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ENGINEERING PHYSICS LAB VIVA QUESTION

ANSWEERS
engineering physics (Visvesvaraya Technological University)

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1. DIFFRACTION GRATING
1. What is diffraction?
Bending of light and its enter into the region of geometrical shadow of an object is called
diffraction.
2. Mention two types of diffraction.
Diffractions are of two types, namely a) Fresnel’s diffraction and b) Fraunhoffer diffraction
3. Distinguish between Fresnel’s diffraction and Fraunhoffer
In Fresnel diffraction source and screen are at finite distance from the source where
as in Fraunhoffer diffraction source and screen are at infinite distance from the source.
4. What kind of diffraction occurs in this experiment? Why?
Fraunhoffer diffraction. Even though source and object are at finite distance it cannot be
Fresnel diffraction since laser light can be focused to infinite distance.
5. What is the required condition for diffraction?
Diffraction takes place if the size of the obstacle is comparable to the wave length of incident
light.
6. What is a diffraction grating?
It is a plane glass plate, on which numbers of opaque lines are drawn at equidistant parallel
lines are drawn with the help of diamond point. The distance between two successive opaque
lines act as a slit whose width will be comparable with wavelength of incident light. Thus
when light falls on a grating it undergoes diffraction.
7. Why diffraction takes place through grating? or What is the significance of grating?
Distance between two consecutive lines of grating is comparable to wavelength of light; so
that light is obstructed by the edges of the rulings and hence diffraction takes place.
8. Define grating constant and what is its significance?
The spacing between two consecutive lines is called grating constant. As the distance between
two consecutive lines is of the order of size of the abstacle and hence diffraction takes place
when light incident on the grating.
9. Why does laser is more monochromatic than ordinary source of light?
Laser is more monochromatic than sodium vapour lamp (monochromatic source of light) as
it is more intense, highly directional and coherent. This helps to get clear diffraction pattern.
10. Expand the term LASER?
LASER stands for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.
11. What is order of diffraction?
They are the repeated diffraction patterns obtained on either side of the central maxima.
12. What is zeroth order?
The central maxima formed when light incident normally on grating (θ=0) is called zeroth
order spectrum.
13. What is the principle of a laser?
The principle of laser is based on stimulated emission of radiation.
14. Name some laser sources?
Ruby laser, He- Ne laser, CO2 laser, Semiconductor laser etc.
15. What is the required condition for lasing action?
Population inversion and metastable state.

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16. What kind of laser is used in the experiment?

Semiconductor diode laser is used in the experiment.
17. What are the characteristics of a laser?
High intense,directionality,highly coherent and monochromaticity.
18. What happens to the fringe pattern if monochromatic light is replaced by
composite source?
Colored fringes are obtained with white fringe at the centre of the pattern.
19. Why ordinary glass plates do not produce diffraction bands when exposed to
light?
Because size of the object is very large compared to wavelength of light.
20. Distinguish between interference and diffraction.
Interference is due to the superposition of two or more waves traveling from two coherent
sources. Whereas diffraction is due to the superposition of infinite number of waves traveling
from same wave front.
An interference band consists of alternate bright and dark bands of equal width. All bright
bands are of same intensity. All dark bands are of equal width and completely dark. Whereas
diffraction bands consists of central bright band followed by dark and bright bands with
decreasing intensity.
21. Mention the applications of laser.
Lasers are used in drilling, welding, cutting, measurement of atmospheric pollutants in
communication etc.
22. Explain how laser diode works.
When the required forward bias voltage is applied, the electrons in the conduction
bands get de-excited and recombine with the holes in the valence band. As a result
the energy liberated is converted and emitted in the form of visible light.
23. Can this experiment be done with the use of sodium instead of laser light?
Yes. Spots would not be so bright, since sodium is less intense than sodium.

2. DIELECTRIC CONSTANT
1. What are dielectrics? Give examples
They are insulators. They conduct electricity only when they are kept in between the
Plates of a capacitor. Ex. Paper, mica, rubber, water etc.
2. What is a capacitor?
It is a device used to store energy. It consists of two parallel metal plates kept separated by
small distance with or without dielectric medium.
3. Define capacitance of a capacitor?
It is the ability of a capacitor to store the charge and is defined as the ratio of charge
stored on either plate of the capacitor to the potential difference between the plates.
4. Mention the formula for capacitance of a capacitor.

With diectric medium; capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is Cm= and with

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air medium it is Ca= .

5. How do you increase the capacitance of a capacitor?
By decreasing the distance between the two plates and by increasing the area of the
plates of the capacitor & introducing a medium of higher dielectric constant
6. Define dielectric constant?
It is defined as the ratio of capacitance of a capacitor with dielectric as medium to the
capacitance of same capacitor with air as medium i.e; ε = Cm/ Ca
7. What is dielectric strength?
It is the maximum applied electric field that can be applied across the plates without
breakdown is called dielectric strength.
8. Mention the SI unit of dielectric constant.
It is a dimension less quantity.
9. What happens when dielectric is introduced between the plates of the
capacitor?
When dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor, resultant electric field
acting between the plates decreases and hence potential difference present between the plates

also decreases according to E= and hence capacitance of the capacitor increases, according

to C=
10. Why dielectric constant is different for different materials.
Since polarizability is different for different materials, hence dielectric constant is
also different.
11. Why do we use high resistance in the circuit?
To delay the discharge of charges from the capacitor (T= CR, is time constant of
the circuit)
12. Why do we use charging & discharging to calculate dielectric constant?
It is easy method to calculate T½ using charging and discharging of a capacitor
through high resistance.
13. What is dielectric loss?
When voltage is applied across the dielectric of a capacitor, some amount of energy
is lost in the form of heat, this cannot be recovered. This is called the dielectric loss
and hence capacitor cannot be charged to maximum applied voltage. In the
experiment capacitor is charged to maximum of 4.5V when the applied voltage is
5V.Therefore 0.5V of energy is lost in the form of heat.
14. What is effect of electric field, potential on capacitance of a capacitor?
When dielectric is placed between the plates of a capacitor (i) Resultant electric field decreases

according to the relation E= . (ii) As E decreases potential between the plates also decreases

and hence (iii) capacitance increases according to the equation C=

15. What do you mean by dielectric polarization?

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When a dielectric is introduced between the plates of a capacitor, electric dipoles orient
opposite to the applied electric field i.e negative and positive ends of the dipoles are arranged
towards positive and negative plates of the capacitor. This will decrease the resultant electric

field (E= ) and potential, since electric field produced due to dielectric is opposite to applied
electric field. This is called dielectric polarization.
16. What is the function of battery in the circuit?
To supply energy to transfer electron from one plate to the other.
17. What are polar molecules?
These are the molecules in which the effective centers of positive nucleus do not coincide with
effective centres of negative. Ex: H2O.
18. What are non-polar molecules?
These are the molecules in which the effective centers of the negative charge coincide with
the effective centers of the positive charge. Ex: NH4.
19. Mention a few uses of capacitors.
Capacitors are used to store energy, store charges, to eliminate sparking in electrical circuits,
to block DC in circuits, in tuning electrical circuits, in oscillator circuits etc.
20. Is charging of a capacitor is linear or exponential?
Charging or discharging of a capacitor is exponential.
21. Guess the possible reason for the water to have much larger dielectric constant?
Water possesses permanent dipole moment, hence it has larger dielectric constant (εr=80)
22. What type of energy is stored in capacitors?
Energy is stored in the capacitor, in between the plates in the form of electrostatic potential
energy.
23. Mention the expression for energy stored in a capacitor.

E=

24. Mention types of capacitors based on dielectrics used.

Paper capacitor, mica capacitor, variable air capacitor, electrolytic capacitor, ceramic
capacitor etc.
25. Mention types of capacitors based on shapes.
Parallel plate capacitor, spherical capacitor, cylindrical capacitor.
26. What is the function of battery in the circuit?
To supply energy to transfer electrons from one plate to another.
27. What is dielectric strength?
The maximum strength of the applied electric field that can be applied across the dielectric without
break down its strength is called dielectric strength.
28. Mention the SI unit of dielectric constant.
It is a dimension less quantity.
29. Why dielectric constant is different for different materials.
Since the polarizability is different for different material; hence the dielectric constant is also
different.
30. What are non polar molecules?

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These are the molecules in which the effective centres of the negative charge do not coincide
with the effective centres of the positive charge. Ex: H2O.
31. What are polar molecules?
These are the molecules in which the effective centers of the negative charge coincide with the
effective centers of the positive charge. Ex: NH4.

3. FERMI ENERGY

1. Define Fermi energy and Fermi level?

“The energy corresponding to the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature (0K) is
called the Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level”. It is denoted by 'Ef.
2. Mention range of Fermi energy for metals?
Fermi energy of metals range from 1 to 10eV.
3. Mention average value of Fermi energy for metals?
It is 5eV.
4. What is the expected value of Fermi energy for the given experimental conductor
7eV
5. What are free electrons?
Electrons present in the outermost orbits are called valence electrons. In the absence of
applied electric field, these electrons move randomly throughout the metal and net flow of
electrons in a given direction is zero.
6. What are bound electrons?
Other than valence electrons which are tightly bound to the nucleus are called bound
electrons.
7. What are conductors, insulators and semiconductors?
Conductors are the materials in which the energy gap is zero or they are the
Materials which do not offer resistance to the flow of electrons.
Semi Conductors are the materials in which the energy gap is of the order of 1eV.
Insulators are the materials in which the energy gap is of the order of 5eV or they
are the materials which do not conduct electricity.
8. Define Fermi velocity?
Fermi velocity is that velocity of electrons at which average kinetic energy becomes equal to
Fermi energy at 0K.

i.e

8. Define valence band, conduction band and forbidden energy gap

The range of energies possessed by valence electrons is called valence band (VB).At 0K
this band is completely filled or partially filled with.
The range of energies possessed by conduction electrons is called conduction band

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(CB).It is present next to VB. At 0K this band is completely empty.

The gap between VB and CB is called forbidden energy gap.
9. Where do you find the Fermi level in a pure semiconductors, n-type semiconductor
and p-type semiconductor?
In case of pure semiconductor it lies exactly midway between valence band and
Conduction band, in case of a n-type semiconductor it lies very close to conduction band
and in case of p-type it lies very close to valence band.
10. What is Fermi temperature?
Fermi temperature is that temperature at which average thermal energy of electrons
becomes equal to the Fermi energy at 0K. i.e KT=Ef(0).

Average thermal energy of metals at 0Kis Ef(0)=5 eV

At such temperatures all metals become liquids. Therefore Tf is only theoretical importance.
11. Do you expect Fermi energy will increase with temperature? Explain?
No. Since average Fermi energy of metals is about 5eV.To acquire this value temperature of
the metal should be of the order of 58000K.At such temperatures all metals become liquids
and hence Fermi energy is almost independent of temperature.
12. Is Fermi energy constant for all metals?
No. Because it depends on the number of electrons present/ m3 of the material and
hence it is different for different metals. It varies from 1eV to 10 eV.
13. Does Fermi energy depend on the size of the material?
No. it depends only on the number of electrons / m3
14. Define drift velocity.
It is the average velocity with which electrons travel in a conductor in presence of external
applied field.
15. What is meant by mean free path?
It is the average distance travelled by the electrons between two successive
collisions.
16. Define mobility of electrons.
It is the ratio of drift velocity acquired by the electrons to the applied electric field.
17. What is meant by mean collision time and relaxation time?
Mean collision time is the average time interval between two successive collisions of
electrons.
Relaxation time is the time interval at which velocity of the electron reduces to 1/e times the
maximum velocity of the electron in the presence of electric field.
18. How electrical conductivity of conductors vary with temperature?

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Electrical conductivity decreases with increase in temperature which is due to increase of

amplitude of vibration of ion cores. As a result resistance or scattering increases.
19. What are fermions?
Particles having spin ½ are called Fermions; they obey Fermi-Derac statistics. Ex- electrons.
20. What are Bosons?
Particles having spin zero are called Bosons; they obey Bose-Einstein statistics. Ex-photons
in a cavity, helium at low temperature.
21. What is a Fermi factor?
Fermi factor is the probability of occupying an electron into an energy level when the
material is in thermal equilibrium. Fermi factor f(E) of a given

4. PHOTO DIODE
1. Mention the difference among conductors, semiconductors and insulators.
Conductors: The materials which possess large conductivity/electricity are called
Conductors. Eg. All metals.
Semiconductors: are the materials whose conductivity lies between conductors and
insulators. At 0K valence band is completely filled and there are no electrons in
conduction band, hence they behave as insulators. Their resistivity varies from 10-6 to 10-8
ohm-m. Eg: silicon, germanium, selenium, gallium arsenide
Insulators: In case of insulators valence band is completely filled and conduction band is
completely empty. Hence they are very poor conductors of heat and electricity. Their energy
band gap is of the order of 5eV and their resistivity is of the order of 108 ohm-m Ex; Mica,
glass etc.
2. What is a semiconductor?
A material whose conductivity lies between that of conductor and an insulator is called a
Semiconductor.
3. What is the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic semi conductors?
Pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors and doped semiconductors are
called extrinsic semiconductors.
4. What is a pure semiconductor?
Undoped semiconductors are called pure semiconductors or Intrinsic semiconductors. Their
conductivity is very small, in which number of electrons is equal to number of holes.
5. Mention types of extrinsic semiconductors.
P-type and n-type semiconductors.
6. What are valance band, conduction band and forbidden energy bands?
The range of energy possessed by valence electrons is called a valence band.
The range of energy possessed by conduction electrons is called conduction band.
The gap between valence band and conduction band is called forbidden energy gap.
7. Mention any types of junction diodes.

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Semiconductor diode, Light emitting diode (LED), Zener diode, Photo diode.
8. What is doping in semiconductors? Why is it required?
To increase conductivity semiconductors are doped. Doped semiconductors are called
extrinsic semiconductors. They are two types namely; n-type and p-type semiconductors.
9. What is a n-type semiconductor?
A semiconductor which contains more number of electrons than holes is called an n-type
semiconductor. Therefore in n-type, electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers.
10. How do you obtain an n-type semiconductor?
An n-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure semiconductor with pentavalent
impurities.
11. Mention few examples for pentavalent impurities.
Phosphorous (P), Arsenic (As), Antimony etc.
12. What are donor impurities?
Pentavalent impurities are called donor impurities since each atom donate one free
electron to the crystal.
13. What is a P-type semiconductor?
A semiconductor which contains more number of holes than electrons is called as P-type
semiconductor. Therefore in P-type semiconductor holes are majority charge carriers and
electrons are minority charge carriers.
14. How do you obtain a P-type semiconductor?
A P-type semiconductor is obtained by doping a pure semiconductor with trivalent
impurities.
15. Mention few examples for trivalent impurities.
Aluminium, Gallium, Indium etc.
16. What are acceptor impurities? Give two examples.
Trivalent impurities are called acceptor impurities since each atom can accept one free
electron and thereby create one hole.
17. What is a semiconductor diode?
A single crystal of semiconductor with one half doped to become P-type and other half
doped to become n-type is called a semiconductor diode.
the electrons tunnel through the barrier from p-region to n-region causing a very high in the
reverse current.

 A photodiode is a reverse biased p-n unction diode.

 It is photo detector.
 In reverse bias current through the junction is due to minority charge carriers.
 When p-n unction is illuminated with light photons having energy greater than energy
gap (hv>Eg); the photons will excite an electron from the valence bond to
conduction band and electron-hole pair is created. The electron- hole pairs created in the
depletion region will be separated by the unction potential difference and made to flow
across the unction.
 Each incident photon excites an electron. With increase of intensity number of photons
incident also increases and hence photo current also increases.

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 Photo diodes are used in camera light meters, clock radios, in the remote controls in
T.V, also used for the measurement of light, as photo multipliers in astronomy, night
vision equipment etc.

5. TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

1. What is a transistor?
It is a 3 terminal and two junction semiconducting device.
2. Why transistor is called by that name?
It transfers signal from low resistance to high resistance region, and hence the name
Transfer +resistor=Transistor.
3. What does an arrow mark in the transistor symbol indicate'?
It indicates the emitter terminal and also the direction of arrow indicates direction of flow of
conventional current in the transistor.
4. How do you distinguish n-p-n & p-n-p transistors based on arrow mark?
In n-p-n transistor arrow mark is away from the emitter and in p-n-p it is into the base.
5. Mention the types of transistors.
There are two types of transistors namely NPN and PNP.
6. Who discovered transistor?
Shockley
7. What is a NPN Transistor?
It consists of a thin P- type region sandwiched between two N-type regions of the
semiconductor.
8. What is a PNP Transistor?
It consists of a thin N- type region sandwiched between two P-type regions of the
Semiconductor. In PNP transistor
9. What are the characteristics of a transistor?
For a transistor there three characteristics
(a) Input characteristics-It is the variation of input current with input voltage,at constant
output voltage
(b) Output characteristics- It is the variation of output current with output voltage at constant
input current
c) Current transfer characteristics-It gives variation of output current with input current
10. Define α and β of a transistors.
Alpha (α): Alpha of a transistor is also called as the current transfer ratio and is defined as the
ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current when transistor is connected
in common base mode.

α=

Beta (β): of a transistor is also called as the current gain in CE mode and is defined as the ratio
of change in collector current to the change in base current at constant common emitter voltage
when transistor is connected in common emitter mode.

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β=

11. Mention some applications of a transistor.

It can be used as (i) a switch (ii) an amplifier (iii) inverter.
12. How do you bias a transistor?
Irrespective of mode of connection (CB or CE or CC), input of a transistor (n-p-n or p-n-p),
junction is always forward biased and output junction is reverse biased.
13. Mention different ways by which a transistor can be connected in a circuit?
In three different ways transistor can he connected. They are common emitter, common base,
and the common collector mode.
14. What is amplification?
The process of increasing the strength of input signal is called amplification.
15. Why CE mode of the transistor is preferred for amplification?

Since current gain in CE mode is β = ,as the collector current is always greater than base
current; CE mode is preferred for amplification.
16. What are the functions of emitter, collector and base terminals in a transistor?
Emitter: The function of emitter is to emit majority charge carriers into the base.
Base: The function of the base is to modify or increase collector current and hence it is
made thin and lightly doped.
Collector: The function of the collector is to collect majority charge carriers which are
Emitted from the base. Hence its size is made larger than emitter so as to dissipate more
heat.
17. Explain the doping concentration levels in three regions of a transistor.
Emitter junction is heavily doped, base is lightly (least) doped and collector junction
moderately doped.
18. How do you recognize the terminal of the given transistor?
The space between emitter and base is very less and the space between emitter and collector
is very large. The space between base and collector is moderate.
19. Why alpha of a transistor is always less than one?

Current gain in CB mode is α = ; where collector current is always less than emitter current.
20. Why current gain in CE mode is always greater than one?

Since current gain in CE mode is β = , where the collector current is always greater than
base current.

6. SERIES AND PARALLEL LCR CIRCUIT

1. What is meant by resonance?

It is a phenomenon in which frequency of the applied signal becomes equal to the frequency of
the circuit.

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2. What do you mean by sharpness of resonance?

The rate of growth or decay of current is called sharpness of the circuit.
For higher quality of the circuit; lesser is the band width and vice versa.
3. What is the condition for resonance?
Resonance takes place when the Inductive reactance is equal to the capacitive reactance.
4. Define quality factor `Q’ of a circuit?

It is the ratio of resonant frequency to the band width. Q= ; lesser the band width larger is
the quality factor and vice versa.
5. Why current in series LCR circuit is maximum at resonance and minimum in parallel
LCR circuit?
Current in LCR circuit is given by I=V/Z; at resonance, the impedance is minimum in series
LCR circuit where as in parallel LCR circuit, impedance is maximum.
6. What is meant by band width'?
It is that range of applied frequencies between which resonance taking place. OR it is also equal
to the difference between higher cut off frequency and lower cut of frequency.
7. What is the physical significance of Q-factor?
It is a measure of sharpness of resonance. If the quality factor is high, sharpness is said to be
more and vice versa. OR if the quality factor is high the growth (or decay) of current is high.
8. Why parallel LCR circuit is often referred to as rejector circuit?
The current in parallel LCR Circuit becomes maximum at resonance. So if the voltage source
contains a number of frequencies, only resonant frequency is rejected by the parallel circuit. OR
Current decrease with increase in the frequency from low to resonant frequency and hence
parallel LCR circuit is called rejector circuit.
9. Why a series LCR circuit is is often referred to as acceptor circuit?
The current in series LCR Circuit is maximum at resonance. So if the voltage source contains a
number of frequencies, only resonant frequency is picked up by the series circuit. Current
increase with increase in the frequency from low to resonant frequency and hence series LCR
circuit is called acceptor circuit.
10. What is the use of resonance circuit?
It can be used as a tuning circuit in radio or in transmitter circuit.
11. In series LCR circuit, what is the net impedance at resonance?
At resonance, impedance is equal to the resistance connected in the circuit. Z=

; Since at resonance XL= XC

12. What is the reactance offered by the inductor to the flow of direct current?
Zero. Since frequency of DC is zero. (XL=2฀f L).
13. How the reactance of capacitor and the inductor changes with the frequency?
Reactance of the capacitor is inversely (XC=1/2฀f C) proportional to the frequency of the input
signal. Whereas reactance of the inductor is directly proportional (XL=2฀f L) to the frequency of
the input signal.
14. Define inductance of an inductor.
It is the property by virtue of it opposes the change in current through it.
15. What is an inductor?
It is a coiled conductor and is used to store electromagnetic energy temporarily. It allows direct
current to flow through it easily.

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16. Why inductors/Capacitors are used to regulate AC current?

Power consumption in an inductor or capacitor is zero, since Phase difference between current
and voltage is 900. i.e =0.Therefore P=cos=cos 900=0.

17. What is resonant frequency?

It is a particular applied frequency at which applied frequency becomes equal to natural
frequency of the circuit. At resonance current in the circuit becomes maximum in series
LCR circuit and minimum in parallel LCR circuit.
18. Why capacitor is not used to regulate AC current?
When the capacitor is subjected to ac current, there exist dielectric loss hence is not used to
regulate AC.

7. Newton’s rings
1. What are Newton’s rings?
They consist of central dark spot followed by alternate bright and dark rings.
2. Mention the factors on which the diameters of the Newton’s rings depend?
Diameter of the Newton’s rings depends upon a) Wavelength of light used b) Refractive
index of the medium present between lens and glass c) radius of curvature of the lens
surface.
3. Why the fringes are called Newton’s rings?
Since the pattern of interference rings was first obtained by Newton rings.
4. How these rings are formed?
When monochromatic light incident on a very thin air film enclosed between the surface of
plano-convex lens and a plane glass plate.
5. Why Newton’s rings are’s circular?
Since lens is circular and therefore air film enclosed between the lens and a plane glass plate
consists of loci of concentric circles with centre at the point of contact of the lens and the
glass plate. These films are circular fringe of constant thickness. At all these points the rays
undergo either constructive or destructive interference to form the rings.
6. On what phenomenon of light Newton’s rings experiment is based on?
Interference of light.
7. What is interference?
Redistribution of light intensity due to superposition of two or more waves of same
amplitude and frequency is called interference of light.
8. Mention two methods by which coherent waves can be obtained.
a) Division of wave front Ex. Young’s double slit example
and
b) Division of amplitude method. Ex. Newton’s rings experiment,lLoyd’s biprism
experiment
9. In this experiment, in which region fringes are produced?
In between air medium present between the plano convex lens and the glass plate. When
viewed through microscope they are formed at least distance of distinct vision.
10. How does the radius of curvature of lens changes with wavelength?
Decreases with increasing wavelength of light.

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11. What is the use of inclined plate in the experiment?

It turns down incident ray at 450, so that light rays incident normally on the glass plate and
lens system. After reflection the ray comes vertically up to reach objective of microscope.
12. What is least count of the apparatus?
Least count of instrument is the least measurable value that can be made with the instrument.
13. What is the least count of traveling microscope?

14. Why the central spot of Newton’s ring is always dark?

At the centre lens is in contact with the glass plate. Thickness of air film is zero at the centre.
Path difference between incident and reflected rays is equal to zero
15. What is the condition for constructive interference?
Constructive interference occurs when the phase difference between the waves is an even
multiple of π (180°)
15. What is the condition for destructive interference?
destructive interference occurs when the difference is an odd multiple of π
16. Why the rings are crowded as we move away from the center?
As we move outwards from the centre the thickness of air film gradually increases
17. What is meant by coherent sources?
The sources of light which can emit light waves of same wavelength, frequency with same
phase or constant phase difference are known as coherent sources.
18. What is a monochromatic source?
A source which emits light of single wavelength is known as monochromatic light.
19. Mention some examples for monochromatic sources of light.
Sodium vapour lamp, laser source.
20. Can this experiment be performed using mercury vapour lamp?
NO. Since mercury lamp emits white light, which is a combination of light of different
Wavelengths. As a result each ring consists of rings of different colours. Therefore, it
becomes difficult to take the readings.
21. Define radius of curvature.
The radius of the imaginary sphere of which the lens forms a part.
22. Can this experiment be performed with other lamps?
Any monochromatic source i.e., any single coloured lamp can be used for this purpose.
23. Can the interference pattern be observed if there is any other medium in between the
glass plate and the lens?

Yes. Expression for radius of curvature modifies into R= .

Where μ is refractive index of the medium present between the glass plate and lens. For
air medium μ =1.
24. The spacing between consecutive Newton's rings decreases as we move away from
the centre, why?
In Newton's rings experiment the thickness of the air film increases continuously from
centre to the edges and therefore we obtain a fringe system of decreasing fringe width.
25. What changes do you expect in the fringe pattern when the radius of curvature of

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the lens is increased?

If 'R' directly proportional to Dm2-Dn2. As R increases the diameters of the rings will
increase and vice versa.
26. What are the applications of Newton’s rings?
To determine a) Wavelength of monochromatic light b) Refractive index of the liquid
medium present between lens and glass c) radius of curvature of a spherical surface.

8. Young’s modulus by Single Cantilever

1. Define Young's modulus
Young’s modulus of a material is the ratio of linear stress to linear strain within the elastic limit.
2. What is elastic constant?
The ratio of stress to strain is called elastic constant.
3. Mention SI unit of Young's modulus
Its SI unit is N /m2.
4. Define stress and strain.
The force acting per unit area of the body is known as stress. Its unit is Nm -2. The change in
dimension to the original dimension is known as strain. It has no unit.
5. What is elastic limit?
The maximum applied force upto which stress and strain are proportional Or above this limit
body cannot withstand the applied force or the limit within which Hooke's law is valid is known
as elastic limit.
6. Define linear stress and linear strain.
Linear stress is the force acting per unit area along length of the body. Linear strain is defined as
the ratio of change in length to original length along the length.
7. State Hooke's law.
Hooke's law states that within elastic limit, the ratio of stress to strain is a constant.
8. How many types of strain are there? Name them.
There are 3 types of strain. They are
a) Linear strain b) Shearing strain and c) Bulk or volume strain
9. How many types of stress are there? Name them.
There are 3 types of stress corresponding to three types of train. They are
a) Linear stress b) Shearing stress and c) Bulk stress
10. Mention 3 types of elastic constant.
a) Young’s modulus b) Rigidity modulus c) Bulk modulus
11. Define Young’s modulus
The ratio of linear stress to linear strain.
12. Define rigidity modulus
The ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain.
13. Define bulk modulus
The ratio of volume stress to volume strain.
14. What are elastic materials?
The materials which regain their original shape and size after the removal of deforming
Forces are called elastic material.
15. Why the beam is to be loaded?

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To generate linear stress in the beam.

16. Why should the experiment be conducted in the load decreasing and load increasing
mode? Or how do you ensure that the experiment is performed within the elastic limit?
To check whether the material is within the elastic limit, the experiment is performed in the load
increasing and also in load decreasing mode. If for a given load, the readings for load increasing
and decreasing modes are approximately equal, the experiment is said to be performed within
the elastic limit of the material of the beam.
17. The initial weight (weight of scale pan/weight of the scale) is taken as zero or it is treated as
dead load, why?
Though the scale pan has finite weight 'W', for all the practical purposes it is treated as dead
load because when the difference between the two columns of load is taken for estimating
the depression, 'W' gets cancelled. Thus, the measurement of 'W' is not recorded in the
experiment and for the same reason it is referred to as a dead load.
18. Suppose you are given a beam of the same material but of different dimensions (l, b and d),
will the Young's modulus change?
Young's modulus is constant for the given material of a beam. If the dimensions (1, b and d) of
beam are changed, the depression also varies accordingly, so that 'q' remains constant.
Note: The Young's modulus, Rigidity modulus, Bulk modulus and Poisson's ratio are the
characteristic properties of the material of the body and are completely independent of the
geometrical dimensions, mass, volume, shape.
19. Is it possible to verify the Hooke's law from this experiment?
Yes. The straight line graph between load (stress) verses depression (strain) indicates the linear
Proportionality between the stress and the strain i.e., Hooke's law.

9. Torsional pendulum
1. Define moment of inertia.
Inertia possessed by a body rotating about an axis is called moment of inertia. It is measured
by the algebraic sum of the products of masses different particles and the square of the
respective distances of the particles from the axis of rotation. Its unit is kgm2.(I=m1r12+
m2r22+ m3r32…………….)
2. Distinguish inertia and moment of inertia.
Inertia and moment of inertia are analogous quantities. In other words moment of
inertia plays the same role in rotational motion as mass does in linear motion.
3. On what factors moment of inertia of a body depends?
It depends on mass of the body and square of its distance from the axis of rotation.
4. Distinguish between inertia and moment of inertia.
Inertia is inability of the body to change its state of rest or of its uniform motion and it
is a measure of mass of the body i.e. larger the mass larger the inertia and vice versa.
Moment of inertia is inability of the body to change its state of angular velocity and it is
measure of mass of the body and square of its distance from the axis of rotation. For the
same body moment of inertia is different about different axis of rotation.
5. Why moment of inertia of a body is different about different axes of rotation?
Moment of inertia of a body is different about different axes of rotation because mass
Distribution is different for different axis of rotation.

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6. What is torsion?
A twisting deformation produced by a couple or torque is called torsion. Torsion can be
generated by applying a torque or rotation to one end by keeping the other end fixed.
7. What is a torsional pendulum?
An experimental set up in which a rigid body suspended by a wire clamped to a support
made to execute to and fro motion with the wire as the axis of rotation is called torsional
pendulum.
8. Mention one fundamental difference between a simple pendulum and torsional
pendulum.
Simple pendulum executes simple harmonic oscillations about a vertical plane where as in
torsional pendulum body executes simple harmonic oscillations about a horizontal plane
9. Define rigidity modulus
The ratio of shearing stress to shearing strain. Its unit is Nm-2
10. Distinguish mass and weight
The amount of matter contained in a body is known as mass(m), it does vary with place;
whereas the force with which body attracted towards earth’s surface is called
Weight (W=mg).Weight varies from place to place as ‘g’ varies from place to place
11. Define period and frequency of oscillation.
Time taken by oscillating body to complete one oscillation is called period (T),and number
of Oscillations completed in one second are called hertz(f=1/T).
12. What is an irregular body?
Bodies whose area or volume could be expressed in terms of equations of geometry is
known as regular body and the bodies having well defined geometrical dimensions such as
length, breadth, radius, thickness etc. are known as regular bodies.
13. Why I/T2 is a constant in the experiment?
Irrespective of shape and axis of rotation of the body,the period of oscillation is given by

T=2 OR T2= OR ;where C is couple per unit twist

of the wire. For a wire of given length and diameter ‘C’ is constant and therefore I/T2 is
constant.
14. About what axis will the moment of inertia of a body is maximum?
About an axis normal to plane of the body.
15. Why the amplitude of oscillation should be small?
Since period of oscillation depends only for oscillations of small amplitude.
16. When the body is oscillating, what makes it to come to the equilibrium position from
extreme positions?
The restoring force acting on the body is proportional to the displacement from the mean
position and is always towards mean position.

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