Syllabus

Syllabus
– UNIT 1 Teaching Aptitude ( Weightage of unit:5-6 questions )

q Teaching: Concept, Objectives, Levels of teaching (Memory, Understanding, and

Reflective), Characteristics, and basic requirements.
q Learner’s characteristics: Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (Academic,
Social, Emotional and Cognitive), Individual differences.
q Factors affecting teaching related to Teacher, Learner, Support material, Instructional
facilities, Learning environment, and Institution.
q Methods of teaching in Institutions of higher learning: Teacher centred vs. Learner-
centered methods; Off-line vs. On-line methods (Swayam, Swayamprabha, MOOCs,
etc.).
q Teaching Support System: Traditional, Modern, and ICT based.
q Evaluation Systems: Elements and Types of evaluation, Evaluation in Choice Based
Credit System in Higher education, Computer-based testing, Innovations in evaluation
systems.
UNIT 1 – TEACHING APTITUDE
MODULE 1 • UNDERSTANDING TEACHING AND LEARNING
Understanding what Learning is?
q All of us understand things in the light of our past experience. This is also true of ‘learning’ – we get our ideas of
what ‘learning’ means from what happened to us in the past.
q So, for example, we may think of ‘learning’ as something which takes place in a school or college, in a classroom.
We may think of it as a person sitting alone at night, trying to memorise a lot of facts so that s/he can pass an
examination.
q However, a bit of reflection will show us that ‘learning’ is much wider than that. After all, children learn a great
deal before they even get to school - they learn to speak, to walk.
q Educational psychologists tell us that any activity which leads to a change in our behaviour is ‘learning’.
Here are some more ideas about ‘learning’
Learning can be formal or informal. We learn informally from what we experience day by day: things which happen to us make us
change the way we think and act. We may not even be aware that we are learning, which may cause problems - for example, health
workers may learn bad attitudes from the example of others. Of course, learning may also be formal: we attend a course which is
planned in a structured way, in a school or college.
We don't just learn knowledge and facts - we also learn skills and attitudes. This is especially important for health workers, since it is

in our practical work that we have an effect on the health of the people we serve. Interestingly, we learn knowledge, skills and
attitudes in different ways - for example, we may learn a new idea from a discussion, but we learn skills by practising them and getting
feedback.
People learn in different ways. Researchers have identified different ‘learning styles’. Some people are ‘receivers’: they like to
memorise what is given to them. This is a very common style, and it is reinforced by teachers who expect students to memorise, and
reward them for it. Other people are ‘detectives’: they like to investigate what they are learning themselves, to get to understand it.
Yet others are ‘generators’: they like to decide themselves what they want to learn, and then look for opportunities to learn those
things.
Here are some more ideas about ‘learning’ (contd.)
Learning can be superficial or deep. If knowledge is only memorised (superficial learning) it is soon forgotten, and may never affect
the way that person does her/his work. If the learner is made to use the new knowledge actively, the learning becomes deep. The
learner connects the new knowledge to the concepts that s/he already has, and understands how it can be used practically. It is,
therefore, much more likely to be remembered and used.
Motivation is important for learning. What is it that makes people want to learn? Some learn because they want to do a better

job - they get satisfaction from the feeling that they are competent. People are also very strongly motivated by the hope that they
will be rewarded - for instance, by gaining a qualification, leading to a promotion and better pay. The need to pass exams is
therefore a very strong motivator.
Learning continues throughout a person's lifetime at least informally. We all know that health workers should continue to learn

throughout their careers, because new information about health is constantly becoming available. However, many workers do not
have access to formal in-service training. This means they themselves have to take the responsibility for staying up-to-date - they
have to become ‘life-long learners’.
Understanding what Teaching is!
q Once again, our understanding of what ‘teaching’ is, is based on
our past experience.
q Our earliest experience was in school, where the teacher was also a
‘master’ or ‘mistress’, standing in front of the class, telling us what
to do and what to learn. Some of us experienced the same kind of
‘teaching’ at college.
q Others may have experienced teaching where the ‘teacher’ is more
of an equal, who takes account of the learner's experience and
even learns from the learner.
q That is why Abbatt and McMahon say: ‘Teaching is helping other
people to learn’. They go on to say that the job of ‘teaching’ has
four elements:
Understanding what Teaching is!
q The teacher has to decide what students should learn. The students may take part in this decision, but all are guided by the
same principle: it is the job that people have to do, that determines what they should learn. They have to learn all the
knowledge, skills and attitudes that they need to perform a specific job. They learn what they ‘must know’ and ‘should know’,
not what is ‘nice to know’.
q The teacher has to help the learners to learn. This does not mean that the teacher ‘spoonfeeds’ the students, as if they were
babies. It does mean that the teacher’s first concern should be that the students should learn as well as possible. Teaching
sessions or classes have to be planned carefully, taking into account the learning styles, the language, the background of the
students. In short, the teachers must be student centred, not teacher centred.
q The teacher has to make sure that the students have learnt – s/he has to assess them. Assessment helps teachers and
students to see how well the students are progressing, so that they can attend to any weaknesses. It sets a standard, so that
society is given people who are competent to practice. Assessment must be carefully planned so that it supports the learning
we want to see – we know that students learn what they believe they need to pass the exams, and leave out the rest …
q The teacher has to look after the welfare of her/ his students. Students who are stressed and unhappy do not learn well.
Good teachers try to ensure that the general living conditions and environment of their students are adequate. They also
provide opportunities for personal counselling for them. Teachers need to cultivate an open and trusting relationship with
their students.
THANK YOU!
• TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS
• DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRAINING, COACHING, TEACHING AND MENTORING
• TEACHING MODELS
MODULE 2
• PEDAGOGY AND ANDRAGOGY
• CHARACTERISITICS OF TEACHING
Teaching Learning Process
q The role of learning is extremely important in the preparation of adolescents and youth for citizenship in a democratic society.
q The learning process represents the channel through which the adolescents strive to acquire the habits, skills, knowledge,
attitude, values and appreciation, which are necessary for effective participation in a democracy. Learning therefore becomes a
process by which changes in behavioural patterns are produced through experience.
q Learning is brought about through teaching, teaching process is the arrangement of environment within which the students can
interact and study how to learn. The process of teaching learning aims at transmission of knowledge, imparting skills and
formation of attitudes, values and behaviour.
q Educationists have been trying to analyse the learning process in terms of the requirements of the individual and the society. The
behaviourist school of educationists classified the learning process under three domains namely, cognitive, affective and
psychomotor. (Bloom (1956) Simpson (1968) and Krathwhol (1964)).
Teaching Learning Process (contd.)
q The development of an individual is made possible by realising the objectives formulated on the basis of desirable behavioural patterns in the three
domains. They showed that if suitable instructional strategies are employed, individual development efficient enough to contribute for social
development could be made possible through the realisation of objectives to the maximum possible extent.
q Teaching involves setting appropriate learning experiences for students, and for that purpose includes selection and sequencing of activities or
kinds of interactions that would lead to expected learning. Teaching is intended to learning, without learning teaching is incomplete .
q Learning is a natural and common attribute in any human being. In common sense terms, the textual meaning of learning is, ‘to realise’ ‘to become
aware of, ‘to gain by experience’ and ‘to commit to memory’. This suggests that learning results in ‘realising’ ‘becoming aware of, ‘memorising’, it is
also the result of ‘experience’.
q Learning as a concept is well defined; it refers to relatively permanent change in the behaviour resulting from experience. Education deals with
positive changes in behaviour. Teaching is purposive and leads to intended (desirable) learning. Every teacher sets the target for students and sets a
direction for deciding what is to be done in order to enable students to achieve these targets. These targets are regarded as learning target, which
students learn at the end of each teaching situation. The term ‘instructional process’ can be used to denote a teaching situation and learning
targets can be stated as objectives to be achieved through instructional process.
Difference between Training, Coaching, Teaching and Mentoring

q Training- Training is a technique designed to build a person's skills, knowledge
and attitude in order to meet the accepted standards by a specific industry.
q Coaching- Coaching is usually task and performance based. It helps the students
or learner to learn more efficiently depending upon ability. It is used ,private
instruction or coaching in a particular subject or skill.
q Teaching- It provides formal education for students typically in educational
institutions like school, university, college, etc, increase capability in a general
suite of skills through direct interactions with Teaching.
q Mentoring- The role of the mentor to build capability. The developmental
mentor helps the learner discover their own wisdom by encouraging them to
work towards career goals or develop self reliance. GREAT MENTORS fill in blind
spots, clarify motivations, and remove mental obstacles to success over longer-
term interactions.
TEACHING MODELS
There are different teaching models/ approaches/ methods/

principles/ practices that are used to teach learners. We will be
discussing the two main approaches:
1. Pedagogy
2. Andragogy
The term ‘Andragogy’ and ‘Pedagogy’ are derived from the Greek

word ‘ago’ meaning guide, ‘andras’ meaning man and ‘paidi’
meaning child.
Meaning of Pedagogy
q Pedagogy is a globally used teaching approach which focuses

mainly on children.
q It encompasses teaching styles, feedback and assessment, and
teaching theory for the children.
q Pedagogy is a child-focused teaching approach, where the

decision will be made centered on teachers first choice,
capabilities and the context.
q "Pedagogy" literally means "leading children."
Different Pedagogical Approaches
The different pedagogical approaches are:

q Behaviorism
• A behaviorist pedagogy uses the principle of behaviorism to notify its approach.
• A behaviorist pedagogical approach believes that learning is teacher focused.
• It would support the use of direct instruction and lecture-based lessons.
q Constructivism
• Constructivism is a theory that people acquire through experiences and reflection.
• A constructivist pedagogy sets the child at the epicenter of the learning, and is sometimes called ‘invisible pedagogy’.
q Social constructivism
• A Social constructivism pedagogy may be considered as a mixture of two significances: teacher guide and student-centered.
q Liberationist
• Liberationist is a critical pedagogy developed by the Brazilian educator, Paulo Freire.
• Freire was the Director of the Department of Education and developed an approach of teaching where he was able to teach
illiterate adults to read in just 45 days.
• Freire focused on removing the two barriers to learning: poverty and hunger.
Meaning of Andragogy
q "Andragogy" was a term coined to refer to the art/science of
teaching adults.
q Andragogy is an adult-focused teaching approach.
q It deals with various ways in which adults learn in a different way
in respect with children.
q It also believes that methods used to teach children are repeatedly
not effective ways of teaching adults.
Characteristics of teaching
• Relevance: of the teaching content, in particular alignment with the curriculum.

• Sufficient learning time: this refers to the time devoted to actual teaching, as opposed to
the official hours set in the curriculum.

• Structured teaching, in which learners’ engagement is stimulated, their understanding
monitored, and feedback and reinforcement regularly provided.

• A conducive classroom environment with, in particular, a task-oriented climate, mutual
respect between the students and teacher and among students themselves, orderliness,
and safety.

• Teachers with appropriate subject matter mastery, verbal intelligence, a broad teaching
repertoire, and motivation to achieve.
• What research also underlines though is that adaptability to context matters as different
students may need different teaching contents (both in terms of subject matter knowledge
and of medium of instruction) and different levels of structure tailored to students’ profile.
It is therefore important to critically assess the relevance of both current and planned
objectives (in terms of the content, structure, and context of teaching and learning) to the
situation.
THANK YOU!
• LEVELS OF TEACHING
MODULE 3 i. MEMORY LEVEL
ii. UNDERSTANDING LEVEL
iii. REFLECTIVE LEVEL
Levels of Teaching
Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in
mind about the developmental stage of the learners so that
desired educational objectives can be achieved. These three
levels are
1. Memory level: Thoughtless teaching
2. Understanding level: Thoughtful teaching
3. Reflective level: Upper thoughtful level
Memory level of teaching
Meaning of Memory Level of Teaching
q The objective of teaching at this level is just to impart information to students. The learner is required to memorize the
subject matter and get the information stored in long term memory.
q Herbart is considered the exponent of memory level of teaching. The learner has to learn the material, retain the
meaningful material, and reproduce that when asked for.
Elements of Memory Level of Teaching
1. Objective
q The Objective of the Memory Level of teaching is Just to impart information or knowledge to the learner.
q This knowledge or information is factual in nature, which is acquired through a mechanical process (i.e. memorization or
rote learning)
2. Aims of Memory Level of Teaching
q To get factual information
q To train memory faculty
q To retrain the learning material in-memory storage
q To reproduce and recognize the learned information when required
Memory Level covers only the knowledge-based objective of Bloom’s Taxonomy where the students learn to
identify, recall, or remember the objects, events, ideas, and concepts and retain them in memory.
3. Nature of Subject Matter in Memory Level
q Subject matter should be structured and well organized and of simple nature that can be acquired through
rote learning and can be retained and recalled.
q Subject matter included information about simple concepts, terms, and elements related to different things
of the world around.
4. Methods Used by the teacher in-memory level teaching
q Teacher dominated methods are used- like drill, review, and revision and asking questions.
q Drill means repetition or practice for the purpose of attaining proficiency in memorizing the material.
q Review and Revision is revising the elements to related them with new experience and to form a new
association for the development of new skills or learning to solve new problems
q Asking the question is to examine whether or not the knowledge level objectives of teaching have been
achieved.
5. Role of The Teacher in Memory Level of Teaching
q Dominating, active and authoritarian role
q He is the authority to instruct, deliver, direct, control and evaluate the performances
q Takes initiatives, present the subject matter, directs the learner to do the activity in the desired manner, plan
exercises
q Right from the selection of the subject matter to its evaluation, the key process of teaching-learning remains with
the teacher.
6. Role of Learner in Memory Level of Teaching
q There is a Passive role of the learner in the memory level.
q Passive listener desired to do as directed by the teacher
q Instructional material delivered by the teacher and the learner has to memorize it in a mechanical manner.
q Little understanding is applied by the learner.
7. Teaching Equipment used by the teacher in Memory level of teaching
q Teaching aids like visual, audio and audiovisual aids, eg. Models, charts, maps, pictures, TV, Radio, computers,
film strips, etc should be sued to develop curiosity among the students.
8. Nature of motivation which is required in memory level
q When students learn something naturally, we call it intrinsic motivation
q When learning is caused by external forces, we call it extrinsic motivation.
q In the memory level of teaching the nature of motivation is extrinsic.
9. Evaluation System
q Oral and written tests are used to test the memory of the students
q In evaluation, written test, short type test, recall type, recognition type, multiple-choice, alternative type, and
matching type the test is employed.
Advantages of Memory Level of Teaching
q Useful for young children
q Useful for the acquisition of facts, information of models and structure
q Help children learn a new concept
q Useful for slow learners
q The basis for understanding and reflective level of teaching.
Disadvantages of Memory Level of Teaching
q Not suitable for higher classes
q Use of rote memory
q Dominance of teacher
q Little interaction in the classroom
q No room for initiation and self-learning for the students
q Not intrinsic motivation
q The problem of classroom management
q Loss of retention and recall
Understanding Level of Teaching
q Understanding implies to know the meanings of things and concepts, to grasp ideas, to interpret some
relationship, to comprehend the facts, and to infer one thing from some other .
q At this level, the learners and required to comprehend factual information, to know the meaning of different
concepts and their relationships, and to apply facts, concepts, and principles.
q It is supported by the Herbartian Theory of apperception, which states that this level of teaching seeks the
learner to acquaint himself with the relationship between the facts and principles. Here the mental development
of the learner is at a higher level than memory level. His cognitive abilities are well developed now; he can think,
reason out, imagine, can present things logically; can analyze and synthesize, and can evaluate the relationship
between the principles and facts.
q The development of the cognitive abilities of the learner is at the operational stage as stated by Jean Piaget .
q Learner at this stage needs to comprehend a large number of concepts, elements, facts, principles; to know the
relationship between facts and principles, to make a generalization and to draw interference therefrom.
Steps of Herbartian Theory of Apperception
1.Preparation and Introduction
2.Presentation
3.Comparison, Association, and Abstraction
4.Generalization
5.Application
6.Evaluation
1. Aims and Objectives:
According to Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (1956)
I. Comprehension Objectives: Comprised of: Translation. Interpretations and extrapolation
II. Application Objective: Efficiency to apply to comprehend knowledge in various similar and different situations
and settings.
2. Nature of Subject matter
q The nature of the subject matter is wide, larger in number and quality.
3. Methods used
q Lecture method
q Lecture demonstration method
q Discussion method
q Inductive and deductive method
q Exemplification and explanation
4. Classroom Climate
q The classroom climate is more lively and encouraging
q The problem of discipline is also less
5. Nature of Motivation
q Students start learning at this level for two reasons
q They are asked by the teacher to learn
q Their internal forces insist upon them to learn
6. Teaching Equipment
q Different charts, models, flashcards, pictures, TV and many more electronic devices are used
as teaching equipment.
7. Evaluation
q The teacher has to evaluate the ability to comprehend, grasp, synthesize, discriminate and generalize;
and the insight to apply the generalized principles further so, the tests and tools should be properly
planned and devised. Besides asking questions for oral testing, written testing should be conducted
8. Role of the teacher
q The teacher is a prominent figure
q Not so dominating and authoritarian
9. Role of the learner
q The role of the learner in understating the level of teaching is not so passive.
q He may put questions to clarify his doubts.
Advantages of Understanding Level Teaching are:
q Effective learning
q Development of different cognition abilities
q Sets stages for entering into the reflective level of teaching
q Effective classroom interaction
Disadvantages of Understanding Level of Teaching:
q It ignores higher cognitive abilities
q Less emphasis on intrinsic motivation
q No individualized learning
q Teacher centered
Suggestions for Understanding Level of teaching:
q There should be effective classroom interaction
q Organized subject matter
q Meaningfulness for the subject –matter
q An effective method of teaching
q Use of teaching aids
q Proper classroom environment
Reflective level of teaching
q This Level of teaching is the highest level of teaching-learning activity. It is the stage of learning when students do
not merely repeat and revise or answer the questions as asked for; nor do they only understand, learn, interrelate
or interpret the concepts but also they ponder upon, contemplate and pay serious thoughtful consideration to the
presented contents.
q Definition: Morris L. Bigge defines reflection as, “careful, critical examination of an idea or supposed article of
knowledge in the light of testing evidence which supports it and the further conclusions towards which it points.
q Reflective level teaching does not depend upon the memorization, understanding of concepts, and their application
only; it demands the use of higher mental processes such as reasoning, thinking, analyzing concepts, imagination,
ideas and thoughts; and other bodies of knowledge critically, finding out the facts.
q Learning comprises the highest level of learning by the learner to develop new insight to solve problems, to explore
the field of knowledge, to discover, to test and retest the achieved facts, to understand and present generalizations
in the light of the new evidence.
Elements of Reflective Level of Teaching:
1. Objectives
q To develop insight into the learner to solve problems.
q To develop rational and critical thinking in the students.
q To develop the ability of independent thinking and decision making in the students.
2. Nature of Subject Matter
This level of teaching the subject matter is mainly unstructured and open-ended. It is concerned with the
problem rather than the subject.
3. Teaching Learning Process
The process of teaching and learning at this level is dynamic and unique. The students are provided with
problematic situations and they need to follow certain procedures to solve the problems independently.
4. Methods Used
q Problem-solving method
q Investigating projects
q Heuristic method
q Experimental method
q Inquiry oriented method
q Analytic method
5. Nature of Motivation
The Nature of motivation is intrinsic because all learning activities depend upon the felt needs of the learner.
6. Evaluation System
The Evaluation System at the reflective level of teaching should test the higher-order cognitive abilities like
reasoning, creativity, original thinking, problem-solving, critical thinking, etc.
7. Role of the teacher
The role of the teacher is not so dominating and authoritarian. He is responsible for the creation and
maintenance of the democratic, dynamic atmosphere where the teaching-learning activities can be carried
out smoothly.
Merits Reflective Level Of Teaching
q It is the most thoughtful mode of operation.
q Learner-centered approach
q Development of problem-solving ability
q Useful for gifted children.
q Provides maximum flexibility
q Self-motivation
q Development of creativity
Demerits of Reflective Level of Teaching
q It is not suitable for lower classes
q It is a time-consuming process.
q This level of teaching is not suitable for the Indian classroom.
q It is not applicable for dull students.
q There is an excess burden to the teacher.
Suggestions for the Reflective level of teaching
q The proper atmosphere should be provided.
q Creating problematic situations.
q Proper direction
q Proper evaluation
q Proper atmosphere
q Encourage independent learning
THANK YOU!
• TEACHING OBJECTIVES
• BLOOM’S TAXONOMY
MODULE 4
• COGNITIVE, AFFECTIVE AND PSYCHOMOTOR DOMAIN
Teaching Objectives & Bloom’s Taxonomy
Instructional and Educational Objectives are classified according to the kind or level of learning.
Meaning of Taxonomy: Taxonomy means a system of classification. Taxonomy is a term derived from
the Greek Word "taxis", meaning arrangement and "names" meaning law. In this derivative sense" Taxonomy
means a lawful or orderly arrangement.
Brief History of Bloom Taxonomy: ( Contribution of B.S Bloom)
q Professor Benjamin S. Bloom of the University of Chicago ( USA) is the pioneer in Bloom’s Taxonomy.
q Bloom was the editor of the first volume of the taxonomy of educational objectives (1956).
q Bloom (1956) and his associates in the University of Chicago have produced a most important classification
of the taxonomy of cognitive objectives ( Bloom 1956), Affective Objectives ( Krathwehl, Bloom and Masia
1964), and Psycho Motor Objectives (Simpson 1969).
Meaning of Bloom Taxonomy:
Bloom Taxonomy is the systematic classification of educational objective in a similar way as Dewey's decimal
system tends to classify a number of books in a library.
In Bloom's Taxonomy Behaviour Is divided into 3 Domains.
1.Cognitive
2.Affective
3. Psychomotor
Blooms Taxonomy of Educational and Instructional Objectives:
Bloom's Taxonomy has been divided into three Parts:
1.Cognitive Objective - Benjamin Bloom 1956)
2.Affective Objective - Krathwal, Bloom and Masia 1964)
3.Psychomotor Objective - Simpson (1989) and Harrow
Meaning of Cognitive, Affective and Psychomotor Domain in Bloom Taxonomy
1. Cognitive Domain: ( Knowing) Here the teacher is interested in what will the students do, focus on
mind, includes objectives which deal with the recognition of knowledge and development of
intellectual abilities and skills.
2. Affective Domain: (Focus on Emotions or affect) It includes objectives which explain the interests,
aptitudes, and change in values. Here the teacher is additionally concerned with what do to it or
with it
3. Psychomotor Domain: (Doing / Focus on the body) It includes motor skills area. It is concerned
with How He Does It.
Cognitive Domain operates at 6 levels:
1. Knowledge: This is the lowest level of the cognitive domain. At this level, the students are
expected to recall the information asked in the provided question.
2. Comprehension: It is the second level. A teacher trying to develop comprehension power in
the students through three kinds of intellectual skills like translation, interpretation, and
extrapolation.
3. Application: It is the third level. It is the act of applying some abstraction to new or unique
concrete examples, without prompting.
4. Analysis: Analysis is used to find out similarities and differences between various things.
5. Synthesis: Synthesis means the creation of something new from previously existing elements
or principles.
6. Evaluation: It is the highest level of the cognitive domain. This level means the formulation of
judgment and the justification of that judgment by reference to various facts, different
examples or criteria.
Affective Domain includes the following level:
1.Receiving: This category points out towards this necessity and takes into consideration three sequential activities.
Firstly, the learning is sensitized or made aware of the existence of certain stimuli.
Then the desired intention for receiving the stimuli is created in the learner.
At last, the efforts are made for the control of the attention of the learner.
2. Responding: In this, once the learner receives or attend to a particular idea, events or things, he may be made to respond to its as
active as possible.
3. Valuing: It is concerned with the development of typical value patterns, attitudes, etc.
4. Organizing: It is concerned with the construction of relatively enduring value structure in the learner by organizing and
synthesizing the different patterns imbibed by him from time to time.
5. Characterization by a value: It is the highest level of affective domain of Bloom Taxonomy. At this stage, the learner is destined to
imbibe typical characteristics of his individual character i.e lifestyle of his own. It is the endpoint of the process of education.
Psychomotor Domain includes the five following level:
1. Imitation: It is the lowest level of the psychomotor domain. It starts as impulse and may grow into an
overt act with the capacity to repeat the performance.
2. Manipulation: Manipulation involves selecting a certain action in preference to others, following
directions and acting accordingly.
3. Precision: It is related to the speed and refinement giving the learner the ability to control his / her
action in response to the requirements.
4. Articulation: AFter attaining the ability of articulation, individuals will be able to handle many actions in
unison. This ability involves co-ordination action.
5. Naturalization: It is the final stage or level in which the learner attains perfection in performance or in
any task.
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Cognitive Domain:
The two main changes of Revised Bloom Taxonomy are:
1. Change in the name of the six categories from noun to very forms.
2. Slightly rearranging them.
Original Bloom Revised Bloom
Taxonomy Taxonomy
Evaluation Creating
Synthesis Evaluating
Analysis Analyzing
Application Applying
Comprehension Understanding
Knowledge Remembering
THANK YOU!
• METHODS OF TEACHING
MODULE 5 • ONLINE VS OFFLINE METHODS
Methods of Teaching
The teaching methods are classified as follows:
q Teacher Centred Methods: (Lecture, team teaching, demonstration) In these methods instructional interactions originate from
the teacher. Students are the recipients in the process; they are led by the teacher through the process in the pre-decided route
designed by the teacher. Though both students and the teacher are actively engaged in the process, the focus is on the
presentation of learning experiences by the teacher.
q Learner Centred Methods: (Self-instructional methods, practical work, library study, assignments, projects) Here students are
actively involved with the learning experiences individually. Teacher is in the background, he is the one who specifies the learning
experiences, makes available these experiences but is indirectly involved in the instructional process.
q Group Centred Methods: (Group discussion, small group discussions, debates, seminars, brain-storming, panel discussion,
projects) Here students are engaged in the learning experiences essentially as ‘interacting groups’. That is, learning occurs
through group interactions. Teacher is also an active participant in the group interactions, but, the student participation is
central. Except the theme the process goes on spontaneously and not in any pre-decided sequence.
These methods are generally useful in developing higher cognitive abilities. Many of the above mentioned methods are evolved
from practices, very few have been based on empirical work, learning theories and original research. Since teaching intends to
learning, teaching strategies need to be planned based on the conditions and circumstances under which learning takes place. On
the basis of knowledge and understanding of learning a teacher can set the conditions and guide the students towards learning
which will contribute in attaining the prescribed educational goals.
Lecture method
METHOD USES ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
THE LECTURE METHOD 1. To orient students. 1. Saves time. 1. Involves one way

A formal or semi-formal 2. To introduce a subject. 2. Permits flexibility. communication.
discourse is which the 3. To give directions on 3. Requires less rigid 2. Poses problems in skill
instructor presents a procedures. space requirement. teaching.
series of events, facts, or 4. To present basic 4. Permits adaptability. 3. Encourages student
principles, explores a material. 5. Permits versatility. passiveness.
problem or explains 5. To introduce a 6. Permits better centre 4. Poses difficulty in
relationships demonstration, over contact and gauging student reaction.
discussion, or sequence. 5. Require highly skilled
performance. instructors.
6. To illustrate application
of rules, principles, or
concepts.
7. To review, clarify,
emphasise or summarise.
THE DISCUSSION METHOD

THE DISCUSSION METHOD 1. To develop imaginative 1. Increase students 1. Require highly skilled
A method in which group solutions to problems. interest instructor.
discussion techniques are 2. To stimulate thinking and 2. Increases students 2. Requires preparation by
used to reach instructional interest and to secure acceptance and student.
objectives. student participation. commitments. 3. Limits content.
3. To emphasise main 3. Utilises student 4. Consumes time.
teaching points. knowledge and experience. 5. Restricts size of groups.
4. To supplement lectures, 4. Results in more
reading, or laboratory permanent learning
exercises. because of high degree of
5. To determine how well student participation.
student understands
concepts and principles.
6. To prepare students for
application of theory of
procedure.
7. To summarise, clarify
points or review.
THE PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION METHOD

THE PROGRAMMED 1. To provide remedial 1. Reduce failure rate. 1. Require local or
INSTRUCTION METHOD instruction. 2. Improves end-of-course commercial preparation.
A method of self-instruction 2. To provide make-up proficiency. 2. Requires lengthy
instruction for late arrivals, 3. Saves time. programmer training.
absentees, or translents. 4. Provides for self 3. Increases expenses.
3. To maintain previously instruction. 4. Requires considerable
learned skills which are not lead time.
performed frequently
enough.
4. To provide retraining on
equipment and procedures
which have become
obsolete.
5. To upgrade production.
6. To accelerate capable
students.
7. To provide enough
common background among
students.
8. To provide the review and
practice of knowledge and
skills.
THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT METHOD
THE STUDY ASSIGNMENT 1. To orient students to a 1. Increase coverage of 1. Require careful

METHOD topic prior to classroom material. planning and follow up.
A method in which the or Laboratory work. 2. Reduce classroom 2. Poses evaluation
instructor assigns reading 2. To set the stage for a time. problem.
to books, periodicals, lecture demonstration or 3. Permits individual 3. Produce non-standard
project or research discussion. attention. results.
papers or exercises for 3. To provide for or
the practice. capitalise on individual
differences in ability,
background, or
experience through
differentiated
assignments.
4. To provide for the
review of material
covered in class or to give
practice.
5. To provide enrichment
material.
THE TUTORIAL METHOD
THE TUTORIAL METHOD 1. To reach highly complicated 1. Permits adaptive instruction. 1. Requires highly competent

A method of instruction in skills operations or operations 2. Stimulates active instructor.
which an instructor works involving danger or expensive participation. 2. Demands time and money.
directly with an individual equipment. 3. Promotes safety.
student. 2. To provide individualised
remedial assistance.
THE SEMINAR METHOD
THE SEMINAR METHOD 1. To provide general guidance 1. Provides motivation and 1. Requires highly competent

A tutorial arrangement for a group working on an report. instructor.
involving the instructor and advanced study or research 2. Stimulates active 2. Poses evaluation problems.
groups, rather than instructor project. participation. 3. Is more costly than most
and individual. 2. To exchange information on 3. Permits adaptive instruction. other methods.
techniques and approaches
being explored by members of
a study or research group.
3. To develop new and
imaginative solutions to
problems under study by the
group.
THE DEMONSTRATION METHOD
THE DEMONSTRATION 1. To teach manipulative 1. Minimise damage and waste 1. Require careful preparation

METHOD operations or procedures. 2. Saves time and rehearsal.
A method of instruction where 2. To teach troubleshooting. 3. Can be presented to large 2. Requires special classroom
the instructor by actually 3. To illustrate principles. groups. arrangements.
performing an operation or 4. To teach operation or
doing a job shows the students functioning of equipment.
what to do, how to do it, and 5. To teach teamwork.
through explanations brings 6. To set standards of
out why, where, and when it is workmanship.
done. 7. To teach safety procedures.
THE BUZZ GROUP

THE BUZZ GROUP 1. To develop and express 1. Help trainers to draw 1. Unfamiliarity in use.
imaginative ideas, opinions. breath. 2. Time required.
2. Stimulate thinking. 2. Gauge the mood by listening 3. Need for group leaders.
to some discussion.
3. Change pace of discussion.
4. Encourage participants to
reflect what was learnt.
BRAINSTORMING
BRAINSTORMING 1. Discover new ideas, 1. Leads to a very animated 1. It takes time particularly if it

thoughts and responses very and energising session. is a large group.
quickly. 2. More reserved participants 2. May consume a lot of
feel free to contribute. material e.g. flipcharts or
writing materials.
3. Requires high level
facilitation skills.
ROLE PLAYS
ROLE PLAYS 1. Exploring and improving 1. Good energizers. 1. Participants might be

interviewing techniques and 2. Promotes empathy of reluctant.
examining complexities and trainees for other situation. 2. May not work with trainees
potential conflicts of groups. 3. Encourages creativity in who do not know each other
2. To consolidate different learning. well.
lessons in one setting.
Advantages of Offline Teaching Methods
q It is an active learning method, where students can interact with faculty, thus the concentration level is very high.
q Course completion rate is almost 75% as compared to 7% of online.
q The faculty can pass on the passion and enthusiasm of a subject to students.
q Faculty can easily judge the performance of each student during the class and can work on problem areas.
q Students who are trained offline usually tend to perform better than online training, if the course content
remains the same. One of the reasons is peer’s pressure and competition.
q Relationship building with like minded people, who are also going to be in similar profession is a bonus.
q Learning experience with peers rejuvenates your thoughts and memory
q Limited students in each batch ensures individual attention
Disadvantages of Offline Teaching Methods
q Quality of content can change with every lecture
q Expensive than online courses
q Personalized learning is not possible
q Time flexibility
q Difficult to manage for job holders
Advantages of Online Teaching Methods
q Flexibility – You learn at your own speed
q Faculties can even be from Ivy League colleges
q Cheaper than offline
q Personalization of course contents
q Faculties can make more money by teaching more students at once
q Location independent – Anyone can teach from anywhere
q Class recordings are a treasure
Disadvantage of Online Teaching Methods
q Very low concentration level for students
q Faculties struggle to understand the student’s learning behaviour
q Difficult to follow the passion of the teacher
q Very low course completion rate
q Lack of competitive attitude makes the learning process slower
THANK YOU!
• MOOCS
MODULE 6 • SWAYAM
• SWAYAM PRABHA
MOOCS
Introduction to MOOC
q MOOC-massive open online courses.
q an online education system.
q aims at a large-scale interactive participation of users with the help of web.
q various features like videos, study materials, quizzes and online exams and
trying to make it more efficient than traditional education system.
Advantages of MOOC
q Learner can use any online tool that are relevant.
q People have no access to former higher education can participate.
q Informal and can be organized easily.
q Learning will be possible by the collaboration of learners and instructors.
q Supports career opportunities.
q Informal and can be organized easily.
q peer grading supported.
q Enrolment is open to anybody in the World, no fee, no credentials needed.
Challenges of MOOC
q Accreditation
q Self regulation and motivation
q High dropout rate
q Standards and grading
q Automated grading
q Peer grading
q Teaching assistant grading
SWAYAM
q SWAYAM (Study Webs of Active–Learning for Young Aspiring Minds) is a programme initiated by Government of
India and designed to achieve the three cardinal principles of Education Policy viz., access, equity and quality.
q The objective of this effort is to take the best teaching learning resources to all, including the most
disadvantaged. SWAYAM seeks to bridge the digital divide for students who have hitherto remained untouched
by the digital revolution and have not been able to join the mainstream of the knowledge economy.
q This is done through an indigenous developed IT platform that facilitates hosting of all the courses taught in
classrooms to be accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time. All the courses are interactive, prepared by the best
teachers in the country and are available, free of cost to the residents in India.
q SWAYAM platform is developed by Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) and NPTEL, IIT Madras
with the help of Google Inc. and Persistent Systems Ltd. It would be ultimately capable of hosting 2000 courses
and 80000 hours of learning: covering school, under-graduate, post-graduate, engineering, law and other
professional courses.
What is offered in SWAYAM?
q Courses that are taught in classrooms from 9th class till post-graduation.
q The courses hosted on SWAYAM is in 4 quadrants
1. video lecture
2. specially prepared reading material that can be downloaded/printed
3. self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes and
4. an online discussion forum for clearing the doubts.
q Categories of courses include - Engineering, Science, Humanities, Management, Language, Mathematics, Arts and Recreation,
Commerce, General, Library, Education.
q Courses delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to the learners.
q Students wanting certifications need to register and shall be offered a certificate on successful completion of the course, with a
little fee.
At the end of each course, there will be an assessment of the student through proctored examination and the marks/grades secured
in this exam could be transferred to the academic record of the students. UGC has already issued the UGC (Credit Framework for
online learning courses through SWAYAM) Regulation 2016 advising the Universities to identify courses where credits can be
transferred on to the academic record of the students for courses done on SWAYAM.
SWAYAM Prabha
q SWAYAM Prabha is an initiative of the Ministry of Human Resources Development to provide 32 High
Quality Educational Channels through DTH (Direct to Home) across the length and breadth of the
country on 24X7 basis.
q It has curriculum-based course content covering diverse disciplines. This is primarily aimed at making
quality learning resources accessible to remote areas where internet availability is still a challenge .
q The DTH channels are using the GSAT-15 satellite for programme telecasts.
q
Scope of the channels
The SWAYAM PRABHA has new content everyday for at least (4) hours which would be repeated 5 more times in a
day, allowing the students to choose the time of their convenience. The channels are uplinked from BISAG,
Gandhinagar. The contents are provided by NPTEL, IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT and NIOS. The INFLIBNET Centre
maintains the web portal. The DTH Channels covers the following:
q Higher Education: Curriculum-based course contents at post-graduate and under-graduate level covering diverse
disciplines such as arts, science, commerce, performing arts, social sciences and humanities, engineering,
technology, law, medicine, agriculture, etc. All courses would be certification-ready in their detailed offering
through SWAYAM, the platform being developed for offering MOOCs courses.
q School education (9-12 levels): modules for teacher's training as well as teaching and learning aids for children of
India to help them understand the subjects better and also help them in preparing for competitive examinations
for admissions to professional degree programmes.
q Curriculum-based courses that can meet the needs of life-long learners of Indian citizens in India and abroad.
q Assist students (class 11th & 12th) prepare for competitive exams.
THANK YOU!
• CONCEPT OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
• EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES
MODULE 7
• TRADITONAL AND MODERN TEACHING METHODS
• ICT BASED TEACHING
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
The first step in effective teaching is effective planning. In planning any reasonable course of instructing,

there are many questions that come to mind, but the four basic ones we must not forget are:
1. What are the educational goals to be reached? (I.e. objectives - Why am I to teach?)
2. What educational experiences are to be provided in order to attain the objectives (i.e. content - what am I to
teach?)
3. How can these educational objectives be organized? (I.e. method - How do I teach?)
4. How could these objectives be determined whether they are reached? (I.e. evaluation- How, can I know or
prove that these objective are attained?).
The above raised questions point out the interrelatedness of the 4 basic elements of the curriculum. Thus:
contents, objectives, method and evaluation
LESSON PLAN
Lesson plan is an organized amount of subject matter and learning experiences that the teacher
communicates to learners with details on how instruction takes place within lesson period. A typical lesson
plan possess following components:
q Name of School: Vertex Nursery and Primary School, Makurdi.
q Name of Teacher: Geoffrey Aondolumun AYUA
q Class/Number in Class: Primary 6/25 (15 Boys, 10 Girls)
q AGE/SEX/ABILITY: 11+/mixed/Average
q Subject: Basic Science
q TOPIC: Magnetic and Non - magnetic materials
q Day/Date: Thursday/7th September 2017 Time/Duration: 8:15 am -
8:50 am/35 minutes.
Behavioural Objectives
By the end of the lesson, the pupils should be able to:
q Define magnetic and non - magnetic materials
q Identify and list magnetic and non - magnetic materials,
Teaching Aids: Coins, office pins, paper clips, magnets, rubber bands, glass, mirror, bunch of keys,
iron rod, buttons, pieces of zinc, pieces of aluminium, bolts, nuts, chalk, pens, pencils, pebbles, razor
blades, nails, cassettes, candles, key holders, bottle tops.
Previous Knowledge: Pupils have learnt about magnet and can define it, name its poles. Besides,
most of the pupils are familiar with the teaching aids listed above.
Introduction: Teacher asks pupils questions about their previous knowledge/experiences assumed,
like:What is a magnet?
Expected answer: piece of iron that can attract other metals
How many poles have a magnet and what are they?
Expected answer: Two poles {North (N) &Sought (S)}
What objects (Teaching aids) are these? Lifting them one after another.
Expected answer: As listed in teaching aids above
Presentation/Development:
Step (1): Definition of terms:
Magnetic materials - are materials that can be attracted by magnet; they are materials made of iron, nickel, steel, and cobalt among others.
Non-magnetic materials - are those that cannot be attracted by a magnet; they are made of brass, silver, wood, plastic, and rubber.
Question: can a material be magnetic and non - magnetic?
Expected answer: No.
Step (2): Children activity
(I): Teacher gives them materials like: nuts, bolts, iron buttons, paper clips, iron rod, office pins, razor blades, nails, coins, bunch of keys ... and
magnet to test them.
Question: The materials you have tested can be classified as...........
Expected answer: Magnetic materials
Step (3): Children activity
(II): teacher provides them with materials like: plastic buttons, chalk,biro pens, pencils, pebbles, candles, rubber bands, glass, pieces of mirror, etc.
to be tested using a bar of magnet.
Question: Materials you have just tested are best called?
Expected answer: non - magnetic materials.
Final Evaluation: Teacher asks pupils questions about the lesson in order to assess how successful or not the lesson was. Thus:
I. What are magnetic materials?
II. Give 5 examples of magnetic materials
III. What are non - magnetic materials?
IV. List 5 examples of non - magnetic materials.
q Summary/Conclusion: With reference to final evaluation, teacher strengthens the weakness
in pupils’ responses if any; draws their attention to main paints; gives them summary notes;
encourages them to read them up. Not only that but also gives them guided questions that
will "force" them read text books for more points as well as developing their reading
skills/habit.
q Assignment: When you go home, find out the properties of magnet that make it so unique
an iron that attracts certain materials to it.
EFFECTIVE TEACHING STRATEGIES
The important issue in teaching is the identification of particular behavior that helps effective teaching and
learning to occur. These positive behaviors that aid effective learning are referred to as teaching strategies. A
teaching strategy is therefore an educational technique, method or plan of classroom actions or interactions
intended to accomplish specific teaching/learning goals. Though, they are many, we shall focus on:
q Set induction
q Establishing appropriate frame of reference or use of examples
q Planned repetition
q Stimulus variation
q Using questions effectively
q Closure (summarizing)
q Set Induction
Set induction is a strategy for opening up the hall of knowledge to the students in an atmosphere of positive
mental set for an involuntary attention to the lesson. Without proper set the students may not be energized, the
lessons would be dull and uninteresting and the students could be bored and fatigued. Set induction is a pre-
planned action by the teacher to arouse the interest of the students, create atmosphere of curiosity and
motivation, and energize, direct and sustain students' attention throughout the lesson.
Set induction could be achieved through so many devices, e.g. Short story, dramatization, creative questions,
brainstorming, deviant behavior, etc.
q Use of Examples or Establishing Appropriate Frames
Clear understanding is often difficult in the absence of appropriate frames of reference. Examples should, of
course, be appropriate and relevant to the subject matter, age, the culture, and experience of the students.
Verbal examples may be in the form of analogy or metaphor (the human eye and the camera lens; the heart and
the engine are all analogies). My mother is an angel; the laboratory is a mad house; his wife is a Satan, are all
metaphors.Concrete examples are, of course, better than verbal ones because of the imagery. All mechanical
representation of reality, all stimulations are good teaching examples.
q Planned Repetition
Repetition is a sound strategy in teaching. But it has to be planned to be useful. Planned repetitions enable
the student/learner to over learn-that is, learning beyond the threshold of forgetting.
I. Simple Repetition - Repeating words, concepts, formulae, etc., immediately after it is mentioned.
II. Special Repetition - Repetition of key words, either or concepts at certain stages in the course of the
lesson to stress its importance.
III. Cumulative Repetition - Repetition of major points so far made in the course of the lesson before
continuing with the rest.
IV. Massed Repetition - Repetition of all the major points, made in the lesson. This is often called summary.
q Stimulus Variation
It is said that variety is the spice of life but monotony kills interest. Good and effective teaching involves
varying learning experiences and teaching strategies during the lesson. This helps to sustain interest. Always
sitting down in a class to read out lesson notes is no teaching. In teaching it is often desirable to appeal to all
the five senses whenever possible. Stimulus variation is achieved through movements. Gestures, pattern of
interacting pacing around, voice modulation, maintaining an uneven speed in the lesson, silence,
professional charisma, etc.

q Effective Use of Questions
Ability to use provocative, answerable and appropriate questions is a very important skill in all teaching.
Proficiency in preparing factual, conceptual, thought provoking, discussion stimulating questions, is a vital
skill in teaching.

Types of Questions
I. Recall or Lower Order: Cognitive questions
II. Higher Order: Cognitive questions or thought questions which are not answerable from memory. They
require going from factual answer to the realm of thinking.
III. Probing Questions: These are questions based on student's earlier response with a view to enlisting
more information.
IV. Divergent questions: These types of questions describe situations that are complex and requiring various
alternatives. The student is to select and defend his choice. Divergent questions therefore require
original creative thought. Hence they are also referred to as creative questions. They call for creativity
and originality rather than copying. They are often open-ended questions, with not only one way of
solution.
Purpose and Functions of Question
I. To test and evaluate the children's preparation for the lesson
II. To arouse interest and motivate pupils to participate actively in the lesson
III. To find out pupils strength and weakness
IV. To help pupils to understand the problems or topic being discussed
V. To stimulates pupils to seek additional information on their own
VI. To review the past lesson and test whether the pupils still remember
VII. It enables the teacher to find out individual differences among the pupils
VIII. It holds the attention of the pupils during the lesson
IX. It is a means of evaluating the lesson towards the end of the period

TRADITONAL AND MODERN TEACHING METHODS
ICT BASED TEACHING
q ICT is a broad and comprehensive term, which comprises information technology and communication technology. Information
technology includes radio, television, computer and internet, teleconferencing and mobile technology. All these information
technologies are powered by mainly two types of communication technologies.
q These are satellite based communication and terrestrial based communication.
q Satellite based communication is the communication, which takes place between sender and receiver through a communication
satellite whereas terrestrial based communication is the communication, which takes place through a network of transmitters
spread across a geographical area, a country, or a state. This type of communication is used in the transmission of radio and
television in India.
q However, with the launch of a series of satellites by Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), satellite based communication is
being used for telecommunication.
q Communicating information effectively by making use of appropriate technology is called information and communication
technology (ICT).
q In all, ICT is an umbrella term that includes many communication devices such as radio, television, cellular phones, computers
and network, satellite systems and so on.
q ICTs are defined, as a “diverse set of technological tools and resources used to communicate, and to create, disseminate, store,
and manage information.(Blurton, 2002)” These technologies include computers, the Internet, broadcasting technologies (radio
and television), and telephony, etc
ICT FOR TEACHING & LEARNING
The ICTs are needed at school level for the following activities
q Teaching-learning
q Diagnostic Testing and Remedial teaching
q Evaluation activities
q Psychological analysis of learners
q Development of reasoning and thinking abilities among students
q Instructional material development
Various Types of ICTs and their Applications in Teaching and Learning
1. Radio
2. Television
3. Computer
4. Internet
5. Multi Media
6. Mobile Learning
7. Interactive Classrooms
THANK YOU!
• CONCEPT OF LEARNING
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
MODULE 8
• TYPES OF LEARNERS
• VARK MODEL
• TYPES OF LEARNING
examination.
Characteristics of Learning
If we analyse the different definitions and interpretations of learning, the process and products of learning and
different factors of learning, we can form some idea about the nature of learning. To sum up, learning has the
following characteristics:
I. Learning is the modification of behaviour.
II. Learning is Purposive: – McDougall stresses the purposeful nature of learning. In other words, learning is a
goal-directed.
III. Learning is a Continuous Process.
IV. Learning is a Universal Phenomenon: – Learning takes place everywhere by all organisms in all cultures. It is
an activity that is taken up by all the living.
V. Learning is Progressive and Developmental.
VI. Learning is Transferable: – Transfer in learning is feasible. Material, things and subject matter learned in one
situation may facilitate or inhibit learning in the other situation.
VII. Learning includes all the three aspects of Human Behaviour.
Types of learners
q It’s important to develop lesson plans to help all the different types of learners absorb information in a
way that fits their individual needs. When teachers understand the characteristics of different learning
styles and associated instruction strategies, they are better able to address the instructional requirements
of all their students.
q Because every student learns differently, learning styles are widely recognized in both classroom
management theory and education theory in general. The term ‘learning styles’ speaks to the
understanding that every student learns differently opens new window.
q Technically, an individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs,
processes, comprehends and retains information.
q For example, one student might learn best by acting a process out, while another might prefer reading
about the topic instead.
The VARK Model
q The learning styles of students depend on several factors, including their environment and other cognitive and
emotional factors. Because every student is different, it’s a good idea for teachers to develop classroom
strategies that incorporate different learning styles for different types of learners.
q The VARK model helps teachers do this. It is an acronym that refers to the four learning styles: visual, auditory,
reading/writing preference, and kinesthetic.
q VARK is focused on the idea that students retain and process information differently and have “preferred
learning modes” that allow them to learn their best. “Allowing students to access information in terms they
are comfortable with will increase their academic confidence,”
q Visual: Visual learners prefer to take in information using charts, maps, graphs, diagrams, and more.
Using images to explain concepts and ideas is the best way to reach a visual learner. However, this type
of learning style does not include photographs or videos. Instead, visual learners learn best when
information is presented using patterns, shapes, and other visual aids in the place of written or spoken
words. One way teachers can differentiate their instruction for visual learners is by using graphic
organizers to teach a lesson. A flow chart might be used to explain a scientific process, for example.
q Auditory: This learning style describes students who learn best when information is heard or spoken.
They benefit from lectures, group discussion, and other strategies that involve talking things through.
“Often people with this preference want to sort things out by speaking first, rather than sorting out their
ideas and then speaking”.To help auditory learners learn, teachers can post audio recordings of lessons
on the class website, or incorporate group activities that require students to explain concepts to their
classmates.
q Reading/Writing Preference: Students who have a reading/writing preference prefer information to be
presented using words. They love to read and perform well on written assignments such as stories or
book reports. “This preference emphasizes text-based input and output – reading and writing in all of its
forms,”. A great way to help these students learn is by having them describe diagrams or charts using
written statements. Then, they can study their notes later to better retain the information.
q Kinesthetic: Kinesthetic learners learn best when they can use tactile experiences and carry out a
physical activity to practice applying new information. People who prefer this mode are connected to
reality, ‘either through concrete personal experiences, examples, practice or simulation. Give these
students a working example of an idea or process, or task them with recreating experiments to illustrate
concepts. Knowing how to address the learning needs of your students is an important part of creating
meaningful classroom experiences and helping them retain what they learn.
Types of Learning
We can classify learning in a dozen ways from general to the specific. Making general distinctions,
psychologists have divided learning categories:
A. Conditioning: Generally speaking, the individual has to learn about the stimulus or the response/group of
responses. If we learn something about a stimulus, it is perceptual learning. But when we learn to make a
particular response or a group of responses, it is called response learning. Response learning could be single
or multiple-response learning.When an individual learns a single response associated with a specific stimulus
or a stimulus situation, it is conditioning. Conditioning, where; using the sequence of pairing a conditional
stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US), a conditioned response (CR) is learned. In this way, a
number of conditional responses can be learned.This type of conditioning occurs in human as well as animal
subject, single-response learning can be subdivided into classical conditioning, operant learning, and
aversive conditioning.
B. Motor Learning: It is also labelled as psychomotor learning or skill learning. This includes all kinds of
things, people learn to do, such as eating with a spoon or fork, swimming, typewriting, drives a car etc.
Learning of such skills depends upon maturity, sensory-motor coordination and integration of the responses
related to the intended skill learned at initial preliminary stages.
C. Discrimination Learning: We see that animal and human beings discriminate between a number of
things in daily life. The general feature of this type of learning is that the subject has to differentiate
between the two stimuli which occur to him simultaneously or in close succession and one or the other
is frequently rewarded or punished. Differentiation between mother and a stranger, a dog and a doll, a
taste of learning. Three important situations of discrimination learning are probability learning,
incidental learning and reversal learning.
D. Verbal learning: It is the most important kind of learning for human beings because it involves words
and formal education situations, and even the most informal learning in older children and adults occur
by the verbal route. It also provides an important link between elementary nonverbal learning
processes on one hand and learning of language and thought on the other.
E. Concept Learning: It is more specifically meant for human subjects. Learning a concept is learning to react
to some common property/properties in a group of objects. In children, concept learning starts at a very
young age. At a very early stage, they try to learn about various stimuli of the environment and attach verbal
labels for them, such as a house, wood, fruit, man, girl etc. Once the concepts are learned, they are
manipulated in language and thinking. At a higher stage of learning, power of thinking and judgment is
developed, and the individual becomes capable of solving the problem in his own way.
F. Problem –Solving: This is the highest level of learning. In problem-solving learning, a problem is given to
the organism, which discovers some of its relationship with its environment by some sort of manipulation. In
fact, problem-solving in human beings and higher animals like chimpanzees is certainly more than operant
conditioning. Human beings very occasionally in solving their problems by more trial and error method. They
make use of prior verbal learning; they evaluate the whole situation, employ verbal reasoning, and
sometimes also use trial and error activity, and ultimately some solution to the problem is found out. Gestalt
Psychologists have made a series of experiments in this direction.
THANK YOU!
• CONCEPT OF EVALUATION
• CHARACTERISTICS OF EVALUATION
MODULE 8
• FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION
• TYPES OF EVALUATION
Concept of Evaluation
q In every walk of life the process of evaluation takes place in one or the other form. If the evaluation process is eliminated from
human life then perhaps the aim of life may be lost. It is only through evaluation that one can discriminate between good and
bad. The whole cycle of social development revolves around the evaluation process.
q In education how much a child has succeeded in his aims, can only be determined through evaluation. Thus there is a close
relationship between evaluation and aims.
q Education is considered as an investment in human beings in terms of development of human resources, skills, motivation,
knowledge and the like. Evaluation helps to build an educational programme, assess its achievements and improve upon its
effectiveness.
q It serves as an in-built monitor within the programme to review the progress in learning from time to time. It also provides
valuable feedback on the design and the implementation of the programme. Thus, evaluation plays a significant role in any
educational programme.
q Evaluation plays an enormous role in the teaching-learning process. It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and
learning. Evaluation is a continuous process and a periodic exercise.
q It helps in forming the values of judgement, educational status, or achievement of student. Evaluation in one form or the other is
inevitable in teaching-learning, as in all fields of activity of education judgements need to be made.
q In learning, it contributes to formulation of objectives, designing of learning experiences and assessment of learner performance.
Besides this, it is very useful to bring improvement in teaching and curriculum. It provides accountability to the society, parents,
and to the education system.
Evaluation has its four different aspects namely:
(i) Objectives,
(ii) Learning experiences,
(iii) Learner appraisal and the, and
(iv) Relationship between the three.
The term evaluation conveys several meanings in education and psychology.
Different authors have different notions of evaluation:
1. Encyclopedia of Education Research: To measure means to observe or determine the magnitude of variate;
evaluation means assessment or appraisal.
2. James M. Bradfield: Evaluation is the assignment of symbols to phenomenon, in order to characterise the
worth or value of a phenomenon, usually with reference to some social, cultural or scientific standards.
3. Gronlund and Linn: Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information
to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives.
Perhaps the most extended definition of evaluation has been supplied by C.E. Beeby (1977), who described
evaluation as “the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence leading as a part of process to a
judgement of value with a view to action.”
In this definition, there are the following four key elements:

(i) Systematic collection of evidence.
(ii) Its interpretation.
(iii) Judgement of value.
(iv) With a view to action.
Characteristics of Evaluation
The analysis of all the above definitions makes us able to draw following characteristics of evaluation:
1. Evaluation implies a systematic process which omits the casual uncontrolled observation of pupils.
2. Evaluation is a continuous process. In an ideal situation, the teaching- learning process on the one hand and the evaluation
procedure on the other hand, go together. It is certainly a wrong belief that the evaluation procedure follows the teaching-learning
process.
3. Evaluation emphasises the broad personality changes and major objectives of an educational programme. Therefore, it includes not
only subject-matter achievements but also attitudes, interests and ideals, ways of thinking, work habits and personal and social
adaptability.
4. Evaluation always assumes that educational objectives have previously been identified and defined. This is the reason why teachers
are expected not to lose sight of educational objectives while planning and carrying out the teaching-learning process either in the
classroom or outside it.
5. A comprehensive programme of evaluation involves the use of many procedures (for example, analytico-synthetic, heuristic,
experimental, lecture, etc.); a great variety of tests (for example, essay type, objective type, etc.); and other necessary techniques (for
example, socio-metric, controlled-observation techniques, etc.).
6. Learning is more important than teaching. Teaching has no value if it does not result in learning on the part of the pupils.
7. Objectives and accordingly learning experiences should be so relevant that ultimately they should direct the pupils towards the
accomplishment of educational goals.
8. To assess the students and their complete development brought about through education is evaluation.
9. Evaluation is the determination of the congruence between the performance and objectives.

Purposes and Functions of Evaluation
q Evaluation plays a vital role in teaching learning experiences.
q It is an integral part of the instructional programmes. It provides information’s on the basis of which many
educational decisions are taken.
q We are to stick to the basic function of evaluation which is required to be practiced for pupil and his learning
processes.
Evaluation has the following functions:
1. Placement Functions
2. Instructional Functions
3. Diagnostic Functions
4. Predictive functions
5. Administrative Functions
.
Types of Evaluation
§ According to functions
1. Placement Evaluation
q Placement evaluation is designed to place the right person in the right place. It ensures the entry performance of the pupil.
The future success of the instructional process depends on the success of placement evaluation.
q Placement evaluation aims at evaluating the pupil’s entry behaviour in a sequence of instruction. In other words the main
goal of such evaluation is to determine the level or position of the child in the instructional sequence.
q We have a planned scheme of instruction for classroom which is supposed to bring a change in pupil’s behaviour in an
orderly manner. Then we prepare or place the students for planned instruction for their better prospects.
q When a pupil is to undertake a new instruction, it is essential to know the answer of the following questions:
a. Does the pupil possess required knowledge and skills for the instruction?
b. Whether the pupil has already mastered some of the instructional objectives or not?
c. Whether the mode of instruction is suitable to pupil’s interests, work habits and personal characteristics?
We get the answer to all the probable questions by using a variety of tests, self report inventories,
observational techniques, case study, attitude test and achievement tests.
Sometimes past experiences, which inspire for present learning also lead to the further placement in a better
position or admission. This type of evaluation is helpful for admission of pupils into a new course of
instruction.
Examples:
i. Aptitude test
ii. Self-reporting inventories
iii. Observational techniques
iv. Medical entrance exam.
v. Engineering or Agriculture entrance exam.
2. Formative Evaluation:
q Formative evaluation is used to monitor the learning progress of students during the period of instruction. Its
main objective is to provide continuous feedback to both teacher and student concerning learning successes
and failures while instruction is in process.
q Feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful learning and identifies the specific learning errors
that need correction. Feedback to teacher provides information for modifying instruction and for prescribing
group and individual remedial work.
q Formative evaluation helps a teacher to ascertain the pupil-progress from time to time. At the end of a topic
or unit or segment or a chapter the teacher can evaluate the learning outcomes basing on which he can modify
his methods, techniques and devices of teaching to provide better learning experiences.
q The teacher can even modify the instructional objectives, if necessary. In other words, formative evaluation
provides feedback to the teacher. The teacher can know which aspects of the learning task were mastered and
which aspects were poorly or not at all mastered by pupils.
q Formative evaluation helps the teacher to assess the relevance and appropriateness of the learning experiences
provided and to assess instantly how far the goals are being fulfilled.Thus, it aims at improvement of instruction.
The functions of formation evaluation are:
(a) Diagnosing:
Diagnosing is concerned with determining the most appropriate method or instructional materials conducive to learning.
(b) Placement:
Placement is concerned with the finding out the position of an individual in the curriculum from which he has to start learning.
(c) Monitoring:
Monitoring is concerned with keeping track of the day-today progress of the learners and to point out changes necessary in the
methods of teaching, instructional strategies, etc.
Characteristics of Formative Evaluation:
a. It is an integral part of the learning process.
b. It occurs, frequently, during the course of instruction.
c. Its results are made immediately known to the learners.
d. It may sometime take form of teacher observation only.
e. It reinforces learning of the students.
f. It pinpoints difficulties being faced by a weak learner.
g. Its results cannot be used for grading or placement purposes.
h. It helps in modification of instructional strategies including method of teaching, immediately.
i. It motivates learners, as it provides them with knowledge of progress made by them.
j. It sees role of evaluation as a process.
k. It is generally a teacher-made test.
l. It does not take much time to be constructed.
Examples:
i. Monthly tests.
ii. Class tests.
iii. Periodical assessment.
iv. Teacher’s observation, etc.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation:
q It is concerned with identifying the learning difficulties or weakness of pupils during instruction. It tries to locate or
discover the specific area of weakness of a pupil in a given course of instruction and also tries to provide remedial
measure.
q N.E. Gronlund says “…… formative evaluation provides first-aid treatment for simple learning problems whereas
diagnostic evaluation searches for the underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first-aid
treatment.”
q When the teacher finds that inspite of the use of various alternative methods, techniques and corrective
prescriptions the child still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis through specifically
designed tests called ‘diagnostic tests’.
q Diagnosis can be made by employing observational techniques, too. In case of necessity the services of
psychological and medical specialists can be utilised for diagnosing serious learning handicaps.
4. Summative Evaluation:
q Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of instruction to know to what extent the objectives
previously fixed have been accomplished. In other words, it is the evaluation of pupils’ achievement at the end
of a course.
q The main objective of the summative evaluation is to assign grades to the pupils. It indicates the degree to
which the students have mastered the course content. It helps to judge the appropriateness of instructional
objectives. Summative evaluation is generally the work of standardised tests.
q It tries to compare one course with another. The approaches of summative evaluation imply some sort of final
comparison of one item or criteria against another. It has the danger of making negative effects.
q This evaluation may brand a student as a failed candidate, and thus causes frustration and setback in the
learning process of the candidate, which is an example of the negative effect.
q The traditional examinations are generally summative evaluation tools. Tests for formative evaluation are given
at regular and frequent intervals during a course; whereas tests for summative evaluation are given at the end
of a course or at the end of a fairly long period (say, a semester).
The functions of summative evaluation are:
A. Crediting: Crediting is concerned with collecting evidence that a learner has achieved some
instructional goals in contents in respect to a defined curricular programme.
B. Certifying: Certifying is concerned with giving evidence that the learner is able to perform a job
according to the previously determined standards.
C. Promoting: It is concerned with promoting pupils to next higher class.
D. Selecting: Selecting the pupils for different courses after completion of a particular course structure.
Characteristics of Summative Evaluation:
a. It is terminal in nature as it comes at the end of a course of instruction (or a programme).
b. It is judgemental in character in the sense that it judges the achievement of pupils.
c. It views evaluation “as a product”, because its chief concern is to point out the levels of attainment.
d. It cannot be based on teachers observations only.
e. It does not pin-point difficulties faced by the learner.
f. Its results can be used for placement or grading purposes.
g. It reinforces learning of the students who has learnt an area.
h. It may or may not motivate a learner. Sometimes, it may have negative effect.
Examples:
1. Traditional school and university examination,
2. Teacher-made tests,
3. Standardised tests,
4. Practical and oral tests, and
5. Rating scales, etc.
§ According to nature of reference /evaluation
1. Criterion-Referenced Evaluation
q When the evaluation is concerned with the performance of the individual in terms of what he can do or the
behaviour he can demonstrate, is termed as criterion- referenced evaluation. In this evaluation there is a
reference to a criterion.
q But there is no reference to the performance of other individuals in the group. In it we refer an individual’s
performance to a predetermined criterion which is well defined.
Examples:
A. Raman got 93 marks in a test of Mathematics.
B. A typist types 60 words per minute.
C. Amit’s score in a reading test is 70.
A simple working definition:
q A criterion-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to a
defined achievement domain.
q In the above examples there is no reference to the performance of other members of the
group. Thus criterion-referenced evaluation determines an individual’s status with reference
to well defined criterion behaviour.
q It is an attempt to interpret test results in terms of clearly defined learning outcomes which
serve as referents (criteria). Success of criterion-reference test lies in the delineation of all
defined levels of achievement which are usually specified in terms of behaviourally stated
instructional objectives.
q The purpose of criterion-referenced evaluation/test is to assess the objectives. It is the
objective based test. The objectives are assessed, in terms of behavioural changes among
the students.
q Such type of test assesses the ability of the learner in relation to the criterion behaviour.
2. Norm Referenced Evaluation:
q Norm-referenced evaluation is the traditional class-based assignment of numerals to the attribute being

measured. It means that the measurement act relates to some norm, group or a typical performance.
q It is an attempt to interpret the test results in terms of the performance of a certain group. This group is a
norm group because it serves as a referent of norm for making judgements.
q Test scores are neither interpreted in terms of an individual (self-referenced) nor in terms of a standard of
performance or a pre-determined acceptable level of achievement called the criterion behaviour (criterion-
referenced). The measurement is made in terms of a class or any other norm group.
q Almost all our classroom tests, public examinations and standardised tests are norm-referenced as they are
interpreted in terms of a particular class and judgements are formed with reference to the class.
Examples:
A. Raman stood first in Mathematics test in his class.
B. The typist who types 60 words per minute stands above 90 percent of the typists who appeared the
interview.
C. Amit surpasses 65% of students of his class in reading test.

q A norm-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to the performance of
other individuals on that test.
q In the above examples, the person’s performance is compared to others of their group and the
relative standing position of the person in his/her group is mentioned. We compare an individual’s
performance with similar information about the performance of others.
q That is why selection decisions always depend on norm- referenced judgements. A major
requirement of norm-referenced judgements is that individuals being measured and individuals
forming the group or norm, are alike. In norm-referenced tests very easy and very difficult items are
discarded and items of medium difficulty are preferred because our aim is to study relative
achievement.
Indicators for Teacher Evaluation Other Evaluation techniques

• Teaching Quality • Observation of classes
• Examination Results • Systematic Reporting
• Students Attendance • Questionnaires or Checklists
• Promoting Library interest • Interviews
• Relationship with students • Peer Evaluation
• Academic growth • Student Evaluation
• Innovativeness • Discussion Groups
• Extensions • Relationship with students
• Co-curricular Activities
THANK YOU!
• CONCEPT OF LEARNING
• CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
MODULE 8
• TYPES OF LEARNERS
• VARK MODEL
• TYPES OF LEARNING
examination.
Characteristics of Learning
I. If we analyse the different definitions and interpretations of learning, the process and products of learning
and different factors of learning, we can form some idea about the nature of learning. To sum up, learning
has the following characteristics:
II. Learning is the modification of behaviour
III. Learning is Purposive: – McDougall stresses the purposeful nature of learning. In other words, learning is a
goal-directed
IV. Learning is a Continuous Process
V. Learning is a Universal Phenomenon: – Learning takes place everywhere by all organisms in all cultures. It is
an activity that is taken up by all the living
VI. Learning is Progressive and Developmental
VII. Learning is Transferable: – Transfer in learning is feasible. Material, things and subject matter learned in one
situation may facilitate or inhibit learning in the other situation
VIII. Learning includes all the three aspects of Human Behaviour
Types of learners
q It’s important to develop lesson plans to help all the different types of learners absorb information in a
way that fits their individual needs. When teachers understand the characteristics of different learning
styles and associated instruction strategies, they are better able to address the instructional requirements
of all their students.
q Because every student learns differently, learning styles are widely recognized in both classroom
management theory and education theory in general. “The term ‘learning styles’ speaks to the
understanding that every student learns differently opens new window.
q Technically, an individual’s learning style refers to the preferential way in which the student absorbs,
processes, comprehends and retains information,”.
q For example, one student might learn best by acting a process out, while another might prefer reading
about the topic instead.
The VARK Model
q The learning styles of students depend on several factors, including their environment and other cognitive and
emotional factors. Because every student is different, it’s a good idea for teachers to develop classroom
strategies that incorporate different learning styles for different types of learners.
q The VARK model helps teachers do this. It is an acronym that refers to the four learning styles: visual, auditory,
reading/writing preference, and kinesthetic.
q VARK is focused on the idea that students retain and process information differently and have “preferred
learning modes” that allow them to learn their best. “Allowing students to access information in terms they
are comfortable with will increase their academic confidence,”
q Visual: Visual learners prefer to take in information using charts, maps, graphs, diagrams, and more.
Using images to explain concepts and ideas is the best way to reach a visual learner. However, this type
of learning style does not include photographs or videos. Instead, visual learners learn best when
information is presented using patterns, shapes, and other visual aids in the place of written or spoken
words. One way teachers can differentiate their instruction for visual learners is by using graphic
organizers to teach a lesson. A flow chart might be used to explain a scientific process, for example.
q Auditory: This learning style describes students who learn best when information is heard or spoken.
They benefit from lectures, group discussion, and other strategies that involve talking things through.
“Often people with this preference want to sort things out by speaking first, rather than sorting out their
ideas and then speaking,” VARK Learn Limited explains. To help auditory learners learn, teachers can post
audio recordings of lessons on the class website, or incorporate group activities that require students to
explain concepts to their classmates.
q Reading/Writing Preference: Students who have a reading/writing preference prefer information to be
presented using words. They love to read and perform well on written assignments such as stories or
book reports. “This preference emphasizes text-based input and output – reading and writing in all of its
forms,” VARK Learn Limited notes. A great way to help these students learn is by having them describe
diagrams or charts using written statements. Then, they can study their notes later to better retain the
information.
q Kinesthetic: Kinesthetic learners learn best when they can use tactile experiences and carry out a
physical activity to practice applying new information. “People who prefer this mode are connected to
reality, ‘either through concrete personal experiences, examples, practice or simulation,’” VARK Learn
Limited explains. Give these students a working example of an idea or process, or task them with
recreating experiments to illustrate concepts. Knowing how to address the learning needs of your
students is an important part of creating meaningful classroom experiences and helping them retain
what they learn.
Types of Learning
We can classify learning in a dozen ways from general to the specific. Making general distinctions,
psychologists have divided learning categories:
A. Conditioning: Generally speaking, the individual has to learn about the stimulus or the response/group of
responses. If we learn something about a stimulus, it is perceptual learning. But when we learn to make a
particular response or a group of responses, it is called response learning. Response learning could be single
or multiple-response learning.When an individual learns a single response associated with a specific stimulus
or a stimulus situation, it is conditioning. Conditioning, where; using the sequence of pairing a conditional
stimulus (CS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US), a conditioned response (CR) is learned. In this way, a
number of conditional responses can be learned.
This type of conditioning occurs in human as well as animal subject, single-response learning can be
subdivided into classical conditioning, operant learning, and aversive conditioning.
B. Motor Learning: It is also labelled as psychomotor learning or skill learning. This includes all kinds of
things, people learn to do, such as eating with a spoon or fork, swimming, typewriting, drives a car etc.
Learning of such skills depends upon maturity, sensory-motor coordination and integration of the responses
related to the intended skill learned at initial preliminary stages.
C. Discrimination Learning: We see that animal and human beings discriminate between a number of things in
daily life. The general feature of this type of learning is that the subject has to differentiate between the two
stimuli which occur to him simultaneously or in close succession and one or the other is frequently rewarded or
punished. Differentiation between mother and a stranger, a dog and a doll, a taste of learning. Three important
situations of discrimination learning are probability learning, incidental learning and reversal learning.
D. Verbal learning: It is the most important kind of learning for human beings because it involves words and formal
education situations, and even the most informal learning in older children and adults occur by the verbal route. It
also provides an important link between elementary nonverbal learning processes on one hand and learning of
language and thought on the other.
E. Concept Learning: It is more specifically meant for human subjects. Learning a concept is learning to react
to some common property/properties in a group of objects. In children, concept learning starts at a very
young age. At a very early stage, they try to learn about various stimuli of the environment and attach verbal
labels for them, such as a house, wood, fruit, man, girl etc.Once the concepts are learned, they are
manipulated in language and thinking. At a higher stage of learning, power of thinking and judgment is
developed, and the individual becomes capable of solving the problem in his own way.
F. Problem –Solving: This is the highest level of learning. In problem-solving learning, a problem is given to
the organism, which discovers some of its relationship with its environment by some sort of manipulation. In
fact, problem-solving in human beings and higher animals like chimpanzees is certainly more than operant
conditioning.Human beings very occasionally in solving their problems by more trial and error method. They
make use of prior verbal learning; they evaluate the whole situation, employ verbal reasoning, and
sometimes also use trial and error activity, and ultimately some solution to the problem is found out. Gestalt
Psychologists have made a series of experiments in this direction.
THANK YOU!
• LEARNER’S CHARACTERISTICS
• ADOLESCENT LEARNERS
MODULE 9
• ADULT LEARNERS
• INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Learners Characteristics
q The concept of learners characteristics is used in the sciences of learning and cognition to designate a target
group of learners and define those aspects of their persona, academic, social or cognitive self that may
influence how and what they learn.
q Learners characteristics are important for an instructional designer as they allow them to design and create
tailored instruction for a target group. It is expected by taking account of characteristics of earners, more
efficient, effective, and/or motivating instructional materials can be designed and developed. Learners
characteristics can be:
1. Personal,
2. Academic,
3. Social and emotional, and
4. Cognitive

1. Personal characteristics often relate to demographic information such as age, gender, maturation, language,
social-economic cultural background and specific needs of a leader group such a particular skills and
disabilities for and/or impairments to learning.
2. Academic characteristics are more education and/or learning-related such as learning goals of an individual
or a group, prior knowledge, educational type, and educational level.
3. Social and emotional characteristics related to the group or individual with respect to the group. Ex. of
social/emotional characteristics are group structure, place of the individual within group, sociability, self-
image, feelings of self-efficiency and mode etc.
4. Cognitive characteristics relate to such things as attention span, memory, mental procedures, and
intellectual skills which determine how the learner perceives, remembers thinks, solves problems, organizes
and represents information in her/his brain.
Adolescent Learners
Characteristics of Adolescent Learners: The characteristics of Adolescent learners can be explained in the
following factors:
§ Physical Development
q Restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes.
q A need for physical activity because of increased energy.
q Developing sexual awareness, and often touching and bumping into others.
q A concern with changes in body size and shape.
q Physical vulnerability resulting from poor health/dietary habits or engaging in risky behaviours.
q Bodily changes that may cause awkward, uncoordinated movements.
§ Intellectual (Academic) Development:
q Moving from concrete to abstract thinking.
q An intense curiosity and a wide range of intellectual pursuit, few of which are sustained over the long term.
q High achievement when challenged and engaged.
q Prefers active over passive learning experiences.
q Interest in interacting with peers during learning activities.
q An ability to be self-reflective.
q Demand the relevance in learning and what is being taught.
q Developing the capacity to understand higher levels of humour, some of which may be misunderstood by
adults to be sarcastic or even aggressive
§ Social Development:
q Experimenting with ways of talking and acting as part of searching for a social position with peers.
q Exploring questions of racial and ethnic identity and seeking peers who share the same background.
q Exploring questions of sexual identity in visible or invisible ways.
q Feeling intimidated or frightened by the initial middle school experience.
q Liking fads and being interested in popular culture.
q Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.
q Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting behaviours.
q As interpersonal skills are being developed, fluctuates between demand for independence and a desire for
guidance and direction.
§ Emotional and Psychological Development:
q Mood swings marked by peaks of intensity and by unpredictability.
q Needing to release energy, with sudden outbursts of activity.
q A desire to become independent and to search for adult identity and acceptance.
q Self-consciousness and being sensitive to personal criticism.
q Concern about physical growth and maturity.
q A belief that their personal problems, feelings, and experiences are unique to
themselves.
q Overreacting to ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection.
q Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting behaviours.
§ Moral Development:
q An understanding of the complexity of moral issues (question values, cultural expressions, and religious
teachings).
q Being capable of and interested in participating in democracy.
q Impatience with the pace of change and underestimating how difficult it is to make social changes.
q Needing and being influenced by adult role models who will listen and be trustworthy.
q Relying on parents and important adults for advice but wanting to make their own decisions.
q Judging others quickly but acknowledging one’s own faults slowly.
q Show compassion and are vocal for those who are downtrodden or suffering and have a special concern for
animals and environmental issues.
Adult Learners
§ Characteristics of Adult Learners
q Problem-cantered; seek educational solutions.
q Results-oriented; have specific results in mind for education.
q Self-directed; typically, not dependent on others for direction.
q Often sceptical about new information; prefer to try it out before accepting it.
q Seek education that relates or applies directly to their perceived needs, that is timely and appropriate for
their current lives.
q Accept responsibility for their own learning if learning is perceived as timely and appropriate .
Individual Differences
q Individual differences are found in all psychological characteristics physical mental abilities, knowledge, habit,
personality and character traits.
q The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group differences. This study classifies individuals
by age, traits, sex, race, social class and so on, and observes the differences within and between those groups.
Physical, mental, social and cultural differences etc. are being studied, under individual differences.” – John P.De
Ceeceo
q According to Skinner, “Today we think of individual differences as including any measurable aspect of the total
personality.” It is clear from this definition of individual differences that it comprehends every aspect of human
personality which is in some manner measurable.
q With respect to learner characteristics, there are often large differences between the characteristics of different
learner and groups of learners such as children, students, professionals, adult, older people and disabled persons.
This group differ in their motivation, prior knowledge, expertise level, study time, and physical abilities, etc.
§ Individual differences can be categorized on the following factors:
1. Physical Appearance
2. Intelligence
3. Attitudes
4. Achievement: It has been found through achievement tests that individuals differ in their
achievement abilities. These differences are very much visible in reading, writing and learning
mathematics.
5. Motor ability
6. Sex
7. Racial differences
8. Economic status
9. Interests
10. Emotion
11. Personality
THANK YOU!
• CONCEPT OF EVALUATION
• CHARACTERISTICS OF EVALUATION
MODULE 10
• FUNCTIONS AND OBJECTIVES OF EVALUATION
• TYPES OF EVALUATION
Concept of Evaluation
q In every walk of life the process of evaluation takes place in one or the other form. If the evaluation process is eliminated from
human life then perhaps the aim of life may be lost. It is only through evaluation that one can discriminate between good and
bad. The whole cycle of social development revolves around the evaluation process.
q In education how much a child has succeeded in his aims, can only be determined through evaluation. Thus there is a close
relationship between evaluation and aims.
q Education is considered as an investment in human beings in terms of development of human resources, skills, motivation,
knowledge and the like. Evaluation helps to build an educational programme, assess its achievements and improve upon its
effectiveness.
q It serves as an in-built monitor within the programme to review the progress in learning from time to time. It also provides
valuable feedback on the design and the implementation of the programme. Thus, evaluation plays a significant role in any
educational programme.
q Evaluation plays an enormous role in the teaching-learning process. It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and
learning. Evaluation is a continuous process and a periodic exercise.
q It helps in forming the values of judgement, educational status, or achievement of student. Evaluation in one form or the other is
inevitable in teaching-learning, as in all fields of activity of education judgements need to be made.
q In learning, it contributes to formulation of objectives, designing of learning experiences and assessment of learner performance.
Besides this, it is very useful to bring improvement in teaching and curriculum. It provides accountability to the society, parents,
and to the education system.
Evaluation has its four different aspects namely:
(i) Objectives,
(ii) Learning experiences,
(iii) Learner appraisal and the, and
(iv) Relationship between the three.
The term evaluation conveys several meanings in education and psychology.
Different authors have different notions of evaluation:
1. Encyclopedia of Education Research: To measure means to observe or determine the magnitude of variate;
evaluation means assessment or appraisal.
2. James M. Bradfield: Evaluation is the assignment of symbols to phenomenon, in order to characterise the
worth or value of a phenomenon, usually with reference to some social, cultural or scientific standards.
3. Gronlund and Linn: Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information
to determine the extent to which pupils are achieving instructional objectives.
Perhaps the most extended definition of evaluation has been supplied by C.E. Beeby (1977), who described
evaluation as “the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence leading as a part of process to a
judgement of value with a view to action.”
In this definition, there are the following four key elements:

(i) Systematic collection of evidence.
(ii) Its interpretation.
(iii) Judgement of value.
(iv) With a view to action.
Characteristics of Evaluation
The analysis of all the above definitions makes us able to draw following characteristics of evaluation:
1. Evaluation implies a systematic process which omits the casual uncontrolled observation of pupils.
2. Evaluation is a continuous process. In an ideal situation, the teaching- learning process on the one hand and the evaluation
procedure on the other hand, go together. It is certainly a wrong belief that the evaluation procedure follows the teaching-learning
process.
3. Evaluation emphasises the broad personality changes and major objectives of an educational programme. Therefore, it includes not
only subject-matter achievements but also attitudes, interests and ideals, ways of thinking, work habits and personal and social
adaptability.
4. Evaluation always assumes that educational objectives have previously been identified and defined. This is the reason why teachers
are expected not to lose sight of educational objectives while planning and carrying out the teaching-learning process either in the
classroom or outside it.
5. A comprehensive programme of evaluation involves the use of many procedures (for example, analytico-synthetic, heuristic,
experimental, lecture, etc.); a great variety of tests (for example, essay type, objective type, etc.); and other necessary techniques (for
example, socio-metric, controlled-observation techniques, etc.).
6. Learning is more important than teaching. Teaching has no value if it does not result in learning on the part of the pupils.
7. Objectives and accordingly learning experiences should be so relevant that ultimately they should direct the pupils towards the
accomplishment of educational goals.
8. To assess the students and their complete development brought about through education is evaluation.
9. Evaluation is the determination of the congruence between the performance and objectives.

Purposes and Functions of Evaluation
q Evaluation plays a vital role in teaching learning experiences.
q It is an integral part of the instructional programmes. It provides information’s on the basis of which many
educational decisions are taken.
q We are to stick to the basic function of evaluation which is required to be practiced for pupil and his learning
processes.
Evaluation has the following functions:
1. Placement Functions
2. Instructional Functions
3. Diagnostic Functions
4. Predictive functions
5. Administrative Functions
.
Types of Evaluation
1. Placement Evaluation
q Placement evaluation is designed to place the right person in the right place. It ensures the entry performance of the pupil.
The future success of the instructional process depends on the success of placement evaluation.
q Placement evaluation aims at evaluating the pupil’s entry behaviour in a sequence of instruction. In other words the main
goal of such evaluation is to determine the level or position of the child in the instructional sequence.
q We have a planned scheme of instruction for classroom which is supposed to bring a change in pupil’s behaviour in an
orderly manner. Then we prepare or place the students for planned instruction for their better prospects.
q When a pupil is to undertake a new instruction, it is essential to know the answer of the following questions:
a. Does the pupil possess required knowledge and skills for the instruction?
b. Whether the pupil has already mastered some of the instructional objectives or not?
c. Whether the mode of instruction is suitable to pupil’s interests, work habits and personal characteristics?
We get the answer to all the probable questions by using a variety of tests, self report inventories,
observational techniques, case study, attitude test and achievement tests.
Sometimes past experiences, which inspire for present learning also lead to the further placement in a better
position or admission. This type of evaluation is helpful for admission of pupils into a new course of
instruction.
Examples:
i. Aptitude test
ii. Self-reporting inventories
iii. Observational techniques
iv. Medical entrance exam.
v. Engineering or Agriculture entrance exam.
2. Formative Evaluation:
q Formative evaluation is used to monitor the learning progress of students during the period of instruction. Its
main objective is to provide continuous feedback to both teacher and student concerning learning successes
and failures while instruction is in process.
q Feedback to students provides reinforcement of successful learning and identifies the specific learning errors
that need correction. Feedback to teacher provides information for modifying instruction and for prescribing
group and individual remedial work.
q Formative evaluation helps a teacher to ascertain the pupil-progress from time to time. At the end of a topic
or unit or segment or a chapter the teacher can evaluate the learning outcomes basing on which he can modify
his methods, techniques and devices of teaching to provide better learning experiences.
q The teacher can even modify the instructional objectives, if necessary. In other words, formative evaluation
provides feedback to the teacher. The teacher can know which aspects of the learning task were mastered and
which aspects were poorly or not at all mastered by pupils.
q Formative evaluation helps the teacher to assess the relevance and appropriateness of the learning experiences
provided and to assess instantly how far the goals are being fulfilled.Thus, it aims at improvement of instruction.
The functions of formation evaluation are:
(a) Diagnosing:
Diagnosing is concerned with determining the most appropriate method or instructional materials conducive to learning.
(b) Placement:
Placement is concerned with the finding out the position of an individual in the curriculum from which he has to start learning.
(c) Monitoring:
Monitoring is concerned with keeping track of the day-today progress of the learners and to point out changes necessary in the
methods of teaching, instructional strategies, etc.
Characteristics of Formative Evaluation:
a. It is an integral part of the learning process.
b. It occurs, frequently, during the course of instruction.
c. Its results are made immediately known to the learners.
d. It may sometime take form of teacher observation only.
e. It reinforces learning of the students.
f. It pinpoints difficulties being faced by a weak learner.
g. Its results cannot be used for grading or placement purposes.
h. It helps in modification of instructional strategies including method of teaching, immediately.
i. It motivates learners, as it provides them with knowledge of progress made by them.
j. It sees role of evaluation as a process.
k. It is generally a teacher-made test.
l. It does not take much time to be constructed.
Examples:
i. Monthly tests.
ii. Class tests.
iii. Periodical assessment.
iv. Teacher’s observation, etc.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation:
q It is concerned with identifying the learning difficulties or weakness of pupils during instruction. It tries to locate or
discover the specific area of weakness of a pupil in a given course of instruction and also tries to provide remedial
measure.
q N.E. Gronlund says “…… formative evaluation provides first-aid treatment for simple learning problems whereas
diagnostic evaluation searches for the underlying causes of those problems that do not respond to first-aid
treatment.”
q When the teacher finds that inspite of the use of various alternative methods, techniques and corrective
prescriptions the child still faces learning difficulties, he takes recourse to a detailed diagnosis through specifically
designed tests called ‘diagnostic tests’.
q Diagnosis can be made by employing observational techniques, too. In case of necessity the services of
psychological and medical specialists can be utilised for diagnosing serious learning handicaps.
4. Summative Evaluation:
q Summative evaluation is done at the end of a course of instruction to know to what extent the objectives
previously fixed have been accomplished. In other words, it is the evaluation of pupils’ achievement at the end
of a course.
q The main objective of the summative evaluation is to assign grades to the pupils. It indicates the degree to
which the students have mastered the course content. It helps to judge the appropriateness of instructional
objectives. Summative evaluation is generally the work of standardised tests.
q It tries to compare one course with another. The approaches of summative evaluation imply some sort of final
comparison of one item or criteria against another. It has the danger of making negative effects.
q This evaluation may brand a student as a failed candidate, and thus causes frustration and setback in the
learning process of the candidate, which is an example of the negative effect.
q The traditional examinations are generally summative evaluation tools. Tests for formative evaluation are given
at regular and frequent intervals during a course; whereas tests for summative evaluation are given at the end
of a course or at the end of a fairly long period (say, a semester).
The functions of summative evaluation are:
A. Crediting: Crediting is concerned with collecting evidence that a learner has achieved some
instructional goals in contents in respect to a defined curricular programme.
B. Certifying: Certifying is concerned with giving evidence that the learner is able to perform a job
according to the previously determined standards.
C. Promoting: It is concerned with promoting pupils to next higher class.
D. Selecting: Selecting the pupils for different courses after completion of a particular course structure.
Characteristics of Summative Evaluation:
a. It is terminal in nature as it comes at the end of a course of instruction (or a programme).
b. It is judgemental in character in the sense that it judges the achievement of pupils.
c. It views evaluation “as a product”, because its chief concern is to point out the levels of attainment.
d. It cannot be based on teachers observations only.
e. It does not pin-point difficulties faced by the learner.
f. Its results can be used for placement or grading purposes.
g. It reinforces learning of the students who has learnt an area.
h. It may or may not motivate a learner. Sometimes, it may have negative effect.
Examples:
1. Traditional school and university examination,
2. Teacher-made tests,
3. Standardised tests,
4. Practical and oral tests, and
5. Rating scales, etc.
1. Criterion-Referenced Evaluation
q When the evaluation is concerned with the performance of the individual in terms of what he can do or the
behaviour he can demonstrate, is termed as criterion- referenced evaluation. In this evaluation there is a
reference to a criterion.
q But there is no reference to the performance of other individuals in the group. In it we refer an individual’s
performance to a predetermined criterion which is well defined.
Examples:
A. Raman got 93 marks in a test of Mathematics.
B. A typist types 60 words per minute.
C. Amit’s score in a reading test is 70.
q A criterion-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to a
defined achievement domain.
q In the above examples there is no reference to the performance of other members of the
group. Thus criterion-referenced evaluation determines an individual’s status with reference
to well defined criterion behaviour.
q It is an attempt to interpret test results in terms of clearly defined learning outcomes which
serve as referents (criteria). Success of criterion-reference test lies in the delineation of all
defined levels of achievement which are usually specified in terms of behaviourally stated
instructional objectives.
q The purpose of criterion-referenced evaluation/test is to assess the objectives. It is the
objective based test. The objectives are assessed, in terms of behavioural changes among
the students.
q Such type of test assesses the ability of the learner in relation to the criterion behaviour.
2. Norm Referenced Evaluation:
q Norm-referenced evaluation is the traditional class-based assignment of numerals to the attribute being

measured. It means that the measurement act relates to some norm, group or a typical performance.
q It is an attempt to interpret the test results in terms of the performance of a certain group. This group is a
norm group because it serves as a referent of norm for making judgements.
q Test scores are neither interpreted in terms of an individual (self-referenced) nor in terms of a standard of
performance or a pre-determined acceptable level of achievement called the criterion behaviour (criterion-
referenced). The measurement is made in terms of a class or any other norm group.
q Almost all our classroom tests, public examinations and standardised tests are norm-referenced as they are
interpreted in terms of a particular class and judgements are formed with reference to the class.
Examples:
A. Raman stood first in Mathematics test in his class.
B. The typist who types 60 words per minute stands above 90 percent of the typists who appeared the
interview.
C. Amit surpasses 65% of students of his class in reading test.

q A norm-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to the performance of
other individuals on that test.
q In the above examples, the person’s performance is compared to others of their group and the
relative standing position of the person in his/her group is mentioned. We compare an individual’s
performance with similar information about the performance of others.
q That is why selection decisions always depend on norm- referenced judgements. A major
requirement of norm-referenced judgements is that individuals being measured and individuals
forming the group or norm, are alike. In norm-referenced tests very easy and very difficult items are
discarded and items of medium difficulty are preferred because our aim is to study relative
achievement.
Indicators for Teacher Evaluation Other Evaluation techniques

• Teaching Quality • Observation of classes
• Examination Results • Systematic Reporting
• Students Attendance • Questionnaires or Checklists
• Promoting Library interest • Interviews
• Relationship with students • Peer Evaluation
• Academic growth • Student Evaluation
• Innovativeness • Discussion Groups
• Extensions • Relationship with students
• Co-curricular Activities
THANK YOU!
• CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM
MODULE 11 • COMPUTER BASED TESTING
Evaluation in Choice Based Credit System in Higher Education
Choice Based Credit System
q University Grants Commission has come up with the Choice Based Credit System (CBCS) programme in
which the students have a choice to choose from the prescribed courses, which are referred as core,
elective or minor or soft skill courses and they can learn at their own pace and the entire assessment is
graded-based on a credit system.
q The basic idea is to look into the needs of the students so as to keep up-to-date with development of
higher education in India and abroad. CBCS aims to redefine the curriculum keeping pace with the
liberalisation and globalisation in education.
q CBCS allows students an easy mode of mobility to various educational institutions spread across the world
along with the facility of transfer of credits earned by students.
It has the following basic elements:
1. Semesters: The assessment is done semester wise. A student progresses on the basis of the courses taken rather than time like
three years for science, arts, commerce or four years for engineering etc. Each semester will have 15–18 weeks of academic
work which is equal to 90 teaching days. There is flexibility in creating the curriculum and assigning credits based on the course
content and hours of teaching.
2. Credit system: Each course is assigned a certain credit. When the student passes that course, he earns the credits which are
based on that course. If a student passes a single course in a semester, he does not have to repeat that course later. The
students can earn credits according to his pace.
3. Credit transfer: If for some reasons, he cannot cope with the study load or if he falls sick, he has the freedom to study fewer
courses and earn fewer credits and he can compensate this in the next semester.
4. Comprehensive continuous assessment: There is a continuous evaluation of the student not only by the teachers but also by
the student himself.
5. Grading: UGC has introduced a 10-point grading system as follows: O (Outstanding): 10
§ A+ (Excellent): 9
§ A (Very Good): 8 B+ (Good): 7
§ B (Above Average): 6 C (Average): 5
§ P (Pass): 4
§ F (Fail): 0
§ Ab (Absent): 0
How is the credit counted?
q One credit per semester is equal to one hour of teaching, which includes both lecture (L) or tutorial (T) or
two hours of practical work/field work (P) per week. A study course can have only L component or only T
or P component or combination of any two or all the three components. The total credits earned by a
student for each semester is L+T+P.
q In compliance with the global grading system All the major higher education institutions across the world
are implementing a system of credits. For instance, we have the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS)
in Europe’s universities, the ‘National Qualifications Framework’ in Australia. There is the Pan-Canadian
Protocol on the Transferability of University Credits. In the UK, we have the Credit Accumulation and
Transfer System (CATS). Even the systems operating in the US, Japan, etc. are based on credit system.
Types of Courses
Courses in a programme may be of three kinds:
1. Core Course: There may be a Core Course in every semester. This is the course which is to be
compulsorily studied by a student as a core requirement to complete the requirement of a programme in
a said discipline of study.
2. Elective course:Elective course is a course which can be chosen from a pool of papers. It may be
q Supportive to the discipline of study
q Providing an expanded scope
q Enabling an exposure to some other domain.
q Nurturing student's proficiency/skill.
3. Foundation Course: The foundation courses may be of two kinds
q Compulsory foundation- based upon the content that leads to knowledge enhancement.
q Elective foundation - value based and are aimed at man making education.
§ Advantages of Choice Based Credit System
q The CBCS offers a ‘cafeteria’ approach in which the students can choose courses of their own choice
q The credit system allows a student to study what he prefers in his own sequence as per his interests.
q They can learn at their own pace.
q They can opt for additional courses and can achieve more than the required credits.
q They can also opt for an interdisciplinary approach to learning.
q Inter college/university migration within the country and outside becomes easy with the transfer of Credits. This means that it
will be easier for foreign universities to come and offer courses in India.
q Can opt for one part of the course in one institute and the other part in another institute. This will help in making a clear choice
between good and bad colleges/ institutes.
q The students have more scope to enhance their skills and more scope of taking up projects and assignments, vocational training,
including entrepreneurship.
q The system improves the job opportunities of students.
q The system will help in enabling potential employers assess the performance of students on a scientific scale.
§ Disadvantages of CBCS
q Not very easy to estimate the exact marks.
q Teachers’ workload may fluctuate.
q Needs proper and good infrastructure for a universal spread of education.
Conclusion: It is too early to say whether CBCS will be successful or not. The UGC has always initiated
measures to bring efficiency and excellence in the Higher Education System of India. The basic motive is
to expand academic quality in all aspects, right from the curriculum to the learning-teaching process to
examination and evaluation systems. However, so far multiple methods are followed by different
universities across the country towards examination, evaluation and grading system. Considering this
diversity, the implementation of the choice based credit system seems to be a good system in assessing
the overall performance of a student in a universal way of a single grading system.
Computer based testing(CBT)
q CBT has emerged as one of the recent "innovative" approaches to assessments most pursued by states.
q ICT has become within a very short time, one of the basic building blocks of modern society.
q Many countries now regard understanding it and mastering its basic skills and concepts as very crucial in education.
This is because it adds value to the processes of learning and to the organization and administration of learning
institutions.
q According to Brown(1997), computer based tests have been used in second language testing since the early 80's.This
rapid change in mode of administration of tests is very understandable. As Jamieson (2005) states, computers have a
number of very desirable functions that considerably eases up the test creation and assessment task, including item
creation and presentation.
Five methods of collecting students answer in a computer-assisted assessment:

1. Selecting (multiple choices)
2. Supplying
3. Ordering/Ranking
4. Matching
5. Locating
§ Advantages of Computer Based Testing

q Timely feedback, the teacher can provide feedback.
q Automatic feedback, some forms of online assessments answers like mcqs.
q Monitoring and tracking of learners results behaviour.
q Choice of assessment modes, such as multimedia, inter- activity, etc.
q Time saving; an assessment can created using software tools and adopted and reused as needed.
q Reduces resources needed by replacing human resources with computer resources.
q Flexible and comfortable environment; online tests afford students the opportunity to take tests on their own terms.
q Computers are more accurate at reporting.
q It can give immediate feedback.
§ Disadvantages of Computer Based Testing
q Possible authoring and security failures.
q Additional work for teacher to generate a broad band of questions;
q Possible technical failures in the server ,computers, network or software when performing the test.
q Technical difficulties to automatically mark certain types of exams.
q A high level of organization is required across all parties involved in assessment.
q Assessors and invigilators need training in assessment design, IT skills and examination management.
q Hardware and software must be carefully monitored to avoid failure during examination and students require adequate IT
skills and experiences of the assessment type.
THANK YOU!
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– UNIT 1 Teaching Aptitude ( Weightage of unit:5-6 questions )

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