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Corpuscular Theory of Light (1704)

Isaac Newton proposed that light consists of a stream of small particles, because it
travels in straight lines at great speeds and also reflected from mirrors in a
predictable way. This theory only explained
reflection and refraction. Characteristics of
a particle is that it has mass, m, position, x,
and momentum, p.
The Wave Theory
•Discovered by Christian Huygens, a Dutch scientist, also in the seventeenth
century - States that light is emitted in a series of waves that spread out from a light
source in all directions. These waves are not affected by gravity.
•100 years later (1802), Thomas Young completely disproved the corpuscular theory
by showing that light waves can interfere with each other.
Maxwell’s Electromagnetic Wave theory of light
Maxwell (1865-1873) proposed that light is an electromagnetic disturbance created
by extremely high frequency oscillators. It was assumed from this theory that these
oscillators (resonators) were able to emit light of frequency equal to their own.
Electromagnetic waves are waves that are capable of traveling through a vacuum.
They consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. The wave speed equation is:
c = ν λ, where c is the speed of light.
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This explained all the properties of light such as reflection, refraction, diffraction,
interference and polarization; it do not explain the photoelectric effect or radiation
produced by an incandescent light.
Planck’s Quantum Postulate (1900)-Quantum theory
Stated that light waves travel as separate packets of energy called quanta or
photons. This merged the subjects of the Corpuscular, Wave, and Electromagnetic
Theories together.
Duel dual nature
In 1905 Albert Einstein had proposed a solution to the problem of observations
made on the behaviour of light having characteristics of both wave and particle
theory. From work of Planck on emission of light from hot bodies, Einstein
suggested that light is composed of tiny particles called photons, and each photon
has energy.
when light is transmitted through space or matter, it behaves like a wave; when light
is emitted or absorbed, it behaves like a particle called a photon.
Everyday Evidence for Photons
•Red light is used in photographic darkrooms because it is not energetic enough to
break the halogen-silver bond in black and white films.
•Ultraviolet light causes sunburn but visible light does not because UV photons are
more energetic.
•Our eyes detect color because photons of different energies trigger different 2
chemical reactions in retina cells

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Newton observed that the reflection of light

from a mirror resembles the rebound of a steel
ball from a steel plate

DSE to illustrate wave nature of light DSE with electron gun3

Interference
When waves from two sources overlap, the resultant wave is the sum of the
waves from each source. A difference in the path lengths from each of the two
sources to a given point causes a phase difference between the two waves at that
point. The resultant wave has amplitude that is different in different directions from
the sources. This effect is called interference.
► Modification of intensity (I α A2) obtained by the superposition of two or
more beams of light is known as interference.
If the resultant amplitude is zero or in general less than that of separate
intensities, we have destructive interference
If the intensity is greater we have constructive interference.

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Principle of superposition
When two or more waves overlap, the resultant displacement at any point and at any
instant may be found by adding the instantaneous displacements that would be
produced at that point by the individual waves if each were present alone. This is
known as the principle of superposition, and was first clearly stated by Young in
1802.
Young’s experiment
In the year 1802, Young demonstrated the experiment on the interference of light.
He allowed sunlight to fall on a pinhole, S0, and then at same distance away on two
pinholes S1 and S2. The S1 and S2 are equidistant from S0 and are close to each
other. Spherical waves spread out from S0 (according to Huygen’s principle each
point on a wave front may be regarded as a new source of waves). Spherical wave
also spread out from S1 and S2. These waves are of the same amplitude and
wavelength. On the screen interference bands are produced which are alternatively
dark and bright.
When the crest due to one wave coincides with the crest of due to the other, they
reinforce each other. When the crest of one falls on the trough of the other and they
neutralize the effect of each other. If the slits are close together, for example, 0.2
mm apart they give widely spaced fringes, whereas slits farther apart, e.g. 1.0 mm,
give very narrow fringe. A piece of red glass placed adjacent to the source and
another green glass in front of the lamp will show that red light will produced wider 5
fringes than the green.

Coherent sources
Two sources are said to be coherent if they emit light waves of the same frequency,
nearly the same amplitude and are always in phase with each other. Two sources
must emit radiation of the same colour.

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Analytical treatment of interference

Consider a monochromatic source of light, S0, emitting waves of wavelength, λ,
and two narrow pinholes S1 and S2. The S1 and S2 are equidistant from S0 and act
as two virtual sources. Let a be the amplitude of the waves. The phase difference
between the two waves reaching the point P at any
instant is δ. If y1 and y2 are the displacements,

y1  a sin  t
y 2  a sin ( t   )
y  y1  y2  a sin t  a sin (t   )
 a sin t  a sin t cos   a cos t sin 
 a sin t (1  cos  )  a cos t sin 
 R sin t cos  R cos t sin 
 R sin (t   )
Where,a (1+cos δ) =R cos θ (1)
a sin δ = R sin θ (2
which represents the equation of simple harmonic vibration of amplitude R.
Squaring (1) and (2) and adding 7

R 2 sin 2   R 2 cos 2   a 2 sin 2   a 2 (1  cos  ) 2

or , R 2  a 2 (sin 2   cos 2  )  a 2  2 a 2 cos 

 2 a 2 . 2 cos 2

2

 4 a 2 cos 2

2
The intensity at any point is given by the square of the amplitude,
I= R2
I= 4a2 cos2 (δ/2) (3)
Special cases:
(i) δ =0, 2π, 2(2π), …………..n (2π);
or, path difference, x=0, λ, 2λ nλ
then, I=4 a2, Intensity is maximum when the phase difference is a whole number
multiple of 2π, or the path difference is a whole number multiple of wavelength.
(ii) If δ = π, 3π, …………..(2n +1) 2π
or, path difference, x= λ/2, 3λ/2 (2n+1)λ/2
Intensity is minimum, when the path difference is an odd number multiple of half
wavelength.

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(iii) Energy distribution:

From eq 3 it is found that the intensity at bright point is 4a2 and at dark point it is
zero. According to the law of conservation of energy, the energy cannot be
destroyed but only transferred from the points of minimum intensity to the points
of maximum intensity.

Intensity distribution for the interference fringes from two waves of the same
frequency.

Now, each beam acting separately would contribute a2, and so without interference
we would have a uniform intensity of 2 a2.
We know that average of cos2 (δ/2) =1/2 (4)
Using (4), we see that the average intensity =2a2.
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Theory of interference fringes

Let d= distance between two sources
D= distance of the screen from the sources.
The point C on the screen is equidistant from S1 and S2. Therefore, the path
difference is zero. Thus the point C has a maximum intensity. Consider a point P at
a distance x from C.
PQ=x-d/2; PR=x+d/2
(S2P)2-(S1P)2 =[D2 + (x+d/2)2]- [D2 + (x-d/2)2] Q
=2xd
2 xd 2 xd xd
Or, 2 S1 P  S P  S P  2 D  D
S P 
R
2 1

Therefore, the path difference is xd/D.

The path difference λ corresponds to phase difference 2π. For path difference x,
the phase difference, 2x 2
   ( path difference )
 
Therefore, Phase difference =
2  xd 
 
 D nD
(i)Bright fringes, xd x n  0,1, 2, .......
 n n  0,1, 2, ....... d
D 10

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For, n=1, x1=λD/d, n=2, x2=2λD/d, ……… xn=nλD/d

D
x2  x1 
d
(ii) Dark fringes,
xd 
 (2n  1) n  0,1, 2, .......
D 2
(2n  1)D
Or, x n  0,1, 2, .......
2d
For, n=1, x1=3λD/2d, n=2, x2=5λD/2d, ……… xn=(2n+1)λD/2d
D
x2  x1 
d
The distance between two consecutive bright or dark fringes is known as fringe
width. Therefore, alternate bright or dark fringes are formed on both side of p0.
The fringe width is
D

d
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Determination of the thickness of a thin sheet of transparent material

We would like to investigate the effect of interference pattern due to introducing a
thin transparent plate in the path of one of the two interfering beams of
monochromatic light.
T is the thickness of the plate and μ is the refractive
index for the monochromatic light that is used for O
interference
Time required (T) for light to travel AP distance is
AP  t t 1 c
T   ( AP  t  0 t )
c0 c c0 c
1
 [ AP  (   1)t ]
c0
c0T  AP  (   1)t
Is the effective path in air from A to P.
Similarly, the effective path in air from A to C, the point equidistant from A and B
become AC  (  1)t
Since AC  (   1)t  BC , the central bright fringe of zero order is not formed at
C.
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Suppose in the presence of the plate central fringe of zero optical path difference is
formed at O, BO  AO  (   1)t
or , BO  AO  (   1)t .........(1)

If CO  x0 then
x0 d
BO  AO  ..............(2)
D
Using Eq. 2 in Eq. 1,
x0 d
(   1)t 
D
(   1)tD
or x0 
d
x0 d
or , t 
D(   1)
Therefore knowing x0 (distance through which the central fringe is shifted), D, d and
μ the thickness of the transparent plate can be calculated.
We also know that x0 d
 n
D
Therefore (   1)t  n
for bright fringes.
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Interference due to reflected light

Consider a transparent film of thickness t and refractive index μ. A ray SA
incident on the upper surface of the film is partly reflected along AT and partly
refracted along AB. At B part of it is reflected along BC and finally emerges out
along CQ.
The difference in path between the two rays AT and CQ can be calculated.
Draw CN normal to AT and AM normal to BC. The angle of incidence is i and the
angle of refraction is r, Also produce CB to meet AE produced at P.
Here <APC=r. The optical, path difference is

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It has been established on the basis of electromagnetic theory that when light is
reflected from the surface of an optically denser medium (air-medium interface) a
phase change π, equivalent to a path difference λ/2 occurs.
Therefore, the correct path difference in this case,

  2 t cos r 
Condition for bright fringe
2

  2 t cos r   n n  0,1,2.......
2
1
or 2 t cos r  (n  )  ( 2n  1) 
2 2
Condition for dark fringe
 
  2 t cos r   ( 2n  1)
2 2
n  0,1,2........
2 t cos r  n n  1 is another int eger n
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Newton’s rings
When a plano-convex lens of long focal length is placed on a plane glass plate, a
thin film of air is enclosed between the lower surface of the lens and the upper
surface of the plate. The thickness of the air film is very small at the point of contact
and gradually increases from the centre outwards. The fringes produced with
monochromatic light are circular. The fringes are concentric circles. When viewed
with white light fringes are colored. These were first studied by Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1627) and are called Newton’s rings.
S – The monochromatic source
L1- Convex lens for parallel rays:
L- Experimental lens
G-The plane glass Plate.

L and G are in contact with each other

light from the source passing through a
convex lens. Then parallel rays fall on the glass plate, B, placed at 450. The glass
plate reflects part at the incident light toward the air film enclosed by L and G. The
reflected beam from the air film is viewed with a microscope(M). Interference take
place and bright and circular fringes are produced.
This is due to the interference between the light reflect from the lower surface of the
lens and the upper surface of the glass plates. 16

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Theory: suppose, the radius of curvature of the lens is R and the air film of
thickness t is at a distance of OQ=r=PE, from the point of contact O.
From the adjacent figure
From ∆CEP, we can write CP2=CE2+PE2
t  R  CP where, CP  R 2  r 2 , R  radius of curvature
and r  radius of circular Newton ' s ring
1
t  R  (R 2  r 2 ) 2

1
  r 2  2

 R  R 1    
  R  
 1 r2 
 R  R1  2
......... 
 2 R 
2
1 r
 RR .R
2 R2
r2
t
2R
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If we consider the interference due to reflected light then condition for bright
fringe

2t cos  (2n  1) , where, n  0,1, 2
2
For normal incidence, cosθ=1

2t  (2n  1)
2
2
2r 
or  (2n  1)
2R 2
r2 
or  (2n  1)
R 2
2
D 
or    ( 2n  1) R
2 2
2
or , D  ( 2n  1) 2R
or , D  ( 2n  1) 2R Expression for the diameter of the bright ring

( 2n  1)R Expression for the radius of the bright ring

or , r  18
2

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For dark fringe,

2t  n
r2
or  n
R
or , r 2  n  R
or , r  nR Expression for the radius of dark ring
2
D
or ,    n  R
 2 
or , D 2  4 n  R
Expression for the diameter of dark ring
or , D  4nR

n  0 , 1, 2 , 3 .......... ....
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Newton’s Rings by transmitted light

For bright Fringe,

2t  n
or D 2  4R
n  0,1, 2, 3............
or r   nR

For dark fringes,

2t  (2n  1) 
2
2
or D  (2n  1) 2R
n  0,1, 2..........
(2n  1)R
or r  20
2

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Refractive index of a liquid using Newton’s Rings

For dark fringes,

2t  n
2r 2
or,  n
2R
nR
or, r 2 

4nR
or, D 2 

If Dn is the diameter of the nth ring and Dn  m is the diameter of the n  m th

ring then 2 4 n R
Dn 

2 4( n  m )  R
Dn  m 

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Dn  m 2  Dn 2  4nR



4mR
or ,   If  and R is known then  can
Dn m 2  Dn 2 be calculated

 Dn  m 2  Dn 2 If  and  is known then R can

or , R  be calculated
4m

 Dn  m 2  Dn 2
or ,   If R and  is known then  can
4mR be calculated

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Example 1: Two waves of the same frequency have amplitudes 1.00

and 2.00. They interfere at a point where their phase difference is
60.0°.What is the resultant amplitude?
Solution:
The intensity is proportional to the square of the resultant field amplitude. Let
the electric field components of the two waves be written as

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Alternative solution:

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Example 2;

Solution: With t=0

Thus,

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Example 3: A thin flake of mica (n=1.58) is used to cover one slit of a

double-slit interference arrangement. The central point on the viewing screen is now
occupied by what had been the seventh bright side fringe (m=7). If =550 nm, what
is the thickness of the mica? ( 1)t  n
Solution: We know that
for n  7,
7 7550109 m
t  6.64106 m
 1 1.581
Example 4: A light of wavelength 550 nm from a very small light source incident on
a double slit. If the overall separation of 15 fringes on a screen 2.5 m away is 5 cm.
Find the slit separation.
D

d
5
Here    2;   550 10 9 m; D  2.5 m
15
D 550 10 9 m  2.5 m
substituting these values d    2.06  10 6 m
 5
2 26
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Example 5 In a Newton’s ring experiment the diameter of the 10th ring changes
from 1.4 cm to 1.27 cm. When a liquid in introduced between the lens and the
plate. Calculate the refractive index of the liquid.

Solution, 4nR
For liquid medium, D 2 L 

2
For Air medium, D A  4nR
D2 A
  DA  1.4, DL  1.27
D2L
(1.4) 2

(1.27) 2
 1.215

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Example 6: In a Newton’s rings experiment, the radius

of curvature R of the lens is 5.0 m and the lens diameter is 20 mm.
(a) How many bright rings are produced? Assume that =589nm. (b) How
many bright rings would be produced if the arrangement were immersed in
water (n=1.33)?
Solution (a)
( 2n  1)R
r
2
( 2n  1)R
or , r 2 
2
or , ( 2n  1)R  2r 2
r2 1
or , n  
R 2
20 10 3 m
where, r  ; R  5 m; and   589 nm, substituti ng , we get n  33
2
Since first bright fringe occurs for m=0, therefore m=33 corresponds to 34th bright fringe
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(b)

r 2 1
or , n  
R 2
20 10 3 m
where, r  ; R  5 m;   589 nm, and   1.33
2
substituting , we get n  45

m=45 corresponds to 46th bright fringe

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Example 7: A Newton’s rings apparatus is to be used to determine the radius of

curvature of a lens. The radii of the nth and (n+20)th bright rings are measured
and found to be 0.162 and 0.368 cm, respectively, in light of wavelength 546nm.
Calculate the radius of curvature of the lower surface of the lens.

r2 1
n 
R 2
r 2 1
and n  20  
R 2
Taking the difference between the two equations above, we eliminate n and find

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