OPTICS

Lecture-I

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Definitions
• Optics is a branch of Physics which deals with
Light and its properties.
• Light is a form of energy which gives the
“sensation of vision”.
• Light is a Transverse wave.
• Light is an electromagnetic waves having
velocity c = 3× 108 m/s.
 Properties of Light
• Rectilinear Propagation
• Reflection: Laws of Reflection
• Refraction: Laws of refraction
• Total Internal Reflection: Critical Angle
• Interference
• Diffraction
• Polarization
 Theory of Light
1. Corpuscular Theory of light: Newton (1675): Particle

2. Wave Theory of Light: Huygens (1678): Wave

3. Electromagnetic Theory of Light: J.C. Maxwell (1878):

EM Wave

4. Quantum Theory of Light: Max Plank (1900): Photons

5. Dual Theory of Light: both wave as well as particle.

 Interference of Light
The phenomenon of redistribution of energy due
to superposition of light waves from two
coherent sources is called interference.
Types of Interference:
1. CONSTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
In constructive interference the amplitude of the
resultant wave is greater than that of either
individual wave.
2. DESTRUCTIVE INTERFERENCE:
In destructive interference the amplitude of the
resultant wave is less than that of either individual
wave.
 Coherent Sources
• Two waves are said to be
coherent , if they emit same
frequency or wave length and
are in phase or constant phase
difference.
CONDITIONS FOR OBTAINING
COHERENT SOURCE:
• Coherent sources are obtained
from single source.
• The source must emit
monochromatic light.
• The two waves are of same
frequency having in same phase
or maintain a constant phase
difference over a long distance
and time.
• The path difference between
light sources must be very small.
 Why can’t two sources behave as
Coherent Sources?
Two different sources can never produce waves
of same phase because each source of light
contains infinite number of atoms and the waves
which are emitted by them will not be in phase.
The atoms after absorbing energy go to excited
states and emit radiations when fall back to
ground state.
 Superposition of waves
When two or more waves
overlap, the resultant
displacement at any point
and at any instant may be
found by vector addition
of the instantaneous
displacements that would
be produced at the point
by the individual waves.
 Interference
If two waves of the same frequency overlap at a point, the
resultant effect depends on the phases of the waves as
well as their amplitudes:
If two waves be in phase at a point:
• Resultant Amplitude: AR = A + A = 2A
• Intensity IR = AR2 = 4A2 = 4I (Constructive Interference: Bright)
If two waves are in Opposite phase at a point:
• Resultant Amplitude: AR = A - A = 0
• Intensity IR = 0 (Destructive Interference: Dark)
• The alternate bright and dark fringes are
produced known as Interference Fringes.
If Path difference Δ = mλ (Condition for Maxima)
where m = 0,1,2,3……
If Path difference Δ = (2m+1) λ/2 (Condition for Minima)
Methods to obtain Interference fringes
There are two methods to obtain
interference fringes:
1. By division of Wavefront: By
dividing the wavefront of
secondary wave we can obtain
the interference. Example:
Young’s double slit experiment,
Lloyd’s Mirror, Fresnel Biprism
etc.
2. By division of Amplitude: by
dividing the amplitude of the
wave we can obtain inference
fringes. Examples: Newton's
Ring, Interference in Thin film,
Michelson’s interferometer etc.
 Theory of Interference
Suppose two waves to be superposed are:
EA = E1 sin(ωt) (1)
EB = E2 sin(ωt+δ) (2)
where δ is the phase difference between them.
By superposition principle:
ER = EA + EB = E1 sin(ωt) + E2 sin(ωt+δ)
= E1 sin(ωt) + E2 [sin(ωt) cos(δ) + cos(ωt) sin(δ)]
= [E1 + E2 cos(δ)] sin(ωt) + E2 sin(δ) cos(ωt) (3)
Let E1 + E2 cos(δ) = E cos(Ф) (4)
and E2 sin(δ) = E sin(Ф) (5)
where, E is the amplitude of the resultant wave and Ф is the
initial phase.
Squaring and adding equation (4) and (5), we get:
[E1 + E2 cos(δ)]2 + [E2 sin(δ)]2 = E2(cos2Ф + sin2Ф)
which implies: =1
E2 = E12 + E22 cos2δ + 2 E1 E2 cos(δ) + E22 sin2δ
E2 = E12 + E22 + 2 E1 E2 cos(δ) (6)

Intensity:
I = I1 + I2 +2 √ (I1 I2)cos(δ); where I α E2
If δ=0; Imax = 4 I0 , where I1 = I2 = I0
If δ=1800 ; Imin = 0, where I1 = I2
 Young’s Double Slit Experiment
Thomas Young first demonstrated interference in light waves from two sources in 1801.
The narrow slits S1 and S2 act as sources of waves. The waves emerging from the slits
originate from the same wave front and therefore are always in phase.
 Young’ s Double Slit Experiment
Let S1N be a normal on to the line
S2P. The distance PS1 and PN are
equal. Let the point P be at a
distance x from O, then:
PE = x – d/2 and PF = x + d/2.
So; (S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = [D2 + (x +
d/2)2] - [D2 + (x - d/2)2]
(S2P)2 – (S1P)2 = 2 xd
S2P – S1P = 2 xd /(S2P + S1P)
We can approximate that S2P ≈ S1P
≈D
Then the Path Difference S2P – S1P =
2 xd / 2D = xd /D (1)
Condition for Bright fringes:
S2P – S1P = mλ where m is order of fringes
xd/D = mλ ; m = 0, 1, 2,… (2)
Condition for Dark fringes :
S2P – S1P = (2m+1)λ/2 xd/D = (2m+1)λ/2
Fringe width (β):
mth order of fringe xm = mλD/d
(m+1)th order of fringe xm+1 = (m+1)λD/d
The fringe width β = xm+1 – xm = λD/d (3)
 Intensity Distribution of the
Interference Pattern
• Interference depends on the relative phase of the two
waves.
• It also depends on the path difference between them.
• The resultant intensity at a point is proportional to the
square of the resultant electric field at that point.
 Conditions for Interference
Conditions for Sustained Interference:
1. The light waves must come from two coherent sources – they must
maintain a constant phase with respect to each other.
2. The sources should be monochromatic – a single wavelength of
light.
3. The path difference of the two light waves that interfere must be
small.
4. If the two waves are plane polarized, their planes of polarization
must be the same.
Conditions for Distinct fringe pattern:
1. The amplitude of the waves must be the same or nearly the same.
2. The two coherent sources must be close to each other in order to
find distinct fringe pattern.
3. The distance of the screen from the two sources must be large.
 Factors that affect the Interference
Fringe Pattern
• Separation between the single slit and the double slit – The fringe pattern becomes
bright when the separation decreases, since the intensity of light reaching the
double slit has increased, but the fringe separation remains the same.
• Slit separation d – Decreasing the slit separation d increases the separation between
fringe pattern and vice-versa.
• Using white light instead of monochromatic light causes the central maximum to
appear white, while other bright fringes appear multi-colored.
• If the experiment is performed in a medium other air, the fringe separations are
narrower by a factor equal to the refractive index of the medium.
• If one of the slit is covered by a transparent film of refractive index μ, the central
maximum will shift towards the slit covered with the transparent film, while an nth
order dark fringe will appear at the former central maximum. This shift depends on
μ and the thickness of the film.
• If Polaroid of the same orientation in polarization plane covers the two slits,
interference pattern will be clearly seen, but if the planes of polarization are
perpendicular to each other, no interference pattern will be seen.
THANK YOU
 OPTICS
Lecture-II

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Lloyd’s Single Mirror
• In 1834 Lloyds designed an
interesting method of
producing interference using a
single mirror for almost
grazing incidence.
• It consists of a plane mirror
about 30 cm in length and 6 to
8 cm in breadth. The slits S1 and S2 act as two coherent sources.
• It is polished on the front Interference between direct and reflected waves
surface and blackened at the occurs within the region of overlapping of two
beams and fringes are produced on the screen L1L2
back to avoid multiple placed at distance D from S1 in the portion BC.
reflections. The central fringe be expected to bright and lie at
• A cylindrical wavefront from O but not usually seen.
slit S1 falls on mirror M which By placing screen in contact with mirror, Central
produces a virtual image of S1 fringe can be visible which looks Dark, because
as S2. the coherent sources at S1 and S2 differ in phase by
φ = π, a phase change introduced by reflection
• Fringe width: having a path diff. λ/2 : Destructive Interference.
 Fresnel Biprism
• It consists of two prisms of
very small refracting
angles joined base to base.
In practice, a thin glass
plate is grinded and
polished to form a prism
with a obtuse angle of When white light is used, we get
about 1790 and the two side central white fringe with few
angles of 30’ each. colored fringes then illumination
• A Biprism produces two due to overlapping.
virtual sources S1 and S2 Application :
which are coherent.
• A micrometer eyepice is Determination of wavelength of light:
used to observe the fringes. Wavelength of light λ = βd/D
• Fringe width:
 Achromatic Fringes
• A system of white and dark fringes, without any colour,
obtained by white light is known as Achromatic fringes.
• When the slit is illuminated by white light in any
interference experiment, we obtain a central white fringe
flanked by a few coloured fringes. Colour fringes are
obtained because the fringe width is dependent on the
wavelength of light. Hence fringe width of red fringe is
more than the blue fringe.
• Rayleigh designed an experiment to obtain achromatic
fringes. If the fringe width is independent of the
wavelength of light and is the same for all wavelengths. β
can be kept constant for all wavelength if (λ/d) is same in
all cases. Then the maxima of each order for all
wavelengths coincide, resulting in Achromatic fringes.
 Setup to obtain Achromatic Fringes

Suppose S is a narrow source of white light at the focal plane of the converging
lens L1. A grating G having 800 to 1200 lines per cm is placed normal. Another
achromatic combination lens L2 is used to form the second order spectrum on an
opaque screen with a narrow opening in it.
The narrow opening is adjusted so that only the First order spectrum is allowed to
pass through it. The violet end is nearer to the highly polished Lloyds Mirror M
than the red end. The position of M is adjusted such that V2 and R2 are the images
of V1 and R1. Interference occurs between the beams from V1R1 and those from
V2R2. The violet fringes are produced by V1 & V2 while red fringes by R1 & R2.
Suppose V1V2 = d1 and R1R2 = d2
If λV/d1 = λR/d2 the fringe width β will be same an interference fringes due to
different colours will overlap to produce white Achromatic fringes.
 Problems
1. Green light of wavelength 5100 Ao from a narrow slit is incident on a
double slit. If the overall separation of 10 fringes on a screen 200 cm
away is 2 cm, find the slit separation.
2. In Lloyds single mirror experiment, the slit is at a distance of 2 mm
from the plane of the mirror. The screen is kept at a distance of 1.5 m
from the source.
3. Two coherent sources, whose intensity ratio is 9:4, produces
interference fringes. Deduce the ratio of maximum to minimum
intensity of the fringe system.
4. A biprism is placed 5 cm from a slit illuminated by sodium light (λ =
5890 Ao). The width of the fringes obtained on a screen 75 cm from the
biprism is 9.424 × 10-2 cm. What is the distance between the two
coherent sources?
5. Two coherent sources are 0.18 mm apart and the fringes are observed
on the screen 80 cm away. It is found that with a certain
monochromatic source of light, the fourth bright fringe is situated at a
distance of 10.8 mm from the central fringe. Calculate the wavelength
of light.
THANK YOU
 OPTICS
Lecture-III

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Interference in Thin Film
Thin Film: When the thickness of an
optical medium is about the order of a
wavelength of light in visible region it is
called a thin film.
Thus a film of thickness in the range 0.5
µm to 10 µm may be considered as a
thin film. Exp: glass, mica, air film, soap
bubble etc.
If we consider a glass plate, having
refractive index 1.52, the reflectivity of
the top surface is given as:
R= =0.042
Thus 4% of the incident light is reflected by the
top surface while, 96% of it is transmitted.
The reflected and transmitted components
subsequently overlap to produce interference
pattern.
 Interference due to Reflected light
• Let us consider a transparent film of uniform
thickness t bounded by two parallel surfaces.
• The two reflected rays BC and DE are parallel
and coherent which produce interference. Draw
DH normal to BC. The rays HC and DE travel
equal path. The geometrical path difference
between two reflected rays is: BF + FD – BH
• Optical Path difference = µ(BF+FD) - BH (1)
• BF = FD & cos r = FG/BF = t/BF
BF = t/cosr (2)
BG = GD & tan r = BG/FG BG = t tan r Path Difference = 2µ t cos r (5)
Correction: When a ray is reflected at
BD = 2t tan r (3) the boundary of a rarer to denser, a
sin i = BH/BD BH = BD sin i = (2t tan r) sin i path change of λ/2 across the ray BC.
By Snell’s law: sin i/sin r = µ sin i = µ sin r True Path Diff. = 2µ t cosr - λ/2
Cond. for Maxima: 2µt cosr - λ/2= mλ
BH = 2t tan r (µ sin r) = 2 µt sin2 r/cos r (4)
2µ t cosr = (2m+1) λ/2
Using equ. (2) and (4) in equ. (1), we get: For Minima:2µt cosr-λ/2= (2m+1) λ/2
Path Diff. = µ 2µ t cosr = (m+1) λ = mλ
 Interference due to transmitted light
The two transmitted rays BR and
DQ are coherent and produce
Interference. Here at B and C
reflections takes place at the rarer
medium therefore, no phase change
occurs. We draw BM normal to CD
and DN normal to BR.
Path Difference = 2µ t cos r
In case of transmitted light the
For Bright fringe: fringes are less distinct because
2µ t cos r = mλ the difference in amplitude of
For Dark fringe: BR & DQ is very large. When
2µ t cos r = (2m+1) λ/2 the angle of incidence is nearly
450 the fringes are more distinct.
 Wedge Shaped Film
• A thin film having zero thickness at one end and
progressively increasing to a particular thickness
at the other end is called a wedge film. A thin
wedge of air film can be formed by two glass
slides resting on each other at one edge and
separated by a thin spacer at the opposite edge.
The wedge angle is very small of the order of a
fraction of degree.
• The two rays BC and DE are coherent and
produce interference pattern.
True Path Diff. = 2µ t cos r - λ/2
• For Maxima: 2µt cos r - λ/2= mλ
2µ t cos r = (2m+1) λ/2 (1)
• For Minima: 2µt cos r - λ/2= (2m+1) λ/2
2µ t cos r = (m+1) λ = mλ (2)
For Dark Fringes:
For normal incidence: cos r = 1 then
Here t2 - t1 = BC 2µ(BC) = λ
at A: 2µ t1 = mλ (mth fringe) (3) BC = AB tan θ = λ/2µ (6)
at C: 2µ t2 = (m+1)λ (m+1)th fringe (4) Fringe width β = AB = λ/(2µ tan θ)
Subtraction equ. 3 from 4 we get: If θ 0 β = λ/(2µ θ) (7)
2µ (t2 - t1) = λ (5) Fringe at Apex is dark (t =0, Δ = -λ/2)
 Properties of Interference Fringes
(produced by Wedge shaped film)

1. Fringes at the apex is dark.

2. Fringes are straight and parallel.
3. Fringes are equidistant. Since Fringe width β
= λ/(2µ θ), here λ & θ are constant.
4. Fringes are localized. Formed very close to
top surface and can be seen by microscope.
5. Fringes are of equal thickness .
THANK YOU
Diffraction of Light
(BPT-301)
Dt. 17/09/2020 and 29/09/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 Contents:

1. Introduction
2. Difference between diffraction and interference
3. Types of diffraction
4. Fresnel half period zones
5. Zone plate
 1. Introduction
 Diffraction seems to be a mysterious phenomenon!
Light seems to travel in a straight light, but suffers some deviation when it
passes the edges of any obstacles or narrow slits.

Diffraction: Phenomenon
of bending of light round
the sharp corners and
spreading into the regions
of geometrical shadow.

Diffraction is self-interference! Figure 1: Demonstration of diffraction (a) very wide slit

(λ << d) (b) narrow slit (λ = d) (c) very narrow slit (λ > d).
 2. Difference between diffraction and interference

Interference Diffraction

1. Result of interaction of light 1. Result of interaction of light

coming from two different coming from different parts of
wavefronts originating from two the same wavefront.
coherent sources. 2. Fringes are not of the same
2. Fringes may or may not be of the width.
same width. 3. Points of minimum intensity are
3. Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly dark.
perfectly dark. 4. All bright bands are not of
4. All bright bands are of uniform uniform intensity.
intensity.
 3. Types of diffraction
Fresnel’s diffraction
 The source of light or screen or both are at finite distance from
the obstacle or aperture.
 No lenses are used to make the rays parallel or convergent.
 Therefore, the incident wavefront is not plane but spherical or
cylindrical.
Figure 2: Fresnel diffraction.

Fraunhofer diffraction
 The source of light or screen or both are at
effectively infinite distance from the
obstacle or aperture.
 Two convex lenses are used, one to make
the light from the source parallel before it
falls on aperture, the other to focus the light
after diffraction on the screen.
Figure 3: Fraunhofer diffraction.
4. Fresnel half period zones
 Consider a plane ABCD representing a
plane wavefront of monochromatic light
of wavelength λ.
 At a given instant every one of the
secondary wavelets passes through the
point P (applying Huygen’s principle).
 To find the resultant effect at P, the entire
wavefront is divided into concentric Figure 4.
zones.
 With P as center, spheres of radii b+λ/2,
b+2λ/2, b+3λ/2….are constructed cutting Why Fresnel’s half-period zones are
out circular areas of radii OM1, OM2, called so??
OM3…The circular zones are called half Because, the phase difference between
period zones. wavelets from successive half-period zones
is π radian or λ/2.
Now,
OP = b, OM1 = r1 , OM2 = r2 and OM3 = r3 etc.
M1P = b+λ/2, M2P = b+2λ/2,…….
Therefore, area of first half period zone = π 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂12 = π (M1P2-OP2) = πbλ

Radius of first half period r1 = 𝑏𝑏λ

Again,
Area of first half period zone = π (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂22 - 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂12 ) = πbλ

Radius of first half period r1 = 2𝑏𝑏λ

Thus, the area of the various half-period zones are independent of the order of the
zone and are equal. The radii of these zones are proportional to 𝑛𝑛 where n is an
integer.
Now, let d1, d2, d3,….be the resultant amplitudes at P due to the 1st, 2nd, 3rd,….half-
period zones.
Resultant amplitude D = d1 - d2 + d3 -……. ± dn
The amplitudes of the successive zone depends on the obliquity factor (1+𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄θ𝒏𝒏 )
where θn is the angle which the direction of P from the nth zone makes with OP.
Hence, the amplitude decreases with the order of zones.

𝑑𝑑1 +𝑑𝑑3 𝑑𝑑3 +𝑑𝑑5

𝑑𝑑2 = and 𝑑𝑑4 = ………
2 2
𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑1 +𝑑𝑑3 𝑑𝑑3 +𝑑𝑑5
D= + − 𝑑𝑑2 + − 𝑑𝑑4 +………+𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛
2 2 2
𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛
= + (if n is odd)
2 2
𝑑𝑑1 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛−1
and D = + - 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 (if n is even)
2 2
If n is sufficiently large, the effect due to nth zone is negligible and hence,
𝑑𝑑1
and D =
2

Thus amplitude due to complete wavefront is half of what it would be

caused by the first half-period zone.

As intensity I is proportional to the square of the amplitude,

𝑑𝑑12
𝐼𝐼 =
4
 5. Zone plate
 Spherically constructed screen such
that light is obstructed from every
alternate zone.
 To construct a zone plate,
concentric circles with radii
proportional to the square roots of
the natural numbers are drawn.
 Positive zone plate: If odd zones
are transparent and even zones are
opaque (Fig.5a). Figure 5(a) Figure 5(b)
 Negative zone plate: If odd zones
are opaque and even zones are
transparent (Fig.5b).
In Fig.(6),
O = luminous point object emitting spherical
waves of wavelength λ
I = point on screen where the effect is to be
determined
P = imaginary plane perpendicular to the plane of
the paper and line joining OI.
The plane is divided into two zones bounded by
circles with radii PM1 = r1 , PM2 = r2…. PMn = rn
such that,
OM1 + IM1 =OP+IP+ λ/2 Figure 6
OM2 + IM2 =OP+IP+ 2λ/2
Putting these values in (i),
OMn + IMn =OP+IP+ nλ/2 …….(i) 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2
𝑢𝑢 + +v+ = u+v+ nλ/2
2𝑢𝑢 2𝑣𝑣
𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2 1 1
nλ
OMn = 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂2 + 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑛𝑛2 1/2 = 𝑢𝑢2 + 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2 1/2 = 𝑢𝑢 + + = 2
𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛
2𝑢𝑢
𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 nλ
lly, IMn = v+ - = 𝟐𝟐 (using sign convention) …..(ii)
2𝑣𝑣 𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖 𝒓𝒓𝒏𝒏
 𝑛𝑛λ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2 = and since u,v and λ are constants, rn α 𝑛𝑛 .
𝑢𝑢−𝑣𝑣
Area of the nth zone is,
2 𝑛𝑛λ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 (𝑛𝑛−1)λ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 πλ𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢
π(𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛2 - 𝑟𝑟𝑛𝑛−1 )=π − =
𝑢𝑢−𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢−𝑣𝑣 𝑢𝑢−𝑣𝑣
Hence, area of all the zones remain the same.
Let d1, d2, d3,….be the displacements due to wavelets from different zones. Then, the resultant displacement
at I is
D = d1- d2 + d3- d4 +……

How zone plate acts like a convex lens?

Suppose the alternate zones (even) are blocked,
D = d1+ d3+ d5 …
which is greater than the resultant displacement due to all the zones and hence the intensity at I is
increased. This explains the focusing action of the zone plate where I is said to be the image of the
object O.
𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 nλ 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏 𝟏𝟏
Focal length: From Eqn.(2), - = 𝟐𝟐 and for a convex lens, = -
𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖 𝒓𝒓𝒏𝒏 𝒇𝒇 𝒗𝒗 𝒖𝒖
𝒓𝒓𝟐𝟐𝒏𝒏
Thus the focal length of a zone plate: 𝒇𝒇𝒏𝒏 = showing that zone plate has different foci for
nλ
different wavelengths.
 Comparison between convex lens and zone plate
Convex lens Zone plate
1) Forms a real image of the 1) Acts simultaneously as convex and concave
object. lens.
2) Image is formed due to 2) Image is formed by diffraction.
refraction of light. 3) Multiple foci on both sides of the plate and
3) One focus and hence intensity hence intensity of the image is much lesser
of the image is high. than convex lens.
4) All rays reaching the image 4) Waves reaching the image point through any
point have zero path or phase alternate zones differ in path by λ and in
difference. phase by 2 π.
 6. Diffraction due to a straight edge.

Figure 7 Figure 8

S = narrow slit illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength λ.

AD = straight edge.
XY = incident cylindrical wavefront.
P = point on the screen and SAP is perpendicular to screen.
With reference to P, the wavefront is divided into a number of half period strips (Fig.8), A
pole of the wavefront, AM1, M1M2, M2M3…..= thickness of 1st, 2nd, 3rd,..half period strips.
 λ
From Fig.7, PM1 = 𝒃𝒃 + , PM1 = 𝒃𝒃 +
𝟐𝟐
2λ
,…….
𝟐𝟐
𝐏𝐏′ = point on screen in the illuminated
portion where the effect due to the
wavefront XY is to be determined. Join 𝐒𝐒𝐏𝐏′ .
 Since 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒′ meets the wavefront at B, B is
the pole of the wavefront with reference
to the point 𝐏𝐏 ′ and the intensity at it will
depend on the number of half period Figure 9
strips enclosed between A and B.
 The effect at 𝐏𝐏 ′ due to wavefront above B
is same at all points and is different due
to the wave front between A and B.
 Positions of maximum and minimum intensity
a = distance between the slit and straight edge and b =
distance between the straight edge and screen. 𝐏𝐏𝐏𝐏 ′ = x.
Now, path difference δ = 𝐀𝐀𝐏𝐏 ′ -𝐁𝐁𝐏𝐏 ′ Therefore,
= 𝑏𝑏 2 +𝑥𝑥 2 1/2 - 𝑆𝑆𝑃𝑃′ −𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 (i) maximum intensity:
𝜆𝜆 2
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎
2 2 1/2 2 2 1/2 2𝑛𝑛 + 1 =
= 𝑏𝑏 +𝑥𝑥 - (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) +𝑥𝑥 − 𝑎𝑎 2 2 𝑏𝑏(𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)
1/2 1/2
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑛𝑛+1 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝜆𝜆
= 𝑏𝑏 1 + 2 - (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) 1 + +𝑎𝑎 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 =
𝑏𝑏 (𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)2 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 (ii) minimum intensity:
= 𝑏𝑏 1 + 2 - (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) 1 + +𝑎𝑎
2𝑏𝑏 2(𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)2 𝜆𝜆 2
𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎
𝑥𝑥 2 𝑥𝑥 2 2𝑛𝑛 =
= 𝑏𝑏+ - 𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏 − (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) - +𝑎𝑎 2 2 𝑏𝑏(𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)
2𝑏𝑏 2(𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)
2𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑏𝑏𝜆𝜆
𝒙𝒙𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝒂 𝑥𝑥𝑛𝑛 =
δ= 𝑎𝑎
𝟐𝟐 𝒃𝒃(𝒂𝒂+𝒃𝒃)
𝐏𝐏 ′ will be of maximum and minimum intensity if δ =
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆
2𝑛𝑛 + 1 and 2𝑛𝑛 .
2 2
 Intensity at a point inside the geometry shadow

Figure 10 Figure 11

Within the geometrical shadow, the intensity gradually decreases

depending on the position of 𝐏𝐏′ with respect P.
 OPTICS
Lecture-IV (Newton’s Ring)

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Newton’s Ring
Ø Newton’s rings are example of fringes of
equal thickness. These are formed when a
Plano-convex lens P of a large radius of
curvature placed on a sheet of plane glass
AB is illuminated from the top with
monochromatic light.
Ø The combination forms a thin circular air
film of variable thickness in all directions
around the point of contact of the lens and
the glass plate. The locus of all points
corresponding to specific thickness of air
film falls on a circle whose centre is at O.
Consequently, Interference fringes are
observed in the form of a series of
concentric rings with their centre of O,
known as Newton’s ring.
 Experimental arrangement f or Newton’s Rings
• Monochromatic light from an
extended source S Is rendered parallel
by a lens L which is incident on a
glass plate inclined at 450 to the
horizontal and is reflected normally
down on to a Plano-convex lens P
placed on a flat glass plate AB. The
two rays reflected from the top (D)
and bottom (J) of the air film are
coherent and hence interfere to
produce interference fringes.
• The thickness of the air film at the
point of contact is zero and gradually
increases as we move outward. The
locus of points where air film has the
same thickness then fall on a circle
whose centre is the point of contact.
 Diameter of Newton’s rings
We know that Path difference: ∆ = 2μt cos r – λ/2
Since μ = 1 for air & cos r = 1 for normal incidence:
∆ = 2t– λ/2
• For bright fringes: ∆ = mλ 2t = (2m + 1) λ/2
• For dark fringes: ∆ = (2m + 1) λ/2 2t = mλ
Radii of Dark Rings:
Let R be the radius of curvature of the curved plate. Let a dark
fringe be located at Q and thickness of the air film at Q. Let
PQ = t and the radius of the circular fringe at Q be OQ = rm.
• In ∆MPN: Diameter of mth Dark ring:
Ø R2 = rm2 + (R – t)2 rm2 = 2Rt – t2 Dm = 2rm = 2 √(2Rt) = 2 √(mλR)
• Since R >> t hence 2Rt >> t2 so t2 is neglected.
Spacing between fringes:
Ø So that, rm2 ≈ 2Rt
• The condition of darkness at Q is: 2t = mλ t = mλ/2 putting m =1, 2, 3, ………
D1 = 2 √(λR)
Ø rm2 = mλR, therefore rm = √(mλR) D2 = 2(1.4) √(λR)
putting m =1, 2, 3, ………
D3 = 2 (1.7)√(λR)
Ø r1 = √(1λR) or r1 = √(1)
Ø r2 = √(2λR) or r1 = √(2) …………………
Ø r3 = √(3λR) or r1 = √(3) …………………….. Thus diameter of ring does not
increase in the proportion as the
• Then, the radii of the dark rings rm α √(m) and rm α √(λ).
order of ring.
• Thus the radius of the mth dark ring is proportional to √(λ).
Therefore the rings gets closer and
closer as m increase.
Dark Central spot:
∆ = 2t – λ/2, for t = 0, ∆ = – λ/2
Ø The wave reflected from the lower surface of the air film
suffers a phase change of π (rarer to denser). While the wave
reflected from upper surface does noyt. Thus the reflecting
waves are out of phase by λ/2. The two interfering wave at
the centre are opposite in phase & produces dark spot.
Determination of wavelength of light:
Ø Now turning the screw of the travelling microscope is
adjusted to turn on one side and dark rings are counted up to
22nd dark rings. Then the microscope is moved to opposite
direction and stopped at 20th dark ring. Starting from 19th
ring position of each ring is noted on scale 19, 18, 17 …….
5th ring. Now microscope is move to left to fifth ring &
position of each ring is noted 6, 7, 8,…….. 20th ring Then
diameter is calculated:
Ø Dm2 = 4mλR, (m+p)th ring: Dm+p2 = 4 (m+p) λR
Ø Dm+p2 - Dm2 = 4pλR λ = (Dm+p2 - Dm2) /4R
Ø λ = Slope/4R
Ø A graph is plotted in between Dm2 and ring number m. R is
measured using a spherometer and λ is calculated.
Ø Slope of the straight line give the value of 4λR.
Ø Hence λ = Slope/4R
 Determination of Refractive index of liquid
• The liquid whose refractive index is to be determine is filled in the gap
between the lens and plane glass plate. Now the liquid film substitutes the
air film. The condition for Dark Fringe: 2μt cos r = mλ (Dark), where μ is
the refractive index of the liquid
For normal incident: 2μt = mλ (1)
Ø Since rm2 = 2Rt t = r2/2R (2)
Using equ. 1 and 2 we get: 2μr2/2R = mλ r2 = mλR/μ
Ø D2 = 4mλR/μ
• So, diameter of mth dark ring: (Dm2)L = 4mλR/μ (3)
& diameter of (m+p)th dark ring: (Dm+p2)L = 4(m+p)λR/μ (4)
Subtracting equation (3) from (4) we get:
Ø (Dm+p2)L - (Dm2)L = 4pλR/μ (5)
But we know that (Dm+p2)a - (Dm2)a = 4pλR (6)
Ø μ = [(Dm+p2)a - (Dm2)a] / [(Dm+p2)L - (Dm2)L] (7)
Ø After measuring the diameter of the dark ring with air film, a drop of
liquid is carefully introduced on the plate. The ring now contracted
(μ>1). The diameter of the dark ring are again measured and μ is
computed using equation 7.
Newton’s rings in Transmitted light
The order for maxima:
Ø 2μt cos r = mλ
For dark rings: 2μt cos r = (2m + 1)λ/2
• For air μ = 1 and r = 0 for normal
incidence.
• For bright fringes 2t = mλ and for
dark fringes 2t = (2m + 1) λ/2
• As t = r2/2R,
Ø rm2 = mλR for bright rings and
Ø rm2 = (2m + 1) λR/2 for dark rings.
 Problems
1. Newton’s ring are observed in reflected light of
λ=5.9*10-5 cm. The diameter of the 10th dark ring
is 0.5 cm. Find the radius of the curvature of the
lens and the thickness of the air film.
2. In a Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of
the 15th ring was found to be 0.59 cm and that of
the 5th ring was 0.336 cm. if radius of plano
convex lens is 100 cm. Calculate the wavelength
of the light used.
3.
THANK YOU
 OPTICS
Lecture-V (Interferometer)

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Michelson’s Interferometer
Interferometer is an instrument in which the
phenomenon of interference is used to make
precise measurements of wavelengths or
distances.
In Michelson’s interferometer a beam of light
from an extended source is divided in to two parts
of equal intensities by partial reflection and
refraction. These beams travel in two mutually
perpendicular directions and come together after
reflection from plane mirror. The beams overlap
on each other and produce interference fringes.
Construction
It consists of a beam splitter G1, a compensating
glass plate G2 and two plane mirrors M1 and M2.
The beam splitter G1is a partially silvered plane
parallel glass plate. G1 and G2 have same
thickness. G1 and G2 are parallel to each other and
are inclined at an angle of 45o with respect to
mirror M2. M1 is mounted on a carriage and can
be moved exactly parallel to itself with the help of
a micrometer screw. M1 and M2 can be made
perfectly perpendicular with help of fine screws.
The interference bands are observed in the field of
view of the telescope T.
Working:
Monochromatic light from an extended source S is
rendered parallel by means of a collimating lens L and
is made incident on the beam splitter G1. It is partly
reflected at the back surface of G1 and partly
transmitted along AB. The beam AC travels normally
towards the plane mirror M1 and is reflected back
along the same path and comes out along AT. The
transmitted beam travels towards the mirror M2 and is
reflected along the same path. It is reflected at the back
surface of G1 and proceeds along AT. The two beams
received along AT are produced from a single source
through division of amplitude and are hence coherent.
The superposition of these beams leads to interference
and produces interference fringes.
Role of G2: A light ray starting from the source S and
undergoing reflection at the mirror M1 passes through
the glass plate G1 three times. On the other hand in the
absence of plate G2 the ray reflected at M2 travels
through the glass plate G1 only once. For compensating
this path difference a compensating plate G2 of the
same thickness is inserted into the path AB and is held
exactly parallel to G1.
 Formation of Circular Fringes
Circular fringes are produced with monochromatic light when the mirrors
M1 and M2 are exactly perpendicular to each other. If we look into the
instrument from T, we see mirrors M1 directly and in addition we will see
the virtual image M’2 of mirror M2 formed by reflection in the glass plate
G1. It means that one of the interfering beams come from M1 and the other
beam appears to come from the virtual image M’2.The situation is similar
to an air film enclosed between mirrors M1 and M’2 with the difference that
in case of a real film between two surfaces, multiple reflections take place,
where as in the case only two reflections take. If a light ray comes from a
point S and is reflected by both M’2 and M1, the observer will see the
virtual images S1 and S2 due to reflection from M’2 and M1.
• Distance between M2 and M1= d and between virtual image
S1 and S2 is 2d. If the observer looks into the system at an
angle θ, the path difference between the two beams will be 2d
cos θ. The light that comes from M2 and goes to T and
undergoes rare to dense reflection and therefore a π - phase
change occurs. In view of this, the total path difference
between the two beams is given by:
• ∆= 2d cos θ + λ/2
• The condition for brightness: 2d cos θ + λ/2 = m λ
• where m=0,1,2,3……
• At d = 0,
Dark central fringe appear.
• The fringes are of circular shape and are called fringes of
equal inclination.
• A new ring appears in the centre of the field each time center
faster than rings already present disappear in the periphery;
and the field becomes more crowded with thicker rings.
 Localized fringes:
When two mirrors are tilted they are not
perpendicular to each other. In this case the air
path between M1 and M’2 is wedge shaped and
the fringes appear to be straight.
If m fringes move across the field of view when
then M1 moves through a distance d, then:
d = mλ/2 λ = 2d/m
 Application of Michelson Interferometer
i. Measurement of wavelength:
If the mirror is moved through a known distance ‘d’ and
the number of fringes disappearing at the centre is
counted:
λ = 2d/N , where N=mn-m1
ii. Determination of the difference in the wavelength of
two waves:
∆λ = λ1 – λ2 = λ1 λ2 /2d = λ2/2d
λ is the mean wavelength of two wavelengths λ1 and λ2
when the mirror M1 is moved through a certain distance
the bright fringe due to one set will coincide to dark due
to other set and no fringe will be seen. Again by moving a
distance we see bright fringes. d is the distance between
two consecutive positions of maximum distinctness of
the fringes.
iii. Thickness of a thin transparent sheet:
Let a transparent sheet of thickness t is inserted in the
path, the fringe system is displaced. If m is number
of fringes by which the fringe system is displaced:
2(µ-1) t = mλ
t = mλ/2 (µ-1)
iv. Determination of the Refractive index of
Gases:
When a tube containing a gas is introduced in the path
of the beam going towards M1, a path difference
equal to 2(µ-1)t is introduced between the two
beams. If l is the length of the tube and µ is the
refractive index of gas. If ‘m’ fringes cross the
centre of the field of view:
μ = (mλ /2l) + 1
 Multiple Beam Interference
If the reflectance of the interfaces of thin film is
large the higher order reflections are to be taken
into account. When the reflected or transmitted
beams meets multiple beam interference takes
place.
Let us consider 1,2,3 etc. and a be the amplitude of
light incident on the first surface. let ρ the
reflection coefficient, τ be the transmission
coefficient
ρ = amp. of reflected wave/amp. of incident wave
τ = amp. of transmitted wave/amp. of incident wave
A certain fraction of this light ‘aρ’ is reflected and
another fraction ‘aτ’ is transmitted. Again at the Coefficient of Finesse:
second surface ‘aρ2’ is reflected and ‘aτ2’ is
transmitted. F = 4R/(1-R)2
If τ2 = T and ρ2 = R then the amplitude of the
successive rays transmitted through the plain of The Visibility of Fringes:
plates will be:
aT, aTR, aTR2………….. V = (Imax- Imin)/(Imax+ Imin)
= 2R/ (1+R2)
The intensity will be maximum: V is function of reflectivity only.
Imax = a2T2/(1-R)2 Thus Higher the reflectivity, greater
The intensity will be minimum: the contrast of fringes
Imin = a2T2/(1+R)2
 Febry-Perot Interferometer and Etalon

It is a high resolving power instrument which makes use of the fringes of equal inclination,
produced by the transmitted light after multiple reflection in an air film between two
parallel highly reflecting glass plates.
Now a days Etalon is used which is much more easily manufactured. It consists of two semi
silvered plates A and B rigidly held parallel at a fixed distance d apart. Screws are provided
to secure parallelism if disturbed. The reflectance of the two surfaces can be as high as 900.
An incident ray from a source S suffers a large number of internal reflections at two silvered
surfaces. At each reflection a small fraction of the light is transmitted also. A convex lens L
brings these coherent rays together to a point in its focal plane where they interfere. Hence
the rays from all points of the source produce an interference pattern on a screen placed in
the focal plane of L. If θ is the inclination of particular ray
The condition of maxima is 2d cos θ = mλ where ‘m’ is an integer.
The locus of points in the source, which give rays of constant inclination θ, is a Circle. Thus
concentric bright rings on a dark background is formed.
 Applications of Febry-Perot Interferometer
Determination of Wavelength of light:
At the centre θ = 0, we have
2d = mλ
If the movable plate is moved from the position x1 to x2 and the number of
fringes appearing at the centre during this moment is N then,
Nλ/2 = x2 - x1
λ = 2(x2-x1)/N
Measurement of difference in wavelength:
In F.P. each wavelength produces its own ring position and the rings are
separated from each other. Therefore F.P. is more suitable to study the
fine structure of spectral lines.
λ1- λ2= λ1 λ2/2(t2-t1)= λ2mean/2(t2-t1)
Let t1= separation of plates when maximum discordance occurs
t2= next thickness when maximum discordance occurs
First make two plates in contact then separated & max discordance occurs.
When separation between plates further increased, ring system coincides
again & then separated out and maximum discordance occurs again.
 Problems
1. In a Michelson Interferometer 200 fringes cross the field
of view. When the movable mirror is used through
0.0589 mm. Calculate the wavelength of light used.
2. By how much distance the movable mirror of a
Michelson interferometer is moved to obtain consecutive
positions of maximum distinctness for Sodium D- lines.
Given that λ1= 5890 Ao, λ2= 5896 Ao.
3. In an experiment for determining the refractive index of
gas using Michelson Interferometer a shift of 140 fringes
is observed when all the gas is removed from the tube. If
the wavelength of the light used is 5460 Ao and the
length of the tube is 20 cm. Calculate the refractive index
of the gas.
THANK YOU
Diffraction of Light
(BPT-301)
Dt. 03/10/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 Contents:

1. Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit

2. Intensity distribution in diffraction pattern due to single slit
4. Fraunhoffer diffraction at a single slit
Important aspects
 The source of light or screen or
both are at effectively infinite
distance from the obstacle or
aperture.
 Two convex lenses are used,
one to make the light from the
source parallel before it falls on
aperture, the other to focus the
light after diffraction on the
screen.
 Wavefront incident on the slit Figure 1.
and screen is plane.
 S is narrow slit, 𝐋𝐋𝟏𝟏 is collimating lens and AB is slit of width a.
 XY is incident spherical wavefront.
 Light passing through the slit is incident on les 𝐋𝐋𝟐𝟐 and final
refracted beam is inciedent on the screen MN.
Considering the secondary waves
travelling in AR direction and
inclined at an angle θ to the direction
OP,
In Δ ABL,
sin θ = AL/AB
AL = a sin θ
In general, if the path difference is λ,
sin θ𝒏𝒏 = nλ/a (n is an interger)

But if the path difference is odd

multiples of λ/2, Figure 1.
sin θ𝒏𝒏 = (2n+1)λ/2a
Thus, Fraunhoffer diffraction due to single slit
consists of central bright maximum at P
followed by secondary maxima and minima
on both sides as shown in Fig.2.
Now, if the lens 𝐋𝐋𝟐𝟐 is very near the slit or
screen is very far away from 𝐋𝐋𝟐𝟐 ,
𝒙𝒙
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 θ =
𝒇𝒇
where f is focal length of 𝐋𝐋𝟐𝟐 and x is distance
of secondary minimum from from point P.
𝛌𝛌
But, 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 θ =
𝐚𝐚
Hence, Figure 2.
𝒇𝒇𝝀𝝀
𝒙𝒙 = Hence, the width of the central maximum is
𝒂𝒂
Width of central maximum W = 2x proportional to the wavelength of the light. If the
Hence, width is large, θ is small and hence maxima and
𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝝀𝝀 minima are very close to the central maximum at P.
𝑾𝑾 = if the width is small, θ is large resulting in distinct
𝒂𝒂
diffraction maxima and minima on both sides of P.
4. Intensity distribution in diffraction pattern due to single slit
 Incident wavefront on slit AB of Fig.1 is divided In Δ OKL, OL = 𝒓𝒓 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜶𝜶
inti large no. of infinitesimally small strips. Where r is the radius of the circular arc and α is the phase
 Path difference between the secondary waves from difference between the secondary waves from the points
the extreme points A and B is a sin θ. B and A of the slit.
Chord OM = 2 OL = 𝟐𝟐𝒓𝒓 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜶𝜶
Length of arc OM = K a
where K is constant and a is width of slit.
𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨 𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
Also, ∠𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶𝑶 = 𝟐𝟐𝜶𝜶 = =
𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓𝒓 𝒓𝒓
𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲
Therefore, Chord OM = 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜶𝜶
𝜶𝜶

Figure 3
Since chord OM is equal to the amplitude of the
resultant vibration,
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜶𝜶 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜶𝜶
A = (𝑲𝑲𝑲𝑲) = 𝑨𝑨𝟎𝟎
𝜶𝜶 𝜶𝜶
And the intensity is
𝟐𝟐
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜶𝜶 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜶𝜶 𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
𝑰𝑰 = 𝑨𝑨 = 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟐 = 𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎
𝜶𝜶 𝜶𝜶
Since a phase difference of 2π is equal to path
difference of λ, 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅
𝟐𝟐𝜶𝜶 = 𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽
𝝀𝝀

Hence, α depends on the angle of diffraction θ.

Figure 3
Diffraction of Light
(BPT-301)
Dt. 07/10/2020 & 08/10/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 Contents:

1. Fraunhoffer diffraction at double slit

2. Plane diffraction grating
3. Resolving power of
(a) Telescope
(b) Microscope
(c) Plane transmission grating
1. Fraunhoffer diffraction double slit

Important aspects
 Two slits parallel to one another
and are perpendicular to the plane
of the paper.
 Width of each slit is a and width
of opaque portion is b.
 Light rays are collected by
converging lens L and
interference pattern are observed
on the screen.
 Since all the secondary waves Figure 1.
travelling in the direction parallel
to OP come to focus at P, it is the  The diffraction patterns in Fraunhoffer double slits
position of central bright are of two types: due to interference and due to
maximum. diffraction phenomenon.
(i) Interference maxima and
minima
Consider secondary waves travelling
in a direction inclined at an angle 𝜃𝜃
with the initial direction. Interference
patterns are produced due to the
superposition of waves emanating
from the corresponding points of the
two slits.
In the ∆ 𝐴𝐴𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶,
sin 𝜃𝜃 = 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶/𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 = 𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶/(𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏)
𝐸𝐸𝐶𝐶 = (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) sin 𝜃𝜃
Figure 1.
If this path difference is equal to the
integer multiples of λ, it corresponds Similarly, if the path difference is equal to the odd
to the maximum intensity multiples of 𝜆𝜆/2 , minima are produced. Thus,
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) sin 𝜃𝜃𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆 (𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏) 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽′𝒏𝒏 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1) 𝜆𝜆/2
where 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 etc and 𝜃𝜃𝒏𝒏 = 𝜃𝜃𝟏𝟏 , 𝜃𝜃𝟐𝟐 , where 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 etc and 𝜽𝜽′𝒏𝒏 =𝜽𝜽′𝟏𝟏 , 𝜽𝜽′𝟐𝟐 , 𝜽𝜽′𝟑𝟑 , etc are
𝜃𝜃𝟑𝟑 , etc are directions of maxima. directions of minima.
 (2𝑛𝑛 + 1) 𝜆𝜆
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽′𝒏𝒏
=
2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)
Now, putting n = 1, 2, 3……in the above equation, we get
′ 3 𝜆𝜆
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 =
2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)
′ 5 𝜆𝜆
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 =
2(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)
′ ′ 𝜆𝜆
𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 - 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 =
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)

Thus, the angular separation between any two consecutive maxima or minima is
𝜆𝜆
equal to and the angular separation is inversely proportional to (a + b), the
(𝑎𝑎 + 𝑏𝑏)
distance between the two slits.
(ii) Diffraction maxima and minima
 Produced due to superposition of
secondary waves from the two slits
individually.
 Consider the secondary waves travelling
in a direction inclined at an angle 𝜙𝜙 with
the initial direction of the incident light.
 If path difference BM is equal to λ, then
𝜙𝜙 will give direction of minimum and
the condition of minima is,
𝑎𝑎 sin 𝝋𝝋𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆
where 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 etc and 𝝋𝝋𝒏𝒏 = 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏 , 𝝋𝝋𝟐𝟐 , 𝝋𝝋𝟑𝟑 , Figure 2. Double slit diffraction pattern.
etc are directions of diffraction minima.
In Fig.2, the full line represents the equally
Similarly, the condition for diffraction spaced interference maxima and minima and
maxima is the dotted curve represents the diffraction
𝑎𝑎 sin 𝝋𝝋𝒏𝒏 = (2𝑛𝑛 + 1) 𝜆𝜆/2 maxima and minima.
2. Plane diffraction grating
Important aspects

 An important device that acts like a prism to separate light into different parts based
on their wavelengths and are used in systems that need high resolution separation of
wavelengths.

 It consists of a very large number of narrow slits side by side. The slits are separated
by opaque spaces.

 When a wave front is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the
slits and obstructed by the opaque portions. Such a grating is called a transmission
grating.

 Secondary waves from the positions of the slits interfere with one another giving
interference patterns as well as diffraction patterns.
Theory of plane transmission grating
 In Fig.3, XY is the grating surface and RS
be the screen, both perpendicular to the
plane of the paper.
 The slits are all parallel to one another and
perpendicular to the plane of the paper. AB
is a slit and BC is an opaque portion.
Width of each slit is 𝑎𝑎 and the opaque
spacing between any two consecutive slits
is b.
 When a plane wavefront is incident on the
grating surface, all the secondary waves
travelling in the same direction as that of
the incident light will come to focus at the Figure 3.
point P on the screen which corresponds to
the position of central maximum.
 Consider the secondary waves travelling in
a direction inclined at an angle 𝜃𝜃 with the
direction of the incident light, such that the
lens 𝐿𝐿 is also suitably rotated such that the
axis of the lens is parallel to the direction of
the secondary waves and all these
secondary waves come to focus at point 𝑷𝑷′ .

Now, path difference between the secondary

waves starting from A and C = 𝐴𝐴𝐶𝐶 sin 𝜃𝜃
But, AC = a + b
Therefore, path difference = (a + b) sin 𝜃𝜃
𝑷𝑷′ will correspond to the point of maximum Figure 3.

intensity if Here, (𝑎𝑎 + b) = grating constant

(𝑎𝑎 + b) sin 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆 For grating having N number of lines per
where 𝑛𝑛 = 1, 2, 3 etc and 𝜃𝜃𝒏𝒏 = 𝜃𝜃𝟏𝟏 , 𝜃𝜃𝟐𝟐 , 𝜃𝜃𝟑𝟑 , etc inch, the grating element is
are directions of principal maxima. (𝑎𝑎 + b) = 1/N inch = 2.54/N cm
 Fig.4 shows the intensity
distribution of a plane transmission
grating. The point P corresponds to
the position of the central maxima
and 1, 2, etc, on the two sides of P
represents the 1st , 2nd , etc
principal maxima, a, b, etc are
secondary maxima and d, e, etc are
the secondary minima.
 The intensity and the angular
spacing of secondary maxima and
minima is so small as compared to
principal maxima and hence they
could not be observed resulting in
Figure 4.
uniform darkness between any two
principal maxima.
3. Resolving power
Resolution: method adapted to see closely lying objects as separate objects.
Resolving power: reciprocal of smallest angle subtended at the objective of optical instrument by
two point objects, which can be distinguished as separate ones.
Rayleigh’s Criterion: two images of point objects lying close to each other may be regarded as
separated if the central maximum of one falls on the first minimum of the other. Or, when the central
bright image of one falls on the first dark ring of the other, the two images are said to be just resolved.

Figure 5.
3a. Resolving power of Telescope
Consider rays of light from two
neighboring points of a distant object.
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 and 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 are positions of central
maxima of the two images. 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 is the
position of the central maximum of
the first image. Secondary waves
travelling in directions 𝑨𝑨𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐 and 𝑩𝑩𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐
will meet at 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 .
From Δ ABC, BC = 𝒂𝒂. 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽
If 𝒂𝒂. 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 = λ, 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 corresponds to first
Figure 6.
minimum of first image but it is also
the position of central maximum of 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 = limit of resolution of the telescope whose reciprocal
second image. Rayleigh’s condition is gives the resolving power of the telescope.
satisfied if 𝒂𝒂. 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 = λ or 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 = λ/𝒂𝒂 𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝒂
=
Which holds good for rectangular 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀
aperture. For circular, Resolving power of telescope: reciprocal of angular separation
𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 λ/𝒂𝒂 that two distinct object points must have, so that their images
will appear just resolved according to Rayleigh’s criterion.
3a. Resolving power of Telescope
If f be the focal length of the telescope objective,
𝒓𝒓 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒇𝒇𝝀𝝀
𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 = = => 𝒓𝒓 =
𝒇𝒇 𝒂𝒂 𝒂𝒂
where r is the radius of the central bright image.

Relation between magnifying power and resolving power of a telescope:

𝑫𝑫
Magnifying power of telescope, 𝑴𝑴 =
𝒅𝒅
where D = diameter of objective (entrance pupil) and d = diameter of exit pupil.
The magnification of telescope is normal if 𝒅𝒅 = 𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆 where 𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆 is the diameter of pupil of the eye.
𝑫𝑫
Hence, normal magnification of the telescope, 𝑴𝑴 =
𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆
𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀
Limit of resolution of telescope, 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 =
𝑫𝑫
𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀
Limit of resolution of the eye, 𝑑𝑑𝜽𝜽′ =
𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆
𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽′ 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀 𝟏𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀 𝑫𝑫
= � = =M
𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽 𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆 𝑫𝑫 𝒅𝒅𝒆𝒆
Therefore, product of normal magnifying power of a telescope and its limit of resolution is
equal to limit of resolution of the unaided eye.
3b. Resolving power of Microscope
In Fig.7, MN = aperture of objective of microscope
A and B = two point objects at a distance d apart
𝑨𝑨′ and 𝑩𝑩′ = diffraction patterns due to A and B
respectively.
Path difference between the extreme rays from the point B
and reaching 𝑩𝑩′ = (BN+N𝑨𝑨′ ) - (BM+𝑴𝑴𝑨𝑨′ )
From the figure, N𝑨𝑨′ = 𝑴𝑴𝑨𝑨′
Hence, Path difference = BN – BM
Figure 7a.
From Fig.7a, AD is perpendicular to DM and AC is
perpendicular to BN.
Hence, BN – BM = (BC+CN) – (DM-DB)
But, CN = AN = AM = DM
Hence, BN – BM = BC + DB
i.e. Path difference = BC + DB
Now, from Δs ACB and ADB,
BC = AB sin α = d sin α
DB = AB sin α = d sin α
Therefore, Path difference = 2d sin α Figure 7b.
3b. Resolving power of Microscope

If 2d sin α = 1.22 λ, 𝑨𝑨′ corresponds to first minimum of the image 𝑩𝑩′ and the
two images appear to be resolved.
1.22 λ
𝒅𝒅 =
2 sin α
According to Abbe, the least distance between two just resolvable point objects is
given by,
λ𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅 =
2 μ sin α
where λ𝟎𝟎 is the wavelength of light in vacuum and μ is the refractive index of the
medium between the object and the objective. μ sin α is called the numerical
aperture of the objective of the microscope.
𝟏𝟏 2 𝝁𝝁 sin α
Resolving power of microscope: =
𝒅𝒅 λ𝟎𝟎
3c. Resolving power of a plane transmission grating
 Ratio of wavelength λ of any spectral line to the
smallest difference in wavelength dλ, between this
line and a neighboring line such that the two lines
appear just resolved, according to Rayleigh’s
criterion.
λ
𝑹𝑹𝑹𝑹 =
𝒅𝒅λ
In Fig.8,
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 = nth primary maximum of a spectral line of
wavelength λ at diffraction angle 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏
𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 = nth primary maximum of second spectral line of
wavelength λ+ 𝒅𝒅λ at diffraction angle 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 + 𝐝𝐝𝜽𝜽.

The two spectral lines 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 and 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 will appear to be

just resolved if the position of 𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐 also corresponds to Figure 8.
first minimum of 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 .
3c. Resolving power of a plane transmission grating
The direction of nth primary maximum for
wavelengths λ and λ+ 𝒅𝒅λ are given by,
(𝑎𝑎 + b) sin 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 = 𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆 𝑑𝑑θ 𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑁𝑁′
and (𝑎𝑎 + b) sin (𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 + 𝒅𝒅θ) = 𝑛𝑛(𝜆𝜆+dλ) (1) Dispersive power of grating, = =
𝑑𝑑λ 𝑎𝑎+𝑏𝑏 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐θ 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐θ
where 𝑁𝑁 ′ is the number of lines per cm on the
The two lines will appear to be just resolved grating surface.
if the angle of diffraction (𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 +𝒅𝒅θ)
corresponds to the direction of first minimum Hence,
𝝀𝝀
of 𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏 which is possible when an extra path
𝑵𝑵
is introduced. High dispersive power refers to wide separation of
𝝀𝝀 spectral lines where as high resolving power refers
(𝑎𝑎 + b) sin (𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 + 𝒅𝒅𝜽𝜽) = 𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆 + (2)
𝑵𝑵 to the ability of the instrument to show nearby
where N = total no. of lines on the grating surface spectral lines as separate ones.
From Eqn.(1) and (2),
𝝀𝝀
𝑛𝑛(𝜆𝜆+dλ) = 𝑛𝑛𝜆𝜆 +
𝑵𝑵
𝝀𝝀
= nN
𝒅𝒅𝝀𝝀
 OPTICS
Polarization -I

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Polarization: Definition
Ø The polarization of light demands its explanation that light must be a
transverse wave motion in contradiction to Huygen’s concept of
longitudinal wave motion.
Ø In the case of transverse wave, particles of medium execute simple periodic
vibrations in a direction at right angle to the direction of propagation. As a
consequence the transverse wave would appear quite differently when
viewed from different angles around the direction of propagation i.e. this
wave is not symmetrical around the axis of x.
Ø Ordinary or natural light changes its direction continuously although
always remains perpendicular to the direction of propagation: Unpolarized.
The electric vector transverse to the direction of propagation undergoes so
rapid and random changes of direction that all possible orientations of
electric vector are equally represented. This is due to the fact that ordinary
light contains millions of transverse waves, about a meter in length and
confined in all possible planes through the direction of propagation.
Ø Def: “A transverse wave is said to be polarized when the vibration of the
medium do not change in ‘direction’ or ‘form’ ”.
• If the tip of the electric vector
describes the same locus linear,
circular or elliptical of fixed
orientation transverse to the
direction of propagation of the
wave, accordingly we have linearly
polarized, circularly polarized or
elliptically polarized wave.
• Plane Polarized Light: If the
electric vector in the beam is
confined in one defined plane
known as plane of vibration.
• The Plane of Polarization is
defined as the plane perpendicular
to the plane of vibration of the light
wave.
 Production of Plane Polarized light
Plane polarized light may be produced from unpolarized light using the following
five optical phenomena:
• Reflection
• Refraction
• Double Refraction
• Scattering and
• Selective absorption (Dichroism)
Polarization by Reflection:
E.L. Malus (1808) noticed that when natural light is incident on a plane sheet of
glass at a certain angle the reflected beam is plane polarized. Suppose an
unpolarized light beam AB is incident on a glass surface. The electric vector E of
the ray AB can be resolved into two components, one perpendicular to the plane
of incidence and the other lying in the plane of incidence. The reflected ray BC
has predominance of s-component but partially polarized. As the angle of
incidence is varied, at a particular angle θp, the reflected beam does not contain
any p-component having only s-component: completely linearly polarized.
• The intensity of reflected beam is very weak-only 15% of s-component is
reflected. In contrast, refracted beam is strong and consists of mixture of p-
component (100%) and (85%) of s-component.
 Brewster’s Law
• David Brewster (1892) found that the polarized angle depends upon the
refractive index of the medium. “The tangent of the angle at which polarization is
obtained by reflection is numerically equal to the refractive index of the medium”
µ = tan θp
• Brewster found that the maximum polarization of reflected ray occurs when it is
at right angles to the refracted ray. It means that:
θp + r = 900 Therefore, r = 900 - θp
• According to Snell’s law: Sin θp / Sin r = μ2/µ1
• Sin θp / Sin (90-θp) = μ2/µ1 Sin θp / Cos θp = μ2/µ1
tan θp = μ2/µ1
• where θp is known as Brewster’s angle.
Application of Brewster’s law:
• To define the refractive indices of opaque material.
• To determine polarizing angle necessary total polarization by reflection.
• Two windows known as Brewster windows are used in gas lasers. They are
arranged at θp at two ends of the laser tube. Every time the light passes through
the windows on its way to reflecting mirrors of the optical resonator s-
component is removed and every light is linearly polarized of p-component.
Polarization by Refraction
• When unpolarized light is incident at
Brewster angle on a smooth glass
surface, the reflected light is totally
polarized while the refracted light is
partially polarized. If a stack of glass
plates are used reflections from
successive surfaces occur leading to the
filtering of s-component in the
transmitted ray. Ultimately the A stack of 15 glass plates is
transmitted ray consists of p-component required for this purpose. The
alone. glass plate are supported in a
• Degree of polarization P = (Ip – Is) / (Ip tube of suitable size and held
+ Is) = m / [m + 2µ / (1-µ2)] inclined at an angle of 330 to
where, µ is refractive index of material, the axis of the tube.
• Ip and Is are the intensities of the parallel
and perpendicular components in the
refracted light.
Polarization by Scattering:
• If a narrow beam of light is
incident on a transparent medium
containing a suspension of
ultramicroscopic particles the light
scattered is partially polarized. The
degree of polarization depends on
the angle of scattering. The beam
scattered at 900 w.r.t. the incident Exact theory of scattering process has
direction is linearly polarized. been worked out by Lord Rayleigh
• In fact the light scattered in any who showed that percentage of light
scattering 1/λ4 when the size of the
direction in a plane transverse to
particles is of the order of magnitude
the direction of propagation is of the wavelength of light wave. Since
plane polarized. The sky is blue the wavelength of a blue light is
while sunset and sunrise are red. shorter, it is scattered to much greater
All these effects are due to extent and more intense than the red .
The sky would look dark if the earth
scattering of sunlight by dust &
had no atmosphere.
molecules present in atmosphere.
Polarization by Selective
Absorption
• The production of plane polarized
light is established by certain class
of double refracting crystals,
which not only produce two
internal beams polarized at right
angles to each other but also
absorbs one of the polarized
components much strongly than
the other. The phenomena is known as
• If the crystal is cut of the proper Dichorism and the crystal is
thickness, one of the components said to be dichoric. Exp:
is completely extinguished by Tourmaline crystal.
absorption while the other is
transmitted.
 Polarization by Double Refraction
• In 1669 a Dutch philosopher
Burtholinus discovered that
when a ray of ordinary light is
incident on a crystal called
Calcite or Iceland Spur, it splits
into two refracted rays, one of
which always obeys laws of
Polarizer and Analyzer
refraction and the other; in A polarizer is an optical device that
general may not obey them. This transforms unpolarized light into
phenomena is known as Double polarized light.
refraction. It was further found An analyzer is a device which is used
to identify the direction vibration of
by Huygens that both O-ray and
linearly polarized light. An analyzer
E-ray are linearly polarized in and polarizer are fabricated in the same
mutually perpendicular planes way and have same effect on incident
Exp: Quartz Crystal. light.
THANK YOU
 OPTICS
Polarization-II

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Nicol Prism
• It is an optical device designed from a crystal of Calcite and
employed in many optical instruments for producing and analyzing
plane polarized light. It was designed by William Nicol in 1828.
• We know that when a beam of ordinary light is transmitted through
a crystal of Calcite, two completely plane polarized beams, the O-
ray and the E-ray with vibrations in two mutually perpendicular
planes are obtained. If by some means we eliminate one beam, we
get plane polarized light. This can be achieved in Nicol prism by
utilizing the phenomenon of total internal reflection of a thin film of
Canada balsam separating the two pieces of Calcite.
Construction:
• Calcite Rhombohadron of length three
times its width is produced by cleavage
from a clean natural crystal. An imaginary
plane through the edges NR’ and N’R
contains the Optic axis. The ends of
Rhombohedron are grounded until they
make an angle of 680 instead of 710 with
the longitudinal edges.
• The crystal is then cut along a plane
passing through P and P’ & perpendicular
to shorter diagonal of the end faces. The
cut surfaces are polished and cemented
together with a thin layer of Canada
balsam which is transparent plaster with an
index of refraction intermediate between
the indices of refraction of Calcite for the
O and E- rays.
• For Sodium yellow light at mean wavelength
λ = 5893A0, µ0 = 1.658, µE= 1.486 and µCB= 1.55.
• Since µCB > µE, Canada Balsam is optically denser
than Calcite for E-ray and Since µCB < µo, it is
optically less dense than Calcite for O-ray. The
end faces of the prism are left clear while the
remaining faces are painted black.
 Working of Nicol Prism
Working: A ray AB of monochromatic unpolarized light enters
at one end splits into O-ray and E-ray. At C the O-ray is
incident on a rarer (CB) from Denser (Calcite O) medium. It
is therefore totally internal reflected for angles of incidence
on the balsam greater than the critical angle.
θ = sin-1 µCB / µo= sin-1 1.55/1.65 = 690
• After total reflection the O-ray is finally absorbed by the
blackened side of prism.
Limitations: The Nicol prism is the most widely used
polarizing device but they are expensive and have a limited
field of view about 280. For one hand the angular limit of the
incident ray is 140. Along this angle, some of the O-ray will
also be transmitted through CB.
• Parallel and Crossed Nicols: Used as both
polarizer and analyzer when two Nicols are
mounted co-axially.

Maximum
Intensity

No Light
 Polaroid
• In 1928 E.H. Land invented a method of aligning small crystals to
obtain large polarizing sheets called Polaroid sheets. They are
fabricated as follows:
Fabrication: A clear plastic sheet of long chain molecules of PVA
(Poly vinyl alcohol) is heated and then stretched in a given direction
to many times its original length. During the stretching process the
PVA molecules become aligned along the direction of stretching.
The sheet is then laminated to a rigid sheet of plastic to stabilize its
size. It is then exposed to iodine vapour.
The iodine atoms attach themselves to the straight long chain PVA
molecules and consequently form long parallel conducting chains.
The conduction electrons associated with iodine can move along the
chain. A sheet fabricated according to this process is known as H-
sheets.
• When natural light is incident on the
sheet, the component that is parallel to the
chains of iodine atoms induces current in
the conducting chains and is therefore
strongly absorbed. Consequently, the light
transmitted contains only the component
that is perpendicular to the direction of
molecular chains. The direction of E
vector in the transmitted beam
corresponds to the transmission axis of
the Polaroid sheet.
• Land and Rogers later discovered that
when the stretched PVA film is heated
with a hydrating catalyst for example
HCL, slightly darkens but exhibits strong
dichroism. This is called K-Polaroid and
is extensively employed in automobile
head lights and wind screen.
 Uses of Polaroid
• Wide application: In sunglasses the direction of transmission of
Polaroid is therefore kept vertical to cut completely horizontal
reflected vibrations and objects are seen by unpolarized light.
• Polaroids are fitted in motor car head light and wind screen with
their plane of transmissions inclined at 450 to vertical. The driver
can see the light on his own head light while that from incoming
automobile is cut off.
• Used in windows of railways, aeroplanes etc in which there is a
fixed outer and ratable inner Polaroid disc for controlling the
amount of light entering it from outside.
• Used to view 3D pictures which is obtained by taking two pictures
of the same view from slightly different angles. One is viewed by
right eye and other by left eye and polarized at right angles to each
other.
THANK YOU
 OPTICS
Polarization-III

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Double Refraction
Calcite and Quartz
Geometry of Calcite crystal:
• Iceland span CaCO3 a large colourless clear hexagonal
prism with a blunt pyramid at each end. When struck it
is easily formed as a Rhombohedral body. It is
bounded by six faces each of which is a parallelogram
with angles equal to 1020 and 780.
• Phenomena of double refraction is seen when
unpolarized light is incident normally on Calcite
crystal.
• Two refracted beams emerge parallel to the incident
beam but they are displaced by a distance which is
proportional to the thickness of the crystal.
• The O-image lies in the direction of incident beam • The velocity of O-ray is same
therefore it must have been formed in accordance with in all directions within the
the ordinary laws of refraction. The E-image is found crystal where as E-ray has
to be separated from the O-image does not obey the different.
laws of refraction. • O-ray is always in the plane of
• On rotating the crystal about the incident beam as an incidence but that is not true E-
axis it is observed that the O-image remains stationary
while the E-image revolves in a circular path with its ray.
centre at the O-image.
Optic Axis: There is one and only one direction through it
so that when a ray of light is incident along this
direction, the O-ray and E-ray do not separate and also
traverse the crystal with the same velocity along this
direction.
• Any direction in the crystal parallel to the
crystallograph axis is called Optic axis.
Principal section- Any plane which contains the optic
axis and is perpendicular to two opposite faces is called
principle section. This cuts the surfaces of crystal is a
parallelogram with angle 1090 and 710.
 Huygen’s Theory of Double Refraction
Huygens explained the double refraction using his wave theory of
light by extending his principal of secondary wavelets in a
suitable manner. He put forward the following postulates:
1. Every point of the crystal disturbed by the incident wave front
must become the origin of two wavelets: one the ordinary and
the other extraordinary wavelets; in order to account for the O-
ray and E-ray within the crystal.
2. It is found that O-ray always obeys both the laws of refraction.
µ0 = sin i/sin r0 = v/v0. Thus the refractive index of Calcite for
the O-ray is independent of direction of propagation. Thus, the
velocity v0 of the O-ray is the same in all directions. Hence,
the wavelet for the O-ray must be Spherical.
3. The E-ray does not always obey laws of refraction. The ratio
sin i/sin rE for E-ray has a value which varies with the direction
of its propagation relative to optic axis. The velocity of E-ray
is different in different directions. Huygens assumed the form
of the wavelet to be Ellipsoid of revolution.
4. The axis of revolution of the ellipsoid must be coincident
with the direction of optic axis through the point of origin
of the wavelets.
5. The velocities of the O- and E-rays are equal along the
optic axis. To account for this, Huygens postulated that the
spherical wavelet and the ellipsoidal wavelet touch each
other along the extremities of the axis of revolution (optic
axis) of the ellipse generating the ellipsoidal wave surface.
 Huygen’s construction of wavefronts
A thinner rectangular cross-section of a crystal can
be cut from a bigger crystal in three different
ways:
1. The optics axis lies inclined to the refracting face.
2. The optic axis parallel to the refracting face.
3.The optic axis perpendicular to the refracting face.
Case 1: The optics axis lies inclined to the
refracting face:
Let MNN’M’ represent the Calcite crystal. Let CD
represents the monochromatic plane
wavefront incident normal to the crystal
surface. The point A & B produce elliptical &
spherical wavelets. After a laps of time t sec
the spherical wavefront reaches K & L where
as ellipsoid reaches E & F. Thus KL is the
tangent to spherical wavefront and EF is the
tangent to ellipsoidal wavefront. If we join
point of origin of wavelets to points of
tangency, we know the direction of
propagation of waves. The O- & E-rays travel
along different directions with different
velocities.
Case 2 (a): The optic axis parallel to the refracting face & in the plane
of incidence:
Let the optic axis be parallel to the refracting edge MN and lie in the plane of
incidence. The line joining the point of origin to point of tangency gives
the direction of propagation rays. We find that the O-ray and & E-ray
travel along the same directions but different velocities.
Case 2(b): The optic axis parallel to the refracting face & perpendicular to
the plane of incidence:
Since the spherical and ellipsoidal wavelets touch each other along the a line
perpendicular to the plane of incidence, the wavelets appear spherical in
the plane of incidence. O-ray & E-ray travel along the same direction but
have different velocities.
Case 3: The optic axis perpendicular to the refracting
face
• Since the two wavelets must
touch each other along the
optic axis, they touch at
point P & Q. Thus if we join
A to P and B to Q, we
obtain the direction of
propagation of O- and E-
rays. Thus we find the O-
ray and E-ray travel along
the same direction with the
same velocity.
THANK YOU
 OPTICS
Polarization-IV

A. K. Singh
Atmospheric Research Laboratory
Department of Physics
Banaras Hindu University
Varanasi
 Theory of Polarization
Superposition of two plane polarized waves vibrating in two
mutually perpendicular planes:
• Let a beam of plane polarized monochromatic light from a
polarizer be incident normally on a calcite plate, with faces
parallel to the optic axis, but oriented in such a way that the linear
vibrations make an arbitrary angle θ with the optic axis.
• The amplitude ‘a’ of the incident wave is resolved by the doubly
refracting Calcite in to two components:
• AE= a cosθ along the optic axis forming the E-vibrations.
• AO= a sinθ perpendicular to optic axis forming the O-vibrations.
• As they enter the plate the incident wave and its two components
have the same phase. They may be explained by:
• Incident wave S = a sinωt, x = a cosθ sinωt, y = a sinθ sinωt.
• In calcite crystal, E-wave travels faster than O-ray (µ0 >µE). The
two waves emerge from the crystal with a certain relative phase
difference (δ) depending upon thickness of plate and magnitudes µ0
and µE.
• x = a cosθ sin(ωt+δ) (1) (E-wave)
• y = a sinθ sinωt (2) (O-wave)
• From Equation (1),
• x/(a cosθ) = sinωt cosδ + cosωt sinδ [using sin(c+d)= sinc cosd+ cosc sind]
• = sinωt cosδ + (1-sin2ωt)1/2 sinδ
Substituting the value of sinωt from equation 2 in the above equation:
(sin ωt = y/a sinθ)
• - cosδ = sinδ
• Squaring and simplifying we get:

• + - = sin²δ (3) Equation of Eclipse

The exact nature of the resultant motion depends upon the value of δ.
Case I: Resultant vibration Rectilinear: Emergent light is
plane polarized
• If δ = 2nπ, where n= 0, 1, 2, 3……….
• Then the equation (3) reduces to:
• + - =0
• ( - )² = 0 cos δ = 1

• =
• y = (tanθ)x (4) Equation of Straight line
• Thus when the two mutually perpendicular superposed
plane polarized waves are in phase the ellipse degenerates
into straight line inclined at an angle θ to the axis of x
coinciding with the diagonal of the rectangular that lies in
the first and third quadrants. Thus the light emerging from
the crystal is plane polarized.
Case II: Resultant motion Elliptical: Emerging light is elliptically
polarized.
• If δ= (2n+1)π/2 the product term (third term) in equation (3)
vanishes and the equation becomes:
• + =1 (5) This is an equation of ellipse.
• If δ= π/2, 5π/2, 9π/2…….. the ellipse is described counter
clockwise with respect to an observer and the light is spoken as left
handed elliptically polarized.
Case III: Resultant motion circular: Circularly polarized light
• If θ = 450 in addition to δ=(2n+1) π/2, the ellipse reduces to a circle.
• From Eq.(5):
i.e. Equation of a circle.

• When δ= π/2, 5π/2, 9π/2…….. the circle is described as counter clockwise.

• δ= 3π/2, 7π/2, 11π/2…… the circle is described as clockwise.
 Retardation Plates
• Retardation Plate is a uniform plate of birefringent material whose
optic axis lies in the plane of the plate. There are two types of
plates: Quarter wave plate and Half wave plate. They divide the
incident wave into two polarized waves that travel perpendicular to
the plate at different speeds.
• Quarter Wave Plate: A QWP is a thin plate of birefringent crystal
having the optics axis parallel to its refracting faces and its
thickness adjusted such that it introduces a λ/4 path difference
(phase difference of 900) between the E-ray and O-ray propagating
through it.
 (µo - µe) d = λ/4 d = λ/[4(µo - µe)]
• A QWP is used for producing elliptically/Circularly polarized light.
 Half Wave Plate
• A HWP is a thin plate of birefringent crystal having the optics axis
parallel to its refracting faces and its thickness adjusted such that it
introduces a λ/2 path difference (phase difference of 1800)
between the E-ray and O-ray propagating through it.
 (µo - µe) d = λ/2 d = λ/[2(µo - µe)]
• A HWP is rotates the plane of polarization of the incident plane
polarized light through an angle 2θ.
 Production of Elliptically Polarized Light
• A quartz wave plate and a polarizer are the optical devices
necessary to produce elliptically polarized light from unpolarized
light. Unpolarized light is first converted to plane polarized light by
passing through polarizer (Nicol Prism).
• The plane polarized light is then made incident on a QWP. The
polarizer is rotated such that the electric vector E of plane polarized
wave makes an angle θ (≠ 450) with the optical axis of the QWP.
The E- and O-ray are in phase at front face but progressively get out
of phase as they travel through the crystal at different velocities.
When they emerge out of the crystal they will have a path
difference of λ/4 or a phase difference of π/2. When they combine,
they produce Elliptically polarized light.
 Detection of Elliptically Polarized Light
• The light beam is allowed to pass through an analyzer. If the
analyzer is rotated, the intensity of emergent light varies from
maximum to minimum, but never zero then, the incident light is
elliptically polarized. The similar result is obtained for partially
polarized.
• If we insert a QWP before analyzer, an additionally phase
difference of 900 is introduced between the E-ray and O-ray.
Therefore, the total phase difference 1800 between E-ray & O-ray.
On emergence from QWP, the E- & O-ray combine to produce
plane polarized light. If the light combine out of QWP is examined
with an analyzer, light will extinguished twice.
 Production of Circularly Polarized Light
• Unpolarized light is first converted to plane polarized
light by allowing it to pass through a polarizer.
• The polarizer is rotated such that the electric vector E of
the plane polarized wave make an angle θ = 450 with the
optic axis of QWP. The plane polarized wave splits into
O-ray & E-ray of equal magnitude. As they emerge from
the real face of crystal, they will have a path difference of
λ/4 or phase difference of π/2. When they combine they
produce circularly polarized light.
 Detection of Circularly Polarized Light
• If light beam is allowed pass through a rotating analyzer the
intensity of the emerging beam remains uniform, then the incident
light is circularly polarized. Similar result would be obtained for
unpolarized light.
• The two cases may be distinguished by inserting QWP. If the light
is circularly polarized it is resultant of O-ray & E-ray, which are
out of phase by 900. If it passes through QWP it produce additional
phase difference of 900 between O-& E-rays. Therefore, total phase
difference is 1800. Thus emerging from QWP the E- & O-ray
combine to produce plane polarized light. After passing through
analyzer, light will extinguished twice.
THANK YOU
POLARIZATION
(BPT-301)
Dt. 18/11/2020 & 25/11/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 CONTENTS
1. Optical Activity
2. Specific Rotation
3. Fresnel’s Explanation of Optical Activity
4. Experimental Verification of Fresnel’s Theory
5. Bi-quartz polarimeter
Optical activity: When a plane polarized light is allowed to pass through certain
substances, it is found that the plane of vibration of the emergent light is not same as that of the
incident light and it is rotated through a certain angle. This property of rotating the plane of vibration
and the plane of polarization is called rotatory polarization or optical activity and substances which
rotates plane of polarized light are called optical active substance for example Sugar solution,
turpentine, sodium chlorate, quartz, cinnabar etc. This ability of rotating the plane of polarization in
certain substances was discovered by a French Scientist Arago in 1811.
In case of crystals, the optical activity arises due to the twisted arrangement of atomic layers
with respect to one another. In liquids and solids, the case arises due to due to structural symmetry in
their molecules.
The optical rotation i.e. rotation of the plane of polarized light is shown in Figure 1.
Optically active substances are classified into two types:
(i) Dextrorotatory substances: Substances which rotate the plane of polarization of the light toward
the right are known as right-handed or dextrorotatory.
(ii) Laevorotatory substances: Substances which rotate the plane of polarization of the light toward
the left are known as left-handed or laevorotatory.
Figure 1. Rotation of the plane polarized light. The plane is rotated by an angle after the light
passes through an optically active (a) crystal (b) solution.
Specific rotation: A measure of the optical activity of a sample is the rotation produced
for a 1mm slab for a solid, or a 100 mm path length for a liquid. This measure is called the specific
rotation. When a linearly polarized light is passed through an optically active medium/substance, the
plane of linearly polarized light gets rotated through certain angle either towards left or right. The angle
through which the plane polarized light get rotated depends upon
(i) The thickness of the substance
(ii) Density of the active substance or concentration of the solution
(iii) Wavelength of light
(iv) The temperature
Hence, mathematically,
𝜽∝𝑳
𝜽∝𝑪
𝜽∝𝝀
And, 𝜽∝𝒕
Therefore, 𝜽 ∝ 𝑳𝑪𝝀𝒕 (1)
Or, 𝜽 = 𝑺𝑳𝑪𝝀𝒕
𝜽
Or, 𝑺 = 𝑳𝑪𝝀𝒕 (2)
where S is proportionality constant and is known as specific rotation. 𝜽 = rotation in degree, L =
length of tube in decimeter, C = concentration of solution in gm/cc, t = temperature and 𝝀 =
wavelength of linearly polarized light.
The specific rotation for a given wavelength of light at a given temperature is defined
conventionally as the rotation produced by one decimeter long column of the solution containing 1 gm
of optically active material per c.c. of solution.
𝜽 𝑹𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒆𝒔 𝟏𝟎𝜽
𝑺 𝒕𝝀 = 𝑳𝑿𝑪 = 𝑳𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒕𝒉 𝒊𝒏 𝒅𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝑿𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒄.𝒊𝒏 𝒈𝒎/𝒄.𝒄. = 𝑳 𝒄𝒎 𝑪 (3)

Example1:
The plane of polarization of a plane polarized light is turned through an angle 12.6° passing through a
10% sugar solution of length 20 cm. Calculate the specific rotation.
Solution: Here, 𝜽 = 12.6°, L = 20 cm, C = 10% = 0.1gm/c.c.
The specific rotation S is given by
10𝜃 10𝑥12.6
𝑆 = 𝐿𝐶 = 20.𝑥0.1 = 63° 𝑐𝑚2 /𝑔𝑚
Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation:
Fresnel’s theory of optical rotation is based on the fact that a linearly plane polarized light
consists of resultant of two circularly polarized vibrations rotating in opposite directions with
same angular velocities. Fresnel made the following assumptions:
(i) When a beam of plane polarized light enters in a crystal along the optic axis, it is broken up
into two circularly polarized vibrations, one right handed and the other left handed.
(ii) When a plane polarized light enters a crystal of an optically inactive substance (like calcite)
along the optical axis, it breaks up into two circularly polarized vibrations rotating in
opposite direction with same angular frequency or velocity such that the resultant of these
two vibrations at all point of time is along the optic axis. The vibrations of clockwise
direction (in Figure 2a and 2b) are represented by OR and vibration rotating in
counterclockwise direction are represented by OL. The resultant OR and OL at all the point
of time will be along AB.
In case of optically active crystal like quartz, the linearly polarized light, the component having
clockwise rotation travels faster than the anticlockwise component. When the components emerge out of
the crystal, they are at an angle 2𝜽. The resultant of these two vectors OR and OL is now along OD
(Figure 2c).

Figure 2.
(a) For optically inactive crystals: When linearly plane polarized light enters a calcite crystal it
gets resolved into two circularly polarized vibrations. One is moving anticlockwise with same
angular frequency or velocity. As each circularly polarized vibration further consist of two
rectangular components having phase difference 𝝅 𝟐, so for clockwise circular vibration

Hence, resultant vibration has amplitude 2a and is plane y-axis, i.e., along original direction AB.
Hence two oppositely circularly polarized vibrations give rise to a plane polarized vibrations.
(b) For optically active crystals (Quartz): When linearly plane polarized light enters quartz
crystal (right handed), it gets resolved into circularly polarized vibrations moving in opposite
direction with different angular frequency or velocity. In case of right handed crystal clockwise
vibrations travel faster than anticlockwise vibrations. Let at any instant of time anticlockwise
vibrations has traversed angle 𝜽 and clockwise vibrations has traversed angle 𝜽 + 𝜹 . Therefore,
component of two circular vibrations at that instant of time will be,
The resultant vibration along x-axis and y-axis are in same phase, so resultant of these vibrations
is plane polarized and makes an angle of 𝜹 𝟐 with original direction AB. Thus, plane of
vibrations get rotated through angle 𝜹 𝟐 towards right after passing through a right handed quartz
crystal. From above, we get
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜹 𝟐 = 𝑿 𝒀 (4)
Angle of Rotation:
If 𝝁𝑹 and 𝝁𝑳 be the refractive indices of quartz crystal for right handed and left handed
vibrations respectively then optical path difference on passing through a quartz crystal slab of
thickness t is given as,

(5)
If 𝝂𝑹 and 𝝂𝑳 be the velocities of the right handed and left handed circular vibrations respectively,
then 𝜇𝐿 = 𝑐/𝝂𝑳 and 𝜇𝑅 = 𝑐/𝝂𝑹 where c is the velocity of light.
𝝅𝒕𝒄 𝟏 𝟏
𝜽= ~
𝝀 𝝂𝑳 𝝂𝑹
If T be the time period, then 𝒄 = 𝝀 𝑻 or 𝟏 𝑻 = 𝒄 𝝀
𝝅𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
𝜽= ~
𝑻 𝝂𝑳 𝝂𝑹
In case of right handed substances (case of dextrorotatory substance), 𝝂𝑹 > 𝝂𝑳
𝝅𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
𝜽𝑹 = 𝑻 𝝂 − 𝝂 (6)
𝑳 𝑹

In case of left handed substances (case of laevorotatory substance), 𝝂𝑳 > 𝝂𝑹

𝝅𝒕 𝟏 𝟏
𝜽𝑳 = 𝑻 𝝂 − 𝝂 (7)
𝑹 𝑳
𝟎
In case of non-optically active substance, 𝜽 = 𝟎 . Hence, the direction of vibrations remains
unchanged. Such substance does not exhibit the phenomenon of optical rotation.
Experimental verification of Fresnel’s theory:
Fresnel showed that linearly polarized light on entering an optically active crystal is resolved
into two circularly polarized vibrations. He verified his hypothesis by arranging a number of negative and
positive optically active quartz prisms alternatively to form a rectangular block, as shown in Figure 3.
The optic axis is parallel to the base of each prism. When the linearly polarized light is incident normally
on the first crystal surface AB, the two component circular vibrations travel along the same direction but
with different speeds. When the light beam passes through the subsequent oblique surfaces, the beam
splits into R-component and the L-component which are separated more and more as they pass through
the successive prisms. When they ultimately emerge out, they are widely separated. When the two waves
are analysed by a quarter wave plate and a Nicole prism, both are found to be circularly polarized in
opposite directions. Thus, Fresnel’s hypothesis is verified.

Figure 3.
Example2:
The refractive indices for right and left handed vibrations are 1.55821 and 1.55810 respectively for
quartz for sodium light of wavelength 5890 Å. Find the optical rotation for the same light by quartz
of thickness 1.00 mm when its faces are cut perpendicular to the optic axis.
Solution:
The angle of rotation of the plane of vibrations is given as
π𝑡
𝜃= 𝜇 − 𝜇𝐿
λ 𝑅
Given,
t = 1.00 mm = 0.100 cm, λ = 5890 Å, 𝜇𝑅 = 1.55821, 𝜇𝐿 = 1.55810
Solving, we get,
𝜃 = 0.5870 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛 = 33.62°
Polarimeter:
Polarimeters are the optical instruments designed to measure the angle of rotation of plane
polarized light after passing through an optically active substance. When used for finding the optical
rotation for sugar, it is called Saccharimeter.
Biquartz Polarimeter: Construction
The experimental arrangement for a bi-quartz polarimeter is shown in Figure 4. According to the figure,
the light from a source S (white light) which is just an ordinary bulb after passing through a slit is incident
on a convex lens L which converts the emergent light into a parallel beam. This parallel beam of light falls
on a polarizer (Nicol prism P) and the emergent light from P become plane polarized light.

Figure 4.
 This plane polarized light is then passed through
the Biquartz plate B, a glass tube T containing the
solution of optically active substance and an analyzer
(Nicol prism A). The light is viewed through a telescope
E. The analyzing Nicol A can be rotated about the axis of
the tube and its rotation can be measured with the help of
a vernier scale on the graduated circular scale C divided
in degrees and mounted on telescope E.
Working:
A bi-quartz plate is made up of two semicircular plates
out of which one is of left handed quartz and the other is
of right handed quartz. The quartz plates are cut Figure 5.
perpendicular to their optic axes and cemented along a
diameter (YZ) as shown in Figure 5. In order to remove
double refraction, the optic axes of both semicircular One clockwise rotation is through right
quartz plates are made perpendicular to their planes. handed quartz and the other anticlockwise
The thickness of each plate is 3.75 mm which is rotation is through left handed quartz.
so much that each plate can rotate the plane of
polarization of yellow light through 90 degree.
The working of bi-quartz polarimeter may be divided into the following points:
(i) A white light is incident on Nicol P and the emergent light becomes plane polarized. This plane
polarized light is then allowed to fall on the bi-quartz plate B normally and it travels in the direction of
optic axis (ii) If the vibrations of incident plane polarized light after passing through polarizer are along
YZ direction (Figure 6), then the emergent light from the bi-quartz plate for yellow color the vibrations
will be perpendicular to YZ because the vibrations are rotated through 90 degree by bi-quartz, where as
the red light is rotated through the smallest amount and that of violet light is rotated through the largest
angle.

Figure 6.
(iii) If the principal section is placed parallel to YOZ, the yellow colour vibrations terminates and due to
the mixture of red and blue, both the halves appear to be similar and has grayish violet tint, called the
tint of passage (Figure 6b).
(iv) Now if the principal section of A (Nicol 𝑁2 ) is rotated through a small angle from this position as
shown by 𝑹𝟏 𝑩𝟐 in Figure 7a, then right half appears more bluish and left more red. If the principal
section of Nicol 𝑁2 is rotated in opposite direction 𝑹𝟐 𝑩𝟏 (Figure 7b) we see an observation just opposite
to the above.
Merits of Bi-Quartz Polarimeter:
• As the transition from red to blue is very rapid, the zero position can be obtained very accurately.
• For this instrument, white light can also be used.
• It is highly sensitive device for measuring
optical rotation.
Demerits of of Bi-Quartz Polarimeter:
• This instrument does not give accurate result
for colorless optically active substance.
• It is not possible for a color blind person to
use tis instrument.

Figure 7.
Applications: Determination of specific rotation of sugar solution

a) The position of the analyzer A is adjusted without using optically active solution and
it’s position is recorded using a mounted circular scale on the telescope.
b) Now, an optically active solution is placed in the tube T and the position of the
analyzer A is again adjusted so as to get sensitive tint and the position of A is again
recorded. The difference between the two positions of the analyzer A gives the
optical rotation produced by the optically active solution.
c) Knowing the values of 𝜽, l and c, the specific rotation is obtained using the formula
given in Eqn.(3). Or, knowing the value of the specific rotation, the concentration of
the solution can be determined with the help of Eqn.(3)
 LASER
(BPT-301)
Dt. 28/10/2020 & 29/10/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 1. Introduction
LASER
Light Amplification through Stimulated Emission
of Radiation

Properties of LASER:
 Directionality
 High power Figure 1.
 Tight focusing
 Spectral purity
 High degree of coherence
 Continuous power output
 2. Attenuation of light in an optical medium
A reduction in the intensity of light with
distance when it travels through a
medium is called the “attenuation of
light” . The reduction of intensity occurs
mainly due to the processes of
absorption and scattering of light in he
medium. According to Beer’s law,
Figure 2.
𝑰𝑰 = 𝑰𝑰𝒐𝒐 𝒆𝒆−𝜶𝜶𝒙𝒙

where x is the distance in the medium,

𝑰𝑰𝒐𝒐 is the value of intensity at x = 0 and 𝜶𝜶
is the coefficient of attenuation or
absorption coefficient of the material at
frequency ν.
Figure 3.
 3. Interaction of light with matter

Figure 4.

When photons travel through a medium, three different processes occur viz. absorption, spontaneous
emission and stimulated emission.
1. Absorption: Let an atom have two energy states E1 and E2 where E2 > E1. When a photon of
E − E1
frequency ν be incident on such an atom such that ν = 2 (h = Planck’s constant), then the atom is
𝒉𝒉
pumped to the excited state E2.
The rate of stimulated absorption (or simply absorption) depends on the two factors:
(i) Intensity of the incident radiation.
(ii) The number of atoms in the excited state E2. 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 ∶ 𝑨𝑨 + 𝒉𝒉𝝂𝝂 → 𝑨𝑨∗
where A = atom in lower state, = 𝐴𝐴∗ excited atom
 Figure 4.

2. Spontaneous Emission:
The life-time of the excited state being very small (~ 10-8 s), an atom in the energy state E2 transits to
state E1 giving rise to the emission of a photon of frequency
E2 − E1
ν= (h = Planck’s constant)
𝒉𝒉
Since this process can take place in absence of any radiation, it is called spontaneous emission.
Spontaneous emission is random in character having no phase relationship among the emitted
waves of various wavelength. The radiation is thus incoherent having broad spectrum. The rate of
spontaneous transition is (i) proportional to the number of atoms in the excited state (ii) independent
on the intensity of exciting radiation. 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 ∶ 𝑨𝑨∗ → 𝑨𝑨 + 𝒉𝒉𝝂𝝂
Characteristics of spontaneous emission:
(i) Probabilistic in nature and is not amenable for control from outside.
(ii) The instant of transition, direction of propagation, the initial phase and the plane of
polarization of each photon are all random.
(iii) Light resulting through this process is not monoenergetic.
(iv) As different atoms in the source emit photons in different directions, light spreads in all
directions around the source and the light intensity goes on decreasing rapidly with
distance from the source.
(v) Light emitted through this process is incoherent, as it results from a superposition of
wave trains of random phases. The net intensity is proportional to the number of
radiating atoms. Thus,
𝑰𝑰𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = NI
where N is the number of atoms and I is the intensity of light emitted by one atom.
Spontaneous emission dominates in conventional light sources.
Now,
Spontaneous transition → population N2 at higher energy level
Absorption transition → population N1 at lower energy level and energy density ρ(v) in the
incident light.
If only these two processes occur, then
number of atoms absorbing radiation/second > number of atoms emitting light/second.
Leading to non-equilibrium situation where all the atoms in the medium are excited.
But this does not happen!

If a photon can stimulate an atom to move from a lower energy level E1 to a higher energy
level E2 by means of absorption transition, then a photon should also be able to stimulate
an atom from the same upper level E2 to the lower level E1.
-Einstein
 Figure 4.

3. Stimulated Emission:
Before an atom can make a spontaneous transition, it may interact with a photon
having energy ℎν = E2 − E1 and make a downward transition. The phenomenon of forced
photon emission by an excited atom due to the action of an external agency is called This
leads to the amplification of the incident radiation. The passing photon does not disappear
and in addition a second photon is emitted. The rate of stimulated emission depends on (i) the
number of atoms in the excited state (ii) the intensity of the external radiation.
As the direction of propagation, frequency, phase and state of polarization of stimulated
emission are the same as the incident photon , it is highly coherent.
𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 ∶ 𝑨𝑨∗ + 𝒉𝒉𝝂𝝂 → 𝑨𝑨 + 𝟐𝟐𝒉𝒉𝝂𝝂
 Figure 5.

The two photons emitted in this process can interact with two other atoms in the
excited state E2 and can again induce stimulated emission giving four photons. Hence, a chain
process is continuously increasing the density of photon and the light amplification (laser
action) occurs. For this chain process to sustain the essential condition is that the number of
atoms in the excited state must be greater than that in the ground state, i.e. N2 > N1 . The
highly populated energy state is called the population inversion. So, population inversion is
the prerequisite for laser action.
 Figure 5.

Characteristics of stimulated emission:

(i) The process of stimulated emission is controllable from outside.
(ii) Photon induced in this process propagates in the same direction as that of the stimulating photon.
(iii) The induced photon has features identical to that of the inducing photon. It has the same frequency,
phase and plane of polarization as that of the stimulating photon.
(iv) Multiplication of photons: The outstanding feature of this process is the multiplication of photons.
The two photons emitted in this process can interact with two other atoms in the excited state E2
and can again induce stimulated emission giving four photons. Hence, a chain process is
continuously increasing the density of photon and the light amplification (laser action) occurs. The
number of photons builds up in an avalanche like manner, as shown in Figure 5.
 Figure 6.

Characteristics of stimulated emission:

(v) Light amplification: All the light waves generated in the medium are due to one initial wave
and all of the waves are in phase. Thus, the waves are coherent and interfere constructively (Figure
6).
(vi) The net intensity of light will be proportional to the square of the number of atoms radiating
light. Thus, 𝑰𝑰𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 I
Light emitted through the process of stimulated emission is of very high intensity and hence we
say that light is amplified.
 4. Spontaneous emission versus stimulated emission of radiation:

Figure 7.

Stimulated emission
i. This process is triggered by an incident radiation of
proper frequency.
ii. The rate of transition is proportional to both the
Spontaneous emission number of atoms in the excited state as well as the
i. This process takes place in absence of any incident intensity.
radiation. iii. It is highly directional and all the quanta have the
ii. The rate of emission is proportional to the same wavelength.
number of atoms in the excited state and iv. The stimulated photon is exactly of the same
independent on the incident intensity. frequency, phase, direction and state of polarization as
iii. It is random in character and a random mixture the incident photon. So it is coherent.
of quanta having various wavelengths. v. It can develop a chain reaction leading to light
iv. The waves coincide neither in frequency nor in amplification and high intensity coherent radiation.
phase and as such the radiation is incoherent and
has a broad spectrum.
v. It has no relevance with light amplification.
 5. Einstein coefficients and their relations:
Einstein coefficients:
(i) The probability that an absorption transition occurs is given by
𝑷𝑷𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 ρ(v)
where ρ(v) is photon density and 𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 is the constant of proportionality known as Einstein coefficient
for induced absorption. It is a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of the
energy states E1 and E2.
(ii) The probability that a spontaneous transition occurs is given by
𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏
where 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is a constant known as Einstein coefficient for spontaneous emission. 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is a constant
characteristic of the atom and is known as the radiative rate measured in units of s-1.
(iii) The probability that a stimulated transition occurs is given by
𝑷𝑷𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕𝒕 = 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 ρ(v)
where 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 is a constant of proportionality known as Einstein coefficient for stimulated emission. It is
a constant characteristic of the atom and represents the properties of the energy states E1 and E2.
(iv) It follows from quantum mechanical considerations that spontaneous transition is not possible
from level E1 to E2 level . Therefore, the probability of spontaneous transition from E1 to E2 is zero.
Therefore, 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 0
 Figure 8. Stimulated emission (a) emission process (b) material emits photons in a coordinated manner.

Einstein relation:
Under thermal equilibrium, the mean population N1 and N2 in the lower and upper energy levels
respectively must remain constant. This condition requires that the number of transitions from E2 to
E1 must be equal to the number of transitions from E1 to E2 (Figure 6). Thus,
The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume = The number of atoms
emitting photons per unit volume
The number of atoms absorbing photons per second per unit volume = 𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝝆𝝆(𝒗𝒗)𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏
The number of atoms emitting photons per second per unit volume = 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 +𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 𝝆𝝆(𝒗𝒗)𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
As the number of transitions from E2 to E1 must be equal to the number of transitions from E1 to E2,
we have
𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝝆𝝆(𝒗𝒗)𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏 = 𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 +𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝝆𝝆(𝒗𝒗)𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗 =
𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏 − 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
Dividing both the numerator and denominator of RHS with 𝐵𝐵12 𝑁𝑁2 , we obtain,
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 ⁄𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗 = 𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏
−
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐
At thermal equilibrium, the population at the energy levels can be found with the help of Boltzmann
law,
𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏 = 𝒆𝒆−𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 and 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 = 𝒆𝒆−𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 (k=Boltzmann constant, T=temperature)
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
Therefore, = 𝒆𝒆−(𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐−𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏)⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏
As, 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 − 𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏 = 𝒉𝒉 𝒗𝒗
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
= 𝒆𝒆−𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏
𝑵𝑵𝟏𝟏
= 𝒆𝒆𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 1
Finally, 𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗 = (1)
𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟐𝟐 𝒆𝒆𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 −𝐵𝐵21 ⁄𝐵𝐵12
According to Planck’s law,
𝟖𝟖π𝒉𝒉𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 μ𝟑𝟑 1
𝝆𝝆 𝒗𝒗 = (2)
𝒄𝒄𝟑𝟑 𝒆𝒆𝒉𝒉𝒉𝒉⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 −1
where μ is the refractive index of the medium and c is the velocity of light in free space. Eqn.(1)
will be equal to Eqn.(2) only if,
𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 𝟖𝟖𝝅𝝅𝒉𝒉𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 𝝁𝝁𝟑𝟑
= (3)
𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝒄𝒄𝟑𝟑
𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
and, = 1 or 𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 (4)
𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏
The above equations are known as the Einstein relations. The coefficients 𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 , 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 and 𝑨𝑨𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏 are
known as Einstein coefficients. The coefficients are related through
𝒄𝒄𝟑𝟑
𝑩𝑩𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 = 𝑩𝑩𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 = 𝑨𝑨 (5)
𝟖𝟖𝝅𝝅𝒉𝒉𝒗𝒗𝟑𝟑 𝝁𝝁𝟑𝟑 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐
The relation in Eqn.(4) shows that the coefficients for both absorption and stimulated
emission are numerically equal. The equality implies that when an atom with two energy levels
is placed in the radiation field, the probability for an upward (absorption) transition is equal to
the probability for a downward (stimulated) transition.
 6. Metastable State:
An atom can be excited to higher energy level (E2)
from a lower energy level (E1) by supplying energy of
frequency ν, such that
𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 −𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏
𝝂𝝂 = (6)
𝒉𝒉
The excited atoms have short half-time and release
their energy in ~ 10-8 s through spontaneous emission. Thus,
the atoms do not stay for sufficient time to be stimulated and
hence population inversion cannot be established.
For population inversion to be established the life-time
of the excited state must be ~ 10-6 s to 10-3 s, which is 103 s to
106 s times the half-time of the ordinary energy levels. Such an Figure 9. Metastable state
energy state is called a metastable state (E3). accumulating larger number of atoms.
Thus, a metastable state allows accumulation of a large
number of excited atoms. The population of the metastable
state is larger than the population of the lower energy state Population inversion and laser
(E1), i.e. N3>N1 , and establishes the condition of population action is impossible without
inversion. metastable state.
 7. Population Inversion:

Figure 10.

When the material is in thermal equilibrium condition, the population ratio is governed by
the Boltzmann distribution law according to the following eqn.
𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
= 𝒆𝒆−(𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 −𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏)⁄𝒌𝒌𝒌𝒌 (7)
𝑵𝑵
𝟏𝟏
This means that the population N2 at the excited level E2 will be far smaller than the
population N1 at the level E1. The condition in which there are more atoms in the lower energy level
is called normal condition or thermal equilibrium (Figure 10a). Thus, under thermal equilibrium,
N1>>N2.
To achieve high percentage of stimulated emission, a majority of atoms should be at the
higher energy level than at the lower level. The number of atoms in the excited state can somehow be
enhanced such that the population ratio N2/N1 momentarily increases without change in temperature.
 This is a non-equilibrium condition and is known as inverted population condition.
Population inversion is the non-equilibrium condition of the material in which population of the
upper energy level N2 momentarily exceeds the population of the lower energy level (Figure 10b)
i.e., N2>>N1.
From eqn.(7), it is seen that N2 can exceed N1 only if the temperature were negative. Because
of this, the state of population inversion is sometimes referred to as a negative temperature scale.
But this does not mean that temperatures below absolute zero can be attained. Population inversion
is attained at normal temperature.
The system shown in Figure (10a) has two energy levels. At thermal equilibrium, photon
absorption and emission takes place side by side but because N1>N2, the system absorbs photon
rather than emit photons. Suppose the system is supplied with energy from an external source till N2
exceeds N1. Then, the system is said to have attained the state of population inversion. The
population inversion took place between the levels E2 and E1.
 Figure 11.

When the system is in the population inversion condition, a few randomly emitted photons
trigger stimulated emission of photons and those stimulated photons induce more stimulated
emissions and so on. Consequently, light gets amplified (Figure 11) and a cascade of light is
produced. However, in this process atoms from E2 level make downward transitions and as soon as
the population at lower level becomes equal or larger than at the excited level, population inversion
comes to an end. Energy is again to be supplied to the system to take it into the state of population
inversion.
The non-equilibrium condition is attained by employing pumping techniques to transfer
large number of atoms from lower energy level to higher energy level.
 8. Components of laser:

The essential components of laser are:

(i) Active medium: Medium which when excited
reaches the state of population inversion and
promotes stimulated emission leading to light
amplification. It may be solid, liquid or gas. In
such a medium only a small fraction of the atoms
are responsible for light amplification and are
called the active centers.
(ii) Pump: Process of supplying energy to the laser
medium with a view to transfer it into the state Figure 12.
of population inversion.
(iii) Optical resonator: Active medium is the One of the mirrors is a total reflector and the
amplifying medium. It is converted into an other is a partial one. The partial one allows part
oscillator through the feedback mechanism of the laser beam to pass out. In the absence of
established by an optical resonator. A pair of the resonator cavity, there would be no
optically plane parallel mirrors constitutes an amplification of light.
optical resonant cavity.
 9. Types of laser:
On the basis of the nature of the lasing medium, lasers are of the following types:
(i) Solid state laser
Examples: Ruby laser, Nd-YAG and glass, Alexandrite
(ii) Semi conductor laser
Examples: GaAlAs diode, InGaAsP diode
(iii) Gas laser
Example: He-Ne, Argon ion, Nitrogen, CO2
(iv) Liquid laser
Example: Organic dye
DIFFRACTION OF LIGHT
(BPT-301)
Dt. 05/11/2020 & 07/11/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 CONTENTS
1. Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit
2. Fraunhofer diffraction due to a double slit.
 1. Fraunhofer diffraction at a single slit
AB = slit of width b, XY = screen
Plane wave front of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ be incident normally on AB. Intensity
distribution due to the diffraction on the screen XY has
to be determined.
Assumptions:
(i) Each point on the slit is a source of secondary
wavelets and interference take place between the
wavelets originating from two such secondary
sources.
(ii) The slit consists of a large number of equally
spaced secondary point sources.
If Δ be the separation between any two point sources
𝑨𝟏 , 𝑨𝟐 , 𝑨𝟑 ,…then,
𝒃= 𝒏−𝟏 𝜟 Figure 1. Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit.
where n is the number of point sources. If the diffracted rays from A1 and A2 make and angle 𝛉
As the point P on the screen is at a large distance from with the normal to the plane
the slit, the amplitudes of the secondary waves from of the slit, then the path difference between A1 and A2
𝐀𝟏 and 𝐀𝟐 will be nearly the same. 𝐀𝟐 𝐀′𝟐 = 𝚫 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝛉 (where A1 A2 = Δ)
 𝟐𝝅
Corresponding phase difference is 𝝋= 𝜟 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝝀
If the field at P due to the disturbance coming from 𝑨𝟏 be represented by,
𝑬𝟏 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕
where a is the amplitude and ω is the circular frequency. The field at P due to the disturbance from 𝑨𝟐
is,
𝑬𝟐 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝝋
Similarly, the fields at P due to the disturbances from 𝑨𝟑 , 𝑨𝟒 ,…. 𝑨𝒏 are
𝑬𝟑 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝟐𝝋
𝑬𝟒 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝟑𝝋
……………………..
𝑬𝒏 = 𝒂 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝝋
Thus, the resultant field at P is
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 + 𝑬𝟑 … … . . +𝑬𝒏
= 𝑎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝝋 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝟐𝝋 + ⋯ . . +𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝝋
Now,
𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝝋 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 ω𝒕 − 𝟐𝝋 + ⋯ . . +𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝝋 =
𝒏𝝋
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐 𝝋
𝝋 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝟐
 𝒏𝝋
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝝋 𝝋
Therefore, 𝑬= 𝒂 𝝋 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏 = 𝑬𝜽 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
𝒏𝝋
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐
where 𝑬𝜽 = 𝒂 𝝋
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐
Now, if 𝒏 → ∞, ∆ → 𝟎, 𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒏 𝒏∆ → 𝑏.
𝒏𝝋 𝒏 𝟐𝝅 𝒏𝝅𝜟 𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝋 𝟏 𝟐𝝅 𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
= 𝐱 𝜟 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = and = 𝐱 𝜟 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = →𝟎
𝟐 𝟐 𝝀 𝝀 𝝀 𝟐 𝟐 𝝀 𝒏𝝀
𝒏𝝋 𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒂 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
𝟐 𝝀
𝑬𝜽 ≈ 𝒂 𝝋 = =𝑨
𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝜷
𝟐 𝝀
𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝑨 = 𝒏𝒂 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝜷 =
𝝀
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝟏 𝒏𝝋 𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
Therefore, 𝑬 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝝋 ≈ = =𝜷
𝜷 𝟐 𝟐 𝝀
The intensity distribution on the screen due to the diffraction at the single-slit is
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
𝑰= 𝑰𝟎 𝟐 (1)
𝜷
where 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑨𝟐 = 𝒏𝟐 𝒂𝟐 is the intensity at 𝜽 → 𝟎.
From Eqn.(1), the intensity at any point on the screen is a function of β and hence θ, a series
of alternate maxima and minima of diminishing intensity will be observed on the screen.
Intensity distribution:
(1) Position of the principal maxima: when θ→0,
𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷
𝜷= → 0 and →1
𝝀 𝜷→𝟎 𝜷
Therefore,
𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝟐
𝑰= 𝑰𝟎 = 𝑰𝟎 (2)
𝜷→𝟎 𝜷
This corresponds to principal maximum, which occurs in the region of the screen around the
point O.
(2) Positions of minima: from Eqn.(1), it is clear that when 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝟎, 𝑰 = 𝟎
i.e. when β = ±mπ, where m = 1, 2, 3,……
𝝅𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Or, = ±𝒎𝝅 or, 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒎𝝅 (3)
𝝀
Eqn.(3) gives the condition of diffraction minima. The first minima occurs at
𝜽 = ±𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝝀 𝒃 and second minima occurs at 𝜽 = ±𝒔𝒊𝒏−𝟏 𝟐𝝀 𝒃 etc.
(3) Positions of secondary maxima: From Eqn.(1),
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷 𝒅𝑰 𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
𝑰= 𝑰𝟎 𝟐 , = 𝑰𝟎 − 𝟑
𝜷 𝒅𝜷 𝜷𝟐 𝜷
For I to be maximum,
𝒅𝑰
=𝟎
𝒅𝜷
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜷 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜷 𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
Therefore, − 𝟑 =𝟎
𝜷𝟐 𝜷
i.e. either 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝟎 𝑜𝑟, 𝜷 = ±𝒎𝝅 corresponds to the position of the minima
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜷 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷
𝟐 − 𝟑 = 𝟎 or, 𝜷 − 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷 = 𝟎 or, 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷 = 𝜷 (4)
𝜷 𝜷
The root 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 = 𝟎 𝒊. 𝒆 𝜽 = 𝟎 corresponds to the positions of the central maximum. The other roots
of Eqn.(4) can be found by plotting 𝒚 = 𝜷 or 𝒚 = 𝒕𝒂𝒏𝜷 on the same graph paper and then finding
the coordinates of the point of intersections (see Figure 2). The interactions occur at 𝛽 =
1.43π, 2.46π etc. Hence, the secondary maxima occur at 𝜷 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝝅, 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝝅 etc.
𝟑𝝅 𝟓𝝅
Taking 𝜷 ≈ 𝟎, , etc. for all practical purposes, the magnitudes of the intensity of the principal
𝟐 𝟐
maximum 𝑰𝟎 , secondary first maximum 𝑰𝟏 , second maximum and so on can be found as
follows:
(i) For the principal maximum 𝜽 = 𝟎. Therefore, 𝜷 = 𝟎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟎
𝟑𝝅
(ii) For the first secondary maximum, 𝜷 =
𝟐
𝟑𝝅 𝟐 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 −𝟏 𝟒𝑰𝟎 𝑰𝟎
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟎 𝟐 = 𝑰𝟎 = =
𝟑𝝅 𝟑𝝅 𝟗𝝅𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝟐 𝟐
𝟑𝝅
(iii) For the second secondary maximum, 𝜷=
𝟐
𝟓𝝅 𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝑰𝟎
𝟐
𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟎 𝟓𝝅 = and so on.
𝟔𝟏
𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Therefore, 𝑰𝟎 : 𝑰𝟎 : 𝑰𝟎 : 𝑰𝟎 = 𝟏 ∶ : :
𝟐𝟐 𝟔𝟏 𝟏𝟐𝟏
This indicates that the intensity of the principal maximum is the highest and the intensity
of the secondary maxima decreases on either side of 𝑰𝟎 with the increase of the order
number m.
As the secondary maxima occur at 𝜷 = 𝟏. 𝟒𝟑𝝅, 𝟐. 𝟒𝟔𝝅 etc. it is evident that the secondary
maxima are not equi-spaced. That is why in single slit experiment, the readings for the
positions of the minima are taken and not maxima.
Figure 2. Intensity distribution in
Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit.
 2. Fraunhofer diffraction due to a double slit
AB and CD are two slits of width b.
Plane wave front of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ be incident normally on the two
slits.
Assumptions:
(i) Each point on the slit is a source of
secondary wavelets.
(ii) The slit consists of a large number of
equally spaced secondary point sources
of Huygen’s secondary wavelets.
𝑨𝟏 , 𝑨𝟐 , 𝑨𝟑 ,…and 𝑩𝟏 , 𝑩𝟐 , 𝑩𝟑 ,…be
the point sources in slits AB and CD
respectively. If the diffracted rays make an
angle θ with the normal to the plane of the
slits, then the path difference between the
waves reaching the point P on the screen from
consecutive points in a slit is
Figure 3. Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit
 ∆ 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 where ∆ is the distance between two
consecutive points in either slit. The field
produced by the slit AB at P is,

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 𝝋
𝑬𝟏 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝒏 − 𝟏
𝜷 𝟐

𝟐𝝅
where 𝝋 = 𝜟 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 is the phase difference
𝝀
at P between the waves coming from 𝐀𝟏 and 𝑩𝟏 .
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
Or, 𝑬𝟏 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷
𝜷
𝝋 𝒏𝝋
where 𝒏 − 𝟏 ≈ = 𝜷
𝟐 𝟐
𝝅𝒃
As 𝒏 → ∞, 𝒏𝜟 → 𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜷 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
𝝀
Similarly, the field at P due to the slit CD is
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 Figure 3. Fraunhofer diffraction due to double slit
𝑬𝟐 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷 − 𝝋𝟏
𝜷
 𝟐𝝅
where 𝝋𝟏 = 𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 is the phase difference between two corresponding points reaching P and
𝝀
d is the distance between two corresponding points in the double-slit (i.e., 𝑨𝟏 𝑩𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝑩𝟐 =…....=d).
Therefore, the resultant field at P is,
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟏 + 𝑬𝟐 = 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷 + 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷 − 𝝋𝟏
𝜷
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝝋𝟏
= 𝟐𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷 − [using (cos A+cos B) formula]
𝜷 𝟐
𝝋𝟏 𝝅 𝒅𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
where 𝜸= =
𝟐 𝝀
𝝋𝟏
or, 𝑬 = 𝓐 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 − 𝜷 −
𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷
where 𝓐 = 𝟐𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝜸 is the resultant amplitude at P.
𝜷
Now, the intensity at P is,
𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜷 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
𝑰= 𝓐𝟐 = 𝟒𝑨𝟐 𝟐 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜸 = 𝟒𝑰𝟎 𝟐 . 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜸 (𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑨𝟐 = 𝑰𝟎 )
𝜷 𝜷
𝑜𝑟, 𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 x 𝑰𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
where 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟎 𝟐 represents the intensity distribution produced by one slit and 𝑰𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜸
𝜷
represents the intensity distribution of diffraction pattern in the interference pattern produced by
two point sources separated by d.
 𝝅𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 𝒍𝒊𝒎 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
If 𝒃 → 𝟎, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝜷 = →0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 → 1,
𝝀 𝜷→𝟎 𝜷𝟐
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
then there is no variation of 𝟐 with 𝜽.
𝜷
(1) Diffraction maxima and minima:
𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜷
(a) Principal maximum: The factor 𝑰𝟏 = 𝑰𝟎 𝟐 gives the principal maximum
𝜷
in the direction β → 𝟎 i.e. 𝜽 → 𝟎 corresponding to the point O on the screen (see Figure 3).
This principal maximum has on either side alternate minima and secondary maxima of
gradually diminishing intensity.
(b) Minima: The minima are in the direction given by
𝝅𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜷 = 𝟎 𝒐𝒓, 𝜷 = = ±𝒎𝝅
𝝀
𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = 𝒎λ
is the condition of diffraction minima.
where 𝒎 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … . The ± sign represents that the minima are situated symmetrically on either
side of the principal maximum.
(c) The positions of the secondary maxima: The positions of the secondary maxima are obtained
at
𝟑𝝅 𝟓𝝅 𝟕𝝅 𝝅
𝜷 = ± , ± , ± , etc = ± 𝟐𝒎 ± 𝟏
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
where 𝒎 = 𝟏, 𝟐, 𝟑, … .
(d) Interference maxima and minima: From the term 𝑰𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜸, the maxima occurs for the values of θ
for which 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜸 = 1 or 𝜸 = ±𝒏𝝅, where n = 0, 1, 2,….
𝝅𝒅 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝅 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
= = ±𝒏𝝅
𝝀 𝝀
where 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 is the distance between two corresponding points of the double slit.
Or, 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀
is the condition of interference mixima.

𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀 (since θ→0, sin θ→ θ)

𝒏𝝀 𝝀 𝟐𝝀 𝟑𝝀
𝜽=± = , , …….
𝒂+𝒃 𝒂+𝒃 𝒂+𝒃 𝒂+𝒃
So, the angular separation between two consecutive interference maxima is
𝟐𝝀 𝝀 𝝀
Δ𝜽 = − =
𝒂+𝒃 𝒂+𝒃 𝒂+𝒃
𝟐 𝟐 𝝅
Again, from 𝑰𝟐 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜸, we note that 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟎, when 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜸 = 0, 𝜸 = ± 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏 (n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…)
𝟐
𝝅 𝒂+𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 𝝅
Or, = ± 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏
𝝀 𝟐
𝝀
Or, 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ± 𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏
𝟐
is the condition of interference minima.
𝟐𝒏+𝟏 𝝀
Or, 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽 = ±
𝟐(𝒂+𝒃)
Putting 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 𝑎𝑠 𝜃 → 0, we get
𝟐𝒏 + 𝟏 𝝀
𝜽=
𝟐(𝒂 + 𝒃)
𝝀 𝟑𝝀 𝟓𝝀
Or, 𝜽 = , , ,……..
𝟐(𝒂+𝒃) 𝟐(𝒂+𝒃) 𝟐(𝒂+𝒃)
So, the angular separation between any two consecutive interference minima is,

𝟑𝝀 𝝀 𝝀
Δ𝜽 = − =
𝟐(𝒂 + 𝒃) 𝟐 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒂+𝒃

Since both the interference maxima and minima i.e.

𝝀
∆𝜽 = ,
𝒂+𝒃
the term 𝑰 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐 𝜸 gives a set of equidistance dark and bright fringes on the screen.
Missing orders of interference maxima:
If the slit b is kept constant and the width of the opaque space a is gradually altered, then
according to the condition of diffraction minima
𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒎𝝀
The diffraction pattern remains unaltered but according to the condition of interference maxima
𝒅 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒂 + 𝒃 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = ±𝒏𝝀
the spacing between the interference maxima changes. It may so happen that for a particular value of the
angle of diffraction 𝜃, the conditions of interference maxima and diffraction minima are simultaneously
satisfied, then the corresponding interference maximum will be missed from the resultant spectrum. Let
the conditions
𝒂 + 𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒏𝝀 (intensity maxima of interference pattern)
𝒃 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽 = 𝒎𝝀 (intensity minima of diffraction pattern)
be simultaneously satisfied for a particular value of 𝜽, then the nth order interference maximum is formed,
where the nth order diffraction minima would be formed, where the mth order diffraction minima would be
formed. As a result the nth order interference maxima will be missing. From the above conditions,
𝒂+𝒃 𝒏
=
𝒃 𝒎
(i) If b = a, then n = 2m =2, 4, 6,….(since m = 1, 2, 3,…). Thus, the 2,4,6…..interference maxima will be
missing from the resultant pattern. Because these will be formed at the positions of first, second, third
diffraction minima. The central maxima, then will have three interference maxima (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Missing orders for b = a.

(ii) If 2b = a, then from the relation n = 3m = 3, 6, 9, etc. Thus the third, sixth, ninth interference maxima will
be absent. The central diffraction maximum will contain 5 interference maxima (Fig.5).
(iii) If a = 0, i.e. a+b = b, then n = m = 1, 2, 3….all the interference maxima will be absent. The diffraction
pattern in this case will be similar to that of a single slit of width b.

Figure 5. Missing orders for 2b = a.

Intensity distribution curve: Figure (6a) represents the intensity (𝑰𝟐 ) distribution due to interference between
two secondary wavelets coming from two corresponding points, Figure (6b) represents the intensity (𝑰𝟏 )
distribution of diffraction due to a single-slit and the resultant intensity (I=𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 ) distribution due to a double-slit
for 2b = a is shown by Figure (6c).

Figure 6a.

Figure 6b.

Figure 6c.
Diffraction of Light
(BPT-301)
Dt. 11/11/2020

Dr. Rebecca Lalnuntluangi

 CONTENTS

 Fraunhofer Diffraction due to N slits (Diffraction grating)

2. Plane diffraction grating
Important aspects

 An important device that acts like a prism to separate light into different parts based
on their wavelengths and are used in systems that need high resolution separation of
wavelengths.

 A diffraction grating is an arrangement of a large number of equidistant parallel

rectangular slits of equal width separated by equal opaque partitions.

 When a wave front is incident on a grating surface, light is transmitted through the
slits and obstructed by the opaque portions. Such a grating is called a transmission
grating.

 Secondary waves from the positions of the slits interfere with one another giving
interference patterns as well as diffraction patterns.
 Let ABCDEFGH represents the
section of a plane transmission grating. Let the
points A and C, C and E, E and G etc. be
separated by a distance 𝒅𝒅 = 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 where a is
the width of an opaque space and b is width of
the transparent space. The points separated by
d are called pairs of corresponding points.
Let a plane wavefront of
monochromatic light be incident normally on
the surface of the grating. The diffracted light
would consists of a large number of secondary
wavelets issuing from the clear spaces of the
grating. From the different points of the
incident wavefront, large number of rays are
diffracted in various directions. The lens L
focuses the diffracted rays at an angle of
diffraction θ at P on the screen. The point P
will be either bright or dark accordingly as the Figure 1. Fraunhofer diffraction due to N slits.
rays produce constructive or destructive
interference with each other.
 If each slit of the grating consists of N
equally spaced point sources separated by a
distance Δ, then the resultant field at P will be due
to the superposition of the waves 𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏 , 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 , 𝑬𝑬𝟑𝟑 ,…..
𝑬𝑬𝑵𝑵 from the slits AB, CD, EF……, where
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷
𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷
𝜷𝜷
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷
𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 − 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏
𝜷𝜷
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷
𝑬𝑬𝟑𝟑 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 − 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟏
𝜷𝜷
…………………………………..
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷
𝑬𝑬𝒏𝒏 = 𝑨𝑨 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 − 𝑵𝑵 − 𝟏𝟏 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏
𝜷𝜷
𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝟐𝟐𝝅𝝅𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Where 𝜷𝜷 = and 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏 =
𝝀𝝀 𝝀𝝀
Therefore, the resultant field at P is,
Figure 1. Fraunhofer diffraction due to N slits.
𝑬𝑬 = 𝑬𝑬𝟏𝟏 + 𝑬𝑬𝟐𝟐 + 𝑬𝑬𝟑𝟑 … … . . +𝑬𝑬𝑵𝑵 (1)
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷 = 𝑨𝑨
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝑵γ
𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 −
𝟏𝟏
𝑵𝑵 − 𝟏𝟏 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏 (2)
= 𝑨𝑨 �𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 − 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏 𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 γ 𝟐𝟐
𝜷𝜷 𝝋𝝋 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
where γ = 𝟏𝟏 =
𝟐𝟐 λ
 𝟏𝟏
𝑬𝑬 = 𝓐𝓐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝝎𝝎𝒕𝒕 − 𝜷𝜷 − 𝑵𝑵 − 𝟏𝟏 𝝋𝝋𝟏𝟏 (3) 𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍𝒍 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝑵𝜸𝜸
𝟐𝟐 = ± 𝑵𝑵
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝑵γ 𝜸𝜸 → 𝒎𝒎𝝅𝝅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜸𝜸
𝓐𝓐 = 𝑨𝑨 Then, the resultant amplitude is
𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 γ
is the resultant amplitude at P. 𝑨𝑨 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝓐𝓐 = 𝑵𝑵
The intensity at P is, 𝜷𝜷
𝟐𝟐 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵γ and intensity
𝑰𝑰 = 𝓐𝓐 = 𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟐 . = 𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 x 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 (4) 𝟐𝟐
𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 γ 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜷𝜷
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜷𝜷 𝑰𝑰 = 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟐 (5)
𝜷𝜷
𝑰𝑰𝟏𝟏 = 𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎 𝑰𝑰 ∝ 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐
𝜷𝜷𝟐𝟐
𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Is the intensity distribution due to diffraction at a Again for 𝜸𝜸 = = ±𝒎𝒎𝝅𝝅
𝝀𝝀
single-slit and
𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = ±𝒎𝒎𝝀𝝀 (6)
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝜸𝜸
𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 = Eqn.(5) represents the maximum intensity and
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜸𝜸 hence such maxima are called the principal
represents the intensity distribution due to interference maxima with intensity
pattern produced by N equally spaced point sources. 𝟐𝟐 𝜷𝜷
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
Interpretation of intensity distribution: 𝑰𝑰𝒑𝒑𝒑𝒑 = 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎
(a) Position of principal maximum: 𝜷𝜷𝟐𝟐
For principal maximum, 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜸𝜸 = 𝟎𝟎 And the condition for such maxima is given by
𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 Eqn.(6)
Or, 𝜸𝜸 = = ± 𝒎𝒎𝝅𝝅, where m = 0, 1, 2,….
𝝀𝝀
(b) Diffraction minima:
At diffraction minima
𝑰𝑰 = 𝟎𝟎
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝜸𝜸 𝝅𝝅𝝅𝝅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
𝑰𝑰𝟎𝟎 𝟐𝟐 x = 𝟎𝟎 i.e. 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 = 𝟎𝟎 𝜸𝜸 =
𝜷𝜷 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜸𝜸 𝝀𝝀
or, 𝑵𝑵𝜸𝜸 = ±𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔
where 𝒔𝒔 = 𝟏𝟏, 𝟐𝟐, 𝟑𝟑, … . 𝑵𝑵 − 𝟏𝟏 , 𝑵𝑵 + 𝟏𝟏 , 𝑵𝑵 + 𝟐𝟐 … and 𝒔𝒔 ≠ 𝟎𝟎, 𝑵𝑵, 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐, … .
Finally the condition of minima is given by
𝝀𝝀 𝟐𝟐𝝀𝝀 𝑵𝑵−𝟏𝟏 𝝀𝝀 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐−𝟏𝟏 𝝀𝝀 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐+𝟏𝟏 𝝀𝝀 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐+𝟐𝟐 𝝀𝝀
𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = , , … . ,… , , ,…. (7)
𝑵𝑵 𝑵𝑵 𝑵𝑵 𝑵𝑵 𝑵𝑵 𝑵𝑵
(c) Secondary maxima:
In the diffraction pattern produced by a grating having N number of slits, there are at least 𝑁𝑁 − 1 minima
between two principal maxima. Between two such consecutive minima, there are 𝑁𝑁 − 2 maxima. Since,
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝜸𝜸
𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 =
𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝟐𝟐 𝜸𝜸
𝒅𝒅𝑰𝑰 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
Therefore, 𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 − 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜸𝜸
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜸𝜸
𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐
and = 𝟐𝟐𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 − 𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜𝐜 𝜸𝜸 + 𝟐𝟐𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝟏𝟏 − 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 + 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝜸𝜸 − 𝑵𝑵𝟐𝟐 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝟐𝟐 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵
𝒅𝒅𝜸𝜸𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒅𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 𝒅𝒅𝟐𝟐 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐
Thus, if = 𝟎𝟎, then = negative i.e. 𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐 is maximum.
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 𝒅𝒅𝜸𝜸𝟐𝟐
 𝒅𝒅𝑰𝑰𝟐𝟐
The condition of this maximum is = 𝟎𝟎
𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅

Intensity
Or, 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 − 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝜸𝜸 = 𝟎𝟎 𝑵𝑵 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝑵𝑵𝑵𝑵 = 𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄𝒄 𝜸𝜸
Or, 𝑵𝑵 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝜸𝜸 = 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐍𝐍 𝜸𝜸 (8)
𝑁𝑁 2
𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
1 + 𝑁𝑁 2 − 1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠2 𝛾𝛾
Eqn.(8) represents the condition of secondary maxima.

Figure 2. Intensity distribution in the diffraction

pattern of a plane transmission grating.

P
Spectrum produced by a grating:
The condition of the principal maxima of the diffraction spectrum produced by a grating of
grating element 𝒅𝒅 = (𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃) is 𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝒎𝒎𝝀𝝀, where 𝝀𝝀 is the wavelength of light, 𝜽𝜽 the
angle of diffraction and m is the order number of the spectrum.
For first order spectrum, 𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 = 𝝀𝝀
For second order spectrum, 𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐 = 𝟐𝟐𝝀𝝀
In this way, different order of spectra are obtained on both sides of the direct ray as shown
in Figure 3. Figure 4 shows the diffraction pattern if the source of light be white. The
conditions of the principal maxima for the first order (n =1) are,
𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 = 𝝀𝝀𝒗𝒗 (for violet light)
𝒅𝒅 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝒓𝒓 = 𝝀𝝀𝒓𝒓 (for red light)
Since, 𝝀𝝀𝒓𝒓 > 𝝀𝝀𝒗𝒗 , 𝜽𝜽𝒓𝒓 > 𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗 , there is no overlapping of the different colour in the grating
spectra.
Figure 3. Grating spectrum for monochromatic Figure 4. Grating surface for white light.
source.
Absent spectra with a diffraction grating:
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 = 𝝀𝝀
If 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 < 𝝀𝝀, then 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 > 𝟏𝟏 (not possible)
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 < 𝟐𝟐𝝀𝝀, 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 < 𝟑𝟑𝝀𝝀,…… 𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 < 𝒏𝒏𝝀𝝀 (absent spectra)
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 = 𝒏𝒏𝝀𝝀 (9)
If the value of 𝒂𝒂 and 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 are such that,
𝒂𝒂 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 = 𝝀𝝀 (10)
Solving Eqn.(9) and (10),
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃
= 𝒏𝒏
𝒂𝒂
Overlapping of spectral lines:
If the light incident on the grating surface consists of a large number of
wavelengths, then the spectral lines of shorter wavelength and of higher order overlap on
the spectral lines of longer wavelength and of lower order.
Width of principal maxima:
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 = 𝒏𝒏𝝀𝝀 (11)
Let 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛 + 𝑑𝑑θ and 𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛 − 𝑑𝑑θ give the directions of
the first secondary minima on the two sides of
the nth primary maxima (see Figure 5). Then,
𝝀𝝀
𝒂𝒂 + 𝒃𝒃 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝒏𝒏 ± 𝒅𝒅𝒅𝒅 = 𝒏𝒏𝝀𝝀 ± (12)
𝑵𝑵
where N is the total number of lines on the
grating surface. Dividing Eqn.(12) by (11) and
solving,
1
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = (13)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝜃𝜃𝑛𝑛
Eqn.(13) refers to half the angular width of the
principal maximum.
Figure 5.