Easy To Build Projects For Everyone: SEPT. 77

Easy to build projects for everyone
SEPT. 77
35p
-
11 11 11 it
JUBILEE WILE
Type
74 SERIES TTL IC's
Quantity Type Quantity Type Quantity
TESTED TRANSISTOR PA KS
All devices brand new, tested and coded
1 100 1 100 I 100 J1 3 each AC128/ACI76 116 2 each BFY50/51/52
tp Et, fpfp ip Ep 12 10 x 13C107 J17 6 x 0071
7400 0.09 0.08 7448 0'70 0.68 74122 0.45 0.42 J3 10 x 8C108 118 4 each ZTX108/9 2 x ZTXI07
7401 0-11 0.10 7450 0.12 0.10 74123 0.65 0.62 J4 10 x BC109 119 2 each ZTX301/2 4 x ZTX300
7402 0.11 0.10 7451 0-12 0.10 74141 0.68 0.65 35 3 each BC148/149-2 BC I 47* 120 2 each ZTX500/1/2.
J6 3 each 8C169/17 I / 1 72. J2I 4 each 2N706/2N708
7403 0.11 0.10 7453 0.12 0.10 74145 0.75 0-72 J7 2 each 8C177/8/9 J22 I each 2N2218/19/21/22
7404 0-11 0-10 7454 0.12 0.10 74150 1.10 1.05 J8 2 each BC I 82/3/4. .I23 2 each 2N904/05
7405 0-11 0-10 7460 0.12 0.10 74151 0.65 0.60 19 2 each BC212/213/214. J24 3 each 2N2907 2 x 2N2906
7406 0-28 0.25 7470 0'24 0.23 74153 0.70 0.68 110 2 x BC327 3 x BC328. 125 7 x 2N2926 G
7407 0.28 0.25 7472 0.20 0.19 74154 1-20 1'10
JI 12 x BC337 3 x BC338 J26 4 x 2N3053
)12 2 each BF115-8F167-BF173 J27 2 x 2N3055
7408 0.12 0.11 7473 0.26 0-22 74155 0-70 0.68 113 2 each 0F1941516. J28 3 each 2N3702/03/04.
7409 0-12 0-11 7474 0.24 0.23 74156 0.70 0.68 )14 2 x BF258 129 3 each 2N3904/06.
7410 0.09 0-08 7475 0 44 0.40 74157 0.70 0.68 115 2 x BFX29 3 x BFX84
7411 0.22 0.20 7476 0.26 0.25 74160 0.95 0.85 PRICE 60p PER PACK
7412 0.22 0.20 7480 0.45 0.42 74161 0.95 0-85
7413
7416
0.26
0.28
0.25
0-25
7481
7482
0 90 0.88 74162
0.75 0.73 74163
0.95 0-85
0.95 0-85 TESTED DIODE PA KS
7417 0.26 0-25 7483 0 88 0.82 74164 1-20 1.10 J30 12 x 0A81 J35 20 x IN4001 )39 5 x 1N5400
7420 0-11 0-10 7484 0.85 0-80 74165 1.20 1.10 131 12 x 0A91 )36 15 x IN4002 J40 5 x IN5401
7422 0.19 0.18 7485 1.10 1.00 74166 1-20 1.10
J32 12 x 0A200 J37 10 x IN4004 141 4 x IN5404
)33 12 x 0A202 138 8 x IN4007 342 3 x IN5408
7423 0.21 0.20 7486 0.28 026 74174 1-10 1.00 )34 15 x1N4148
7425 0-25 0.23 7489 2.70 2-50 74175 0.85 0-82 PRICE 60p PER PACK
7426 0-25 0.23 7490 0.38 0.32 74176 1.10 1.00
7427
7428
0-25 0.23
0.36 0'34 7492
7491 0.65 0-62
0-43 0-35
74177
74180
110 1.00
1-10 1.00
OPTOELECTRONICS
0-38 0-35 )43 4 x DL707 + Data L2.80
7430 0.12 0-10 7493 74181 1.90 1-80 J44 5 x -125 Red LED 10.50
7432 0.20 0-19 7494 0.70 0.68 74182 0.30 0.78 J45 5 x .2 Red LED L0.50
7433 0.38 0-36 7495 0.60 0.58 74184 .50 1.40 146 5 x -2 and -125 LED's mixed colours L0.50
7437 0-26 0.25 7496 0.70 0-68 74190 '40 1.30 147 3 x ORPI2 equivalent LI 20
7438 0 26 0.25 74 00 0.95 0.90 74191 .41 1.30 148 5 x OCP71 LI 00
7440
7441
0.12
0.60
0-10
0.57
74 04
74 05
0.40 0.35 74192
0.30 0.25 74193
10 100
05 1.00 THYRISTOR PACKS
7442 0.80 0-70 74 07 0.30 0.25 74194 An 1.00 )49 2x I amp I x4001 x600 LI -00
7443 0.95 0.90 74 10 0.48 0.45 74195 0 80 0-75 J50 5anip SCR I x 50 2 x 400 1 x600 CI 50
7444 0.95 0-90 74 II 0.75 0'72 74196 0-90 0.85
7445
7446
0.80
0.80
0-75
0.75
74 18
74 19
0-85
1-30
0-82
1.20
74197
74198
0-90 0.85
I90 1.80
UNIJI UNCTION F.E.T. PAKS
0-70 0.68 74 21 0-28 0.26 I80 I70
74199 151 6 x TIS43/UT46 LI .00
7447 J52 4 x 2N38I9 £0.60
Devices may be mixed to qualify for quantity price. Data is avail-
able for the above series of IC's in booklet form Price 35p
P.C.B. PRODUCTS
CMOS ICs J53 2x Etch resistant pens
)54 2 x etchant paks
LI '00
L1.00
CD4000 LO 18 CD4022 LO 80 CD4046 L0.95
CD4001
CD4002
CD4006
LO 18
CO 18
L0 80
CD4023
CD4024
CD4025
LO 18
LO 64
LO 18
CD4047
CD4049
CD4050
LO 75
10.46
L0.46
D.I.Y. PRINTED CIRCUIT KIT
CONTAINS 6 Pieces copper laminate, box of enchant powder and
CD4007 LO 18 CD4026 11-85 CD4054 10.95 measure, tweezers, marker pen, high quality pump drill, Stanley knife
CD4008 LO 80 CD4027 10.48 CD4055 11.60 & blades, 6 inch metal rule. FULL Easy to follow instructions.
CD4009 L0 50 CD4028 CO.80 CD4056 fl 15
J59 ONLY I5.50
CD4010 L0 50 C04029 LO 95 CD4069 10.32
CD4011 40 18 CD4030 L0'46 CD4070 LO 32
CD4012
CD4013
CO 18
LO 42
C04031
CD4035
LI 80
LI 40
CD407 I
CD4072
LO 20
f0.20
RESISTOR PAK
CD4015 LO 80 CD4037 LO 78 CD4081 L0.20 J55 240 first quality g/I-VV resistors -mixed from 100ohin-820k LI .60
CD4016 LO 42 CD4040 LO '78 CD4082 LO 20 156 160 first quality -}-W resistors -mixed from 100ohm-820k El .60
CD4017 CO 80 CD4041 E0.68 CD4510 LI .10
CD40113
CD4019
LO 85
60-45
CD4042
CD4043
E0 '68
60.78
CD45 I
CD4516
I 11-25
L1.10 ELECTROLYTIC PAK
CD4020 L0 95 CD4044 LO 78 CD4518 LI .10 J57 54 first quality miniature electrolytics from -47µF-1000pS El -20*
C04021 LO -85 CD4045 L1.15 CD4520 CI -10
ORDERING
CERAMIC PAK
J58 93 first quality ceramic capacitors -mixed from 22pF-047µF LI -60*
PLEASE WORD YOUR ORDERS EXACTLY AS PRINTED
NOT FORGETTING TO INCLUDE OUR "J" NUMBERS
V.A.T. I.C. SOCKET PAKS
360 1 x 8 pin D.I.L. Sockets
I CI 00
ADD I2i% TO PRICES MARKED " ADD 8% TO ALL J6I 10 x 14 pin D.I.L. Sockets 00
OTHERS J62 9 x 16 pin D.I.L. Sockets 11.00
POSTAGE AND PACKING
ADD 2Sp FOR POSTAGE AND PACKING UNLESS
OTHERWISE SHOWN. ADD EXTRA FOR AIRMAIL
ZENER PAKS
J63 20 mixed value 400MW zener diodes 3-10V II -00
MINIMUM ORDER £100 164 20 mixed value 400MW zener diodes 11-33V 11-00
Dept. E.E.9, P.O. Box 6, Ware, Herts

COMPONENTS SHOP.
18, BALDOCK STREET, WARE, HERTS.
11
VOL. 7 NO. 1 SEPTEMBER 1977
CONSTRUCTIONAL PROJECTS
PROBOPHONE Simple to use electronic organ by D. C. Jenkin 8
DYNAMO BACK-UP Useful aid to the cyclist by R. Everson 14
FLASHER BLEEPER Attracts the attention of the forgetful driver by T. R. de Vaux-Balbirnie, B.Sc. 24
ADD-ON CAPACITANCE UNIT Turn your multimeter into a capacitance meter by R. A. Pen fold 32
GENERAL FEATURES
EDITORIAL 6
SHOP TALK New products and components for constructional projects by Brian Terrell 13
THE OSCILLOSCOPE How it works, what it does by John Smith 18
SQUARE ONE Beginners! Start Here! 19
BRIGHT IDEAS Reader's hints and tips 20
BOOK REVIEWS A selection of recent releases 22
PHYSICS IS FUN Shocking coils by Derrick Daines 23
READERS' LETTERS Your news and views 27
RADIO ASTRONOMY AT CAMBRIDGE Looking at the stars with radio by S. McClelland 28
WHAT DO YOU KNOW? Test your knowledge-Power 35
YOUR CAREER IN ELECTRONICS Selling components by Peter Verwig 36
JACK PLUG AND FAMILY Cartoon 39
FOR YOUR ENTERTAINMENT Video cassettes by Adrian Hope 40
PROFESSOR ERNEST EVERSURE The Extraordinary Experiments of. by Anthony J. Bassett 42
DOWN TO EARTH Mains hum and earth by George Hylton 44
PLEASE TAKE NOTE Touch Switch, Fish Attractor, Fuzztone, Soil Moisture Monitor 44
Back Number Service and Binders

Back issues of EVERYDAY ELECTRONICS (June 1977 onwards) are avail-
able worldwide at a cost of 60p per copy inclusive of postage and packing.
Orders and remittance should be sent to: Post Sales Department, IPC SQUARE
Magazines Ltd., Lavington House, 25 Lavington Street, London SE1 OPF.
Binders for Volumes 1 to 6 (state which) are available from the above address
for £2.10 inclusive of postage and packing.
SfrxeatiPelft
© IPC Magazines Limited 1977. Copyright in all drawings, photographs and articles for BEGINNERS
ONE
published in EVERYDAY ELECTRONICS is fully protected, and reproductions or
imitations in whole or in part are expressly forbidden.
All seasonable precautions are taken to ensure that the advice and data given to
readers are reliable. We cannot however guarantee it, and we cannot accept legal re-
sponsibility for it. Prices quoted are those current as we go to press.
Everyday Electronics, September 1977 7

JA
By D. JENKIN
Small hand held electronic organs have become very popular in

INTRODUCTION recent years. The following design illustrates how such an instru-
ment can be constructed quite simply using just one integrated
circuit, the 556 dual timer.
HOW IT WORKS... START

LOW FREQUENCY
HERE FOR
OSCILLATOR
VIBRATO ( DEPTH)
CONSTRUCTION
OSCILLATOR
Excluding the 20 presets, most of

the circuitry is mounted on a piece
of stripboard having 17 strips by
25 holes. The layout of this board
is shown in Fig. 2. which also shows
J the connections required to VR1,
the loudspeaker and the keyboard,
etc. Alternatively, if the construc-
RESISTOR VALUES
tor wishes, this part of the circuit
DETERMINE OSCILLATOR may be incorporated on a printed
FREQUENCY
circuit board, Fig. 1.
Refering to Fig. 3. this shows the
For the main oscillator of the Probophone to function, the circuit needs to copper pattern required for the
be completed by the addition of a resistor. This is accomplished by means keyboard and presets. To make
of a probe(from the circuitry) selecting via a keyboard arrangement, one of a life easier, use is made of sticky
range of resistances connected to the keyboard notes and wired back to labels to define the area for the
the circuit. By touching the probe on one of the "note -pads", a tone is
heard in the loudspeaker. The resistances are chosen so that the twenty
"keys". Using this particular
tones produced are in accordance with a 14- octave musical scale. method the copper pattern can be
A second oscillator running at a much lower frequency, about 10Hz, is drawn more accurately.
fed to a point in the master oscillator that causes a change in frequency, Begin by cleaning the copper
to-and-fro about that selected by the probe to produce a warbling or board thoroughly using either steel
vibrato effect. wool or a scouring powder. Ensure
8 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

KEYBOARD PROBE
G)G1030PC:10J2 x
1+
11°--11111WIIIIIIIL111111111
Fig. 1. if the circuit is to be built on a PCB then this is the required copper pattern.
Also shown is the component layout on the plain side of the board.
Two views of the PCB version

On the left a topside view
showing the components, and
on the right the underside
showing the copper pattern.
DIRECTION OF
COPPER STRIPS
z-
20 22 24
00 0000
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 16 18
000 00000
1 14
0
0
R2
IC1 0
4 0-(11 0
4 OH 0
4 0
4 0
4
C3
4
410
0
TO KEYBOARD
0 RI
O R3
0
O 0 C1
TO LS1
O0000 4111H0
011151 00000 000000
0= BREAKS IN COPPER STRIPS 0= VEROPINS
Photograph of the corn- Fig. 2. Stripboard layout also showing the breaks required on the underside. This
pleted stripboard layout. method of construction is preferred if the constructor is unsure about making a PCB.

CIRCUIT
DESCRIPTION
OPERATION OF THE Rq
Vcc 4 14 RESET
556 TIMER
DISCHARGE 1
Referring to Fig. 5, this shows a TR1
5 OUTPUT
block diagram of one of the two
timers contained in the i.c. The THRESHOLD
external components are connec- R8
VOLTAGE
REFERENCE
ted in such a way to produce a
continuously running multivibra- ./4.1"
3 CONTROL VOLTAGE
THRESHOLD 2
ter. The two resistors RA and RB,
and the capacitor C set the fre-
quency of oscillation. COMP 2
The capacitor C charges up at TRIGGER 6
a rate dependent on the values of TRIGGER

RA and RB. As the capacitor VOLTAGE
REFERENCE
charges the voltage across it rises
towards the threshold voltage in 0
the timer. The comparator, 1, sen-
ses this voltage and causes the flip
flop to change state, in doing so it Fig. 5. A block diagram of one of the timers in the 556 timer I.C.
turns transistor TR1 on.
This has the effect of putting a is depicted in Fig. 6. where the CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
short circuit between the junction "on" time of tl and the "off" time
of the two resistors and earth. As The dual timer is connected as
of t2 is given by the following: two separate astable multivibra-
this happens the capacitor begins
to discharge through resistor tors; a tone oscillator, the fre-
RB. As this happens the capacitor t1=0.7X(RA+RB)XC quency of which depends on the
falls the second comparator 2 de- t2=0.7XC values of the presets, and a vibra-
tects this voltage drop, which is in to oscillator running at about 10Hz.
fact a value similar to the thres- The frequency is then given by: The threshold, pin 2 of the tone
hold voltage, and causes the flip f =1/T cycles. I oscillator is connected to the 20
flop to revert back to its original presets mounted on the keyboard.
state. Transistor TR1 is then turned These presets are in fact the
off, which allows the capacitor to various values of RB already
charge up once again. t1-0.1 described, which go to make up
The output appears at pin 5 and kw- 7 -31. the musical scale. The vibrato
Fig. 6. Wave form appearing at pin 5 of the oscillator comprising the second
is essentially a square wave. This circuit shown in Fig. 5.
half of ICI together with R4, R5
and C5 produces a 10Hz square -
wave at the output, pin 9.
The ideal vibrato should pre-
ferably be a sinewave, in order to
PROBE]
approximate this shape, a filter
f1i2
ikn consisting of R3 and C3 is used to
filter the high frequencies caused
by the sharp edges of the square -
ETC. 14
10 14 wave. The vibrato level, control
13 VR1, passes the resulting wave-
form to the control voltage, pin 3
20 x 20k12 TRIMMERS VR2-21 of the tone oscillator, thus causing
MIIIIM
T B1
the familiar rythmic wobble to the
5 OMB C6
0.33pF 9V sound.
7
Resistor R1 limits the output of
the i.e. to well within its capabili-
5612
R1
3
C5 ties and also reduces battery con-

0.2.2pF
VR1
;Oka
sumption. Capacitor CI blocks
VIBRATO direct current to the loudspeaker.
CI
The capacitor across the supply
100pF prevents instability occurring when
151 T2022pF the internal resistance of the bat-
tery increases with age. If it is not
fitted this will cause slight plopping
noises to be heard from the loud-
Fig. 7. Complete circuit diagram of the Probophone. speaker.

PLACI30P110at
Fig.4. Dimensions of the
case made from 4mm ply-
wood. Depending on the
components used, the sizes
may have to be altered.
Below; layout of the presets
on the copper side of the
PCB. The resistors are nor- 41
73
mally replaced with wire

links. If it is desired to use
fixed values for the tuning,
then these are used and the
presets replaced with wire
links. The resistors selected
are then soldered in the
positions indicated by Ra,
Rb, etc.
0= 76x25 x6
0 = 152 x 13 x 13
ALL DIMENSIONS IN mm
In this photograph, fixed

value resistors have been
used in place of the
presets.
Fig. 3. Copper pattern required for the keyboard. This is drawn full size and may be used as a template.

printed board and loudspeaker are
used. If alternative components are
COMPONENTS--i; used then the dimensions need to
Resistors be altered.
R1 1k0 The vibrato control is mounted
R2 560 on the rear panel, although it
R3 330k0 would be an advantage when con-
R4 47kQ structing the case, provision is
R5 330k0 made for it to be mounted on the
Ra to Rt (see text) All resistors carbon +W + 10% front panel. Once the case has been
Potentiometers constructed it can be painted in a
VR1 10kS2 lin. carbon colour of the constructor's choice.
VR2 to 21 22k0 horizontal sub -miniature presets (20 off) The lid needs to be removable to
Capacitors
gain access to the tuning presets
C1 100pF 16V elect.
and to replace the battery when re-
C2, C3 0.22uF polyester (2 off) quired.
C4 0.01tiF polyester
C5 0.22u F polyester See TUNING
C6 0.33,uF polyester
Once construction has been com-
Semiconductor pleted and a check has been made
IC1 NE556 dual timer i.c. Talicp for any wiring errors, the battery
can be connected. Touching the
Miscellaneous page 13
B1 9V PP3 battery probe to one of the "keys" a note
S1 s.p.s.t. toggle switch should be heard. Set the vibrato
LS1 3 to 5 ohm speaker approx 60mm diameter control to zero and adjust the
Stripboard 0.1 inch matrix 17 holes x 25 holes; battery connector; i.c. appropriate preset for the correct
socket; small knob for VR1 ; veropins; modified ball point pen for probe; pitch, if possible comparing the
printed circuit board, size as required (see text); materials for case (see note with a piano, pitch pipes or
text); connecting wire; solder; etc. other musical source.
An alternative cheaper method
that the board is not touched once and tarnished with use, and un- is to select fixed resistors to make
this has been done. Apply the less the printed circuit board is up the required values. Each note
labels with firm pressure to plated it is necessary to give the is initially tuned by inserting a
exclude any air bubbles, and fill in keys an occasional rub with metal 15 kilohm potentiometer in place
the connections between the keys polish to prevent poor contact with of the resistor. The potentiometer
and the remainder of the circuit the probe. is then carefully adjusted and the
with an etch resist pen. value measured on an ohm meter.
The circuit board can then be This value is then made up from
etched in a solution of ferric CASE DETAILS different combinations of fixed
chloride until all the copper has The prototype Probophone was resistors and then soldered in place
been etched away. Take care when constructed in a simple plywood on the printed circuit board. If this
handling ferric chloride, it is highly case. There is of course no reason is done carefully the combination
corrosive and dangerous to the why a ready made case of similar should produce the same note as
skin. Once all the copper has been dimensions cannot be used. tuned by the potentiometer.
removed rinse the board in water, The general layout of com- Once all the tuning has been
applying some scouring powder to ponents in the case is shown in carried out and the constructor is
remove all traces of the ferric the various photographs. The sizes satisfied that the range of notes
chloride. The mounting holes for given in Fig. 4 are of course only produced are correct the Probo-
the presets can then be drilled correct if t h e recommended phone is then ready to be played! I=1
using a lmm diameter drill.
In time the copper becomes dull
mooANc&
,o I.- .
,. myth
ESTIMATED COST
OF COMPONENTS
£5
General view of the completed Probophone, showing the layout used.

New Marshalls Catalogue
A new 32 -page catalogue is now
available from Marshall's priced at 25p
to callers or 35p post paid. The catalogue
takes on a new look having much larger
pages (290 x 210mm) and has been set
out to make component buying easy. In
our opinion a vast improvement on their
previous catalogue!
Due to the postal dispute in Crickle-
wood, customers of Marshall's (compon-
:_',TRONIC SUPPLIES ents and catalogues) are advised to
direct their mail orders to the Bristol or
Glasgow branches. Addresses are to be
found in the advertisement pages.
Tidy Tubs For Tools and Things

A useful set of small cylindrical storage
compartments-six in fact-of varying
lengths and diameters bonded together
from Tidy Tubs now being marketed by
Platignum, Electronics constructors may
find these useful for holding and keeping
By Brian Terrell together essential tools on the workbench
such as pliers, screwdrivers, files, drills,
New products and component etc.
buying for constructional projects. You won't find these for sale by Photograph of a Tidy Tub being used to
electronic component suppliers, but they hold various tools.
should be available from all good depart-
Unfortunately the introduction subject ment stores and stationers at a cost of
to last months Shop Talk, dealing with £1.50. There are six colours to choose
getting together a stock of components from. The control circuitry would be designed
for project building suffered from lack of Constructors are advised to keep their to switch the wipers on when moisture
space. This is an important topic that has Tidy Tubs in a safe secure place as other bridged the sensor and off when the
been noted in my diary for future treat- members of the family will find other uses wipers swept the screen dry (or below a
ment. for them in the kitchen, bedroom, bath- threshold moisture level). Any offers?
room or office. We received a 3g bottle of the paint and
brushed it onto a break made along a
New Soldering Iron copper track on stripboard. Two thin
We received news and a model (return- Electrically Conductive Paint coats were applied at half an hour
able unfortunately) of a soldering iron A product that should interest the interval and left to dry overnight. When
recently added to the Rawplug range of amateur electronic constructor has measured the next morning with our
tools. This mains powered 25 watt iron recently been made available to the Avo meter, the resistance reading was
conforms to BS 3456 and carries the BEAB consumer market by Industrial Science just above zero on the divide -by -100 range
(British Electrical Appliances Board) Limited through several outlets (see indicating a virtual short circuit.
mark of approval. below). It is electrically conductive paint, The paint is not cheap-understandable
It has been designed for the radio and named Elecolit 340. when you realise that it contains pure
t.v. engineer and the d.i.y. enthusiast. It is It can be applied by brushing, dipping, silver-and costs £270 for a 3 gram
suitable for construction of E.E. projects. silk screen or roller and forms a tough bottle which includes VAT, postage and
Features include a slide -on iron plated film with good adhesive to ceramics, packing from: Magenta Electronics Ltd.,
conical bit which encloses the ceramic glass, rubber, plastic and most plastic 61 Newton Leys, Burton -on -Trent, Staffs.,
heating element housed in a stainless films. Xerosa Radio, 305 St. Paul's Road,
steel shaft. Insulation is quoted at 1500 Typical applications involve r.f. Highbury Corner, London N1, and Zar-
volts a.c. shielding, printed circuit repair, in proro- tonics, 115 Lion Lane, Haslemere, Surrey.
The fully insulated handle has been type circuit production and has been
designed to prevent rolling if the iron is used to repair a broken track in a car Constructional Projects This Month
laid down on the workbench. A hook is rear window heater.
fitted to the handle for securing the iron A colleague suggested an application All the components required for the
when not in use. Ample three -core mains for car windscreen wiper control system four constructional projects featured
lead is attached, 1-8 metres long. where the paint was placed on the outside this month should be readily available
The iron is available from most d.i.y. of the front windscreen to be swept by from component suppliers advertising
stores and is priced at £3.80 excluding the wipers, in the pattern of interlocking in this issue.
VAT. fingers to form a sensor. Care should be taken when buying
components for the Probophone project
especially with regards the sub -miniature
horizontal presets and the C280 type
capacitors. The printed circuit board
has been designed to accommodate
these components and other sizes will
not be usable with our board design.
In the Dynamo Back -Up unit, the
weatherproof case can be a standard
rigid case treated with a silicon spray
when fully assembled. This is sometimes
used to make watertight the distributor
housing in a car, and should be available
from many garages and car accessory
shops. Don't forget to plug the grommet
gap with a piece of plasticine or similar.
A hose -clip or Terry clip to secure the
case to the cycle frame should be available
from any ironmongery shop or cycle
The Rawplug 25W soldering iron. accessory store.

GODANc
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
Consider first when the bicycle voltage at junction D5/D6 falls
is in motion. The a.c. current from below the threshold level, the
the dynamo is full -wave rectified lamps will be powered by the bat-
by the diode bridge arrangement tery as D6 becomes forward biased ESTIMATED COST
(DI to D4) to produce pulsed d.c. and passes current. Thus a mini- OF COMPONENTS
which illuminates the lamps. Pro- mum amount of light from the
viding the voltage at D5 cathode
is greater than the battery voltage
lamps will be maintained at all
times.
£2
DYNAMO FRONT AND

(.78". REAR LAMPS
A
plus the forward voltage drop of A switch has been incorporated

D6 (about 0.5 volt) then D6 will in the prototype to isolate the
be reverse biased and the battery battery from the circuit when the
will effectively be switched out of lights are not required. However,
the circuit and so no current flows this may not be required as some
from the battery. dynamo systems incorporate a
However, when the bicycle is at switch in the front lamp housing
rest, or travelling so slow that the and this can be wired as Si.
be located there with the battery.

However, if a separate case is used, Fig. 2. Positioning and wiring up details to
a suitable position must be found the board and other components within the
for locating it on the bicycle. If the case.
latter is equipped with a saddle-
bag, this could be the easiest
method, otherwise two suitably
sized hose -pipe clips can be utilised.
The hose -clips can be riveted or
HOW IT WORKS...
bolted to the case and the clip
tightened around a circular
member of the cicycle frame. 1=1
COMPONENTS
D1 to D6 1N4001 or similar 1 A
silicon types (6 off)
B1 See text
S1 on/off toggle
Stripboard: 0.1 inch matrix The unit is to be placed between the dynamo and the cycle lamps. When
size 12 strips x 11 holes; 4 - the cycle is travelling and the dynamo is being operated by the wheel, an
way 2 amp terminal block; a.c. voltage is developed which is normally applied direct to the lamps. In
weatherproof case; rubber this unit, the resulting a.c. voltage is rectified first to produce d.c. and this
grommet; battery connectors is then applied to the lamps via an electronic switch. With the dynamo in
to suit B1 selected; 4BA fix- operation, the battery is out of circuit (disconnected). Now if the dynamo
ings-nuts, bolts and shake - voltage reduces below a threshold level, as a result of the cycle travelling
proof washers (4 off); 4BA very slowly or stopping, the electronic switch allows the battery to power
spacing pillars (2 off); hose - the lamps. Increasing the dynamo voltage above the threshold causes the
clips (2 off); connecting wire. battery to return to the switched off mode.

INTRODUCING the
OSCILLOSCOPE
By JOHN SMITH
51 mil
el It
-3'1111101111111110111.11111.111111111111,
appearing in EVERYDAY PHOSPHOR

ARTICLES
ELECTRONICS frequently show
diagrams of oscilloscope wave- DEFLECTION GRID CATHODE
forms. Anyone taking a serious PLATES
interest in electronics will, sooner

or later, find that an oscilloscope is
needed. Indeed, the professional HEATER
engineer can hardly manage with-

out one.
It is very difficult to make use
of an oscilloscope without some ELECTRON
BEAM
ANODE
rudimentary knowledge of how

they work. This article sets out to
explain how oscilloscopes work, Fig. 1. Electrode arrangement in a cathode ray tube.
for readers who may have the
opportunity to use one. field is capable of deflecting the Thus we have a device where a
When the principles of oscillo- electron beam; Fig. 1 shows the spot of light may be controlled in
scopes are understood and one has electrode arrangement. any vertical position (Y -deflection),
actually made use of the instru- In this tube we have a heater any horizontal position (X -deflec-
ment, articles containing reference to heat the cathode which gives off tion), its brilliance (grid voltage)
to waveforms become much electrons. The electrons pass and its focus (anode voltage) are
easier to understand. through a grid and are accelerated also controlled. Most oscilloscope
by the anode, passing between the tubes employ more electrodes than
deflection plates before they hit this, but from a user's point of
CRT CONSTRUCTION the screen phosphor. In terms of view the only other controllable
An oscilloscope is constructed the spot of light appearing on the facility they provide is the round-
around the cathode ray tube (CRT), CRT screen, the grid voltage con- ness of the spot (astigmatism). No
which we will recall is a device for trols brilliance, the anode voltage matter how complex and expensive
projecting a beam of electrons controls focus and the deflection an oscilloscope, they all have these
onto a light emitting phosphor. An plates control position. As is shown basic tube controls.
oscilloscope CRT uses electrostatic in Fig. 1 the positign of the spot
deflection as opposed to the mag- can only be moved up and down
netic deflection employed in the in a straight line, therefore the TIMEBASE
CRT of television receivers. CRT is fitted with another two A second feature incorporated
Electrostatic deflection means plates to move the spot at right into every oscilloscope is the time
quite simply that there are two angles to the first pair. The plates base. This is an internal oscillator
plates mounted either side of the which cause the spot to move which deflects the spot across the
CRT between which the electron vertically are called Y -deflection horizontal axis. The time base
beam passes. If a voltage is applied plates, whilst the plates moving causes the CRT spot to start on the
to these plates an electrostatic the spot horizontally are called the left of the screen and travel at a
field exists between them. This X -deflection plates. constant velocity across the screen

to the right hand side. Thus a
horizontal line is drawn which can
be evenly divided into centimetre
divisions representing time.
For example, if a time base of
1 millisecond caused the CRT spot
to traverse 10cm across the screen
then each centimetre would repre-
sent 100 microseconds of time;
Fig. 2 shows how this would appear
on the oscilloscope screen.
Typical of many oscilloscopes, is the facility to provide two traces. The 10-4510 from
Heathkit is a good example.
Fig. 2. Typical time scale used on oscillo- Y -amplifiers are designed to give to a pen recorder. In a pen
scopes. so many "volts per centimetre" recorder, paper (the time base) is
deflection. The deflection of the continuously fed out of the
The purpose of this time base is beam depends upon the voltage machine whilst the pen shows (by
to show any electrical events occur- applied to the deflection plates, deflection on the paper) the
ring between the start and the therefore a voltage applied to the voltage applied. The oscilloscope
finish of the scan. The spot is Y set of plates merely shifts the uses the time base generator
suppressed (blanked) when it flies spot up or down. instead of a roll of paper.
back from the finish to the starting If a voltage is varying in time It may be useful to examine how
point. Oscilloscopes are provided the Y trace shows the instan- one would plot a signal on graph
with a wide range of time bases to taneous voltage, whilst the X trace paper and then proceed to plotting
examine slow and fast changing plots the time. Now examine Fig. the same signal on an oscilloscope.
signals. 3 which shows a block diagram of Consider a signal present in most
At this juncture it is necessary the complete oscilloscope with all electronic equipment, a 50Hz sine
to examine how the time base the facilities mentioned. wave of 10 volts peak amplitude.
starts at t=0 and what is t=0? The oscilloscope is really a This is about 7 volt r.m.s.
This starting point is determined device for plotting signals, similar A 50Hz sinewave means 50 com-
by the user of the oscilloscope
with the aid of another feature,
always provided, called sync (syn-
chronisation) or trigger.
The user must synchronise or Y INPUT
trigger the oscilloscope at the start AMPLIFIER
OR
of the signal he wishes to examine. ATTENUATOR
If one is trying to make a circuit

work and it's not known if there .J-
X
are signals present or not, one can -I I- POSITION
t=0
be faced with a completely blank
screen. For this reason most /1//SAW TOOTH Y POSITION
oscilloscopes provide a "free run" WAVEFORM

position on the trigger circuits. TRIGGER SYNC. OR
TIME BASE
GENERATOR
FOCUS
Finally, we come to the part of INPUT TRIGGER WITH
DIFFERENT
the oscilloscope which is used to RANGES BRILLIANCE
examine the circuit waveforms, the
Y -amplifier. The Y -amplifier is an
amplifier/attenuator which trans- BLANKING
fers the signals to be examined to

the Y -deflection plates. If applied
without a time base it would pro-
duce a vertical line where displace-
ment represented voltage. Fig. 3. Block diagram of an oscilloscope.

plete cycles or oscillations per
second, therefore one cycle takes -
VOLTS
10
1/50 second or 1000/50 milli- -

seconds= 20 milliseconds. This is -
a complete cycle from 0 to 360 6
degrees. + 4-
The main signal is varying in - 2
voltage according to the sine of the 0 20 60 100 140 180
angle therefore the instantaneous 0

40° 80° 120° 160°
($ 1
200° 240° 280° 320° 360°

voltage is given by 2-
Vp sin 6
VD= 10 volts
For 6=0, sin 0=0 .'. V= 0 volts 6 -
=30, sin 30=0.5 :. V=5 volts a -
=45, sin 45=0.707 :. V=7.07 10 -
volts
90, sin 90=1 .'. V=10 volts
for angles between 90 and 180 use Fig. 4. Plotting a sinewave on graph paper.
V=Vp sin(180 -6), and when the trace appears. and the setting of the Y -amplifier
signal goes negative we can start 2. Set the time base to 2mS per controls.
again with V= lipsinei where cm. In practice one seldom looks at
6,=6-180 degrees. 3. Set the Y amplifier to 2.5 volts sinewaves, signals are usually
These results are plotted on Fig. per cm. pulses, square waves, saw tooth
4 and readers are invited to look 4. Connect the 10 volt peak sine - and similar waveforms. In each
up a table of sine to plot the com- wave to the Y -amplifier. case t=0 has to be determined to
plete waveform. 5. Adjust the sync/trigger controls start the time base.
All the different angles 6 occur to obtain a stationary trace. With practice one becomes
during a fixed period of time 6. Adjust the brilliance and focus skilled at adjusting the instrument
already worked out to 20 milli- controls to obtain a fine clear and interpreting the signals dis-
seconds, therefore each 40 degree trace. played. It is not possible in the
interval is given by 20 X 40 milli - The sinewave will now appear on space of a short article to list all
360 the CRT face for as long as the the different signals that one can
seconds = 20/9 = 2.2 milliseconds. signals are present. examine with the oscilloscope,
If instead of degrees we plotted With unknown signals, an un- except to say in general that any
the X-axis in 10cm divisions, each known frequency for example, the signal can be examined. Unfortu-
division would represent 2 milli- procedure is more or less the same nately, any 'scope cannot examine
seconds or 36 degrees, which al- except that the time base and Y - all possible signals as each
though inconvenient to plot on a amplifier controls are adjusted to different model is designed for a
graph is much easier to plot on an give the best display possible and range of uses, some extremely
oscilloscope. The oscilloscope is no the signal is measured against the specialised.
more than an instrument to plot oscilloscope calibration. A glance at advertisements for
the results just obtained onto the For example, suppose the time oscilloscopes will have already in-
face of a CRT instead of paper. base selected was 100mS and the formed readers that a wide range
The waveform is plotted by nearest full sinewave measured of prices are quoted. A higher
adjusting the oscilloscope as 35mS (3.5cm) its frequency would price in general will mean that the
follows: be 1000/35 or 28.57Hz. In a 'scope can handle a wider range of
1. Connect the sync/trigger to the similar manner its voltage can be signals, has more facilities and is
10 volt signal and adjust until a determined from the Y -deflection more accurate. II
The Heathkit 10-4530 single trace oscilloscope. The 0S4000 storage oscilloscope from Gould Advance Ltd.

SQUARE
... FOR BEGINNERS
WE ARE HERE TO HELP YOU -
NO MATTER HOW NON -TECHNICAL
ONE
Let us lead you into the exciting
YOU MAY BE, JUST READ ON !
BFY 51
world of electronics. There are things
you can make for yourself that will
amaze you and your friends! e c0
It all looks so mysterious. Yet this
is largely deceptive. The building part
of electronics is really quite simple.
True you need a certain knack and e=EMIT TER
ability to handle small parts and to b=BASE
make soldered connections. But these c=COLLECTOR
skills are soon acquired with a little Fig. 1. The theoretical circuit diagram. Fig.4. It is essential that the transistor
practice. This uses standard symbols and is correctly connected according to the
abbreviations to represent components
How does one start building? First and interconnection details.
layout (and circuit). Above shows two
look at one of the constructional views of a BFY51 transistor to aid lead
articles in this issue. Read the INTRO- identification. On the right is a view
DUCTION, then the "HOW IT looking directly at the leads.
WORKS" section and move on to the
CONSTRUCTIONAL instructions. 0000000 00 00
Study these in conjunction with the 0
component layout. Refer to the COM- 04
PONENTS list-this tells you exactly 0
what to buy. 0
All electronic designs are based on BREAK 0
11116;
Here is a very simple explana-
tion of this small circuit. The elec- 0
tronic working part is a transistor, 0000000000oo
labelled TR1. This component is Fig. 2. Stripboard consists of parallel
illustrated in Fig. 4. Note the Emit- tracks of copper (excellent electrical
ter, Base, and Collector lead -out conductor) on a perforated plastics
wires. These are identified in Fig. board. The tracks are used to inter-
connect the components according to
1, by e, b and c respectively. This the circuit diagram. Connection of the Fig. 5. Photograph of the underside of
transistor operates as an amplifier, component lead to the track is by a a piece of stripboard containing the
magnifying the electrical signal soldered joint. dots indicate
Black circuit of Fig. 1 built up according to
(input) applied at A sufficiently to component lead/track soldering points. Figs. 2 and 3. Compare soldered points
"drive" the speech coil of the loud- and break with those shown in Fig. 2.
speaker LS1. Power for the tran-
sistor is provided from a 12V bat- TO LOUDSPEAKER
tery: the positive side ("H.T. Line") L S1
is applied via the loudspeaker coil

to the Collector of TR1; the nega- 0
tive side is applied directly to the 0000000 00
Emitter of TR1.
If you were brought up on valves,
think of the Collector as the anode,
and the Emitter as the cathode.
The third connection to the tran- TR1
sistor is called the Base; this is LINK

very similar in function to the grid WIRE
of a valve. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 00
The input signal applied to the Fig. 3. Components are usually mount-
Base controls the current passing ed on the non -copper clad side top- Fig. 6. Photograph of the topside of the
through the transistor, and hence, side) and component leads fed through stripboard shown above. Important
in our case, the current passing the holes to the track beneath. This points to note: reference tag on tran-
through the loudspeaker. diagram is called the "layout". sistor and positive end of C4.

a Circuit Diagram, sometimes re- Fig. 3. Here we see this section of the wires to the copper strip. Cut off
ferred to as a theoretical diagram. the circuit translated into a physical the surplus wire. That's all there is to
Usually the circuit diagram is form. it!
arranged so that we proceed from Note that Figs. 1, 2 and 3 have in-
cause to effect (from input to output) put and supply lines annotated A, B Join us here nest month for more
by reading across from left to right. and C to aid the constructor in trans- basic facts and helpful advice about
At this stage, it is not essential to lating from theoretical to physical. electronic circuit construction.
understand how the circuit works in
detail.
Our business is to translate the cir-
Now to the practical work of build-
ing. First we prepare the underside
SQUARE
cuit diagram into a practical form of the stripboard by making the
using standard electronic components.
(See components list.) The founda-
necessary "break" in the copper strip
as shown in Fig. 2. A twist drill is
SfreactiPle
tion for our building is usually a piece suitable for this.
of plastics board. In the example illus- Next turn the board and insert the for BEGINNERS
ONE
trated we are using a small piece of component leads through holes in the
circuit board known as stripboard. board in accordance with Fig. 3. Use
Look at Fig. I. This is a small a pair of long -nosed pliers to bend the
section taken from the Flasher wires to suit. As each component is
Bleeper, see page 24. Now look at fitted, turn the board and then solder
PCB AIDS
I have recently been using a method of making
printed circuits straight from the circuit diagram.
Take a piece of 0.1 inch plain matrix board large
enough to accommodate all the components. Cover
one side with white Fablon. On the uncovered side,
position the components approximately as they are
in the circuit diagram, pushing the leads through the
Fablon. The points where the wires come through
the board can now be seen, and the "islands" drawn
in with a pencil, carefully connecting the proper
wires together.
Now remove the components and gently peel off
Readers' Bright Ideas; any idea that is published the Fablon and stick it down on the copper side of
will be awarded payment according to its merit. The the board. Cut round the islands and remove the ex-
ideas have not been proved by us.
cess. The board can then be etched in the normal
HEATSINKS way, the Fablon acting as an etch resist.
P. A. Boocock,
I have thought of a way of making a heatsink Thirsk,
for transistors. You simply take a piece of aluminium North Yorkshire
cooking foil, about 70mm square and wrap it tightly
around the transistor. I find this provides an excel-
lent heatsink, especially when a proper heatsink is
not available. When making printed circuit boards I mark on the
Ensure that the foil does not touch any of the leads board the edges of the required copper areas and
on the transistor, otherwise a short will occur and roughly cover them in nail varnish. When dry it is
possibly destroy the transistor. a simple matter to scrape away the excess with a
J. Kilmister, sharp knife. This, I find is much easier than carefully
Hartcliffe, marking the areas and applying the resist.
Bristol L. U. Barker,
DIODE TESTER Solihull
Having constructed the Transistor Lead Out Indica-
tor as described in the June issue of EVERYDAY ELEC-
TRONICS, it occurred to me that it could also be used
as a diode tester. To achieve this facility two CASES
miniature screw terminals are used instead of the One problem which is often encountered is how to
jack socket, these being marked anode and cathode. attach a finished project to the inside of it's box. One
It is also necessary to insert a good transistor in the very easy way is to attach a piece of expanded poly-
socket. styrene foam to the inside of the box with glue. The
In use a good diode will only give a good tone when PCB is then placed an top of it and pressed down.
correctly connected, a diode which is open circuit The leads of some of the components should be left
gives no response, a shorted diode gives equal long to ensure that it remains fixed.
response in both directions. I have found this modi- This method ensures to some extent that the board
fication most useful for sorting out diodes from the is protected against knocks and bangs, and is also
many bargain packs which are sold by firms adver- electrically isolated from the case.
tising in EVERYDAY ELECTRONICS. G. S. M. Potter,
L. K. Noyce, Wimborne,
London Dorset

FREE! hit gext
awe
Wtegt1469
POCKET DATA CARD

CIRCUIT
Pa oic Net
SYMBOLS &
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DATA
Irleeo Sneed
TEACH -IN
TREASURE
LOCATOR
Get on the right trail with this
'il(11
inexpensive easy -to -build unit.
Fun for all the family!
Have you ever asked yourself "what is a transistor?

. . how does an amplifier work? . ." If so, join
. .
us next month for the start of a series that will

explain the fundamentals of electonics ... by theory
and experiment.
Also
ENLARGER TIMER MODELTRAIN CONTROLLER TRANSISTOR TESTER
OUR OCTOBER ISSUE
dgettanics WILL BE ON SALE

FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 16
Everyday Electronics, September 1977

21
loodidlions
50 CMOS IC Projects
Author R, A. Penfold
SOUND
Price 95p
Size 180 108mm 102 pages paperba:k
Publisher Bernards (Publishers) Ltd
ISBN 0 900162 64 3
ALTHOUGH not entirely new to the amateur market,
11E31
A PRACTICAL ELECTRONICS PUBLICATION
the wide range of cmos i.c.s is fast gaining popu-
larity amongst constructors. Due to the fact that A SPECIAL SELECTION OF
cmos i.c.s can operate between supply voltages of
3 to 15V, and for practical purposes at zero current MUSICAL PROJECTS FROM PE
drain, they are being used in many varied projects.
Divided into four sections; multivibrator projects,
amplifiers and oscillators, Schmitt triggers, and THE MINISONIC MK2
special devices, each section contains a multitude SOUND SYNTHESISER
of different projects ranging from a metronome, An up -dated version of the published Mk 1,
enlarger timer, audio squelch unit and many more.
As with many other books written in a similar the Mk 2 has an integral keyboard, two
style, no detailed information has been given as 250 mW monitoring channels and
regards actual construction, this should not however loudspeakers, and facilities for amplitude,
prove to be a disadvantage as the circuits are all frequency and harmonic modulation.
fairly easy to build.
It is unfortunate that a few mistakes have been THE JOANNA
let through this otherwise commendable book. It is ELECTRONIC PIANO
advisable to check the pin leadouts of the 4016 and has realistic piano effect with touch -sensitive
4017 i.c.s before embarking on any projects using
these types. T.J.J. keyboard and additional choice of harpsichord
or honky-tonk voicing.
THE ORION STEREO AMPLIFIER
A hi-fi amplifier with output of over
20+20 watts. Compact and complete in one
unit, it measures only 14" x 6" x 2".
PLUS
Some great sound effects units for guitars,
13atit keyboard instruments and general recording.
Available (Please allow at least 2 weeks

for delivery)
Ktuditem Now
£1.20
If you do not wish to mutilate yollf
copy of the magazine, please send
your order on a separate sheet.
We are pleased to announce that the Back r POST PAIL)

To : Practical Electronics
1
Numbers Service has now been reinstated and IPC Magazines Ltd., Receiving Cashiers Dept.,
will operate from the issue dated June 1977. King's Reach Tower, Stamford Street, London SE1 9LS
This and subsequent issues of EVERYDAY Please send me copy(ies) of
ELECTRONICS will be available at the inclusive
"Sound Design". I enclose a Postal Order/Cheque
price of 60p per copy. This includes inland/ for £1.20 (post paid) or (state amount for
overseas postage and packing.
Orders should be addressed to: Post Sales more than one copy) (£2.35 post paid
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House, 25 Lavington Street, London SE1 OPF. PLEASE WRITE IN BLOCK LETTERS
Cheques and postal orders should be made Name
payable to IPC Magazines Limited.
A limited supply of earlier back issues is also Address
available. Requests with appropriate remittance,
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event of non -availability, remittances will be Remittances with overseas orders must be sufficient to cover despatch by
refunded. sea or air mail as required. Payable by International Money Order only.
EE.1510
Company registered in England. Regd. No. 53626.
A subsidiary of Reed International Limited.

One way is to pass the current through
a small d.c. motor, thereby chopping -up
the d.c. by the spinning of the armature.
Another way is to feed a bell movement,
as shown in Fig. 1. Notice that the bell
transformer is operated in the reverse
mode i.e. as a step-up transformer. To
this end the chopped -up battery supply is
fed into the winding that normally is con-
nected to the bell, while the hand held
probes are connected to the winding
normally connected to the mains supply.
In use two, three or four people hold
hands with the person at each end grasp-
ing a probe. All will then feel the high -
voltage tingle. If any body protests that it
is decidely unpleasant, reduce the supply
voltage by removing one battery cell.
Self Induction
Sooner or later it will occur to the young
hobbyist that he is using two coils, one to
chop -up his d.c. and the other to transform
it to a higher voltage. Is it possible, he will
wonder, to make one coil do both jobs?
Indeed it is and last month promised to
I
show how to make a shocking coil using

the self-induction principle. The circuit is
shown in Fig. 2.
All that is needed is a bell movement,
which can be either taken from a discarded
bell or made up in the manner shown
earlier in this series. Since the heart of the
movement is a very efficient electro
magnet, it is also good for producing the
phenomenon of self-induction. In Fig. 2. I
By DERRICK DAINES have not shown the connection to one of

the hand-held probes. This is because it
will work connected to either point A or
F ALL the gadgets made by youngsters Moreover, it appears that some people point B of the circuit.
entering the hobby of electronics, are less tolerant towards the effect of Connected to one of the points the
the shocking coil is certainly among the shocking coils than others. It is for these probe will gather the self-induced current
top three favourites, so no excuse is reasons that the supply voltage must not generated when the magnetic flux builds
needed to introduce the item here. There be increased above that recommended- up; connected to the other point it will
are several ways of making such a device certainly in no case should it exceed 4.5 gather that produced when the magnetic
and one that is probably the easiest to volts. field collapses. Can you determine which
understand is outlined in Fig. 1. It would be a great pity if at the outset of is which? If you cannot, try each in turn.
an interest in electronics we cause the ire Remember that the self-inductance gen-
of the household authorities with perhaps erates more current when the field col-
the subsequent ban on all future experi- lapses than when it builds up.
Shocking coils ments! Self-inductance is sometimes referred
All shocking coils for amusement have We therefore utilise small torch bat- to as back e.m.f (electromotive force) and
in common the provision of a very high teries for the supply, 1, 2, or 3 will give when sensitive electronic devices are in a
voltage at an extremely low current and as voltages of 1.5, 3.0 and 4.5 volts respec- circuit containing a coil it is very fre-
such are perfectly harmless. It must be tively. However, a bell transformer will not quently necessary to insert a diode ex-
stressed however that multiplying the work with d.c., so some means must be pressly to discharge the back e.m.f.
supply voltage by, say, a factor of ten also found to produce a.c. or trains of pulses Otherwise, the device would be destroyed.
increases the total power even if the which will be stepped up by the trans- But there-you will be able to feel the
current is still very low. former. power of the back e.m.f for yourself!
SELL MOVEMENT HAND-HELD

METAL PROBES
OB
TRANS FORMER
Fig. 1. Utilising a bell transformer a simple (and effective!) Fig. 2. A similar circuit to Fig. 1 but in this case uses the
shocking coil can be made. principle of self-induction.

GoDANc
L,0
ESTIMATED COST
OF COMPONENTS
I- By T. R. de VApX-BAILBIRNIE B.Sc. 23
The design of the original cir-

cuit was made with discrete com-
ponents but found that it suffered
from changing pitch as the volt-
age varied. This meant that it
changed its note abruptly as the
engine was revved up or the brake
lights were operated. The circuit
was effective but this defect was
very annoying. To incorporate a
stabilizing circuit seemed hardly
worthwhile. It was finally decided
to use an integrated circuit as a
tone generator. The type chosen
was the low-cost 555 Timer, an 8
pin d.i.l. device normally used for
short period timing circuits. It
may, however, be wired as an
effective astable multivibrator. The
circuit is very tolerant to voltage
changes which makes it ideal for
this type of application. It hardly
changes its tone with quite wide
tor light on the dashboard is often variations in supply voltage.
INTRODUCTION badly positioned so that it is ob-
scured by the steering wheel or is
WHEN the author drives the too dim to attract attention in
family motor caravan, it has bright light. Similarly, the indica- START
been known for him to drive for tor unit itself may be badly sited
mile after mile with the flashing so that the "ticks" are too quiet. HERE FOR
indicators operating. The reason is When designing the circuit, it CONSTRUCTION
that they are not self -cancelling was thought necessary to provide
and the "tick" from the flasher two special features. One is a
unit is rather quiet especially volume control so that the nor-
when driving at speed. The author's mally loud warning signal can be
wife has unkindly intimated that adjusted to the particular applica-
he is going a little deaf-a tion. It was also thought necessary
suggestion which the author to fit an on/off switch so that the
vehemently denies. unit can be completely silenced as
Whatever the reason, it seemed required. Sleeping babies or The suggested layout is based on
a good idea to devise an electronic elderly passengers may take ex- 0.1 inch pitch stripboard, see Fig.
circuit which emits a loud warning ception to electronic bleeps. It 1. It is essential to cut the copper
note in time with the flashing indi- must also be remembered that strips in the places indicated using
cators. This project could be found others may drive the vehicle and a proper tool or with a small twist
very useful to those in a similar may not require the device. A pre- drill turned by hand. The i.c. may
situation, those a little hard of set control is provided on the cir- be soldered direct to the circuit
hearing or those who drive old and cuit panel by which the pitch of panel but the use of an 8 pin
noisy vehicles. It could be of real the warning note may be altered socket is advised.
benefit to van drivers. The indica- to suit individual taste. Whether using an i.c. socket or

not, care should be taken not to
cause bridging between the pins
or any of the copper strips in the COMPONENTS''
circuit panel. The two way connec-
tor shown in the illustration is Resistors
R1 22k12.
advised as it allows for easy instal- R2 1.5kS1
lation and removal in the event of R3 5.642 All resistors are 4-W carbon ± 10%
failure.
After constructing the project it Potentiometers
will be necessary to find a suitable VR1 100K2 horizontal miniature preset
connection to power it. This is VR2/S1 10k0 carbon log. with ganged single pole switch
easy if the car is fitted with a Capacitors
single warning light on the dash- C1, C2 0.01/2F polyester (2 off)
board which flashes for both right C3 0.1/.4F polyester
and left turns. Most cars these C4 470,uF 15V elect.
days have this sort of arrangement Semiconductors
and the prototype is used on one. IC1 NE555 timer i.c.
The "live" connection will then TR1 BFY51 silicon npn Page 13
be taken to the non earth side of
the bulb or from the correspond- Miscellaneous
ing terminal on the flasher unit. LS1 miniature loudspeaker 40 to 70 ohm coil impedance
Stripboard 0.1 inch matrix 12 strips x 35 holes; 8 pin i.c. socket; small
2 way 5 amp block connector; case to suit; stranded wire; solder.
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0000000 000
1
A
B 0
C 0 VR1
R1
E
TO FLASHER
F UNIT-POSITIVE
H
EARTH
I
J
K O
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ". 000000000
Fig. 1. The layout of the components on the stripboard and the
breaks to be made on the underside of the board including
wiring up details to other components and the flasher unit.
UNDERSIDE VIEW
0000000000000000000000000 0000 000000 OF TR1
K 0 0
J 0 0
0 0
0
I
H O o
o o
F O
O
O 0 Cl Cl 0 0 O
O
0
C 0 0
0 CI o
B
A 0000000000000000000013o 000000

F
CIRCUIT 22kr:
ICI
DESCRIPTION 5
NE55SV
j -m.- LS1
The output from the i.c. is fed VR1 3
40 TO 11011
via a capacitor to the volume con- 700kI2
trol and from there to the base of 2 C3
the output transistor. Resistor R2 CA

47OpF
deserves mention. Without it, the R3
5-6kI2
volume control needs considerable TR1
rotation before any signal is heard CI mom
VR2
iookn
BFY51
at all. This means that the adjust- 0,91).JF TO FLASHER

UNIT
ment from very quiet to full
volume happens over quite a small sum C2
R2
part of the track. It would be quite 1,5k1)
possible to fit a preset variable of

value 10 kilohms instead of the
fixed resistor R2 so that the exact
operating characteristics would be
adjustable. plastic box with small holes far This is largely eliminated by in-
The fixed resistor of 1.5 kilohms, the sound. The method of securing cluding the capacitor, although it
however, works very well in the the volume control will depend an adds to the cost, it is worthwhile.
prototype. With the control just the type used. The suggested value is 470 micro -
turned from the off position the It will be noted that the unit is farads. For those with junk boxes,
signal is very quiet and adjusts to equally at home in a positive or there is scope for trying different
full volume over the entire rota- negative earth vehicle. The posi- values but that given should be-
tion. tion of the on/off switch as given have well. If its value is too small,
,The transistor chosen for the in the circuit diagram is for nega- the clicks will not be properly sup-
prototype is a rather "hefty" one tive earth vehicles. It would be pressed. If it is too large in value
and the experimenter may wish to fitted in the negative lead if the the bleeps from the loudspeaker
use a different type than that unit were fitted to a positive earth will not start and end sharply as
specified. It is likely that a ZTX300 car. they should- but will "grow" and
would serve as an alternative. The The purpose of capacitor C4 is "decay" rather slowly giving an
loudspeaker is a miniature 50mm to suppress clicks. Without it, the unpleasant effect.
type with an impedance of 70 loudspeaker is likely to emit The polarity of the electrolytic
ohms or so. It was found possible annoying. clicks each time the capacitor must, as always be ob-
to build the whole unit into a small flashing indicator unit operates. served.
If the car has two indicator

lights, one which flashes for the
left indicators and one for the
HOW IT WORKS... right, the constructor must investi-
gate at the flasher unit to find
the connection which gives the
desired effect. This may be done
with a small 12 volt test bulb one
connection of which is earthed to
a suitable point.
Both the live and earth wires
must be of the stranded type,
single wires soon fail under vibra-
BLEEP....BLEER. tion. Note that the indicator light
itself forms an important part of
the circuit in providing a discharge
path for the electrolytic capacitor.
When the car indicator arm is operated to indicate an intended change
If the constructor tests projects
in car direction, the indicator lamps are made to flash on and oft by ap-
like these with dry batteries on the
plying, via the flasher unit, a pulsed 12 volts to the indicator lamps. Now table before installing them in the
the Flasher Bleeper consists of an oscillator whose power supply line is car it will be necessary to fit a
connected to a pulsed 12V point in the indicator system. Therefore each small 12 volt bulb across the posi-
time the lamps flash on, the oscillator is turned on and produces an tive and negative connections to
audible tone in the loudspeaker. The output from the oscillator is fed to obtain the true effect. Without
an amplifier fitted with volume control to allow for varying ambient noise this, the curious "growth" and
conditions. "decay" effect referred to in the
Circuit Description will occur.

Modern flasher units tend to be
very current sensitive. This does
not matter at all if the unit is
powered from the indicator light
circuit on a three terminal flasher
unit. On a two terminal flasher
unit, however, the current con-
sumed by the unit adds itself to
the total drawn by the main lights.
The current drawn by this project
is so small that there will be no
upset here-it is only about 100
mA depending on the setting of
the volume control.
Flashing indicators left going
are a danger to other road users.
This project will make sure that
Photograph of the prototype Flasher Bleeper. you do not offend in this way! ):z
The frame coils being connected to You are quite right in saying i.c.s of the
probes. The sensitivity obtained was
I cmos type are sensitive to static. In this
136m Vicm. case however the tags referred to are outputs,
A. Hill, and therefore need no protection.
Chelmsley Wood, It is however a different story when inputs
Birmingham. are left open. In very severe cases leaving the
inputs open can cause the entire i.c. to
The idea of using a redundant tv as an oscillate, and in some cases the i.c. may
oscilloscope is of course well known, a overheat through excessive current drain
design for one was published recently in one and destroy itself.
of our companion magazines. The simple remedy is to connect all
It should be realised that due to the in- unused inputs either to the negative or
ternal circuitry of the tv, the available band- positive supply line, whichever is appropriate
width is severely limited. The best you could
for the logic circuit involved.
hope for is in the audio frequency range. A
word of warning, the innards of a tv are po-
tentialy dangerous, so unless the constructor Amateur Radio Classes
knows what he is doing, this modification An amateur radio and theory and morse
should not be tackled by the beginner. class is to be run by the Newcastle upon
Estimated Cost Tyne Education Committee. The classes
will be held at the Gosforth Adult Asso-
My son, aged 13, is very keen on elec- ciation Classes at the Gosforth High
tronics and we have a standing order for School, commencing in September 1977.
your magazine every month. Can You Help? Although specifically for the Radio
I know the prices you give are approxi- I recently bought the July issue of Amateurs Examination, the course is
mate, but I would like to point out that the EVERYDAY ELECTRONICS, and I am particularly ideal for anyone wanting to get an insight
Fish Attractor in the June issue, you give interested in the PhonelDoor Bell into radio theory, having just taken up
the approximate price cost as £3.00 but up Repeater radio or electronics generally as a hobby.
to now it has cost him £7.50 and he still Being deaf I am interested to know if the The theory class will be held on Tues-
has three components to buy. circuit can be modified to operate a lamp days of each week from 7pm to 9pm, the
I thought you might be interested to when the phone rings. morse class will be held on the Thursdays
know this as he bought the components W. Westgate, of each week at the same times.
from Tandy's. 57, Kelsull Croft, Enquiries should be addressed to; The
Mrs. B.H. Shilling, Chelmsley Wood, Principal, Gosforth Adult Association,
Aspley, Birmingham. Gosforth High School, Knightsbridge,
Nottingham. Gosforth who will arrange for further
It is not our standard practice to provide details to be sent on application. Alter-
readers with modifications to our published natively further information can be had
We sympathize with you and your son for designs. However we feel sure that among from myself by telephoning Newcastle
spending such a great deal of money. our many readers there is someone who upon Tyne 668439.
All the prices for the constructional pro- could come up with a design suited to your D. R. Loveday
jects are taken from advertisers in EVERY- needs. If any reader does so they are asked to
(G3FPE)
DAY ELECTRONICS, not just one but many. write to the above address.
In this way the price of each project is kept to
a minimum. Certainly our prices in the main
are cheap, but in many circumstances con-
structors have even made the projects for
lessl The moral therefore is to shop around. Cmos i.c.'s Remember that "Readers
In your article, Electronic Dice, published
in the March issue of EVERYDAY ELEC-
Letters" is your page for
TRONICS the i.c. type CD4017 has three your news, views and
T.V. Oscilloscope
recently discovered that by using an
unused tags.
As the device is static -sensitive, should
comments. So don't be
I
old u.h.f. television it is possible to con- these tags be connected to earth? Hoping shy, write to us, we will be
struct a fairly sensitive oscilloscope. The you can advise.
A. Goudge,
pleased to hear from you.
method I used was to plug the frame out-
put generator into the line deflector coils. St. Albans, Herts.

ANY traveller waiting on the rail- Instead we see several groups literally, be astronomical.
way platform at Lord's Bridge of much smaller aerials at Lord's However there is an ingenious
Station, Cambridgeshire, will be Bridge. Just how does this arrange- way out. In 1946 a research team
disappointed for no trains will ever ment offer a valuable alternative led by the radio astronomer Sir
call there again, and if that sounds to the big dish approach? Martin Ryle realised that such a
like the end of the story, it isn't. dish could be broken down in
In fact it's the beginning of one. effect into two or more much
For the site is now the home of smaller dishes spaced out. Only
the Mullard Radio Astronomy Ob- AERIAL SYNTHESIS one line of these dishes is actually
servatory (MRAO). Founded with We can well understand the needed because the earth's rota-
the aid of a generous benefaction radio astronomer's yearn for bigger tion will swing it round in a circle
from Mullard Ltd, but adminis- and bigger telescopes. With big with respect to a radio source. The
tered by the Science Research dishes, he can pick up faint radio result is shown in Fig. 1.
Council, it is indeed the end of a sources far away in the universe We reform the big dish in out-
communication link that stretches -more importantly he can resolve line and can "fill" it in if we com-
back much farther than Cambridge the fine detail of the sources he bine observations made at different
or Bedford, but quite literally to already knows about. So on both spacings of the small dishes.
the stars. counts, the bigger the instruments, This is the basic principle of
It shares a unique place in the the better. aperture or aerial synthesis.
forefront of international radio - However, radio waves have a
astronomy with the only other very much longer wavelength than
major British installation, Jodrell light waves. This means that a
Bank in Cheshire. high resolution optical telescope LOOKING AROUND
The two observatories do indeed needs a mirror of only a few feet At Lord's Bridge most of the
investigate a common science but across but a comparable radio tele- telescopes work on the above
they have differed considerably in scope would need a reflector dish principle. Thus the so-called "One
development. There are no massive several miles in diameter. Building Mile Telescope" actually consists
steel dish aerials at Cambridge like such a dish would be an engineer- of three separate dishes or reflec-
the very famous Mark IA Jodrell ing nightmare and even if it were tors: one moveable one on a rail-
Bank reflector 250 feet in diameter. possible the cost would, quite way line and two fixed. This
,
..- - - - "" " -- -. -
i4A.\*At mop USItS 14"
MO Ail*
,StihNill vii" mo, valol IR
\ , N \ , ....,,,, ......,4;::-'VA,Assit.%.4.z' i!:

\.7.,,,,:ts,,
,,,,,,,,z,,,,,,,':\°1/41,
' ,c1
tilik -. --t
RADIO
-
..
x
ificz., imm ,
NOW
By S. McCLELLAND

and the farther away it is, the
faster it moves. Indeed some of
the very distant quasars appear to
be receding at velocities very near
that of light itself.
Enormous distances, huge num-
bers and intense energies, all are
set pieces in the cosmic battle-
ground over our heads. The radio
DISH
waves which tell us so much about
t.,.),) FROMBIG APPARENT their origins tell us one thing
ROTATION OF THE
EARTH AS SEEN
MOTION OF SMALL
DISHES more-about the past. For even
FROM RADIO SOURCE light and radio waves travelling at
186,000 miles per second can take
an appreciable time to cross the
vastness of space. The result is we
see the universe not as it is but
as it was in the past and the far-
SOUTH
POLE
ther we look out into space the
more we look back in time.
Fig. 1. The principle of Aerial Synthesis. To a radio source far out in space, two small
We see our own sun as it was
aerials spaced out are combined by the Earth's rotation effectively into one large one. 8 minutes ago, but the light from
its nearest neighbour star took 4
arrangement can give all dish distances are so great that they years to reach us. And from the
spacings from zero to half mile are unimaginable as the quanties Andromeda nebula -a nearby
and from half to one mile, i.e. of energy they must pour out for galaxy-the picture the Cambridge
this arrangement is, equivalent to us to detect them. radiotelescopes now receive began
a big reflector of 1 mile diameter. A special category of these its journey two million years ago!
The "Half Mile Telescope" asso- powerhouses are the "radio Indeed the most distant objects
ciated with it has a group of 4 re- galaxies" which, as their name of all at the very edge of the
flectors, two fixed and two move- suggests, are very strong radio observable universe can tell us
able ones and works similarly. emitters. The prima donnas what the universe was like
However, the technique has amongst even these are the thousands of millions of years ago
reached its highest level of sophis- mysterious quasars-star like ob- and perhaps even how it began.
tication in the most recent of the jects, which can be over a million It is for this reason that deep
Cambridge telescopes-the 5km times brighter than ordinary stars. space surveys have been made by
instrument, completed in 1972. Above all, we realise that the the Cambridge radio astronomers
This has 8 dishes-four fixed and universe is not static but is con- and their 3C, 4C and 5C radio
four moveable-spread out over a stantly expanding. Everything is source catalogues are used inter-
distance of just over 3 miles. It moving away from everything else nationally as a source of reference.
will be described in more detail
later.
The point is with each of the
above arrays, individual reflector
sizes are small, 60 feet, 30 feet,
and 42 feet for the One Mile, Half
Mile and 5km telescopes respec-
tively. Yet the 5km telescope is
quite capable of achieving the re-
solving power of the world's most
advanced optical telescopes.
OUT IN SPACE
However, after all the effort of
building a telescope it would not
be unreasonable to ask "What's
out there to study?"
The simple answer could almost
be "More than we could ever find
out".
For the stars that the casual
observer sees in the night sky are
the few and relatively insignificant
representatives of the 10,000 mil-
lion other stars in our galaxy
alone. The truth is that there are Professor Anthony Hewish, Nobel prizewinner, at the controls of the One -Mile
thousands of other galaxies. Their Telescope. B/CC photograph

It is found at great distances out their periodicity was at least as the various "pulsar hunts" being
in space, radio sources become far good as the most advanced clocks conducted in various radio astro-
more numerous. This seems to on earth. nomical observatories around the
indicate that some 13,000 million After a thorough investigation, world.
years ago all the matter in the the scientists realised with excite- However, as is often the case in
universe was much more concen- ment and perhaps some trepida- science, theory has outstripped ex-
trated than it is now, perhaps even tion that those signals were not periment and is waiting for it to
in a gigantic fireball which blew indeed produced on earth. catch up. In this case, theory pre-
apart in a so-called "Big Bang" Where could they have come dicts that for some, neutron stars
explosion. from? At first the recordings were may not be the final resting state.
Fascinating enough but perhaps dubbed LGM-(Little Green Men) For these, the gravitational pres-
the MRAO's most spectacular dis- which shows that one possibility sures may be strong enough to
covery came in 1967 when radio had already crossed the minds of force them all the way into the
astronomers realised that some the scientists involved. bizarre nothingness of those ob-
stars could tick like clocks-the The truth is probably stranger jects seemingly straight from
pulsars. still. Astrophysicists believe that science fiction-the black holes.
these signals are produced by dead We must wait for experimental
stars, which have ended their lives evidence to confirm the existence
PULSARS AND BLACK in a huge blaze of glory or super- of these objects.
HOLES nova leaving behind a tiny hulk.
It is ironic that the first pulsar This is made of matter so con- NOBEL PRIZE
was discovered by a radio telescope densed that it's been picturesquely
that had no dishes at all. suggested that a teaspoonful of it The pacemaking work of the
The "Four Acre Array" at Lord's would weigh 10 million tons! Cambridge group was given inter-
Bridge instead consists of 2048 di- The radio blips arise because national recognition in 1974 when
pole aerials at an approximate this hulk, a so-called neutron star two of its members were awarded
height of 6 feet strung together is spinning and is throwing off the Nobel Prize for P ysics.
like so many clothes lines along- electromagnetic radiation in The award was m e jointly to
side the One Mile instrument. It crests as it does so, like an earth- Professor Sir Marti Ryle the
was built to investigate small dia- bound lighthouse beacon. Astronomer Royal, who as head of
meter radio sources, but super- Pulsars are by no means un- the radio astronomy group, was
imposed on the pen -recording out- common, their numbers now run largely responsible for its initia-
put was a series of blips. into three figures and more are tion and the development of the
These blips were very regular, being discovered all the time in aperture synthesis techniques;
Five of the aerials of the 5km telescope: four of these are mounted Aerial view of a radio -mounted dish of the 5km telescope.
on rails. BICC photograph BICC photograph
and Professor Anthony Hewish for
his contribution to the discovery
of pulsars.
THE 5km TELESCOPE

We can now bring the story of
Cambridge radioastronomy up to
date by discussing the most recent
and advanced instrument to be
built there, the 5km telescope.
Like the others it is built on
the aperture synthesis design and
its eight dishes (four fixed and
four moveable) are spread out at
Lord's Bridge along the site of the
old Cambridge to Bedford railway
line.
Its designers have gone to great
lengths to ensure that it is one of
the most accurate instruments
available. This accuracy necessi-
tated surveying the site with un-
precedented precision, and this
was carried out by the Ordnance
Survey. They managed to make all The Director of the Mullard Radio -Astronomy Observatory and Nobel laureate,
Professor Sir Martin Ryle. BICC photograph
measurements with an error of
less than 1cm over 5km. each dish to compensate, for ex- source results are compared with
In fact this was still insufficient ample, for the rotation of the earth. optical observations of the same
but by recalibrating the dishes The computer oversees every area, but intriguingly many opti-
(when the instrument was set up) aspect of the instruments opera- cally bright objects are weak radio
against known radio sources in the tion. It even keeps the system of sources and the converse may
sky the positioning error was telescope dishes electrically "bal- equally be true.
brought down to 0.3 millimetres anced" by automatically inserting Cygnus A, for example, is a
over the same distance! An object cable sections as required, from galaxy system and one of the
lesson indeed in measurement. No the 60 miles of cable network that brightest objects in the radio sky.
less was the accuracy aimed for runs between the control room It has two very strong radio
and achieved in the operation of and the eight dishes. This is to sources apparently moving in
the telescope, low noise electronic ensure that the path to each dish opposite directions but all that can
equipment of high stability is in is constant no matter where the be seen with an optical telescope
use throughout the telescope sys- dishes themselves may be pointing is a small, faint central galaxy.
tem to take advantage of this. (necessary for bandwidth reasons). Another strong radio source is
The radio waves received by Aware too of the fact that the Cassiopeia A. Here the radiotele-
each dish are focused by the radio telescope is sensitive enough scope shows a distinct circular
Cassegrainian reflector (positioned to pick up any noise signals shell of matter gradually spread-
on the projecting tripod) and fed generated by the computer itself ing outward: it is another remnant
into the central receiver. into a room lined with copper -clad of a supernova explosion.
These receivers are special solid walls. Just what is going on inside
state amplifiers of the parametric The second function of the com- these sources? Scientists can only
type. Signal amplification at the puter is to process the radio sig- speculate. Without more informa-
selected frequency is achieved by nals received by the telescope into tion they are uncertain as to
actually driving the amplifier at meaningful output which can be whether even the basic laws of
twice this frequency. So, for a fed to a graph plotter for example, physics hold under such extreme
working wavelength of 6cm i.e. to display a "picture" of the radio conditions.
4995GHz, the amplifier is operated source in terms of contours linking As always we must look to the
at 9990GHz. After mixing with points of equal radio intensity as future for this information, the
signals from a local oscillator in an ordinary contour links equal pieces needed to complete the
the control room the final output heights. tantalising puzzle Nature has set
frequency is about 45MHz. out before us. I1
LOOKING TO THE FUTURE
CONTROL Due to the accuracy which the Acknowledgement
The whole network of dishes aperture synthesis technique The author wishes to acknow-
must be kept "locked on" to the affords it has been possible to map ledge the co-operation given to him
radio source it is studying and this the structure of many radio by the radioastronomy group of
necessitates the use of an on-line sources in much finer detail than the Cavendish Laboratory, Cam-
control computer which con- previously possible. More informa- bridge, and the Mullard Radio
tinuously adjusts the position of tion can often be gleaned if radio Astronomy Observatory.

Add-on
CAPACITANCE UNIT By R. A. PENFOLD
INTRODUCTION
THERE can be little doubt that range to measure capacitance in without any adaptor, and the latter
the single most useful piece of the following three switched are more rarely encountered, and
electronic test equipment is the ranges; Range 1:0 to 0 05/AF; their measurement is really beyond
multirange test meter. However, Range 2 : 0 to 0.5i1F; Range 3 : 0 to the scope of a very simple instru-
multimeters do have distinct limi- 5)1F. This covers most of the values ment such as that described here.
tations, and one of their primary that are likely to be encountered A minimum of components are
ones is that very few are equipped in general electronics work, with used in the circuit which is, in con-
to measure capacitance. the exceptions of electrolytic types sequence, both simple and inexpen-
This unit has been designed and very low value components. sive to construct. The unit should
to enable any multimeter that The former can usually be tested prove to be a very useful addition
possesses a 0 to 50 microamp satisfactorily using a multimeter to one's test gear.
HOW IT WORKS... START

CAPACITOR
UNDER TEST
HERE FOR
5.6V
OV
CONSTRUCTION
SQUARE WAVE
OSCILLATOR
A ready made 133 X 70 X 38mm

aluminium case is used as the
housing for the prototype adaptor.
MULTIMETER
This is about the smallest size that
The Add -On Capacitance Unit consists of a square wave oscillator with a can be used, and it would be advis-
vital component missing-a capacitor. By inserting the capacitor to be able for the inexperienced con-
tested into the circuitry, the oscillator is completed and an output results. structor to use a somewhat larger
The output consists of a train of pulses and the value of the capacitor will case. Apart from this virtually any
determine the frequency of oscillation and mark/space ratio. case can be used. The symmetri-
The signal from the oscillator is fed to a multimeter set at 50pA d.c. (or a cal panel layout used by the author
panel meter of same rating). As the pulses are produced at a rate of hun- gives an attractive appearance, but
dreds per second, the meter movement responds to the average output the exact layout used is not criti-
voltage rather than to individual pulses and so the result is the same as if
the signal was a d.c. one. cal.
All the resistors and semicon-
ductors are wired up on a 0. 15inch
matrix stripboard panel having 13
copper strips by 15 holes. Details
of this, together with details of all
the other wiring are shown in Fig.
1.
Start by cutting the board to
size using a hacksaw and then drill
the two 6BA mounting holes using
a 3mm twist drill. Then make
the six cuts in the copper strips. A
hand-held drill bit (about 6mm dia)

GooAnick.
44°
ESTIMATED COST
OF COMPONENTS
£3
Internal photograph of the completed Add-on Capacitance
Unit, showing the layout used.
can be used to do this if the special
spot face cutter tool is not avail-
able. Next the resistors and then
the capacitors are mounted and
soldered in. Veropins are used at 0 TERMINALS
TEST
the points where Si, SKI, etc., will

eventually connect to the panel. SK1
Mount the component panel at

any convenient place inside the
case using short insulated spacers
over the mounting bolts in order
to hold the panel a little way
clear of the bottom of the case.
Make sure that the panel is posi-
tioned somewhere that permits BATTERY CLIP
easy access to the three presets.

Finally, the unit is wired up to
conform to Fig. 1 using ordinary
insulated connecting wire. Capaci- 1 3 4 5 6 9 10 12 13 B 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
tors Cl to C3 are wired up on S1

11
A o 0000 00000 0 00 00 0 0 0 0 Or0 0

which is a standard 3 -pole 4 -way 0 eN
0
wafer switch. cliti 0 VR3 A
...
0
0
&-41TR2 0 0
ADJUSTMENT AND USE F
P4 4
01 0 0
VR2 0 s0
The test prods of the multimeter ©H R3
Olde 00
are connected to the unit by a 0 0
couple of ordinary insulated leads
which are terminated in a 3.5mm
jack plug at one end and a couple
of crocodile clips at the other. The
O.J
J 0 TR1 07-1
VR1
l -J
00
3
e.
0
00
0
jack plug is inserted into SK2 and 00 00 00 00
\11 00000 0 0 0 0_0 0_0 0 0 0 0 0_0
...,
the crocodile clips are connected

to the test prods. Make sure that Fig. 1. Stripboard layout showing breaks required, and the various interconnections between
the test prods are connected with the components on the front panel.
the correct polarity (positive prod
to the wiper tag of Slb (via SK2).
411.111ft 1111111111111111%
Three photographs taken from the screen of an oscilloscope. The waveform shown is that appearing at the output, when different value of
capacitors are connected. Note in particular the increase in length of the bottom of the waveform, this corresponds to an increase of
capacitance.
Everyday .E1o7trcmies, September 1977 33

except that it is now TR1 that
finishes hard on, and TR2 that
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION finishes hard off.
Referring to Fig. 3 this shows For the sake of this explanation The similarities between the
the complete circuit diagram of the we will assume that it is TR1 that practical circuit of Fig. 3 and the
adaptor, and is based on an astable turns on the faster. As it does so skeleton circuit of Fig. 2 should
multivibrator. The operation of an it will send a negative signal to be obvious. There are a few addi-
astable circuit is probably most the base of TR2 via Cl. This has tional components in the circuit
easily explained with the aid of the effect of turning TR2 off. TR1 of Fig. 3, such as zener diode Dl.
the skeleton circuit shown in Fig. 2. thus turns hard on while TR2 is This ensures that the peak output
The circuit consists basically of held in the off state. voltage at TR2 collector remains
two single transistor stages. One When the collector potential of reasonably constant, and is not
stage uses TR1 with R1 as its collec- TR1 has fallen to virtually the greatly affected by variations in
tor load and R2 as its base bias negative supply rail voltage, ob- the supply voltage.
resistor, and the other stage uses viously no further negative signal If we consider the unit switched
TR2 with R3 and R4 in these re- voltage can be applied via Cl to to Range 1 (Si in position 2 and
spective positions. The output of TR2 base. Capacitor Cl therefore capacitor Cl in circuit), with a
each stage is coupled to the input charges by way of R3 until about 0 capacitor in circuit, VR1 is
of the other stage via a d.c. block- 0.65V is present at TR2 base. TR2 adjusted to produce full scale de-
ing capacitor. These are Cl and C2 then begins to turn on and a nega- flection of the meter. If a lower
of Fig. 2. tive signal is supplied via C2 to value capacitor is now connected
TR1 base. This turns TR1 hard off, across the test terminals, say
and the positive signal produced 0.01,Z, the output pulses (and thus
across RI is fed by way of Cl to also the average output voltage)
TR2 base, turning TR2 hard on. will be only one -fifth of their
Capacitor C2 then begins to original value. The meter will
charge through R2 and when about therefore read one -fifth f.s.d.
0.65V is present at TR1 base, TR1 Thus with the circuit values
begins to turn on. A regenerative shown there is virtually a linear
action similar to that which just relationship between the value of
occurred will now take place, the test capacitor and the meter
TRANSISTORS CHANGING
Fig. 2. Basic multivibrator circuit.
When power is initially con-
nected to the circuit both tran-
sistors will begin to turn on, as
they will both be receiving a base
CI CHARGING
TR2 OFF
C2 CHARGING
TR2 ON
.*-- CI CHARGING
TR2 OFF
current via the appropriate resis-

tor. Due to component tolerances,
one transistor will begin to turn DV
on faster than the other. Fig. 4. Typical waveform produced at TR2 collector.
03 reading.
02 Sic With capacitor C2 switched into
01
circuit ten times the test capaci-
ISK1 tance is required to produce f.s.d.
VOLTAGE
TEST
OFF of the meter. This is because the
121
3-9k12
R2
221411
R3
39512
R4
3.950
higher value of C2 in relation to
VR3
Cl increases the time that the out-
C2
0./NF 100k11 put is low by a factor of ten. Ten
times the test capacitance is there-
VR2
tookn
S1b
fore required to maintain the pro-
C3
portion of high to low output by
C1
0.01pF
IpF
VR1
also increasing the high output by
/00k11 a factor of ten. With C3 in circuit
(71 DI a further increase of ten times the
BZYBBC
SK2
test capacitance is required for
S1c
TR2 IMETERI f.s.d. of the meter.
TR1
BC109C
With Si in position 1, Sla dis-
BC109 L connects the battery and turns the
unit off. S1 is both the on/off and
^SKI
range switch, and is the only con-
SK 3
trol fitted to the device. SK1 con-
'TEST CAPACITOR]
nects to the positive supply rail.
This enables the loaded battery
Fig. 3. Complete circuit diagram of the Add -On Capacitance Unit. voltage to be easily measured.

Three close -tolerance capacitors
are required for calibration, and
these should preferably have COMPONENTS
values of 0.047,Z, 0.471,F and
4.7pf, as these represent nearly Resistors
the f.s.d. values of the three ranges R1 3.942
R2 22142
covered. The smaller the tolerances R3 39k0
of these capacitors the better, and R4 3.9kS2 All +W carbon + 10%
5 per cent should be regarded as
the minimum acceptable. Potentiometers
Start with the three preset resis- VR1, 2, 3 100kS2 standard horizontal preset (3 off)
tors set to insert maximum resis- Capacitors
tance into circuit, turn S1 to Range C1 0.01gF polyester
1 and connect the 0.047µF capaci- C2 0.1µF polyester
tor across the test terminals. This C3 1pF polyester
should produce some deflection of Semiconductors See
the meter, VR1 is then adjusted
to produce a reading of precisely
TR1
TR2
BC109 silicon npn
BC109C silicon npn
Sho
47 on the meter. The unit is next
switched to Range 2 and VR2 is
D1 BZY88C5V6 5.6V 400mW Zener diode
Miscellaneous
Talk
adjusted for a reading of 47 on Page 13
the meter with the 0.47pf capaci- S1 3 pole 4 way rotary switch
SK1 3mm wander socket
tor connected to test terminals. SK2 3.5mm jack socket
Finally, VR3 is similarly adjusted SK3, 4 4mm screw terminal (one off red, one off black)
with the unit switched to Range 3 B1 9V PP3 battery
and the 4.7iLF capacitor connected Stripboard 0.15 inch matrix 13 strips x 15 holes; aluminium case
to the unit. 132mm x 68mm x 40mm; battery clip; two crocodile clips; 3.5mm jack
Other values of test capacitor plug; small pointer knob, connecting wire; solder, feet for case (4 off)
can be used, with the preset resis-
tors being adjusted for the appro-
priate meter readings. In the in-
terest of good accuracy one should
use a capacitor with a value corre-
sponding to half f.s.d. or more of
the range being calibrated.
It sometimes happens that when
a perfectly good capacitor is con-
nected across the test terminals
the unit fails to oscillate. Either
swopping over the leads of the
component or momentarily short-
ing them together will provide the
necessary impetus to initiate oscil-
lation. If this fails to produce a
suitable reading, the test capacitor
is certainly a dud. II Illustrating how the Capacitance Unit is connected to a multimeter.
4. A 14 watt resistor is the only size available. If it is

What do you know? to be used in a circuit with a supply voltage of
5 volts, taking a current of 150mA, would the
POWER power rating be sufficient?
1. A circuit consumes 150 watts of power. If the
supply voltage is 240 volts, what is the current
flowing?
ANSWERS
2.2.5 amp flows in a circuit which has a total resist-
ance of 60 ohms. What is the power being Aiessaaau
developed in the circuit and what is the supply aq pinom 0.10w .10 llem In palea Jols!sal n 'ON .17
voltage?
'Mum 001
3. The resistance of a circuit when using a 240 volt gst pun mum SLE 7
supply is 576 ohms. What is the power in the
circuit? SZ9 I.

A busy sales position at ITT Electronic
Services. Note the size of the products
catalogue in the foreground and the visual
display linked to the firm's computer.
Looking on at the proceedings, centre, is
Kevin Walker an ex -sales engineer and now
sales manager of B & R Relays for which
ITT is one of the franchised distributors.
manufacturer is Mullard, employ-

ing 12,000 people in nine factories
turning out £180 million worth of
components a yea r. Mullard
happens to be owned by the giant
Philips Group so it will come as
no surprise when opening up a
Philips TV set or radio to find
quite a few Mullard components.
But to Mullard, Philips is just
another customer, albeit an
important one. If Philips were
Mullard's only customer, Mullard
would shrink to less than half its
present size, the economies of scale
would be lost and Philips would
find itself paying more for Mullard
components than it does today.
With Mullard supplying the whole
of British industry and exporting
components as well, everybody
benefits.
COMPETITION
But apart from sheer volume of
manufacturing in millions rather
than thousands or hundreds of
Electronics by Peter Verwig
instrument cases, cable harnesses

components, the other great check
on prices is competition.
The components industry con-
sists of hundreds of firms in the
UK and many thousands through-
and all the other bits and pieces out the rest of the world. No equip-
SELLING COMPONENTS not directly concerned with elec- ment manufacturer likes to be
SELLING electronic components tronic circuitry but are necessary dependent on a single source of
doesn't sound a very exciting to build a functional item of elec- supply for components because the
occupation. And exceedingly dull tronic equipment. firm supplying him may have a
it would be if taken at face value. Some electronic equipment strike, or discontinue a particular
But dig a little deeper and you manufacturers also have com- product line, might even go broke
expose a very large group of ponents manufacturing divisions or and close down. So we get the
people, widely scattered round the subsidiary companies but no equip- strange paradox of a components
electronics industry, calling them- ment manufacturer, however large, firm, say a semiconductor manu-
selves not components salesmen makes all its own components. A facturer, bringing out an exciting
but sales engineers. Not all de- very large percentage of require- new device and finding difficulty in
serve the title but most do, and ments is always bought from selling it until a second firm also
without them the industry would specialist suppliers manufacturing starts making it.
certainly function a lot less in such vast quantities that the As a deliberate policy one firm
efficiently. components cost very much less will allow a second firm to be a
Electronic components are the than if manufactured locally. The second source of supply on a
building blocks of electronic equip- reason why semiconductor prices friendly agreement, thus greatly
ment. They are broadly classified continue to fall while nearly every- expanding the market for that pro-
into active components, nowadays thing else rises in price is because duct. You might think this can't
mainly semiconductor devices, and semiconductor production h a s do much good for either firm but
passive components such as re- doubled, trebled and quadrupled in practice both do rather better
sistors and capacitors, wound com- through the years aided by vast because the availability of a second
ponents, connectors. Another broad investment in automation. Prices sour c e encourages equipment
classification is electronics hard- fall as volume rises. manufacturers to specify it into
ware which includes racks, panels, Britain's biggest component new equipment.

ECONOMICS to produce a higher technology informed of what is available to be
Another odd thing about the product. designed into new equipment. In
components industry is that in In general the third -world, while the other, he feeds back to the
many product areas it is global now establishing an economically components industry what the end
rather than national. Let us look viable electronics industry, can user requires technically, and a
at one example, the Motorola semi- never catch up with the developed forecast of demand so that there
conductor plant at East Kilbride, countries because they are always is sufficient production capacity
Scotland, which this year won the one technology generation behind available to meet the anticipated
Queen's Award for export per- in production and because the best demand and at a price the
formance. of their engineers, many of them customer can afford.
The East Kilbride plant is the brilliant, need to join European, The sales engineer might work
manufacturing centre for mos pro- American or Japanese laboratories for one of the many component
ducts for Europe. The devices are because these are the only profit- manufacturers or he might work
designed either at Motorola's able outlets for their talents. for a components distributor of
global headquarters in Phoenix, The UK market for electronic which there are well over 100 in
Arizona, or at the European head- components is currently £500 mil- the UK.
quarters in Geneva. All the proces- lion a year, a little over half being Let us examine the first case,
sing of the chips is undertaken in active devices, the remainder that of working for a components
at East Kilbride and they are then passive devices. The three largest manufacturer. He has a range of
sent all the way to Malaysia for market sectors are electronic com- products already in production and
assembly into packages, then puters, colour TV and other con- listed in the catalogue and it is
shipped all the way back to East sumer products, and telecom- his job to convince customers that
Kilbride for final testing before munications, the latter increasing he has the best product in specifi-
being sold in the market place. fast since the advent of electronic cation, in price, in availability or
If this sounds crazy maybe its telephone exchanges. best in all three.
because we all live in a crazy Other important markets are in In a big organisation he will pos-
world. But the fact is that it is industrial automation, radio com- sibly be a specialist. In some cases,
cheaper to have them assembled munications and aerospace. The depending on how the marketing
in a country with low labour costs, defence industries market is less department is structured, he may
the savings easily outstripping the in volume of components, but be responsible for a limited range
shipping costs. The high technology piece -for -piece the value of each of products, say resistors and
part of the production is done in component is generally higher capacitors, sold throughout the
high -cost high -quality labour areas, than the average because of the whole industry. In other cases he
the less technically demanding stringent reliability requirements might be responsible for a market
work in low-cost areas. It must and tight specifications needed for sector concentrating, say, on com-
make sense, otherwise it wouldn't the military role. puters or consumer products, and
be done that way. selling all the components made by
Similarly, with very simple de- SALES ENGINEER his company that are appropriate
vices like low-grade resistors and The interface between the com- to that market sector.
capacitors, much of the world's ponent manufacturers and the But either way, his target is to
output is now concentrated in component users is the sales sell in what are called OEM quanti-
third -world countries with whole engineer. So his or hers is a very ties. OEM means original equip-
manufacturing plants leaving de- important job-far more than ment manufacture and this is
veloped countries to be re-estab- superficially just selling com- where the large volume business
lished in the third -world. In their ponents. lies. A colour TV manufacturer,
place the developed countries re- In the one direction the sales perhaps, is contemplating a new
invest in more sophisticated plants engineer ha's to keep his customers model and already has some idea
How components shrink. The Siemens electrolytic capacitor on the

left was found to be still working after 15 years submerged in Lake
Constance. In the meantime, capacitors have become smaller.
Demonstration model for Burroughs self -scan optical displays The modern version on the right is only half the volume but has the
available through Walmore Electronics. same capacity and working voltage.
Everyday Electronics, September 1977 37.

TRONICS. But there are more than
100 such firms in the UK, some of
considerable size, serving the pro-
fessional electronics industry.
Some belong to large electronics
companies (ITT Electronic Services
for example is an ITT company
and SASCO is part of Philips) but
many are smallish independently
run affairs.
All buy in bulk at manufacturers
rates and sell in smaller quantities
at a much higher rate, the differ-
ence paying their operating costs
and providing a profit margin.
.0001
Some operate purely as "shops"
-50 -40 -30 -20 -10 0 10 for small customers while others
POWER IN (dBm}\
have engineering staff who can
offer advice. Quite a few have
Tiny components but big money. Hewlett-Packard zero -bias HSCH-3000 Ministry Approvals which allows
Series Schottky diodes against a background of output voltage charac- them to supply components re-
teristics. Prices range from £8.13 to £17.89 each in quantities of 10-99. leased and certificated to Defence
or Air Registration Board specifi-
of what performance and price he engineers. The sales engineer will cations.
is aiming at. He obviously wants to also need to discuss the potential
get a technical or price edge on order within the framework of his
existing competitive products. And company's marketing and pricing DISTRIBUTORS
he might hope with this particular policy and ensure that delivery Component distributors come in
model to capture five percent of schedules can be accommodated all shapes and sizes. Some are
the total UK market of 1.8 million within the time framework by the broad -line stocking a large range
sets expected to be sold in 1979 production manager. of components, perhaps as many as
when his new model will be ready. Production planning people will 20,000 different types, while others
So he hopes to make and sell need information so that raw are narrow -line supplying perhaps
90,000 sets in that year and similar materials supply can be arranged 2,000 lines from a restricted cata-
quantities in succeeding years. His and any special tooling be designed logue. Some also have production
total production run might even- and built ready for the production tools such as soldering irons, pliers
tually extend to half a million sets. process. wire -cutters in their catalogues.
There are hundreds of com- The sales engineer may need to There are two, Electroplan and
ponents in a colour TV set and if do a little fighting within his own ITT Instrument Services, who
the sales engineer can get, say, organisation to keep his sale in- specialise entirely in test instru-
only ten of his components tact. With a factory already fully ments, being virtually instrument
specified in to the design he then loaded he may have to struggle supermarkets.
has a potential sale of five million to get his own customer's products Their customers are all the non
components or, assuming a second manufactured on time. His whole OEM buyers and a few equipment
source as equal supplier, two and life is a challenge from the initial
a half million. And this for only discussion of an order to the last
one model although, of course, piece being delivered.
spread over a period of years.
Certainly worth spending some
time over. SMALL ORDERS
On the other hand, the TV manu- Big manufacturers and even a
facturer is in a very strong posi- lot of small ones find it totally
tion. The buyer of the TV manu- uneconomic to handle small orders.
facturer might have as many as They like to have a few big OEM
a dozen people fighting for such customers and rather than have
a nice order and he can drive a thousands of little customers they
hard bargain. So hard, in fact, that pass this business to the com-
in the end the order may not be ponent distributor.
worth having. The distributor is similar to the
During the course of such a high street supermarket except
negotiation the sales engineer will that most of the business is by mail
be enlisting the aid of his col- order rather than by personal
leagues. The customer may need shopper. Some specialise in supply-
a new component developed or ing components to the electronics
wish to use an existing one in a hobbyist and can be spotted easily
novel way. Either case will neces- in the advertisement columns of
sitate liaison with applications EVERYDAY ELECTRONICS and its Peter Tagg, managing director of distributor
engineers or development sister journal PRACTICAL ELEC- RITRO Electronics (UK) Ltd.

manufacturers whose volume is too
small to negotiate directly with the
large component manufacturers.
One fifth of the UK component
market is served by distributors
who will have a combined turn-
over this year of £100 million.
As already mentioned, many of
the distributors ha v e strong
engineering back-up and employ
sales engineers to advise
customers as well as to make
sales. The advent of programmable
memories and, more recently, the
microprocessor handled by a
number of distributors has resulted
in an increased demand in the
distribution industry for qualified
engineers. The great bulk of
routine sales is through sales girls
who need little or no technical
knowledge to get through the day.
The routine is generally for a
customer to telephone an order.
He is routed to one of the sales
points and a sales girl will
generally take the enquiry. A Automatic wafer -probing at Motorola's MOS integrated
number of the larger distributors circuit plant in Scotland. Apart from their own sales engineers
are fully computerised and in such based on Wembley, Motorola products reach the UK market
through six distributors.
cases the girl will punch an en-
quiry into a visual display unit only need a technical knowledge petent engineer with a genuine
and on the screen will be displayed
the stock position. If the product of the product itself but also of liking for dealing with people can
is available she confirms the order, the way it is used. In addition the make far more financial headway
pushes the appropriate buttons to sales engineer must be a business in sales than he can in a labora-
release the stock and the order is man. He needs to know the com- tory. This may be a sorry state of
processed in the warehouse. Tech- petitive position in pricing and affairs but it happens to be true.
nical enquiries will be generally specification with his rivals. He You will notice that I have per-
routed to a sales engineer. needs to be alert and have a good
personality because he is always haps overstressed the masculine
dealing with people as well as pro- role in sales engineering. This
QUALIFICATIONS ducts. merely reflects the present male
What qualifications do you need He needs to be a competent predominance. There seems no
to be a sales engineer? There is engineer rather than a brilliant reason why the girls should not do
really no substitute for an one. If he were that brilliant he equally as well if they would only
apprenticeship in manufacture or might be better staying in research come forward. But they don't. How
through the laboratories. You not and development. As it is, a corn- about it, girls?
JACK PLUG' & FAMILY...

THE STEADY HAND TESTER AH, YES, bUT BE FAIR
PROVES MY HAND IS TO YOUR FATHER. HE
STEADIER THAN YOURS... WAS AT A DISADVANTAGE
I WON EVERY TIME, DAD.

cassette. Quite why anyone should want to
record four solid hours on a single cas-
sette tape is as yet unsure. So are the
electronic means by which this is achieved.
It seems likely that the Matsushita machine
uses a combination of the slant -head
approach adopted by both Sony for
Betamax and Philips for 1700 series, along
with the so-called skip field system.
Indeed it is believed that Sony is also
working with a combination of the two
techniques. Skip field is a clever way of
squeezing twice as much recording in-
formation into the same tape space. All
TV pictures are interlaced, the frame
being built up first by odd lines (lines 1, 3,
5 and so on of the 625 line structure)
and then by even lines (lines 2, 4, 6, 8 and
so on). Normally odd and even lines are
scanned one after the other. In the skip
field recording system only the odd or the
even lines are recorded and then doubled
up on playback. For instance only the odd
lines are recorded, and on playback they
are used twice, to build up a complete
picture from half the normal amount of
video information.
Battle of The Giants

By ADRIAN HOPE If all this starts to sound like the line-up
for a massive and self-defeating standards
battle between Sony, Philips, Matsushita
(and several other companies working on
equally ingenious rival systems), that's
true but only partly true. Some people
NTERESTING things are happening on the Video Recorders draw parallels with the quadraphonics
I video front. Various firms are still standards battle, and point to how all the
working on videodisc systems, and several Domestic video is also catching on in systems lost out because the public be-
of these are ready for domestic launch. the States because Sony, with the Beta - came confused and lost interest. The
But all are replay -only systems (that is you max machine, has made both a techno- parallel is not really valid, however. With
can't make a recording of your own) and as logical and price breakthrough. Up till now quadraphonics it was a chicken -and -the -
such I would reckon all to be a dead duck. video has been a pretty expensive busi- egg situation, where people would not buy
Well how many times would you want to ness. The cheapest domestic video hardware to play records until there were
watch a videodisc of excerpts from The cassette machine (the Philips range in the records to play; so no one produced
Tempest or Mick Jagger singing or the UK) costs well over £500, and the original records because no one had any equip-
Prime Minister speaking? I'll bet the video- Sony U-matic machines cost around ment on which to play them; and so on.
disc only comes into its own when records £1,00u. Also, the video heads tend to wear With video -cassette machines, the
are issued in video -audio compatible for- out much more quickly than the heads of whole point is to be able to make and
mat; that is to say every record sold will an audio tape recorder, and cost around replay your own recordings.
produce pictures as well as sound if you £50 to replace. So unless you want to swap tapes with
have the right equipment, just as quad- Most important of all, videotape cas- someone else, it really doesn't matter
raphonic discs will play in mono, stereo or settes have so far cost around £20 an hour what system you use.
quad, depending on what equipment you running time. This isn't a problem if you
have available. use one cassette over and over again, for
But as yet the public is just not ready for instance to record while you are out and
video -audio compatible discs. replay later; but it is a problem once you
The immediate future of domestic video start keeping what you have taped, to
must without doubt centre around home build up a library.
recording systems, so that users can tape The Sony breakthrough was the devel-
TV programmes while they are out and opment of the Betamax system mentioned
watch them later, or build up a library of above. This doubles the length of playing
favourite programmes such as films. time by halving the tape's speed. To
achieve this the rotating heads are set at
an angle, so that where the recorded
Copyright tracks overlap there is phase cancellation.
Of course all these activities are strictly Philips has now answered the Sony
illegal, as they are breaching copyright, Betamax challenge, by developing a half -
and in the USA Sony is being sued by speed version of the standard Philips
some of the film studios for allegedly VCR. In fact the new 1700 series of Philips
inciting the public to use Sony Betamax videocassette recorders will soon be in the
video recorders to tape films off -air. shops, by the end of this year, and will
Just before Gone With The Wind was record 130 minutes on a Philips video-
shown on American television, for In- cassette that gives only 60 minutes on
stance, you couldn't buy a blank Sony existing 1500 series machines.
Betamax cassette for love nor money, There is also news, albeit somewhat
because the shops had all sold out. What- confused and unconfirmed, of an even
ever happens over the court action, how- more dramatic breakthrough from Matsu-
ever, it has already achieved one thing. shita in Japan. Apparently joining forces
That is to bring domestic video into the with RCA and the Philips subsidiary
public eye. Magnavox in the USA, Matsushita will
For the first time ever the American man market the VHS videocassette machine.
in the street knows what video is and what Allegedly this can provide an option of "You've just made our £157,000 computer
it's all about. two or four hours recording on a single redundant!"

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NEW COMPONENT SERVICE

Resistors 5% carbon El2 I 0 to IOM 3-W 14p. I W 3p.
?reset pots subminiature 0- IW 100 0 to 4M7 9p.
Potentiometers 3-W 4K7 to 2M2 log or lin. Single
30p. Dual 9Sp. Polystyrene capacitors E12 63V 22pf
to 8200pf Sfp. Ceramic capacitors 50V E6 22pf to
47000pf 3p. Polyester capacitors 250V E6 -01 to
Imf 54p. IS, '22, 33mf 7p. 47mc I 1p. Electro-
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MAINS TRANSFORMERS
6-0-6V 100mA 94p. 9-0-9V 75mA 94p.
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Contains etching dish, 100 sq ins of pc board, lb I
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With press -stud connectors. 9V [3'45. 6V [3.45.
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Cassette type 74V 100mA with din plug E2-10.
Transistor stabilized 8 -way type for low hum.
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The Extra
ordinar
Experi-
menta
or
Profe55
Ernes
Evemure
by phony John 13a55ett
THE Prof. surveyed the small fier, then at the circuit diagram other parts becoming available we
collection of "irreparable" which the Prof. had already may soon see a microphone pro-
electret condenser microphones scribbled out, Fig. I. duced with a built-in graphic
which had been sent to him by a "It hardly seems worth putting equaliser. However, I think that in
friend who was sceptical of his in!" he remarked, "If the makers a couple of minutes you will have
repairman's verdict. Already the go to all the trouble of putting in an opportunity to test your other
Prof. and his young friend Bob a battery and battery compart- theory with a practical experi-
had repaired two of these, and ment, surely it deserves a little ment!"
the faults had appeared so trivial, more electronics than that! They The Prof. switched the micro-
and easily put right, that the should either put in a few more phone on, and applied the test
"irreparable" label now seemed to transistors", he declared emphati- probes of his multimeter to the
be thoroughly ridiculous. cally, "or leave it out completely, battery negative terminal, and to
The Prof. selected a third micro- and connect the microphone up the drain of the f.e.t. The multi -
phone from the collection. directly to the main amplifier. The meter was set to a low voltage
"From my previous quick checks, extra gain needed could then be range, and promptly gave a read-
I suspect that this one may have supplied by simply turning up the ing of 1.5 volts, showing that the
a faulty f.e.t. pre -amplifier, Bob." volume control." battery was delivering the correct
Whilst the Prof. carefully dis- "Okay, Bob", the Prof. replied voltage. Now the Prof. transferred
mantled the microphone to reveal "I think the idea of having a bit the test probes to the source of the
the pre -amplifier, again taking par- more electronics in these micro- f.e.t., and the reading changed to
ticular care not to bend or damage phones is a good one; who knows, 0.6 volts. He promptly plugged
the delicate diaphragm, Bob before long, with some of the the microphone into an audio
observed attentively and was very miniature potentiometers and amplifier, turned up the volume,
surprised when the Prof. opened and spoke into the microphone.
a tiny compartment in the micro- His voice came over clearly for a
phone. He brought out the pre- few moments, then, with a loud
amplifier, which consisted of a tiny crackle, the microphone ceased to
piece of printed circuit board bear- work.
ing four components, and con- The voltage reading at the
nected to the remainder of the source had now dropped to zero.
microphone by means of tour thin By gently touching the f.e.t. with
flexible wires. his finger, the Prof. could make
the voltage change from zero to
the correct reading of about 0.6
PRE -AMPLIFIER volts, and the microphone would
Bob was flabbergasted! He Fig. 1. Typical f.e.t. pre -amplifier as used in then operate correctly for a short
looked first at the tiny pre -ampli- electret microphones. while.

ANONYMOUS FET the battery, and made off with it COMPARISON
to another part of the laboratory, "May I suggest, Bob, that we
He checked that the f.e.t. was leaving Bob with a microphone but compare this performance with
soldered in with good soldered no pre -amplifier. another microphone?"
joints, but the condition persisted. "See what you can do with that, The Prof. took one of the micro-
"As I suspected" he informed Bob", he suggested, "whilst I in- phones which they had already re-
Bob, "a faulty f.e.t." He removed vestigate possible replacements paired, and which still contained
it and showed it to Bob. One of the for this anonymous transistor." an f.e.t. pre -amplifier, and con-
connecting wires was loose in the nected it to another input channel
plastic moulding and was obviously of the amplifier. He turned up the
not making good contact to the volume and adjusted the tone con-
interior of the transistor. trols of this channel.
Bob examined the f.e.t. with DIRECT CONNECTION "Listen, Bob, and compare the
horror. It was irregularly
an Bob connected the output of the performances of the two micro-
shaped piece of black plastic with electret unit directly to the phones."
a large, pale pink blob on top. He screened lead of the microphone The Prof. spoke into each micro-
carefully picked away the blob, cable, and connected the other end phone in turn, and soon Bob began
using a craft knife, to reveal the of the cable to the high impedance to twiddle the various controls of
black plastic below it. input of one of the Prof's. audio the channel which carried the sig-
"There are no markings on this amplifiers. He turned up the nal from the microphone which
transistor, Prof." he cried in volume, and, just as he had ex- lacked the f.e.t pre -amplifier.
despair, "How could anyone be pected, the microphone worked, Eventually, in despair, he turned
expected to be able to replace it? and without the aid of an f.e.t. pre- to the Prof.
No wonder the repairman said amplifier Bob's voice could be "It does not sound so natural
that these microphones were heard loudly in the laboratory as as the one with the f.e.t. pre-
irreparable!" he tested the microphone. Hear- amplifier," he complained.
"Ah, well," said the Prof. with ing this the Prof. returned. "No matter how I adjust the
a smile, "That gives you your "Have you noticed something, tone controls, although I can hear
opportunity to try a capacitor Bob?" he enquired. every word clearly and there is no
microphone connected directly to "Yes, Prof. when I first con- obvious distortion, I just cannot
the main amplifier, and test your nected the microphone and tested seem to set the tone controls quite
theory that the f.e.t. pre -amplifier it I found that there was a lack of to my satisfaction. The f.e.t. pre-
is not necessary." treble response. But by adjusting amplifier makes the response of
So saying that the Prof. dis- the tone controls of the amplifier, the microphone sound much more
connected the four wires from the I can now hear plenty of treble natural. Why is this, Prof?"
pre -amplifier, after switching off frequencies from the loudspeaker." To be continued
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any obligation. I ADDRESS
I BLOCK CAPS PLEAS4

GEORGE HYLTON Leakage signals at that point, and produces a loud
hum. The total mains leakage is about 8p A
brings it The most probable cause of the hum in for every 100pF of inter -winding capaci-
own
the present case is mains leakage. In any tance.
mains power pack, there are paths through So a "stray capacitance" of 500pF gives
which tiny mains currents can flow. In a 40/2A, and one -fortieth of this flowing
typical case Fig. 1. the major path is via an through the audio amplifier input (e.g. the
invisible component, capacitor C1. This is volume control) would produce the sort of
the capacitance between the mains pri- hum I'm talking about.
mary and the low voltage secondary wind- The large smoothing capacitors in the
ing of the transformer. This is the result of power unit have no effect on this hum. All
having two conductors (the wire on the they do is allow the mains leakage to flow
windings) close to one another with rela- freely between the positive and negative
tively thin insulation in between. The two sides of the d.c. output. There may be no
sets of wire are the "plates" of the capac- hum between positive and negative (be-
itor and the insulator is the dielectric. cause of C2 and C3) but both positive and
The capacitance is usually only a few negative lines are at a certain hum voltage
hundred picofarads. But it has 240V, 50Hz above "earth". Earthing either side of the
applied to it. The result is that a small d.c. output provides an easy path for the
mains leakage current flows. Where does leakage and removes the hum. For other
it flow to? If the neutral side of the mains reasons, it is best to earth the positive
Earthing Power Supplies is earthed, as in Britain (at a distribution side in a common positive (positive earth)
AREADER in Malta, remarks that a Down
to Earth he's been reading makes no r--; F-1
mention of "earth". He goes on to des- CI
cribe a case where an earth connection I
was very useful:

"I built a power pack for my 9V tran-
sistor radio. The result was much mains
hum. I decided to earth the positive lead,
before it comes out of the power pack box.
The mains hum was completely elimi- MAINS SUPPLY C2 C3 OUTPUT TO
240V l000pF RECEIVER
nated." 7000pF
Idon't guarantee to mention earths
every month, because the subject isn't
always relevant. "Down to earth" has
another meaning, to come down to earth is
to get to grips with practical problems,
which I try do do in this column. In cases
of mains hum, a topic which keeps crop-
ping up, earthing is often very relevant. Fig. 1. Circuit diagram of a typical full wave rectified power supply. The capacitor
shown dotted is explained fully in the text.
Mains Hum transformer) the path is clear. The leakage receiver and the negative side in common
There are several ways in which mains must flow to earth, via anything that gets negative equipment.
hum can be produced in a radio with a mains in the way.
power supply. Perhaps the most common What gets in the way, in the present
is direct induction of a mains frequency case, is the receiver. If the receiver is not Safety First
voltage into the receiver's ferrite aerial earthed, the leakage flows via many paral-
coils. This happens when the power pack lel paths, but principally through the capa- must stress that this is only one of -'47
I
is put inside the set, with the ferrite rod citance formed by the metal chassis or several kinds of mains hum. It is an im-
close to the mains transformer. It is clearly wiring and the earth itself. Some of this portant kind, however. But before readers
not the cause of the hum in the present current flows through sensitive parts of go around connecting earths to equip-
case, because our reader's power pack is the circuitry, for instance the input of the ment to cure hum they should first make
in a box, and presumably outside the re- audio amplifier. Even a tiny current here sure that the part of the equipment they
ceiver. Moreover, earthing the supply can cause trouble. If the input impedance are earthing is well insulated from the
does not cure induced hum. of the audio amplifier portion of the remains. Some cheap power supply units
ceiver is 10 kilohms and a mains leakage of are not. They contain no mains trans-
lizA flows through this then a mains formers.
frequency voltage of 10m V is set up. This Earthing equipment powered by these
is comparable in strength to the audio could be lethal.
PLEAT TAKE NOTE

to Touch Operated Power Switch (July '77)
In Fig. 2 page 328, there are two breaks shown along strip E on the
underside of the stripboard. These should not be made. If the unit has
been built as shown then the breaks can be bridged with tinned copper
eart wire.
Fuzztone (July '77)
The value of R2 in the component list is incorrect, it should read
470 ohms.
Fish Attractor (June '77)
Capacitor C3 is shown connected the wrong way round in the layout
diagram of Fig. 4 on page 261. The circuit diagram is correct.

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2N2905 -37 2N4921 .50 BC107 -15 BC301 -40 MPSA55 -25 LM372N 1.70 76110N 1-18 TBA64113 BA102 0 18 B5104 0 40 0A202 -14 N5401 -165
2N2905A -35 2N4922 -55 BC108 -15 BC303 -50 BF183 MPSA56 -25 LM373N 2'80 76115N 1.51 2 70 BA144 0 12 0.30 N914 07 N5402 -175
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7405 0 26 7420 0-21 7446 1.23 7475 0.58 7493 0 61 74141 1.03 74165 21 74182 1 -OS 74C30 0 26 74C160 1.18
7406 0.74 7423 0.39 7447 1-17 7476 0-51 7494 0 74 74145 1.06 74167 70 74184 2.46 74192 1.62 74C32 0 26 74C161 1'18
7407 0.74 7425 0-39 7448 1.17 7480 0.45 7495 0 70 74151 1-11 74174 52 74185 245 74193 1.62 74C42 0 92 74C162 1.18 18 pin 0.27
7408 0 29 7427 0.39 7450 0.29 7481 1.10 7496 1 03 74153 1.11 74175 35 74188 2 00 74196 1 17 74C48 2 30 74C163 18 22 pin 0.30
7409 0 29 7430 0.21 7451 0-21 7482 0.67 7497 460 74154 1.85 74176 23 74189 3 99 74197 1 17 74C73 0 58 74C164 1 04 8 pin 0.15 24 pin 0.35
7410 0 21 7432 0.39 7453 0-21 7483 1.33 74100 1.15 74155 1.11 74180 77 74190 1.91 74198 2 93 74C74 0 69 74C173 0 95 14 pin 0.16 28 pin 0'45
7411 0 29 7437 0.55 7454 0 21 7484 0.85 74107 0-43 74157 0.98 74181 70 74191 1 91 74199 2 93 74C76 0 58 74C174 0 9S 16 pin 0 15 40 pin 0.55
CMOS CD40000-24 CD40181 15 CO4041046 CD40595.45 CD40810 - 25 74LS02 0.24 74LS138I 27 TRIACS plastic pack 400V
CD40010-24 C040190'70 CD40420.95 CD40601 -27 CD40820- 25 74LSO4 0.27 74LS1511 13 16 Amp
6 Amp 0 70 10
LOW POWER CD40020 24 CD4020127 CD40431-15 CO40631 -25 CD4085081 74LS08 0.24 74LS1571 17 8 Amp 0 75 20 Amp
1
1-70
CD40061 -34 CD40211 '15 CD40441.05 CD4066080 C040860'111 74LSI0 0.24 74LS1601 40 12 Amp 0 85 25 Amp 2'00
SCHOTTKY CD40070. 24 CD40221 10 CD40451.59 CD40674-25 CD40891 77 74LS13 0'65 74LS1611 50
CD4008I -10 CD40230 24 CD40461-52 CD40680-25 CD40930 91 74LS32 0.25 74LS1621 50 THYRISTORS Plastic C106 118
CD40090-64 CD40240 114 C040471.15 C D40690 - 25 C D40942 13 74LS42 1 01 74LS1621 50 4A 100V 0 35 8A 100V 0 43 12A 100V 57
C040100-64 CD40250 24 CD4049064 CD40700.65 CD40951 19 74LS74 0 45 74LS1631 50 4A 200V 0 40 8A 200V 0 49 12A 200V '65
CD40110-24 CD40270 64 CD40500 64 C040710 25 CD40961 19 74LS75 0 60 74LS1641 52 4A 400V 0 49 8A 400V 0 62 12A 400V '81
CD4012024 CD40281 02 C040511 -06 CD40720.25 C045102 00 74LS76 0 40 74L51732.35
CD40130-60 CD40291 30 CO40521.05 CD40730 25 C045112 30 74LS85 1.45 74LS1741 20 VOLTAGE REGULATORS
CD40141-15 CD40300 -64 CD40531.06 CD40750 26 CD45162.00 74LS86 0.48 74LS1751 20 500mA T0202 Positive 5, 12, 15, 24v 1 10
CD40151 .15 CD40312 53 CD40541 -32 C1340761.17 CD45182 00 74LS90 1.00 74LS 500mA TO202 Negative 5,12,15,24v 1.05
CD40160-64 CD40351 34 CD40551 50 CD40770.66 CD45202 00 74LS92 090 1 Amp 70220 Positive 5,12, 15, 24v 1.55
CD40171 -15 CD40371 -10 CD40561 -SO C040780.25 74LS00 0 24 74LS107 -44 1 Amp TO220 Negative 5, 12, 15, 24v 2-00
VEROBOARD SWITCHES CAPACITORS PLUGS- SOCKETS- COUPLERS

1 MATRIX COPPER BACKED BOARD SPST 60p Ceramic 63 volt lel PL. SK. Line
2-5" x 5" 50p 3.75" 0 5" 55p SPDT 66p to '01 MFD 6p DIN 2 pin loudspeaker 10p 7p 10p
2.5" x 3.75" 42p 3.75" a 3-75" SOp DPDT 70p Polyester C280 250v 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 pin 15p 12p 15p
2.5" x 17" 54 1 3.75" a 17" 1 -98 DPDT C/off 80p -01 --1 5p, -15 22 6p COAX Standard T.V. 10p 10p 30p
Spot Face Cutters 74p pkt. 36 pins 36p As above but micro 33, 47, 10p 1of 17p PHONO. Red, BI., Wh.,
Full range incl. ind. board in catalogue SPST 50p SPDT 55p DPDT 60p Full range of mica Polystyrene, Tanta- Gr. Yel 10p 7p 10p
Full range of rocker, slide and rotary lum, Polycarbonate, and electrolytics JACK 5" mono plastic 16p 20p 20p
switches always in stock. always in stock. 5" mono screened 25p - 30p
SOLDERING EQUIPMENT 0" stereo plastic 25p 25p 25p
Antex Irons Mod "C" 15 watt £3 40 WE ALSO STOCK MOST RESISTORS 5" stereo screened 35p - 45p
Stand £1 40 Mod x 2525 watt £3.40 COMPONENTS FOR E.E. 10R-10Meg -25w 2p each, 5w 3p each 3.5m standard 10p 125 105
Spare tips 6 elements available
*PROJECTS* also 1w 2w 2.5w 5w 10w + metoxide in 2' 55m standard 10p 105 -
Multicore solder dispenser 38p stock. See catalogue for full details. MAINS USA 2 pin flat 155 155 155
111
ELECTRONIC ORGAN
The only organ you can build in stages and GRAPHIC EQUALISER
tailor to your requirements as you go
along-and at each stage you'll have a fully
working instrument! We haven't got the
gimmicks (yet-they're coming soon), but we
have got the most beautiful sounds-you
won't find them on any organ less than twice
our price. So get our MES50 series leaflets
now! 65p buys the three available so tar. MIA
! 1 1 n1 n nt ! !Iv
ig 4444444 4111411WOMMA A,
ks
This high quality Graphic Equaliser will enhance even the most
sophisticated system at a fraction of the costrof a ready-made
equaliser of equal quality. You can get all the parts from us
(except woodwork) including drilled and printed metalwork.
Iwo
Construction details in our leaflet: 15p.
TOOLS PEDAL UNIT TV GAME
We stock an excellent range of Play fascinating games NOW

tools especially for the elec- on your own t.v. in your own
tronics enthusiast. From miniature A completely self-contained pedal living room. The kids will think
wiring tools to multimeters in- unit. 13 -note, 2 -octave range, it's magic when the scores pop
eluding soldering irons and 4 organ stops. !t can be added to up on the screen. Lay your bets-
desoldering tools, screwdrivers, any organ! A really unusual extra -anyone could win-with Maplin's
cutters, pliers, strippers, is the bass guitar stop which uses Prices everyone Can win.
miniature electric drills for four envelope shapers to give a Complete kit to play four games
p.c.b.'s, transistor tester etc. real bass guitar sound. A must for only 124.50. Add 35p for copy Of
Full details on catalogue pages the solo guitadst. Full construction construction details. See our
167 to 176. details in our catalogue-post the June newsletter for details of
coupon below now! rifle kit.
IT'S A FANTASTIC BESTSELLER!

216 big (11" x 8") pages! Over a thousand illustrations!
Over 30 pages of complete projects to build!
Thousands and thousands of useful components described
and illustrated! No wonder it's a bestseller!
DON'T MISS OUT! SEND 60p NOW!
r POST THIS COUPON -NOW FOR YOUR COPY OF OUR CATALOGUE
PRICE 60p
Our bi-rnonthty newsletter keeps you up to date with latest Please rush me a copy of your 216 page catalogue by return of post.
guaranteed prices - our latest special offers (they save you I enclose 60p, but understand that if I am not completely satisfied I may
pounds) - details of new projects and new lines. Send 30p return the catalogue to you within 14 days and have my 60p refunded
for the next six issues (5p discount voucher with each copy). immediately.
NAME
MAPLIN ELECTRONIC SUPPLIES ADDRESS
P.O. BOX 3 RAYLEIGH ESSEX SS6 8LR
Telephone: Southend (0702) 715155
Shop: 284, London Road, Westcliff-on-Sea, Essex EE9
(Closed on Monday) Telephone. Southend (07021 47379 Ir

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Easy to build projects for everyone

Dept. E.E.9, P.O. Box 6, Ware, Herts

Back Number Service and Binders

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 7

Small hand held electronic organs have become very popular in

HOW IT WORKS... START

Excluding the 20 presets, most of

8 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

Two views of the PCB version

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 9

a rate dependent on the values of TRIGGER

C5 ties and also reduces battery con-

10 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

mally replaced with wire

In this photograph, fixed

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 11

12 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

Tidy Tubs For Tools and Things

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 13

DYNAMO FRONT AND

plus the forward voltage drop of A switch has been incorporated

be located there with the battery.

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 15

appearing in EVERYDAY PHOSPHOR

interest in electronics will, sooner

engineer can hardly manage with-

rudimentary knowledge of how

16 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

If one is trying to make a circuit

oscilloscopes provide a "free run" WAVEFORM

fers the signals to be examined to

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 17

1/50 second or 1000/50 milli- -

voltage according to the sine of the 0 20 60 100 140 180

angle therefore the instantaneous 0

200° 240° 280° 320° 360°

18 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

is applied via the loudspeaker coil

sistor is called the Base; this is LINK

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 19

20 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

POCKET DATA CARD

Have you ever asked yourself "what is a transistor?

us next month for the start of a series that will

OUR OCTOBER ISSUE

dgettanics WILL BE ON SALE

Everyday Electronics, September 1977

13atit keyboard instruments and general recording.

Available (Please allow at least 2 weeks

We are pleased to announce that the Back r POST PAIL)

22 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

show how to make a shocking coil using

By DERRICK DAINES have not shown the connection to one of

SELL MOVEMENT HAND-HELD

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 23

The design of the original cir-

24 Everyday Electronics, September 1977

Everyday Electronics, September 1977 25

via a capacitor to the volume con- 700kI2