
Night-takeoffs & landings- recent flight experience ........ ........ 172 Operational Service Volume-VOR .... ........................................... 46
Ninety (90) days-recent flight experience-3 landings ............ 172 Operative engine .. ....................................................................... 332
NM per gallon/minute-formulas ................................................ 388 OpSpecs-Part 135 or 121 .........................................................288
No good , things that do you no good .......................................... 384 Option approach ............................................ ............................... 62
No pilot may begin an instrument approach (part 135/121) ........ 252 Order of suspension or revocation .. ............................................ 343
No pilot may takeoff with frost, ice or snow on the aircraft .. .. ... .... . 38 OROCA-Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude ..... .. ......... .. 128
No Transgression Zone-Close parallel ILS-PRM .... ................. 79 Oscillation error-compass .......................................................... 90
No weather reporting-arrival with no weather reporting .... ........ 264 Other Commercial Flying ....... .. ............ ......................... ... ............ 266
No weather reporting-departing with no weather reporting ...... 265 Other than congested area-Minimum Safe Altitudes .. ............... 129
No-gyro approach ......................................................................... 71 Outer compass locator-outer marker ........................... 59, 63, 101
Noise standards-stage 1, 2 , 3, 4 .............................................. 165 Outflow valves ............................................................................ 153
Noncommon carriage ................................................................ 237 Outlook briefing-weather .......................................................... 223
Noncommon or private carriage .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 232 Outside Air Temperature-OAT ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... . 164
Non-federal control towers ....... ......................... ... .......................... 5 Over pressure relief valve .... ......................... ... ........................... 153
Non precision approach ....... ........................................................ 58 Overdue aircraft-notification of ...... ............................................ 345
Nonprecision-NDB/VOR-Approach & Holding ......................... 64 Overhead approach maneuver ...................................................... 87
Non-radar position reporting ........................................................ 45 Overscored-Maximum altitude ... .................. ...................... 56, 128
Non standard holding pattern .................................................... 64 Over-the-counter medications .....................................................204
Nonstop sightseeing flights .. ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... ... 236 Overwater-performance requirements ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .314
Normal bracketing maneuvers ..................................................... 57 Overwater-radio & navigation equipment required .................... 314
Normal category aircraft .............. ..................................... ... .. 11 , 168 Owner operator-responsible for maintaining the aircraft ........... 309
North-true north vs. magnetic north wind direction ...... ............ 220 Owner's handbook I manual ............................................... 174, 317
NOS (NACO, AeroNav)) approach plate revision date ................. 49 Oxygen altitudes ......................................................................... 139
NOTAM numbering system ........................................................ 227 Oxygen-high altitude chamber training ...................................... 142
NOTAMs-NOTices to AirMan ........................................... 226, 227 Oxygen mask-quick-donning type oxygen masks ..................... 139
Notice of proposed certificate action ....... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ... 343 Oxygen systems-Passenger supplied-HAZMAT ... .. .... .. . 142, 143
Notice of Proposed Rule Making-NPRM .................................. 368
Notices To Airman Publication-NTAP ...................................... 227 p
Notification of accidents, incidents & overdue aircraft .............. 345
Not local in character aka deadhead transportation ................. 271 Pairing-crew pairing ..... .................. .......................... 263, 285, 286
NPRM-Notice of Proposed Rule Making .................................. 368 Pan means ................................................................................... 337
NTSB-National Transportation Safety Board-phone numbers ..... 345 PAPI-Precision Approach Path Indicator .................................... 75
Numbers-Runwa desi nation markin s ................................... 20 PAR approach .. .............................................................................61
Parachute jumps-nonstop flights-not Part 135 ....................... 236
0 Parachutes ..................................................................................... 11
Parachuting-use of floor as a seat for sport parachuting ........... 84
OAT-Outside Air Temperature ................................................. 164 Parallel ILS-close parallel approach-ILS PRM ....... ..................79
Observer-PIG can be weather observer for VFR (Part 135) ... 76, 265 Parasite drag ...............................................................................353
Obstacle analysis effective runway length .... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .. 279 Part 91 of subpart K ... ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. . 284, 285
Obstacle-clearance criteria-driftdown-enroute performance .. 159 Part 91 PLUS Part 135 or Part 121 .............................................238
Obstacle Departure Procedures ........................ ... ........................ 43 Part 91 vs. parts 121/135 ....... ...................................................... 239
Obstruction clearance plane-20: 1 ........................................... 279 Part 61 vs. Part 141 schools-training options ........................... 183
Occasional turbulence ..................................... .......................... 223 Part 121 or Part 135 does not apply to ......... .. .............................236
Occasional , chance of, intermittent, tempo, possibility . 35, 253, 254 Part 121-in other words .............................................................235
Occupancy of pilot seat by a passenger .................................... 293 Part 125 .......................................................................................235
ODALS-OmniDirectional Approach Light System ...................... 74 Part 135 certificates-single pilot, single PIC, basic, etc ............ 238
ODP- Obstacle Departure Procedures ....................................... 43 Part 135 checkrides-a quick synopsis of Part 135 checkrides .. 242
Off-course-distance .................................................................... 46 Part 135 on-demand ....................................................................233
Off-Route Obstruction Clearance Altitude-OROCA .................. 128 Part 135 or Part 121 does not apply to ........................................ 236
Oil-everything you need to know about oil ............................... 366 Part 135 PIC checking modules ..................................................304
Oil-weight .................................................................................. 385 Part 135 SIC checking modules ..................................................305
Omni Directional Approach Light System-ODALS .. .... ..... ......... 74 Part 135 unscheduled operations-flight time & duty ....... .... ... .. .. 268
Omnidirectional radar antenna ...................................................... 53 Part 135-effects of Subpart K on Part 135 ................................286
On course-established on course or on the approach ............... 55 Parts Manufacturer Approval-PMA .. ............................... .......... 363
On-demand operation-Part 135 ................................................ 233 Passenger briefing before takeoff ...............................................293
One hundred (100) hour-high minimums captain ..................... 263 Passenger occupancy of pilot seat ..............................................293
One hundred (100) hour inspection ............................................ 309 Passenger weights-standard average ...... ................................. 244
One hundred Low Lead-1 OOLL-weight ........................... 384, 385 Passengers during cargo only operations ...................................243
One Percent [1°/o] of Doubt ......................................................... 106 Passengers-equipment required-IFR & VFR ........ .................. 313
On the approach-established on the approach ... ............. .......... 55 Pattern altitude & Glide Slope-Class B , C, or D .......... 19, 60, 130
Operable condition ..................................................................... 322 Pattern altitude at airports without an operating control tower ..... 131
Operating limitations .................................................................. 175 Pattern altitude-minimum altitudes-Class B, C, or D .. 19, 60, 130
Operating near other aircraft-formation flight ................. ............. 27 Pattern altitude-uncontrolled airports ....... .................. ................. 18
Operating without a MEL-flow chart ......................................... 321 Pattern entry ........................................................................... 16, 17
Operation after maintenance or alteration-test flight? .... .. ... .... 312 Payload capacity, maximum ...... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... .244
Operation below DH or MDA ................................................ 70, 262 PBN-ferformance-~ased Navigation ...... ................................... 33
Operation Lights On ..... ............. .. ..................................... ... ........ 371 PCATD-Personal Computer-based Aviation Trng Device ......... 374
Operation-requiring type rating-PIG proficiency check ........... 196 PDP- Planned Descent Point ........ .............................................. 77
Operations manual-General Operations Manual-GOM ........ 289 People Express exemption 3585 ... .................................. 256, 257
Operations manual-GOM-information & changes .................. 290 Percent-1 o/o of Doubt ....... ......................................................... 106
Operations not requiring a medical certificate ............................. 197 Performance-~ased Navigation (PBN) ........................................33
Operations requiring a medical certificate .... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ...... 197 Performance data-checklist-charts .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ... 293
Operations Specifications-Part 135 or 121 ............................... 288 Performance requirements operating over water ........................ 314
Operational control .................................................... 232, 237, 326 Performance-effects of density altitude on performance ......... .. 122
INDEX
Performance-good and bad stuff ...... ... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... .... 122 Portable electronic devices .. ..... ......... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ......... ...93
Personal Computer-based Aviation Trng Device-PCATD ....... 374 Portable Oxygen Concentrators .......... .. .............. ........... ... .......... 142
Personal electronic devices .......................................................... 93 Position error-airspeed indicator .............................................. 114
P-factor ....................................................................................... 335 Position lights ...................................................................84 , 85, 371
PFD-Primary Flight Display ...................................................... 152 Position reporting-non-radar ........................................................45
Phone numbers-FSS direct line telephone numbers .............. 229 Possibility of, chance of, occasional, intermittent, tempo .35, 253, 254
Photo identification required in pilot's possession .......... .... .. ... ... 175 Pounds of Jet A into Gallons-conversion ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... 383
Physiological-flight crewmembers at stations ................... 34, 316 Pounds of Jet A into Liters-conversion .............................. 145, 383
Physiological needs .. .... .............. ......................... .... ............. 34, 316 Pounds per Square Inch-PSI ............ .................. .............. ......... 153
Physiological training (altitude chambers) ....... ................... 142, 195 Pounds vs. Gallons-Jet fuel & Avgas ........................................ 145
PIC I SIC-designation required ................................................. 249 Power and weight-horsepower & thrust .................................... 362
PIC automatically gets violated when SIC screws up? ............... 341 Power loading-formula ..............................................................389
PIC check-instrument proficiency check ................................... 303 Powerline or pipeline patrol ........................................................236
PIC instrument currency-I FR recency ... ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ... .... 170 Precipitation-induced fog .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 228
PIC is responsible for determining if aircraft is airworthy ... ... ...... 309 Precision Approach Monitor-PRM approach .. .. ........... ... ............79
PIC is responsible for the overall safe operation, however ......... 341 Precision Approach Path Indicator-PAPI. ... ................................. 7 5
PIC line check-routes and airports ........................................... 306 Precision Approach Radar approach-PAR ..................................61
PIC logging PICtime ............. ...................................... 176, 194, 195 Precision approach ........................................ ................................ 58
PIC means .................................................................................. 359 Precision-like approach-approach with vertical guidance ... ........ 58
PIC qualifications-Part 135 & 121 ... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... 240 Preferred routes ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ..... .... ... .. .... 34
PIC seating position .................................................................... 359 Preflight action (all available information) ... .................................. 34
PIG-Part 135 PIC checking modules .. .... .............. .................... 304 Presentation of required documents .... ........... ................... 175, 177
PIC PC check-operation of A/C requiring more than one pilot . 196 Preservation of wreckage ............................................................345
PIG-recent flight experience (90 days) ..................................... 172 Pressure altitude conversion charts & formulas ......................... 125
PIG-responsibility and authority of ............................................ 331 Pressure altitude .................................................................. 118, 134
Pi lotage ........................................................................................ 41 Pressure altitude-rules of thumb ............................................... 387
Pilot certificate & medical-presentation of documents ..... ..... ... 177 Pressure differential-maximum allowable ... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... .. 153
Pilot certificate & medical-required in possession ............ 175, 177 Pressure lapse rate ...................................................................... 116
Pilot certificate-category I class ................................................ 168 Pressure relief valve ............................................................ 142, 153
Pilot controlled runway lights ........................................................ 55 Pressure vessel ...........................................................................153
Pilot's discretion, changing altitude ....................................... 45, 129 Pressure atmospheric pressure at various altitudes ............. .... 117
Pilot documents-presentation of required documents ...... 175, 177 Pressure Pounds per Square lnch-PSl. .................................. 153
Pilot Flying-takeoff briefing ......................................................... 39 Pressurization ............................................................................153
Pilot In Command instrument currency ..................... 170, 172, 173 Pressurization training (altitude chambers) ......................... 142, 195
Pilot In Command is responsible for determining ... .............. ...... 309 Pressurized aircraft-basic components ........ .... .............. .......... 142
Pilot In Command means ..... ....................................................... 359 Pressurized aircraft-high altitude endorsement ........ ................. 195
Pilot In Command logging PIC .................................... 176, 194, 195 Preventive maintenance ..................................................... 312, 365
Pilot In Command proficiency check-type rating ...................... 196 Preventive maintenance-29 approved items ........................... .. 365
Pilot In Command qualifications-Part 135 & 121 ...................... 240 PRIA-Pilot Records Improvement Act ....................................... 324
Pilot In Command seating position .... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... 359 Primary category aircraft .. .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 168
Pilot In Command/SIC-designation required .................... 249, 284 Primary flight controls .... .. ............................................................ 151
Pilot In Command-recent flight experience ........ ........... ... . 172, 173 Primary Flight Display-PFD ... .............. ...................... ... .... ......... 152
Pilot In Command-responsibility and authority of ..................... 331 Primary NOB concepts ..................................................................64
Pilot-is the pilot legal? ....... .. ........................................................ 31 Primary radar .............................................................................. ... 53
Pilot license & medical-required in pilot's possession ...... 175, 177 Priority means .................................................................... 331 , 337
Pilot Not Flying-takeoff briefing ................................................... 39 Priority-means the same as EMERGENCY .............................. 331
Pilot Operating Handbook-POH ..... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... .... 317 Prist-anti-icing additive and algaecide for jet fuel .. .. .... ..... .... .... 145
Pilot operating limitations and pairing ... .... .............. .... 263, 285, 286 Private or noncommon carriage ......... ... ............................. ......... 232
Pilot photo identification required in pilot's possession .. ............. 175 Private pilot qualifications ............................................................ 185
Pilot record keeping-W&B-load manifest ............................... 246 PRM approach-Precision Approach Monitor ...............................79
Pilot record sharing-PRIA ............... .................................. 324, 285 Procedure turn-inbound-not required ... .. .................................. 54
Pilot Records Improvement Act-PR IA ...................................... 324 Proficiency check-Instrument Proficiency Check ............. 170, 304
Pilot records-airman file-how to obtain copy .. .. .... ... .. .... ..... .... 324 Proficiency check-Part 135 checking modules ......... ... .. ..... .... ... 304
Pilot records-name , duties, tests, checks, training ........... 246, 284 Proficiency check-PIG-type rating currency ........ .................... 196
Pilot services ........................................................ ... ......................... 232 Progressive aircraft inspection program .............. .............. ......... 309
Pilots not regularly assigned-flight time limitations ...... ............ 274 Prohibited areas ........................................................................... 10
Pilots-number of active pilots in the United States ................... 359 Prohibition against carriage of weapons .. .. ................................ 308
Pipeline or powerline patrol. ....................................................... 236 Prohibition on operations during a medical deficiency ................. 198
PIPER-numbers & names ........................................................ 348 Prop alcohol-weight ..................................................................385
PIREP-UA, UUA ........ .............. ............ .. ............ .. .............. ....... 225 Propeller-controllable-pitch propeller ........ ... .. ......... .... ..... .... .... 360
Piston engine smoke .......................... ... ..................................... 366 Propeller-manifold pressure & the constant speed prop ........... 360
Pitot heat indication system-transport category aircraft ........... 313 Proper Planning Prevents Piss Poor Performance ..... .................. 34
Pitot heat-required for passengers IFR .................................... 313 Pro verse yaw .............................................................................. 35 7
Pitot/Static check-every two years .................. .................. 119, 135 Proving runs and Validation testing ........................... 284, 286, 294
Pitot/Static system malfunctions ......................................... 135, 381 Provisional airport ...................................................................... 276
Placards & markings .. ......... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... . 174 , 317 Provisional category aircraft .. .... ... .. .... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ..... .... .... ... 168
Plain flap ............................................................................ 354, 355 PSI-Pounds per Square lnch ..... ................................................ 153
Planned Descent Point-PDP .......................... ... .... .............. ....... 77 PT-6 engine ........................................... ............................................ 147
PM A-Parts Manufacturer Approval. .......................................... 363 PTS-Practical Test Standards ...... ............................................. 166
Pneumatic starter aka air turbine starter ........ .. .......................... 149 Public address & interphone system required .......................... .. 313
POH-Pilot Operating Handbook ............................................... 317 P rotechnic si nalin device .................................................. 30, 84
Point the airplane where you want it to go ................................. 240
Pointer NOTAMS ...... .......... ..... ..... .... ... .. ......... ... .. ... ......... .. ... .... . 227
Polar tropopause ........................................................................ 214
Q
Political candidates, carriage of ........ ......................................... 236 Q codes-QFE-QNE-QNH-altimeter setting ....... ......... 140-141
INDEX
a-routes ....................................................................................... 4 7 Relative humidity o/o - formula ....... ... .. ......... ... .. ... ......... .. .. 124, 387
Quarter-calendar quarter ....... .. ................ ................................ 267 Relative wind ............... ........................ ... ........................................... 351
Quick-donnin t e ox en masks .................... .............. ......... 139 Relay-electrical .. ........................................................................ 150
Release-flight release or dispatch release ................................326
R Remarks on flight plan .... .... ............................. ........................... 222
Remote Communications Outlet (RCO) ........................................42
Radar (airborne weather radar) required .. .. ........ .. .. .. .......... 315, 285 Remote Transmitter/Receiver (RTR) ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ..... .... .... .... 42
Radar (radio) altimeter ................................................................ 135 Repair-major repair and alteration-FAA 337 form .................. 363
Radar flight following .... ............................... .................................. 44 Repeater scope-radar ........................ .. ............................................5
Radar reflectors ........................................................................... 367 Replacement of a lost airman or medical certificate .. .. ............... 180
Radar repeater scope .......... .. ......................................................... 5 Reported ceiling and visibility-visual approach (Part 135) .. ........ 76
Radar service terminated .............................................................. 49 Reported visibility .................................................................. 70, 260
Radar summary chart ................................................................. 225 Reporting mechanical irregularities ................................... 247, 316
Radar weather reports-SD ...... .. ... ..... .... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ... 225 Reports (additional) to be made at all times .... .. .... .. ... .... ..... ..... .... 45
Radar-Primary and Secondary .. .............. ................................... 53 Reports, malfunctions of nav or com equipment .. ......................... 45
Radiation fog .............................................................................. 228 Reports of accidents or incidents .... .. ............... .............. .............. 345
Radio Manual-Lengel's ............................................................ 395 Regualification training ..............................................................296
Radio & navigation equipment required-extended overwater ... 314 Required landing distance dry/wet ........................................... 159
Radio & navigation equipment required-I FR ............................ 314 Required Navigational Performance (RNP) ...................... 32, 33, 62
Radio (radar) altimeter ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 135 Required runway length ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ......... . 154
Radio antennas ........................................................................ 97-99 Responsibility and authority of the pilot in command .......... .. .... 331
Radio call format ........................ ....................................................... 383 Responsibility for ensuring aircraft is maintained ............ ............ 312
Radio failure IFR .... .. ............... .......................................... ...... 82, 83 Resume normal/published speed ................................. ........ 42, 111
Radio fix-file IFR to a radio fix ....... ................... ........................ 252 Rest period-flight time & duty .................................................... 269
Radio frequency bands ................................................................. 97 Rest-flight time & duty ....................................................... 266-275
Radio inop-communications with control tower .......................... 83 Restricted a re as ........................................................................... 10
Radio license-pilot's (personal) FCC radio license .. .. ... .... ..... ... 175 Restricted category aircraft ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... ......... .. ... ...... .168
Radio station license (aircraft) .................................................... 175 Restricted ATP .................................................................... 189, 241
Radio stuff .............................................................................. 97 -105 Return to service-maintenance records ..... .. ............... .............. 312
Radios-troubleshooting ............................................................... 99 Reverted rubber hydroplaning .................................................... 372
RAIM-Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring-GPS ........... 94 Revision date on AeroNav (NOS , NACO) approach plates .. ........ 49
Ram Air Temperature-RAT- Ram Rise .................................. 164 Revocation of pilot certificate ..................................................... 343
Ramp check ................................................................................ 292 Reynolds number-laminar or turbulent flow ............................. 356
Rankin temperature ............................................................ 115, 385 Ride-709 ride .................................................................... 342 , 343
Rapid decompression-explosive decompression ..................... 142 Right-of-way rules .. ............................... .............................. ............ 86
Rapid decompression training (altitude chambers) ......... .. .. 142, 195 Rime ice .......................................................................................211
Rapid or explosive decompression ............................................. 153 RNAV approaches ............................................................ 62 , 68, 69
Rate control-pressurization ...................................................... 153 RNAV-Area navigation .................................. ............... 33, 62, 152
Rate of climb or descent ....................................................... 45, 129 RNP-Required Navigational Performance ...................... 32, 33, 62
Rate of descent-formula .. ... .... ..... ..... .... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 389 Rolling 24 consecutive hour limitation-flight time & duty .... .. 269
Rating-category, class, type, instrument, commercial ....... 31 , 168 Rosemont probe Static Air Temperature ............................. .... 164
RAT-Ram Air Temperature .... ................................ .............. .... 164 Rotation speed-Vr-rule of thumb .................... ............ ............ 386
RCO-Remote Communications Outlet ....................................... 42 Routes & airports-line check-PIG ........................................... 306
Rebuilding- operation after maintenance, rebu ilding, or alteration ..... 312 RPM-Radio permit-Pilot certificate-Medical ................... 31 , 175
Recency, IFR ............................................................................. 170 RTO-Rejected Takeoff .............................................................. 157
Recent flight experience-90 days-6 months .......................... 172 RTR-Remote Transmitter/Receiver .............................................42
Recent pilot experience for PIC-Part 135 & 121 ....................... 240 Rules of THUMB and FORMULAS ..... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .. 386-389
Reciprocals-22 rule .......................... ... .................................... 383 Runway centerline lights ... ... .................. ......... .. ... .............. .... 24, 25
Reciprocals-placard .................................................................. 382 Runway clutter precipitation ......................................................... 213
Reckless or careless operation .................................................. 340 Runway demarcation bar ...............................................................21
Record keeping-load manifest-weight & balance .......... 244, 284 Runway designation markings-runway numbers .................. 20, 22
Record of each pilot-name, duties, tests, checks ............. 246, 284 Runway distance remaining signs ................................................. 22
Records-airman file-your pilot records-how to obtain a copy324 Runway edge lights ...... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... . 20, 24, 25
Recreational pilot qualifications ................................... .............. 184 Runway effective runway length .. ................................................279
Rectifier ....................................................................... ............. ....... 150 Runway End Identifier Lights-REIL .... .. ........... ............................ 74
Recurrent training .............................................................. 295, 296 Runway exiting after landing .............. ............. ............... ... 26, 72, 81
Red & white hashmarked pointer-barber pole-Vmo, Mmo ..... 114 Runway friction reports-MU value braking action ...... 26, 72, 213
Red line-Vmc-multi-engine ............................................. 114, 334 Runway gradient-up-sloping runway takeoff-rule of thumb ..... 386
Red line-Vne-Never Exceed speed ........................................ 114 Runway length-effective runway length ..................................... 279
Red side row bar-approach lighting .......................................... 262 Runway length-Landing Distance Available ... .. ......... ..... .... .. ... .. 279
Red side row bars .......... .............. ........... ................ 70, 73, 261 , 262 Runway lighting ........ .. ........................ ... ...................................... 24, 25
Red terminating bars-approach lighting ................ 70, 73, 261 , 262 Runway lighting-airport requirements (135/121) ....................... 276
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums-RVSM ................ 32, 133 Runway lights-pilot controlled runway lights ................................ 55
Reexamination - 709 ride ................................................ 342, 343 Runway radar reflectors .................... ........................................... 367
Reference point-airport elevation & reference point .................. 26 Runway separation-same runway aircraft separation ................. 88
Reference zero-start of 1st segment climb ..... .... ..... ......... .. ...... 155 Runway Visual Range-RVR ..... .. ... .... ..... ..... .... .. ... ...... ... .. ... 72, 261
Reflectors-runway radar reflectors .......................................... 367 Runway weight bearing capacity ... ................................................ 22
Regional airline-Part 121 ........ .. ........... ......................... ... ........ 233 Runways longer than 8,069 feet-sectional charts ........ ... ......... 369
Registration papers ............... .......................................... .......... 175 RVR and ground visibility .. .. .......................................... ........ 72, 261
Regular airport ........................................................................... 276 RVR-taskers, transmissometers, forward scatter tech ....... 72, 261
Regularly assigned duty period-flight time & duty ................ 269 RVSM-Reduced Vertical Separation Minimums ................. 32, 133
Regulated landing weight ........................................................... 245
REIL-Runway End Identifier Lights ....... .... .. ... .... ..... ..... .... .. ... .... . 74
Rejected IakeQff (RTO) ............................................................ 157
s
Relationship between angle of attack and lift .. ............... ........... 353 SAA NOTAMS ..... ........................................................................ 227
INDEX
SAE-oil-automotive equivalent grade .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... 366 SIC required-Part 135 & 121 ... ....... .. .. ............ .. ..... ..... .... .......... .241
Safety alert .. .. ............ ......................... ... ................... 19, 26, 60, 130 SIC screws up-does the PIG automatically get busted? ........... 341
Safety belts fastened .................................................................. 313 SIC time-logging ........................................................................178
Safety belts ............................................................. 34, 84, 313, 316 SIC vs. autopilot ...........................................................................281
Safety belts-flight crewmembers at stations ..................... 313, 316 Sidebands-upper and lower-HF radio .................................... 104
Safety Management System (SMS) ............................................ 328 Side-step maneuver ...................................................................... 80
Safety pilot .... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... ... 171 SID-Standard Instrument Departure Procedure .. ..... .... .. ... ......... .43
Safety valve ................................................................................ 153 Sight disk-fire bottle discharge indicator ............. .. ................... 162
Same runway separation ........ .. ........................ ...... .............. ........ 88 Sightseeing flights ................. ............ .................. ....... ... ............. 236
SAT-Static Air Temperature ............. ............... ......................... 164 SIGMET-WS ..... .........................................................................224
Satcom-SATellite COMmunication System ............................. 105 Signs-airport ...............................................................................22
Satellite airport-flight visibility when operating from ................... 70 Simulated instrument time logging ........................................... 177
Saybolt universal viscosimeter-oil viscosity ............................. 366 Simulators-four levels ..............................................................374
SB AS-Space Based Augmentation System ... .. .. .... ..... .... .. ... ...... 96 Simultaneous close parallel approach-PRM ... ... ......... .. ... ......... .79
Scale of aeronautical charts .. .... ............... ........... .. ........... .. ........ 385 Simultaneous converging instrument approaches ......... .... .......... .. 80
Scheduled operation .................................................................. 233 Single-engine absolute ceiling & service ceiling ................. 333, 358
Screen height ............................................................................. 155 Single PIG part 135 operator .......................................................238
Scuba diving ................................................................... ............ 123 Single pilot lower than standard takeoff minimums .....................258
SD-radar weather reports ......................................................... 225 Single pilot part 135 operator ....................................................... 238
SDF approach ... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ......... 66 Single Side Band-SSB-HF radio .. ... .... ... ... .. .. .... .... .. ... .. ... ........ 104
Seat adjustment-eye locator ..................................................... 325 Sink rate ...................................................................................... 152
Seat belts ..... .. ........... .. ........................ ...... .............. 34, 84, 313, 316 Six instrument approaches-I FR recency ....... .. . 170, 172, 173, 186
Seat belts, seat backs-passenger briefing before takeoff......... 293 Six month-instrument experience .. .............. ..... 170, 172, 173, 186
Seat belts-flight crewmembers at stations ........................ 313, 316 Sixty (60)o/o, 70°/o, 80°/o landing limitations ................. 279, 284, 286
Seat-each person must occupy .......................................... 84, 313 Sixty five (65)-age 65 and Part 121 ........................................... 327
Seat-forward observer's seat .................................................... 292 Skin friction drag .........................................................................353
Seat-passenger occupancy of pilot seat ... ......... .. ... ....... .. .. ... .... 293 Slant range error-DME ... ... .. .... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... ..... .... .. ... ..... .... .93
Seat required ........................................................................ 84, 313 Slant U, A, G, R, etc ...... ................................................................32
Seating position-pilot in command .. ............... .......................... 359 Slats ....................................................................................354, 355
Second alternate (part 135/121) ............................................... 255 Slippery runway ...........................................................................279
Second alternate required (part 135/121) ....................... ............ 257 Slots .... .. ..............................................................................354, 355
Second alternate required ........................................................... 253 Slotted flap ..........................................................................354, 355
Second In Command qualifications for AC requiring 2 pilots .... 178 Small aircraft definition ................................................................278
Second In Command qualifications ............................................ 182 Small-for wake turbulence separation .................................40, 373
Second In Command qualifications-Part 135 & 121 ...... .... ....... 241 Smoking prohibitions ......................................... ......................... 283
Second In Command required-Part 135 & 121 .......... .. ............ 241 Smoking-passenger briefing before takeoff...............................293
Second In Command time-logging ........................................... 178 SMS .§.afety .Management .§.ystem ............................................ 328
Second In Command vs. autopilot .............................................. 281 Snellen eye chart-medical exam .............................................. 199
Second segment climb .............................................................. 154 Snow on the aircraft ...................................................... 38, 208-213
Secondary flight controls ..... .. .. ..... ..... .... .... ... ... .. .. .... .... .. ... ..... .... 151 Snowflake airport ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... .. 119
Secondary radar ........................................................................... 53 SODA-Statement Of Demonstrated Ability ...............................200
Second-class medical certificate-duration of .. .. ................ ...... 199 Solenoid ... .............................................. .................. ......................... 150
Second-class medical required for .............................................. 197 South Lake Tahoe, CA ..................................................................35
Sectional charts-runways longer than 8,069 feet .................... 369 Space Based Augmentation System .............................................96
Sectional charts-scale ....... ....................................................... 385 Spare engine How to crash a multiengine airplane .................. 336
SELCAL-SELective CALiing system-HF radio ...................... 104 Sparkplug electrodes-iced-over ...............................................213
Selling a Certificate .. .. .... ... ... .. .. .... .... .. ... ..... .... .. ... .. ... ..... .... .. ... .... 237 Sparsely populated-minimum safe altitude .. .. ... ....... .. .. ... ......... 129
Sense antenna (ADF) .. ............... ........... .. ........... .. ........................ 98 Special airworthiness certificate ........ ........... ... ............................ 322
Separation-same runway separation ......................................... 88 Special Aircraft and Aircrew Authorization Required ... ............... ... 62
Separations for traffic-wake turbulence ...................................... 40 Special exemption 5549-high minimums captain ......................263
Sequenced flashing lights .............................................. ............ 262 Special flight permit-ferry permit ................................ ................ 322
Serious injury ............................................................................ 344 .§.pecial flight B.ules ,Area (DC SFRA) ........................................... 12
Service ceiling aka all-engine service ceiling ... ... .. .......... ... .. ... ... 358 Special issuance of a medical certificate ....... .. .. .......... ... ..... ....... .201
Service ceiling-multi-engine .............................................. 333, 358 Special Use Airspace ..................................................................... 10
Service difficulty reports-maintenance .. ........................ ...... ...... 310 Special VFR ............... ........................ ... ...............................6 , 9, 70, 81
Service volumes-NOB ...... .. .............. .................................. 63, 101 Specific gravity-SG ...................................................................373
Service volumes-VOR .................................... ...................... 46, 91 Speed adjustments I restrictions .... ...................... 42, 108, 110, 111
Servo tab .................................................................................... 357 Speed below 10,000 and/or in Class B ........................................ 108
Seven 0 nine (709) ride ...................................................... 342, 343 Speed in Class C, D, E and G airport areas ................................ 108
Seventy percent (70°/o) landing limitation ......... .... .... .... .. ... .. ... .... 279 Speed limit in Class B ... ..... .. .. .... .... .. ... .. ... ....... .. .. .......... .. .. .... ... 3, 108
Severe icing .............................................. .. ..................................... 211 Speed limit in Class C ............. ....................... ...... ............... ..... 4 , 108
Severe turbulence .. ..................................................................... 224 Speed limit in Class D ...... .. ............... ............................ ........... 5, 108
Severe weather forecast alerts-AWW ...................................... 224 Speed limits-all speed limits .............................................. 108-110
Severe weather outlook chart ........ ................................. ............ 225 Speed limits-cross-reference ..................................................... 110
Shadows .................................................................................... 368 Speed of Sound & Mach ...................................... 115-117, 385, 387
Shaft horsepower ...... ..... ... .. ..... ......... ... .. ......... ... .. ... ......... .. ... .... . 363 Speed restriction I adjustment ... ... ... ... ..... ..... .... .. .. 42, 108, 110, 111
Shallow fog ................................................................................ 228 Speeding tickets and your medical ......................................202, 203
Sharing expenses .......................................................................... 185 Speed-miles per hour-feet per minute-feet per second ........ 385
Shoulder harness .. ................................................................. 34, 84 Spin recovery mnemonic .. ........................................................... 382
Shoulder harness-flight crewmembers at stations ..... ... ............ 316 Spiraling slipstream .................................................................... 335
Shutdown mnemonic ................................................................. 382 Split flap ..............................................................................354, 355
SIC check-equipment check-competency check ................... 302 Sport parachuting-use of floor as a seat ..................................... 84
SIC-Part 135 checking modules ....... .. .. .......... .. .. .... ..... .... .. ... .... 305 Sport Pilot ...... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... .... 184, 197
SIC qualifications for AC requiring 2 pilots .................................. 178 Spraying ...................................................................................... 236
SIC qualifications-Part 135 & 121 .... .. ....................................... 241 Sguare above or below square-manifold pressure & RPM .. .. 360
INDEX
SSALR-approach light system .... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ......... ... .. ....... . 74 Tailwheel endorsement .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... . 195
SSS-Single Side Band-HF radio ......... ................................... 104 Tailwind during climb-take advantage of ....... ........................... 386
Stability chart ......... .................................................................... 225 Takeoff & humidity-rules of thumb ............................................ 386
Stage 1, 2, 3, 4 noise standards ................................................. 165 Takeoff alternate (part 135/121) ..................................................259
Stall-critical angle of attack I recovery ............................. 306, 353 Takeoff briefing ..............................................................................39
Standard airworthiness certificate .............................................. 175 Takeoff checklist mnemonics ....................................................... 382
Standard average passenger weights ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ... 244 Takeoff distance-jet ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... . 156
Standard briefing .. ....................................................................... 223 Takeoff distance-rules of thumb ................................................ 386
Standard climb gradient .................................................. 41 , 43, 386 Takeoff-effect of altitude, temperature, and humidity ..... ........... 352
Standard datum plane-pressure altitude-29.92 ...................... 134 Takeoff field length ....................................................................... 154
Standard holding pattern .... .................. ......................................... 64 Takeoff from unlisted airports (part 135/121 ) ............................... 259
Standard Instrument Departure-SID ........................................... 43 Takeoff ground roll-rules of thumb ............................................ 386
Standard Pressure lapse rate ..................................................... 116 Takeoff in IMC from Class G airport without clearance ............ 7, 34
Standard rate of turn angle of bank ..... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ...... 386 Takeoff limitations IFR (commercial) .... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... 38
Standard rate of turn ... .......................................................... 71 , 386 Takeoff minimums IFR (135/ 121 , subpart K) ..... .. ....... 258, 259, 284
Standard service volumes-NOB ....... .................................. 63, 101 Takeoff mnemonic ....................................................................... 382
Standard service volumes-VOR ........................................... 46, 91 Takeoff on grass-rule of thumb ................................................. 386
Standard takeoff minimums (part 135/121 ) ...... .. ......................... 258 Takeoff on up-sloping runway-rule of thumb ............................. 386
Standard temperature lapse rate ................................................ 116 Takeoff path-actual aka gross ........ ........................................... 158
Standard temperatures at various altitudes .. .... ..... .... .... ..... .. ... ... 117 Takeoff performance-good and bad stuff ... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .122
Standard Terminal Arrival - STAR .............................................. 48 Takeoff-radio lingo .....................................................................401
Standby/rest-flight time & duty ............................. .................... 269 Takeoff rules of thumb ................................................................. 386
Start turn-stop turn-no-gyro approach .................................... 71 Takeoff run-jet ........................................................................... 157
Starter/generator ........................................................................ 149 TANGO ... .................................................................... 224, 250, 359
Starting-jet I turbine engine starting ........................................ 144 Tapes-copies of ATC tower/center tapes .................................. 346
Statement of demonstrated ability-SODA ............................... 200 Taskers-RVR ..................................................................... 72, 261
Static Air Temperature-SAT .. .. ... ...... ... .. .... ... .. .... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... 164 TAT-Iotal Air Iemperature ... ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ......... . 164
Static check ................................................................................. 135 Taxi-radio lingo .......................................................................... 401
Static discharger ..... .................................................................... 152 Taxiing ................................................................................... 26, 38
Static wick ................................................................................... 152 TBO-Time Between Overhauls ................................................. 364
Station-W&B ..... .................. ..................................................... 245 TCAS-Traffic alert & Collision Avoidance System .... 152, 285, 315
Status of an examiner during a practical test ............................. 192 Technical Standard Order-TSO .............................................. 364
Statute mile conversions ............................................................ 385 Telecommunication terms - Datalinks ..................................... 105
STC-Supplemental Type Certificate ......................................... 364 Telephone Information Briefing Service-TIBS ..........................224
Steam fog .......................................................................................... 228 Telephone-FSS direct line telephone numbers ......................... 229
Step-down altitudes-mandatory ..... .......................................... 56 TEMAC I LE MAC .........................................................................245
Sterile cockpit-flight crewmember duties ................................ 249 Temperature affects on density altitude ..................................... 124
Stolen or lost logbook ......................................... ........................ 181 Temperature, altitude & humidity-effect on takeoff .................... 352
Stopway ............................................................................. 155, 36 7 Temperature, altimeter errors in extremely cold weather ............ 119
Stowage of food , beverage & equipment during movement ... ... 282 Temperature and altimetry ..... ..... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. . 119, 121
Straight-in approach ......... ............................................... 15, 16, 67 Temperature at various altitudes-standard ............................... 117
Stratosphere ............................................................................. 115-117 Temperature conversion formulas ........ ....................................... 385
Student pilot qualifications ........................................................ 183 Temperature conversion placard-°C to °F ................................. 382
Subpart F-large and turbine-powered multiengine aircraft ...... 280 Temperature lapse rate .................... .......................... 116, 117, 387
Subpart K to Part 91 ........................................................... 284, 285 Temperature vs. altitude-tropopause, stratosphere ......... 115, 116
Subsonic flight regime ............................................................... 116 Temperature-Kelvin & Rankin .......................................... 115, 385
Substantial damage ... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... .. 344 Temperature-SAT, OAT, RAT, TAT .. .. ..... .... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .164
Suffixes ........ ..................................................................................... 32 Tempo, chance of, occasional, intermittent, possibility ........ 35, 253, 254
Sully ........................................................................................... 329 Temporary certificate ........ .......................................................... 193
Summer-standard average passenger weights ..................... 244 Temporary control towers ..............................................................83
Sump draining advice ........ ......................................................... 381 Temporary flight restrictions-NOTAMs ......................................226
Sunset times .............................................................................. 370 Temporary registration-not acceptable for international ............ 175
Super-Airbus A380 ... ..... .... ..... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... . 40 Terminal Arrival Area-TAA ...... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... 68, 69
Super-aircraft class-wake turbulence separation ..................... 40 Terminal procedures revision date ................................................49
Supercharged engine .. .. .............................................................. 361 Terminal Radar Service Area-TRSA .. ...........................................8
Super stall ................................................................................... 144 Terrain awareness warning system-GPWS ..................... 294, 285
Supersonic flight regime .................................... ......................... 116 Test flight-operation after maintenance .................................... 312
SuperUnicom .............................................................................. 102 Test to detect contamination of jet fuel ........................................373
Supervised Operating Experience (type rating) ......................... 194 Testing & checking-Part 135 .................................................... 242
Supplemental operation-fuel supply .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ...... 250 T-handle (fuel shutoff) .. .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... . 151
Supplemental operation-part 121 ......................... ............ 234, 235 Thermal runaway-nicad batteries .... .. ...................................... 150
Supplemental operations-flight time limitations (121 ) ... ............ 275 Things that do you no good ........................................................ 384
Supplemental Type Certificate-STC ......................................... 364 Third attitude indicator-turbojet .................................................313
Surface-based Class E ...... .. ......................................................... 6 Third-class medical certificate-duration of ................................. 199
Survival equipment-Passenger briefing before takeoff............ 293 Third-class medical required for .................................................. 197
Suspension of pilot certificate ... ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ......... ... .. .... ... 343 Third segment climb .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... . 154
Sweeping the wing ..................................................................... 144 Thirty degrees (30°) of bank during circling approach ................ 166
Swe twin advanta es and disadvanta es ...... ....................... 163 Threatening a pilot .. ............................................................. 86, 308
Three bar VAS I .... .......................................................................... 75
T Three degree (3°) rate of descent-rule of thumb ....................... 389
Three landings-90 days .................................................... 172, 173
I - design for approaches ..................................................... 68, 69 Three letter identifier-airport identifier logic ............................... 379
TAF I METAR explanation .. .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ... 219 Three three seven (337) form-major repair and alteration ....... .363
TAF I METAR explanation-wallet size cutout ........................... 221 Threshold ............................................................................................20
TAF vs. METAR ...... ............................................................ 218, 219 Threshold bar ....... .......................................................................... 21
INDEX
Threshold crossing height .... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... .... 19, 57, 60 Transponder-all transponder stuff-Mode C .. .. ... ....... .. .. ........... 127
Threshold lights ................................................................................. 25 Transport category aircraft ..... .............. .............. ............. ........... 168
Threshold markings ................................................................ 20, 22 Transport category-driftdown-enroute performance ............... 159
Thrust-horsepower & thrust ..................................................... 362 Transport category turbine airplane landing criteria .................... 159
Thunderstorm avoidance I penetration ..................................... 207 Transportation not local in character ........... ............................. .271
Thunderstorm detection equipment required ...................... 315, 285 Trim tabs .....................................................................................357
TIBS-Telephone Information Briefing Service .. .. ......... .... ..... .... 224 Tropical tropopause .... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... .. 214
Tickets-Speeding tickets and your medical ..................... 202, 203 Tropopause ............................................................... 115, 116, 214
Time Between Overhauls-TBO .............. .............. .............. ...... 364 Troposphere ............................................................................. 116, 214
Time - Covert to/from Zulu ........................................................ 380 Troubleshooting radios ................................................................ 99
Time en route-formula ....... .. ...................................................... 388 T-routes ......................................................................................... 4 7
Time in service .................................................................... 311 , 363 TRSA-Terminal Radar Service Area ............................................. 8
Time of useful consciousness ..................................................... 142 True airspeed in knots from Mach# rule of thumb .................... 387
Time sharing agreement .. .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... 280 True airspeed ..... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ... 114
Time to climb-formula ............... .............. ............................. ..... 386 True airspeed-rule of thumb .. ............... .............. .............. ......... 387
Time to descend-formula ... ....................................................... 389 True altitude .................................................................................118
Time to station-formula ............................................................. 388 True altitude-rule of thumb ........................................................387
Time - Zulu - Covert to/from ...... ................................. ............ 380 True north vs. magnetic north wind direction ...............................220
Timed approaches from a holding fix ........................................... 48 TSO-Technical Standard Order ................................................. 364
Timing for inbound leg I outbound leg ... .. ... ......... .. ... ....... .. .. ....... 109 Turbine I Jet engine terminology .... ... ..... .... .. ... .. ... ......... .. ... ....... . 149
Timing should be based on groundspeed .................... ........... 61 , 63 Turbine I Jet engine-101 ........................................................... 146
Tire creep I chined tires, fusible plugs ... .. ............. .............. ........ 163 Turbine I Jet operations-101 .............. ................ .............. ......... 144
TIS-B - Traffic Information Service-Broadcast .............. ........... 103 Turbine engine starting .... .. ............... .......................................... .148
- - - -
TIT-Turbine Inlet Temperature ................................................. 149 Turbine Inlet Temperature-TIT .................................................. 149
To meet a crossing restriction ................................................... 47 Turbine Outlet Temperature-TOT .............................................. 149
To use an airport as an alternate ............................................... 35 Turbocharged engine ................................................................. 361
TODA-TOOR-TOGA ......... .. .. .......... .. .. .... .... .. ... .. ... ......... .. ... ... 158 Turbofan I turbojet .. .... .... .. ... ..... ..... .... .. ... ......... .. ... ......... .. .......... .146
TOLD card-landing side-approach side ................................... 51 Turbojet-type rating requirements ............................................. 194
TOLD card-Take-Off and Landing Data ........................... 160, 161 Turbojets-limitations on the use of landing minimums ............ .. 264
TOLD card-takeoff side .............................................................. 39 Turboprop-free-turbine & direct-drive ...................................... 147
Top secret captain stuff .. ... ...................................................... 240 Turboshaft-Direct-drive turboprop ............................ ................ 147
TORA-Takeoff Run Available ................................................... 158 Turbulence reporting criteria ......................................................224
Torque ........................................................................................ 363 Turbulence, extreme ....................................................................207
Torque-multi-engine with engine out ........................................ 335 Turn-early turn on a Departure Procedure ..................................43
TORR-Takeoff Run Required .. .............. ................ .............. ..... 158 Turn-lead the turn .............................................................................. 4 7
Total electrical failure in IMC conditions ...................... .............. 82 Turn-standard rate of turn .......................................... ......... 71 , 386
TOT-Turbine Outlet Temperature ............................................. 149 Turns at airports without an operating control tower .......... 15, 16, 67
Touchdown zone elevation ................ .......................................... 20 TWEB-transcribed weather broadcast ......................................224
Touch down zone lights ........................................................... 24 , 25 Twenty I twenty (20/20) vision ................................................... 199
Touchdown zone markings ... .. .. .......... .. .. .... .... .. ... .. ... ......... .. ... ...... 20 Twilight times ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .. 370
Tower-·Class G ........................................................................... 83 Twisting moments caused by flaps ............................................ 355
Towers-control towers-number in operation .... .. ................ ..... 373 Two bar VASI ....................................................................................75
Tower tapes-how to obtain a copy of ...................................... 346 Two pilot lower than standard takeoff minimums .......................259
Trace ice ..................................................................................... 211 Type certificate data sheet ........................................................ .. 174
Traffic alert ............................................................... 19, 26, 60, 130 Type I, II , Ill & IV de-ice I anti-ice fluids .......................................212
Traffic alert & Collision Avoidance System-TCAS ............ 152, 315 Type rating required ...................................................................278
Traffic pattern altitude & GS-Class B, C, or D ... .. ... ...... 19, 60, 130 Type rating requirements ...... .. .......... .. .. .... ... ... ... .. ... ......... .. .......... 194
Traffic pattern altitude at airports without control tower ..... .. . 18, 131 Type rating-maintaining currency-PIG proficiency check ........ 196
Traffic pattern altitude Class B ............ ........................................... . 3 T es of art 135 certificates ............. .............. ............................238
Traffic pattern altitude Class C ........................................................ 4
Traffic pattern altitude Class D ............ ............................................ 5
Traffic pattern altitude-uncontrolled airports ....................... 18, 131
u
Traffic pattern entry .. .. .. ... ......... .. ... ....... .. .. ... ....... .. .. ............ .. ... 16, 17 UA, UUA-PIREP ........... .. ..... ............ .. ............ .. ....... ....... ....... ..... 225
Traffic pattern-minimum altitudes-Class B, C , or D .... 19, 60, 130 UAT-Y.niversal Access Iransceiver (987 MHz) ................ 103, 222
Traffic separation-wake turbulence ........ ............. ................ ....... 40 Uncontrolled airspace-IFR flight without a clearance .... ........ 7, 34
Training center ...... ..................................................................... 296 Underscored-Mandatory altitude ....................................... 56, 128
Training , instrument training in VMC ................. ............................ 84 Unicom I Multicom & air-to-air frequencies ................................. 102
Training options-Part61 vs. Part 141 schools .......................... 183 Universal Time Coordinated-UTC time-ZULU time ............... 380
Training program ......................................................................... 295 Unlisted airports-takeoffs from (part 135/121 ) ..........................259
Training to accepted standards .. ... ......... .. ... ....... .. .. ............ .. ..... .. 296 Unmanned Aircraft System (UAS) .............................................. 375
Training types-initial , transition, upgrade, etc .... .. .............. ....... 296 Unscheduled - flight time & duty .... .... .............. ....... 267, 268, 269
Training , testing and checking-a quick synopsis ........ .. ............ 242 Unscheduled 3 & 4 pilot crews (135)-flight time & duty ........... .. 270
Transcribed WEather Broadcast-TWEB ................................. 224 Updates of GPS Databases ..........................................................94
Transformer ............................................................................... 150 Upgrade ground training ............................................. ................295
Transgression-No Transgression Zone-PRM approach ........ 79 Upgrade training ..........................................................................296
Transition altitude .... .. ............ .. ... ......... .. ... ..... .... ..... .... .. .. .. .. 140-141 Upper Side Band-HF radio ..... ..... .... .. ... ......... .. ... ....... .. .. .......... .104
Transition area ................................................................................ 8 Upslope fog ................................................................................. 228
Transition ground training ........ .. .............. ................ .............. ..... 295 Up-sloping runway takeoff-rule of thumb .... .... .............. ......... 386
Transition level ..................................................................... 140-141 US to metric conversions ............... .............. .............. ............... .385
Transition training ............................... ........................................ 296 Usable distance of VOR signals ..............................................46, 91
Transmissometers-RVR ................................................... 72 , 261 Usable length-runway length .....................................................279
Transonic flight regime .............................................................. 116 Usable-lowest usable flight level ............................................... 132
Transponder antenna (on aircraft) .... .... .. ... ......... .. ... ......... .. ......... 99 Useful load .... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. .. 245
Transponder codes ............................................................. 100, 127 UTC time-Universal Time Coordinated-ZULU ................... ..... 380
Transponder mode C check .. ........................................... ........... 309 Utility category aircraft ... .. .............. ...................................... 11 , 168
INDEX
Weapons-prohibition against carriage of ... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .308
v Weather at the destination must be at or above minimums ..........38
Weather briefings-standard , abbreviated, etc . ..........................223
V Speeds-every Speed that was ever V'd ....................... 112, 113 Weather-chance of, tempo, possibility of ................... 35, 253, 254
V1 , V2, Vr, Vfs, Venr .......................................... ......................... 154 Weather-do you need an alternate ..................................... 35, 254
V3, V4 speed .............................................................................. 158 Weather for approach not required for Part 91 ............................ 260
Vacuum relief valve ... .. ..... .... ... .. ......... ..... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... 142, 153 Weather radar required ....... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... ... .. . 315, 285
Validation tests and Proving runs .............................. 284, 286, 294 Weather reporting ..........................................................................76
Valsalva maneuver-ear block ................ .................................. 350 Weather reporting-arrival at airports wi no weather reporting .... 264
Vapor-Cycle Machine VCM .................................................... 151 Weather reporting-departing airports wino weather reporting ...265
Variation error-compass ............................................................ 90 Weather reports VFR-PIC can be observer (Part 135) ...... 76, 265
VASI .............................................................................................. 75 Weather required for approach (part 135/121) ............................ 260
VCM-Vapor-Cycle Machine ...................................................... 151 Weather required for destination & alternate (part 135/121) ....... 252
VOA-Vertical Descent Angle ... ......... ... .. ......... .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... . 77 Weather required for "Eligible On-Demand Operator" ..... ..... .... ... 286
VOL-VHF Digital Link modes 2, 3 & 4 .................. ............ 105, 222 Weather required for subpart K of part 91 .......................... 284, 285
VDP-Visual Descent Point .......................................................... 77 Weight & Balance & CG table-all W&B stuff .............................245
Venturi effect ....................................................................... 134, 151 Weight & Balance data (required on board the aircraft) ............. 175
Vertical Descent Angle VOA ........... ......................................... 77 Weight & Balance-formulas .......................................................386
Vertigo ........................................................................................ 201 Weight & Balance-load manifest ...................................... 243, 284
VFR I IFR instruments and equipment .... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... . 84 Weight & Balance load manifest-record keeping .... .... .. . 246, 284
VFR at night-equipment required carrying passengers ............ 313 Weight-average standard passenger weights ........................... 244
VFR arrival at large, Class B or C airport-radio lingo ............... 409 Weight bearing capacity, runway ......................... .......................... 22
VFR charts required .................................................................... 293 Weight-formulas, conversions & comparisons .......................... 385
VFR cloud clearance ....................................................................... 9 Weights of fuel , oil , alcohol, hydraulic fluid , water, etc ....... 384, 385
VFR control towers ......................................................................... 5 Wet lease .....................................................................................236
VFR cruising altitudes ................................................................. 132 Wet runway definition ..................................................................213
VFR flight following ...... .... ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ....... . 44 Wet start-turbine engine ...... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ..... .... ..... .... ... .. . 148
VFR fuel supply .... ......................................................................... 36 Wheels-tires-fusible plugs ...................................................... 163
VFR fuel supply-domestic operations ....................................... 250 Whitearc ..................................................................................... 114
VFR in Class B, Class C , Class D, Class G .................................... 9 White arrows ..................................................................................21
VFR in Class E ...................................................................... 6 , 9, 81 White smoke-piston engine smoke .......................................... .366
VFR over-the-top-equipment required when carrying pass ...... 313 Wilco ...........................................................................................359
VFR-on-top-over-the-top-1 FR clearance ....... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ....... . 44 Wind chill factors .........................................................................216
Viagra ......................................................................................... 201 Wind direction-true north vs. magnetic north ............................. 220
Vibration detector ...................... ................................................ 149 Wind shear ... ........................................................................... .......... 206
Victor airways ............................................................................... 4 7 Windsock .................................................................................... 216
Violation-Enforcement action .......................................... 342, 343 Winds and temperature aloft forecast-FD .............................225
Virga ........................................................................................... 218 Windmill start I airstart-jet engine .............................. ............... 162
Viscosi meter .............................................................................. 366 Windshield heat ..........................................................................163
Viscosity of oi I............................................................................ 366 Wing loading-formula .... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .389
Viscous hydroplaning ................................................................. 372 Wing planform ... ...........................................................................351
Visibility and the earth's horizon ................................................ 367 Wing lets .... ................................ ........................................................ 162
Visibility when operating from a satellite airport ............................ 70 Winter-standard average passenger weights ........................... 244
Visibility-flight visibility ....................... ................. 70, 260, 261 , 367 Without an instrument approach-filing IFR to an airport ..... .. ... 34
Visibility-operation below DH or MDA-flight visibility ................ 70 Women ........................................................................................388
Vision-medical certificate requirements ........................... 199, 200 Words to avoid-radio lingo ........................................................397
Visual approach .. ......................................................................... 76 Wreckage preservation of .. .. ... ...... ... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ......... .345
Visual Descent Point-VDP ..... ..................................................... 77 Written (practical) test validity/duration ............... ........................ 192
Vmc-red line-reduced by I increased by ................................ 334 WS-SIGMET ..............................................................................224
VNAV I LNAV Approaches ........................................................... 62
Void time .................................................................................. 8, 38 y
VOR-all VOR stuff ................................................................ 46, 91
VOR antenna (on aircraft) ... .. .... ..... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ....... . 98 Yaw-adverse vs. proverse yaw .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... .357
VOR check I test ................................................................... 91 , 309 Yaw damper. .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... .. .. .. ... . 163, 35 7
VOR GPS as substitute for ........................................................... 94 Year-calendar year .. ...................................................................... 267
VOR Minimum Operational Network (MON) ................................. 91 Yellow arc ....................................................................................114
VOR service volume ............................................................... 46, 91 Yellow chevrons, demarcation bar, aint ....................................... 21
Vortex generators ..................................................................... 356
VOT check ............................................................................ 91 , 309
Vref ............................................................................................. 144
z
Vr-rotation s eed-rule of thumb ............................................. 386 Zero fuel weight ....... .. ...................................................................... 245
Zone-No Transgression Zone-PRM approach ......................... 79
w ZULU time ....................................................................................380
WA-Al RM ET ............................................................................. 224

WAAS-Wide Area Augmentation System ...... ... .. ..... .... ..... ... 62, 96
Wake turbulence traffic separations ............................................ 40
Warning areas .............................................................................. 10
Washington, DC (DC FRZ) (DC SFRA) ...................................... 12
Waste gate-turbocharged engine ................................. ........... 361
Water in jet fuel ........................................................................... 145
Water-overwater-performance requirements ......................... 314
Water-weight ... .... ..... .. ... .... ..... .. ... ...... ... .. ......... ... .. ..... .... ..... ...... 385
Wattage vs. kilowatts vs. horsepower .... .. .................................. 362
Watts-electrical .... .................................................................... 362
INDEX
••
Er6•YrHlll/S EXPlAINED tor the Pr-ofesaiobal Pilof. .. ··· : · ·~~~"''
•••• ·"' \\\\S" •ii\''
•••••••:•{n\\ \\ t', "'"o~ \\·
If you 're someone learning to fly this book is 1 NDISPENSABLE. • • • • • • ~ca\\\ t '\ t\ee\\ \0
It will save you from wasting hundreds of dollars on other books ~" •• 'jO ~a"\'j 60\\
l\
and save you countless hours! of wasted study time trying to sort ~ 'jO\\ \\tO
out all that information you must know. •
If you're a Private and/or Instrument pilot this book is absolutely ESSENTIAL. It will be your primary
reference source while you continue to learn and strive to stay alive.
If you're a Commercial and/or ~irline pilot this book is MANDA TORY. It explains the complex
intricacies of flying for a living and will hel~ you ''stay legal." It could save your ticket! Plus, it doubles as
the most complete technical interview guide ever created. :You'll know more than the interviewer!
This is NOT a conventional book. It is a de~arture from the traditional (and very boring) paragra~h style found
in most books. This is a FRESH and FUN approach to the unbelievably complex world of aviation written in
an OUTLINE style that gets to the heart of the 1facts without wasting time on irrelevant babble.
Easy-to-read , outline-form explanations list all the relevant facts , highlighted with BOLD UNDERLINED TEXT
that automatically EMPHASIZES the important words. You cannot find an easier to read book that tackles
such a formidable mountain of subject matter.
Richie has the unique ability to simplify the complicated and examine in extreme detail what you thought
was simple, with a humorous hint of sarcasm laced throughout intended to keep you from falling asleep.
This ULTIMATE REFERENCE BOOK explains all aspects of aviation from PROPS to heavy JETS.
Clear, 1down-to-earth explanations of essentially all the up-to-the-minute aviation ~~~ and regu~!ions
relevant to all pilots for use in everyday real world scenarios.
Practical, straight-to-the-information , with wisdom gleaned from years of real world experience flying the line.
The most complete INDEX ever created . All subjects are listed by 'EVERY possible key word that could
possibly come to mind, even if it's a slang term .
All subjects list all possible references to the regulations , the AIM, the Advisory Circular(s}, or the FM's legal
opinion or legal precedent. Therefore, if you don't believe it, you 're welcome to look it up your-damn-sell .
I dare you ••• no I DOUBLE-DARE you ••• to browse through this book without buying it.
It can't be done! :-)
Chapter 1 - Everything you need to know about airspace and airports, including some interesting surprises.
Chapter 2 A ''real world'' look at instrument flight from beginning to end. What's leaal and what ain't.
1.
Chapter 3 - Everything about navigation , radios and antennas, including G PS, WAAS, ~DS-B , HF, etc.
Chapter 4 The interrelationship of speed, altitude and jet/turbine operatio ns. An incredible chapten•
Chapter 5 - All the details about your certificates , documents, logging time , !drug~, and your medical.
'
Chapter 6 Everything about weather, icing, NOTAMs, and FSS direct ''ba ck door'' cell phone numb ers.
1
Chapter 7 Introduction to Part 135 & Part 121 operations definitions, W& B , ~ ualif ications, FT&D, etc.
~
Chapter 8 More stuff about commercial operations OpSpecs , ramp checks, checkrides, PRI~, etc.
Chapter 9 - Exactly how to handle an emergency and what to do if you're charged with a violation.
Chapter 10 A few hundred extra bits and pieces of miscellaneous information you ~n ~ed to know.
Chapter 11 Reference tables , virtually every rule of thumb, conversions and more lextra FREE stuff.
Chapter 12 Lengel's Radio Manual Communicating In the Real World.
INDEX Without a doubt ... the finest index ever created. Find anything INSTANTLY!
ISB N 0- 9742613 - 0 - 0
EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the PROFESSIONAL PILOT 55995
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Chapter 2 Final Approach Segment ......................................... 57

Chapter 6 Convective outlook (AC) .........................................225

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 1

' ::::::::::::::::::~ 4,000' AGL

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 3

White Green • •11-•..-m • • • • • • • • • • • ~

4 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

Class D Airspace - Non-Federal Control Towers:

: Class D- Dashed Blue line.

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 5

Surface· Based Class E: (Ac 90-66A, FAA-H-8083-3, FAA-H-8083-15, 8083-16, 8083-25)

6 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 7

8 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

Class A N/A N/A

3 sm 500' below, 1,000' above, 2,000' horizontal

1 200' or less above the surface re ardless of MSL altitude

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 9

MILITARY OPERATIONS AREAS (MOAs): (1.1 , AIM 3-4-5, FAA-H-8083-25)

WARNING AREAS: (1 .1, AIM 3-4-4 , FAA-H-8083-25)

ALERT AREAS: (1 .1, AIM 3-4-6, FAA-H-8083-25)

CONTROLLED FIRING AREAS: (1 .1, AIM 3-4-7, FAA-H-8083-25)

MILITARY TRAINING ROUTES MTR: (AIM 3-5-2, P/C Glossary, FAA-H-8083-25)

10 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

g. If the aircraft is not certified for aerobatic flight; or

§ 23.3 Airplane Categories:

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 11

ADIZ Boundaries and Mountainous Areas

Air Defense -Identification Zones - ADIZ & DEWIZ:

12 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

INTERCEPT SIGNALS I PROCEDURES: (AIM 5-6-1thru5-6-6, Table 5-6-1 & 5-6-2)

Approaches pilot-side of aircraft and (Daytime) Rock wings to acknowledge.

Approach & Identification Fly This Way Breakaway Maneuver

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 13

Aircraft cleared to land

14 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

aligned within 30 degrees of the runway centerline at/easts miles out.

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 15

16 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 17

It's a good thing they

The Class G/E Booby·Trap

18 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 19

TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKINGS:

AIMING POINT MARKING:

TOUCHDOWN ZONE MARKINGS:

RUNWAY DESIGNATION MARKINGS:

20 EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot

This portion IS available for

A three-foot wide, YELLOW

YELLOW CHEVRONS are

EVERYTHING EXPLAINED for the Professional Pilot 21

1. Runway Distance Remaining BLACK background I WHITE numerals

THRESHOLD MARKINGS: (AIM 2-3-3h., FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

DISPLACED THRESHOLD: (AIM 2-3-3h .1. & 2., FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

RUNWAY DESIGNATION MARKINGS: (AC 150/5340-1J, AC 150/5370-2E, FAA-H-8083-16, 8083-25)

RUNWAY WEIGHT BEARING CAPACITY: (A/FD Legend)

Holding Position Markings: ILS Critical Area