Chapter 1

Introduction to Control
Systems
CHAPTER HIGHLIGHTS

☞ Basic Definitions ☞ Sensitivity Analysis

☞ Open Loop Control System (OLCS) ☞ Effect of Feedback on Disturbance
☞ Closed Loop Control System (CLCS) ☞ Block Diagram
☞ Other Classification of Control Systems ☞ Signal Flow Graph
☞ Transfer Function ☞ Mason’s Gain Formula
☞ Poles and Zeros of Transfer Function

Basic Definitions Advantages

System A set of components or elements connected in a 1. Simple and easy to design
proper sequence to perform a specific task. 2. Cheap due to less number of components
Controller Controller is an element or subsystem inside 3. Generally, open-loop systems are stable
or outside the system which regulates the operating condi-
tion or response of the system. Disadvantages
Disturbance Disturbance is a signal that tends to adversely
1. More sensitive to disturbances and unable to correct
affect the value of the output of the system. If a disturbance is
the disturbances
generated within the system, it is called internal disturbance,
2. Inaccurate and Unreliable
while an external disturbance is generated outside the system.
Control system A set of components connected in a proper
sequence to form a system which provides the desired response. Closed-Loop Control System
Control system is mainly classified into two types:
(CLCS)
1. Open-loop control system.
A control system in which input is a function of output
2. Closed-loop control system.
in order to maintain the desired value of output is called
closed-loop control system.
Open-Loop Control System
(OLCS) Input
+ Controller
System to be
Controlled
Output
−
Any physical system in which the output is controlled
directly by a controller or actuator without help of feedback
Feedback/Sensor
is known as open-loop control system. The input of the
OLCS is independent of the output.
The output of an open-loop control system is affected Since the feedback facilitates the system to automatically
not only by input but also by disturbance in it. Open-loop correct the system input to meet the desired response, it is
system does not automatically correct the disturbances. also called automatic control system.
Disturbanc e Advantages
1. It is accurate and reliable.
R(S) + C(S) 2. It is less sensitive to disturbances.
System to be
Controller + Controlled
i/p o/p 3. It is accurate even with presence of non-linearites.
3.252 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

Disadvantages A time invariant system is one whose output does not

1. Design is complex and a costly gain of the system. depend explicitly on time.
2. Overall feedback presence is reduced. If an input signal x(t) produces an output y(t), then any
3. Feedback may lead to oscillatory response. time-shifted input x(t + d), results in a time-shifted output
4. Improper design of the controller may cause the y(t + d), then the system is time invariant.
system to become unstable.
Continuous time and Discrete time
Table 1.1 Comparison between open-loop and closed-loop system
Systems
Open-loop control Closed-loop control If the signals in all parts of a control system are functions
system system of time, the system is said to be continuous time control
1 Input is independent of 1 Input is dependent on output. system.
the output. A system in which one or more parts of control systems
2 Design is easy and 2 Design is complex and costly. signals are of the pulse form, it is said to be discrete time
cheap.
control system.
3 It is inaccurate and 3 It is accurate and reliable.
unreliable.
4 It is more sensitive to 4 It is less sensitive to distur- Transfer Function
disturbances. bances. Transfer function of a linear time-invariant system is defined
5 Feedback does not 5 Feedback exists and reduces as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variables
exist. the gain of the system. It may to the Laplace transform of the input variables under the
also cause oscillations.
assumption that all initial conditions are zero.
6 It is generally stable in 6 Improper design of the
(or)
operation. controller may cause unstable
operation of the system. Transfer function is defined as the Laplace transform func-
tion of an impulse response of the system when all initial
Other Classification of Control conditions are assumed to be zero.

Systems Input r(t) System Output c(t)

Depending on the nature of the system, the control system

can be classified into the following types. L[c(t )] C ( s)
Transfer function = = with zero initial
conditions L[ r ( t )] R( s)
1. Linear and non-linear control systems
2. Time-variant and time-invariant systems
Transfer function = L[C(t)] zero initial conditions and
Depending on the type of signals present at various parts of
impulse input
a feedback control system, it is classified into the following:
1. Continuous and discrete line control systems NOTES
1. Transfer function gives mathematical model of
Linear and Non-linear Control Systems all components and individual analysis of various
A system that obeys superposition and homogeneity princi- components.
ple is said to be a linear system. 2. Transfer function is independent of input and output
Let x1 (t) and x2 (t) be two inputs to a system and y1 (t) of the system.
and y2(t) be the corresponding outputs. For arbitrary real 3. Transfer function is useful in determining the response
constants k1 and k2, for input k1 x1(t) + k2 x2(t), if the output of the system for any type of input applied.
of the system is given by k1 y1 (t) + k2 y2 (t), then the system 4. Transfer function is helpful to obtain differential equa-
is said to be linear. tions related to the system.
Any system that does not obey superposition and homo- 5. Transfer function is helpful in stability analysis.
geneity principle is said to be non-linear.
Physical systems are, in general, non-linear and analysis Limitations of Transfer Function
of such systems is very complicated. Hence, these systems 1. Transfer function is applicable only for linear time-
are usually linearized and analysed using linear techniques. invariant systems.
2. It does not provide any information about the physical
Timevariant and Time-invariant Control structure of the system.
Systems 3. Initial condition’s effects are completely neglected.
A system is said to be time variant if its characteristics Therefore, initial conditions lose their importance.
explicitly depend upon time.
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.253

Solved Examples Example 3

A control system is defined by the following differential
Example 1 mathematical relationship
d2 y d2x dx
The transfer function of the system described by 5 2 + 9 2 + 16 + 5x = 12 (1-e −2t )
dy du dt dt dt
4 = 2 + 4u, with u as input and y as output is
dt dt The response of the system as t → ∞ is
2s + 4 2s + 4 (A) x = 16 (B) x = 5
(A) (B) (C) x = 2.4 (D) x = −9
(5 s + 4 s )
2 5s + 4
2s + 2 2s Solution
(C) (D)
5s + 4 s
2 5s + 4
2
Taking Laplace transform on both sides with zero initial
conditions
Solution
⎡1 1 ⎤ ⎡ 2 ⎤
Apply Laplace transform on both sides for the given differ- X(s) [9s2 + 16s + 5] = 12 ⎢ − ⎥ = 12 ⎢ ⎥
ential equation with zero initial condition ⎣ s s + 2⎦ ⎣ s ( s + 2) ⎦
⇒ 5s2 Y(s) + 4s.Y(s) = 2s U(s) + 4 U(s); (5s2 + 4s) Y(s) 24
⇒ X(s) =
= (2s + 4) U(s) s( s + 2) (9 s 2 + 16 s + 5)
Y ( s) 2s + 4 Response of the system x(t) at t → ∞ = lt x(t)
=
U ( s) (5 s 2 + 4 s ) t→∞
= lt sX(s)  [∵ Final value theorem]
Example 2 s→0

The impulse response of the system is given as c(t)= −4e-2t + ⎡ 24 ⎤ 12

= lt s ⎢ ⎥ = 5 = 2.4
6e-4t. The step response of the same system for t ≥ 0 is equal to s→0 ⎣ s( s + 2)(9 s + 16 s + 5) ⎦
2

1 1 Response of the system at t → ∞ = 2.4

(A) [ −1 + e −2t ] (B) [1 − e −2t ]
2 2
1 1 Example 4
(C) [1 − e −2t + 2e −4t ] (D) [ −1 + 4.e −2t − 3.e −4t ]
4 2 The impulse response of an initially relaxed linear system
Solution is e-3tu(t). To produce a response of te-3tu(t), the input must
Transfer function of the system = L {Impulse response} = be equal to
1
−4 6 2s − 4 (A) 3e-tu(t) (B) e −3t u(t )
+ = 3
s+2 s+4 ( s + 2)( s + 4) (C) e −3t u(t ) (D) te −3t u(t )
Step response of the system C(s) = T.F × R(S) =
2s − 4 1 Solution
×
( s + 2)( s + 4) s Impulse response = e −3t u(t )
⎧ 2s − 4 ⎫ Transfer function = L [Impulse response]
c(t) = L−1 ⎨ ⎬
⎩ s ( s + 2 )( s + 4 ) ⎭ 1
= L [e −3t u(t )] =
⎧A B C ⎫ s+3
L−1 ⎨ + + ⎬ Response of the system
⎩ s s + 2 s + 4⎭
−1 1
8A = −4 => A = ; [C(s)] = L [t e −3t u(t ) ] =
2 ( s + 3) 2
B = C(s) × (S + 2) C ( s)
Input R(s) =
at S = −2 Transfer Function
B = 2 and 1
C = C(S) × (S + 4) ( s + 3) 2 1
= =
at S = −4 1 s+3
s+3
−3
C= Input r(t) = L −1[ R( s)] = e −3t u(t )
2
⎧ −1 2 3 ⎫ Example 5
C(s) = L−1 ⎨ + − ⎬
⎩ 2 s s + 2 2( S + 4) ⎭ A linear time-invariant system has an impulse response e2t,
−1 3 t > 0. If the initial conditions are zero and input is e8t, then
C(t) = + 2 . e −2t − . e − 4t
2 2 output for t > 0 is
3.254 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

1 8t The transfer function of a linear control system can be

(A) [e − e 2t ] (B) e5t
6 expressed as
(C) e8t + e2t (D) None of these K ( s + b0 )( s + b1 )( s + b2 )…
G ( s) =
( s + a0 )( s + a1 )( s + a2 )…
Solution
Transfer function = L [Impulse response] Characteristic equation 1 + G(s) H(s) = 0
1 (s + a0)(s + a1)(s + a2)… + k(s + b0)(s + b1)(s + b2)… = 0
= L [e2t] =
s−2 If K = 0
1 Poles of the system is S = -a0, -a1, -a2… etc.
Input applied R(s) = L[e8t] = If K = ∞
s −8
Zeros of the system is
Response of the system = T.F × R(s) s = -b0, -b1, -b2… etc.
1 1
= × Where k is gain factor of the transfer function.
s−2 s −8
Output of the system Example 7
⎡ 1 1 ⎤ Consider the unity feedback open-loop system transfer
⎡ 1 ⎤ ⎢ 6 ⎥ s +1
C(t) = L−1 ⎢ ( s − 2 )( s − 8) ⎥ = L
−1
⎢ − 6 ⎥ function G(s) = . Draw the p-z location and explain
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ s − 8 s − 2⎥ s ( s + 2)
⎣ ⎦ about the stability.
⎛ e8t − e 2t ⎞
C(t) = ⎜ Solution
⎝ 6 ⎟⎠
Poles are at S = 0, -2
Example 6 Zero at S = -1
Im
Let x(t) be the input to a linear, time-invariant system. The
required output is 8x(t − 4). The transfer function of the P Z P
system should be σ
–2 –1 0
(A) 8ej8p f (B) 4e-j8p f
(C) 8e -j8p f (D) 4ej8p f
s +1
Impulse response of the system H(s) =
Solution s ( s + 2)
Required output of the system ⎧A B ⎫
h(t) = L−1 ⎨ + ⎬
y(t) = 8x(t − 4) ⎩ s s + 2⎭
⇒ Y(s) = 8e-4s X(s) \ h(t) = {A + B.e-2t}u(t)
it is a stable system
Transfer function (exponentially decaying function)
Y ( s)
= 8e−4s = 8e−4w  j [∵s = jw]
X ( s) Example 8
Transfer function = 8e−j8p f[∵ w = 2p f] Consider the impulse response of the system is H(s) =
( s + 2)
Poles and Zeros of Transfer Function . Explain about the stability of system.
s( s − 1)
Transfer Function Solution
It is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of the response Im
to the Laplace transform of the excitation or input, with all
initial conditions as zero.
–2 0 1 σ
R(s) C(s)
G(s)

C(s) h(t) = {A + Bet}u(t)

G(s) =
R(s)
If t → ∞
The impulse response of the system h(t) = ∞ {unbounded for bounded input}
H(s) = C(s) = G(s) so the system is unstable. [exponentially increasing function]
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.255

Example 9 Sensitivity of T with Feedback

( s − 2) Parameters
If H(s) = , then the system stability is ______
s( s + 3) Feedback gain = H
Solution Sensitivity of T with feedback parameters = S TH
P-Z location: ∂T H −GH
Im S TH = × = .
∂H T 1 + GH

NOTE
–3 2 σ 2. Closed-loop system is more sensitive to the feedback
parameters variation than that of the forward path
parameters variation.
h(t) = (A + B.e-3t) u(t)
Effect of Feedback on Disturbance
It is an exponentially decaying function
Open-loop System
If t → ∞; h(t) = A
For bounded input bounded output
Therefore, the system is stable. Input
G1 +
+
G2 Output [C(s)]

NOTE
Output due to disturbance = G2D(s).
System stability depends on the poles location but not
zeros. Closed-loop System
If system poles located only in left-hand side of S-plane D(s)
(non-repeated at origin and Imaginary axis), then the sys-
tem is called stable system, otherwise, it is unstable. Input + Output
+ G1 + G2
–

Sensitivity Analysis H
Sensitivity
Sensitivity is the ratio of the percentage change in the func- G2
Output due to disturbance = . D(s).
tion to the percentage change in the parameter. 1+ G1G2 H
Percentage Change in F ( s)
Sensitivity = NOTES
Percentage Change in P ( s)
where F(s) is the function and P(s) is the parameter. 1. Negative feedback reduces the effect of noise on out-
put by a factor of 1 + G1G2 H as compared to that of
Transfer Function Sensitivity with Respect open loop systems.
to Parameter Variation 2. For positive feedback
G2
Transfer function = T(s). Output due to disturbance = . D(s).
1− G1G2 H
Forward path gain = G(s)
Transfer function sensitivity with respect to parameter
Effect of disturbance on output of the system increases as
variation = S TG
compared to open-loop and negative feedback closed-loop
∂ T × 100 ∂T G control systems.
S TG = T = ×
∂ G × 100 ∂G T
G Example 10
For open-loop system S TG =1 A negative feedback system has an amplifier of gain 10 with
1 ±1% tolerance in the forward path, and an alternator of a
For closed-loop system S TG = (Negative feedback)
1+ GH 9
value in the feedback path. The overall system gain is
10
NOTE
approximately.
1. The sensitivity of closed-loop system with respect to (A) 10 ±1% (B) 9 ±1%
variation in G is reduced by a factor (1 + GH) as com-
(C) 1 ± 0.1% (D) 9 ± 0.1%
pared to that of an open loop system.
3.256 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

Solution K 25
10 C(s)
Overall gain of the system without tolerance = = 1 R(s)
+
– S S+ 5
90 10
1+
10
1
Sensitivity of gain with tolerance (S TG ) = (For 1
1+ GH (A) 1.41 (B) 2.82 (C) 0 (D)
negative feedback) 5
1 Solution
= = 1
90 10 C ( s) 25 K
1+ Transfer Function T.F = = 2
10 R( s) 5 + 5s + 25 K
% Change in gain
(S TG ) = ∂T K
% Change in G Sensitivity of T.F with K (S TK ) = ×
∂K T
1
% Change in gain = × Change in G s( s + 5)
10 = 2
s + 5s + 25 K
1
= ×1% = 0.1% If K = 1 and W = 5 rad/sec
10
sKT = 1.41
Overall gain with tolerance = 1 ± 0.1%

Example 11 Block Diagram

Errors associated with each respective subsystems G1, G2 Block diagram is a pictorial representation of system
and G3 are 4, 5, and 8. The error associated with the output is between input and output. Block diagram, along with trans-
fer function, is used to describe the cause and effect rela-
Input 1
G1 G2 Output tionship throughout the system.
G3
The different elements in a block diagram are as follows:
(A) 160 (B) 17 (C) 1 (D) 5 1. Block Physical description or transfer function of a
2
subsystem
Solution 2. Summing point Addition or subtraction of all
Total error = 4 × S T
G1 +5 × S T
G2 +8 × S T
G3
incoming signals
3. Take-off point Measurement or sensing a signal
= 4 + 5 − 8 ⎡∵ S T = 1, S T 1, S T = −1⎤ 4. Line with arrow Represents unidirectional signal
⎣ G1 G2 G3 ⎦
=1 flow and connectivity between subsystems
Block
Take off point
Example 12 X = input + X ± Y Block discription/
C ( s) Z = output
The sensitivity of transfer function to variation in Summing ± transfer function
R( s) point
parameter K if system operating frequency w = 5 rad/sec Y
and K = 1 is

Block Diagram Reduction Techniques

Original diagram Equivalent diagram
1. Associative law
A A–B
A–B+C
+ ++ A A+C A–B+C
–
++ +–
B C
C B
B
A A–B+C
A – A–B+C + +–
+
+
+ C B
C
2. Blocks in series or combining blocks in cascade.
A A G1 G2 A A G1 G2
G1 G2 G 1 G2
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.257

Original diagram Equivalent diagram

3. Blocks in parallel
A G1 A A(G1 + G2)
G1 + G2
A(G1 + G2)
+
+
G2

4. Shifting summing point behind the block A AG – B

+ G
A AG– B –
G +
– 1 B
G
B
5. Shifting summing point beyond the block
A AG – BG
A AG – BG G +
+G1 G –
–
B
G
B
6. Shifting a take-off point behind the block
A AG A AG
G G

AG G AG

7. Shifting a take-off point beyond the block

A AG A
G AG
G

A 1 A
G

8. Shifting take-off point after summing point B

A–B – A–B
+
A A–B A
+G1 +
– –

B B

9. Shifting take-off point before summing point A A –B

+G1
A –
A–B
+G1
– +
+
A B
B
A

10. Removing minor feedback loop

A B A G B
+– G
1 + GH

11. Removing block-in forward path A G1 +

A AG1+AG2 ++
G1
++ A(G1 + G2)
+ G2
G2 G1
3.258 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

Original diagram Equivalent diagram

12. Removing block in feedback path

A B A
G1 1 B
+ +– G1 G2
– G2 +

G2

Example 13 Solution
C ( s)
The transfer function of the system shown is 5
R( s) Forward path →
s( s + 1)
R(s) 1 C(s)
+–
– −5s −5
s+4 Loops → ,
s( s + 1) s( s + 1)
1 +
– 5/s( s + 1)
s+4 Transfer function =
5s 5
1+ +
s( s + 1) s( s + 1)

1 1 1 2 5
(A) (B) (C) (D) =
s+4 s+8 s+3 s+8 s 2 + s + 5s + 5
Solution 5
1 Transfer function =
Forward path → s2 + 6s + 5
s+4
1 1
Loops → ,− Example 15
s+4 s+4
The overall transfer function of the system in figure is
P1
Transfer function =
1− L1 − L2 + 8
+
1/s + 4 1
= = R(s) 4 + C(s)
1 1 s+4
1− + +
s+4 s+4 4

Example 14 +
8
+
C ( s)
For the system shown in figure the transfer function
is equal to R( s)
31 16 −16 32
R(s) 5
C(s) (A) (B) (C) (D) −
+ + 16 31 31 15
– – s (s +1)

Solution
s Forward paths → 8, 8 − 4 − 8, 8 − 4 − 8, 8

8 + (8 × 4 × 8) + 8 + (8 × 4 × 8)
Transfer function = =
1 − (8 × 4 × 8 × 4)
5 5 16(1 + 32)
(A) (B) 1 − 32 × 32
s + 4s + 5
2 s − 4s + 5
2

s2 5 16 −16
(C) (D) Transfer function = =
1 − 32 31
s2 + 6s + 5 s + 6s + 5
2
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.259

Example 16
The system shown in the figure below:
R(s)

2 4 3 5

+ +

+ 1 + 1
+ + D + C(s)
– s – s

1 2

can be reduced to the form

R(s) A + B D C(s)
+

C
1 1
4 D 5D
+
Transfer function = s2 s =
1 2 1 2 D 3D
(A) A = 2 + 3s, B = , C = 4s + 5 1+ + 2 − 2 −
s2 + 2s + 1 s s s s
1 ( 4 s + 5) D
(B) A = 4s + 5, B = , C = 2 + 3s ( s 2 + 2 s − 1) − ( 2 D + 3Ds)
s2 + 2s + 1
AD 1 ( 4 s + 5) D
4s + 5 B. = 2 .
(C) A = 2 + 3s, B = , C = 4s + 5 1− BCD s + 2s + 1 ( 2 + 3s)
s2 + 2s + 5 1− 2 .D
s + 2s + 1
(D) A = 4s + 5, B = 2 + 3s, C = 1/s2 + 2s + 5
1
\ A = (4s + 5), B = , C = (2 + 3s)
Solution s2 + 2s + 1

1 1 ⎡ 4D ⎤ 1 ⎡ 5D ⎤ Example 17
Forward paths → 4 − − − D ⎢ 2 ⎥ → 5 − − D ⎢ ⎥
s s ⎣s ⎦ s ⎣ s ⎦ For the block diagram shown in figure, the transfer function
is equal to
1
Loops → − 2 [−2/s]
s
1 +
R(s) s + C(s)
1 1 + s +
− 1 − [−1/s2]
s s
1 1
− D − 2 − [2D/s2]
s s s 1 s 2s + 1
(A) (B) s + (C) (D)
1 2s + 1 s s2 +1 s
− D − 3 [3D/s]
s
3.260 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

Solution ab
1 −bc
1 5.
x2 b ab
x3
Forward paths → 1, ,1 > = > = >
s x1 x1 x1 x3
< =x 3
c <
1 2s + 1 bc
Transfer function = 1 + + 1 =
s s Mason’s gain formula
The transfer function of a signal flow graph can be found
Signal Flow Graph from mason’s gain formula as follows:
A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of simulta-
neous algebraic equations. 1
M= ∑ k Pk Δ k
Δ
f
M → Overall gain of the system
x1 a b x3 c x4 d x5 e x6 Pk → Gain of the kth forward path
D = 1 − (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain
h products of all possible combinations of two non-touching
g i j loops) − (sum of gain products of all possible combinations
of three non touching loops) + …….
Node A node is a point representing a variable or signal. Dk → same as D but formed by loops not touching the
Transmittance This is a real gain or complex gain between kth forward path
two nodes.
Branch A branch is a directed line segment joining two Example 18
nodes. C
In the signal flow graph shown in figure, is equals
R
Input node or source A source is a node that has only out-
10 2 1
going variables. (node x1) R
C
Output node or sink A sink is a node that has only incom-
ing branches. (node x6) –2
Mixed node A mixed node has both incoming and outgoing −20
(A) (B) 4 (C) 2 (D) 18
branches. (nodes x2, x3, x4, x5) 3
Forward path A forward path is a path from an input node Solution
(source) to an output node (sink) that does not cross any Forward paths → 10 − 2 − 1 (20)
nodes or branch more than once. (x1− x2− x3− x4 − x5 − x6 Loops → 2 − − 2 (−4)
and x1 − x2 − x5 − x6)
20
Loop A loop is a closed path with no node or branch Transfer function = =4
1+ 4
repeated more than once. (x2− x3− x2, − x3 − x4 − x3, x3 − x4
− x5 − x3, x5 − x5) and x2 − x5 − x2). Example 19
Loop gain The loop gain is the product of the branch trans- In the signal flow graph shown in figure, A = TB. T is equal to
mittances of a loop. (bg, ch, cdi, f, and fig)
Non-touching loops Loops are non-touching if they do not 0.5
5
possess any common nodes. B A
Signal flow graph algebra (A) 2.5 (B) 5.5 (C) 5 (D) 10
Signal flow graph for a system can be reduced to obtain the
transfer function of the system using the following rules. Solution
Forward path → 5,
a
1. > ⇒ x 2 = ax1 Loop → 0.5
x1 x2 A 5
a b ab Transfer function = = = 10 ⇒ A = 10 B
2. > > ⇒ > ⇒ x 3 = abx 1 B 1 − 0.5
x1 x2 x3 x1 x3
a Example 20
> a+b
3. x1 >
x2 > x2 = (a + b) x1 C
x1 x2 The for the signal flow graph in figure is
b
x1 R
x1
>a > ac 1 G1 G2 G3 G4 G5 1
R C
4. c
> x4 = ⇒ x4
> x3 >
bc
x2 b x2 –1 –1 –1 –1
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.261

G1G2G3G4G5
(A) 1 ⎛ −24 ⎞ 1 ⎛ −3 ⎞
6− −4 ⎜ = − (−3) ⎜ ⎟
1+ G1 + G2 + G3 + G4 s ⎝ s ⎟⎠ s ⎝ s⎠
G1G2G3G4G5
(B) ⎛ −2 −3 ⎞
(1 + G1 + G2 + G3 + G4 + G1G2G4G5 ) Now touching loops pair → ⎜ , ⎟
⎝ s s⎠
G1G2G3G4G5
(C) −24 −3
(1 + G1 + G2 )(1 + G4 + G5 ) Non-touching loops to forward path → ,
s s
G1G2G4G5
(D) ⎛ 24 ⎞
(1 + G1 )(1 + G2 )(1 + G4 )(1 + G5 ) 4 ⎜1 + + 3/ s ⎟
⎝ s ⎠
Solution Transfer function =
2 24 3 6
Given signal flow graph can be considered as two series sig- 1+ + + +
s s s s2
nal flow graphs
G1G2G3G4G5 = 4( s + 27) ( s 2 + 29 s + 6)
Transfer function =
(1 + G1 + G2 )(1 + G4 + G5 )
Example 22
Example 21 The signal flow graph shown in the figure has − forward
The signal flow graph of a system is shown in figure. The paths and self loops
C ( s)
transfer function of the system is
R( s) 2
C(s)

x 2 1 3
2
2 –2 6 –3
R(s) 1/s 5
4 y
1/s
–4
(A) 4, 4 (B) 4, 1 (C) 3, 3 (D) 3, 1
s + 27 6s
(A) 2 (B) 2
s + 29 s + 6 s + 29 s + 6 Solution
27 s 4( s + 27) Forward path → x − 1 − 2 − 3 − 5 − y
(C) 2 (D) 2
s + 6s + 6 s + 29 s + 6 X−1−3−5−y
X−1−4−3−5−y
Solution
X−1−4−5−y
Forward path → 2 − 2 (4) Total → 4
1 ⎛ 2⎞ Self-loop → 2 − 2
Loops → −2 − ⎜− ⎟ Total → 1
s ⎝ s⎠

Exercises
Practice Problems 1
Direction for questions 1 to 15: Select the correct alterna- 2. The transfer function of a linear system is the
tive from the given choices. (A) ratio of two quantities which have the same units.
1. Which of the following statements are true? (B) ratio of the output to the input.
    (i) In a closed-loop system, the effect of non-lineari- (C) ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to that
ties is reduced. of the input.
  (ii) Feedback in closed loop may lead to oscillatory (D) ratio of the Laplace transform of the output to that
response. of the input with all initial conditions zeros.
(iii) Feedback cannot control dynamics of the system. 3. Which of the following is not a characteristic of nega-
 (iv) Open-loop systems are stable. tive feedback system?
(A) i, ii, and iv (B) i, ii, and iii (A) Rejection of disturbance signal
(C) ii, iii, and iv (D) i and iii (B) High sensitivity to parameter variations
3.262 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

(C) Reduction in gain 20 s + 1 5s + 1

(A) (B)
(D) Accuracy in tracking steady state value 25s 2 + 100 s + 2 25s 2 + 40 s + 2
4. Which one of the following is not a closed loop system? 20 (5s + 1)
(A) Respiratory system of an animal (C) (D)
25s 2 + 100 s + 10 s2 + 4 s + 25
(B) Execution of a program by a computer
(C) Air conditioning system 9. Find the transfer function
(D) Driving a car C1 C2

dy
5. If = x represents the equation of an integrator, then Buffer amp
dx Vi (t) R1 Gain = 1 R2 Vo (t)
which of the following is true?
(A) The system is stable.
(B) The system is unstable.
Given R1 = R2 = 10 Ω
(C) The system is marginally stable.
(D) It cannot be determined. C1 = C2 = 0.1 mF
6. The speed of response of the given three systems will s
(A) 2 (B) = 1
be in the order s + 2s + 1
5 s2 (.1s) 2
Given G1(s) = (C) (D)
0.5s + 1 ( s + 1) 2 ( s + 10) 2
5
G2(s) = 10. The Laplace transform of a function is given by
2s + 1 s
5 . Find its impulse response.
G3(s) = ( s +1) 2
5s + 1 te − t
(A) t−t e cos t (B)
(A) G1(s) > G2(s) > G3(s) 1− t
(B) G1(s) = G2(s) = G3(s) (C) t e−t (D) e−t (1 − t)
(C) G1(s) < G2(s) < G3(s)
(D) Cannot be determined dc(t )
11. A system is described by 3 + c(t) = r(t − 3) where
7. Derive the transfer function of the network shown dt
2H r(t) and c(t) are the input (Ramp) and output, respec-
+ + tively. The transfer function of the system is
Vo (t)
2H 1 + 3s 1 − 3s
Vi (t) 5Ω − (A) (B)
s 2 (1 + 6 s) (1 + 3s)
5Ω
1 − 3s 1 − 3s
− (C) (D)
s 2 (1 − 6 s) s(1 + 3s)
s 10 s
(A) (B) 12. The transfer function of the system whose block
4 s 2 + 30 s + 25 4 s 2 + 30 s + 25
­diagram as shown in the figure is given by
1 10
(C) (D) 2 H2
s( s 2 + 6 s + 5) s + 3s + 5 −
R(s)
C 20 S + G1 G2 G3
8. Find A of the given system, if G1 = ,G2 = , − + C(s)
RB S S +1
H1 = 50s + 1 and H2 = 0.5s + 1. H1

RA CA 1 + G1G2G3
G1 (A)
+ 1 + G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2
− G1G2G3
H1
(B)
1+ G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2
H2 G1G2G3
(C)
− 1+ G1G2G3 H1 H 2

+ G1G2G3
G2 (D)
RB
CB 1+ G1G3 H1 + G1G2 H 2
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.263

13. Using the block diagram given below, find the transfer G1G2 + G1G3
function (C)
1 + G2 H 2 + G1G2 H1
R + C
G1
G1G2 + G1G3
− (D)
G2 H 2 + G1G2 H1 + G2G3 H 2
−
H2 H1
+ C
16. Transfer function of the given signal flow graph is
G2 R
−1
G2 ⎡ G1 ⎤ G1[1 + G2 ]
(A) ⎢ ⎥ (B)
H 2 ⎣ (1 + G1 H1 ) ⎦ 1 + G1 H1 H 2 20 2
R 20 C
[1 + G2 H 2 ]G1 G1G2
(C) (D)
1 + G1 H1 H 2 H 2 + G1 H1 (A) 40 (B) 20 (C) 10 (D) 2
17. The dynamics equation related to a system is given by
Direction for questions 14 and 15:
The block diagram representation of a closed loop control d 2 c( t ) dc(t )
2
+5 + 8c(t ) = 7r (t ) Where r(t) is input and
system is given here. dt dt
G3 c(t) is output. Transfer function of the system is given
+ by
R C
G1 G2 8 7
+ + (A) (B) 2
– – 7 s 2 + 5s + 1 s + 5s + 8
H2
5 7
(C) (D)
H1 s2 + 7s + 8 7 s 2 + 5s + 8
14. Draw the signal flow graph of the given system. 18. The expression for the following signal flow graph is
G3
X2
b
R G1 G2 C
I.
a c X4 e X5
X1
−H1 −H2
d
G3 X3

II. (A) ⎡⎣(acX 1 + bcX 2 ) + dX 3 ⎤⎦ e

R G1 1 G2 1 C

−H 1
(B) ⎡⎣(aX1 + bX 2 ) cdX 3 ⎤⎦ e
−H 2
G3 (C) ⎡⎣(aX1 + bX 2 ) + dX 3 ⎤⎦ e

III.
R 1 C (D) [acX1 + bcX 2 + dX 3 ] e
G1 −H 2 G2

C ( s)
−H 1 19. The transfer function of the block diagram given
below is R( s)
(A) I and II are true (B) All are true
(C) Only II is true (D) Only I is true R(S) + + C(S)
∑ 10 ∑ 5
15. Obtain the transfer function representation of the above − −
block diagram.
G1G2 + G1G3
(A)
1 + G1G2 H 2 H 3 + G2 H 2 1 0.5

G1G2 + G1G3
(B) (A) 5 (B) 10 (C) 15 (D) 50
1 + G2 H 2 + G1G2 H1 + G3 H1
3.264 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

Practice Problems 2 x
Direction for questions 1 to 15: Select the correct alterna- A B
tive from the given choices. y
1. In a time-variant system, −z
(A) the system parameters are independent of time. x
(B) the system parameters are functions of time.
(C) the input and output are functions of time. A B
y
(D) the system parameters depend on time-varying in-
−z
put and output.
2. The transfer function of a tachometer has x
(A) A pole at origin and a zero anywhere in the real axis A B
(B) A zero at origin and pole anywhere in the real axis y
(C) Only a zero at origin z
(D) Only a pole at origin
3. Match the following x
A 1 B
Type of roots Nature of response y
term
z
1. Single root at s = s I A sin (wt + b)
2. Roots of multiplicity II (A1 + a2t +…….)es t Direction for questions 7 and 8:
K at the origin The SFD of a system is shown below. Study the system to
3. Roots of multiplicity III A es t give answers to the following questions.
K, at s = s 9
4. Single complex IV A + A2 t + ….+ AK t K-1
Conjugate root pair 8
on the jw axis 7
4 5
(A) I − III, 2 − II, 3 − IV, 4 − I 6
(B) 1 − III, 2 − IV, 3 − II, 4 − I
1 2
(C) I − III, 2 − I, 3 − IV, 4 − II
(D) 1 − I, 2 − III, 3 − II, 4 − IV 3

4. A system Y = f(x) is said to be linear if it satisfies the 7. Find the number of forward paths in the given SFD.
following properties: (A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 6 (D) 7
(A) f(x + y) = f(x) + f(y) 8. Find the number of independent loops in the system.
(B) f(ax) = af(x) (A) 4 (B) 3 (C) 2 (D) 5
(C) f(ax1 + bx2) = af(x1) + bf(x2) 9. The impulse response of a system is given by g(t) = e -2t
(D) None of these (1- cos 2t). Find the transfer function of the system.
5. The error transfer function of system is given by 1 4
(A) (B)
G ( s) s+2 ( s + 2)( s 2 + 4 s + 8)
(A) E(s) = − R( s)
1+ G ( s) H ( s) 8 1
(C) (D)
R( s) ( s + 2)( s + 4 s + 8)
2 ( s + 4 s + 8)
2
(B) E(s) =
1+ G ( s) H ( s) 10. For the system shown if the gain is very high, the trans-
C ( s)
1 fer function will be
(C) E(s) = R( s)
1+ G ( s) H ( s)
R(s) G1(s) C(s)
(D) E(s) = R( s) − G ( s) H ( s)
6. The signal flow graph for the given system is
− H2(s) H1(s)
x Ns

G1 ( s) G1 ( s)
A+
+ (A) (B)
y B 1 + G1 ( s) H1 ( s) H 2 ( s) 1 − H1 ( s) H 2 ( s) N ( s)
+
− 1 1
(C) (D)
z H1 ( s) H 2 ( s) 1 − H1 ( s) H 2 ( s)
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.265

11. A transfer function G(s) has the pole zero plot as shown 1
in the figure. The steady state gain is given as 10. Find (A)
1 + s[ R1C1 + R2C2 + R1C2 ] + s 2 R1 R2C1C2
the transfer function.
Img axis 1
(B)
× 1 1 + s 2 [ R1C1 + R2C2 + R2C1 ] + s 4 R1 R2C1C2
×x Real axis 1
−3 −2 −1 (C)
1+ s 2 [ R1C1 + R2C2 + R1C2 ] + s 4 R1 R2C1C2
× −1
1
(D)
10( s + 1) 10( s − 1) 1 + s[ R1C1 + R2C2 + R1C2 ] + s3 R1 R2C1C2
(A) (B)
s 2 + 6 s + 10 ( s 2 + 6 s + 10) s 14. For the system given, find the transfer function.
10( s + 1) s 100 KΩ
10( s + 1)
(C) (D)
s ( s 2 + 6 s + 10)
2 s 2 + 6 s + 10
1µ F
12.
G2 Vi (t) 100 KΩ
− Vo (t)
R(s) 1 µF
– +
+ G1 G3 + C(s)
– –

H1 (0.1s + 2) s 0.1s
(A) (B)
The transfer function of the block diagram shown in the (0.1s + 1) 2 (0.1s + 2)
above figure is −0.1s
(C) (D) None of these
G G − G3 G G + G2 (0.1s + 1) 2
(A) 1 2 (B) 1 3
1 + G1 H 1 + G1 H 15. For what value of k, are the two block diagrams shown
G1G2 G1G3 − G2 below equivalent?
(C) - G3 (D)
1+ G1 H 1 + G1 H R(s) C(s)
s+3
13. The transfer function of the electrical network shown in s+ 1
the figure is
R1 R2
R(s) 1 +
K C(s)
C1 C2 s +1 +
Vi Vo

(A) 2 (B) 1 (C) s + 1 (D) s + 2

Previous Years’ Questions

abcd
1. Consider the signal flow graph shown in the figure. (C)
X 1− (be + cf + dg ) + bedg
The gain 5 is [2004]
X1 1− (be + cf + dg ) + bedg
(D)
X1 a X2 b X3 c X4 d X5 abcd
2. Despite the presence of negative feedback, control
systems still have problems of instability because the
 [2005]
e f g (A) components used have nonlinearities.
1− (be + cf + dg ) (B) dynamic equation of the subsystems are not
(A) known exactly.
abc
(C) mathematical analysis involves approximations
bedg (D) system has a large negative phase angle at high
(B)
1− (be + cf + dg ) frequencies.
3.266 | Part III • Unit 3 • Control Systems

3. In the system shown below, x(t) = (sin t)u(t). In a G1G2

steady state, the response y(t) will be  [2006] (A) (B) G1 G2 + G1 + 1
1+ G1G2
G1
X(t) 1 Y(t) (C) G1 G2 + G2 + 1 (D)
s+1 1+ G1G2

7. For the following system, [2014]

1 ⎛ p⎞ 1 ⎛ p⎞
(A) sin ⎜ t − ⎟ (B) sin ⎜ t + ⎟
2 ⎝ 4⎠ 2 ⎝ 4⎠ X2(s)
+
1 X1(s) + s + Y(s)
1
(C) e − t sin t (D) sin t - cos t s+1 s
2 −

4. The transfer function Y(s)/R(s) of the system shown is

 [2010]
Y ( s)
+ 1 When X1(s) = 0, the transfer function is
R(s) Σ s+1 Y(s) X 2 ( s)
−
s +1 1
(A) (B)
1 −
+ s2 s +1
s+1 Σ
s+2 s +1
(C) (D)
s( s + 1) s ( s + 2)
1 2 2 8. Negative feedback in a closed-loop control system
(A) 0  (B)   (C)   (D)
s +1 s +1 s+3 DOES NOT [2015]
(A) reduce the overall gain
5. The signal flow graph for a system is given below. The
(B) reduce bandwidth
Y ( s) (C) improve disturbance rejection
transfer function for this system is [2013]
U ( s) (D) reduce sensitivity to parameter variation
1 9. By performing cascading and/or summing/differenc-
ing operations using transfer function blocks G1(s)
and G2(s), one CANNOT realize a transfer function
1 −1
U(s) 1 S S 1 Y(s) of the form [2015]
(A) G1(s) G2(s)
G1 ( s)
−4 (B)
G2 ( s)
−2 ⎡ 1 ⎤
(C) G1(s) ⎢ + G2 ( s) ⎥
⎣ G1 ( s) ⎦
s +1 s +1
(A) (B) ⎡ 1 ⎤
5s 2 + 6s + 2 s2 + 6s + 2 (D) G1 ( s) ⎢ − G2 ( s) ⎥
⎣ G1 ( s) ⎦
s +1 1
(C) (D) 10. For the signal flow graph shown in the figure, the
s2 + 4s + 2 5s 2 + 6 s + 2
C ( s)
value of is [2015]
6. Consider the following block diagram in the figure. R( s)
 [2014]
−H3
R(s) + + C(s)
G1 G2
+ +
1 X1 X3 1 X4 C(s)
R(s) G1 X2 G2 G3 X5 G4

C ( s)
The transfer function is −H1 −H2
R( s)
 Chapter 1 • Introduction to Control Systems | 3.267

G1G2G3G4 + +
(A) X G2 G1 Y
1− G1G2 H1 − G3G4 H 2 − G2G3 H 3 + G1G2G3G4 H1 H 2 − −
G1G2G3G4
(B) H1
1+ G1G2 H1 + G3G4 H 2 + G2G3 H 3 + G1G2G3G4 H1 H 2
1
(C)
1 + G1G2 H1 + G3G4 H 2 + G2G3 H 3 + G1G2G3G4 H1 H 2
1 G1G2
(D) (A) G =
1 − G1G2 H1 − G3G4 H 2 − G2G3 H 3 + G1G2G3G4 H1 H 2 1+ G1 H1

s−2 G1G2
11. The response of the system G(s) = to the (B) G =
( s + 1)( s + 3) 1+ G1G2 + G1 H1
dy G1G2
unit step input u(t) is y(t). The value of at t = 0+ is (C) G =
__________. dt [2016] 1+ G1G2 H1
12. The block diagram of a feedback control system is G1G2
(D) G =
shown in the figure. The overall closed loop gain G of 1+ G1G2 + G1G2 H1
the system is [2016]

Answer Keys
Exercises
Practice Problems 1
1. A 2. D 3. B 4. B 5. C 6. A 7. B 8. C 9. C 10. D
11. B 12. B 13. C 14. C 15. C 16. B 17. B 18. A 19. D

Practice Problems 2
1. B 2. C 3. B 4. C 5. C 6. B 7. A 8. A 9. B 10. C
11. C 12. B 13. A 14. C 15. A

Previous Years’ Questions

1. C 2. A 3. A 4. B 5. A 6. C 7. D 8. B 9. B 10. B
11. 1 12. B