Food and Nutrition Sciences, 2022, 13, 669-689

https://www.scirp.org/journal/fns
ISSN Online: 2157-9458
ISSN Print: 2157-944X

Effects of Cereal Malts Used as Improver on

Physico-Chemical, Nutritional and Sensory
Characteristics of Wheat and Millet Composites
Breads

Fidèle Wend-Bénédo Tapsoba1*, Diarra Compaore-Sereme1, Clarisse Sidbéwendé Compaore1,

Thomas Jean Ndig-Yenouba2, Wendkuni Anne Christelle Yaogho3, Ndegwa Henri Maina4,
Hagrétou Sawadogo-Lingani1
1
Département Technologie Alimentaire (DTA), Institut de Recherche en Sciences Appliquées et Technologies (IRSAT), Centre
National de la Recherche Scientifique et Technologique (CNRST), Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
2
Université Catholique de l’Afrique de l’Ouest, Unité Universitaire à Bobo-Dioulasso (UCAO/UUB), Bobo-Dioulasso, Burkina
Faso
3
Institut Supérieur de Technologies, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
4
Department of Food and Nutrition Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland

How to cite this paper: Tapsoba, F.W.-B., Abstract

Compaore-Sereme, D., Compaore, C.S.,
Ndig-Yenouba, T.J., Yaogho, W.A.C., Mai- The aim of this study was to optimize composite breads of wheat and whole
na, N.H. and Sawadogo-Lingani, H. (2022) millet flour by the use of natural improvers. Three types of local malted ce-
Effects of Cereal Malts Used as Improver
reals were used as natural improvers. The millet flour was fermented with
on Physico-Chemical, Nutritional and Sen-
sory Characteristics of Wheat and Millet EPSs producing LAB strain prior to use. The technological characteristics of
Composites Breads. Food and Nutrition the composite flours were determined using an alveograph. The physico-
Sciences, 13, 669-689. chemical and nutritional characteristics of the composite breads were deter-
https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2022.137049
mined using standard methods and their sensory profiles were evaluated by a
Received: May 31, 2022 panel of 35 consumers. The alveograph results showed an increase in dough
Accepted: July 22, 2022 resistance, deformation and a decrease in extensibility and elasticity with the
Published: July 25, 2022
level of incorporation of millet flour. From the results of physico-chemical
Copyright © 2022 by author(s) and analyses of composite breads, no significant difference (p > 0.05) was ob-
Scientific Research Publishing Inc. served in the use of the three types of local cereal malts except for the incor-
This work is licensed under the Creative poration of 50% of the millet flour. The control sample presented the lowest
Commons Attribution International
acidity and dry matter value, the highest water content and pH value. No sig-
License (CC BY 4.0).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ nificant difference (p > 0.05) was observed in the use of the three types of ce-
Open Access real malts for the macronutrient contents of the composite bread samples.
However, differences were observed according to the levels of incorporation.
Macronutrients results showed an increase in protein content (11.17% ± 0.28% -
14.01% ± 0.10%/DM); crude fat content (1.86% ± 0.05% - 2.48% ± 0.20%/DM)

DOI: 10.4236/fns.2022.137049 Jul. 25, 2022 669 Food and Nutrition Sciences
F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

and a decrease in carbohydrates content (85.36% ± 0.54% - 81.06% ± 0.36%/

DM). Regarding the content of mineral elements, significant differences (p <
0.05) were observed in the use of the three types of cereal malts for the in-
corporation of 15% (Mg and Fe content), 30% (Fe, Zn and K) and 50% (con-
tent of Zn, K, Na and Mg) of millet flour. The free amino acid profile revealed
three essential amino acids such as valine, isoleucine and lysine. Breads in-
corporated with 30% of whole millet flour were the most appreciated by con-
sumers.

Keywords
Composite Bread, Cereal Malts, Improver, Millet, Sensorial Characteristics

1. Introduction
Bread is a bakery product which main ingredients are water, flour, salt, yeast,
sugar, and fat mixed and fermented to form a viscoelastic dough before baking
[1] [2]. It is an important and mostly consumed staple cereal-based food globally
and it contains useful nutrients such as starch, protein, fiber, vitamins, and min-
erals [3] [4] [5]. In addition, bread (wheat bread) is receiving a growing interest
as a possible functional food due to its great diffusion and consumption [5] [6].
It is poor in protein while rich in carbohydrates, with a high glycemic index,
which can lead to obesity and susceptibility to diabetes and biliary-tract cancer
[7]. The consumption of bread in many countries, especially in sub-Saharan Africa
is on the rise due to urbanization, but there is a challenge to meet the supply and
demand of bread in order to match the eating habit of consumers [8]. Therefore,
baking industries have a challenge of producing bread with improved nutrition-
al, physicochemical and sensory characteristics due to increased consumer’s de-
mand for high quality and healthy bakery products [5] [9].
Wheat flour, the main ingredient in bread, is avoided by gluten intolerant pa-
tients as it contains high gluten content, low fiber and high glycemic level, and
also contributes, to many disorders and diseases like diabetes, obesity, and athe-
rosclerosis [10]. However, consumption of pearl millet has been linked to re-
duced risk of age related chronic diseases such as colorectal cancer, cardiovascu-
lar diseases (CVD), heart disease and obesity [11] [12]. Pearl millet is also known
for its low glycemic index (GI) which is considered to be important for the man-
agement of type 2 diabetes [12] [13]. It is a rich source of carbohydrate, protein,
dietary fiber, vitamins B complex and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, and manganese [14].
To ensure food security, Africa needs to take urgent steps to become self-
sufficient in food production and also promote the use of indigenous grains such
as millets in industrial food production [12]. Imported wheat flour, especially in
its refined form, is used to make breads and other bakery products. A strategy to
reduce wheat import is to utilize composite flour containing wheat and millet in

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

bakery products, which will enhance the production and consumption of indi-
genous grains on an industrial scale [12]. The inclusion of millet flour in bread
making is uncommon given the high demand for wheat-based bread. There are
also technological challenges to replacing wheat flour with millet, which dimi-
nishes bread quality particularly with respect to loaf volume, texture, mouth-feel
and staling rate [12] [15]. Gluten proteins are essential for structure building;
they form a network in the solid matrix and allow gas retention and expansion,
which improve the bread volume [12] [16]. Starch retrogradation and water mo-
lecule migration are the major causes of bread staling [17]. The gluten network
can slow the movement of water, thereby maintaining softness and reducing
bread staling [17]. The absence of gluten functionality in pearl millet restricts the
high level of substitution in the wheat bread formula. One option is to employ
hydrocolloids to mimic the properties of gluten. To do this, dextran produced by
lactic acid bacteria (LAB) can act as a hydrocolloid in bread making [12] [18]. In
the practice, exopolysaccharide (EPSs)-producing LAB are most often used to
ferment gluten-free cereal flour dough into a slimy sourdough [12].
Some studies reported that the use of malt flour in controlled conditions im-
proved loaf volume and crumb texture [19] [20]. These positive effects were at-
tributed to the natural enzymes expressed during the germination process that
might decrease or completely replace the quantity of commercial enzymes added
to bread formulation. This technique makes it possible to enrich cereals with
hydrolytic enzymes such as beta-amylase and alpha-amylase, in sugars, in free
amino acids and in vitamins, thus improving the technological and nutritional
quality of the derived products [21] [22] [23].
The aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of local cereals malts flours used
as natural improvers on the physico-chemical and nutritional characteristics of
composite bread produced based on millet and wheat flour with different subs-
titution rate of wheat flour.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Vegetal Material
The vegetal material were sorghum grains (Sorghum bicolor (L. Moench) and
millet grains (Pennisetum glaucum), which were purchased from national insti-
tute of environmental and agriculture research (INERA/Saria at Koudougou,
Burkina Faso). The grains of three types of variety (30 kg each other) were pur-
chased, including “IKMP5” for millet grains, “Framida” for red sorghum grains
and “Kapèlga” for white sorghum.

2.2. Origin of EPSs-Producing LAB Strain Used as Starter Culture

The EPSs producing LAB strain (A16) used as starter culture for millet dough
fermentation was obtained from traditional fermentation process of Massa [24].
This strain was previously characterized as EPSs producer and identified as W.
confusa/cibaria using 16S rRNA gene sequencing [24].

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

2.3. Characteristics of Cereal Malts Used as Natural Improver

Three types of cereals malts were used as improver (Table 1) for composite bread
production. It was red sorghum, white sorghum and millet malts. These malts
were produced in controlled conditions at the IRSAT/DTA microbiology labor-
atory (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso [23]). The choice of these malts was mainly
based on their diastatic power, α and β-Amylases activities.

2.4. Preparation of EPSs Producing LAB Inoculum and Sourdough

The EPSs producing LAB strain A16 (previously stored in MRS-broth + glycerol
at −20˚C) was subcultured onto MRS agar (composition) and incubated for 48 h
at 37˚C. One colony of the LAB strain A16 was then subcultured in 10 mL of
MRS-broth and incubated for 24 h at 37˚C. A volume of 0.1 mL of culture broth
was subcultured in MRS-broth (10 mL) and then incubated for 16 to 18 h at
37˚C. The culture broth obtained was distributed in sterile cryotubes (1 mL/tube),
then centrifuged (MIKRO 220R, Germany) at 8000 g for 10 min. The superna-
tant of each tube was removed and the pellet (cells) retained. To this pellet was
added 1 mL of sterile diluent [0.1% (w/v) peptone (Difco), 0.85% (w/v) NaCl
(Sigma), pH 7.2 ± 0.2]; after stirring, a further centrifugation was carried out at
8000 g for 10 min. The supernatant was again removed and the pellet was pre-
served. One millimeter (1 mL) of sterile distilled water was added to the pellet
and, after stirring, the cells suspension which constitutes the inoculum was
stored in the refrigerator at 4˚C. The concentration of viable cells of the inocu-
lum was determined by enumeration on MRS agar. The inoculum (106 CFU/ml)
was used for the fermentation of the millet dough which has been the main ele-
ment for the composite bread production. The dough was inoculated with W.
confusa/cibaria strain (A16) at 1% (v/w then incubated in an oven at 25˚C for 24
h to obtain a millet sourdough.

2.5. Composite Bread Production Process

For the preparation of composite bread (Figure 1), the total amount of water
used for kneading was between 62% - 63% (v/w) of the total flour mass. The
dough was produced by mixing all the ingredients (yeasts, salt, sugar, cereal malt
flour, wheat flour and the millet dough fermented with the EPS-producing LAB
strain A16) in a kneader for 4 min at low speed and 10 min at high speed quick.
The dough obtained was put in to balls of 250 g and let to rest for 10 min. These
balls were then mechanically molded into French baguette-type loaves of bread
and let to rest in a proofing chamber for 45 min (30˚C, Relative Humidity 75%).
After the dough pieces had rested, the loaves were incised with a blade and
baked in a rotary electric oven (RAMA hos, China), equipped with an automatic
water injection system, with preheating at 240˚C and baking at 190˚C for 15
min. After baking, the loaves were cooled at room temperature. Composite breads
without malt flour were used as control breads. Three formulations of composite
bread (Table 2) were done using three types of cereals malt flour (red sorghum,

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

white sorghum and millet malt flour).

2.6. Physico-Chemical and Nutritional Analyses

The strength and elasticity of the dough based on millet and wheat flours were
measured using a chopin alveograph (Alveolab, French) according to the French
standard NF ISO 5530-4: 1992.

Table 1. Characteristics of cereals malts used as improver.

Cereals Diastatic α-Amylases β-Amylases

Water Dry matter
malts power (CERALPHA (CERALPHA
content (%) (%)
samples (UPD) units) units)

SRn72 251.22 ± 6.8 221.65 ± 7.1 29.57 ± 2.6 9.44 ± 1.5 90.56 ± 1.5
SBn72 266.17 ± 8.9 237.33 ± 11.5 28.84 ± 3.2 9.86 ± 2.8 90.14 ± 2.8
PMn48 239.85 ± 19.3 201.91 ± 19.7 37.94 ± 1.5 8.39 ± 1.5 91.61 ± 1.5

SRn72: Red sorghum malt 72 h of germination; SBn72: White sorghum malt 72 h of

germination; PMn48: Pearl millet malt 48 h of germination [23].

Figure 1. Composite bread production diagram.

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

Table 2. Composite bread formulations.

Composite bread Formulation 1 Formulation 2 Formulation 3

recipe (%) (%) (%)
Millet flour 15 30.0 50
Wheat flour 85 70.0 50
Cereals malt flour 2.0 2.0 2.0
Yeast 1.5 1.5 1.5
Sugar 2.0 2.0 2.0
Salt 1.5 1.5 1.5

The pH of the breads samples was measured with an electronic pH-meter

(Model HI 8520; Hanna Instrument, Singapore). For each sample, 10 g of prod-
uct were mixed with 20 mL of distilled water prior to pH measurement. For ti-
tratable acidity determination, 5 g of sample suspended in 30 mL of ethanol
(90˚) was mixed during 1 h and centrifuged for 5 min at 3500 g. From the su-
pernatant, 20 mL was transferred to a 50 mL measuring flask and was titrated
with NaOH 0.1 N using 1% phenolphthalein as indicator [25]. The titratable
acidity was calculated according to [26]. Water content was determined by dry-
ing the sample at 105˚C ± 2˚C for 24 h according to NF V03-707: 2000; ash con-
tent was determined by incineration at 650˚C overnight according to interna-
tional standard ISO 2171: 2007; crude protein content (N×6.25) was determined
by the Kjeldahl method [27] after acid digestion according to NF V03 50: 1970;
crude fat content was determined by soxhlet extraction using n-hexane accord-
ing to ISO 659: 1998 and [28]. Total carbohydrates content was determined by
spectrophotometric method at 510 nm using orcinol as reagent [29]. The energy
value was calculated according to the Atwater method [30]. The determination
of mineral elements was carried out by flame atomic absorption spectrometry
(Perkin-Elmer model 303) according to [31]. The crude fiber content was de-
termined by the formic insoluble method according to [32]. The free amino acid
profile was carried out by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) us-
ing Waters PICO-TAG method [33], which consisted of three steps: hydrolysis
of samples, sample derivatization pre-column and HPLC-reverse phase analysis.
Amino acids identification and concentrations were determined with the Em-
power software by comparing retention times obtained with retention times of
standards. The values were expressed in g/100g of dry matter.

2.7. Sensory Evaluation of Composite Bread Samples

The sensory evaluation consisted of evaluating the sensory profile of composite
bread samples. A test of differentiation of the composite bread samples com-
pared to the control sample (composite bread without malt flour) and a test of
the classification of the composite bread samples were also performed according
to the method describe by [34]. The tasting panel included 35 consumers com-
posed of men and women with a minimum age of 15 whom were familiar with
composite bread samples.

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

2.8. Statistical Analyses of the Data

All the data (except those for sensory analyses) were submitted to Analysis of
Variance (ANOVA) with the statistical software XLSTAT-Pro 7.5.2: 2016 and
the means were compared using the test of Student Newman-keuls to the proba-
bility level p < 0.05. The curves were obtained using Microsoft Excel 2013. Sen-
sory evaluation data were analyzed using the Chi2 test with the statistical soft-
ware SPSS.

3. Results
3.1. Characteristics of Flours
It emerged from the results of Table 3 that the characteristics of the dough from
the composite flour (Wheat-Millet) in terms of tenacity (P), extensibility (L),
swelling (G) and baking force or work (W) varied from 83 to 152 mm H2O, from
14.7 to 66 mm, from 2.9 to 18.1 cm3 and from 148 to 319 × 10−4 J, respectively,
according to the incorporation rate of millet flour. These results showed that
when the incorporation rate of millet flour increased, the quality of the dough in
terms of strength, the elasticity decreased.

3.2. Physicochemical Characteristics of Composite Bread Samples

The results of the water content of the composite bread (Table 4) ranged be-
tween 28.87% ± 0.74% and 30.92% ± 3.68% for composite breads samples in-
corporated with 15% of millet flour. For the breads samples incorporated with
30% of millet flour the values ranged from 25.26% ± 0.14% to 30.34% ± 0.40%
and for those incorporated with 50% of millet flour, the values ranged from
25.90% ± 0.13% to 30.91% ± 0.88%. The pH of composite breads varied from
5.29 ± 0.05 to 5.39 ± 0.00, from 5.19 ± 0.02 to 5.50 ± 0.00 and from 4.94 ± 0.02 to
5.19 ± 0.03, respectively for breads incorporated with 15%, 30% and 50% of mil-
let flour (Table 4). Regarding the titratable acidity of the composite breads, its
content increased with the incorporation rate of millet flour. Indeed, the bread
samples incorporated with 50%of millet flour presented a higher acidity (0.49 ±
0.01 to 0.69 ± 0.07), followed by samples incorporated with 30% of millet flour
(0.37% ± 0.01% to 0.41% ± 0.01%) and finally those incorporated with 15% of
millet flour (0.21 ± 0.01 to 0.22 ± 0.00) (Table 4). Composite breads without
malt (controls) showed the lowest values compared to breads containing malts.
The ash content of the samples ranged from 1.58% ± 0.06%/DM to 1.77% ±
0.00%/DM for the composite breads incorporated with 15% of millet flour
(Table 4). For those incorporated with 30% of millet flour, the ash content
ranged between 1.85% ± 0.02%/DM and 2.00% ± 0.03%/DM. For the breads in-
corporated with 50% of millet flour, ash content ranged from 2.58% ± 0.02%/DM
to 2.62% ± 0.16%/DM. The ash content increased with the incorporation rate of
millet flour. For the crude fiber content, values ranged from 1.85% ± 0.28%/DM
(bread samples without malt) to 2.84% ± 0.72%/DM (bread samples using malt

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

flour). These crude fiber contents increased with the incorporation rate of millet
flour (Table 4). No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed in the use of
the three types of malt for the physico-chemical parameters except for the in-
corporation of 50% of the millet flour. The control sample presented the lowest
acidity and dry matter value, and the highest water content and pH value.

Table 3. Characteristics of flours (Wheat, Wheat-Millet) through the alveograph.

Parameters Wheat flour (From CANADA) Composite flour (Wheat-Millet)

Incorporation rate
0% 15% 30% 50%
of millet flour
P (mmH2O) 122 152 137 83
L (mm) 130 66 38 14.7
G (Cm3) 25.4 18.1 13.7 2.9
W (10−4 J) 430 319 200 148
P/L 0.9 2.3 3.6 5.6

P: Tenacity; L: Extensibility; G: Swelling; W: Baking force or work.

Table 4. Physico-chemical characteristics of composite bread samples.

Water Dry matter Titratable Ash Fiber

pH
content (%) (%) acidity (%) (%/DM) (%/DM)
15% incorporation of millet flour
PMr1 29.07 ± 0.30a 70.93 ± 0.30a 5.29 ± 0.05a 0.21 ± 0.01a 1.71 ± 0.10a 1.95 ± 0.16a
PMb1 28.87 ± 0.18a 71.14 ± 0.18a 5.34 ± 0.00a 0.22 ± 0.00b 1.62 ± 0.00a 1.95 ± 0.29a
PMm1 29.72 ± 0.74a 70.28 ± 0.74a 5.34 ± 0.04a 0.22 ± 0.01b 1.77 ± 0.02a 2.25 ± 0.04a
PMt1 30.92 ± 3.68a 69.08 ± 0.68a 5.39 ± 0.00a 0.22 ± 0.00b 1.59 ± 0.06a 1.85 ± 0.05a
P-value 0.864 0.864 0.298 0.043 0.235 0.541
30% incorporation of millet flour
PMr3 25.26 ± 0.14 74.74 ± 0.14a 5.19 ± 0.02c 0.37 ± 0.01a 2.00 ± 0.03a 2.19 ± 0.15a
b

PMb3 29.62 ± 0.74a 70.38 ± 0.74b 5.50 ± 0.00a 0.39 ± 0.02a 1.87 ± 0.04a 2.84 ± 0.72a
PMm3 29.58 ± 0.19a 70.42 ± 0.19b 5.26 ± 0.00b 0.41 ± 0.01a 1.91 ± 0.09a 2.31 ± 0.29a
PMt3 30.34 ± 0.40a 69.66 ± 0.40b 5.24 ± 0.00bc 0.37 ± 0.00a 1.85 ± 0.02a 2.09 ± 0.13a
P-value 0.004 0.004 0.000 0.115 0.317 0.599
50% incorporation of millet flour
PMr5 25.90 ± 0.13 74.10 ± 0.13a 5.07 ± 0.03ab 0.69 ± 0.07b 2.58 ± 0.02a 1.88 ± 0.28a
b

PMb5 28.26 ± 0.03b 71.74 ± 0.03a 4.94 ± 0.02b 0.53 ± 0.03b 2.62 ± 0.16a 2.17 ± 0.19a
PMm5 27.58 ± 0.05b 72.42 ± 0.05a 5.07 ± 0.02ab 0.56 ± 0.03b 2.61 ± 0.05a 2.11 ± 0.15a
PMt5 30.91 ± 0.88a 69.09 ± 0.88b 5.19 ± 0.03a 0.49 ± 0.01a 2.62 ± 0.04a 1.90 ± 0.07a
P-value 0.006 0.006 0.015 0.007 0.982 0.640

PM: Pearl millet bread; m: millet malt; r: red sorghum malt; b: white sorghum malt; t:
control (without malt) 1: 15% incorporation of millet flour; 3: 30% incorporation of mil-
let flour; 5: 50% incorporation of millet flour. Values with the same letters in the column
are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Newman-keuls’s test.

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

3.3. Macronutrient Composition of Composite Bread Samples

Results from Table 5 showed that the protein content of the bread samples va-
ried from 11.17% ± 0.28%/DM (PMm1) to 14.01% ± 0.10%/DM (PMm5). The
protein content increased according to the rate of substitution of wheat flour by
millet flour, leading to an increase in this content in composite bread, in particular
with pearl millet malt. The fat content also increased from 1.86% ± 0.05%/DM
(PMb1) to 2.48% ± 0.20%/DM (PMm5). This increase followed the rate of in-
corporation of the millet flour. As for the carbohydrates content, it ranged from
81.63% ± 0.17%/DM to 85.36% ± 0.54%/DM and decreased with the increase in
the incorporation rate of millet flour. The highest value was recorded for the
15% incorporation of millet flour, especially for the PMm1 sample. For the energy
value, it varied from 401.10 ± 0.4 kcal/100g for the control bread to 404.86 ± 2.40
kcal/100g for the PMr1 sample. No significant difference (p > 0.05) was observed
in the use of the three types of malt for the macronutrient contents of the bread
samples. On the other hand, differences were observed according to the levels of
substitutions.

Table 5. Macronutrient composition of composite bread samples.

Protein Crude fat Carbohydrate Energy value

(%/DM) (%/DM) (%/DM) (kcal/100g)
15% incorporation of millet flour
PMr1 11.86 ± 0.02a 2.34 ± 0.40a 84.10 ± 0.32a 404.86 ± 2.40a
PMb1 11.39 ± 0.02a 1.86 ± 0.05a 84.78 ± 0.04a 403.19 ± 0.24a
PMm1 11.17 ± 0.28a 2.05 ± 0.23a 85.36 ± 0.54a 402.84 ± 1.09a
PMt1 11.50 ± 0.20a 2.00 ± 0.11a 84.91 ± 0.14a 403.68 ± 0.81a
P-value 0.170 0.602 0.185 0.756
30% incorporation of millet flour
PMr3 12.76 ± 0.05a 2.93 ± 0.08a 82.32 ± 0.00a 406.62 ± 0.40a
PMb3 12.60 ± 0.22a 1.90 ± 0.20b 83.64 ± 0.46a 402.00 ± 0.85b
PMm3 12.47 ± 0.23a 2.04 ± 0.04b 83.59 ± 0.10a 402.55 ± 0.17b
PMt3 12.58 ± 0.19a 2.31 ± 0.20ab 83.26 ± 0.38a 404.17 ± 1.06ab
P-value 0.764 0.027 0.102 0.035
50% incorporation of millet flour
PMr5 13.56 ± 0.07a 2.34 ± 0.18a 81.51 ± 0.08a 401.41 ± 0.9a
PMb5 13.50 ± 0.38a 2.26 ± 0.37a 81.63 ± 0.17a 400.81 ± 2.4a
PMm5 14.01 ± 0.10a 2.48 ± 0.20a 80.90 ± 0.05a 401.99 ± 1.1a
PMt5 14.00 ± 0.21a 2.32 ± 0.12a 81.06 ± 0.36a 401.10 ± 0.4a
P-value 0.336 0.912 0.164 0.945

PM: Pearl millet bread; m: millet malt; r: red sorghum malt; b: white sorghum malt; t:
control (without malt) 1: 15% incorporation of millet flour; 3: 30% incorporation of mil-
let flour; 5: 50% incorporation of millet flour. Values with the same letters in the column
are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Newman-keuls’s test.

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

3.4. Minerals Composition of Composite Bread Samples

The results in Table 6 showed a significant difference (p < 0.05) with regard to
iron (Fe) content for breads samples incorporated with 15% and 30% of millet
flour considering the different types of malt flour used. Values ranged from 3.58
± 0.00 mg/100g to 3.88 ± 0.09 mg/100g; from 4.31 ± 0.07 mg/100g to 5.47 ± 0.20
mg/100g and from 7.73 ± 0.01 mg/100g to 8.65 ± 0.44 mg/100g respectively for
the substitution of 15%, 30% and 50% of wheat flour by whole millet flour. Re-
garding zinc (Zn) content, a significant difference (p < 0.05) was found for the
incorporation of millet flour at 30% and 50% depending on the type of malt
used. These values ranged respectively from 2.54 ± 0.00 mg/100g to 2.75 ± 0.02
mg/100g and from 1.61 ± 0.00 mg/100g to 1.75 ± 0.00 mg/100g. However, for
the 15% incorporation no significant difference was observed (p > 0.05). The
potassium (K) content ranged from 206.13 ± 10.21 mg/100g to 222.21 ± 10.84

Table 6. Minerals elements composition of composite bread (Wheat-millet) samples.

Bread Fe Zn K Na Mg
samples (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g) (mg/100g)

15% incorporation of millet flour

PMr1 3.88 ± 0.09a 3.43 ± 0.01a 222.21 ± 10.84a 481.83 ± 22.36a 33.15 ± 0.21b

PMb1 3.58 ± 0.00b 3.32 ± 0.05a 206.13 ± 10.21a 445.65 ± 0.81a 30.31 ± 0.00c

PMm1 3.88 ± 0.05a 3.39 ± 0.05a 214.58 ± 4.40a 437.56 ± 1.30a 29.35 ± 0.47c

PMt1 3.81 ± 0.03a 3.30 ± 0.01a 213.25 ± 1.42a 433.67 ± 1.77a 35.87 ± 0.02a

P-value 0.046 0.163 0.593 0.114 0.000

30% incorporation of millet flour

PMr3 4.76 ± 0.18ab 2.63 ± 0.00c 245.88 ± 1.19a 445.63 ± 1.45a 41.73 ± 0.45a

PMb3 4.31 ± 0.07b 2.54 ± 0.00d 243.71 ± 0.45a 441.08 ± 0.29a 42.11 ± 0.02a

PMm3 5.47 ± 0.20a 2.75 ± 0.02a 249.82 ± 3.08a 442.19 ± 0.73a 41.00 ± 0.08a

PMt3 5.16 ± 0.03a 2.69 ± 0.00b 231.74 ± 1.01b 441.51 ± 7.27a 41.68 ± 0.11a

P-value 0.016 0.001 0.007 0.819 0.114

50% incorporation of millet flour

PMm5 8.65 ± 0.44a 1.75 ± 0.00a 280.48 ± 0.22a 445.02 ± 1.37a 53.08 ± 0.57a

PMb5 7.73 ± 0.61a 1.61 ± 0.00b 262.40 ± 1.19b 448.48 ± 0.69a 44.79 ± 0.10b

PMr5 8.35 ± 0.04a 1.74 ± 0.00a 261.52 ± 2.52b 442.10 ± 4.76a 44.68 ± 0.02b

PMt5 7.82 ± 0.00a 1.73 ± 0.00b 258.20 ± 4.13b 436.41 ± 0.45b 44.90 ± 0.01b

P-value 0,376 0,000 0,010 0,101 0,000

PM: Pearl millet bread; m: millet malt; r: red sorghum malt; b: white sorghum malt; t:
control (without malt) 1: 15% incorporation of millet flour; 3: 30% incorporation of mil-
let flour; 5: 50% incorporation of millet flour. Values with the same letters in the column
are not significantly different at the 5% level according to Newman-keuls’s test.

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

mg/100g for the breads incorporated with 15% of millet flour, from 231.74 ±
1.01 mg /100g to 249.82 ± 3.08 mg/100g for breads incorporated with 30% of
millet flour and from 258.20 ± 4.13 mg/100g to 280.48 ± 0.22 mg/100g for com-
posite breads incorporated with 50% of millet flour. Sodium (Na) content ranged
from 433.67 ± 1.77 mg/100g to 481.83 ± 22.36 mg/100g for bread samples in-
corporated with 15% of millet flour, from 441.08 ± 0.29 mg/100g to 445.63 ±
1.45 mg/100g for those with incorporation of 30% millet flour and ranged from
436.41 ± 0.45 mg/100g to 448.48 ± 0.69 mg/100g for samples with incorporation
rate of 50% of millet flour. Magnesium (Mg) content of the composite bread
samples (wheat-millet) ranged from 29.35 ± 0.47 mg/100g to 35.87 ± 0.02 mg/100g;
from 41.00 ± 0.08 mg/100g to 41.73 ± 0.45 mg/100g and from 44.68 ± 0.02
mg/100g to 53.08 ± 0.57 mg/100g, respectively for breads samples incorporated
with 15%, 30% and 50% of millet flour. The results of the minerals obtained
from the samples of composite breads showed an increase in the values except
for zinc where a decrease was observed with an increase in the incorporation
rate of millet flour. The samples incorporated with 50% of millet flour presented
a higher concentration of minerals compared to the others. Only zinc content
remained low with values ranging from 1.61 ± 0.00 mg/100g to 1.75 ± 0.00
mg/100g. Regarding the content of mineral elements, significant differences (p <
0.05) were observed in the use of the three types of malt for the incorporation of
15% (Mg and Fe content), 30% (Fe, Zn and K) and 50% (content of Zn, K, Na
and Mg) of millet flour.

3.5. Free Amino Acid Profile of Composite Bread Samples

Results of the analysis of free amino acid profile in composite breads (Table 7)
showed the presence of six (06) free amino acids (Ser, Ala, Pro, Ile, Val and Lys)
of which three are essential amino acids (Ile, Val and Lys). Proline was present
in the composite bread samples with a lowest content of 0.3%/DM in the PMm5
bread and a highest content of 1.62%/DM in the bread produced with red sorg-
hum malt at 30% incorporation of millet flour (PMr3). The alanine and isoleu-
cine contents were observed in the control samples (PMt5 and PMt1) with re-
spective contents of 0.23%/DM and 0.02%/DM. Serine content was also present
in the control samples with a lowest content of 0.01%/DM for the 50% incorpo-
ration of millet flour and a highest content of 0.03%/DM at 30% of incorpora-
tion. From the result, it emerged that the serine content decreased with the level
of substitution of wheat flour by millet flour. Results showed that valine content
increased with the incorporation rate of millet flour. This content varied from
0.028%/DM to 0.115%/DM respectively in the control bread at 30% of incorpo-
ration of millet flour and in the breads samples incorporated with 50% of millet
flour. Lysine content was observed in five (05) bread samples with a minimal
value of 0.072%/DM obtained in the control sample at 15% of millet flour in-
corporation, and a maximal value of 0.174%/DM in bread produced with red
sorghum malt at 50% of millet flour incorporation.

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

Table 7. Free amino acids profile of composite bread (wheat-millet) samples.

Ser Ala Pro Val Ile Lys

Samples
(%/DM) (%/DM) (%/DM) (%/DM) (%/DM) (%/DM)
15% incorporation of millet flour
PMr1 0.000 0.000 1.365 0.000 0.000 0.000
PMm1 0.000 0.000 1.303 0.000 0.000 0.000
PMb1 0.000 0.000 1.409 0.000 0.000 0.079
PMt1 0.000 0.000 0.323 0.000 0.021 0.072
30% incorporation of millet flour
PMr3 0.000 0.000 1.624 0.000 0.000 0.000
PMb3 0.000 0.000 1.271 0.000 0.000 0.000
PMm3 0.000 0.000 1.251 0.000 0.000 0.000
PMt3 0.027 0.000 0.597 0.028 0.000 0.136
50% incorporation of millet flour
PMb5 0.000 0.000 0.885 0.115 0.000 0.092
PMm5 0.000 0.000 0.888 0.000 0.000 0.087
PMr5 0.000 0.000 0.934 0.000 0.000 0.174
PMt5 0.014 0.230 0.298 0.000 0.000 0.134

PM: Pearl millet bread; m: millet malt; r: red sorghum malt; b: white sorghum malt; t:
control (without malt) 1: 15% incorporation of millet flour; 3: 30% incorporation of mil-
let flour; 5: 50% incorporation of millet flour.

3.6. Sensory Evaluation Results of Composite Bread Samples

From the results of sensory evaluation (Figure 2), the consumers found that the
breads made from wheat-millet presented a brown crust. Thus, 40.71% of the
consumers reported that the PMr1 bread and the control bread resulting from
the incorporation of 15% of the millet flour were brown. On the other hand,
49.29% of them brought their appreciation on the brown color in the PMm1 and
PMb1 sample. As for the 30% and 50% incorporation of millet flour, the result
indicated that all the bread samples with the malts were brown compared to the
control breads. It also emerged that 41.43% of the consumers found that the
breads had a very good flavor for the 15% incorporation of millet flour. Thus,
49.29% and 73.65% of consumers found that these breads presented good aro-
ma, respectively, for the breads incorporated with 30% and 50% of millet flour.
Regarding the texture of the bread samples, the incorporation of 15% and 50%
millet flour was considered slightly crispy respectively by a proportion of 52.86%
and 68.24% of the consumers. On the other hand, the breads samples incorpo-
rated with 30% of millet flour were appreciated as not crispy by 42.14% of the
consumers, particularly for the PMb3 bread and the control. The tart taste sen-
sation of the samples was pronounced with increasing rate of incorporation of
millet which is fermented into millet sourdough. However, the incorporation of
15% (PMb3 and control) and 30% of millet flour (PMm3 and control) was

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

Colour: Brown
Mouthfeel: Pleasent Colour: Dark drown
Mouthfeel: Passable Colour: Golden

Mouthfeel: Unpleasant Flavour: Good

Acidity: low acid Flavour: Very good

Acidity: Acid Texture: No crisp

Acidity: High acidic Texture: Slightly crisp
Texture: Crisp

PMr1 PMb1 PMm1 Témoin

(a)

Color: Brown
Mouthfeel: Pleasent Color: Dark drown
Mouthfeel: Passable Color: Golden

Mouthfeel: Unpleasant Flavour: Passable

Acidity: low acid Flavour: Good

Acidity: Acid Flavour: Very good

Acidity: High acidic Texture: No crisp

Texture: Crisp Texture: Slightly crisp

PMr3 PMb3 PMm3 Témoin

(b)

Colour: Brown
Mouthfeel: Unpleasant Colour: Dark drown
Mouthfeel: Passable Colour: Golden
Mouthfeel: Pleasent Flavour: Passable

Acidity: low acid Flavour: Good

Acidity: Acid Flavour: Very good

Acidity: High acidic Texture: No crisp
Texture: Crisp Texture: Slightly crisp

PMr5 PMb5 PMm5 Témoin

(c)

Figure 2. Sensory profile of composite bread made with wheat-millet flour. Legend: (a)
Wheat-millet bread (15% incorporation of millet flour); (b) Wheat-millet bread (30% in-
corporation of millet flour); (c) Wheat-millet bread (50% incorporation of millet flour).

judged to be low acidic by 80% and 49.29% of the consumers, respectively. At

50% incorporation of millet flour, the consumers (73.65%) found that the bread
became acidic particularly for the control bread, the PMb5 bread and the PMm5
bread. Mouthfeel was rated as pleasant by 57.71% and 54.29% of consumers for
the 15% and 30% incorporation respectively. All breads produced with malts had

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

a good mouthfeel for both of these incorporation rates (15% and 30%). For the
50% incorporation of millet flour, consumers found the mouthfeel to be fair and
the bread very hard. For the hedonic test (Figure 3), the incorporation of 30% of
millet flour was considered very pleasant by the consumers (48.6%) compared to
those at 15% (31.4% of the consumers) and 50% (25% of the consumers) taking
into account of different criteria of sensory attributes.

4. Discussion
The incorporation of whole millet flour in composite breads resulted in an in-
crease in the resistance of the dough to deformation, a decrease in extensibility
and elasticity. The extensibility of a dough is dependent on both the extension
rate due to viscous flow, as well as the elastic properties of the dough influence
the amount of stress required to stretch the dough [35]. High P/L indicates a re-
sistant and inextensible dough, while low P/L indicates a weak and extensible
dough. P/L is often used industrially together with W to assess flour quality, as
P/L indicates the shape of the alveogram and thereby the balance between tenac-
ity and extensibility [35]. W is one of the industrially most applied alveograph
parameters, as it is used for prediction of processing behaviour of flour cultivars.
The incorporation of 30% of millet flour leads to good baking strength compa-
rable to that obtained with 100% of certain wheat flours. On the other hand,
beyond 30% incorporation of millet flour, the volume of loaves during resting
step decreases, which leads to breads of high density with a low volume. This
could be justified by the absence of gluten in millet flour. The absence of gluten
functionality in pearl millet restricts the high level of incorporation of millet flour
in composite bread formula. In fact, gluten, starch and water are major compo-
nents of bread crumb [12]. Gluten proteins are essential for structure building, as
they form a network in the solid matrix and allow gas retention and expansion,
which improve the bread volume [12]. To overcome this, EPS-producing LAB

80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
Apprecitation rate (%)

40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
PMr1 PMb1 PMm1 PMt1 PMr3 PMb3 PMm3 PMt3 PMr5 PMb5 PMm5 PMt5

15% 30% 50%

Incorporation rate of millet flour

Very pleasant Pleasant Neither pleasant, Nor unpleasant Unpleasant

Figure 3. Hedonic characteristics of composite bread made with wheat-millet flour (PM:
Pearl millet bread; m: millet malt; r: red sorghum malt; b: white sorghum malt; t: control
(without malt) 1: 15% incorporation of millet flour; 3: 30% incorporation of millet flour;
5: 50% incorporation of millet flour).

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

(A16) was used to produce EPS during the fermentation of millet dough. In fact,
EPS can act as a hydrocolloid in bread making to mimic gluten properties [12]
[18]. The flours characteristics obtained from alveograph in this study were su-
perior to those found (P = 54, mmH2O, L = 36 mm and W = 76 × 10−4 J) by [36]
who produced bread with the incorporation of 30% sorghum flour.
It also emerged from this study that the pH value decreased significantly (p <
0.05) with the increase in the incorporation rate of millet sourdough with an in-
crease in the acidity content. This could be explained by the fact that during the
fermentation of millet dough by the LAB strain A16 for the production of EPS,
there was acidification leading to a decrease in pH. These results corroborate
those of [12] and [25]. Indeed, LAB are well known to produce antimicrobial
substances such as organic acids (lactic, acetic, formic and caproic phenolic),
carbon dioxide, hydrogen peroxide, ethanol and bacteriocins during fermenta-
tion [37]. As the amount of millet sourdough used for substitution of wheat
flour increased with the incorporation rate, the titratable acidity increased and
the pH decreased. Moisture content decreased with the increasing of incorpora-
tion rate, while dry matter content increased. This would probably be due to
millet flour which has low water absorption compared to wheat flour [2] [5].
These results corroborate those of [12] who found that replacing wheat flour
with 50% unfermented millet flour significantly reduced the Farinograph water
absorption. Also, the decrease in moisture content of composite bread could be
attributed to denaturation of protein which resulted into more interactions be-
tween proteins and polysaccharides through electrostatic forces [38]. This led to
intermolecular network, water entrapment of water and lower free water content
which is associated with decreased moisture content in foods [38]. The fiber
content increased with the incorporation rate of millet flour, in particular at
30%. An explanation of this result is due to the fact that the millet flour was ob-
tained from whole millet grains which are therefore rich in dietary fiber [2].
These results are in line with those of [39], who found a crude fiber content be-
tween 1.76% to 2.91% in bread consisting of wheat bread enriched with rice
bran. These results are also in line with those of [5] in the production of compo-
site bread based on wheat and millet flour. The millet fibers are also helpful in
reducing the risk of gall stones. Food rich in insoluble fibers can speed up the
transit of undigested food through the colon and also reduce the secretion of bile
acids which prevents the formation of gall stones [40]. Also, as a low glycemic
index, insoluble fibers help in the slow releases of carbohydrates into human or-
ganism thus proving energy over a longer period and keeping blood glucose in
check [41].
The results highlighted also an increase in protein and fat contents. This in-
crease in protein could be explained by the fact that whole grains of millet were
used for the production of composite bread. These whole grains of millet are
rich in fiber, protein and lipids [2] [41]. While refined wheat flour which is in
shelled form is poor in these elements. An increase in the incorporation rate of

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F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

millet flour in the composite bread increased the protein and fat content. Some
authors found that high amount of protein, fiber, fat, amino acids and energy
value in millet flour compared to wheat flour which contain less nutritional ele-
ments due to removal of bran and germ of the outer seed coat [2] [7] [14], and
[41]. However, a decrease in the carbohydrate content related to an increase in
the incorporation rate of millet flour was observed. These results could be ex-
plained by the fact that whole millet flour is less rich in carbohydrates compared
to refined wheat flour, and in addition millet flour was added as a fermented
dough. During fermentation, lactic acid bacteria use a part of the carbohydrates
to produce lactic acid resulting in a decrease of carbohydrate content and an in-
crease of the acidity of the composite bread. These relative low carbohydrate con-
tents could be an advantage for the consumption of this type of bread by diabet-
ics. Moreover pearl millet is also known for its low glycemic index (GI) which is
considered to be important for the management of type 2 diabetes [12] [13]. The
results of the energy value are higher than those found by [41] during the pro-
duction of composite bread of wheat-millet with different incorporation rates
(379.55 Kcal/100g) and wheat bread without added millet flour (Normal Bread:
312.7 Kcal/100g). An increase in the content of mineral elements (Fe, K, Na and
Mg) was observed in relation to the increase in the rate of incorporation of mil-
let flour except for Zn. Wheat is richer in Zn than millet [42], which explain the
decrease in Zn content as a function of the increase in the rate of incorporation
of millet flour in composite bread. As for the other mineral elements, bread be-
ing produced with whole millet flour, this would explain the fact that the content
of these mineral elements increases with the incorporation rate of millet flour.
Indeed, pearl millet is rich in dietary fiber, vitamins B complex and minerals [2]
[14] [43].
Six types of free amino acids have been found, including three essential amino
acids (valine, isoleucine and lysine). The proportions of amino acids in the
composite bread were relatively low. This could be due to the fact that pearl mil-
let, like other cereals, has some limitations due to its low content in protein and
some essential amino acids, such as lysine [44]. Amino acids are important bio-
logical components needed in the human body for biosynthesis, neuro-trans-
mission and other metabolic activities [45]. The sensory evaluation results showed
that the color of most of the composite breads was maroon, brown and golden,
gradually becoming darker with the increase of millet flour. This darkening
could be explained by the effect of heat leading to the billion reaction in the
presence of amino acids, reducing sugars and humidity levels during cooking
[46]. The main compounds that influenced the aroma of breads are volatile
compounds derived from the fermentation and baking stages [36]. The produc-
tion of EPS in the fermented millet dough improved the texture of the mixed
bread, making it slightly crispy and less brittle. Several studies on composite and
whole grain breads have confirmed the usefulness of dextran in improving the
technological and sensory quality of composite breads [47] [48]. The composite

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 F. W.-B. Tapsoba et al.

bread obtained with the 30% incorporation was the most appreciated by the pa-
nelists because of its texture, its slightly acidic taste and a good feeling in the
mouth. Some authors found also that bread with 20% pearl millet flour would be
appropriate formulations to use in bakery goods [2].

5. Conclusion
The results found in this study showed that the baking strength of the composite
flours decreases considerably with increasing levels of millet flour incorporation.
The physico-chemical and sensory characteristics of the composite bread revealed
that the use of sorghum and millet malt as natural improvers in bread-making
contributed to improve the availability of macronutrients and micronutrients.
Overall, the results of the sensory evaluation showed that the composite bread
samples presented a good aroma, a good texture, a slightly acidic taste and a
pleasant mouthfeel. The 30% incorporation was the most appreciated by the pa-
nelists. The production of composite bread based on wheat-millet, using local
cereal malts as a natural improver, could be an alternative to replace imported
improvers in the production of bread. This could contribute to reducing the
importation of wheat and improvers in developing countries and an increase in
the income of producers through the increase in the production of local cereals
such as millet which will be used in the production of bread to replace wheat.

Acknowledgements
Authors would like to thank ERAFRICA /FIBREPRO Project “Tailored fermen-
tation for delivery of whole grain and cereal fibre-rich products: promoting die-
tary fibre intake in Africa and Europe” and everyone who contributed to this
study.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this pa-
per.

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