Chapter 6

Solutions
QI. Why solutions ore important for us?

An$: We encounter many substances in our daily life such as air, soft drinks

juices, shampoo, petrol natural gas, diesel, kerosene, cough syrup and many
others these substances are solutions.

Most of the chemical reactions that take place in the bodies of living
organisms occur in aqueous solutions.

Brass, steel. German silver are also solutions. These solutions are widely
used for making cooking utensils, surgical tools, cutlery, musical instruments and
many other objects.

Q2. Distinguish between a solution, aqueous solution, solute and solvent and
give characteristics of a solution.

Ans: Solution:

A solution is a homogeneous mixture of substances that has uniform

composition throughout.

Solute:

In a solution the substance that is present in lesser amount is called solute.

Solvent:

Whereas the substance that is present in larger amount Is colled solvent

Examples:

Airis a solution containing oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen and number

of trace gases. In this solution oxygen, CO, and trace gases are solutes, since
they are present in lesser quantities whereas nitrogen is solvent, since it is present
in larger amount
 Consider another example, if you dissolve 10 g sugar in 100 g of water you
will get sugar solution. Here sugar is solute and water Is solvent.

Aqueous solution:

A solution in which water is solvent is called an aqueous solution. The word

aqueous is derived from the Latin word aqua meaning water. Aqueous solutions

are frequently used to dispense substances such as medicines.

Q3. Define Saturated, unsaturated, supersaturated solutions and dilution of

solution.

Ans:

Saturated solution:

The solution which cannot dissolve more solute at a particular

temperature is called a saturated solution.

Unsaturated solution:

A solution which can dissolve more of the solute at a given temperature is

called an unsaturated solution.

Supersaturated solution:

A solution that contains more of the solute than is contained in the

saturated, solution is called supersaturated solution.

Examples:

Take 1 OOg water in a beaker. Add a teas spoon of sugar in it. Stir it, the

sugar will dissolve. Repeat the process the added sugar will again dissolve in it.
This means solution is unsaturated.

Now heat the solution, stirred, add more sugar, it will dissolve. Go on
adding more sugar and stir it. A stage will reach when no more sugar will
dissolve and will start settling down at the bottom of the beaker. This solution is
called supersaturated solution.

Q4. How will you know whether a solution is saturated or supersaturated?

Ans: A supersaturated solution is not stable in the presence of crystals of solute.

If you add a crystal of sodium thiosulphate to its saturated solution, it will simply
drop to the bottom, without dissolving. But if you add a crystal of sodium
thiosulphate to a supersaturated solution of sodium thiosulphate {see figure a),
crystallization will start. When crystallization has finished, you will have a
saturated solution in presence of sodium thiosulphate crystals. Figure (bj shows
the crystallization from a supersaturated solution of sodium thiosulphate.

(a) (b)
Cryatalliutton from a supersaturated solution gf sodium thiosulphate

ACTIVITY 6,2

Activity 6.2: Differentiating saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions.

You will need:

* Three test tubes.

* Sodium thiosulphate, NO2S2O3

* Water

Carry out the following:

1. Take 20 cm' water in each test tube and label! them as A, B, C,
2. Add 4g NcuS-Oj in A, 12g in B and 16g in C and shake.
3. Heat test tubes C till NaaSaOsis dissolved completely.
4. Cool test tube C at room temperature without disturbing.
5. Write down what happens in test tube C before heating and after heating.
4. What do you observe in test tube C after cooling?
7. Compare test tubes B and C and notice difference.

5. Identify test tubes containing unsaturated; saturated and supersaturated

solution.

Self-Assessment Exercise 6.1

The maximum amount of sodium acetate that dissolves in IQOg of water at 0°C is
119g and 1 70g at 100°C.

(a) If you add 170g of sodium acetate in lOOg of water at 0°C, haw much will
dissolve?

(b) Is the solution saturated unsaturated or supersaturated?

(c) If the solution in heated to 100C, is the solution now saturated,

unsaturated or supersaturated.

(d) If the solution is cooled back to 0°C and no crystals appear. Is the solution
saturated, unsaturated or su persaturated ?

Solution:

(a) n?g.

(b) Saturated.

(c) Supersaturated.

(d) Unsaturated.
Q5. List three main types of solutions?

Ans: Main types of solutions:

Solutions of gases IL Solutions of liquids

IIL Solutions of solids

26. Explain solutions of gases with examples?

OR

Explain the importance of solution of gases in daily life?

Ans: Solutions of gases:

Gaseous solutions are commonly used by chemical industries to prepare

chemical substances.

Importance of solution of gases:

Preparation of ammonia gas:

A gaseous mixture of Nitrogen (N?) and hydrogen (H?) is used to prepare

ammonia gas (NHs). Ammonia is used to prepare fertilizers and nitric acid. For
preparing fertilizer. Urea, a gaseous mixture of NHs and CO2 is used.

Preparation of nitric acid:

For preparing nitric acid, mixture of NHs gas and oxygen gas is used. In oil
these cases a gaseous mixture or solution of gases is used in these solutions,
solute and solvent both are gases. The gas which is present in greater proportion
is solvent and the other gas is solute. We can identify this solution as gas in gas.

Gases when dissolved in liquid also produce some important solutions.

Survival of aquatic life:

 For example, water dissolves small amount of air giving a solution whose
oxygen content [solute) is important for the survival of fish and other aquatic
animals.

Carbonated drinks:

Carbon dioxide gas dissolves readily in water, for this reason it is used in

making carbonated drinks.

Production of vegetable ghee:

In food industrial, vegetable ghee by passing Hzgas through the oil. Finely
divided Ni is used as catalyst. Ni accelerates this process by absorbing H2gas on
its surface, producing a solution.

I m porta nt I ntorm a ti o n Ozo ne:

Ozone is found in the upper atmosphere. It has an important biological

function. It prevents most of sun's ultraviolet solar radiation from reaching the

earth surface Ultraviolet radiation causes changes in the structure of the genetic
material like DNA. Long exposure to this radiation can cause cancer.

Q7. Explain solutions of liquids with examples?

OR

Explain the importance of solution of liquids in daily life?

Ans: Solutions of liquids:

Solution of liquid in gas, liquid or solid solvents are also very common.

Examples:

Fog:
 Fog is o solution of water vapours in air. Other examples of similar solutions
are clouds, mist etc. In these solutions' solute is in the liquid state and solvent in
the gaseous state.

Rectified spirit:

Fermentation of cane sugar produces 95% v/v of ethyl alcohol called

rectified spirit. This means every 100 cm of this solution contains 95 cm3 ethyl
alcohol and 5 cm3 water.

Vinegar:

Vinegar is 5% m/m aqueous solution of acetic acid* In these solutions’

solute is a liquid dissolved in another liquid. We call such a solution as liquid in

liquid solution.

Amalgam:

The metal mercury is the only metal that is liquid at room temperature. It
dissolves a number of metals ta give a solution called amalgam. A solution of
any metal in mercury is called an amalgam.

Dental filling:

Silver and tin amalgams are widely used to make dental filling, When silver
or tin is dissolved in mercury, it forms a semi solid amalgam that can be shaped
to fill a cavity. On standing it forms a hard solid and expands slightly. Therefore, it
tightly fits within the cavity. Thus, in amalgams solute is a liquid and solvent is
solid, we call such a solution as liquid in solid.

Q8, Explain solutions of solids with examples?

OR

Explain the importance of solution of solids in daily life?

Ans: Solutions of solids:

We must have observed smoke. It spreads In air forming solution that contains
solid carbon particles. In this solution solid particles are solute and air is solvent
call such a solution as solid In gas.

Minerals dissolved in water:

Water dissolves a wide range of substances. It dissolves many minerals in

small amounts.

For instance, it dissolves limestone, which is a common component of well

water. It contains dissolved salts such as NaCI. You also prepare many solutions
by dissolving solid substances in water, such as common salt, sugar etc.

Intravenous solution:

In Laboratories mostly solutions are prepared by dissolving solid substances

in water 0.85% m/m NaCI solution is used in intravenous solution that is given to
persons suffering from dehydration. Such solutions that contain solid solute
dissolved in a liquid are called as solids in liquids.

Preparation of alloys:

We often prepare a solution of solid in solid because they are used

commercially.

Alloy of gold and copper:

For example, pure gold is very soft, therefore cannot be used for making
Jewelry. To make it harder, copper is added to the gold. This produces a solid
solution of gold that melts at lower temperature than pure gold. Therefore, it is
easier to cast

Most commercial metals are examples of solid solutions of various metals called
alloys.

Brass:
 Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.

Steel:

Steel is an alloy of iron containing small amounts of carbon and silicon.

Many naturally occurring gemstones are solid solutions. For example. Ruby,
Opal, in these solutions a solid solute dissolve in a solid solvent. We call these
solutions as solids in solids.

29. Explain nine types of solution with examples?

Ans: Types of solutions:

There are nine types of solution.

Nine types of solutions:

Solute Solvent State of resulting solution Examples

Gas Gas Gas Air

Gas Liquid Liquid Soda water

Gas Solid Solid H2 absorbed on NL, Pb, Pd

Liquid Gas Gas Mist, Fog. clouds

Liquid Liquid Liquid Alcohol in water

Liquid Solid Solid Amalgams

Solid Gas Gas Carbon particles in air

Solid Liquid Liquid Sugar in water

Solid Solid Solid Alloys

 Self-Assessment Exercise 6,2

What are the physical states of solute and solvent in each of the following
solutions? Also identify the type of solution.

a) Deep sea divers use a breathing mixture of helium and oxygen.

b) Brass contains 80% copper and 20% zinc.
c) Dental filling.

d} Brine (salt in water].

e) Drinking water containing chlorine as disinfectant.
f) Gemstone, Ruby contains Cr-jOa and AI2O3.
g) Cone. H2S04 we use in the laboratory is 98% HsSoj and contains only 2%
H2O.

Solution:

S.No. Solutions State of solute State of solvent Type of

Solution

a) Mixture of helium and Helium (g) Oxygen (g) Gas in Gas

oxygen

b) Brass 20% Zinc (s) 180% Copper Solid in Solid

(5)

c) Dental filling Mercury {/) Silver (s) Liquid in Solid

d) Brine Solution Salt (s) Water (/) Solid in Liquid

e) Drinking water contains Chlorine (g) Water (/) Gas in Liquid

chlorine

f) Gem stones Ruby CrzOs (s) AI2O3 (s) Solid in Solid

 g) 98% H2S04 2% H2O (/] 98% H2S04 Liquid in Liquid

(Cone. H2SQ4)

Q10. Define concentration.

Ans: Concentration units:

The quantity of a solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution Is

called concentration of solution.

QI 1. Write the difference between a dilute and a concentrated solution?

Ans: Difference between a dilute and a concentrated solution:

A dilute solution is that whose concentration Is relatively low while a

concentrated solution is that solution whose concentration is relatively high.

QI 2. Write the names of the concentration unih of a solution?

Ans: i. Percentage %

ii. Molarity M

QI 3, Give the detail of percentage % compositions with specific examples.

Ans: Percentage % composition:

By the percentage of a solution we mean the mass or volume of solute dissolved

in 100 g or 100 cm3 of solution.

Examples:
 Commercially available solutions that contain the maximum available
concentration of solutes are referred as concentrated solutions. For example,
commercially available concentrated H1SO4 is 98% and cone. HCI is 37%. This

means concentrated H2SO4 contains 989 H2SO4 in lOOg of solution and

concentrated solution of HCI contains 379 HCI in lOOg of solution.

Thus, percentage is the unit of concentration that specifies the quantity of

solute in 100 parts of solution Quantity of solute and solvent can be expressed by
mass in grams or volume in cm3.

10 % m/m concentration:

For example, if you dissolve 10 g NoCI in 90 g water to make 100 g of

solution, the concentration of solution will be 10% m/m.

10 % v/v concentration;

But if you dissolve 10 cm3 of alcohol in sufficient water to make 100 cm3 of
solution, the solution will be 10% v/v.

10% m/v concentration:

If you dissolve lOg NaCI in sufficient water to make 100 cm3 solution, the
resulting solution will be 10% m/v.

10% v/m concentration;

If you dissolve 10 cm of alcohol in water to make 100 g of solution, the

solute ion will be 10% v/m. Therefore, there are four ways to express percentage
of solutions.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.3

1. Write four ways to express percentage of solutions.

2. A saline solution is administered intravenously to a person suffering from
severe dehydration. This is labeled as 0.85% m/v of NaCl. What does it mean?

Solution:

1. Write four ways to express percentage of solutions.

Ans: Four ways to express percentage of solutions:

(i) Mass by mass percent (ii) Mass by volume percent

(iii) Volume by mass percent (iv) Volume by volume percent

(i) Mass by mass percent

It is the mass of the solute dissolved per 100 parts by mass of solution,

. M Mass of solute
% by mass — =------------------------ xlOO
M Mass of solution

(ii) Mass by volume percent:

It is the mass of the solute dissolved per 100 parts by volume of solution

M Mass of solute
% by mass X100
V Volume of solution

(iii) Volume by mass percent:

It is the volume of a solute dissolved per 100 parts by mass of solution

Volume of solution
% by mass — = X100
M Mass of solute

(iv) Volume by volume percent:

It is the volume of the solute dissolved per 100 parts by volume of solution.
 v Volume of solute
% by mass — = -------------------------- x | (JO
Volume of solution

2. A saline solution is administered intravenously to a person suffering from

severe dehydration. This is labeled as 0.85% m/v of NaCI. What does it mean?

Ans: 0.85% m/v concentration:

If you dissolve 0.85 g NaCI in sufficient water to make 100 cm' solution, the
resulting solution will be 0.85% m/v.

QI4. If you read label on the bottle of concentrated H2SO4 you will notice 98%
H2SO4 by mass and also 18M H2SO4 What does 18M stands for?

Ans: This means there are 18 moles of H2SO4 in each dm3 of solution. Similarly,
cone. HCI is 37% and 12.1 M HCI. This means there are 12.1 moles of HCI in each
dm3of solution.

QI5. Define molarity and give its units.

Ans: Molarity (M):

Molarity is the concentration unit in which amount of solute is expressed in

males and quantity of solution in dm3,

"Molarity is defined as the number of moles of solute dissolved per dm3 of

solution".

Formula of Molarity:

., . _.,x .l Mass of solute 1

----------------------------------------------X
Molar moss of solute Volume of solution in

., Mass of solute _______ 1000______

Molarity M) =------------------------------- x
Molar moss of solute Volume of solution in
Units of Molarity: mol dm3

QI6. Problems involving the molarity of a solution:

Urea (NH2CONH2) is a white solid used as fertilizer and starting material for
synthetic plastic. A solution contains 40 g urea dissolved in 500 cm3 of
solution. Calculate the molarity of this solution.

Ans: Problem Solving Strategy:

To calculate the molarity, you need the number of moles of solute (which
are not given] and the volume of solution in dm3. Convert volume of solution 500

Cm3 to dm3 Determine moles of solute from its mass using its molar mass.

Solution:

Mass of urea = 40 g

Molar mass of urea (NH2CONH2) = 14+1x2 + 12+16+14 + 1x2

= 60 g/mole

40 G
Mass of urea =----------- — = 0.667
60 g/mole

Volume of solution = 500 cm3 = = 0,5 dm5

1000

Now,

moles of solute
Molarity =------ ----------------
dnrr of solution

Molarity =--------
0,5
QI 7. Example 6,1: Calculating molarity from males of solute and volume of
solution

Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is a dark blue-black compound. When

it dissolves in water, it forms a bright purple solution. It is used as disinfectant in
water tanks. It is also known as pinky. A solution contains 0.05 moles of KMnOj in
600cm3 of solution. Calculate molarity of this solution.

Ans: Problem Solving Strategy:

To calculate molarity, you need moles of solute which are given and
volume of solution in dm3. But volume is given in cm. So, convert cm3 to dm3 by
dividing with 1000. Use formula to calculate molarity.

Solution:

Moles of KMnO4 = 0.05

Volume of solution = 600 cm3 = = 0.6 dm3

1000

moles of solute
Now, Molarity = ——
dm3 of solution

Molarity = =0.083 M
0.6

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.4

Potassium chlorate (KClOj) is a white solid. It is used in making matches and

dyes. Calculate the molarity of solution that contains.

(a) 1.5 moles of this compound dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution

(b) 75 g of this compound dissolved to produce 1.25 dm3 of solution.

(c) What is the molarity of o 50 cm3 sample of potassium chlorate solution that
yields 0.25 g residue after evaporation of the water.

Solution:
(a) 1.5 males of this compound dissolved in 250 cm3 of solution

Ans: Volume of solution in dm3 = 250/1000=0.25 dm3

Number of moles = 1.5 moles

Molarity (M) = ?

Number of moles
Molarity(M) =
Volume of solution in dm3

Molarity (MJ = -l^-= 6 M

0.25

(b) 75 g of this compound dissolved to produce 1.25 dm3 of solution.

Ans: Mass of solute KClCb = 75 g

Molar mass of solute KCIOs = 39 + 35.5 +48 = 122,5 g

Volume of solution = 1.25dm3 = 1.25x1000 = 1250 cm3

Molarity (MJ = ?

Mass of solute 1000

x —----------------
Molarity (M) = ---------------------
Molar mass of solute Volume of solution in

75 1000
Molarity (M) -
1225*1250

75000
Molarity (M) =
153125

Molarity (M) = 0.49 M

(c) What is the molarity of a 50 cm3 sample of potassium chlorate solution that
yields 0.25 g residue after evaporation of the water.

Ans: Mass of solute KClCh = 0.25 g

 Molar mass of solute KCIOs = 39 + 35,5+ 48 = 122.5 g

Volume of solution = 50 cm3

Molarity (M) = ?

Mass of solute 1000

Molarity (M) = -------------------------------- x----------------------------------
Molar mass of solute Volume of solution in

0.25 1000
Molarity (M) =
122.5 X 50

250
Molarity (Mi =
6125

Molarity (M) = 0.04 M

QI 8. Example 6.2: Converting the molarity of a solution Into its concentration in

g/dm3. A flask contains 0.25M NaOH solution. What mass of NaOH Is present per
dm3 of solution?

Ans: Problem Solving Strategy

Molarity means number of moles per dm3 of solution. So, 0.25M. NaOH
means 0.25 moles of NaOH dissolved per dm3 of solution. You need to convert
moles of solute to mass using molar moss.

Solution: Molarity = 0.25M

Moles of NaOH = 0.25

Volume of solution = 1 dim3

Molar moss of NaOH = 23 -1- II6 + 1

= 40 g/mole
 mass of solute
Moles of solute =
molar mass of solute (g/moles)

mass of NaOH
0.25 moles =
40 g/mole

Mass of NaOH = 0.25 moles x 40 g/mole

= 10g

Thus, solution contains 10 g NaOH per dm:!

QI 9. Example 6.3: Converting concentration in g/dmJ into molarity:

Potassium hydroxide (KOH) is used in the manufacture of shaving creams,

paints and varnish. An analyst makes up a solution by dissolving 5.8 g of KOH in
one dm3 of solution Calculate the molarity of this solution.

Ans: Problem salving strategy;

To calculate the molarity, you need moles of solute per dm3 of solution
Moles of solute are not given. But mass of solute per dm3 of solution is given
Convert mass of solute into moles by using its molar mass.

Solution:

Moss of KOM dissolved in one dm3 of solution = 5.6g

Molar mass of KOH = 39+16+1

= 56 g/mole

mass of salute
Mass of KQH=
molar mass of solute (g/mole)

5.6
5.6

= 0.1 mole
 Thus, solution contains 0.1 mole of KOH in one dm3 of solution, so molarity

of solution is O.IM.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.5

1. Sodium hydroxide solutions are used to neutralize acids and in the

preparation of soaps and rayon. If you dissolve 25g of NaOH to make 1 dm3.
What is the molarity of this solution?

2. A solution of NaOH has concentration 1.2M. Calculate the mass of NaOH in

/dm3 in this solution

3. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of hemoglobin in enough water to

make up 1 dm in volume. Calculate molarity of this solution. Molar mass of
hemoglobin is 6.51xlQ4 g/mole.

Solution:

1. Sodium hydroxide solutions are used to neutralize acids and in the

preparation of soaps and rayon. If you dissolve 25g of NaOH to make 1
dm5 of solution, what is the molarity of on?

Solution:

Mass of solute NaOH = 25 g

Molar mass of solute NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g

Volume of solution =dm3 = 1000 cm3

Molarity (M) = ?
 Mass of solute _______ 1000_______
Molarity (M) = --------------------------------x
Molar mass of solute Volume of solution in

. . . .. .... 25 1000
Molarity (Ml = — x ——
' ' 40 1000

Molarity (M) = —

Molarity (M) = 0.625 M

2. A solution of NaOH has concentration 1.2M. Calculate the mass of NaOH

in g/dm3 in this solution.

Solution:

Volume of solution - 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3.

Molarity (M) = 1.2M

Molar mass of solute NaOH = 23 + 16+ 1 = 40 g

Mass of solute = ?

Mass of solute

Mass of solute 1000

Molarity (M) = --------------------------------X----------------------------------
Molar mass of solute Volume of solution in

Mass of solute .,1000

40 xiooo

I o Mass of solute
40

Mass of solufe = 1.2x 40 = 48 g/dm3

3. A solution is prepared by dissolving 10 g of hemoglobin in enough water

to make up 1 dm3 in volume. Calculate molarity of this solution. Molar

mass of hemoglobin is 6.51x10* g/mole.
Solution:

Mass of solute hemoglobin = 10 g

Molar mass of solute hemoglobin = 6.51 x 104 g/mole.

Volume of solution = 1 dm3 = 1000 cm3

Molarity (M) = ?

Moss of solute iooo

Molarity (M) = ----------------------------------------x-------------------------------------------
Molar mass of solute Volume of solution in

10 1000
Molarity (M) =
6.5U104 X1000

10
Molarity (Mi =
6.51x10'

Molarity (M) =

Molarity (M) = 1.54 x 10-1

Q20. Example 6.4: Preparing a solution of given molarity

Prepare 0.2M KMnO-j solution.

Ans: Problem Solving Strategy

For preparing solution you need a volumetric flask (figure 6.2). A

volumetric flask has a long neck with an etched line. This line indicates the exact

volume, when the flask is filled to this line. Volumetric flasks of capacity 1 dm3,

500 cm3, 250 cm3 100 cm3, cm3 can be used. Suppose you use a 100 cm

volumetric flask. First find the mass of KMnO4 to give 100 cm of 0.2 M KMnC4

solution.

Solution: Required volume of solution = 100 cm3 = 100/1000 = 0,1 dm3

 0.2 M KMnCh means:

1 dm3 solution contains 0.2 moles of KMnOi

So, 0.1 dm3 solution contains = 0.2 x 0.1 moles of KMnCh

= 0.02 moles of KMnO.<

Now convert moles of KMnOj into mass using molar mass of KMnOj

Molar mass of KMnO4 = 39 +55 +■ 16x4

= 39 +55 +64 =158 g/mole

kai f/u n mass of KMnO4 4

Moles of KMnO, =
molar mass of KMnO4

158 g/mole

mass of KMnQd = 3,16 g

To prepare 0.2M KMnOJn 100 cm volumetric flask, fallow the following steps.
Figure shows these steps.

(3) (b) (c)

Figure: Preparation of 0.2M KF|nO, solution

a. Weigh out 3.16 g of KmnO4 (0.02 moles]

b. Add this solid into a beaker, add some water to dissolve it,

c. Transfer this solution to the 100 cm volumetric flask and add more water.
d. Keep adding water until the volume of solution rises to the etched line and

mix the solution. This is desired solution

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.6

1. How can you prepare 500cm3 of 0.2M KmnCh solution?

2. How can you prepare 25 cm3 of 0.25M solution of CusO4 5H3O.

(Blue vitriol).

Ans:

1. How can you prepare 500cm of 0.2M KmnO4solution.

Solution:

Required volume of solution = 500 cm3 = 500/1000 = 0.5 dm3

0.2 M KMnCu means:

1 dm3 solution contains 0.2 moles of KMnO*

So, 0.1 dm3 solution contains = 0.2 x 0.5 moles of KMnCU

= 0.1 moles of KMnCu

Now convert moles of KMnO4 into mass using molar mass of KMnCU

Molar mass of KMnO4 = 39 +55 + 16x4

= 39 +55 +64

= 158 g/mole

mass of KMnO4
Moles of KMnO4
molar mass of KMnOfl

mass of KMriO4
0.1 mole
158 g/mole

mass of KMnO4 = 15.8 g

To prepare 0.2 M KMnOi in 500 cm3 volumetric flask, follow the following steps,

(a) Weigh out 15.8 g of KMnOj (0.1 moles)

(b) Add this solid into a beaker, add some water to dissolve it.

(c) Transfer this solution to the 500 cm3 volumetric flask and add more water

(d) Keep adding water until the volume of solution rises to the etched line

and mix the solution.. This is desired solution.

2. Haw can you prepare 25 cm3 of 0.25M solution of CUSD4.5H2O.

(Blue vitriol).

Solution:

Required volume of solution = 25 cm3 = 25/1000 = 0.025 dm3

0.25 M Cusa^SH^O means:

1 dm3 solution contains 0.25 moles of CUSO4.5H2O.

So, 0.025 dim3 solution contains = 0.25 x 0.025 moles of CuSOi.SFbO.

= 0.00625 moles of CuSO*.5H?O.

Now convert moles of CUSO4.5H2O into mass using molar mass of CuSCUSHiO.

Molar mass of CUSO4.5H2O = 63.5+ 32 + 16x4 + 5(2 + 16)

= 63.5+ 32 +64 +90 = 249.5 g/mole

mass of CuSOr5H2O
Moles of CuSO<.5H2O =
molar mass of CuSO4.5H2O

mass of CuSO4,5H?O
0.00625 mole
249,5

mass of CuSO4.5H2O = 1.56 g

To prepare 0 25 CuSO^SH^O in 25 cm3 volumetric flask, follow the following

steps.

(a) Weigh out 1.56 g of CuSCXSHsO (0.00625 moles)

(bl Add this solid into a beaker, odd some water to dissolve it.

(c) Transfer this solution to the 25 cm volumetric flask and add more water

(d) Keep adding water until the volume of solution rises to the etched line

and mix the solution. This is desired solution.

Q21. Example 6.5: Preparing a solution of given molarity by diluting a solution of

known molarity. Concentrated Sulphuric acid is 10M H2SO4. How many cm3 of
this acid is needed to produce 250 cm* of 0.1 M H2SO4?

Ans: Problem Solving Strategy:

Find the volume of given cone HLSO4 to be diluted to 250 cm-' to make 01

M H2SO4. Using the molarity equation.

Solution: Given H2SO4 Desired H7SO4

M1V1 - M2V2

Mi = molarity of given cone. FbSCh = 18M

Vi = volume of cone. H2SO4 needed to dilute = ?

M2 = molarity of required H2SO4 solution = 0.1M

V2 = volume of required H2SO4 = 250cm3

M1V1 = M?Vj
 ’ M,

_ 0.1x250
18

= 1.39 cm3 *

Transfer 1.3? Cm' of IBM H2SO, to a 250 cm volumetric flask and dilute it by

adding water up to the mark and mix. Resulting solution is 0.1M H2SO4.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.7

1, A stock solution of hydrochloric acid is 12.1 M. How many cm3 of this

solution should you use to prepare SOO cm3 of 0.1 M HCI.

2, Potassium dichromate (K2O2O7) is a red-orange compound. It is a strong

oxidizing agent and is used in the estimation of iron content in ores. A
stock solution is 2.5M K^CpOz. How many cm5 of this solution you need to
dilute to make 50 cm3 of 0.05 M KjC^O?

3, Commercial acetic acid is 17.8 molar. How can you convert this into 0.1 M
acetic acid?

Solution:

1, A stock solution of hydrochloric acid is 12.1 M. How many cm3 of this

solution should you use to prepare 500 cm3 of 0,1 M HCI.

Solution: Given HCI Desired HCI

Mi Vi = M2V2

Mi = molarity of given HCI = ISM

Vi = volume of HCI needed to dilute = ?

M2 = molarity of required HCI solution = 0.1 M

V2 = volume of required HCI = 500cm3

 Mi Vi " M2V2

V=^2
M,

0.1x500
12.1

= 4.13 cm!

2. Potassium dichromate (faC^O?) is a red-orange compound. It is a strong

oxidizing agent and is used in the estimation of iron content in ores. A stock
solution is 2.5M K2O2O7. How many cm3 of this solution you need to dilute to
make 50 cm3 of 0.05 M KaCr^O?

Solution: Given KiCpjO? Desired KCriOz

M1V1 = M2V2

Mi = molarity of given K2O2O7 = 2.5 M

Vi - volume of KzCr^z needed to dilute = ?

M2 - molarity of required IGCrjOz solution = 0.05 M

Vi = volume of required KChOz - 50cm3

M|V| = M2V2

' M,

0.05x50
2.5

_ 2-5
2.5

= 1 cm3

1. Commercial acetic acid is 17.8 molar. How can you convert this into 0.1 M
acetic acid.
Solution: Molarity of given Acetic Acid = Mi = 2.5 M

Molarity of required Acetic Acid solution = M2 = 0.05 M

Volume of required Acetic Acid = V2 = 50cm3

Volume of Acetic Acid needed to dilute = Vi = ?

Now according to the molarity equation

MiVj = M2V2

v _ W,

= OJxJOOO
17.8

= 5.62 cm3

We can convert 17.8 molar of commercial acetic acid into 0.1 M acetic

acid by adding water up to the mark and mix in a 1000 cm3 volumetric by

adding 5.62 cm:i of acetic acid.

Q22. Define solubility. How does nature of solute and solvent determine the
extent of dissolution?

Ans: Solubility:

The amount of solute that dissolves in lOOg of a solvent at a particular

temperature is called its solubility.

OR

Solubility of a substance in a particular solvent at a definite temperature is

the maximum amount of the solute in grams that can dissolve in 100 grams of

the solvent to form a saturated solution.

Examples:

The solubility of sodium chloride (NaCIJ in 100 g of water at 100°C is 39.12 g.

The solubility of silver chloride (AgCI) in 100 g water at 100°C is 0.0021 g.

Obviously, NaCI is much more soluble in water than AgCI.

Nature of solute and solvent determine the extent of dissolution:

Solubility and solute-solvent interaction:

"Like dissolves like:

It has been observed that non-polar covalent solutes are soluble in non­

polar covalent solvents while ionic and polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents.

This generalizes the solubility rule that ’’like dissolves like".

Solubility of ionic and polar compounds:

It means that the solubility of a solute in a solvent depends upon the

nature of both. The ionic and polar compounds like NaCI and HCI are more

soluble in water than non-polar covalent compounds like CS2 and CCU.

Solubility of non-polar covalent compounds:

The non-polar covalent compounds freely dissolve in non-polar covalent

solvents like CCUand benzene, etc. iodine is freely soluble in CCU because both

the solute and the solvent are non-polar and their intermolecular attractions are

of the same order. Waxes and tots are soluble in benzene and not in water.

The molecules of non-polar covalent substances like benzene (Ctl-k),

carbon tetrachloride (CCU), have their dipole moments very close to zero. So,

they have weak van der Waal's forces.

Non-polar substances like CS2 and CCU are immiscible in polar solvents like
H2O:
 On the other hand, polar covalent substances like water (H2O) have

permanent dipoles. These permanent dipoles are responsible for strong,

intermolecular attractions among water molecules So, non-polar, substances

like C4H6 and CCk are immiscible in polar solvents like H2O. This Is due to the

reason that the attraction of a water molecule is much greater for one another

than the attraction between water and benzene (C^H*) molecules.

ACTIVITY 6.3

Prepare saturated solution of sodium chloride in lOOg of water. Take this

solution in a pre-weighed china dish. Place china dish on the burner and heat it

slowly till water evaporates completely. Cool china dish and weigh it Calculate

the mass ot sodium chloride present in it.

Solubility of sodium chloride in 100 g of water at room temperature is

35.79, Similarly, solubility of sodium thiosulphate is 50 g per 100 g of water. If you

add 60 g of sodium thiosulphate in 100 g of water at 20°Cwhat will happen? It

starts settle down at the bottom because solution has already become

saturated.

Q23. How does the change of temperature affect the solubility of certain
compounds in water?

Ans; Effect of temperature on solubility;

Change of temperature can change the solubility of a solute in a solvent.

It may increase or decrease. Consider the compounds such as KNOs, KCI,

AgNOs and KI etc. Heat is absorbed when solutions of these substances are

formed in water.

When these substances are dissolved, the vessel cools down. The reason is that

during dissolution the heat of solvent and the vessel is taken up in the process of
solution formation. Whenever temperature of such solution is increased,

solubilities of solutes Increase.

A few substances like lithium carbonate {LizCOJs, calcium hydroxide

Ca(OH)2, etc., dissolve in water with the evolution of heat. Their solubilities

decrease by increase of temperature. Such solutions are warmed up along with

the vessel. The solubility of NaCI in water is least affected by change of

temperature. The reason is that a very small amount of heat is absorbed during

the solution formation.

Q24. It is a well-known fact that "like dissolves like". Give various examples to
support your answer.

Ans: "Like dissolves like:

It has been observed that non-polar covalent solutes are soluble in non­

polar covalent solvents while ionic and polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents.

This generalizes the solubility rule that “like dissolves like".

Solubility of Ionic and polar compounds:

It means that the solubility of a solute in a solvent depends upon the

nature of both. The ionic and polar compounds like NaCI and HCI are more

soluble in water than non-polar covalent compounds like CS2 and CCU.

Solubility of non-polar covalent compounds:

The non-polar covalent compounds freely dissolve in non-polar covalent

solvents like CCU because both the solute is non-polar and their intermolecular

attractions are of the same order. Waxes and fats are soluble in benzene and

not in water.

So non-polar substances like CaHa and CCU are immiscible in polar solvents

like H2O. This is due to the reason that the attraction of a water molecule in
much greater for one another than the attraction between water and benzene

(CH] molecules.

Q25. Explain the solubility and solute-solvent interactions with the example of
hydrogen bonding between water and methanol molecules.

OR

Explain how methanol and water are miscible?

Ans: Solubility and solute-solvent interactions:

“like dissolves like" Is a guiding rule when considering the solubility of

substances.

Methanol readily dissolves in water. Water molecules are polar Two Fl­

atoms bonded to an O-atom ore slightly positively charged and O-atom has a

slightly negative charge. Water molecules form hydrogen bonds with one

another. Methanol molecules are also polar and exhibit hydrogen-banding. This

means water and methanol molecules have similar structures and

intermolecular forces. They can form hydrogen bonds with each other. Thus,

methanol and water are miscible.

Similarly, glucose, whose molecule has many -O-H bonds, is very soluble in

water.
Q26. Explain the solubility and solute-solvent interactions with the example of
attraction of Na+ and Cl* ions far water molecules.

OR

Explain the attraction of Na and cl ions for water molecules?

Ans: When we place a crystal of sodium chloride in water, it dissolves. Sodium

chloride in an ionic compound. The negative end of water molecules is

attracted to sodium ions and the positive end of water molecules is attracted to

chloride ions. These attractive forces are strong enough to overcome the strong

attractions that exist between ions in NaCI. Thus, sodium chloride dissolves

readily.

Attraction of Na* and Cl ions for water molecules

Q27. Why gasoline and oils do not dissolve in water?

Ans: Gasoline and oils do not dissolve in water. Cook into the nature of
gasoline and oil molecules. Gasoline and oil molecules are non-polar in nature,

the attraction between a water molecule and oil or gasoline molecule is very

weak, so these liquids are insoluble in water. But Gasoline and oil, which have

similar non-polar molecules, ore soluble in one another.

Thus, we conclude substances that have similar structures and

intermolecular forces tend to be soluble. Whereas substances that have

dissimilar structures and intermolecular forces are insoluble.

 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.8

1. Sodium Chloride and glucose both are soluble in water. But the Solubility of
NaCI is greater than glucose. Explain why?

2. In which liquid at each of the following pairs you would expect KCI, an ionic
solid, to be more soluble.

(a) H2O or CCU (b) CHjOH or Benzene.

Ans: a. H^O due to its high dielectric constant (polar nature), breaks the crystal
lattice in between K+l and Cl-1. Therefore, KCI dissolves in H2O.

According to the general principle “Like dissolve like".. As water is polar solvent
and carbon tetra chloride (CCI4) is non-polar, therefore, KCI will not dissolve in
CCk.

b. KCI is soluble in CH3OH (Methanol) due to hydrogen bonding. According to

the general principle “like dissolve like". As KCI is ionic acid and benzene (Cdl-U)
is non polar, therefore, benzene will not dissolve in KCI.

3. Which of the following pairs of liquids are miscible?

(a) Water and benzene (b) Benzene and CCk

(c) An oil and benzene

Solution:

1, Sodium Chloride and glucose both are soluble in water. But the Solubility of
NaCI is greater than glucose. Explain why?

Ans; The solubility of sodium chloride in water is far greater than that of

glucose. This is due to the fact that the attraction of sodium (Na+) and chloride

(Cl-) ions with water is greater than that of glucose molecules with water.

2, In which liquid of each of the Following pairs you would expect KCI, an ionic
solid, to be more soluble.
 (a) HjO or CCU (b) CHaOH or Benzene.

Am:

a. H2O due to its high dielectric constant (polar nature), breaks the crystal

lattice in between K+1 and Cr . Therefore, KCI dissolves in H2O.

According to the general principle "Like dissolve like”. As water is polar solvent

and carbon tetra chloride (CCI4) is non polar, therefore, KCI will not dissolve in

CCU.

b. KCI is soluble in CH$OH (Methanol) due to hydrogen bonding.

According to the general principle "Like dissolve like". As KCI is Ionic and

benzene (C$HJ is non polar, therefore, benzene will not dissolve in KCI.

3. Which of the following pairs of liquids are miscible?

(a) Water and benzene (b) Benzene and CCU

(c) An oil and benzene

Ans:

(a) Water and benzene:

According to the general principle "Like dissolve like" As water is polar

solvent and benzene {CaH*) is non polar, therefore, benzene will not dissolve in

water Therefore water and benzene are not miscible.

(b) Benzene and CCU

According to the general principle "Like dissolve like". As benzene is non

polar solvent and CCL are also non polar therefore, benzene and CCI are

miscible.

(c) An oil and benzene:

 According to the general principle "Like dissolve like". As benzene is non

polar solvent and oil are also non polar, therefore, benzene and oil are miscible.

Q2S. Explain the effect of temperature on solubility with the help ot solubility
curves?

OR

Explain the variation of solubility with temperature?

Ans: Variation of solubility with temperature:

If we add 34.7 g of KCI to 100 g of water at 20QC, it will dissolve. If we add

more than 34.7 g of KCI at 20°CJ it will not dissolve. However, if we increase

temperature it will readily dissolve. Keep on adding more KCI and increase

temperature.

We will observe that 56.7 g of KCI dissolves in 100 g of water at 100°C

when temperature ot this solution is decreased to 20 °C 220g of KCI will

crystallize out. This means temperature has a profound effect on the solubility of

a substance Figure shows the variation of solubility with temperature.

io 10 30 -io SO to -0 so 90
TriiptraiUft CCi
Variation of solubility with temperature
Solubility of ionic compounds:

The solubility of an ionic compound generally increases with the increase

in temperature.

Solubility of N0^304 decreases with increase in temperature:

However, solubility of some solids decreases with temperature for

instance, solubility of Na. SO, decreases with increase in temperature.

Solubility of gases with increasing temperature:

Heat water in a beaker, you will see small bubbles form at the side of the

beaker before the water boils* These bubbles are composed of air. Since, air is

less soluble in hot water than in cold water, air comes out of water in the form of

bubbles This means solubility of air in water decreases with Increasing

temperature. You might have observed In a home aquarium, that the fish shows

signs of stress on a hot day. This is because less oxygen from air dissolves in the

warm water.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6.9

Use figure 6.5 and answer the fallowing questions;

1. At what temperature the solubility of KNOj and KBr is same.

2. What is the solubility of KBr at 45°C.?

3. Which is greater at 40&C, the solubility of NaNOa or solubility of KBr.

4. Identify from the graph the compound whose solubility is little affected with
increase in temperature.

Solution:

1. At what temperature the solubility of KNO, and KBr is same.

Ans: 83QC

2. What is the solubility of KBr at 45°G

Ans: 80 g

3. Which is greater at 40°C, the solubility of NaNOj or solubility of KBr,

Ans: NaNOs {96 gj whereas KBr (78 g] at 40 °C.

4. Identify from the graph the compound whose solubility is little affected
with increase in temperature.

Ans: NaCI

Q29. What are true solutions explain with example?

Ans: T rue solution;

A true solution is a homogeneous mixture in which the particles ore

individual molecules or ions distributed evenly throughout the surrounding fluid.

Properties of true solution:

 Sizes of these particles are between 0,1-1 nm (1 nm = lCPm). Therefore,
these particles cannot be seen by the naked eye, ordinary microscope and
electron microscope. These particles can pass through ordinary and ultra-filter
papers, A solution is unable to scatter light.

Examples:

Dissolution of sodium Chloride or copper Sulphate in water.

Q30. What are colloids explain with example?

Ans: Colloids:

A heterogeneous mixture of tiny particles of a substance dispersed

through a medium is called a colloid.

Examples:

Fog and dust particles suspended in air are colloids Milk, butter, cheese,
jam jellies halva, mayonnaise, are other examples of colloids.

Note:

Colloids differ from true solution in scattering light. True solutions cannot
scatter light.

Properties of colloids:

Colloids are generally opaque but some are transparent as well. The size
of colloidal particles vanes from 1-103 nm (nm = 10*9m], These particles can only
be seen under electron microscope Colloids can scatter light.

Science Tidbits

Many medicine bottles contain an insoluble solid in water. The bottle has
to be shaken before use to produce a suspension, so that the solid is spread
evenly throughout the bottle and the patient takes the correct amount of the
medicine

Q31. What do you mean by suspension explain with example?

Ans: Suspensions:

Such a heterogeneous mixture containing particles large enough to be

seen with the naked eye and clearly distinct from the surrounding fluid is called
a suspension

Examples:

A mixture of black board chalk in water. Smoke mud, emulsion, cloy, sand
in water

Properties of suspension:

Particles of a suspension are bigger than 10 nm and cannot pass through

ordinary filter paper. Because of their large size, they can scatter light like
colloids.

Q32, Compare the true solution, colloidal solution and suspension in all
respects.

Ans: Comparison of properties of solutions, suspension and colloids:

S.No. True Solutions Suspensions Colloids

1. Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous

2. Particles size vary from 0.1 Particles size is Particles size vary
to 1 nm greater than 103nm from ] to 103 nm
3. Particles are invisible by Particles are visible Particles are invisible
naked eye ordinary by naked eye by naked eye and
microscope as well as in ordinary
electron microscope. microscope but
visible under
electron
microscope.

4. Particles can pass Particles cannot pass Particles can pass

through ordinary as well through ordinary well through ordinary
as ultra-filter paper. as ultra-filter paper
filter paper but
cannot pass
through ultra-filter
paper Scatter light.

5. Cannot scatter light Scatter light Scatter light

Scatter light

6. Examples: Examples: Examples:

1. Dissolution of sodium i, A mixture of black 1. Starch solution

board chalk in
ii. White of an egg
Chloride or copper water. 11. smoke mud,
emulsion, clay, sand iii. Gelatin, glue
Sulphate in water in water. gums Milk, rubber,
fog, dust in the air,
jellies, paints blood
and starch in water

Society, Technology and Science

Most of the substances we need for our existence are solutions. The air we
breathe is a gaseous solution containing N2. Oz COi and rare gases. The water
we use for drinking, cooking and washing is not pure. It contains dissolved gases
and many minerals that are essential for our health. Intact natural water is a
liquid solution. Beverages, vinegar, soft drinks etc are liquid solutions.
Commercial products such as window cleaners, sanitary cleaner, shampoo,
gasoline, kerosene, diesel, etc are also liquid solutions. Most medicines are
dispensed in solution form. We also use many solid solutions in our daily lives.
Gold is □ solid solution of gold containing some copper. Brass and steel used for
making utensils, musical instruments, buses, cars, trains etc are solid solution of
metals Ports of aeroplane are mode of solid solution of metals such as Al and
Mg. Dental fillings are liquid solutions of metals in mercury.

Key Points

Solution:

• A solution is a homogeneous mixture of substances that hos uniform

composition throughout.

Aqueous solution;

• A solution in which water is solvent is called an aqueous solution.

Saturated solution;

• A solution in which maximum amount of solute has been dissolved at a

particular temperature is called saturated solution.

Supersaturated solution:

• A solution that contains more of a solute than is contained in the

saturated solution is called supersaturated solution.

Alloys:

Most commercial metals are examples of solid solutions of various metals

and are called alloys, for example gold.
Concentration:

• The quantity of a solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution Is

called concentration.
• By the percentage of a solution we mean the mass or volume of solute
dissolved in 1 DO g or 100 cm^ of solution.

Molarity:

• Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved per dm3 of solution.

Solubility:

• The amount of solute that dissolves in 100 g of a solvent at a particular

temperature Is called solubility.

Called a colloid:

• A heterogeneous mixture of tiny particles of a substance dispersed

through a medium is called a colloid.

Suspension:

• A heterogeneous mixture containing particles large enough to be seen

with the naked eye and clearly distinct from the surrounding fluid is called
a suspension.

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