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Afr. J. Food Agric. Nutr. Dev. 2022; 22(9): 21418-21436 https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315

FUNCTIONAL AND PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WHEAT,

CASSAVA, AND BAMBOO SHOOT COMPOSITE FLOURS AND BREAD

Nyamayi DA1, Anyango JO1* and M Omwamba1

Dorsilla A. Nyamayi

*Corresponding author email: ajochieng@egerton.ac.ke

1Department of Dairy and Food Science and Technology, Egerton University P.O
Box 536 -20115, Egerton, Kenya

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21418
ABSTRACT

The need to combat food insecurity and malnutrition has seen industries focus on
enriching indigenous staple foods with locally available nutritious but underutilised
food crops. Bamboo shoot (BS) is one such crops that has drawn significant global
interest owing to its high nutrient content, health-promoting elements and low fat.
This study aimed at evaluating the proximate composition, physicochemical, and
functional properties of wheat-cassava-BS composite flours and their respective
loaves of bread. Five levels of BS (0, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10%) were substituted for
wheat-cassava using 80:20 percent wheat: cassava mixture as control. The flours
were analysed for water absorption capacity, Normal Falling Number (NFN) and
dough softening. Bread samples were baked from each of the formulated
composite flours and analysed for nutritional composition and physical properties.
Water absorption increased with an increase in BS substitution while there was a
reduction of 16.8% in the normal falling number from the control. Dough softening
increased with an increase in BS inclusion up to 7.5%. All the bread made from BS
flour had significantly different (p < 0.05) physical properties (loaf volume, density,
specific volume, and Browning Index [BI]) from the control. However, the crumb BI
for all the BS composite-bread samples were not significantly (p > 0.05) different.
Bamboo shoots had 16.6% ash, 19.7% fibre, 29.4% crude protein, and the lowest
energy-to-protein ratio of 9.78 kcal/g. The proximate components of the blended
bread increased with an increase in BS substitution. Composite bread with 10% BS
had the highest total ash, crude fibre, and protein at 4.51%, 5.26%, and 26.4%
compared to the control that had 0.66%, 0.88%, and 1.55%, respectively. Results
of this study show that BS flour can be blended with wheat-cassava composite to
increase BS utilisation and improve the nutritional value of developed products,
thus providing diversification in bakery products.

Key words: bamboo shoots, composite bread, cassava, physicochemical,

functional properties, proximate composition

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21419
INTRODUCTION

Bread is a baked food product that has become a global staple food. It is
consumed in developed and developing countries due to the nutritional value. The
convenience of having bread as a breakfast snack has facilitated its preference,
especially in urban areas. Bread is usually made from wheat flour because of the
viscoelastic properties of the resultant dough after reconstituting the wheat flour
with water [1]. Wheat flour contains two water-insoluble proteins, glutenin and
gliadin that form a network (gluten), which gives structure to the resulting bread [2].
As the preferred ingredient in baking bread, the demand for wheat in sub-Saharan
Africa has increased due to rise in bread consumption.

The upsurge in bread consumption is attributed to rising incomes, urbanization and

changing food preferences [3]. However, bread, cakes, cookies and biscuits made
from wheat are expensive since a large percentage of wheat is imported. For
example, Kenya only produces 40% of its national wheat requirement and imports
the 60% deficit, which is expensive as it costs KES 5.85 billion per year [4]. The
low wheat production in Kenya is as a result of climate change, high costs of
production, pests and plant diseases and low technology adaptation levels.
Therefore, conventional strategies such as use of locally grown crops like cassava
and sorghum have been applied through compositing flours to mitigate the problem
of wheat shortage. The use of composite flours of legumes, tubers and cereals has
however influenced the trend in consuming the new products [5]. As consumption
trends continue to change overtime, consumer requirements in terms of nutritional
quality also change. Processing of wheat grain involves refining that removes the
bran and germ, which leads to decreases in protein, ash, calcium, iron, zinc and
soluble and insoluble dietary fibre in wheat flour [6]. Intakes of refined cereal
products therefore, put consumers at risk of developing obesity and type 2
diabetes due to high glycaemic values [7].

To overcome the economic implication of wheat shortage, most countries have

opted for other cheaper locally grown crops like cassava, sorghum, chickpea and
soybean to substitute wheat flour partially or fully. Countries like Nigeria
implemented a policy to substitute cassava flour for wheat flour at 20% for bread
making to increase cassava utilization [8]. Various flours from legumes, cereals
and tubers have been used to formulate composite flours in various proportions for
bread baking [4, 9, 10]. Studies have shown the functional and physicochemical
performance of cassava flour is vital during baking; high peak viscosity, early
gelatinization, low tendency of retrogradation and large paste breakdown
compared to wheat flour [11]. However, cassava flour utilisation in bakery and

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21420
confectionary products is insignificant and relatively new in contrast to its potential.
Globally, research is currently focusing on improving the bread’s protein, mineral
and fibre contents through compositing using nutrient rich local food crops [6].

Contemporary trends in development of food products of high nutritional value

involve blending plant or plant-based products abundant in specific nutrients of
interest. The practice of incorporating nutrient-rich food crops is the perception of
their accessibility and being a cheaper source of proteins, minerals and dietary
fibre compared to other sources. Thus, compositing enables enrichment of low-
nutrient food products. Mostly, enrichment of wheat bread has greatly involved the
use of quinoa, fruit pomace, soybean, chickpeas, amaranth and buckwheat [10].
However, studies are currently exploring the possibility of utilising locally available
underutilised food crops rich in phytochemicals, dietary fibre, proteins and minerals
for enrichment of nutrient-deficient foods. Bamboo (Yushania alpina) shoot (BS) is
one such crop that has attracted significant research and a commercial interest
due to its nutritional value and many health promoting bioactive compounds [12].
Unfortunately, BS still remains underutilised in Kenya compared to Asian countries
where it is a major delicacy. There are reports of the influence of BS on other
baked products like cookies and biscuits but that of bread is scanty [13].
Consequently, there is need to evaluate the functional properties of wheat-
cassava-BS composite flours and the influence on chemical composition and
physical properties of the resulting bread.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Materials
Edible shoots of Yushania alpina (Alpine bamboo) were collected from Mt. Elgon
National Reserve, Bungoma County, Kenya. The young culms were harvested at 4
- 6 weeks after the onset of the April-May 2021 rainfall. The 2-3 layers of husks
were removed and soft edible portions were washed in clean water, cut into small
pieces and partially sun-dried. They were then packed in Ziploc bags and
transported to the Department of Dairy and Food Science and Technology,
Egerton University. In the laboratory, the shoots were oven-dried at 60°C for 72 h
to a moisture content of »10%.

Matured Selele cassava roots were obtained from Kenya Agricultural and Livestock
Research Organization (KALRO), Njoro, and prepared between 10-24 h
postharvest according to the method of Aristizábal et al. [14]. The cassava tubers
were hand-peeled and thoroughly washed. The clean roots were then chipped
using a motorized cassava grater to reduce their size and increase the surface

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21421
area for heat transfer during the drying process. The chips were sun-dried to a
moisture content of 10-12%. The dried shoots and cassava chips were milled using
a hammer mill fitted with a sieve with a pore size <800µm.

Cassava and BS flours were stored in sealed polyethylene pouches. Commercially

available ingredients like wheat flour, sugar, salt, instant baker’s yeast, and
margarine were sourced from Naivas Supermarket in Nakuru city, Nakuru County,
Kenya.

Experimental design and Composite Flour Formulation

The five different samples of composite flours were prepared using wheat, cassava
and BS flours in the ratios: 80:20:0, 78:19.5:2.5, 76:19:5, 74:18.5:7.5, 72:18:10 and
80:20:0 (control). The composite flours were packaged in polythene paper bags for
further analysis. The experiment was done using a Completely Randomized
Design where BS flour was substituted with wheat: cassava at four levels (0, 2.5, 5,
7.5 and 10%). The composite flours were formulated in three in three replications
(5 X 3 = 15 composite flours).

Proximate analysis
Total Solids, Crude Protein, Crude Fat, Ash, and Crude Fibre were determined
according to AOAC [15]. The total carbohydrate content was determined by
difference.

Determination of Energy Value and Energy-to-Protein Ratio

The energy value of the samples was obtained through the multiplication of the
values obtained for total carbohydrates, crude protein, dietary fibre, and crude fat
by 4, 4, 2, and 9 Kcal/g, respectively, then adding up the results. Energy-to-protein
was determined by dividing the energy value of the sample by its crude protein
content.

Determination of Composite Dough Functional Properties

The functional properties of the composite flours were determined using Mixolab 2
(Chopin, Tripetteet France) as described by Sharma et al. [16]. Samples were
hydrated to the optimum level of composite flours to achieve optimum consistency
of the dough.

The Falling Number (FN) of formulated composite flours were determined using a
falling number machine (Perten Instruments, FN 100, Springfield IL) according to
AACC method 56–81.03 [17]. Exactly 7.0 g sample (14% moisture) was blended
with 25 mL distilled water in a FN tube. The mixture was vigorously shaken using a

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21422
shaker for 3 s. A viscometer-stirrer was placed into the tube and then transferred
into the FN machine. The tube was kept in a warm water bath for 5 s and stirred for
55 s. The machine recorded the time taken by the stirrer to fall from the top of the
tube to the bottom. The FN reading was recorded as the sum of 5 s spent in the
warm water, 55 s of stirring, and the time taken by the stirrer to fall.

Preparation of composite bread

A total of 15 loaves were baked each of a batch of 200 g flour according to the
method of Agunbiade et al. [18] with few modifications. The formulated flours and
other ingredients used in baking are presented in Table 1. Each formulated
composite wheat-cassava-BS flour was discharged into a mixing bowl containing
salt, margarine, instant yeast and sugar. The dry ingredients were thoroughly
mixed, and then water added and mixed into dough for 2-7 min. The dough was
then removed and kneaded manually for about 1 min. The dough was rolled into a
ball-like structure transferred to a bowl greased with margarine and transferred into
a fermentation chamber. After 90 min, the dough was subjected to punching.
Punching refers to motions used to deflate dough air cells, thus relaxing the gluten,
redistributing yeast cells as well as releasing carbon dioxide in the dough. The
dough was moulded by passing it through the moulding machine and then placed
in a coded greased baking pan. The dough was allowed to proof until it obtained
2.0-2.5 cm above the pan. Proofing is a final fermentation process in which dough
rises to its final shape. It enables dough expansion and development of bread
cellular structure. Finally, the dough was baked in a preheated oven at 230-240˚C
for 25-40 min.

Determination of physical properties of wheat-cassava-bamboo shoot

composite bread
The loaf volumes were determined using the rapeseed displacement technique as
per AACC method 10-05.1 [19]. The weights of loaves were determined before
cooling using a digital balance (0.01 g accuracy). The specific volumes of loaves
were then calculated as follows:

!"#$%&
Specific Volume(cm3/g) = (&)*+,
…………………………………… (1)

Various colour parameters L* (Lightness), a* (Redness to Greenness), and b*

(Yellowness to Blueness) of loaf samples were determined using Hunter Colour
Meter as per the method described by Siddiq et al. [20]. The results are presented
in the CIELAB colour space. Browning Index was calculated according to Maskan
[21].

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21423
 {.//(12/.4.)}
BI = /..7
………………………………………………………. (2)
(89..7:;)
x= …………………………………………………… (3)
:.<=:∗;9824./.?@

Where a* is redness, b* is yellowness, and L* is lightness.

Data analysis
Data obtained from the proximate analysis, functional and physical properties of
wheat-cassava-BS composite flour and bread were analysed by SAS Version 9.4
for Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Model (GLM)
procedure. Mean separation was done using Tukey's Studentized Range (HSD) t-
Test at p ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Nutritional composition wheat -cassava-bamboo shoot bread

The nutritional variables for wheat, cassava and BS are shown in Table 2. The
protein, fibre, and mineral contents of BS flour were found to be 29.4, 19.7, and
16.6 g/100 g, respectively hence suitable for use in enriching wheat-cassava. The
effect of substituting BS flour with wheat-cassava flour for bread making on
nutritional composition is shown in Table 3. Increasing BS flour significantly
increased the nutritional components of the composite bread. Composite bread
with 10% BS inclusion had the highest percentage of minerals, protein and fibre at
4.51%, 26.4% and 5.26%, respectively. There was no significant difference (p >
0.05) between the energy to protein ratio of BS flour composite loaves. Wheat-
cassava composite (control) showed very low amounts of dietary fibre of 0.88
g/100 g thus predisposing it to a high glycaemic index that induces metabolic and
hormonal changes, which elevate overeating [22]. Intake of 25 - 29 g of dietary
fibre per day has a positive impact on bowel movement, cardiovascular diseases,
type 2 diabetes, total serum cholesterol, and breast cancer [23]. According to a
study conducted by Topping [24], consumption of value-added bamboo shoot
products improved bowel functions and lowered blood cholesterol levels in 8 young
women due to high-fibre diet. As such, dietary fibre is considered a functional food
containing lignin, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Functional Properties
The effect of incorporating BS in wheat-cassava flour for baking on rheological
properties is shown in Table 4. Increasing the BS percentage in wheat-cassava
composite flour significantly increased the water absorption (Figure 1-A).

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21424
Error bars are standard deviations; N = 15
Figure 1A: Effect of BS flour inclusion on water absorption capacity of
wheat-cassava-BS flours, B; Effect of BS flour inclusion on
Normal FN of wheat-cassava-BS flours, C; Effect of BS
incorporation on dough softening of wheat-cassava-BS

Similar trends have been reported during the fortification of fibre-rich sources like
bran of wheat, rice, oat and barley [25] and flour oat flour [26] in flour. Water
absorption is important in the determination of texture, taste and dough
performance when proofing or baking. Studies have reported that the variation in
water absorption results from substantial hydroxyl groups that exist in fibre
structures, which permit additional water interactions through hydrogen bonding
[13]. Furthermore, an increase in absorption rate could be due to an increase in
protein solubility, soluble fibre, gelatinized starch and hydrocolloid-like components

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21425
due to BS addition [12]. Increased fibre content contributes to dough structural
modification resulting in smaller extensibility, endurance and greater water
absorption [25]. As seen in this study, increasing BS percentage during substitution
increased the fibre content of the resulting flour, thus directly proportional to its
water absorption capacity. Additionally, weak aggregation power between water
molecules and starch molecules increase the surface area for absorption forming
hydrogen bonds [26]. Absorption is a determinant factor for dough consistency and
greatly depends on intrinsic factors like protein conformation, amino acid
composition and protein hydrophobicity surface polarity. Conversely, addition of BS
to wheat-cassava composite flour showed a general decrease of Falling Number
(FN) by 16.8% compared to control (Figure 1B). The composite flours containing
BS had lower normal falling numbers ranging from 307-369. The FN can be
defined as a test used to determine the quickness of liquefaction of flour caused by
starch α-amylolysis. Falling number values are inversely correlated with α-amylase
activity [27]. High FN in baking flour indicates low α-amylase activity while low FN
shows high α-amylase activity whereby FN < 300 is associated with low economic
gain [28]. Therefore, this trend indicates that BS addition in wheat-cassava flour
increased the activity of α-amylase in the composite flours. Starch is a major
component of cassava and wheat and a substrate for α-amylase. Blending wheat,
cassava and BS contributes considerable starch amounts, hence more substrate
for α-amylase thus recording lower FN compared to control. Cereals like wheat are
richer in proteins thus have reduced amylolytic activity due to α-amylase
deactivation [29]. This is because glutenin retains α-amylase deactivation in
quantities that increase as the glutenin enlarges. Also, the rate of starch
degradation depends largely on amount of α-amylase in the composite flours and
degree of starch damage.

Softening of dough was observed to increase with the addition of BS then

significantly reduced with 10% BS inclusion as shown in Figure 1C. This increase
may be attributed to the presence of fatty acid components like linolenic, linoleic,
and palmitic acids in BS. The fatty components possibly interfered with the gluten
polymeric fraction causing dough softening. This may lead to the enhancement of
the rheological performances of composite doughs [30]. As softening increases,
the dough weakens, thus a decrease in the tolerance level of dough. This could be
that the addition of cassava and BS diluted the glutenin in the composites thus
weakening the crosslinks between proteins. The dilution also weakened the
interactions between the chains regulating the expansion and formation of the
gluten network [31].

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21426
Physical properties of wheat-cassava-BS bread
The outcomes of the physical attributes of the composite bread are presented in
Table 5. The loaf volume and specific volume significantly decreased (p < 0.05)
with an increase in BS substitution. Studies have shown that the loaf volume and
specific volume are largely affected by the quality and quantity of protein in the
baking flour [32]. The stronger the gluten holds the carbon dioxide gas released,
the higher the volume and specific volume of the resulting bread. Both cassava
and BS flours lack gluten and hence cannot form a cohesive viscoelastic network
when hydrated. The viscoelasticity, which is only exhibited by wheat in this case
allows for the formation of a typical fixed open foam structure in bread [33].
Therefore, an increased percentage of BS and cassava flours in the composites
diluted the gluten as well as disrupted its macromolecular network. Reduced gluten
content results in less elastic and weaker dough [4]. These results are similar to a
study that that has ascribed this to reduced gluten concentration and its weakness
due to the blending of different flours [31].

The loaf weight increased significantly up to the addition of 5% BS but no further

significant changes were observed in loaf weight with increasing amount of BS.
The main determinants of loaf weight are the level of hydration, carbon dioxide
diffused out, and dough quantity during baking [34]. High bread weight may be
attributed to the low retention capacity of gas in the composite doughs [35]. During
the baking process, starch gelatinization occurs and the dough is transformed into
an elastic crumb [36]. Thus, it can be concluded that the decrease of refined wheat
flour and incorporation of protein-rich BS flour and high starch cassava flour
contributed to the bulkiness of the composite flour leading to higher loaf weight.
Low loaf weight is an economically unappealing attribute to producers as higher
loaf weight tends to attract more customers [32].

Crumb colour
The effect of BS flour on the composite bread colour is shown in Table 3. Colour in
a food product (Figure 2), is an inevitable quality characteristic that is used to
determine the outcomes of product formulation and influences the appearance and
consumer acceptability of baked products. Erkan et al. [37] reported the tristimulus
CIELAB colour parameters (L*, a*, b*) for barley products’ crust and crumb. All the
loaves containing BS had significantly lower (p < 0.05) crumb lightness indices but
higher (p < 0.05) redness and yellowness indices compared to wheat-cassava
bread. Although the Browning Indices (BI) of the crumbs increased with an
increase in BS flour incorporation, no significant difference (p > 0.05) was
recorded. The significant brownness of the crumbs is probably a result of the
inherent dark colour of the BS flour. Also, the BI recorded may be due to non-

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21427
enzymatic browning between compounds containing an amino group (proteins,
peptides and amino acids) and naturally occurring reducing sugars resulting in the
formation of coloured melanoidins [38].

Figure 2: Cross-sections of wheat-cassava-BS composite bread. B1; 80%

wheat: 20% cassava, B2; 78% wheat: 19.5% cassava: 2.5%BS, B3;
76% wheat: 19% cassava: 5%BS, B4; 74% wheat: 18.5% cassava:
7.5%BS, B5; 72% wheat: 18% cassava: 10% BS

CONCLUSION

The findings of this study established the proposition that utilisation of BS to enrich
wheat-cassava flours can be an alternative approach to developing nutritious
baked products. Bread enriched with BS had higher amounts of protein, dietary
fibre, and minerals when compared to control. Owing to its high nutritional
composition, BS can be incorporated into bread and other baked products to
increase its consumption in Kenya. Bamboo shoot inclusion in foods can
guarantee balanced diets with low glycaemic indices and low calories that are
good for health. The rheological and physical analyses of the composite products
revealed that this product development strategy can transform the baking industry
through the production of innovative functional foods. The contemporary
exploration of this nutritionally exceptional food crop could be interestingly a game-
changer in the food manufacturing sector through compositing to enrich other food
products.

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21428
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This study was funded through a research grant from Centre of Excellence for
Sustainable Agriculture and Agribusiness Management (CESAAM), Egerton
University, Kenya.

Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper.

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21429
Table 1: Formulation used in dough formulation per composite loaf
Ingredients Components
BS flour 0%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5%, 10%
Wheat- Cassava flour 80:20
Sugar 6%
Instant Yeast 5%
Margarine 3%
Salt 1%
Water 65%
% Values are based on the total flour weight (200 g)

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21430
 Table 2: Nutritional Composition of Wheat, Cassava and BS flours
Ingredient Dry Matter Ash (%) Crude Fat Crude Crude Total EV ER
(%) (%) Fibre (%) Protein (%) CHOs (%) Kcal/100g (Kcal/g of
Protein)
Bamboo 95.6±0.58a 16.6±0.25a 2.22±0.17a 19.7±1.26a 29.4±0.36a 27.6±0.48c 287±0.48b 9.78±0.10b
Cassava 88.9±1.40b 2 0.39±0.10b 0.19±0.04b 4.60±0.28c 81.0±1.49a 346±5.25a 76.0±5.84a
.71±0.12b
Wheat 88.6±1.33b 1.06±0.08c 1.37±0.20a 0.18b±0.03b 15.3±0.84b 70.7±1.19b 356±5.82a 23.4±1.32b
CHOs = Carbohydrates; EV = Energy Value; ER = Energy to protein ratio; values are mean ± standard deviation. Values along the
column followed by different superscript letter notations are significantly different (p < 0.05)

Table 3: Nutritional Composition of wheat-cassava-BS composite bread

Sample Dry Matter Ash (%) Crude Fat Crude Crude Total CHOs EV ER
(%) (%) Fibre (%) Protein (%) Kcal/100g (Kcal/g of Protein)
(%)
0% BS 72.8±1.12a 0.66±0.13c 1.34±0.09b 0.88±0.10c 1.55±0.24d 68.4±0.84a 293±5.05a 199±31.05a
2.5%BS 71.7±0.62ab 1.87±0.12bc 1.60±0.19ab 2.57±0.61bc 17.0±0.59c 48.7±1.45b 282±2.24a 16.7±0.56b
5%BS 67.6±0.24bc 2.60±0.24b 1.87±0.14ab 2.80±0.51bc 22.6±0.46b 37.7±0.96c 264±0.08b 11.7±0.23b
7.5%BS 67.3±1.52bc 3.98±0.46a 2.01±0.08a 4.09±0.44ab 23.8±0.89ab 33.5±0.19d 255±3.25bc 10.8±0.28b
10%BS 65.8±0.67c 4.51±0.23a 2.06±0.09a 5.26±0.67a 26.4±1.34a 27.5±0.83e 245±3.97c 9.30±0.32b
CHOs = Carbohydrates; EV = Energy Value; ER = Energy to protein ratio; values are mean ± standard deviation. Values along the
column followed by different superscript letter notations are significantly different (p < 0.05)

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21431
 Table 4 Functional properties of wheat-cassava-BS composite flours
Sample NFN WAC (%) DT (mins) Stability (mins) Softening (Nm) Cmax (Nm)
0% 369±0.67 a 55.3±0.62 e 2.00±0.36 b 6.00±0.21 b 0.120±0.02 c 1.03±0.06d
2.50% 306±0.88d 60.4±0.40d 2.00±0.36b 2.00±0.54c 0.130±0.02b 1.11±0.06b
5% 308±0.67d 61±0.27c 2.00±0.36b 4.00±0.60bc 0.130±0.03b 1.10±0.06c
7.50% 310±0.43c 62.3±0.58b 2.00±0.36b 4.00±0.60bc 0.160±0.03a 1.20±0.05a
10% 319±0.66b 63.8±0.62a 2.83±0.17a 4.47±1.67a 0.110±0.02d 1.10±0.06c
NFN = Normal Falling Number; WAC = Water Absorption Capacity; DT = Development Time; Cmax = Maximum Consistency.
values are mean ± standard deviation. Values along the column followed by different superscript letter notations are significantly
different (p < 0.05)

Table 5: Physical properties of wheat-cassava-BS composite bread

Sample Loaf volume (cm3) Loaf weight (g) Density Specific Crumb L Crumb a* Crumb b* BI
(cm3/g) Volume
(g/ cm3)
0% BS 1300±12.02a 144±0.98c 0.110±0.00c 9.08±0.09a 75.8±0.35a -2.77±0.07e 17.9±1.59a 23.6±2.48b
2.5%BS 783±3.33b 152±1.18a 0.190±0.00b 5.15±0.03b 62.2±2.11b 0.130±0.03d 20.3±1.41a 38.7±1.76a
5%BS 727±13.02c 150±1.42ab 0.210±0.00a 4.48±0.04c 58.3±2.51bc 1.40±0.06c 19.6±1.10a 41.8±1.46a
7.5%BS 712±4.41c 149±1.19abc 0.210±0.00a 4.78±0.01c 59.8±0.40b 2.03±0.03b 20.3±0.55a 43.0±1.02a
10%BS 693±1.67c 146±0.52bc 0.210±0.00a 4.75 ±0.03c 53.1±0.18c 2.83±0.12a 18.0±0.38a 44.4±1.38a
BI = Browning Index; values are mean ± standard deviation. Values along the column followed by different superscript letter
notations are significantly different (p < 0.05)

https://doi.org/10.18697/ajfand.114.22315 21432
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