Aranyakas

- Describe the philosophy behind the rituals and sacrifices

- Concluding portions of several brahmanas
- The major contents of the Aranyakas are theosophy (Brahmavidya), meditation
(Upasana) and knowledge of breath (Pranavidya). They describe the secret
meaning of the sacrifice and the concept of Brahma as well.
- Atharva Veda does not have any Aranyakas
- They are also referred to as ‘Rahasya Brahmanas’
Upanishads
- Also known as Vedanta
- 700 to 400 B.C.E
- Upanishads are texts on spiritual knowledge and philosophy.
- They primarily deal with the relationship between the Atman and the Brahman
- Katha, Eso, Jabala, Brihadaranyaka, Mundaka, Chandogya, Keno, Svetasvatara.
- They act as a base for later Vedic schools.
Katha: Dialogue between Nachiket and Lord of Death- Yama; Ralph Waldo
Emerson
Eso: Creation
Jabala: Renouncing the world and striving for spirituality
Brihadaranyaka: Transmigration of souls
Mundaka: Satyameva Jayate
Chandogya: Krishna
Keno: Dara Shikoh translated this into Persian. Ethical life as the need to
realize god. It also talks about Uma or Parvati.
Svetasvatara: It talks about Shiva
Maha: Maha Upanishad
Taittreya: Attiti Devobhava
• Vedangas: These were meant to explain the Vedas. Nirukta (Etymology),
Siksha (pronunciation), Chehendus (recitation), Vykarana, Kalpa, Jyotish
• Puranas: Stories that narrate the creation of universe. Ex: Bhagavata, Brahma,
Vayu, Agni, Garuda etc.
• Upapuranas: Amarasimha (Sarga- creation of universe, Pratisarga- cycle of
destruction and re-creation, manvantara- manu’s lifetime, Vamsa- genealogy
of gods and sages, Vamshanucharita- dynastic history of Kings)
• Dharmasastra: commentaries on responsibilities, duties and ethics for an
individual’s behavior toward oneself, one's family and one's community.
• Bhasyas and Nibandhas: Secondary works on Dharmasutras
 Epic literatures
Ramayana
• Valmiki
• Rama- Eldest son of the Kosala kingdom
• It is known as Adi Kavya
• Divided into seven chapters called as ‘Kandas’
• Versions of Ramayana: Ramavataram (Kamban), Ranganatha Ramayanam
(Gona Budda Reddy), Saptakanda Ramayana (Madhava Kandali)
• Most famous amongst the versions: Tulsidas’s Ramacharitmanas
 Ramayana Ramacharitmanas
Sanskrit language Awadhi language
Treta Yuga Kaliyuga
Shlokas Chaupais
350 wives 3 wives
Lord Hanuman- a human who belonged Lord Hanuman- monkey god
to Vanara tribe
Kidnapping of Sita by Ravana Ravana kidnapped a duplicate of Sita
2 battles fought between Rama and Single battle fought between Rama and
Ravana Ravana
Rama: Maryada Purushottam Rama: a divine god
Depiction of Rama’s death- River Sarayu Ends with birth of Lava and Kusha
Mahabharata
• Maharishi Vyasa
• Conflict between Pandavas and Kauravas
• Longer than Ramayana as well
• Includes moral messaging in the form of Bhagvad Gita
• Faizi and Abd al-Qadir Badayuni made a Persian translation of the
Mahabharata, titled Razmnameh, under Akbar's instructions
• Kisari Mohan Ganguli, published between 1883 and 1896, and by M. N.
Dutt was the first comprehensive English translation.
• Jain works related to Mahabharata: Harivamsapurana,
Trisastisalakapurusa charitra, Pandavacharitra, Pandava Purana
 Culture in Vedic age
Early Vedic period
- Basic political organization was family
- The highest political unit was called jana or tribe
- The head of the kingdom was called as rajan or king
- Succession was hereditary. The king was assisted by purohita or priest and senani or commander of the army in his
administration.
- The Rig Vedic society was patriarchal
- Monogamy was generally practiced while polygamy was prevalent among the royal and noble families. There were
women poets like Apala, Viswavara, Ghosa and Lopamudra during the Rig Vedic period
- There was no child marriage and the practice of sati was absent
- Chariot racing, horse racing, dicing, music and dance were the favorite pastimes
- The Rig Vedic Aryans were pastoral people and their main occupation was cattle rearing
- Use of Iron was seen, carpentry was also another occupation.
- The Rig Vedic Aryans worshiped the natural forces like earth, fire, wind, rain and thunder. The important Rig Vedic gods
were Prithvi (Earth), Agni (Fire), Vayu (Wind), Varuna (Rain) and Indra (Thunder). Indra was the most popular among
them during the early Vedic period. There were no temples and no idol worship during the early Vedic period
Later Vedic period
• Larger kingdoms were formed during the later Vedic period
• The society became more ritualistic. Ex: Rajasuya (consecration ceremony),
Asvamedha (horse sacrifice) and Vajpeya (chariot race)
• Iron was used extensively in this period
• Metal work, leather work, carpentry and pottery made great progress
• Varna ashrama was established firmly during this time
• Women also lost their political rights of attending assemblies. Child marriages
had become common
• According the Aitreya Brahmana a daughter has been described as a source of
misery
• Prajapathi (the creator), Vishnu (the protector) and Rudra (the destroyer)
became prominent during the Later Vedic period
 Mauryan Age
• Religious unrest in Indian society
• The complex rituals and sacrifices advocated in the Later Vedic period were not
acceptable to the common people
• The sacrificial ceremonies were also found to be too expensive
• Some knowledge was highly philosophical
• The rigid caste system prevalent in India generated tensions in the society
• Higher classes enjoyed certain privileges which were denied to the lower classes
• Kshatriyas had resented the domination of the priestly class
• The growth of trade led to the improvement in the economic conditions of the
Vaisyas.
• As a result, they wanted to enhance their social status but the orthodox Varna
system did not allow this.
Maurya’s artistic contributions:

1. A series of edicts inscribed on the rocks

2. Certain monolithic pillars
3. A number of Stupas
4. Remains of a vast palace
5. A group of rock-cut chambers
ASHOKAN PILLARS
 The tradition of constructing pillars is very
old and it may be observed that erection of
pillars was prevalent in the Achamenian
empire as well.
 But the Mauryan pillars are different from
the Achamenian pillars. The Mauryan pillars
are rock-cut pillars thus displaying the
carver’s skills, whereas the Achamenian
pillars are constructed in pieces by a mason
MULGANDH KUTI VIHAR
Pillars:
o Mines: Sandstone from Mathura and Chunnar;
buff colored sandstone from Amravati.
o Symbols: inverted lotus flower, lion, bull,
elephant, horse, spoked wheel etc.
o Places where pillars are found: Topra, Meerut,
Kausambhi, Rampurva, Champaran, Mehrauli,
Lauriya Nandangarh, Vaishali etc.
o Ashokan Pillar in Delhi was transported in Delhi
by Firoz Shah Tughlak
o Some pillars had edicts (proclamations) inscribed
upon them.
Depiction of
a chakravartin,
possibly Ashoka, with a
16-spoked wheel (1st
century BCE/CE)
 ASHOKAN PILLAR EDICTS
• Seven prominent pillar
edicts
• Subject matter: his
dhamma policy, ethical
messaging,
appointment of
Dhamma mahamattas,
responsibilities of
Rajukas etc.
• Script: Greek, Kharosthi,
Brahmi
Ashokan rock edicts

• 14 major rock edicts

• Mentions dynasties from the South,
presence of slavery, tolerance towards all
religions, Kalinga War (XIII),
• Housed in Patna, Bihar
• Well-polished
• Excavated on the banks of River
Ganga
• Located on River Daya
• BBSR, Odisha
• This is where Kalinga war is supposed
to have been fought
 Palaces of the Mauryas
o Kumhrar (Patna): Ashoka’s
palace. Fa Hien commented
on Ashoka’s palace and so
does Megasthenes
o Pataliputra was modelled on
Persepolis
o Wood was the major material
used for the construction
About Buddhist stupas (Key facts)
● After the ‘parinirvana’ of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes were divided and buried in eight
stupas built at locations associated with important events in the Buddha’s life
● In an effort to spread Buddhism, Emperor Ashoka (273-232 BCE) recovered the relics from the original stupas
and redistributed them to thousands of stupas erected across India. (such as Sanchi stupa, Sarnath stupa and
Kesariya stupa).
● There are five types of stupas. They are; Relic stupas (in which relics of the Buddha and other religious people is
buried), Object stupas (in which objects of the Buddha and other disciples are buried), Commemorative stupas
(built to commemorate events in the life of the Buddha and his disciples), Symbolic stupas (built to symbolize
various aspects of Buddhist theology), and Votive stupas (constructed to commemorate visits or gain spiritual
benefits).
● Stupas were often decorated with sculptural reliefs depicting Jataka tales, events in the life of the Buddha, and
popular mythological figures. The art and architecture of stupas evolved under the influence of the Gandhara
art.
● Indian conception of the stupa spread to Sri Lanka, China, Korea, Tibet and Japan where it evolved into different
looking monuments, all of which retained the basic symbolism of stupas.
● The Great Stupa at Sanchi (3rd century BC) is one of the oldest stone structures in India, and an important
monument of Indian Architecture
Stupas:
o It had already existed
o Burial mounds since Vedic period
o Stupas can be divided into: circular
anda, harmika, chhatra, medhi and
Vedika
o Unburnt bricks at the core and burnt
bricks outer walls
o Places: Rajgriha, Vasihali, Kapilavastu,
Allakappa, Ramagrama, Vethapida,
Pava, Kushinagar and Pippalavana
 Stupas Pagodas
Mound-like or hemispherical structure containing A Hindu or Buddhist temple, typically in the form
relics that is used as a place of meditation. of a many-tiered tower.
They were originally built as ancient Indian burial They evolved in East Asia as a derivation of the
mounds to mark the graves or religious/political stupas.
leaders and were later incorporated into Buddhism.
Early Indian stupas evolved in the 3rd to early 1st Chinese pagodas evolved in 5th-7th Century AD
century. BC and later Indian stupas evolved in the and Japanese pagodas evolved in the 7th Century.
2nd century AD
The top of the pillar that rose from the dome had The pagoda took on the shape of a multi-storied
three circular disks ‘umbrella disks/chhatra’ to tower with levels echoing the series of ‘umbrella
represent the Three Jewels. disks’.
Functions: housing important relics, Functions: Housing important relics, for common
commemorating events in the lives of the Buddha worship and for special Buddhist events.
and disciples, meditation centres.
The dome was enclosed, with no entrance,had no Pagodas had interior space with a series of
interior space and was not for visiting inside. staircases to allow visitors to ascend to the top of
the building or gather inside.
Common in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Cambodia and Common in China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam and
Sri Lanka. other parts of Asia.
 Bharhut Stupa
• Madhya Pradesh
• Bharhut is the name of the hill
situated nearby
• Dark red sandstone was used in
its construction
• It was quarried from Kaimur
hills in Central India
• It was discovered by Alexander
Cunningham
• Donated by laymen
 Sanchi Stupa
- Located in the gorge of Betwa
river
- Made of polished sandstone
- Objective: to depict the life of
Buddha
- Sandstone quarried from Chunar
- Shalbhanjikas
- UNESCO World Heritage Site
 Amaravati Stupa
• Located in the gorge of Krishna
River
• The stupa is related to
the Vajrayana teachings
• Hieun Tsang visited Amaravati Stupa
• Stone and white sandstone
• Centres – Nagarujnakonda and
Jaggayapeta, Goli
Cave architecture:
 Used as resting houses (viharas)
initially
 Earliest caves were used by
Ajivikas (Ashoka donated
Sudama and lomas rishi caves)
 Polished surfaces and decorative
gateways
 Ex: Barabar, Nagarjuni caves and
Nasik caves
Gompas
o Monastery in vogue since
Mahayana phase of
Buddhism
o Regions where they are
found: Ladakh region
Hemis Gompa : Situated 47 km from Leh, Hemis Monastery lies on the west bank of Indus
River. Founded by the first incarnation of Stagsang Raspa Nawang Gyatso, Hemis Monastery in
leh is thronged by number of visitors all the year round.

Tawang Monastery : Situated in Arunachal Pradesh, Tawang Monasstery lies in the Bomidilla
District. Situated at an altitude of approximately 10,000 ft, it is one of the largest buddhist
monasteries in India.

Rumtek Monastery: Also known as the Dharmachakra Centre, Rumtek Monastery is a Tibetan
Buddhist Monastery located in the state of Sikkim. It is amongst the cherished pilgrimage site
and one of the important Buddhist sites eats of Kagyu school of Buddhism outside Tibet.

Namgyal Tsemo Gompa

It was built in 1430 AD and has a rich collection of Buddhist literature, art, manuscripts and
images of Buddha in its three storey high structure. One can have the birds' eye view of Leh
town from this monastery.
Spituk Monastery
It is located on a high hill at a distance of around 18 km from Leh. It is known for the
collection of various ancient Buddhist paintings and artifacts. An annual festival is organised
in Spituk monastery in the eleventh month of Tibetan calendar from 17th to 19th day.
Lamayuru Gompa
This monastery is located on the rocky mountain at a distance of around 125 km from Leh
towards West. It is also known by the name of Swastika monastery. The annual festival
attracts a large number of visitors in the second month of Tibetan calendar.
Alchi Gompa
Alchi Gompa is located on the bank of Indus river and is the only monastery of Ladakh built
on flat ground. It showcases the Kashmiri art and architecture in its construction. There are
various beautiful images of Lord Buddha inside the gompa.
Shey Gompa
This monastery served as the summer palace of Ladakh Kings and is located to the South
of Leh. The main attraction of the monastery is the 12 feet high gold plated statue of
Shakya Muni Buddha. An annual festival is celebrated here in the first month of Tibetan
calendar, which attracts a large number of visitors.