Control Systems Notes

Control Systems
EEE321 - #Control Systems
L T P/D Total Univ.Exam Sessnl. Total

P/Ds Hrs. Mrks. Marks Marks
3 1 - 4 3 70 30 100
Transfer functions of linear systems-impulse response of linear systems

block diagrams of control systems-signal flow graphs(simple problems)-reduction
techniques for complex block diagrams and signal flow graphs(simple examples).
Introduction to mathematical modelling of physical systems-equations of

electrical networks - modelling of mechanical systems- equations of mechanical
systems.
Time domain analysis of control systems - time response of first and

second order systems with standard input signals-steady state performance of
feedback control systems-steady state error constants-effect of derivative and
integral control on transient and steadystate performance of feedback control
systems.
Concept of stability and necessary conditions for stabil ity- Routh- H u

rwitz criterion, relative stability analysis, the concept and construction of root loci,
analysis of control systems with root locus (simple problems to understand
theory).
Correlation between time and frequency responses- polar plots - Bode
plots log magnitude versus phase plots-All pass and minimum phase
systems-Nyquist stability criterion-assessment of relative stability-constant M&N
circles.
Textbook: 1. Automatic control systems by Benjamin C. Kuo, Prentice Hall of

India.
Reference books:
1. Modern control engineering by Ogata, Prentice Hall of India;
2. Control systems engineering by I.J. Nagrath & M.Gopal, Wiley Eastern
Limited.
3 Control systems by N.K.Sinha, New age international (P) Ltd.

Publishers, 3rd edition, 1998.
Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Sir C. R. Reddy College of Engineering, Eluru, 1
Control Systems
Course outcomes :
1. Able to determine the transfer function models of electrical,
mechanical and electromechanical systems.
2. Able to represent a set of algebraic equations by block diagram and
signal flow graphs
3. Able to determine specified transfer function from block diagrams.
4. Able to use Masons gain formula to determine specified transfer
functions.
5. Able to evaluate robustness/sensitivity of systems with and without
feedback.
6. Able to relate the response of both continuous and discrete systems to
poles and zeros.
7. Able to relate transient performance parameters, overshoot, rise
time,peak time and settling time of transfer function of continuous
system.
8. Able to evaluate steady state error from transfer functions
9. Able to determine stability, relative stability from characteristic
equation and to sketch root locus plots for low order transfer functions
and to sketch bodeplots.
Program Outcomes
Control Systems
Transfer functions of linear systems
OBJECTIVE:
The main objective of this chapter is to know the main concept of

control system and study the some of the examples of open loop and closed loop
control systems. In the analysis of a control system the first step is to find transfer
function. One can use the laplace transformation technique to derive transfer
function. But for more complex systems this method is time consuming so
mason’s gain formula is one which can be used to get transfer function for any
control system.
IMPORTANT POINTS:
 The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a

machine, mechanism, or other equipment is maintained or altered in
accordance with a desired manner.
 For example for the automobile driving system the input(command) signal is
the force on the accelerator pedal which through linkages causes the
carburetor valve to open(close) so as to increase or decrease fuel(liquid form)
flow to the engine bringing the engine vehicle speed(controlled variable) to
desired speed.
 Here signal flow through the block is unidirectional. This is an open loop
system.
 In the above system involve continuous manual control by human operator.

These are classified as manually controlled systems.
 In most situations the use some equipment which performs the same
intended function as a continuously employed human operator is preferred. A
system incorporating such equipment is known as automatic control system.
General block diagram of automatic control system is shown in figure.(closed
loop control system)
controller
Controlled
Reference output
input error
Control plant
element
Error
detector
Feedback
path element
Control Systems
 Any physical system which does not automatically correct for variations in its
output, is called an open loop system.
input output
controller plant
Open Loop System
 The fundamental difference between an open loop and closed loop control
system I that of feedback action.
 In modern usage the term servo mechanism or servo is restricted to

feedback control system in which the controlled variable is mechanical
position or time derivatives of position, example velocity and acceleration.
 In closed loop system the use of feedback makes the system response
relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in
system parameters.
 From the point of view of stability, the open loop system is easier to build
because system stability is not a major problem. On the other hand,
stability is a major problem in the closed loop system, which may tend to
over correct errors that each cause oscillations of constant or changing
amplitude.
 It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known
ahead of time and in which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use
open loop control.
 Closed loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable

disturbances and/or unpredictable variations in system components are
present.
 The number of components used in closed loop system is more than that
for a corresponding open loop system. Thus the closed loop control
system is generally higher in cost and power.
 The mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of

equations that represents the dynamics of the system accurately, or, at
least fairly well.
Control Systems
 The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical,

thermal, economic, biological and so on, may be described in terms of
differential equations.
 Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws

governing a particular system. For example, Newton’s laws for mechanical
systems and kirchoff’s laws for electrical systems.
 In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly used to

characterize the input-output relationships of components or systems that
can be described by linear, time invariant, differential equations.
 The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system

is defined as the ratio of the laplace transform of the output(response
function) to the laplace transform of the input(driving function) under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
 For the linear time-invariant system defined by the follows differential

equation
a0y(n)+a1y(n-1)+………+an-1y’+any= b0x(m)+b1x(m-1)+…….+bm-1x’+bmx
(n<=m)
Where y is the output of the system and x is the input. The transfer
function of
the system is
G(s)= L(output)
------------ at zero initial condition
L(input)
Y(s) b0 sm+b1 sm-1+………..+bm-1 s+bm

----- = --------------------------------------------
X(s) a0 sn+a1 sn-1+…………+an-1 s+an
 By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system

dynamics by algebraic equations in s. if the highest power of s in
denominator of the transfer function is equal to n, the system is called an
nth order system.
 The transfer function and impulse response of a linear, time-invariant

system contain the same information about the system dynamics. The
Laplace transform of impulse response function is transfer function of the
system.
 The input output behavior of a linear system are element of linear system is
given by its transfer function
Control Systems
G(s)=C(s) /R(s)
Where R(s) = laplace transformation of input variable and C(s)= lapalce
transform of the output variable.
 Block diagram of a closed system
Summing point Take off point
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
H(s)
B(s)
Where R(s) = reference input

C(s) = output signal or controlled variable
B(s) = feedback signal
E(s) = actuating signal
G(s) = C(s)/R(s) = forward path transfer function
H(s) = transfer function of the feedback system
G(s) H(s) = B(s)/E(s) = loop transfer function
T(s) = C(s)/R(s) = closed loop transfer function
Transfer function of above system is

C(s) /R(s)=T(s)=G(s) /1+G(s) H(s)
 To show the functions performed by each component, in control

engineering, we commonly use a diagram called block diagram.
 A blockdiagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions

performed by each component and of the flow of signals.
 The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the

corresponding Blocks, which are connected by arrows to indicate the
direction of the flow of signals.
 For complicated systems the block diagram reduction process is tedious
and time consuming. An alternative approach is that of signal flow
graphs developed by S.J Mason which does not require any reduction
process because of availability of a flow graph gain, formula which
relates the input and output system variables.
 If signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the relationships

between the variables of a set of linear algebraic equations. It consists of
a network in which nodes representing each of the system variables are
connected by directed branches.
Mason’sgain formula :
Control Systems
The overall gain from input to output may be obtained by mason’s gain
formula
T=1 / k pk k
Where pk=path gain of kthforward path;
=determinant of the graph =1-(sum of loop gains of all individuals

loops)
+(sum of gain products of all
possible
Combinations of two-non touching loops)-(sum of gain of all possible
Combinations of three nontouching loops)+………
i.e., =1-m pm1+mpm2-mpm3+….
Where pmr=gain product m-th possible combination of r non-touching

loops(no node is common between the two)
k=the value of for the part of the graph not touching the kthforward
path.
 In force –voltage analogy

1) Applied force f(t) is analogous to applied voltage e(t)
2) Mass M is analogous to inductance L.
3) Coefficient of various friction f is analogous to resistance R.
4) Spring deflection constant K is analogous to reciprocal of capacitance
1/C
5) Displacement x is analogous to electric change q.
 In force-current analogy
1) Applied force f(t)is analogous to injected current i(t)
2) Mass M is analogous to capacitance C.
3) Coefficient of viscous friction f is analogous to reciprocal of resistance
1/R
4) Spring deflection constant K is analogous to reciprocal of inductance
1/L
) Displacement x is analogous to flux linkages
DEFINITIONS:
1) Controlled Variable and Manipulated Variable: The controlled variable

is the quantity or condition that is measured and controlled. The
manipulated variable is the quantity or condition that is varied by the
controller so as to affect the value of the controlled variable.Normally, the
controlled variable is the output of the system .Control means Measuring
Control Systems
the value of the controlled variable of the system and applying the
manipulated variable to the system to correct or limit deviation of the
measured value from a desired value.
2) Plants: A plant may be apiece of equipment, perhaps just a set machine

parts functioning together, the purpose of which is to perform a particular
operation.
3) Process: The Merrian-Webster Dictionary defines a process to be a

natural, progressively continuing operation or development by a series of
gradual changes that succeed one another in a relatively fixed way and
lead toward a particular result or end; or an artificial or voluntary,
progressively continuing operation that consists of series of controlled
actions or movements systematically directed toward a particular result or
end.
4) Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and

perform a certain objective.
5) Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the

value of the output of a system. If a disturbance is generated with in the
system, it is called internal,
While an external disturbance is generated outside the system and is an

input.
6) Feedback Control: Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the

presence of disturbances, tends to reduce the difference between the
output of a system and some reference input and that does so on the
basis of this difference.
7) Closed-loop control systems: In a closed-loop control system the

actuating error signal, Which is the difference between the input signal
and the feed back signal (which may be the output signal itself or a
function of the output and its derivatives and/or integrals),is fed to the
controller so as reduce the error and bring the output of the system to a
desired value.
8) Open-loop control systems: Those systems in which the output has no

effect on the control action are called open-loop control systems. In other
words, in an open-loop control system the output is neither measured nor
fed back for comparison with the input.
9) Summing Point: Circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a

summing operation. The plus or minus sign at each arrow head indicates
Control Systems
whether that signal is to be added or subtracted. It is important that the

quantities being added or subtracted have the same dimensions and the
same units.
10) Branch Point :A branch point is a point from which the signal from a
block goes concurrently to other blocks or summing points.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:
1) In an open loop control system

(a) control action is independent of the output
(b) control action depends on human judgment
(c) internal system changes are automatically taken care of
(d) both a) and b)
2) In a closed loop control system

(a) control action depends on the output and also on the input
command
(b) output signal is feedback to be compared with the reference signal
(c) the accuracy is better than in the open loop system
(d) ll the above
3) Transfer function of a system is used to calculate

(a) the steady state gain
(b) the time constant
(c) the order of the system
(d) the output for a given input
4) Poles are the complex frequencies of a transfer function where the

response becomes
a) Infinite b) zero c) oscillatory d) decaying
5) Zeros are the complex frequencies of a transfer function where the

response becomes
a) infinite b) zero c) oscillatory d) exponentially decaying
6) Which of the following is a closed loop system

a) electric switch b) car starter c) dc generator d) auto-pilot for an
aircraft
7) Which of the following is a open loop system

a) ward Leonard control b) amplidine c) armature controlled dc motor
d) field controlled dc motor
8) A driver maintains the speed of the car at 50 kmph. Here the feedback
element is
Control Systems
a) steering wheel b) needle of the speedometer c) eyes d) all of the

above
9) The principle of homogeneity and superposition can be applied to

a) linear time invariant systems b) linear time variant systems
c) nonlinear time invariant systems d) nonlinear time variant systems
10) A mass of moment of inertia J is supported by a shaft of stiffness

coefficient k and is rotated by a torque t through an angle θ. If the
viscous frictional coefficient is B, the transfer function θ(s) /T(s) of this
rotational mechanical system is given by (assuming zero initial condition)
a) k/(Js+B) b) B/(Js2+k) c) 1/( Js2+Bs+k) d) 1/( Js2-Bs-k)
11) In force- current analogy, mass is analogous to

a) Inductance b) current c) voltage d) capacitance
12) The spring stiffness coefficient k is analogous to

a) capacitance in force-voltage analogy
b) reciprocal of the inductance in force- current analogy
c) inductance in force-voltage analogy
d) resistance in force-current analogy
13) In the force-current analogy, indicate the true statement

a) velocity is analogous to current
b) spring stiffness is analogous to reciprocal of capacitance
c) viscous friction coefficient is analogous to conductance
d) mass is analogous to reciprocal of inductance
14) In force-voltage analogy, moment of inertia is analogous to

a) capacitance b) inverse capacitance c) inductance d) inverse
inductance
15) In force-current analogy

(i) current is analogous to force
(ii) capacitance is analogous to displacement. Indicate correct
combination
(a) true, true b) false, false c) true, false d) false,
false
16) In deriving transfer function the system should be approximated by a
a) linear lumped constant parameters model
b) linear distributed constant parameters model
c) nonlinear lumped constant parameters model
d) nonlinear distributed constant parameter model
17) Transfer function of a system is characterized by

a) zero initial condition and dependence on input excitation
Dept of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Sir C. R. Reddy College of Engineering, Eluru,
10
Control Systems
b) zero initial condition and non dependence on input excitation

c) given initial condition and dependence on input excitation
d) given initial condition and non dependence on input excitation
18) Transfer function is defined for

a) linear and time variant system
b) linear and time invariant system
c) nonlinear and time variant system
d) nonlinear and time invariant system
19) The transfer function of control system is defined as the

a) Fourier transform of impulse response
b) Laplace transform of impulse response
c) Fourier transform of unit step response
d) Laplace transform of unit step response
20) The difference of the reference input and the actual output signal is called
a) error signal
b) controlling signal
c) actuating signal
d) transfer function
21) The relation G(s) R(s) /[1+G(s) H(s) ] is basically defined for a
a) single variable control system
b) two variable control system
c) three variable control system
d) multi-variable control system
22) The human system is

a) a single variable feedback control system
b) a multivariable feedback control system
c) an open loop control system
d) a complex control system
23) In a control system the function of a error detector is

a) to subtract the reference signal from feedback signal
b) to subtract the feedback signal from the reference signal
c) to subtract the actuating signal from reference signal
d) to subtract the feedback signal from the actuating signal
24) The transfer function is defined as

a) the ratio of laplace transform of output to laplace transform of input
considering initial condition as zero
b) the ratio of laplace transform of input to laplace transform of output
considering initial conditions as zero
11
Control Systems
c) the ratio of input to output

d) the ratio of output to input
25) The error detector element in a control system gives

a) the sum of the reference signal and feedback signal
b) the sum of the reference signal and error signal
c) the difference of the reference signal and feedback signal
d) the difference of the reference signal and output signal
26) The laplace transform of e-2tsin 2t is

a) 4/((s+2) 2+4) b) 4/(s2+4) c) 2/(s2+4s+8) d) 2/(s2+4)
27) Signal flow graph is a

a) semi log graph
b) log-log graph
c) topological representation of a set of differential equations
d) a special type of graph for analysis of modern control system
28) If the initial conditions in a system are zero, it means that the system is
a) working with zero reference input
b) working but does not store energy
c) at rest and has no energy stored in any of its parts
d) at rest but stores energy
29) Dynamic equations are set of equations formed on putting together

a) input equations and output equations
b) state equations and input equations
c) output equations and state equations
d) input, output and state equations
30) The first derivative control can be used to

a)decrease damping b) decrease velocity lag error
c) decrease setting time d) both b) and c)
SUBJECTIVE QUESTIONS:
1. Explain open loop and closed loop control systems with an example?
2. List the main differences between open loop and closed loop systems?
12
Control Systems
3. Explain how Mason gain formula can be used to find the transfer function
of any
control system. Define the terms used in this method?
4. For the system represented by the following equations, find the transfer
function
X(s)/U(s) by signal flow graph technique.
X=x1+3u
.
X 1 = -a1x1+x2+2u
.
X 2 = -a2x1+1u
5. Define transfer function. Find the transfer function for simple open loop
and
Closed loop systems with forward gainG(s) and feedback gain H(s).
PREVIOUS EXAM QUESTIONS:
1 a) Define transfer function and what are its limitations.

b) Obtain the transfer function for the following electrical network.
C1
R1 R2
Vi C2 R3 Vo
2 a) For the system in the block diagram, obtain transfer function i)C/R
ii)C /D
D
H3
R _ C
+
G1 G2 G3
+ _ + _
H2
H1
b) Verify the above transfer function using signal flow graph
3 a) Derive the transfer function of the following electrical network
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Control Systems
L1 C
R1 Vo
Vi R2
b) Briefly explain the terms used in signal flow graph
4 a) Draw the signal flow graph of the network given below and find the
transfer
function
R R
R
Vi Vo
C C C
b)Explain the signal flow graph technique with an example.
5. a) obtain the transfer function X(s)/F(s) for the mathematical system

shown in
Figure.
C1
R3
R1
R2 R4
Vi(t)
Vo(t)
C2
b) explain, with examples, the use of control system concepts to

engineering and non engineering fields.
14
Control Systems
Introduction to mathematical modelling
OBJECTIVE:
IMPORTANT POINTS AND DEFINITIONS:
 Feedback systems play an important role on modern engineering practice

because they have the possibility for being adopted to perform their assigned
tasks automatically.
 A no-feedback (open-loop)system is figure is activated by a single at the input

(for single input systems)
R(s) G(s) C(s)
 There is no provision with in this open-loop system for the supervision of the
output and no mechanism is provided to correct (or compensate)the system
behavior for any lack of proper performance of system components of
system components ,changing environment ,loading or ignorance of the
exact value of process parameters.
 On the other hand , a feedback (closed loop) system represented by the block
diagram and signal flow graph in figure is driven by two signals(more signals
should be employed)one the input signal and the other, a signal called the
feedback signal derived from the output for the system.
Summing point Take off point
R(s) C(s)
G(s)
H(s)
B(s)
 The output signal (is measured by a sensor H(s)), which produces a feedback
signal b.The comparator compares the feedback signal b with the input
(command) signal r generating the actuating signal, e which is a measure of
discrepancy between r and b.
 The actuating signal is applied signal is applied to the process G(s) so as to

influence the output C in a manner which tends to reduce the error e.
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Control Systems
 The beneficial effects of feedback in feedback systems with high gain are :
1) The controlled variable accurately follows the desired value.
2) Effect of variation in controller and process parameters (the forward path)
in system performance is reduced to acceptable levels. These variations
occur due to wear aging environment changes etc.
3) Effect on the controlled variable of external disturbances other than those
associated with the feedback sensor are generally reduced.
4) Feedback in the control loop allows accurate of the output (by means of
input signal) uses when process at controlled plant parameters are not
known accurately.
5) Feedback in a control system greatly improves the speed of its response
compared to the response speed capability of the plant /components the
system (forward path)
 Sensitivity is a measure of the effectiveness of feedback in reducing the

influence of these variations a system performance.
 System sensitivity is used to described the relative variation in the overall

transfer function T(s)=C(s) /R(s) due to variation in G(s) and is defined as
Sensitivity=percentage change in T(s)/Percentage change in
G(s)
 The sensitivity of a closed loop system with respect to variation in G is

reduced by
a factor (1+G H)as compared to that of an open loop system.
 The sensitivity of T with respect to H, the feedback sensor is given as

Sth = -G H/1+GH
 For large values of GH, sensitivity of the feedback system with respect to
H approaches units. Thus we see that the changes in H directly affect the
system output Therefore it is important to use feedback elements which do
not vary with environment changes or can be maintained constant.
 Since G(s) is made up of power elements and H(s) is made up of

measuring elements which operate at low power levels the selection of
accurate H(s) is fr less costly than that of G(s)to meet the exact
specifications.
 The price for improvement in sensitivity by use of feedback is paid in terms

of loss of system gain.
 By the use of feedback, the system gain is reduced by the same factor as
by which the sensitivity of the system to parameter variations is reduced.
 Sufficient open loop gain can, however be easily built into a system so that
we can afford to lose some gain to achieve improvement. Is sensitivity.
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Control Systems
 The effect of negative feedback introduced is to shift the system pole from
and - to –(+K){where - is the open loop pole }so the time constant of
the system
Reduces to /1+K from  .(where  is open loop time constant).So by the
use of
negative feedback the response of the system decays much faster.
 The feedback controls the dynamics of the system by adjusting the location
of its poles .It’s important to note here that feedback introduces the
possibility of instability that is a closed loop system may be unstable even
though the open-loop is stable.
 Closed loop system increases the bandwidth of the open loop system this
implies increased speed of response.
 In regenerative feedback the output is feedback with positive sign.
 The transfer function of regenerative feedback system is

T(s)=C(s) /R(s)=G(s) /1-G(s) H(s)
1. What is feedback and what are the different types of feedback.
2. what is the effect of feedback on sensitivity to the variations in any system

parameters
3. What is effect of feedback on system dynamics? Explain with an example?
4. what are the beneficial effects of feedback in feedback systems with high loop
gain and what are problems associated with feedback/
5. What is the effect of feedback on bandwidth?
6. What are the effect of feedback on disturbance signals and explain with an
example.
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Control Systems
Time domain analysis of control systems

OBJECTIVE:
In designing a control system one must know the response of a given

system for different input signals. This chapter deals with the time response of a
system to the standard test signals like step, ramp and parabolic input. To meet
the required specification one must use compensators. Here effect of
proportional, derivative and integral control are studied. Routh Hurwitz criterion is
one which is used to study the stability of a control system in the initial stages of
a control system design.
IMPORTANT POINTS:
 Control systems are generally called upon to perform both under transient
(dynamic) and steady conditions.
 A feedback control systems has the inherent capability that its parameters
can be adjusted to alter both its transient and steady-state behavior.
 Transient and steady state behavior together referred as as time response.
 System stability can be tested through indirect tests with out actually
obtaining the
Transient response.
 In case the system happens to be unstable, we need not proceed with its
transient response analysis.
 The time response performance of a control system is measured by computing

several
Time response performance indices as well as steady-state accuracy for the
standard input signals.
 For a first order system having transfer function C(s)/R(s)=1 /TS+1
 Response to the unit step input is C(t) = 1-e-t/T where T is time

constant .
Error response e(t) = e-t/T
Steady state error ess = Lt e(t)=0
t 
Response to unit ramp input C(t) = t-T(1-e-t/T)

Error signal e(t) = T(1-e-t/T)
Steady state error ess = Lt e(t)=T
t
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Control Systems
 The time constant is indicative of how fast the system tends to reach the final
value.
A large time constant corresponds to a sluggish system and a small time
constant corresponds to a fast response. Standard form of second order transfer
function is
C(s) ωn2
=
R(s) s2+ 2ζ ωns+ ωn2
Where ζ = damping factor or damping ratio

ωn = undamped natural frequency
 The time response of any system is characterized by the roots of the
denominator polynomial q(s) which in fact are the poles of the transfer
function.
 The denominator polynomial q(s) is therefore called the characteristic

polynomial and q(s)=0 is called the characteristic equation
i.e., s2+2n+n2=0 for second order system.
 The roots of characteristic equation for<1 are s1,s2 = -n+jd where

d=n1-2 is called the damped natural frequency.
 The time response of an under damped (<1) second order system is damped
sinusoid.
 The system response breaks into continous oscillations for =0
 Response of the second order system is critically damped for =1
 Response of the second order system is over damped for>1
 As  increases the poles of second order system moves away from the
imaginary axis along a circular path of radius n meeting at the point = -n
and then separating and traveling along the real axis one towards zero and
the other towards infinity.
 For 0<<1 the poles are complex conjugate pair making an angle of =cos-1
with the negative real axis.
 Delay time(td),rise time(tr),peak time (tp),peak over shoot(mp),settling time(ts)

and
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Control Systems
Steady state error are various time response specifications.
 Time Response specifications of second order system

Rise Time tr = π – tan-1 [(√1-ζ2)/ ζ ] for 0< ζ < 1
ωn√1-ζ2
Peak Time tp = π
ωn√1-ζ2
Maximum overshoot Mp = e-πζ/√1-ζ2

Setting Time ts = 4/( ζ ωn) for 2% tolerance band
ts = 3/( ζ ωn) for 2% tolerance band
 Steady state error is a measure of system accuracy.
 These errors arise from the nature of inputs, type of system and from
nonlinearities of system components such as static friction, backlash, etc.
 For an unity feedback system error signal E(s)=R(s)/(1+G(s))
ess= Lt e(t) = Lt S E(s)

t-> s->0
= Lt S R(s)/ 1+G(s)
s->0
For unit step input ess = 1/(1+Kp)
where Kp= Lt G(s) = position error constant
s->0
For unit ramp input (velocity error) ess = 1/Kv

where Kv= Lt SG(s) = velocity error constant
s->0
For unit parabolic (acceleration) input ess = 1/Ka

Ka= Lt S2 G(s) = accelerationxx error constant
s->0
For type 0 system ess(position)=1 /1+kp

ess(velocity)=
ess(acceleration)=
For type 1 system ess(position)=0

ess(velocity)=1 /kr
ess(acceleration)=
20
Control Systems
For Type 2-system ess(position)=0

ess(position)=0
ess(acceleration)=1 /ka
 The effect of adding a zero to a system is to contribute early peak to the

system’s
Response where by the peak overshoot may increase appreciably.
 If a proportional plus derivate controller is introduced in a system its natural
frequency is remains unchanged, while its damping is increased from
uncompensated to compensated system. And system settling time
reduced.
 If a proportional plus integral controller is introduced in a system, its steady

error is reduced.
 Proportional plus integral plus derivate control effects both transient and
steady state response of the system.
 Stability in a system implies that small changes in the system input, in

initial conditions or in system parameters, do not result in large changes in
system output.
 A linear time-invariant system is stable is stable if the following two notions

of system stability are satisfied.
 A linear time-invariant system is stable if the following two notions of

system stability are satisfied.
i) When the system is excited by a bounded input the output is bounded

(BIBO).
ii) In the absence of the input the tends towards zero(the equilibrium state
of the
system)irrespective of initial conditions.
 If all the roots of the characteristic equation have negative real parts then
the impulse response is bounded and eventually decreases to zero
system is BIBO stable.
 If any root of the characteristic equation has a positive real part,g(t) is

unbounded.
 If the characteristic equation has repeated roots on the j-axis g(t) is

unbounded and ∫ 0g(t) d is infinite system is unstable .The system is
therefore unstable.
21
Control Systems
 If one or more non repeated roots of the characteristic equation are on the j-
axis, then g(t) is bounded are ∫0g(t) is infinite .The system is therefore
unstable.
 Depending upon the amplitude of the ultimate, such system may be treated
as acceptable or non acceptable .This situation is generally referred to as
the Case of marginally or limitedly stable system.
DEFINITIONS:
1. Step signal: The step signal whose value changes from one level (usually)
to another level A in zero time. The mathematical representation of the
step function is
R(t)= Au (t)
u(t)= 1; t>0
= 0; t<0
In the Laplace transform form,
R(s) = A/s
2. Ramp signal: The ramp is a signal which starts at a value of zero and
increases linearly with time. Mathematically,
R(t) = At; t>0
= 0; t<0
In the Laplace transform,
R(s) = A/s2
3. Parabolic signal: The mathematical representation of this signal is
R(t) =At2/2; t>0
= 0; t<0
In the Laplace transform form,
R(s) = A/s3
22
Control Systems
4. Impulse signal: A unit-impulse is defined as a signal which has zero value

every where except at t = 0, where its magnitude is infinite. It is generally
called the - function and has the following property:
(t) = 0; t0
L((t)) = 1 = R(s)
5. Delay Time td: - It is time required for the response to reach 50% of the
final value in first attempt.
6. Rise Time tr: - It is time required for the response to rise from 10% to 90%
of the final value for over damped systems and 0 to 100% of the final
value for under damped systems.
7. Peak Time tp: - It is time required for the response to reach the peak of
time response or the peak overshoot.
8. Peak Overshoot Mp: It indicates the normalized difference between the
time response peak and the steady output and is defined as
Peak overshoot = [c(tp)- c(∞)]/ c(∞) * 100%
9. Setting Time ts: It is time required for the response to reach and stay
within a specified tolerance band (usually 2% or 5%) of its final value.
10. Steady State Error ess: It indicates the error between the actual output and
desired output as t tends to infinity, i.e.
ess = lim [r(t) – c(t)]
1) A system having transfer function G(s) = 1/(2(s+0.5) ) is subjected to a

unit step input, the steady value of the output is
a) 1 b) 2 c) 1/2 d) 1/10
2) The output of a system is given by C(s) =1/s .2/(s-3) . The output will
a) increase w.r.t time
b) decrease w.r.t time
c) remain steady w.r.t time
d) become zero w.r.t time
3) For input u(t) =2 the steady output for the transfer function
G(s)=1/(s2+1.5s+4) is
a) 2 b) 0.5 c) 1.5 d) 1
4) If the transfer function of a system is 1/(s-1) , the steady state error to unit
step input is:
a)  b) zero c) infinite d) none of the above
5) The impulse response of a system indicated by g(t) is
23
Control Systems
a) inverse laplace transform of the input excitation

b) inverse laplace transform of its transfer function
c) inverse laplace transform of the input multiplied by the transfer
function
d) none of the above
6) If the input to a system of a transfer function 1/(s+1) is unit ramp, the

steady state error is
a)  b) zero c) infinite d) none of the above
7) In a second order system, if the damping factor is less than unity, the
system will be
a) under damped b) over damped c) critically damped d) freely
oscillating
8) The rise time tr for a type 1, second order system equals

a) (-cos-1((1-2) /) ) / (n1-2)
b) (-1) / (n1-2)
c) (-cos-1) / (n1-2)
d) tan-1((1-2) /) / (n1-2)
9) For a type-1 second order control system , for 2% tolerance band, the
settling time is
a) 4/(n) b) 4n c) 4/n d) 4n /
10) If the value of  for a given control system is unity, the system response
will be
a) under damped b) over damped c) critically damped d) freely
oscillating
11) By increasing the gain k of the system, the steady state error of the
system
a) decreases b) increases c) remains unchanged d) may increase or
decrease
12) The following system is generally preferred

a) under damped b) over damped c) critically damped d) oscillating
13) Integral error control

a) increases the order of the system
b) decreases the order of the system
c) increases the steady state error
d) does not effect
14) In the derivative error compensation

a) damping increases and settling time decreases
24
Control Systems
b) damping increases and settling time increases

c) damping decreases and settling time decreases
d) damping decreases and settling time increases
15) The steady state error for a unity feed back system having open loop
transfer function as G(s) = 9/(s(0.2s+1) ) when subjected to a unit step
input will be
a) 0.1 b) 1/9 c) 0.2 d) 0
16) The steady state error for a type-2 system subjected to unit ramp input is
a) 1 b) infinite c)1/k d) 0
17) For the system C(s) /R(s) = 25/(S2+6S+25) the damping factor and
damped frequency of oscillations respectively will be
a) 0.6,5 b) 0.4,6 c) 0.5,3 d) 0.3,5
18) In a critically damped systems

a) oscillations are prominent
b) no oscillations are observed
c) oscillations just disappear
d) oscillations are sustained
19) An increase in damping ratio

a) increase rise time
b) decrease rise time
c) does not affect rise time
d) keeps the time within limits
20) Without affecting steady state error the maximum overshoot can be
decreased by incorporating
a) derivative error control
b) integral error control
c) gain adjustment]
d) proportional error control
21) If Mp= 100%,the damping ratio is

a) 1 b) 0 c) 0.5 d) infinity
22) The stability a system

a) decrease as the type of system increases
b) increase as the type of system increases
c) does not change as the type of system increases
23) A second order characteristic equation having all the coefficients of same
sign represents a system which is
25
Control Systems
a) inherently stable
b) marginally stable
c) inherently unstable
d) conditionally stable
24) If the dominant complex poles of a higher order control system are nearer
to the imaginary axis in s-plane then the nature of the time response will
be
a) oscillatory type b) non-oscillatory type
c) sustained oscillation type d) steady type
25) The type number of a system gets decreased if

a) Differentiator is inserted in the forward path
b) Integrator is inserted in the forward path
c) First integrator is inserted and then differentiator
d) None of the above
26) For the characteristic equation s4+5s3+5s2+4s+k=0, the system is stable

if k lies in the range
a) 84/25>k>0 b) 84/25<k<4 c) 3>k>1 d) 4>k>3
27) For the characteristic equation s4+5s3+5s2+4s+k=0, the frequency of

sustained oscillation in rad/sec is
a) 1 b) 2 c) 2/5 d) 5/2
28) If a system has some poles lying on the imaginary axis, it is

a) unconditionally stable b) conditionally stable c) marginally stable d)
unstable
29) The Routh criteria tells us the number of roots lying

a) In the right half of s-plane b) In the left half of the s-plane
c) On the origin of s-plane d) None of the above
30) When all the tems in a row of Routh array are zero, the characteristic
equation has roots on
a) the positive real axis b) the negative real axis c) the imaginary axis
d) none
1. What are the different test signals available and give the laplace
transforms of all these signals?
26
Control Systems
2. Find the response of first order system having transfer function T(s)
=1/Ts+1 to the unit step input and unit ramp input?
3. Find the response of second order system to the unit step input?
4. What is the characteristic equation? What is its importance in the study of

system stability?
5. Draw the response of second order system to a unit step input with =1,
<1, >1, =0 and =.
6. Define delay time (td), rise time (tr), peak time (tp), peak overshoot (Mp),
settling time (ts) and steady state error (ess)?
7. Give the expressions for time response specifications for the second order
systems to unit step input?
8. Define steady state error constant Kp, Kv and Ka. Give the values of these
error constants for type–0, type–1, and type–2 systems?
9. What r the effects of proportional, derivative and integral controllers in a

control system?
1 a)For the system shown in the figure below, determine K 1,K2 and a such
that the system will have a steady state gain of 1.0 a damping
ratio,=0.6,wn=0.
r(t) +
K1/s(s+a)
K2
b) A unity feedback control system has the forward transfer function

G(s)=25/s(s+6).
Find the rise time, peak time and the maximum overshoot for unit step
input.
27
Control Systems
2 a) The open-loop transfer function of a servo system with unity feedback is

G(s)=
10 /s(0.1s+1).Evaluate the static error constant (Kp,Kv,Ka) for the
system. Obtain
the steady-state error of the system when subjected to an input given
by the
Polynomial
r(t)=a0+a1t+ a2 / 2 t2
b) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is

given by G(s)= K /(s+2)(s+4)(s2+6s+25).By applying the Routh criterion,
discus the stability of the closed-loop system as a function of K.
Determine the values of K, which will cause oscillations in the closed-loop
system. What are the corresponding oscillation frequencies?
3 a) Consider the system shown in the Figure below determine the values of
K and k such that the system has a damping ratio  of 0.7 and an
undamped natural frequency n of 4rad/sec.
R(s) C(s)
_ _ K/s+2 1/s
_
_
b) Consider the unit –step respons of a unity feedback control system

whose open- loop transfer function s G(s) =1 /s(s+1).Obtain the rise time,
peak time, Maximum overshoot and setting time.
4 a) The open-loop transfer function of a servo system with a unity feedback

is
G(s)=400 /s(1+0.1s).Determine the steady-state error for an input
r(t)=1+2t+t2.Also calculate the error constants Kp, Kv and Ka
b)The characteristic equation of a feed-back control system is

3 2
s +(K+0.5)s +4Ks+50=0.Using R-H criterion determine the value of K for
which the system is stable.
5 a)For the given system shown in the figure below, find damping factor
and natural frequency when i)KD=0 ii)KD=1.
28
Control Systems
10(1+KDs) 1/s(s+2)
b) Determine the damping ratio and undamped natural frequency of

oscillatory roots and percentage of peak over shoot for a unit step given
by G(s)=1/s(1+0.5s)(1+0.2s) and the system is unity feedback type.
6 a) The open loop transfer function of a servo system with unity feedback is
given by G(s)=500 /s(1+0.1s).Evaluate the error constants Kp, Kv and Ka.
Determine the steady state error when the input is r(t)=1+2t+t2
b) Explain the concepts of stability of a control system (not the

methods).Using R-H.criterion determine the stability of the system if its
characteristic equation is
s6 +3s5+5s4+9s3 +8s2+6s+4=0.
7. a)The open loop Transfer function of a unity feedback system is

G(s)= K/ s(1+Ts)
Determine the value of K and T if it is desired that all the roots of the
closed loop system lie in a region towards the left of the line S=-a.
b) A unity feedback system with G(s)= /s(1+s2) is desired to limit the

steady state error to a value not exceeding 0.25 to unit ramp input
i)find the value of K and also
ii)find the requirement value of K for stability
8) Measurements conducted on a servomechanism show the system

response to be
C(t)=1+0.2e-60t-1.2e-10t when subjected to unit step input.
i) Obtain the expression for the closed loop transfer function.
ii) Determine the undamped natural frequency and damping ratio of the
system.
9) in a closed loop control system the open loop transfer function G(s)=k/s 2
and feedback transfer function H(s)=as+b. if k=20, find the values of a,b
so that overshoot is 16% and the time constant is 0.1 sec. also determine
the steady state error, if the input to the system is a unit ramp.
29
Control Systems
Concept of stability and necessary conditions
OBJECTIVE:
While analyzing a given system, the very first investigation that need
to be made is, whether the system is stable or not. It is necessary but not a
sufficient condition. So one must, therefore proceed to determine not only the
absolute stability of a system but also its relative stability. Routh’s criterion gives
a satisfactory answer to the question of absolute stability but its adaptation to
determine the relative stability is tedious and requires trial and error procedure.
So this chapter deals with the methods like root locus technique, discussed.

 A linear system is characterized as
i) absolutely stable with respect to a parameter of the system if it is stable

for all
values of this parameter.
ii) Routh criterion is based on ordering the coefficients of the characteristic

e)conditionally stable with respect to a parameter if the system is stable for
only certain bounded ranges of values of this parameter.
 quation into an array called the routh array as given below

Q(s)=a0sn+a1Sn-1+a2sn-2+……………+an-1s+an=0
Routh array
Sn a 0 a2 a4 a6
Sn-1 a1 a3 a5 a7
Sn-2 b1 b2 b3
Sn-3 c1 c2
Sn-4 d1 d2
. . .
. . .
2 e1 en
S
S1 f1
30
Control Systems
S0 a n
The coefficients b1,b2,……….. are evaluated as follows
b1 = (a1a2-a0a3) /a1;
b2 = (a1a4-a0a5) /b1;
c1 = (b1a3-a1b2 /b1;
c2 = (b1a5-a1b3) /b1;
 It’s to be noted here that in the process of generating the routh array the
missing terms are regarded as zero. Also all the elements of any row can be
divided by a positive by a positive constant during the process to simplify
the computational work.
 For a system to be stable it is necessary and sufficient that each term of first
column of routh array of its characteristic equation be positive if a0>0
If this condition is not met the system is unstable and number of sign
changes of the terms of the terms of the terms of the first column of the
routh array corresponds to the number of roots of the characteristic
equation in the right Half of the s-plane.
 When all the elements in any one row of the routh array are zero, this
condition indicates that these are symmetrically located roots in the s-
plane.
 The polynomial whose coefficients are the elements of the row just above
the row of all zeroes in the routh array is called an auxiliary polynomial.
This polynomial gives the number and location of root pairs of the
characteristic equation which are symmetrically located in the s-plane .the
order of the auxiliary polynomial is always even.
 Because of a zero row in the array, the routh‘s test breaks down. This
situation is overcome by replacing the row of zeros in routh by a row of
coefficients of the polynomial generated by taking derivative of the
polynomial.
 The determination of stability of system is necessary but not sufficient for

a stable system with low damping is still undesirable.In an analysis
problem one must therefore ,proceed to determine not only the absolute
stability of a system but also its relative stability (peak overshot, settling
time etc)
 In a design problem if the designer is required is achieve the desired

performance for a system by adjusting the location of its closed loop poles
31
Control Systems
in the s-plane by varying one or more system parameters. The routh’s

criterion obviously does not help much in such problems.
 The classical techniques of factoring the characteristic polynomial and

determine its root, since the closed loop closed poles are the roots of the
characteristic equation is very laborious when the degree of the
characteristic polynomial is three or higher.
 A simple technique known as the root locus technique for finding the roots
of the characteristic equation, introduced by W.R. Evans is extensively used
in control engineering practices.
 Roots locus technique provides a graphical method of plotting the locus of

the roots in the s-plane as given system parameter is varied over the
completed range of values (may be from zero to infinity)
 The roots corresponding to a particular value of the parameter for a desired

root location can be determined from the locus.
 The root locus provides a measure of sensitivity of the roots to the variation
in the parameter being considered.
 This technique is applicable for single as well as multiple loop system.

 Roots Locus Construction rules :
 Rule 1 :The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis (-axis)
 Rule 2 :As K increases from zero to infinity each branch of the root locus
originates from an open loop pole with K=0 and terminates either in an open
loop zero or an infinity with K=.The number of branches terminating on
infinity equals the number of open loop poles minus zeros.
 Rule 3: A point on the real axis lies on the locus if the number of openploop
poles plus zeros on the real axis to the right of this point is odd.
 Rule 4 :The (n-m)branches of the root locus which tend to infinity do so

along straight line asymptotes whose angles are given by
A=(2q+1)1800 /n-m ;q=0,1,2,………..(n-m-1)
 Rule 5 :The asymptotes cross the real axis at a point known as centroid
,determined by the relationship (sum of the real parts of poles-sum of real
parts of zeros ) /(number of poles-number of zeros)
 Rule 6: The break away points (points at which multiple roots of the
characteristic equation occur) of the root locus is the solution s of dk /ds=0.
 Rule 7 :The angle of departure from an open loop pole is given by

p=  180 0(2q+1)+;q=0,1,2…….
32
Control Systems
Where  is the net angle contribution, at this pole, of all other open loop poles
and zeros.
Similarly the angle of arrival at an open loop zero is given by
z=  180 0(2q+1)-;q=0,1,2…….

Where  means the net angle contribution at the zero under consideration of all
other open loop poles and zeros.
 Rule 8: The intersection of root locus branches with the imaginary axis can be
determined by the use of the routh criterion.
 In a system where open loop pole zero cancellation is adapted, the closed
loop poles are the roots obtained from root locus plot of a system. After poll
zero cancellation plus the cancelled open loop poles.
 The magnitude and phase relationship between the sinusoidal input and the
steady state output of the system is termed as the frequency response.
 The ease and accuracy of measurements are sum of the advantages of the
frequency response method.
 For systems with very large time constant, the frequency response test is
cumbersome to perform as the time required for the output to reach steady
state for each frequency of the test signal is excessively long.
 The design and parameter adjustment of the open loop transfer function of a
system for specified closed loop performance is carried out some what more
easily in frequency domain than in time domain.
 The transient response of a system can be obtained from it’s frequency

response through the Fourier integral.
 The nyquist criterion is a powerful frequency domain method of extracting the

information regarding stability as well as relative stability of a system with out
the need to evaluate roots of the characteristic equation.
 The frequency response is easily evaluated from the sinusoidal transfer

function which can be obtained simply by replacing S with j. in the system
transfer function T(s).
 Resonant frequency r=n1-22
 Resonant peak Mr=1/21-2
 Mr is indicative of its damping factor and r of the frequency response is

indicative of it’s natural frequency for a given  and hence indicative of speed
of response.
33
Control Systems
 Bandwidth = Ub=[1-22+2-42+44]1/2
 The sinusoidal transfer function G(J) is a complex function and is given by

G(J)=|G(J)| < G(J)=M
Where M is magnitude and  is phase angle.
 As the input frequency  is varied from zero to infinity. The magnitude M and
phase  change and hence the tip of the phasor G(J) traces a locus in the
complex plane. The locus thus obtained is known as polar plot.
 The major advantage of the polar plot lies in the stability study of the systems.
 Addition of a non zero pole to a transfer function results in further rotation of

polar plot through an angle of -900 as  
 An addition of a pole at the origin to a transfer function rotates the polar plot
at zero and infinite frequency by a further angle of -900.
 The affect of addition of a zero to a transfer function is to rotate the high

frequency portion of the polar plot by 900 in counter clock wise direction.
3) When the roots of a characteristic equation are conjugate and on the

imaginary axis, the response is of the type
a) A et b) A e-t c) A sin(t+) d) A ln(t)
4) The root locus plot is symmetrical bout the real axis because there are
a) all roots occurring in pair b) more real roots
c) more imaginary roots d) complex roots occurring in conjugate pairs
5) The starting point of root loci are

a) open loop poles b) closed loop poles
c) open loop zeros d) closed loop zeros
6) The end points of root loci are

a) open loop poles b) closed loop poles
c) open loop zeros d) closed loop zeros
7) The breakaway points of the root locus are

a) on the real axis only
b) on the imaginary axis only
c) points where multiple roots of characteristic equation occur
d) the solution of GH(s) =0
34
Control Systems
8) The number of root loci branches which do not terminate at the zeros are
equal to number of
a) poles b) zeros c) sum of a) and (b ) d) difference of a) and b)
9) For characteristic equation having more number of poles than zeros, the
number of root locus branches will equal to
a) number of zeros b) number of poles
c) sum of (a)and (b) d) difference of a) and b)
10) In root locus plot, the number of asymptote is equal to the number of
a) poles b) zeros c) sum of a) and (b ) d) difference of a) and b)
11) At breakaway point, several branches of root loci coalese because system
characteristic equation has
a) single root b) all root on right hand side of s-plane
c) several roots d) imaginary roots only
12) The number of separate parts of a root locus is equal to the

a) number of zeros in open loop transfer function
b) number of poles in closed loop transfer function
c) the difference between a) and b)
d) the order of the characteristic equation of the system
13) If the system gain k is increased , the roots of the system move to
a) lower frequencies b) higher frequencies
c) origin d) none of the above
14) The roots move away from the poles

a) when the system gain is increased
b) when the system gain is lowered
c) when the system gain is zero
15) For the system having characteristic equation 1+ k/(s(s+1) (s+2) ) =0,
the centroid of the asymptotes in root locus is given by
a) 0 b) -1 c) 2 d) -2
16) When the gain k of system becomes zero, the roots of the loci
a) move away from the poles b) move away from the zeros
c) coincide with the poles d) coincide with the zeros
17) The number of root loci which extends to infinity equals

a) excess of poles over zeros in G(s) H(s)
b) excess of zeros over poles in G(s) H(s)
35
Control Systems
c) number of poles in G(s) H(s)

d) number of zeros in G(s) H(s)
18) The algebraic sum of the angles of the vectors from all poles and zeros to
the point on any root locus segment is
a) always 1800 b) 1800 or odd multiple thereof
c) always 90 0 d) 900 or odd multiple thereof
19) The root loci of a system has four separate loci, the system can have
a) four poles and four zeros b) four poles or four zeros
c) two poles and two zeros d) two poles and six zeros
20) At the point where 1800 locus crosses the j-axis, the system is
a) absolutely stable b) absolutely unstable
c) conditionally stable d) none of the above
21) The phase shift of the second order system with transfer function 1/s2 is
a) 1800 b) -1800 c) 0 d) 900
23) In the root locus the angle between the adjacent asymptotes is
a) 3600/(n+m) b) 3600/(n-m) c) 1800/(n+m) d) 1800/(n-m)
30) Loop transfer function zeros are the same as

(a) poles of G(s) H(s)
(b) zeros of G(s) H(s)
(c) poles of 1+G(s) H(s)
(d) zeros of 1+G(s) H(s)
31) For a closed loop system to be stable, the Nyquist plot of G(s) H(s) must
encircle the point (-1,j0) as many times as the number of
(a) zeros of G(s) H(s) in the RHS of s-plane
(b) zeros of G(s) H(s) in the LHS of s-plane
(c) poles of G(s) H(s) in the RHS of s-plane
(d) poles of G(s) H(s) in the LHS of s-plane
33) In a root locus plot, increase in k will

a) decrease the damping ratio
b) increase the damping ratio
c) not alter the damping ratio
d) may increase or decrease the damping ratio
34) In a root locus plot, increase in k will

(a) decrease the overshoot of the response
(b) increase the overshoot of the response
(c) not alter the natural frequency
(d) none of the above
36
Control Systems
35) The phase margin of system specifies

a) relative stability b) absolute stability
c) frequency response d) none of the above
36) A system with gain close to unity or a phase margin close to zero is
a) highly stable b) highly oscillatory
c) relatively stable d) none of the above
37) The gain margin is the reciprocal of gain at frequency at which the phase
becomes
a) 0 b) 900 c) 1800 d) 2700
38) Gain crossover frequency is defined as one at which mod(G(j) H(j) )

equals
a) 0 b) 1 c) 2 d) 1/2
39) For stable feedback system, the phase margin

a) is always positive b) is always negative
c) may be positive or negative d) none
40) The limits of GM and PM resulting in a reasonably good degree of relative

stability respectively are
a) 12 dB, 1800 b) 6 dB, -1800 c) 6 dB, 300 to 350 d) 12dB, 300 to 350
41) The Routh-Hurwitz criterion gives

a) relative stability
b) absolute stability
c) gain margin
d) phase margin
42) For the Routh array given below
S3 1 3
S2 4 k
S1 (12-k) /4
S0 k
The system is unstable if

a) k>12 b) k=12 c) k>3 d) k<3
1) write the steps involved in construction of root loci.
2) What is the effect of adding a pole to G(s)H(s) on the root loci.
37
Control Systems
3) What is the effect of adding a zero to G(s)H(s) on the root loci.
4) Whatare the advantages of frequency domain analysis over time domain

analysis.
10.) Explain how routh stability criterion is used to find the stability of a
system
1) A unity feedback system has a plant; g(s) =k(s+1) /s(s2 +4s+8).Sketch the
root locus and find the roots when =0.707
2) a) Briefly explain the correlation between time and frequency response of

a system
b) Sketch the Bode plot for the following transfer function
G(s)=10 (1+0.5s) /s(1+0.1s)(1+0.2s)
Calculate Gain margin and phase margin.
3) a) Explain how Nyquist contour is selected for stability analysis.

b) Discuss the stability of the following system using Nyquist stability
criterion
G(s) H(s) = K /(Ts+1)s.
4) Consider the unity feedback system of plant G(s)= K(s+1) /s 2.Sketch the
root locus and calculate the value of “k” for which the dominant roots has
=0.707
5 a) Draw the Bode plot for the system having G(s) =10 /s(1+0.01s)(1+0.1s),
H(s) =1.
Determine i) The gain cross over frequency and corresponding phase
margin.
ii) The phase cross over frequency and corresponding gain
margin.
6 a) Explain clearly Nyquist criterion for stability of control systems.

b) Determine the stability of the system using Nyquist criterion whose
open lop transfer function is G(s) H(s) =(s-1) /s(s+1)
7) Sketch the roots locus for the given system GH(s)=K /s(s3+12s2+64s+128)
and find the frequency of sustained oscillation.
8 a) Explain the correction between time and frequency response of a

system
38
Control Systems
b) Sketch the Bode plot for a unity feedback system characterized by the
open loop transfer function G(s)=K(1+0.2s)(1+0.025s) /
s3(1+0.001s)(1+0.005s).Shown that the system is stable.
9 a) Sketch the polar plot for the transfer function G(s)=10 / s(s+1)(s+2)
b) Explain the Nyquist stability criterion.
10) A unity feedback system has a plant g(s) =K(s+0.5s) /s(s+1)(s 2+2s+2)
sketch the roots locus and find the roots when =0.5
11 a) Define peak resonance and band width

b) Sketch bode plot for G(s) =256(1+0.5s) /s(1+2s)(s3+3.2s+64)
12) A unity feedback system has an open loop transfer function

G(s)=K(s+1)/s(s-1).sketch the root locus plot with K has a variable
parameter and show that the loci of complex roots are part of a circle with
(-1,0) as center and radius 2. is the system stable for all values of K? if
not, determine the rnge of K for stable system operation. Find also the
marginal value of K which causes sustained oscillations and the frequency
of these oscillations.
13) Sketch the bode magnitude and phase plots of a closed loop system
which has the open loop transfer function
G(s) = 2e-sT/s(1+s)(1+0.5s)
Determine the maximum value of T for the system to be stable.
14) Draw the complete nyquist plot for

G(s) H(s) = 3(s+2)/s3+3s+1 and discuss stability of the system.
Correlation between time and frequency responses
OBJECTIVE
The frequency response is easily evaluated from the sinusoidal transfer function
which can be obtained simply by replacing s with j in the system transfer
function T(s).The transfer function T (j) thus obtained,is complex function of
frequency and has magnitude and phase angle.these characteristics are
conveniently represented by graphical plots .This chapter describes graphical
methods of finding stability like bode plots and Nyquist stability criterion, which
give information regarding relative stability .the nyquist stability criterion,which
relates location of the roots of the characteristic equation to the open loop
frequency respoinse of the system.From the frquency domain specifications,we
find that the maximum value of M and the frequency at which it occurs are
important figure of meriyt of asystem.the frequency domain compensation
methods are based on the knowledge of these two factors. These factorscan be
evaluated from the closed loop frequency response. But this procedure is quite
39
Control Systems
time consuming.graphical techniques like .constant magnitude&constant phase

plots (M&N circles) can be drawn on a complex plane, when these contours are
used in conjection with the open loop frequency response, the values of resonant
peak and resonance frequency are calculated.
 One of the most useful representation of a transfer function is a logarithmic

plot which consists of two graphs one giving the logarithmic |G(J)| and the
other phase angle of G(J) both plotted against the logarithmic scale. These
plots are called bode plots in honour of H.W.Bode, who did the basic work in
this area.
 The unit magnitude 20 log |G(J)| is decibel (db)
 The range of frequency 2=101 is called a decade. The range of the

frequency 2=21 is called octave.
 The frequency at which the two asymptotes meet is called the corner
frequency or the brake frequency.
 The general procedure for constructing Bode plot:
1. Rewrite the sinusoidal transfer function in the time constant form. identify
the corner frequencies associated with each factor of the transfer function.
2. Knowing the corner frequencies, draw the asymptotic magnitude plot. This
plot consists of straight line segments with line slope changing at each
corner frequencies by +20 db/decade for a zero and -20 db/decade for a
pole(  20m db/decade for a zero or pole multiplicity m). for a complex
conjugate zero or pole the slope changes by  40 db/decade(  40m
db/decade for complex conjugate zero or pole of multiplicity m).
3. Draw a smooth curve through the corrected points such that it is

asymptotic to the line segments. This gives the actual log magnitude plot.
4. raw the phase angle curve for each factor and add them algebraically to
get the phase plot.
 The nyquist stability criterion is based on a theorem of complex variables due

to Cauchy, commonly known as principle of argument.
 If there are P poles and Z zeroes of function

q(s)= (s-1) (s-2)……(s-m)/(s-1) (s-2) …..(s-n)
enclosed by the s-plane contour, then the corresponding q(s) plane
contour must encircle the origin Z times in the clockwise direction and P
40
Control Systems
times in the contour clockwise direction, resulting in a net encirclement

of origin, (P-Z) times in the counterclockwise direction. This relation
between the enclosure of poles and zeros of q(s) by the s-plane contour
and the encirclements of the origin by the q(s) plane contour is commonly
known as principle of argument.
 Nyquist criterion states that if the contour GH of the open loop transfer
function G(s)H(s) corresponding to the nyquist contour in the s-plane
encircles the point (-1+j0) in the contour clockwise direction as many times as
the number of right half s-plane poles of G(s)H(s), the closed loop system is
stable.
 In the commonly occurring case of openloop stable system, the closed loop
system is stable if the contour GH of G(s)H(s) does not encircle (-1+j0) point,
i.e the net encirclement is zero.
 Gain margin: it is the factor by which the system gain can be increased to
drive the system to the verge of stability.
 The gain margin(GM) may be defined as the reciprocal of the gain at the
frequency at which the phase angle becomes 1800.
 The frequency at which the phase angle is 180 0 is called the phase crossover
frequency.
 Phase margin: the frequency at which | G(j)H(j)| = 1 is called the gain

crossover frequency. At this frequency, the phase angle G(j1)H(j1) is
equal to (-1800+). If an additional phase lag equal to is introduced at the
gain crossover frequency, the phase angle G(j1)H(j1) will become -1800,
while the magnitude remains unity. This additional phase lag  is known as
phase margin.
 Phase margin is always positive for stable feedback systems.
 These measures of stability(PM and GM) are valid for open loop stable
systems only.
 A large gain margin or a large phase margin indicates a very stable feedback
system. But usually a very sluggish one.
 A GM close to unity or Pm close to zero corresponds to a highly oscillatory

system.
 Usually a GM of 6 db or a PM of 30-350 results in a reasonably good degree of

relative stability.
41
Control Systems
 Nichols chart is very useful for determining the closed loop frequency
response from that of open loop. Nichols chart is a graph between loop phase
and loop gain.
1) The most stable method for determining the stability and transient
response of a system is
a) Bode plot b) Root locus c) Nyquist criterion d) Routh-Hurwitz
criterion
2) Intersection of root locus branches with the imaginary axis may be

determined by the use of
a) Nyquist criterion b) Routh criterion
c) polar plot d) none of the above
39) The bode diagram method is applicable to

a) minimum phase network b) non-minimum phase network
c) all pass network d) every network of the control system
22) The function 1/(1+jT) has slope of

a) –20 dB/decade b) +20 dB/decade
c) –6 dB/decade d) +6 dB/decade
24) The transfer function of a system is 100(1+0.25s) /(1+0.5s) the corner

frequencies will be
a) –4 and –2 b) 4 and 2 c) 0.25 and 0.5 d) –0.25 and –0.5
25) The transfer function of a system is 100(1+0.25s) /s(1+0.5s) . the phase

angle at =0 and = are
a) 00 and –900 b) 900 and –900 c) 900 and 1800 d) 00 and 1800
26) An octave frequency range is given by 2/1 equal to

a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 10
27) A decade frequency range is given by 2/1 equal to

a) 2 b) 4 c) 6 d) 10
42
Control Systems
28) The following gives information regarding difference in the number of

poles and zeros of a closed loop transfer function
a) Bode plot b) Root locus
c) Nyquist criterion d) Routh-Hurwitz criterion
29) Nichols chart is useful in determining

a) closed loop frequency response
b) open loop frequency response
c) open and closed loop frequency responses
32) Polar plots for positive and negative frequencies

a) are always symmetrical b) can never be symmetrical
c) may or may not be symmetrical d) none of the above
The bode diagram method is applicable to

a) minimum phase network b) non-minimum phase network
c) all pass network d) every network of the control system
5) Define phase margin and gain margin with respect to polar plot and bode
plot.
6) What is principle of argument. Write the statement of Nyquist stability

criterion.
7) Write the steps involved in drawuing bode plots. What is gain plot and
phase plot.
8) What is Nichols chart. How do you find frequency domain specifications

from Nichols chart.
43
Control Systems
TUTORIAL
of
14) Determine the overall transfer function relating C and R for system whose
block diagram is shown in Fig.
15) Determine the ratio C/R,C/D and the total output for the system whose
block diagram is shown in Fig.
16) Draw a signal flow graph for the system whose block diagram is Fig.
Determine
The overall transmittance
G2
R +
+ + C
G1
_
H1
17) Represent the following set of equations by a signal flow graph and
determine the overall gaining relating x5 and x1
X2=aX1+f X2
X3=bX2+eX4
X4=c X3+h X5
X5=d X4+g X2.
44
Control Systems
18) Obtain signal flow graph representation for a system whose block diagram
is given in Fig.Specify (a) forward path, (b) individual loops, (c) path
factors, (d) non-touching, (e) Determine the graph determinant.
c
_
R + + + C
a b
d
+
+
i
j
+
+
+
e f h
_
19) Obtain an expression for unit step time response of a control system
whose transfer is Given by
C(s) /R(s)=1.68/S3+12.3S2+3.7S+1.68
20) A unity feed back control system is shown in Fig.By using derivative
control. The damping ratio is to be made 0.8.Determine the value of Td
and compare the rise Time, peak time and maximum overshoot for the
system
(a)With out derivative control
(b)With derivative control
The input to the system being unit step.
R(s) + C(s)
16/s2+1.
_
6s
21) The overall transfer function of a control system is given by

C(s)/R(s)=16/s2+16s+16
It is desired that the damping ratio be 0.8.Determine the derivative rate
feedback constant Kt and compare rise time, peak time, maximum
overshoot and steady state error for unit ramp input with out and with
derivative feedback control.
22) The block diagram of a unity feedback control system is shown in Fig.
Determine the characteristic equation of the system,n,,d,tp, Mp, the time
45
Control Systems
at which the The first undershoot occurs, the time period of oscillations
and the cycles completed before reaching the steady state.
R(s)
20/(s+1)(s+5) C(s)
+ _
23) The maximum overshoot for a unity feedback control system having its
forward path transfer function as G(s)=Ks(st+1) is to be reduced from 60%
to 20% .The system input is a unit stsep function.
Determine the factor by which K should be reduced to achieve aforesaid
reduction.
24) A second order control system is respresnted by a transfer given below:

0(s) / T(s)=1 /Js2+fs+K
Where 0is the proportional output and T is the input torque.
A step input of 10Nm is applied to the system and test results are given
below:
(a)Mp=6% (b)tp=1sec (c)The steady state value of the output is 0.5
radian.
Determine the values of J,f and K
25) The open loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is
given by
G(s)=25 /s(s+5)
(a)Calculate
(i)The natural frequency of oscillations, damped frequency of
oscillations, damping factor, damping ratio and the maximum overshoot of
a unit step input
(ii)The steady state error for a unit ramp input
(b)If the damping ratio is to be made 0.75 using a tachometer feedback,
calculate the Tachometer constant and determine the maximum
overshoot.
26) The forward path transfer function of a unity feedback control system is
given by:
G(s)=K(s+2) /s3+s2+4s+1
Determine the values of K and  such that the system exhibits sustained
oscillations
Having a frequency of 4 rad/sec.
27) The overall transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by
C(s) /R(s)=10 /s2+6s+10
46
Control Systems
Find (a)Kp,Kv and Ka

(b)Determine the steady state error if the input is r(t)=1+t+t2
28) Determine the stability of the system whose overall transfer function is
given below
C(s) /R(s)= 2s+5 /s5+1.5s4+2s3+4s2+10
If the system is found unstable, how many roots it has with positive real
parts?
31) Determine the stability of a closed-loop control system whose
characteristic equation is s5+s4+2s3+2s2+11s+10=0.
29) Determine the stability of a system having following characteristic equation

S6+S5+5S4+3S3+2S2-4S-8=0.
30) (a)Using Routh-Hurwitz criterion determine the relation between K and T

so that unity feed control system whose open loop transfer function given
below is stable
G(s) =K /s(s(s+10) +T)
(b)Determine the modified relation between K and T if all the roots of
characteristic equation as determined in (a) are to lie to the left of the line
s=-1 in s-plane.
31) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given
by
G(s) = K /s (sT1+1) (sT2+1)
Applying Routh-Hurwitz criterion determine the value of K in term of T 1
and T2 for the system to be stable
32) Examine the closed-loop stability of a control system whose open-loop

transfer function using nyquist criterion
G(s)H(s)=K /s(sT+1)
33) A closed-loop control system is described by the block diagram given

below Fig. Determine the stability using Nyquist criterion
R(s)
k/(sT-1) C(s)
+ _
1/s
34) Using Nyquist criterion investigate the stability of a closed –loop control
system whose open-loop transfer function is given below:
G(s) H(s) = K /s(sT1+1)(sT2+1)
47
Control Systems
35) Using Nyquist criterion investigate the closed-loop stability of the system
whose open-ioop transfer function is given below:
G(s) H(s)= K(s+1) /(s+0.5)(s-2)
Consider (i)K=1.25 (ii)K=2.5.
Also determine the limiting value of K for stability.
36) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feed-back control system is

given below
G(s)=(s+0.25) /s2(s+1)(s+0.5)
Determine the closed-loop stability by applying Nyquist criterion.
37) Determine the critical value of K for the stability of a unity feedback
control system whose open-loop transfer if given by G(s)=Ke-0.5s /(s+1)
Using Nyquist plot method.
38) Sketch Nyquist plot for a unity feed back control system having given
G(s)=Ks3 /(s+1)(s+2)
And determine the stability condition
39) Determine the value of K for a unity feedback control system having open-
loop
Transfer function G(s)H(s)=K /s(s+2)(s+4)
Such that (i) Gain margin =20db (ii)Phase margin =600
40) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feed back control system is
given by
G(s)=K /s(0.5s+1)(0.25s+1)
Assuming K=1 sketch the gain phase plot.Determine the value of K such
that (a)GM=8db
(b)P.M.=200
41) Construct Bode plot for the system whose open-loop transfer function is
given below
And determine (a)the gain margin (b)the phase margin and
(c)the close-loop stability.
G(s)H(s)= 4 /s(1+0.5s)(1+0.08s)
42) The open-loop transfer function of a system is given by

G(s)H(s)=30/(1+0.5s)(1+0.08s)
Determine (a)gain margin (b)phase margin (c)closed-loop stability
43) Sketch the Bode plot for the open-loop transfer function for the unity
feedback system given below and assess stability G(s)=50 (s+1)(s+2)
44) Draw the Bode plot for the transfer function given below
G(s)H(s)=48(s+10) /s(s+20)(s2+2.4s+16)
48
Control Systems
Apply correction to the magnitude plot for the quadratic term and comment
on the stability
45) Determine the open-loop transfer function from the Bode plot shown in
Fig Given below.
-20db/d
24.1
-40db/d
2 3
0 1 8 4
1 100 
rad/sec
12.05 -20db/d
20.05
-40db/d
46) A unity feedback control system has an open-loop transfer function

G(s)=K/s(s+4)
Draw the root locus and determine the value of K if the damping ratio  is
to be 0.707
47) Sketch the root locus for the open-loop transfer function of a unity
feedback control System given below and determine
(i)the value of K for =0.5(ii)the value of K for marginal stability (iii)the
value of K at
S= -4
G(s) =K /s(s+1)(s+3)
48) The open-loop transfer function of a control system is given by

G(s)H(s)=K /s(s+6)(s2+4s+13
Sketch the root locus and determined (a)The break away points (b)The
angle of departure from complex poles (c)The stability condition
49) Sketch the root locus plot for the system when open loop transfer function
is given
By G(s)H(s)=K /s(s+4)(s 2+4s+13)
50) The open loop system transfer function of a control system is given by
G(s)H(s)= K(s+1)2 /(s+2)2
Show that the root locus lies on a circle
49
Control Systems
51) Draw the root locus for a system having open loop transfer function as
G(s)H(s)=K /s(s+1)(s+3)
Determine (a)Gain margin (b)Phase margin for K=6.
52) Sketch the root locus plot for the open-loop transfer function given below
G(s)H(s)=K(s2+4) /s(s+2)
Calculate the value of K at (a)break away point (b)s=-0.7+j0.9
53) Determine the value of K for the following equation such that the roots lie
towards the left of line s= -1 in s-plane.
s3+3s2+3s+k=0.
54) The characteristic equation of a control system is given by

s3+3s2+(k+2)s+3k=0 plot the root locus with K as variable parameter from
0 to . Determine the value of K such that the system is (i) marginally
stable (ii) critically damped
50

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Control Systems

EEE321 - #Control Systems

L T P/D Total Univ.Exam Sessnl. Total

Transfer functions of linear systems-impulse response of linear systems

Introduction to mathematical modelling of physical systems-equations of

Time domain analysis of control systems - time response of first and

Concept of stability and necessary conditions for stabil ity- Routh- H u

Textbook: 1. Automatic control systems by Benjamin C. Kuo, Prentice Hall of

3 Control systems by N.K.Sinha, New age international (P) Ltd.

Transfer functions of linear systems

The main objective of this chapter is to know the main concept of

 The control system is that means by which any quantity of interest in a

 In the above system involve continuous manual control by human operator.

Open Loop System

 In modern usage the term servo mechanism or servo is restricted to

 Closed loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable

 The mathematical model of a dynamic system is defined as a set of

 The dynamics of many systems, whether they are mechanical, electrical,

 Such differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws

 In control theory, functions called transfer functions are commonly used to

 The transfer function of a linear, time-invariant, differential equation system

 For the linear time-invariant system defined by the follows differential

Y(s) b0 sm+b1 sm-1+………..+bm-1 s+bm

 By using the concept of transfer function, it is possible to represent system

 The transfer function and impulse response of a linear, time-invariant

 Block diagram of a closed system

Summing point Take off point

Where R(s) = reference input

Transfer function of above system is

 To show the functions performed by each component, in control

 A blockdiagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the functions

 The transfer functions of the components are usually entered in the

 If signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the relationships

Where pk=path gain of kthforward path;

=determinant of the graph =1-(sum of loop gains of all individuals

Where pmr=gain product m-th possible combination of r non-touching

 In force –voltage analogy

1) Controlled Variable and Manipulated Variable: The controlled variable

2) Plants: A plant may be apiece of equipment, perhaps just a set machine

3) Process: The Merrian-Webster Dictionary defines a process to be a

4) Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and

5) Disturbances: A disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely affect the

While an external disturbance is generated outside the system and is an

6) Feedback Control: Feedback control refers to an operation that, in the

7) Closed-loop control systems: In a closed-loop control system the

8) Open-loop control systems: Those systems in which the output has no

9) Summing Point: Circle with a cross is the symbol that indicates a

whether that signal is to be added or subtracted. It is important that the

1) In an open loop control system

2) In a closed loop control system

3) Transfer function of a system is used to calculate

4) Poles are the complex frequencies of a transfer function where the

5) Zeros are the complex frequencies of a transfer function where the

6) Which of the following is a closed loop system

7) Which of the following is a open loop system

a) steering wheel b) needle of the speedometer c) eyes d) all of the

9) The principle of homogeneity and superposition can be applied to

10) A mass of moment of inertia J is supported by a shaft of stiffness

11) In force- current analogy, mass is analogous to