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1 atoms are mostly empty space surrounding a very small, dense nucleus that contains protons and
neutrons; electrons are found in shells in the empty space around the nucleus

relative mass relative charge

proton 1 +1

neutron 1 0

electron 1/1836 -1

3 Atomic and mass numbers

The atomic number is equal to the number of protons in an atom.

The mass number is equal to the total number of protons and neutrons in an atom.

4 The nucleus is at the centre of the atom and contains the protons and
neutrons. Protons and neutrons are collectively known as nucleons.
The mass is concentrated at the nucleus of an atom. The positively charged protons
are in the nucleus while the negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus in shells.
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5
Protons are positively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path
towards the negative plate.
Electrons are negatively charged and so would be deflected on a curving path
towards the positive plate.
Neutrons don't have a charge, and so would continue on in a straight line.

number of protons =
number of protons = number of protons =
number of neutrons=
number of neutrons= number of neutrons=
number of electrons=
number of electrons= number of electrons=

7 in inorganic chemistry
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1.2

1
Isotopes : They have the same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.

2 x is the mass or nucleon number and y is the atomic or proton

number

3 isotopes of the same element have the same chemical properties. Explain why .
4 isotopes of the same element have different physical properties . Explain why .

1.3

1
shells - are composed of electrons that share the same principal quantum number
subshells -are composed of electrons that share the same angular momentum quantum
number
orbitals -are composed of electrons that are in the same energy level but have different
spins.

2
s: one s orbital in each shell from n = 1 upwards (a total of two s electrons per shell), lowest energy.
● p: three p orbitals in each shell from n = 2 upwards (a total of six p electrons per shell),
higher energy than s.
● d: five d orbitals in each shell from n = 3 upwards (a total of 10 d electrons per shell), higher
energy than p.

3
4 Electron configuration
Electron configurations show the ​number of electrons​ and ​types of orbitals​ in each energy level.

Element/ Electron Comments

ion configuration

B 1s​2​2s​2​2p​1 2 energy levels, 3 electrons in outer shell, 5 electrons in total

Ne 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6 2 energy levels, 8 electrons in outer shell, 10 electrons in total

Cl 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​5 3 energy levels, 7 electrons in outer shell, 17 electrons in total

Cl​- 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​6 1 electron gained, 8 electrons in outer shell, 18 electrons in total

Na 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​1 3 energy levels, 1 electron in outer shell, 11 electrons in total

Na​+ 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6 1 electron lost, 8 electrons in outer shell, 10 electrons in total

● Electrons fill orbitals from lowest energy to highest. 1s is filled first followed by 2s, 2p, 3s, etc. 4s
has a lower energy than 3d so ​4s is filled before 3d​. Before the electrons start pairing, a subshell
must be filled with unpaired electrons. A ​subshell​ is a specific type of orbitals in a shell (e.g. the p
subshell contains 3 p orbitals).

● In first row transition elements the 3d orbital comes before 4s orbital

but electrons are filled in 4s and then to 3d

● There are two main ​exceptions​ to electron configuration. A completely full or half full d sublevel is
more stable than a partially filled d sublevel, so an electron from the 4s orbital is excited to the 3d
orbital.
Chromium: 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​6​3d​5​4s​1
Copper: 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​6​3d​10​4s​1

● When the ions of copper and chromium are formed, the electrons are removed from the 4s orbital
first.
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23 Vanadium,
1s22s22p63s23p63d34s2 [Ar]3d 4s 4p
V

24 Chromium,
1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1 [Ar]3d 4s 4p
Cr

25 Manganese,
1s22s22p63s23p63d54s2 [Ar]3d 4s 4p
Mn

26 Iron, Fe 1s22s22p63s23p63d64s2 [Ar]3d 4s 4p

27 Cobalt, Co 1s22s22p63s23p63d74s2 [Ar]3d 4s 4p

28 Nickel, Ni 1s22s22p63s23p63d84s2 [Ar]3d 4s 4p

29 Copper, Cu 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1 [Ar]3d 4s 4p

30 Zinc, Zn 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s2 [Ar]3d 4s 4p

8
Shape of s orbital :spherical
Shape of p orbital : dumb bell

p orbitals
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1.4
The first ionisation energy is the energy required to remove one mole of the
most loosely held electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to produce 1
mole of gaseous ions each with a charge of 1+.

Factors affecting the size of ionisation energy

Ionisation energy is a measure of the energy needed to pull a particular
electron away from the attraction of the nucleus. A high value of ionisation
energy shows a high attraction between the electron and the nucleus.
The size of that attraction will be governed by:
The charge on the nucleus.
The more protons there are in the nucleus, the more positively charged the
nucleus is, and the more strongly electrons are attracted to it.
The distance of the electron from the nucleus.
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Attraction falls off very rapidly with distance. An electron close to the nucleus
will be much more strongly attracted than one further away.
The number of electrons between the outer electrons and the nucleus.
Consider a sodium atom, with the electronic structure 2,8,1. (There's no reason
why you can't use this notation if it's useful!)
If the outer electron looks in towards the nucleus, it doesn't see the nucleus
sharply. Between it and the nucleus there are the two layers of electrons in the
first and second levels. The 11 protons in the sodium's nucleus have their
effect cut down by the 10 inner electrons. The outer electron therefore only
feels a net pull of approximately 1+ from the centre. This lessening of the pull
of the nucleus by inner electrons is known as screening or shielding.
.

Mg 1s22s22p63s2 1st I.E. = 736 kJ mol-1

Al 1s22s22p63s23p 1 1st I.E. = 577 kJ mol-1

The 3p electron in aluminium is slightly more distant from the nucleus than the
3s, and partially screened by the 3s2 electrons as well as the inner electrons.
Both of these factors offset the effect of the extra proton.
Why the drop between groups 5 and 6 (N-O and P-S)?
Once again, you might expect the ionisation energy of the group 6 element to
be higher than that of group 5 because of the extra proton. What is offsetting
it this time?
P 1s22s22p63s2 1st I.E. = 1400 kJ mol-1

S 1s22s22p63s23p 1 1st I.E. = 1310 kJ mol-1

The screening is identical (from the 1s2 and, to some extent, from the
2s2 electrons), and the electron is being removed from an identical orbital.
The difference is that in the oxygen case the electron being removed is one of
the 2px2 pair. The repulsion between the two electrons in the same orbital
means that the electron is easier to remove than it would otherwise be.
 Electron configuration
Electron configurations show the ​number of electrons​ and ​types of orbitals​ in each energy level.

Element/ Electron Comments

ion configuration

B 1s​2​2s​2​2p​1 2 energy levels, 3 electrons in outer shell, 5 electrons in total

Ne 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6 2 energy levels, 8 electrons in outer shell, 10 electrons in total

Cl 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​5 3 energy levels, 7 electrons in outer shell, 17 electrons in total

Cl​- 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​6 1 electron gained, 8 electrons in outer shell, 18 electrons in total

Na 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​1 3 energy levels, 1 electron in outer shell, 11 electrons in total

Na​+ 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6 1 electron lost, 8 electrons in outer shell, 10 electrons in total

● Electrons fill orbitals from lowest energy to highest. 1s is filled first followed by 2s, 2p, 3s, etc. 4s
has a lower energy than 3d so ​4s is filled before 3d​. Before the electrons start pairing, a subshell
must be filled with unpaired electrons. A ​subshell​ is a specific type of orbitals in a shell (e.g. the p
subshell contains 3 p orbitals).

● In first row transition elements the 3d orbital comes before 4s orbital

but electrons are filled in 4s and then to 3d

● There are two main ​exceptions​ to electron configuration. A completely full or half full d sublevel is
more stable than a partially filled d sublevel, so an electron from the 4s orbital is excited to the 3d
orbital.
Chromium: 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​6​3d​5​4s​1
Copper: 1s​2​2s​2​2p​6​3s​2​3p​6​3d​10​4s​1

● When the ions of copper and chromium are formed, the electrons are removed from the 4s orbital
first.